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diff --git a/22577-8.txt b/22577-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5a40fd6 --- /dev/null +++ b/22577-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10983 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Practical Grammar and Composition, by Thomas Wood + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Practical Grammar and Composition + +Author: Thomas Wood + +Release Date: September 11, 2007 [EBook #22577] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION *** + + + + +Produced by Robert J. Hall + + + + +PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION + + +BY + +THOMAS WOOD, A.M., LL.B. + +THE BRADDOCK (PENNSYLVANIA) HIGH SCHOOL + + +D. APPLETON AND COMPANY + +NEW YORK CHICAGO + + + + +PREFACE + +This book was begun as a result of the author's experience in teaching +some classes in English in the night preparatory department of +the Carnegie Technical Schools of Pittsburg. The pupils in those +classes were all adults, and needed only such a course as would +enable them to express themselves in clear and correct English. +English Grammar, with them, was not to be preliminary to the grammar +of another language, and composition was not to be studied beyond +the everyday needs of the practical man. + +Great difficulty was experienced because of inability to secure a +text that was suited to the needs of the class. A book was needed +that would be simple, direct and dignified; that would cover grammar, +and the essential principles of sentence structure, choice of words, +and general composition; that would deal particularly with the sources +of frequent error, and would omit the non-essential points; and, +finally that would contain an abundance of exercises and practical +work. + +It is with these ends in view that this book has been prepared. The +parts devoted to grammar have followed a plan varying widely from +that of most grammars, and an effort has been made to secure a more +sensible and effective treatment. The parts devoted to composition +contain brief expositions of only the essential principles of ordinary +composition. Especial stress has been laid upon letter-writing, +since this is believed to be one of the most practical fields for +actual composition work. Because such a style seemed best suited to +the general scheme and purpose of the book, the method of treatment +has at times been intentionally rather formal. + +Abundant and varied exercises have been incorporated at frequent +intervals throughout the text. So far as was practicable the exercises +have been kept constructive in their nature, and upon critical +points have been made very extensive. + +The author claims little credit except for the plan of the book +and for the labor that he has expended in developing the details of +that plan and in devising the various exercises. In the statement +of principles and in the working out of details great originality +would have been as undesirable as it was impossible. Therefore, +for these details the author has drawn from the great common stores +of learning upon the subjects discussed. No doubt many traces of +the books that he has used in study and in teaching may be found +in this volume. He has, at times, consciously adapted matter from +other texts; but, for the most part, such slight borrowings as +may be discovered have been made wholly unconsciously. Among the +books to which he is aware of heavy literary obligations are the +following excellent texts: Lockwood and Emerson's Composition and +Rhetoric, Sherwin Cody's Errors in Composition, A. H. Espenshade's +Composition and Rhetoric, Edwin C. Woolley's Handbook of Composition, +McLean, Blaisdell and Morrow's Steps in English, Huber Gray Buehler's +Practical Exercises in English, and Carl C. Marshall's Business +English. + +To Messrs. Ginn and Company, publishers of Lockwood and Emerson's +Composition and Rhetoric, and to the Goodyear-Marshall Publishing +Company, publishers of Marshall's Business English, the author is +indebted for their kind permission to make a rather free adaptation +of certain parts of their texts. + +Not a little gratitude does the author owe to those of his friends +who have encouraged and aided him in the preparation of his manuscript, +and to the careful criticisms and suggestions made by those persons +who examined the completed manuscript in behalf of his publishers. +Above all, a great debt of gratitude is owed to Mr. Grant Norris, +Superintendent of Schools, Braddock, Pennsylvania, for the encouragement +and painstaking aid he has given both in preparation of the manuscript +and in reading the proof of the book. + +T.W. + +BRADDOCK, PENNSYLVANIA. + + + + +CONTENTS + +CHAPTER + I.--SENTENCES--PARTS OF SPEECH--ELEMENTS OF SENTENCE--PHRASES AND CLAUSES + + II.--NOUNS + Common and Proper + Inflection Defined + Number + The Formation of Plurals + Compound Nouns + Case + The Formation of the Possessive Case + Gender + + III.--PRONOUNS + Agreement with Antecedents + Person + Gender + Rules Governing Gender + Number + Compound Antecedents + Relative + Interrogative + Case Forms + Rules Governing Use of Cases + Compound Personal + Compound Relative + Adjective + Miscellaneous Cautions + + IV.--ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS + Comparison + Confusion of Adjectives and Adverbs + Improper Forms of Adjectives + Errors in Comparison + Singular and Plural Adjectives + Placing of Adverbs and Adjectives + Double Negatives + The Articles + + V.--VERBS + Principal Parts + Name-form + Past Tense + Past Participle + Transitive and Intransitive Verbs + Active and Passive Voice + Mode + Forms of the Subjunctive + Use of Indicative and Subjunctive + Agreement of Verb with its Subject + Rules Governing Agreement of the Verb + Miscellaneous Cautions + Use of _Shall_ and _Will_ + Use of _Should_ and _Would_ + Use of _May_ and _Might_, _Can_ and _Could_ + Participles and Gerunds + Misuses of Participles and Gerunds + Infinitives + Sequence of Infinitive Tenses + Split Infinitives + Agreement of Verb in Clauses + Omission of Verb or Parts of Verb + Model Conjugations + _To Be_ + _To See_ + + VI.--CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATIVE ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, + AND PREPOSITIONS + Independent and Dependent Clauses + Case and Number of Relative and Interrogative Pronouns + Conjunctive or Relative Adverbs + Conjunctions + Placing of Correlatives + Prepositions + QUESTIONS FOR THE REVIEW OF GRAMMAR + A GENERAL EXERCISE ON GRAMMAR + + VII.--SENTENCES + Loose + Periodic + Balanced + Sentence Length + The Essential Qualities of a Sentence + Unity + Coherence + Emphasis + Euphony + + VIII.--CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION + Rules for Capitalization + Rules for Punctuation + + IX.--THE PARAGRAPH + Length + Paragraphing of Speech + Indentation of the Paragraph + Essential Qualities of the Paragraph + Unity + Coherence + Emphasis + + X.--LETTER-WRITING + Heading + Inside Address + Salutation + Body of the Letter + Close + Miscellaneous Directions + Outside Address + Correctly Written Letters + Notes in the Third Person + + XI.--THE WHOLE COMPOSITION + Statement of Subject + The Outline + The Beginning + Essential Qualities of the Whole Composition + Unity + Coherence + The Ending + Illustrative Examples + Lincoln's _Gettysburg Speech_ + Selection from _Cranford_ + List of Books for Reading + + XII.--WORDS--SPELLING--PRONUNCIATION + Words + Good Use + Offenses Against Good Use + Solecisms + Barbarisms + Improprieties + Idioms + Choice of Words + How to Improve One's Vocabulary + Spelling + Pronunciation +GLOSSARY OF MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS + + + + +PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION + + * * * * * + +CHAPTER I + +SENTENCES.--PARTS OF SPEECH.--ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.--PHRASES +AND CLAUSES + +1. In thinking we arrange and associate ideas and objects together. +Words are the symbols of ideas or objects. A SENTENCE is a group +of words that expresses a single complete thought. + +2. SENTENCES are of four kinds: + +1. DECLARATIVE; a sentence that tells or declares something; as, +_That book is mine_. + +2. IMPERATIVE; a sentence that expresses a command; as, _Bring me +that book_. + +3. INTERROGATIVE; a sentence that asks a question; as, _Is that +book mine?_ + +4. EXCLAMATORY; a declarative, imperative, or interrogative sentence +that expresses violent emotion, such as terror, surprise, or anger; +as, _You shall take that book!_ or, _Can that book be mine?_ + +3. PARTS OF SPEECH. Words have different uses in sentences. According +to their uses, words are divided into classes called Parts of Speech. +The parts of speech are as follows: + +1. NOUN; a word used as the name of something; as, _man, box, +Pittsburgh, Harry, silence, justice_. + +2. PRONOUN; a word used instead of a noun; as, _I, he, it, that._ + +Nouns, pronouns, or groups of words that are used as nouns or pronouns, +are called by the general term, SUBSTANTIVES. + +3. ADJECTIVE; a word used to limit or qualify the meaning of a noun +or a pronoun; as, _good, five, tall, many_. + +The words _a, an_, and _the_ are words used to modify nouns or +pronouns. They are adjectives, but are usually called ARTICLES. + +4. VERB; a word used to state something about some person or thing; +as, _do, see, think, make_. + +5. ADVERB; a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, +or another adverb; as, _very, slowly, clearly, often_. + +6. PREPOSITION; a word used to join a substantive, as a modifier, +to some other preceding word, and to show the relation of the +substantive to that word; as, _by, in, between, beyond_. + +7. CONJUNCTION; a word used to connect words, phrases, clauses, +and sentences; as, _and, but, if, although, or_. + +8. INTERJECTION; a word used to express surprise or emotion; as, +_Oh! Alas! Hurrah! Bah!_ + +Sometimes a word adds nothing to the meaning of the sentence, but +helps to fill out its form or sound, and serves as a device to +alter its natural order. Such a word is called an EXPLETIVE. In +the following sentence _there_ is an expletive: _THERE are no such +books in print_. + +4. A sentence is made up of distinct parts or elements. The essential +or PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS are the Subject and the Predicate. + +The SUBJECT of a sentence is the part which mentions that about +which something is said. The PREDICATE is the part which states +that which is said about the subject. _Man walks_. In this sentence, +_man_ is the subject, and _walks_ is the predicate. + +The subject may be simple or modified; that is, may consist of +the subject alone, or of the subject with its modifiers. The same +is true of the predicate. Thus, in the sentence, _Man walks_, there +is a simple subject and a simple predicate. In the sentence, _The +good man walks very rapidly_, there is a modified subject and a +modified predicate. + +There may be, also, more than one subject connected with the same +predicate; as, _THE MAN AND THE WOMAN walk_. This is called a COMPOUND +SUBJECT. A COMPOUND PREDICATE consists of more than one predicate +used with the same subject; as, _The man BOTH WALKS AND RUNS_. + +5. Besides the principal elements in a sentence, there are SUBORDINATE +ELEMENTS. These are the Attribute Complement, the Object Complement, +the Adjective Modifier, and the Adverbial Modifier. + +Some verbs, to complete their sense, need to be followed by some +other word or group of words. These words which "complement," or +complete the meanings of verbs are called COMPLEMENTS. + +The ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT completes the meaning of the verb by stating +some class, condition, or attribute of the subject; as, _My friend +is a STUDENT, I am WELL, The man is GOOD Student, well_, and _good_ +complete the meanings of their respective verbs, by stating some +class, condition, or attribute of the subjects of the verbs. + +The attribute complement usually follows the verb _be_ or its forms, +_is, are, was, will be_, etc. The attribute complement is usually a +noun, pronoun, or adjective, although it may be a phrase or clause +fulfilling the function of any of these parts of speech. It must +not be confused with an adverb or an adverbial modifier. In the +sentence, _He is THERE, there_ is an adverb, not an attribute +complement. + +The verb used with an attribute complement, because such verb _joins_ +the subject to its attribute, is called the COPULA ("to couple") +or COPULATIVE VERB. + +Some verbs require an object to complete their meaning. This object +is called the OBJECT COMPLEMENT. In the sentence, _I carry a BOOK_, +the object, _book_, is required to complete the meaning of the +transitive verb _carry_; so, also in the sentences, _I hold the +HORSE_, and _I touch a DESK_, the objects _horse_ and _desk_ are +necessary to complete the meanings of their respective verbs. These +verbs that require objects to complete their meaning are called +Transitive Verbs. + +ADJECTIVE and ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS may consist simply of adjectives +and adverbs, or of phrases and clauses used as adjectives or adverbs. + +6. A PHRASE is a group of words that is used as a single part of +speech and that does not contain a subject and a predicate. + +A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE, always used as either an adjective or an +adverbial modifier, consists of a preposition with its object and +the modifiers of the object; as, _He lives IN PITTSBURG, Mr. Smith +OF THIS PLACE is the manager OF THE MILL, The letter is IN THE +NEAREST DESK_. + +There are also Verb-phrases. A VERB-PHRASE is a phrase that serves +as a verb; as, _I AM COMING, He SHALL BE TOLD, He OUGHT TO HAVE +BEEN TOLD_. + +7. A CLAUSE is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate; +as, _The man THAT I SAW was tall_. The clause, _that I saw_, contains +both a subject, _I_, and a predicate, _saw_. This clause, since +it merely states something of minor importance in the sentence, +is called the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE. The PRINCIPAL CLAUSE, the one +making the most important assertion, is, _The man was tall_. Clauses +may be used as adjectives, as adverbs, and as nouns. A clause used +as a noun is called a SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSE. Examine the following +examples: + + Adjective Clause: The book _that I want_ is a history. + Adverbial Clause: He came _when he had finished with the work_. + Noun Clause as subject: _That I am here_ is true. + Noun Clause as object: He said _that I was mistaken_. + +8. Sentences, as to their composition, are classified as follows: + +SIMPLE; a sentence consisting of a single statement; as, _The man +walks_. + +COMPLEX; a sentence consisting of one principal clause and one or +more subordinate clauses; as, _The man that I saw is tall_. + +COMPOUND; a sentence consisting of two or more clauses of equal +importance connected by conjunctions expressed or understood; as, +_The man is tall and walks rapidly_, and _Watch the little things; +they are important_. + +EXERCISE I + +_In this and in all following exercises, be able to give the reason +for everything you do and for every conclusion you reach. Only +intelligent and reasoning work is worth while. + +In the following list of sentences: + +(1) Determine the part of speech of every word. + +(2) Determine the unmodified subject and the unmodified predicate; +and the modified subject and the modified predicate. + +(3) Pick out every attribute complement and every object complement. + +(4) Pick out every phrase and determine whether it is a prepositional +phrase or a verb-phrase. If it is a prepositional phrase, determine +whether it is used as an adjective or as an adverb. + +(5) Determine the principal and the subordinate clauses. If they +are subordinate clauses, determine whether they are used as nouns, +adjectives, or adverbs. + +(6) Classify every sentence as simple, complex, or compound._ + + 1. Houses are built of wood, brick, stone, and other materials, + and are constructed in various styles. + 2. The path of glory leads but to the grave. + 3. We gladly accepted the offer which he made. + 4. I am nearly ready, and shall soon join you. + 5. There are few men who do not try to be honest. + 6. Men may come, and men may go, but I go on forever. + 7. He works hard, and rests little. + 8. She is still no better, but we hope that there will be a change. + 9. Let each speak for himself. + 10. It was I who told him to go. + 11. To live an honest life should be the aim of every one. + 12. Who it really was no one knew, but all believed it to have been him. + 13. In city and in country people think very differently. + 14. To be or not to be, that is the question. + 15. In truth, I think that I saw a brother of his in that place. + 16. By a great effort he managed to make headway against the current. + 17. Beyond this, I have nothing to say. + 18. That we are never too old to learn is a true saying. + 19. Full often wished he that the wind might rage. + 20. Lucky is he who has been educated to bear his fate. + 21. It is I whom you see. + 22. The study of history is a study that demands a well-trained memory. + 23. Beyond the city limits the trains run more rapidly than they do here. + 24. Alas! I can travel no more. + 25. A lamp that smokes is a torture to one who wants to study. + +EXERCISE 2 + +(1) _Write a list of six examples of every part of speech._ + +(2) _Write eight sentences, each containing an attribute complement. +Use adjectives, nouns, and pronouns._ + +(3) _Write eight sentences, each containing an object complement._ + +(4) _Write five sentences, in each using some form of the verb TO +BE, followed by an adverbial modifier._ + + + + +CHAPTER II + +NOUNS + +9. A noun has been defined as a word used as the name of something. +It may be the name of a person, a place, a thing, or of some abstract +quality, such as, _justice_ or _truth_. + +10. COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS. A PROPER NOUN is a noun that names +some particular or special place, person, people, or thing. A proper +noun should always begin with a capital letter; as, _English, Rome, +Jews, John_. A COMMON NOUN is a general or class name. + +11. INFLECTION DEFINED. The variation in the forms of the different +parts of speech to show grammatical relation, is called INFLECTION. +Though there is some inflection in English, grammatical relation +is usually shown by position rather than by inflection. + +The noun is inflected to show number, case, and gender. + +12. NUMBER is that quality of a word which shows whether it refers +to one or to more than one. SINGULAR NUMBER refers to one. PLURAL +NUMBER refers to more than one. + +13. PLURALS OF SINGULAR NOUNS ARE FORMED ACCORDING TO THE FOLLOWING +RULES: + +1. Most nouns add _s_ to the singular; as, _boy, boys; stove, stoves_. + +2. Nouns ending in _s, ch, sh_, or _x_, add _es_ to the singular; +as, _fox, foxes; wish, wishes; glass, glasses; coach, coaches_. + +3. Nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a vowel (_a, e, i, o, u_) add +_s_; as, _valley, valleys_, (_soliloquy, soliloquies_ and _colloquy, +colloquies_ are exceptions). When _y_ is preceded by a consonant +(any letter other than a vowel), _y_ is changed to _i_ and _es_ +is added; as, _army, armies; pony, ponies; sty, sties_. + +4. Most nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ add _s_, as, _scarf, scarfs; +safe, safes_. A few change _f_ or _fe_ to _v_ and add _es_; as, +_wife, wives; self, selves_. The others are: _beef, calf, elf, +half, leaf, loaf, sheaf, shelf, staff, thief, wharf, wolf, life_. +(_Wharf_ has also a plural, _wharfs_.) + +5. Most nouns ending in _o_ add _s_; as, _cameo, cameos_. A number +of nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant add _es_; as, _volcano, +volcanoes_. The most important of the latter class are: _buffalo, +cargo, calico, echo, embargo, flamingo, hero, motto, mulatto, negro, +potato, tomato, tornado, torpedo, veto_. + +6. Letters, figures, characters, etc., add the apostrophe and _s_ +(_'s_); as, _6's, c's, t's, that's_. + +7. The following common words always form their plurals in an irregular +way; as, _man, men; ox, oxen; goose, geese; woman, women; foot, +feet; mouse, mice; child, children; tooth, teeth; louse, lice_. + +COMPOUND NOUNS are those formed by the union of two words, either +two nouns or a noun joined to some descriptive word or phrase. + +8. The principal noun of a compound noun, whether it precedes or +follows the descriptive part, is in most cases the noun that changes +in forming the plural; as, _mothers-in-law, knights-errant, +mouse-traps_. In a few compound words, both parts take a plural form; +as, _man-servant, men-servants; knight-templar, knights-templars_. + +9. Proper names and titles generally form plurals in the same way +as do other nouns; as, _Senators Webster and Clay, the three Henrys_. +Abbreviations of titles are little used in the plural, except _Messrs._ +(_Mr._), and _Drs._ (_Dr._). + +10. In forming the plurals of proper names where a title is used, +either the title or the name may be put in the plural form. Sometimes +both are made plural; as, _Miss Brown, the Misses Brown, the Miss +Browns, the two Mrs. Browns_. + +11. Some nouns are the same in both the singular and the plural; +as, _deer, series, means, gross_, etc. + +12. Some nouns used in two senses have two plural forms. The most +important are the following: + +BROTHER _brothers_ (by blood) _brethren_ (by association) +CLOTH _cloths_ (kinds of cloth) _clothes_ (garments) +DIE _dies_ (for coinage) _dice_ (for games) +FISH _fishes_ (separately) _fish_ (collectively) +GENIUS _geniuses_ (men of genius) _genii_ (imaginary beings) +HEAD _heads_ (of the body) _head_ (of cattle) +INDEX _indexes_ (of books) _indices_ (in algebra) +PEA _peas_ (separately) _pease_ (collectively) +PENNY _pennies_ (separately) _pence_ (collectively) +SAIL _sails_ (pieces of canvas) _sail_ (number of vessels) +SHOT _ shots_ (number of discharges) _shot_ (number of balls) + +13. Nouns from foreign languages frequently retain in the plural +the form that they have in the language from which they are taken; +as, _focus, foci; terminus, termini; alumnus, alumni; datum, data; +stratum, strata; formula, formulœ; vortex, vortices; appendix, +appendices; crisis, crises; oasis, oases; axis, axes; phenomenon, +phenomena; automaton, automata; analysis, analyses; hypothesis, +hypotheses; medium, media; vertebra, vertebrœ; ellipsis, ellipses; +genus, genera; fungus, fungi; minimum, minima; thesis, theses_. + +EXERCISE 3 + +_Write the plural, if any, of every singular noun in the following +list; and the singular, if any, of every plural noun. Note those +having no singular and those having no plural_. + +News, goods, thanks, scissors, proceeds, puppy, studio, survey, +attorney, arch, belief, chief, charity, half, hero, negro, majority, +Mary, vortex, memento, joy, lily, knight-templar, knight-errant, why, +4, x, son-in-law, Miss Smith, Mr. Anderson, country-man, hanger-on, +major-general, oxen, geese, man-servant, brethren, strata, sheep, +mathematics, pride, money, pea, head, piano, veto, knives, ratios, +alumni, feet, wolves, president, sailor-boy, spoonful, rope-ladder, +grandmother, attorney-general, cupful, go-between. + +_When in doubt respecting the form of any of the above, consult +an unabridged dictionary._ + +14. CASE. There are three cases in English: the Nominative, the +Possessive, and the Objective. + +The NOMINATIVE CASE; the form used in address and as the subject +of a verb. + +The OBJECTIVE CASE; the form used as the object of a verb or a +preposition. It is always the same in form as is the nominative. + +Since no error in grammar can arise in the use of the nominative +or the objective cases of nouns, no further discussion of these +cases is here needed. + +The POSSESSIVE CASE; the form used to show ownership. In the forming +of this case we have inflection. + +15. THE FOLLOWING ARE THE RULES FOR THE FORMING OF THE POSSESSIVE +CASE: + +1. Most nouns form the possessive by adding the apostrophe and _s_ +(_'s_); as, _man, man's; men, men's; pupil, pupil's; John, John's_. + +2. Plural nouns ending in _s_ form the possessive by adding only +the apostrophe ('); as, _persons, persons'; writers, writers'_. In +stating possession in the plural, then one should say: _Carpenters' +tools sharpened here, Odd Fellows' wives are invited_, etc. + +3. Some singular nouns ending in an _s_ sound form the possessive +by adding the apostrophe alone; as, _for appearance' sake, for +goodness' sake_. But usage inclines to the adding of the apostrophe +and _s_ (_'s_) even if the singular noun does end in an _s_ sound; +as, _Charles's book, Frances's dress, the mistress's dress_. + +4. When a compound noun, or a group of words treated as one name, +is used to denote possession, the sign of the possessive is added +to the last word only; as, _Charles and John's mother_ (the mother +of both Charles and John), _Brown and Smith's store_ (the store +of the firm Brown & Smith). + +5. Where the succession of possessives is unpleasant or confusing, +the substitution of a prepositional phrase should be made; as, _the +house of the mother of Charles's partner_, instead of, _Charles's +partner's mother's house_. + +6. The sign of the possessive should be used with the word immediately +preceding the word naming the thing possessed; as, _Father and +mother's house, Smith, the lawyer's, office, The Senator from Utah's +seat_. + +7. Generally, nouns representing inanimate objects should not be +used in the possessive case. It is better to say _the hands of +the clock_ than _the clock's hands_. + +NOTE.--One should say _somebody else's_, not _somebody's else_. +The expression _somebody else_ always occurs in the one form, and +in such cases the sign of the possessive should be added to the +last word. Similarly, say, _no one else's, everybody else's_, etc. + +EXERCISE 4 + +_Write the possessives of the following:_ + +Oxen, ox, brother-in-law, Miss Jones, goose, man, men, men-servants, +man-servant, Maine, dogs, attorneys-at-law, Jackson & Jones, John the +student, my friend John, coat, shoe, boy, boys, Mayor of Cleveland. + +EXERCISE 5 + +_Write sentences illustrating the use of the possessives you have +formed for the first ten words under Exercise 4._ + +EXERCISE 6 + +_Change the following expressions from the prepositional phrase +form to the possessive:_ + + 1. The ships of Germany and France. + 2. The garden of his mother and sister. + 3. The credit of Jackson & Jones. + 4. The signature of the president of the firm. + 5. The coming of my grandfather. + 6. The lives of our friends. + 7. The dog of both John and William. + 8. The dog of John and the dog of William. + 9. The act of anybody else. + 10. The shortcomings of Alice. + 11. The poems of Robert Burns. + 12. The wives of Henry the Eighth. + 13. The home of Mary and Martha. + 14. The novels of Dickens and the novels of Scott. + 15. The farm of my mother and of my father. + 16. The recommendation of Superintendent Norris. + +EXERCISE 7 + +_Correct such of the following expressions as need correction. If +apostrophes are omitted, insert them in the proper places:_ + + 1. He walked to the precipices edge. + 2. Both John and William's books were lost. + 3. They sell boy's hats and mens' coats. + 4. My friends' umbrella was stolen. + 5. I shall buy a hat at Wanamaker's & Brown's. + 6. This student's lessons. + 7. These students books. + 8. My daughters coming. + 9. John's wife's cousin. + 10. My son's wife's aunt. + 11. Five years imprisonment under Texas's law. + 12. John's books and Williams. + 13. The Democrat's and Republican Convention. + 14. France's and England's interests differ widely. + 15. The moons' face was hidden. + 16. Wine is made from the grape's juice. + 17. Morton, the principals, signature. + 18. Jones & Smith, the lawyers, office. + +16. GENDER. Gender in grammar is the quality of nouns or pronouns +that denotes the sex of the person or thing represented. Those +nouns or pronouns meaning males are in the MASCULINE GENDER. Those +meaning females are in the FEMININE GENDER. Those referring to +things without sex are in the NEUTER GENDER. + +In nouns gender is of little consequence. The only regular inflection +is the addition of the syllable-_ess_ to certain masculine nouns to +denote the change to the feminine gender; as, _author, authoress; +poet, poetess_. -I_x_ is also sometimes added for the same purpose; +as, _administrator, administratrix_. + +The feminine forms were formerly much used, but their use is now +being discontinued, and the noun of masculine gender used to designate +both sexes. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +PRONOUNS + +17. PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a +noun. The noun in whose stead it stands is called its ANTECEDENT. +_JOHN took Mary's BOOK and gave IT to HIS friend_. In this sentence +_book_ is the antecedent of the pronoun _it_, and _John_ is the +antecedent of _his_. + +18. PRONOUNS SHOULD AGREE WITH THEIR ANTECEDENTS IN PERSON, GENDER, +AND NUMBER. + +19. PERSONAL PRONOUNS are those that by their form indicate the +speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken about. + +Pronouns of the FIRST PERSON indicate the speaker; they are: _I, +me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours_. + +Pronouns of the SECOND PERSON indicate the person or thing spoken +to; they are: _you, your, yours_. There are also the grave or solemn +forms in the second person, which are now little used; these are: +_thou, thee, thy, thine_, and _ye_. + +Pronouns of the THIRD PERSON indicate the person or thing spoken +of; they are: _he, his, him, she, her, hers, they, their, theirs, +them, it, its_. + +Few errors are made in the use of the proper person of the pronoun. + +20. GENDER OF PRONOUNS. The following pronouns indicate sex or +gender; Masculine: _he, his, him_. Feminine: _she, her, hers_. Neuter: +_it, its_. + +IN ORDER TO SECURE AGREEMENT IN GENDER IT IS NECESSARY TO KNOW THE +GENDER OF THE NOUN, EXPRESSED OR UNDERSTOOD, TO WHICH THE PRONOUN +REFERS. Gender of nouns is important only so far as it concerns +the use of pronouns. Study carefully the following rules in regard +to gender. These rules apply to the singular number only, since +all plurals of whatever gender are referred to by _they, their, +theirs_, etc. + +THE FOLLOWING RULES GOVERN THE GENDER OF PRONOUNS: + +MASCULINE; referred to by _HE, HIS_, and _HIM_: + +1. Nouns denoting males are always masculine. + +2. Nouns denoting things remarkable for strength, power, sublimity, +or size, when those things are regarded as if they were persons, +are masculine; _as, WINTER, with HIS chilly army, destroyed them +all_. + +3. Singular nouns denoting persons of both sexes are masculine; +as, _EVERY ONE brought HIS umbrella_. + +FEMININE; referred to by _SHE, HER_, or _HERS_: + +1. Nouns denoting females are always feminine. + +2. Nouns denoting objects remarkable for beauty, gentleness, and +peace, when spoken of as if they were persons, are feminine; as, +_SLEEP healed him with HER fostering care_. + +NEUTER; referred to by _IT_ and _ITS_: + +1. Nouns denoting objects without sex are neuter. + +2. Nouns denoting objects whose sex is disregarded are neuter; as, +_IT is a pretty child, The WOLF is the most savage of ITS race_. + +3. Collective nouns referring to a group of individuals as a unit +are neuter; as, _The JURY gives its VERDICT, The COMMITTEE makes +ITS report_. + +An animal named may be regarded as masculine; feminine, or neuter, +according to the characteristics the writer fancies it to possess; +as, _The WOLF seeks HIS prey, The MOUSE nibbled HER way into the +box, The BIRD seeks ITS nest. + +Certain nouns may be applied to persons of either sex. They are +then said to be of COMMON GENDER. There are no pronouns of common +gender; hence those nouns are referred to as follows: + +1. By masculine pronouns when known to denote males; as, _MY CLASS-MATE_ +(known to be Harry) _is taking HIS examinations_. + +2. By feminine pronouns when known to denote females; as, _EACH +OF THE PUPILS of the Girls High School brought HER book._ + +3. By masculine pronouns when there is nothing in the connection +of the thought to show the sex of the object; as, _Let every PERSON +bring his book_. + +21. NUMBER OF PRONOUNS. A more common source of error than disagreement +in gender is disagreement in number. _They, their, theirs_, and +_them_ are plural, but are often improperly used when only singular +pronouns should be used. The cause of the error is failure to realize +the true antecedent. + +_If ANYBODY makes that statement, THEY are misinformed_. This sentence +is wrong. _Anybody_ refers to only one person; both _any_ and _body_, +the parts of the word, denote the singular. The sentence should read, +_If ANYBODY makes that statement, HE is misinformed. Similarly, +_Let EVERYBODY keep THEIR peace_, should read, _Let EVERYBODY keep +HIS peace. + +22. COMPOUND ANTECEDENTS. Two or more antecedents connected by +_or_ or _nor_ are frequently referred to by the plural when the +singular should be used. _Neither John nor James brought THEIR +books_, should read, _Neither John nor James brought HIS books_. +When a pronoun has two or more singular antecedents connected by +_or_ or _nor_, the pronoun must be in the singular number; but +if one of the antecedents is plural, the pronoun must, also, be +in the plural; as, _Neither the Mormon nor his wives denied THEIR +religion_. + +When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by _and_, the +pronoun must be in the plural number; as, _John and James brought +THEIR books_. + +Further treatment of number will be given under verbs. + +EXERCISE 8 + +_Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with the proper +pronouns. See that there is agreement in person, gender, and number:_ + + 1. Has everybody finished ---- work. + 2. If any one wishes a longer time, let ---- hold up ---- hand. + 3. The panther sprang from ---- lurking place. + 4. Many a man has (have) lost ---- money in speculation. + 5. The cat came each day for ---- bit of meat. + 6. Everyone has to prove ---- right to a seat. + 7. Let every boy answer for ---- self (selves). + 8. The crowd was so great that we could hardly get through ----. + 9. Let any boy guess this riddle if ---- can. + 10. Company H was greatly reduced in ---- numbers. + 11. Every animal has some weapon with which ---- can defend + ----self (selves). + 12. Nowhere does each dare do as ---- pleases (please). + 13. The elephant placed ---- great foot on the man's chest. + 14. The child did not know ---- mother. + 15. Death gathers ---- unfailing harvest. + 16. Every kind of animal has ---- natural enemies. + 17. The committee instructed ---- chairman to report the matter. + 18. Two men were present, but neither would tell what ---- saw. + 19. Truth always triumphs over ---- enemies. + 20. Nobody did ---- duty more readily than I. + 21. The cat never fails to catch ---- prey. + 22. I have used both blue crayon and red crayon, but ---- does + (do) not write so clearly as white. + 23. If John and Henry whisper (whispers) ---- will be punished. + 24. If John or Henry whisper (whispers) ---- will be punished. + 25. Both Columbus and Cabot failed to realize the importance + of ---- discoveries. + 26. Neither the lawyer nor the sheriff liked ---- task. + 27. The canary longed to escape from ---- cage. + 28. The rat ran to ---- hole. + 29. The dog seemed to know ---- master was dead. + 30. Everyone should try to gather a host of friends about ----. + 31. If any one wishes to see me, send ---- to the Pierce Building. + 32. Probably everybody is discouraged at least once in ---- life. + 33. Nobody should deceive ----selves (self). + 34. Let each take ---- own seat. + 35. Let each girl in the class bring ---- book. + 36. Let each bring ---- book. + 37. Let each bring ---- sewing. + 38. The fox dropped ---- meat in the pool. + 39. The rock lay on ---- side. + 40. Let sleep enter with ---- healing touch. + 41. Each believed that ---- had been elected a delegate to the + Mother's Congress. + 42. Consumption demands each year ---- thousands of victims. + 43. Summer arrays ----self (selves) with flowers. + 44. Despair seized him in ---- powerful grasp. + 45. If any boy or any girl finds the book, let ---- bring it to me. + 46. Let every man and every woman speak ----mind. + 47. Spring set forth ---- beauties. + 48. How does the mouse save ---- self (selves) from being caught? + 49. The hen cackled ---- loudest. + 50. Some man or boy lost ---- hat. + 51. John or James will favor us with ---- company. + 52. Neither the captain nor the soldiers showed ----self (selves) + during the fight. + 53. If the boys or their father come we shall be glad to see ----. + 54. Every man and every boy received ---- dinner. + 55. Every man or boy gave ---- offering. + +EXERCISE 9 + +_By what gender of the pronouns would you refer to the following +nouns?_ + +Snake, death, care, mercy, fox, bear, walrus, child, baby, friend +(uncertain sex), friend (known to be Mary), everybody, someone, +artist, flower, moon, sun, sorrow, fate, student, foreigner, Harvard +University, earth, Germany? + +23. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Relative Pronouns are pronouns used to introduce +adjective or noun clauses that are not interrogative. In the sentence, +_The man THAT I MENTIONED has come_, the relative clause, _that I +mentioned_, is an adjective clause modifying _man_. In the sentence, +_WHOM SHE MEANS, I do not know_, the relative clause is, _whom +she means_, and is a noun clause forming the object of the verb +_know_. + +The relative pronouns are _who_ (_whose, whom_), _which, that_ +and _what_. _But_ and _as_ are sometimes relative pronouns. There +are, also, compound relative pronouns, which will be mentioned +later. + +24. _Who_ (with its possessive and objective forms, _whose_ and +_whom_) should be used when the antecedent denotes persons. When +the antecedent denotes things or animals, _which_ should be used. +_That_ may be used with antecedents denoting persons, animals or +things, and is the proper relative to use when the antecedent includes +both persons and things. _What_, when used as a relative, seldom +properly refers to persons. It always introduces a substantive +clause, and is equivalent to _that which_; as, _It is WHAT (that +which) he wants_. + +25. _That_ is known as the RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE, because it should +be used whenever the relative clause limits the substantive, unless +_who_ or _which_ is of more pleasing sound in the sentence. In the +sentence, _He is the man THAT DID THE ACT_, the relative clause, +_that did the act_, defines what is meant by man; without the relative +clause the sentence clearly would be incomplete. Similarly, in +the sentence, _The book THAT I WANT is that red-backed history_, +the restrictive relative clause is, _that I want_, and limits the +application of _book_. + +26. _Who_ and _which_ are known as the EXPLANATORY or NON-RESTRICTIVE +RELATIVES, and should be used ordinarily only to introduce relative +clauses which add some new thought to the author's principal thought. +_Spanish, WHICH IS THE LEAST COMPLEX LANGUAGE, is the easiest to +learn_. In this sentence the principal thought is, _Spanish is +the easiest language to learn_. The relative clause, _which is +the least complex language_, is a thought, which, though not fully +so important as the principal thought, is more nearly coördinate +than subordinate in its value. It adds an additional thought of +the speaker explaining the character of the Spanish language. When +_who_ and _which_ are thus used as explanatory relatives, we see +that the relative clause may be omitted without making the sentence +incomplete. + +Compare the following sentences: + +Explanatory relative clause: That book, _which is about history_, +has a red cover. + +Restrictive relative clause: The book _that is about history_ has +a red cover. + +Explanatory relative clause: Lincoln, _who was one of the world's +greatest men_, was killed by Booth. + +Restrictive relative clause: The Lincoln _that was killed by Booth_ +was one of the world's greatest men. + +NOTE.--See §111, for rule as to the punctuation of relative clauses. + +27. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. An Interrogative Pronoun is a pronoun +used to ask a question. The interrogative pronouns are, _who_ (_whose, +whom_), _which_, and _what_. In respect to antecedents, _who_ should +be used only in reference to persons; _which_ and _what_ may be +used with any antecedent, persons, animals, or things. + +EXERCISE 10 + +_Choose the proper relative or interrogative pronoun to be inserted +in each of the following sentences. Insert commas where they are +needed._ (_See_ §111): + + 1. The kindly physician ---- was so greatly loved is dead. + 2. This is the man ---- all are praising. + 3. John ---- is my coachman is sick. + 4. The intelligence ---- he displayed was remarkable. + 5. Intelligence ---- he had hitherto not manifested now showed its + presence. + 6. He maintains that the book ---- you used is now ruined. + (Does _which_ or _that_ have the more pleasing sound here?) + 7. The pleasure ---- education gives the man ---- has it is a + sufficient reward for the trouble ---- it has cost. + 8. That man ---- wears a cap is a foreigner. + 9. The best hotel is the one ---- is nearest the station. + 10. Who is it ---- is worthy of that honor? + 11. The carriages and the drivers ---- you ordered yesterday have arrived. + 12. ---- thing is it ---- you want? + 13. He purchased ---- he wished. + 14. There is no cloud ---- has not its silver lining. + 15. It is the same dog ---- I bought. + 16. The man and horse ---- you see pass here every afternoon. + 17. ---- did they seek? + 18. They inquired ---- he was going to do. + 19. Who was it ---- lost the book? + 20. The man ---- was a Frenchman was very much excited. + 21. It is neither the party nor its candidate ---- gains support. + 22. That is a characteristic ---- makes him seem almost rude. + 23. It is the same tool ---- I used all day. + 24. He is a man ---- inspires little confidence. + 25. ---- does he expect of us? + 26. It is just such a thing ---- I need. + 27. There are few ---- will vote for him. + 28. The wagon and children ---- you just saw came from our town. + 29. He ---- writes out his lesson does all ---- can be expected. + 30. Was it you or the cat ---- made that noise? + 31. It is the same song ---- he always sings. + 32. Such ---- I have is yours. + 33. All the men and horses ---- we had were lost. + 34. That is ---- pleased me most and ---- everyone talked about. + 35. The horse was one ---- I had never ridden before. + 36. That is ---- everyone said. + +28. CASE FORMS OF PRONOUNS. Some personal, relative, and interrogative +pronouns have distinctive forms for the different cases, and the +failure to use the proper case forms in the sentence is one of +the most frequent sources of error. The case to be used is to be +determined by the use which the pronoun, not its antecedent, has +in the sentence. In the sentence, _I name HIM_, note that _him_ +is the object of the verb _name_. In the sentence, _WHOM do you +seek_, although coming at the first of the sentence, _whom_ is +grammatically the object of the verb _seek_. In the use of pronouns +comes the most important need for a knowledge of when to use the +different cases. + +Note the following different case forms of pronouns: + +Nominative: _I, we, you, thou, ye, he, she, they, it, who_. + +Objective: _me, us, you, thee, ye, him, her, it, them, whom_. + +Possessive: _my, mine, our, ours, thy, thine, your, yours, his, +her, hers, its, their, theirs, whose_. + +It will be noted that, while some forms are the same in both the +nominative and objective cases, _I, WE, HE, SHE, THEY, THOU_, AND +_WHO_ ARE ONLY PROPER WHERE THE NOMINATIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED. +_ME, US, HIM, THEM, THEE, WHOM_, AND _HER_, except when _her_ is +possessive, ARE ONLY PROPER WHEN THE OBJECTIVE CASE IS DEMANDED. +These forms must be remembered. It is only with these pronouns +that mistakes are made in the use of the nominative and objective +cases. + +29. THE FOLLOWING OUTLINE EXPLAINS THE USE OF THE DIFFERENT CASE +FORMS OF THE PRONOUNS. The outline should be mastered. + +THE NOMINATIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED: + +1. When the noun or pronoun is the subject of a finite verb; that +is, a verb other than an infinitive. See 3 under Objective Case. + +2. When it is an attribute complement. An attribute complement, as +explained in Chapter I, is a word used in the predicate explaining +or stating something about the subject. Examples: _It is I, The +man was HE, The people were THEY of whom we spoke._ + +3. When it is used without relation to any other part of speech, +as in direct address or exclamation. + +THE OBJECTIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED: + +1. When the noun or pronoun is the object of a verb; as, _He named +ME, She deceived THEM, They watch US_. + +2. When it is the object of a preposition, expressed or understood: +as, _He spoke of ME, For WHOM do you take me, He told (to) ME a +story._ + +3. When it is the subject of an infinitive; as, _I told HIM to +go, I desire HER to hope_. The infinitives are the parts of the +verb preceded by _to_; as, _to go, to see, to be, to have been +seen_, etc. The sign of the infinitive, to, is not always expressed. +The objective case is, nevertheless, used; as, _Let HIM (to) go, +Have HER (to be) told about it._ + +4. When it is an attribute complement of an expressed subject of +the infinitive _to be_; as, _They believed her to be ME, He denied +it to have been him_. (See Note 2 below.) + +THE POSSESSIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED: + +When the word is used as a possessive modifier; as, _They spoke +of HER being present, The book is HIS (book), It is THEIR fault._ + +NOTE I.--When a substantive is placed by the side of another substantive +and is used to explain it, it is said to be in APPOSITION with that +other substantive and takes the case of that word; as, _It_ was +given _to John Smith, HIM whom you see there._ + +NOTE 2.--The attribute complement should always have the case of +that subject of the verb which is expressed in the sentence. Thus, +in the sentence, _I could not wish John to be HIM, him_ is properly +in the objective case, since there is an expressed subject of the +infinitive, _John_, which is in the objective case. But in the +sentence, _I should hate to be HE, he_ is properly in the nominative +case, since the only subject that is expressed in the sentence is +_I_, in the nominative case. + +NOTE 3.--Where the relative pronoun _who (whom)_ is the subject of +a clause that itself is the object clause of a verb or a preposition, +it is always in the nominative case. Thus the following sentences are +both correct: _I delivered it to WHO owned it, Bring home WHOEVER +will come with you._ + +EXERCISE 11 + +_Write sentences illustrating the correct use of each of the following +pronouns:_ + +I, whom, who, we, me, us, they, whose, theirs, them, she, him, he, +its, mine, our, thee, thou. + +EXERCISE 12 + +_In the following sentences choose the proper form from the words +in italics:_ + + 1. My brother and _I me_ drove to the east end of the town. + 2. Between you and _I me_ things are doubtful. + 3. May James and _I me_ go to the circus? + 4. Will you permit James and _I me_ to go to the play? + 5. Who made that noise? Only _I me_. + 6. He introduced us all, _I me_ among the rest. + 7. He promised to bring candy to Helen and _I me_. + 8. Was it _I me_ that you asked for? + 9. Who spoke? _I me_. + 10. I am taken to be _he him_. + 11. No, it could not have been _me I_. + 12. All have gone but you and _I me_. + 13. You suffer more than _me I_. + 14. Everyone has failed in the examination except you and _I me_. + 15. He asked you and _I me_ to come to his office. + 16. See if there is any mail for Mary and _me I_. + 17. Neither you nor _I me_ can teach the class. + 18. They think it to be _I me_. + 19. This is the student _whom who_ all are praising. + 20. The one that is _he him_ wears a brown hat. + 21. He is a man _who whom_ all admired. + 22. He is one of those men _who whom_ we call snobs. + 23. I did not see that it was _her she_. + 24. It is in fact _he him_. + 25. He still believes it to be _them they_. + 26. Between you and _I me_, it is my opinion that _him he_ and John + will disagree. + 27. We saw John and _she her_; we know it was _them they_. + 28. I did not speak of either you or _she her_. + 29. Our cousins and _we us_ are going to the Art Gallery. + 30. Aunt Mary has asked our cousins and _us we_ to take dinner at her house. + 31. They are more eager than _we us_ since they have not seen her for + a long time. + 32. It could not have been _we us who whom_ you suspected. + 33. _We us_ boys are going to the ball game. + 34. They sent letters to all _who whom_ they thought would contribute. + 35. This money was given by John _who whom_ you know is very stingy. + 36. The superintendent, _who whom_, I cannot doubt, is responsible + for this error, must be discharged. + 37. The teacher told you and _I me_ to stay. + 38. The teacher told you and _him he_ to stay. + 39. The teacher told you and _she her_ to stay. + 40. There are many miles between England and _we us_. + 41. They can't play the game better than _we us_. + 42. It is unpleasant for such as _they them_ to witness such things. + 43. Between a teacher and _he him who whom_ he teaches there is + sometimes a strong fellowship. + 44. You are nearly as strong as _him he_. + 45. All were present but John and _he him_. + 46. Father believed it was _she her_. + 47. Mother knew it to be _her she_. + 48. It was either _he him_ or _she her_ that called. + 49. Because of _his him_ being young, they tried to shield him. + 50. It was _he him who whom_ the manager said ought to be promoted. + 51. The throne was held by a king _who whom_ historians believe + to have been insane. + 52. _Who whom_ did he say the man was? + 53. _Who whom_ did he say the judge suspected? + 54. _Who whom_ do you consider to be the brightest man? + 55. _Who whom_ do you think is the brightest man? + 56. He cannot learn from such as _thou thee_. + 57. If they only rob such as _thou thee_, they are honest. + 58. What dost _thou thee_ know? + 59. They do tell _thee thou_ the truth. + 60. She told John and _me I_ to study. + 61. My father allowed my brother and _her she_ to go. + 62. My brother and _she her_ were allowed to go by my father. + 63. Turn not away from _him he_ that is needy. + 64. Neither Frances nor _she her_ was at fault. + 65. The property goes to _they them_. + 66. He thought it was _her she_, but it was _him he_ and William +who did it. + 67. It was through _she her_ that word came to _me I_. + 68. I thought it was _her she_. + 69. I wish you were more like _he him_. + 70. I thought it to be _she her_. + 71. It seems to be _he_. I should hate to be _he_. I should like to be + _he_ or _she_. (All these sentences are in the correct form.) + 72. He is a man in _whom who_ I have little faith. + 73. You are as skillful as _she her_. + 74. We escorted her mother and _her she_ to the station. + 75. _She her_ and _I me_ are going on the boat. + 76. If any are late it will not be _us we_. + 77. _Who whom_ are you going to collect it from? + 78. _Who whom_ do men say that he is? + 79. _Who whom_ do you think _him he_ to be? + 80. _They them_ and their children have gone abroad. + 81. It was not _they them_. + 82. _Who whom_ am I said to be? + 83. I do not know to _who whom_ to direct him. + 84. How can one tell _who whom_ is at home now? + 85. _Who whom_ is that for? + 86. Choose _who whom_ you please. + 87. Do you think _I me_ to be _her she who whom_ you call Kate? + 88. Some _who whom_ their friends expected were kept away. + 89. Give it to _who whom_ seems to want it most. + 90. _Who whom_ do you think I saw there? + 91. I hope it was _she her who whom_ we saw. + 92. It could not have been _him he_. + 93. _Who whom_ did you say did it? + 94. Let _them they_ come at once. + 95. The man on _who whom_ I relied was absent. + 96. I know it was _they them who whom_ did it. + 97. Will he let _us we_ go? + 98. It came from _they them who whom_ should not have sent it. + 99. It was not _us we_ from _who whom_ it came. +100. Can it be _she her_? +101. _Thou thee_ art mistaken. +102. Let me tell _thee thou, thee thou_ wilt do wrong. +103. Send _who whom_ wants the pass to me. +104. Tell _who whom_ you choose to come. +105. Is he the man for _who whom_ the city is named? +106. The book is for _who whom_ needs it. +107. I do not know _who whom_ the book is for. + +30. The COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS are formed by adding _self_ +or _selves_ to certain of the objective and possessive personal +pronouns; as, _herself, myself, itself, themselves_, etc. They +are used to add emphasis to an expression; as, _I, MYSELF, did +it, He, HIMSELF, said so._ They are also used reflexively after +verbs and prepositions; as, _He mentioned HIMSELF, He did it for +HIMSELF_. + +The compound personal pronouns should generally be confined to +their emphatic and reflexive use. Do not say, _MYSELF and John +will come_, but, _John and I will come_. Do not say, _They invited +John and MYSELF_, but, _They invited John and ME_. + +The compound personal pronouns have no possessive forms; but for +the sake of emphasis _own_ with the ordinary possessive form is +used; as, _I have my OWN book, Bring your OWN work, He has a home +of his OWN._ + +31. There are no such forms as _hisself, your'n, his'n, her'n, +theirself, theirselves, their'n_. In place of these use simply _his, +her, their_, or _your_. + +EXERCISE 13 + +_Write sentences illustrating the correct use of the following simple +and compound personal pronouns:_ + +Myself, me, I, them, themselves, him, himself, her, herself, itself, +our, ourselves. + +EXERCISE 14 + +_Choose the correct form in the following sentences. Punctuate +properly._ (_See_ §108): + + 1. _Yourself you_ and John were mentioned + 2. She told Mary and _me myself_ to go with _her herself_. + 3. The book is for _you yourself_ and _I me myself_. + 4. Henry and _I me myself_ are in the same class. + 5. He thinks _you yourself_ and _I me myself_ should bring the books. + 6. Our friends and _we us ourselves_ are going out to-night. + 7. _Herself she_ and her husband have been sick. + 8. _They themselves_ and their children have gone abroad. + 9. You play the violin better than _he himself_. + 10. The machine failed to work well, because _it itself_ and the + engine were not properly adjusted to each other. + 11. Let them do it _theirselves themselves_. + 12. He came by _hisself himself_. + 13. The teacher _hisself himself_ could not have done better. + 14. I'll bring my gun, and you bring _your'n yours your_ own. + 15. That book is _his'n his_. + +EXERCISE 15 + +_Fill the blanks in the following sentences with the proper emphatic +or reflexive forms. Punctuate properly._ (_See_ §108): + + 1. He ---- said so. + 2. I ---- will do it. + 3. We ---- will look after her. + 4. That, I tell you, is ---- book. + 5. It belongs to me ----. + 6. Those books are my ----. + 7. Let them ---- pay for it. + 8. The horse is to be for ---- use. + 9. The horse is to be for the use of ----. + 10. He said it to ----. + 11. He deceived ----. + 12. I do not wish ---- to be prominent. + +32. The COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS are formed by adding _ever, so_, +or _soever_ to the relative pronouns, _who, which_, and _what_; +as, _whoever, whatever, whomever, whosoever, whoso, whosoever_, +etc. It will be noted that _whoever, whosoever_, and _whoso_ have +objective forms, _whomever, whomsoever_, and _whomso_; and possessive +forms, _whosoever, whosesoever_, and _whoseso_. These forms must +be used whenever the objective or possessive case is demanded. +Thus, one should say, _I will give it to WHOMEVER I find there_. +(See §29 and Note 3.) + +EXERCISE 16 + +_Fill the following blanks with the proper forms of the compound +relatives:_ + + 1. We will refer the question to ---- you may name. + 2. ---- it may have been, it was not he. + 3. I shall receive presents from ---- I wish. + 4. It was between him and ---- was with him. + 5. ---- they may choose, I will not vote for him. + 6. Let them name ---- they think will win. + 7. Give it to ---- you think needs it most. + 8. He may take ---- he cares to. + 9. He will take ---- property he finds there. + 10. He promised to ask the question of ---- he found there. + 11. ---- can have done it? + 12. ---- else may be said, that is not true. + 13. There are the two chairs; you may take ---- you like. + 14. ---- you take will suit me. + 15. You may have ---- you wish. + 16. ---- is nominated, will you vote for him? + 17. ---- they nominate, I will vote for him. + 18. ---- does that is a partizan. + 19. ---- candidate is elected, I will be satisfied. + 20. He may name ---- he thinks best. + 21. ---- he says is worthy of attention. + 22. ---- she takes after, she is honest. + 23. ---- follows him will be sorry. + 24. ---- he may be, he is no gentleman. + 25. ---- they do is praised. + +33. There are certain words, called ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, which are +regarded as pronouns, because, although they are properly adjective +in their meaning, the nouns which they modify are never expressed; +as, _One_ (there is a possessive form, _one's_, and a plural form, +_ones_), _none, this, that, these, those, other, former, some, +few, many_, etc. + +34. SOME MISCELLANEOUS CAUTIONS IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS: + +1. The pronoun _I_ should always be capitalized, and should, when +used as part of a compound subject, be placed second; as, _James +and I were present, not I and James were present_. + +2. Do not use the common and grave forms of the personal pronouns +in the same sentence; as, _THOU wilt do this whether YOU wish or +not_. + +3. Avoid the use of personal pronouns where they are unnecessary; +as, _John, HE did it, or Mary, SHE said_. This is a frequent error +in speech. + +4. Let the antecedent of each pronoun be clearly apparent. Note the +uncertainty in the following sentence; _He sent a box of cheese, +and IT was made of wood_. The antecedent of _it_ is not clear. +Again, _A man told his son to take HIS coat home_. The antecedent +of _his_ is very uncertain. Such errors are frequent. + +In relative clauses this error may sometimes be avoided by placing +the relative clause as near as possible to the noun it limits. +Note the following sentence: _A cat was found in the YARD WHICH +wore a blue ribbon_. The grammatical inference would be that the +yard wore the blue ribbon. The sentence might be changed to, _A +CAT, WHICH wore a blue ribbon, was found in the yard_. + +5. Relative clauses referring to the same thing require the same +relative pronoun to introduce them; as, _The book THAT we found +and the book THAT he lost are the same_. + +6. Use _but that_ when _BUT_ is a conjunction and _that_ introduces +a noun clause; as, _There is no doubt BUT THAT he will go_. Use +_but what_ when _but_ is a preposition in the sense of _except_; +as, _He has no money but (except) WHAT I gave him_. + +7. _Them_ is a pronoun and should never be used as an adjective. +_Those_ is the adjective which should be used in its place; as, +_Those people_, not, _Them people_. + +8. Avoid using _you_ and _they_ indefinitely; as, _YOU seldom hear +of such things, THEY make chairs there_. Instead, say, _ONE seldom +hears of such things, Chairs are made there_. + +9. _Which_ should not be used with a clause or phrase as its antecedent. +Both the following sentences are wrong: _He sent me to see John, +WHICH I did. Their whispering became very loud, which annoyed the +preacher_. + +10. Never use an apostrophe with the possessive pronouns, _its, +yours, theirs, ours_ and _hers_. + +EXERCISE 17 + +_Correct the following sentences so that they do not violate the +cautions above stated_: + + 1. How can you say that when thou knowest better? + 2. May I and Mary go to the concert? + 3. He asked me to write to him, which I did. + 4. Grant thou to us your blessing. + 5. The train it was twenty minutes late. + 6. Mother she said I might go. + 7. Mary told her mother she was mistaken. + 8. The man cannot leave his friend, for if he should leave him he + would be angry. + 9. Sarah asked her aunt how old she was. + 10. That is the man whom we named and that did it. + 11. Mr. Jones went to Mr. Smith and told him that his dog was lost. + 12. This is the book that we found and which he lost. + 13. She told her sister that if she could not get to the city, she + thought she had better go home. + 14. Jack cannot see Henry because he is so short. + 15. Then Jack and George, they went home. + 16. Bring them books here. + 17. Them are all wrong. + 18. There are no men in the room but that can be bought. + 19. I have no doubt but what it was done. + 20. Them there should be corrected. + 21. I have faith in everything but that he says. + 22. I have no fears but what it can be done. + 23. Napoleon, he threw his armies across the Rhine. + 24. Thou knowest not what you are doing. + 25. It was thought advisable to exile Napoleon, which was done. + 26. A grapevine had grown along the fence which was full of grapes. + 27. Keep them people out of here. + 28. The two cars contained horses that were painted yellow. + 29. She is a girl who is always smiling and that all like. + 30. You never can tell about foreigners. + 31. They say that is not true. + 32. The cabin needed to be swept, which we did. + 33. They use those methods in some schools. + 34. It is the house that is on the corner and which is painted white. + 35. You can easily learn history if you have a good memory. + 36. How can you tell but what it will rain? + 37. He does everything but what he should do. + 38. He has everything but that he needs. + 39. It was a collie dog which we had and that was stolen. + 40. Aunt, she said that she didn't know but what she would go. + 41. Tell I and John about it. + 42. He went to his father and told him he had sinned. + 43. Dost thou know what you doest? + 44. It's appearance was deceitful. + 45. The chair was also their's. + 46. There is a slight difference between mine and your's. + 47. Which of the two is her's? + 48. They are both our's. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS + +35. An ADJECTIVE is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun. An +ADVERB is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another +adverb. Adjectives and adverbs are very closely related in both +their forms and their use. + +36. COMPARISON. The variation of adjectives and adverbs to indicate +the degree of modification they express is called COMPARISON. There +are three degrees of comparison. + +The POSITIVE DEGREE indicates the mere possession of a quality; +as, _true, good, sweet, fast, lovely_. + +The COMPARATIVE DEGREE indicates a stronger degree of the quality +than the positive; as, _truer, sweeter, better, faster, lovelier_. + +The SUPERLATIVE DEGREE indicates the highest degree of quality; +as, _truest, sweetest, best, fastest, loveliest_. + +Where the adjectives and adverbs are compared by inflection they are +said to be compared regularly. In regular comparison the comparative +is formed by adding _er_, and the superlative by adding _est_. If +the word ends in _y_, the _y_ is changed to _i_ before adding the +ending; as, _pretty, prettier, prettiest_. + +Where the adjectives and adverbs have two or more syllables, most +of them are compared by the use of the adverbs _more_ and _most_, +or, if the comparison be a descending one, by the use of _less_ +and _least_; as, _beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful_, and +_less beautiful, least beautiful_. + +37. Some adjectives and adverbs are compared by changing to entirely +different words in the comparative and superlative. Note the following: + +POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE +bad, ill, evil, badly worse worst +far farther, further farthest, furthest +forth further furthest +fore former foremost, first +good, well better best +hind hinder hindmost +late later, latter latest, last +little less least +much, many more most +old older, elder oldest, eldest + +NOTE.--_Badly_ and _forth_ may be used only as adverbs. _Well_ +is usually an adverb; as, _He talks well_, but may be used as an +adjective; as, _He seems well_. + +38. CONFUSION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. An adjective is often +used where an adverb is required, and vice versa. The sentence, +_She talks FOOLISH_, is wrong, because here the word to be modified +is _talks_, and since _talks_ is a verb, the adverb _foolishly_ +should be used. The sentence, _She looks CHARMINGLY_, means, as +it stands, that her manner of looking at a thing is charming. What +is intended to be said is that she appears as if she was a charming +woman. To convey that meaning, the adjective, _charming_, should +have been used, and the sentence should read, _She looks charming_. +Wherever the word modifies a verb or an adjective or another adverb, +an adverb should be used, and wherever the word, whatever its location +in the sentence, modifies a noun or pronoun, an adjective should +be used. + +39. The adjective and the adverb are sometimes alike in form. Thus, +both the following sentences are correct: _He works HARD_ (adverb), +and _His work is HARD_ (adjective). But, usually, where the adjective +and the adverb correspond at all, the adverb has the additional +ending _ly_; as, _The track is SMOOTH_, (adjective), and _The train +runs SMOOTHLY_, (adverb). + +EXERCISE 18 + +_In the following sentences choose from the italicized words the +proper word to be used:_ + + 1. The sunset looks _beautiful beautifully_. + 2. The man acted _strange strangely_. + 3. Write _careful carefully_ and speak _distinct distinctly_. + 4. Speak _slow slowly_. + 5. He acted _bad badly_. + 6. He behaved very _proper properly_. + 7. The boat runs _smooth smoothly_. + 8. He is a _remarkable remarkably_ poor writer. + 9. I am in _extremely extreme_ good health. + 10. The typewriter works _good well_. + 11. The bird warbles _sweet sweetly_. + 12. He was _terrible terribly_ angry. + 13. He was in a _terrible terribly_ dangerous place. + 14. He talks _plainer more plainly_ than he ever did before. + 15. The dead Roman looked _fierce fiercely_. + 16. The fire burns _brilliant brilliantly_. + 17. You are _exceeding exceedingly_ generous. + 18. He struggled _manful manfully_ against the opposition. + 19. My health is _poor poorly_. + 20. He is sure surely a _fine fellow_. + 21. Have everything _suitable suitably_ decorated. + 22. That can be done _easy easily_. + 23. I can speak _easier more easily_ than I can write. + 24. The music of the orchestra was _decided decidedly_ poor. + 25. She is a _remarkable remarkably_ beautiful girl. + 26. The wind roared _awful awfully_. + 27. The roar of the wind was _awful awfully_. + 28. I have studied grammar _previous previously_ to this year. + 29. I didn't study because I felt too _bad badly_ to read. + 30. The roses smell _sweetly sweet_. + 31. They felt very _bad badly_ at being beaten. + 32. That violin sounds _different differently_ from this one. + 33. The soldiers fought _gallant gallantly_. + 34. She looks _sweet sweetly_ in that dress. + 35. I can wear this coat _easy easily_. + 36. Speak _gentle gently_ to him. + 37. He talks _warm warmly_ on that subject. + 38. He works _well good_ and _steady steadily_. + 39. He stood _thoughtful thoughtfully_ for a moment and then went + _quiet quietly_ to his tent. + 40. He walked down the street _slow slowly_, but all the time looked + _eager eagerly_ about him. + 41. The music sounds _loud loudly_. + 42. That coin rings _true truly_. + 43. He looked _angry angrily_ at his class. + 44. He moved _silent silently_ about in the crowd. + 45. His coat fits _nice nicely_. + 46. That is _easy easily_ to do. + 47. He went over the work very _thorough thoroughly_. + +EXERCISE 19 + +_The adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences are correctly +used. In every case show what they modify:_ + + 1. The water lay smooth in the lake. + 2. She looked cold. + 3. The train runs smoothly now. + 4. The sun shone bright at the horizon. + 5. The sun shone brightly all day. + 6. She looks coldly about her. + 7. Be careful in your study of these sentences. + 8. Study these sentences carefully. + 9. We found the way easy. + 10. We found the way easily. + 11. He looked good. + 12. He looked well. + 13. We arrived safe. + 14. We arrived safely. + 15. Speak gently. + 16. Let your speech be gentle. + +EXERCISE 20 + +_Write sentences containing the following words correctly used:_ + +Thoughtful, thoughtfully, masterful, masterfully, hard, hardly, +cool, coolly, rapid, rapidly, ungainly, careful, carefully, eager, +eagerly, sweet, sweetly, gracious, graciously. + +40. IMPROPER FORMS OF ADJECTIVES. The wrong forms in the following +list of adjectives are frequently used in place of the right forms: + + RIGHT WRONG +everywhere everywheres +not nearly nowhere near +not at all not much or not muchly +ill illy +first firstly +thus thusly +much muchly +unknown unbeknown +complexioned complected + +EXERCISE 21 + +_Correct the errors in the following sentences:_ + + 1. She goes everywheres. + 2. Hers is the most illy behaved child I know. + 3. Not muchly will I go. + 4. Use the lesser quantity first. + 5. He is nowhere near so bright as John. + 6. You do the problem thusly. + 7. The causes are firstly, ignorance, and second, lack of energy. + 8. They came unbeknown to me. + 9. He is a dark complected man. + 10. It all happened unbeknownst to them. + 11. His vote was nowhere near so large as usual. + +41. ERRORS IN COMPARISON are frequently made. Observe carefully +the following rules: + +1. The superlative should not be used in comparing only two things. +One should say, _He is the LARGER of the two_, not _He is the LARGEST +of the two_. But, _He is the largest of the three_, is right. + +2. A comparison should not be attempted by adjectives that express +absolute quality--adjectives that cannot be compared; as, _round, +perfect, equally, universal_. A thing may be _round_ or _perfect_, +but it cannot be _more round_ or _most round_, _more perfect_ or +_most perfect_. + +3. When two objects are used in the comparative, one must not be +included in the other; but, when two objects are used in the +superlative, one must be included in the other. It is wrong to say, +_The discovery of America was MORE IMPORTANT THAN ANY geographical +discovery_, for that is saying that the discovery of America was +more important than itself--an absurdity. But it would be right to +say, _The discovery of America was more important THAN ANY OTHER +geographical discovery_. One should not say, _He is the most honest +OF HIS fellow-workmen_, for he is not one of his fellow-workmen. +One should say, _He is more honest THAN ANY of his fellow-workmen_, +or, _He is the most honest OF ALL the workmen_. To say, _This machine +is BETTER THAN ANY machine_, is incorrect, but to say, _This machine +is better THAN ANY OTHER machine_, is correct. To say, _This machine +is the BEST OF ANY machine_ (or _any other machine_), is wrong, +because all machines are meant, not one machine or some machines. +To say, _This machine is the BEST OF machines_ (or _the best of +all machines_), is correct. + +Note the following rules in regard to the use of _other_ in comparisons: + +a. After comparatives followed by _than_ the words _any_ and _all_ +should be followed by _other_. + +b. After superlatives followed by _of, any_ and _other_ should not +be used. + +4. Avoid mixed comparisons. _John is as good, if not better than +she_. If the clause, _if not better_, were left out, this sentence +would read, _John is as good than she_. It could be corrected to +read, _John is as good AS, if not better than she_. Similarly, it +is wrong to say, _He is one of the greatest, if not the greatest, +man in history_. + +EXERCISE 22 + +_Choose the correct word from those italicized:_ + + 1. The _older oldest_ of the three boys was sick. + 2. Of Smith and Jones, Smith is the _wealthiest wealthier_. + 3. Of two burdens choose the _less least_. + 4. Which can run the _fastest faster_, John or Henry? + 5. Of the two men, Smith and Jones, the _first former_ is the + _better best_ known. + 6. Which is the _larger largest_ of the two? + 7. Which is the _best better_ of the six? + 8. Which is the _larger largest_ number, six or seven + 9. Which is the _more most_ desirable, health or wealth? + 10. My mother is the _oldest older_ of four sisters. + 11. The _prettier prettiest_ of the twins is the _brighter brightest_. + 12. This is the _duller dullest_ season of the year. + 13. The other is the _worse worst_ behaved of the two. + 14. Which was the _hotter hottest_, yesterday or to-day? + 15. That is the _cleaner cleanest_ of the three streets. + +EXERCISE 23 + +_Correct any of the following sentences that may be wrong. Give +a valid reason for each correction:_ + + 1. He was the most active of all his friends. + 2. He is the brightest of all his brothers. + 3. Of all the other American Colleges, this is the largest. + 4. Philadelphia is larger than any city in Pennsylvania. + 5. Philadelphia is the largest of all other cities in Pennsylvania. + 6. No city in Pennsylvania is so large as Philadelphia. + 7. That theory is more universally adopted. + 8. He was, of all others, the most clever. + 9. This apple is more perfect than that. + 10. No fruit is so good as the orange. + 11. The orange is better than any fruit. + 12. Of all other fruits the orange is the best. + 13. The orange is the best of all the fruits. + 14. The orange is better than any other fruit. + 15. That is the most principal thing in the lesson. + 16. Which has been of most importance, steam or electricity? + 17. He was more active than any other of his companions. + 18. This apple is rounder than that. + 19. This apple is more nearly round than that. + 20. Paris is the most famous of any other European city. + 21. Pennsylvania is the wealthiest of her sister states. + 22. No state is so wealthy as Pennsylvania. + 23. Pennsylvania is the wealthiest of any of the States. + 24. Pennsylvania is wealthier than any of her other sister states. + 25. New York is one of the largest, if not the largest city in the + world. + 26. That book is as good if not better than mine. + 27. John is taller than any other boy in his classes. + 28. John is taller than any boy in his class. + 29. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. + 30. Iron is the more useful of the metals. + 31. Iron is the most useful of the metals. + 32. Of iron and lead, lead is the heaviest. + 33. Iron is among the most useful, if not the most useful metal. + 34. He is among the oldest if not the oldest of the men in the Senate. + 35. That picture is more beautiful than all the pictures. + +42. SINGULAR AND PLURAL ADJECTIVES. Some adjectives can be used +only with singular nouns and some only with plural nouns. Such +adjectives as _one, each, every_, etc., can be used only with singular +nouns. Such adjectives as _several, various, many, sundry, two_, +etc., can be used only with plural nouns. In many cases, the noun +which the adjective modifies is omitted, and the adjective thus +acquires the force of a pronoun; as, _FEW are seen, SEVERAL have +come_. + +The adjective pronouns _this_ and _that_ have plural forms, _these_ +and _those_. The plurals must be used with plural nouns. To say +_those kind_ is then incorrect. It should be _those kinds_. _Those +sort of men_ should be _that sort of men_ or _those sorts of men_. + +43. EITHER AND NEITHER are used to designate one of two objects +only. If more than two are referred to, use _any, none, any one, +no one_. Note the following correct sentences: + +_NEITHER John nor Henry may go._ + +_ANY ONE of the three boys may go._ + +44. EACH OTHER should be used when referring to two; ONE ANOTHER +when referring to more than two. Note the following correct sentences: + +_The two brothers love EACH OTHER._ + +_The four brothers love ONE ANOTHER._ + +EXERCISE 24 + +_Correct such of the following sentences as are incorrect. Be able +to give reasons:_ + + 1. He is six foot tall. + 2. I like those kind of fruit. + 3. He lost several pound. + 4. I have not seen him this twenty year. + 5. Have you heard these news? + 6. Are they those kind of people? + 7. He rode ten mile. + 8. There were fifteen car-load of people. + 9. These kind of books are interesting. + 10. Several phenomenon marked his character. + 11. There are a few crisis in every man's career. + 12. Each strata of the rock lies at an angle. + 13. The poem has six verse in it. + 14. Either of the five will do. + 15. Little children should love each other. + 16. Neither of the large cities in the United States is so large as + London. + 17. You will be able to find it in either one of those three books. + 18. Those two brothers treat one another very coldly. + 19. Neither of the many newspapers published an account of it. + 20. Either law or medicine is his profession. + 21. Some ten box of shoes were on the train. + 22. Those two statements contradict one another. + 23. The Sahara Desert has several oasis. + 24. How can he associate with those sort of men? + +45. PLACING OF ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES. In the placing of adjective +elements and adverbial elements in the sentence, one should so +arrange them as to leave no doubt as to what they are intended to +modify. + +Wrong: A man was riding on a _horse wearing gray trousers_. + +Right: A _man wearing gray trousers_ was riding on a horse. + +The adverb _only_ requires especial attention. Generally _only_ +should come before the word it is intended to modify. Compare the +following correct sentences, and note the differences in meaning. + +_Only_ he found the book. + +He _only_ found the book. + +He found _only_ the book. + +He found the book _only_. + +The placing of the words, _almost, ever, hardly, scarcely, merely_, +and _quite_, also requires care and thought. + +EXERCISE 25 + +_Correct the errors in the location of adjectives and adverbs in +the following sentences:_ + + 1. I only paid five dollars. + 2. I have only done six problems. + 3. The clothing business is only profitable in large towns. + 4. The school is only open in the evening. + 5. I only need ten minutes in which to do it. + 6. He had almost climbed to the top when the ladder broke. + 7. I never expect to see the like again. + 8. A black base-ball player's suit was found. + 9. Do you ever remember to have seen the man before? + 10. The building was trimmed with granite carved corners. + 11. People ceased to wonder gradually. + 12. The captain only escaped by hiding in a ditch. + 13. I never wish to think of it again. + 14. On the trip in that direction he almost went to Philadelphia. + 15. Acetylene lamps are only used now in the country. + 16. He only spoke of history, not of art. + 17. I know hardly what to say. + 18. I was merely talking of grammar, not of English literature. + 19. The girls were nearly dressed in the same color. + 20. He merely wanted to see you. + +46. DOUBLE NEGATIVES. _I am here_ is called an affirmative statement. +A denial of that, _I am not here_, is called a negative statement. +The words, _not, neither, never, none, nothing_, etc., are all +negative words; that is, they serve to make denials of statements. + +Two negatives should never be used in the same sentence, since +the effect is then to deny the negative you wish to assert, and +an affirmative is made where a negative is intended. _We haven't +no books_, means that we have some books. The proper negative form +would be, _We have no books_, or _We haven't any books_. The mistake +occurs usually where such forms as _isn't, don't, haven't_, etc., +are used. Examine the following sentences: + +Wrong: _It isn't no_ use. + +Wrong: There _don't none_ of them believe it. + +Wrong: We _didn't_ do _nothing_. + +_Hardly, scarcely, only_, and _but_ (in the sense of _only_) are +often incorrectly used with a negative. Compare the following right +and wrong forms: + +Wrong: It was so dark that we _couldn't hardly_ see. + +Right: It was so dark that we _could hardly_ see. + +Wrong: There _wasn't only_ one person present. + +Right: There _was only_ one person present. + +EXERCISE 26 + +Correct the following sentences: + + 1. I can't find it nowhere. + 2. For a time I couldn't scarcely tell where I was. + 3. They are not allowed to go only on holidays. + 4. There isn't but one person that can make the speech. + 5. They didn't find no treasure. + 6. It won't take but a few minutes to read it all. + 7. I haven't seen but two men there. + 8. There isn't no one here who knows it. + 9. I didn't see no fire; my opinion is that there wasn't no fire. + 10. I can't hardly prove that statement. + 11. I didn't feel hardly able to go. + 12. She couldn't stay only a week. + 13. I hadn't scarcely reached shelter when the storm began. + 14. You wouldn't scarcely believe that it could be done. + 15. He said that he wouldn't bring only his wife. + 16. There isn't nothing in the story. + 17. He doesn't do nothing. + 18. I can't think of nothing but that. + 19. He can't hardly mean that. + 20. He isn't nowhere near so bright as I. + 21. He can't hardly come to-night. + 22. It is better to not think nothing about it. + 23. She can't only do that. + 24. There isn't no use of his objecting to it. + 25. There shan't none of them go along with us. + 26. Don't never do that again. + 27. We could not find but three specimens of the plant. + 28. He wasn't scarcely able to walk. + 29. He hasn't none of his work prepared. + +47. THE ARTICLES. _A, an_, and _the_, are called Articles. _A_ and +_an_ are called the INDEFINITE ARTICLES, because they are used to +limit the noun to any one thing of a class; as, _a book, a chair_. +But _a_ or _an_ is not used to denote the whole of that class; +as, _Silence is golden_, or, _He was elected to the office of +President_. + +_The_ is called the DEFINITE ARTICLE because it picks out some one +definite individual from a class. + +In the sentence, _On the street are A brick and A stone house_, +the article is repeated before each adjective; the effect of this +repetition is to make the sentence mean two houses. But, in the +sentence, _On the street is A brick and stone house_, since the +article is used only before the first of the two adjectives, the +sentence means that there is only one house and that it is constructed +of brick and stone. + +Where two nouns refer to the same object, the article need appear +only before the first of the two; as, _God, the author and creator +of the universe_. But where the nouns refer to two different objects, +regarded as distinct from each other, the article should appear +before each; as, _He bought a horse and a cow_. + +_A_ is used before all words except those beginning with a vowel +sound. Before those beginning with a vowel sound _an_ is used. +If, in a succession of words, one of these forms could not be used +before all of the words, then the article must be repeated before +each. Thus, one should say, _AN ax, A saw, and AN adze_ (not _An +ax, saw and adze_), _made up his outfit_. Generally it is better +to repeat the article in each case, whether or not it be the same. + +Do not say, _kind of A HOUSE_. Since _a house_ is singular, it +can have but one kind. Say instead, a _kind of house, a sort of +man_, etc. + +EXERCISE 27 + +_Correct the following where you think correction is needed:_ + + 1. Where did you get that kind of a notion? + 2. She is an eager and an ambitious girl. + 3. He received the degree of a Master of Arts. + 4. The boy and girl came yesterday. + 5. Neither the man nor woman was here. + 6. He was accompanied by a large and small man. + 7. He planted an oak, maple and ash. + 8. The third of the team were hurt. + 9. The noun and verb will be discussed later. + 10. I read a Pittsburg and Philadelphia paper. + 11. Read the third and sixth sentence. + 12. Read the comments in a monthly and weekly periodical. + 13. He is dying from the typhoid fever. + 14. He was elected the secretary and the treasurer of the + association. + 15. What sort of a student are you? + 16. He is a funny kind of a fellow. + 17. Bring me a new and old chair. + 18. That is a sort of a peculiar idea. + 19. He was operated upon for the appendicitis. + 20. Lock the cat and dog up. + +48. No adverb necessary to the sense should be omitted from the +sentence. Such improper omission is frequently made when _very_ or +_too_ are used with past participles that are not also recognized +as adjectives; as, + +Poor: I am _very insulted_. He was _too wrapped_ in thought to notice +the mistake. + +Right: I am _very much insulted_. He was _too much wrapped_ in thought +to notice the mistake. + +EXERCISE 28 + +_Write sentences containing the following adjectives and adverbs. +Be sure that they are used correctly._ + +Both, each, every, only, evidently, hard, latest, awful, terribly, +charming, charmingly, lovely, brave, perfect, straight, extreme, +very, either, neither, larger, oldest, one, none, hardly, scarcely, +only, but, finally, almost, ever, never, new, newly, very. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +VERBS + +49. A VERB has already been defined as a word stating something +about the subject. Verbs are inflected or changed to indicate the +time of the action as past, present, or future; as, _I talk, I +talked, I shall talk_, etc. Verbs also vary to indicate completed +or incompleted action; as, _I have talked, I shall have talked_, +etc. To these variations, which indicate the time of the action, +the name TENSE is given. + +The full verbal statement may consist of several words; as, _He +MAY HAVE GONE home_. Here the verb is _may have gone_. The last +word of such a verb phrase is called the PRINCIPAL VERB, and the +other words the AUXILIARIES. In the sentence above, _go (gone)_ +is the principal verb, and _may_ and _have_ are the auxiliaries. + +50. In constructing the full form of the verb or verb phrase there +are three distinct parts from which all other forms are made. These +are called the PRINCIPAL PARTS. + +The First Principal Part, since it is the part by which the verb is +referred to as a word, may be called the NAME-FORM. The following +are name-forms: _do, see, come, walk, pass_. + +The Second Principal Part is called the PAST TENSE. It is formed +by adding _ed_ to the name-form; as, _walked, pushed, passed_. +These verbs that add _ed_ are called Regular Verbs. The verb form +is often entirely changed; as, _done (do), saw (see), came (come)_. +These verbs are called Irregular Verbs. + +The Third Principal Part is called the PAST PARTICIPLE. It is used +mainly in expressing completed action or in the passive voice. +In regular verbs the past participle is the same in form as the +past tense. In irregular verbs it may differ entirely from both +the name-form and the past tense, or it may resemble one or both +of them. Examples: _done (do, did), seen (see, saw), come (come, +came), set (set, set)_. + +51. THE NAME-FORM, when unaccompanied by auxiliaries, is used with +all subjects, except those in the third person singular, to assert +action in the present time or present tense; as, _I go, We come, +You see, Horses run_. + +The name-form is also used with various auxiliaries (_may, might, +can, must, will, should, shall_, etc.) to assert futurity, +determination, possibility, possession, etc. Examples: _I may go, +We shall come, You can see, Horses should run_. + +By preceding it with the word _to_, the name-form is used to form +what is called the PRESENT INFINITIVE; as, _I wish to go, I hope +to see_. + +What may be called the S-FORM of the verb, or the SINGULAR form, +is usually constructed by adding _s_ or _es_ to the name-form. +The s-form is used with singular subjects in the third person; as, +_He goes, She comes, It runs, The dog trots_. + +The s-form is found in the third personal singular of the present +tense. In other tenses, if present at all, the s-form is in the +auxiliary, where the present tense of the auxiliary is used to +form some other tense of the principal verb. Examples: _He has_ +(present tense), _He has gone_ (perfect tense), _He has been seen_. + +Some verbs have no s-form; as, _will, shall, may_. The verb _be_ +has two irregular s-forms: _Is_, in the present tense, and _was_ +in the past tense. The s-form of _have_ is _has_. + +52. The past tense always stands alone in the predicate; i. e., IT +SHOULD NEVER BE USED WITH ANY AUXILIARIES. To use it so, however, +is one of the most frequent errors in grammar. The following are +past tense forms: _went, saw, wore, tore_. To say, therefore, _I +have saw, I have went, It was tore, They were wore_, would be grossly +incorrect. + +53. The third principal part, the past participle, on the other +hand, CAN NEVER BE USED AS A PREDICATE VERB WITHOUT AN AUXILIARY. +The following are distinctly past participle forms: _done, seen, +sung_, etc. One could not then properly say, _I seen, I done, I +sung_, etc. + +The distinction as to use with and without auxiliaries applies, of +course, only to irregular verbs. In regular verbs, the past tense +and past participle are always the same, and so no error could +result from their confusion. + +The past participle is used to form the _Perfect Infinitives_; as, +_to have gone, to have seen, to have been seen_. + +54. The following is a list of the principal parts of the most +important irregular verbs. The list should be mastered thoroughly. +The student should bear in mind always that, THE PAST TENSE FORM +SHOULD NEVER BE USED WITH AN AUXILIARY, and that THE PAST PARTICIPLE +FORM SHOULD NEVER BE USED AS A PREDICATE VERB WITHOUT AN AUXILIARY. + +In some instances verbs have been included in the list below which +are always regular in their forms, or which have both regular and +irregular forms. These are verbs for whose principal parts incorrect +forms are often used. + +PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS + +_Name-form Past Tense Past Participle_ +awake awoke or awaked awaked +begin began begun +beseech besought besought +bid (to order or to greet) bade bidden or bid +bid (at auction) bid bidden or bid +blow blew blown +break broke broken +burst burst burst +choose chose chosen +chide chid chidden or chid +come came come +deal dealt dealt +dive dived dived + +_Name-form Past Tense Past Participle_ +do did done +draw drew drawn +drink drank drunk or drank +drive drove driven +eat ate eaten +fall fell fallen +flee fled fled +fly flew flown +forsake forsook forsaken +forget forgot forgot or forgotten +freeze froze frozen +get got got (gotten) +give gave given +go went gone +hang (clothes) hung hung +hang (a man) hanged hanged +know knew known +lay laid laid +lie lay lain +mean meant meant +plead pleaded pleaded +prove proved proved +ride rode ridden +raise raised raised +rise rose risen +run ran run +see saw seen +seek sought sought +set set set +shake shook shaken +shed shed shed +shoe shod shod +sing sang sung +sit sat sat +slay slew slain +sink sank sunk +speak spoke spoken + +_Name-form Past Tense Past Participle_ +steal stole stolen +swim swam swum +take took taken +teach taught taught +tear tore torn +throw threw thrown +tread trod trod or trodden +wake woke or waked woke or waked +wear wore worn +weave wove woven +write wrote written + +NOTES.--_Ought_ has no past participle. It may then never be used +with an auxiliary. _I had ought to go_ is incorrect. The idea would +be amply expressed by _I ought to go_. + +MODEL CONJUGATIONS of the verbs _to be_ and _to see_ in all forms +are given under §77 at the end of this chapter. + +EXERCISE 29 + +_In the following sentences change the italicized verb so as to +use the past tense, and then so as to use the past participle:_ + +Example: (Original sentence), _The guests begin to go home._ + (Changed to past tense), _The guests began to go home._ + (Changed to past participle), _The guests have begun to go home._ + + 1. Our books _lie_ on the mantel. + 2. John _comes_ in and _lays_ his books on the desk. + 3. I _see_ the parade. + 4. He _runs_ up the road. + 5. They _set_ their chairs in a row. + 6. The noise _wakes_ me. + 7. Cæsar _bids_ him enter. + 8. If they _prove_ their innocence, they should be discharged. + 9. His friends _plead_ strongly for him. + 10. Do you know what they _mean_ by that? + 11. I _awake_ early every morning. + 12. He _begins_ to think of strange things. + 13. The children _beseech_ me to go with them. + 14. My mother _bids_ me to say that she will be here at six. + 15. Smith _bids_ fifty dollars for the chair. + 16. My servants _break_ many dishes. + 17. They _choose_ their associates. + 18. The box _bursts_ open. + 19. His mother _chides_ him for his misbehavior. + 20. He _comes_ here every day. + 21. I _deal_ there this week. + 22. The boys _dive_ beautifully. + 23. You _do_ so much more than is necessary. + 24. They _draw_ lots for the watch. + 25. Jones _drinks_ this wine very seldom. + 26. They _drive_ over to Milton once a week. + 27. They _drive_ a sorrel horse. + 28. The cows _eat_ grass. + 29. The Gauls _flee_ before Cæsar. + 30. The swallows all _fly_ into the chimney at evening. + 31. They _forsake_ the cause without any reason. + 32. Cæsar _gives_ them no answer. + 33. They _get_ no money for their services. + 34. You _forget_ that we have no right to do that. + 35. Water _freezes_ at thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit. + 36. The ball _goes_ to the opposing team. + 37. You _hang_ the rope on the tree. + 38. The sheriff _hangs_ the murderer at noon. + 39. I _know_ of nothing more worrying. + 40. She _lays_ the knife on the table. + 41. They _lie_ in bed until eleven. + 42. Why they _rise_ so late, I do not know. + 43. They _raise_ no objection. + 44. John _runs_ very rapidly. + 45. You _sit_ very quietly. + 46. Cæsar _seeks_ to learn the intention of the enemy. + 47. The politician vigorously _shakes_ all hands. + 48. The roof _sheds_ water in all storms. + 49. The blacksmith _shoes_ horses. + 50. The choir _sings_ for each service. + 51. You _speak_ too rapidly to be easily understood. + 52. Few men _steal_ because they want to. + 53. I _swim_ one hundred yards very readily. + 54. They _teach_ all the elementary branches there. + 55. You _take_ all subscriptions for the concert. + 56. Those clothes _tear_ readily. + 57. They _tread_ the grapes in making wine. + 58. Who _throws_ paper on the floor? + 59. I always _wear_ old clothes in which to work. + 60. She _writes_ to her mother daily. + 61. They _weave_ the best rugs in Philadelphia. + +EXERCISE 30 + +_Write original sentences containing the following verbs, correctly +used:_ + +Begun, blew, bidden, bad, chose, broke, come, dealt, dived, drew, +driven, flew, forsook, froze, given, give, gave, went, hanged, +knew, rode, pleaded, ran, seen, saw, shook, shod, sung, slew, spoke, +swum, taken, torn, wore, threw, woven, wrote, written. + +EXERCISE 31 + +_Insert the proper form of the verb in the following sentences. +The verb to be used is in black-faced type at the beginning of +each group:_ + + 1. BEGIN. He ---- to act at once. The reports ---- to disturb + him a little. He has ---- to feel hurt over them. + 2. BID. The proprietor ---- us a pleasant good day. No matter + how much he ---- the auctioneer will not hear him. We were + ---- to enter. + 3. BLOW. The cornetist ---- with all his might. The ship was + ---- about all day. The wind does ---- terrifically sometimes. + It may ---- to-night. The wind ---- all last night. + 4. BREAK. He fell and ---- his leg. It is well that his neck + was not ----. + 5. BURST. During the battle the shells frequently ---- right + over us. Oaken casks have often ----. + 6. CHIDE. He ---- us frequently about our actions. He was + never ---- himself. + 7. CHOOSE. They ---- him president. They have ---- wisely. + 8. COME. He ---- at nine to-day. He has always ---- earlier + heretofore. Let him ---- when he wishes. + 9. DEAL. Before explaining the game, he ---- out the cards. + 10. DIVE. Twice last summer he ---- off the bridge. + 11. DO. Thou canst not say I ---- it. He often ---- it. + 12. DRAW. The picture was ---- by a famous artist. He formerly + ---- very well, but I think that now he ---- very poorly. + 13. DRIVE. The horse was ---- twenty miles. He almost ---- + it to death. + 14. EAT. He ---- everything which the others had not ----. + How can he ---- that? + 15. FLEE. Since the cashier has ----, they think that a warrant + would be useless. + 16. FLY. The air-ship ---- three hundred miles on its first trip. + That it has ---- so far is sufficient proof of its success. + 17. FORSAKE. He ---- his new friends just as he had ---- all the + others. + 18. FREEZE. The man was ---- stiff. He evidently ---- to death + so easily because he had been so long without food. + 19. GIVE. She was not ---- as much as her sisters. Her father + ---- her less because of her extravagance. But, he now ---- + her enough to make it up. + 20. GO. She ---- to school to-day. She ---- yesterday. She has + ---- every day this month. + 21. KNOW. He ---- that he cannot live. As long as I have + ---- him, this is the first time I ever ---- he was married. + 22. MEAN. He ---- to do right, and has always ---- to do so. + 23. RIDE. They ---- as if they had ---- a long distance. They + say that they ---- from Larimer this morning. + 24. PLEAD. The mother ---- an hour for her son's life. + 25. PROVE. They ---- him a thief in the eyes of the people, even + if he was not ---- so to the satisfaction of the jury. + 26. RUN. John ---- the race as though he had ---- races all + his life. The race was ---- very rapidly. Soon after that race, + he ---- in another race. + 27. SEE. Smith, who has just arrived, says he ---- two men + skulking along the road. He was not ---- by them. That play + is the best I ever ----. + 28. SEEK. The detectives ---- all through the slums for him. + Now they ---- him in the better parts of the city. No criminal + was ever more eagerly ----. + 29. SHAKE. During the day his hand was ---- five hundred times. He + ---- hands with all who came. + 30. SHOE. The entire army was ---- with Blank's shoes. + 31. SING. The choir ---- the anthem as they had never ---- it before. + They always ---- it well. + 32. SINK. The stone ---- as soon as it is in the water. The + ship was ---- in forty fathoms of water. They ---- the ship in + 1861. + 33. SPEAK. Though they claimed that they always ---- to her, she was + really never ---- to by any member of the family. + 34. STEAL. The money was ----; whether or not he ---- it I + do not know. Everyone believes that he has frequently ---- goods + from the store. + 35. TAKE. I was ---- for him several times that day. No one ever + ---- me for him before. + 36. TEACH. John ---- school every day. He has ---- for ten years. + He first ---- when he was eighteen years old. + 37. TEAR. The dog ---- at the paper until it was ---- entirely + to pieces. He ---- up everything he finds. + 38. THROW. He was ---- by a horse which never before ---- anyone. + 39. WEAR. The trousers were ---- entirely out in a month, but I ---- + the coat and vest for six months. + 40. WEAVE. This carpet was ---- at Philadelphia. The manufacturers + say they never ---- a better one, and they ---- the best in the + country. + 41. WRITE. Although he has ---- several times, he has never ---- + anything about that. He ---- to me just last week. He ---- at + least once a month. + +EXERCISE 32 + +_Correct the errors in the use of verbs in the following sentences:_ + + 1. He plead all day to be released. + 2. The horse was rode to death. + 3. The letter was wrote before he knowed the truth. + 4. He was immediately threw out of the room. + 5. She run around all day and then was sick the next day. + 6. I never seen anything like it. + 7. He was very much shook by the news. + 8. The matter was took up by the committee. + 9. The horse has been stole from the owner. + 10. Goliath was slew by David. + 11. The words have been spoke in anger. + 12. I have went to church every day. + 13. Was the river froze enough for skating? + 14. He begun to take notice immediately. + 15. The umbrella was blew to pieces. + 16. I have broke my ruler. + 17. Jones was chose as leader of the class. + 18. He said he come as soon as he could. + 19. I done it. + 20. I have never did anything so foolish. + 21. I have ate all that was in the lunch-box. + 22. The horse was drove ten miles. + +EXERCISE 33 + +_Write sentences in which the following verb forms are properly +used:_ + +begun, blew, broke, chose, come, came, done, did, drew, drunk, +drove, ate, flew, forsook, froze, forgot, gave, give, went, hang, +hung, knew, rode, run, shook, sung, slew, spoke, stole, took, tore, +threw, wore, wrote. + +55. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. A TRANSITIVE VERB is one +in which the action of the verb goes over to a receiver; as, _He +KILLED the horse, I KEEP my word_. In both these sentences, the +verb serves to transfer the action from the subject to the object +or receiver of the action. The verbs in these sentences, and all +similar verbs, are transitive verbs. All others, in which the action +does not go to a receiver, are called INTRANSITIVE VERBS. + +56. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE. The ACTIVE VOICE represents the subject +as the doer of the action; as, _I tell, I see, He makes chairs_. +The PASSIVE VOICE represents the subject as the receiver of the +action; as, _I am told, I am seen, I have been seen, Chairs are +made by me_. Since only transitive verbs can have a receiver of +the action, only transitive verbs can have both active and passive +voice. + +57. There are a few special verbs in which the failure to distinguish +between the transitive and the intransitive verbs leads to frequent +error. The most important of these verbs are the following: _sit, +set, awake, wake, lie, lay, rise, arise, raise, fell_, and _fall_. +Note again the principal parts of these verbs: + +wake (to rouse another) woke, waked woke, waked +awake (to cease to sleep) awoke, awaked awaked + +fell (to strike down) felled felled +fall (to topple over) fell fallen + +lay (to place) laid laid +lie (to recline) lay lain + +raise (to cause to ascend) raised raised +(a)rise (to ascend) (a)rose (a)risen + +set (to place) set set +sit (to rest) sat sat + +The first of each pair of the above verbs is transitive, and the +second is intransitive. Only the first, then, of each pair can +have an object or can be used in the passive voice. + +NOTES.--The following exceptions in the use of _sit_ and _set_ +are, by reason of usage, regarded as correct: _The sun sets, The +moon sets, They sat themselves down to rest_, and _He set out for +Chicago_. + +_Lie_, meaning to deceive, has for its principal parts, _lie, lied, +lied. Lie_, however, with this meaning is seldom confused with _lie_ +meaning to recline. The present participle of _lie_ is _lying_. + +Compare the following sentences, and note the reasons why the second +form in each case is the correct form. + +WRONG RIGHT +Awake me early to-morrow. Wake me early to-morrow. +He was awoke by the noise. He was woke (waked) by the noise. +He has fallen a tree. He has felled a tree. +I have laid down. I have lain down. +I lay the book down (past tense). I laid the book down. +The river has raised. The river has risen. +He raised in bed. He rose in bed. +I set there. I sat there. +I sat the chair there. I set the chair there. + +EXERCISE 34 + +_Form an original sentence showing the proper use of each of the +following words:_ + +Lie, lay (to place), sit, set, sat, sitting, setting, lie (to recline), +lie (to deceive), lying, laying, rise, arose, raised, raise, fell (to +topple over), fallen, felled, awake, wake, awaked, woke, falling, +felling, rising, raising, waking, awaking, lain, laid, lied. + +EXERCISE 35 + +_Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:_ + + 1. Let sleeping dogs lay. + 2. The sun has sat in the golden west. + 3. He has laid in bed all morning. + 4. He will sit out on his journey this morning. + 5. Let him sit there as long as he wishes. + 6. He sat the chair by the table. + 7. He awoke everybody at daylight. + 8. He laid down to sleep. + 9. Let him lie there until he wakes. + 10. The shower has lain the dust. + 11. The curtain raised because it was raised by his orders. + 12. The river has risen four feet. + 13. Falling trees is his amusement. + 14. To have been awaked then would have been sad. + 15. To have waked then would have been sad. + 16. Waking at dawn, they renewed the journey. + 17. He has set there all day. + 18. He lay the papers before the judge. + 19. The judge laid the papers aside. + 20. Lieing in the shade is his most strenuous occupation. + +EXERCISE 36 + +_In the following sentences fill the blanks with the proper forms +of the verbs indicated:_ + +SIT AND SET + + 1. I ---- in that seat all the evening. + 2. Please ---- here until I return. + 3. He was still ----ting there on my return. + 4. The sun ---- in the west. + 5. He ---- out for home yesterday. + 6. ---- down and rest awhile. + 7. James ---- down and talked to me. + 8. He was engaged in ----ting out flowers. + 9. I ---- the bucket on the rock above the bridge. + 10. Last evening we ---- at the table for more than an hour. + 11. ---- here until I call my mother. + 12. ---- the lamp on the table. + 13. He has ---- there all day. + 14. The chair was ---- by the desk. + 15. I usually ---- up until twelve. + 16. She ---- the hen on some eggs and she remained ---- there. + 17. She told me to ---- there, and I ---- down. + 18. By whom has the lamp been ---- there? + 19. I ---- my chair by the window and ---- there all the afternoon. + 20. How can she ---- still for so long? + 21. The moon ---- at twelve. + +LAY AND LIE + + 1. I ---- down this afternoon to rest. + 2. I ---- in bed until late every morning. + 3. I have frequently ---- in bed until eleven. + 4. He always ---- his books on the desk. + 5. He just now ---- his books on the desk. + 6. He has ---- them there every morning. + 7. His books have sometimes ---- there all day. + 8. His books have sometimes been ----ing there before I arrive. + 9. After he ---- down he remembered that he had left a letter + on his desk. + 10. Will it not be well for you to ---- down for a while? + 11. I ---- on the grass yesterday for an hour or more. + 12. I have ---- down and feel much better. + 13. Now I ---- me down to sleep. + 14. The scene of the play is ---- in rural Pennsylvania. + 15. The tramps ---- behind the barn waiting for dawn. + 16. I had ---- down to rest before (set or sit) ting out on my + journey. + 17. The floor was ---- by an expert carpenter. + 18. She told me to ---- the matter before the teacher. + 19. ---- down, Fido. + 20. When we are weary, we ---- down. + 21. Who ---- that on the table? + 22. He has repeatedly ---- about the matter. + 23. He ---- without the slightest hesitation. + 24. ----ing down is a good way to rest. + 25. ----ing is a sin. + 26. He ---- to his father, and his father knew it. + +RAISE AND RISE (ARISE) + + 1. I will ---- and go unto my father. + 2. He has ---- early to-day. + 3. I do not know why he ---- so early. + 4. ---- your hand if you know. + 5. Everyone ---- his hand. + 6. They have all ---- their hands. + 7. All their hands were ---- at once. + 8. The price of meat has ----. + 9. The bread would not ----. + 10. I ---- in order that I might see better. + 11. The flag was very carefully ----. + 12. He tried to ---- himself from the condition into which he had + fallen. + 13. The curtain is to ---- at eight. I myself shall see to ----ing + it then. + 14. The boy ---- and answers. + 15. He is ---- rapidly to prominence. + 16. Will you please ---- the window? + 17. The safe was ---- by means of a rope. + 18. It is like trying to ---- one's self by one's boot-straps. + 19. ---- and march to the front of the room. + 20. The river ---- rapidly. + +FELL AND FALL + + 1. Gladstone, when living, ---- a tree each morning for exercise. + 2. To ---- an ox with one blow of the fist is a feat of wonderful + strength. + 3. He was ---- to the earth by a blow from a club. + 4. To ---- often is to be expected in learning to skate. + 5. ----ing down is a small matter to the young. + 6. He has often ---- from the roof of the porch. + 7. After he ---- once, he seemed to try to do so again. + 8. I did not see him----. + 9. Not a shot is fired but a bird ----. + 10. Let the tree be ---- across the road. + 11. It is hard to avoid ----ing on the ice. + +AWAKE AND WAKE + + 1. Have them ---- me very early. + 2. He went upstairs and ---- his brother. + 3. His brother did not wish to be ---- so early. + 4. This morning I ---- at dawn. + 5. It is unpleasant to ---- so early. + 6. You say that you have never ---- after nine? + 7. Who ---- so early, this morning? + 8. He would not say who ---- him. + 9. ----ing in the dead of night is unpleasant. + 10. ----ing everybody up by their noise is an every night + occurrence. + 11. The sun ---- me early. + 12. The whole country-side seemed to ---- at once. + 13. He had himself ---- at six o'clock. + +58. MODE. Mode is that form of the verb which indicates the manner +in which the action or state is to be regarded. There are several +modes in English, but only between the indicative and subjunctive +modes is the distinction important. Generally speaking, the INDICATIVE +MODE is used when the statement is regarded as a fact or as truth, +and the SUBJUNCTIVE MODE is used when the statement expresses +uncertainty or implies some degree of doubt. + +59. FORMS OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. The places in which the subjunctive +differs from the indicative are in the present and past tenses +of the verb _be_, and in the present tense of active verbs. The +following outline will show the difference between the indicative +and the subjunctive of _be_: + +INDICATIVE PRESENT OF BE INDICATIVE PAST OF BE +I am we are I was we were +thou art you are thou wert or wast you were +he (she, it) is they are he (she, it) was they were + +SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT OF BE SUBJUNCTIVE PAST OF BE +If I be If we be If I were If we were +If thou be If you be If thou were If you were +If he (she, it) be If they be If he (she, it) were If they were + +_If_ is used only as an example of the conjunctions on which the +subjunctive depends. Other conjunctions may be used, or the verb +may precede the subject. + +NOTE.--It will be noticed that _thou art_ and _thou wast_, etc., +have been used in the second person singular. Strictly speaking, +these are the proper forms to be used here, even though _you are_ +and _you were_, etc., are customarily used in addressing a single +person. + +In the subjunctive of _be_, it will be noted that the form _be_ is +used throughout the present tense; and the form _were_ throughout +the past tense. + +In other verbs the subjunctive, instead of having the s-form in +the third person singular of the present tense, has the name-form, +or the same form as all the other forms of the present tense; as, +indicative, _he runs, she sees, it seems, he has;_ subjunctive, +_if he run, though she see, lest it seem, if he have_. + +NOTE.--An examination of the model conjugations under §77 will give +a further understanding of the forms of the subjunctive. + +60. USE OF INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE. The indicative mode would +be properly used in the following sentence, when the statement is +regarded as true: _If that evidence is true, then he is a criminal_. +Similarly: _If he is rich, he ought to be charitable_. Most directly +declarative statements are put in the indicative mode. + +But when the sense of the statement shows uncertainty in the speaker's +mind, or shows that the condition stated is regarded as contrary to +fact or as untrue, the subjunctive is used. Note the two sentences +following, in which the conditions are properly in the subjunctive: +_If those statements be true, then all statements are true, Were +I rich, I might be charitable_. + +The subjunctive is usually preceded by the conjunctions, _if, though, +lest, although_, or the verb precedes the subject. But it must be +borne in mind that these do not always indicate the subjunctive +mode. THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE DEPENDS ON WHETHER THE CONDITION +IS REGARDED AS A FACT OR AS CONTRARY TO FACT, CERTAIN OR UNCERTAIN. + +It should be added that the subjunctive is perhaps going out of +use; some of the best writers no longer use its forms. This passing +of the subjunctive is to be regretted and to be discouraged, since +its forms give opportunity for many fine shades of meaning. + +EXERCISE 37 + +_Write five sentences which illustrate the correct use of BE in +the third person singular without an auxiliary, and five which +illustrate the correct use of WERE in the third person singular._ + +EXERCISE 38 + +_Choose the preferable form in the following sentences, and be able +to give a definite reason for your choice. In some of the sentences +either form may be used correctly:_ + + 1. He acts as if it _were was_ possible always to escape death. + 2. If it _was were_ near enough, I should walk. + 3. If I _was were_ only wealthy! + 4. If I _were was_ in his place, I should study medicine. + 5. If you _are be_ right, then the book is wrong. + 6. If he _was were_ I, he would come. + 7. Though he _was were_ very economical, he remained poor. + 8. Though she _was were_ an angel, I should dislike her. + 9. If he _be is_ there, ask him to pay the bill. + 10. If he _be is_ there, he makes no sign of his presence. + 11. If this _be is_ wrong, then all love of country is wrong. + 12. If it _rains rain_, I stay at school. + 13. Take care lest you _are be_ deceived by appearances. + 14. Would that I _was were_ a bird. + 15. If it _snow snows_, I can't come. + 16. If your father _comes come_, bring him to dinner. + 17. If your father _was were_ here, you would act differently. + 18. Though he _were was_ king over all the earth I should despise + him. + 19. If he _come comes_, he will find me at home. + 20. _Was were_ it necessary, I should jump. + 21. If to-morrow _be is_ pleasant, we shall go driving. + 22. If my mother _was were_ here, she would say I might go. + 23. If she _was were_ at home, I did not hear of it. + 24. If that _is be_ his motive, he is unworthy. + 25. Though this _seem seems_ improbable, it is true. + 26. If a speech _is be_ praised by none but literary men, it is bad. + 27. If the father _pays pay_ the debt, he will be released. + 28. Though Mary _be is_ young, she is a writer of note. + 29. Unless he _takes take_ better care of his health, he will die. + 30. If he _be is_ honest, he has not shown it. + 31. If he _be is_ honest, he will insist on paying me. + 32. If he ever _tell tells_ the truth, he conceals the fact. + +61. AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. THE VERB SHOULD AGREE WITH +ITS SUBJECT IN PERSON AND NUMBER. The most frequent error is the +failure of the verb to agree in number with its subject. Singular +subjects are used with plural verbs, and plural subjects with singular +verbs. These errors arise chiefly from a misapprehension of the +true number of the subject. + +The s-form of the verb is the only distinct singular form, and +occurs only in the third person, singular, present indicative; +as, _He runs, she goes, it moves_. _Is, was_, and _has_ are the +singular forms of the auxiliaries. _Am_ is used only with a subject +in the first person, and is not a source of confusion. The other +auxiliaries have no singular forms. + +Failure of the verb and its subject to agree in person seldom occurs, +and so can cause little confusion. + +Examine the following correct forms of agreement of verb and subject: + +A barrel of clothes WAS shipped (not _were shipped_). + +A man and a woman HAVE been here (not _has been here_). + +Boxes ARE scarce (not _is scarce_). + +When WERE the brothers here (not _when was_)? + +62. AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND VERB IN NUMBER. The general rule to +be borne in mind in regard to number, is that IT IS THE MEANING +AND NOT THE FORM OF THE SUBJECT THAT DETERMINES WHETHER TO USE THE +SINGULAR OR THE PLURAL FORM OF THE VERB. This rule also applies +to the use of singular or plural pronouns. + +Many nouns plural in form are singular in meaning; as, _politics, +measles, news_, etc. + +Many, also, are treated as plurals, though in meaning they are singular; +as, _forceps, tongs, trousers_. + +Some nouns, singular in form, are, according to the sense in which, +they are used, either singular or plural in meaning; as, _committee, +family, pair, jury, assembly, means_. The following sentences are +all correct: _The assembly has closed its meeting, The assembly +are all total abstainers, The whole family is a famous one, The +whole family are sick_. + +In the use of the adjective pronouns, _some, each_, etc., the noun +is often omitted. When this is done, error is often made by using +the wrong number of the verb. _Each, either, neither, this, that_, +and _one_, when used alone as subjects, require singular verbs. +_All, those, these, few, many_, always require plural verbs. _Any, +none_, and _some_ may take either singular or plural verbs. In most +of these cases, as is true throughout the subject of agreement in +number, reason will determine the form to be used. + +Some nouns in a plural form express quantity rather than number. +When quantity is plainly intended the singular verb should be used. +Examine the following sentences; each is correct: _Three drops of +medicine is a dose, Ten thousand tons of coal was purchased by +the firm, Two hundred dollars was the amount of the collection, +Two hundred silver dollars were in the collection_. + +EXERCISE 39 + +_In each of the following sentences, by giving a reason, justify +the correctness of the agreement in number of the verb and the +noun:_ + + 1. The jury have agreed. + 2. The jury has been sent out to reconsider its verdict. + 3. The committee has presented its report, but they have differed + in regard to one matter. + 4. The whole tribe was destroyed. + 5. The tribe were scattered through the different states. + 6. The regiment were almost all sick. + 7. A variety of persons was there. + 8. The society meets each month. + 9. The society is divided in its opinion. + 10. A number were unable to be present. + 11. A great number was present. + 12. The number present was great. + 13. What means were used to gain his vote? + 14. That means of gaining votes is corrupt. + 15. Seventeen pounds was the cat's weight. + 16. Twenty years of his life was spent in prison. + 17. Two hundred pounds was his weight. + 18. The family are all at home. + 19. The family is large. + 20. A pair of gloves has been lost. + 21. A pair of twins were sitting in the doorway. + 22. The army was defeated. + +EXERCISE 40 + +_Construct sentences in which each of the words named below is +used correctly as the subject of some one of the verbs, IS, WAS, +HAS, HAVE, ARE, WAS, HAVE, GO, GOES, RUN, RUNS, COME, COMES:_ + +One, none, nobody, everybody, this, that, these, those, former, +latter, few, some, many, other, any, all, such, news, pains, measles, +gallows, ashes, dregs, goods, pincers, thanks, victuals, vitals, +mumps, flock, crowd, fleet, group, choir, class, army, mob, tribe, +herd, committee, tons, dollars, bushels, carloads, gallons, days, +months. + +EXERCISE 41 + +_Go over each of the above sentences and determine whether IT or +THEY should be used in referring to the subject._ + +63. THE FOLLOWING RULES GOVERN THE AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH A +COMPOUND SUBJECT: + +1. When a singular noun is modified by two adjectives so as to +mean two distinct things, the verb should be in the plural; as, +_French and German literature ARE studied._ + +2. When the verb applies to the different parts of the compound +subject, the plural form of the verb should be used; as, _John +and Harry ARE still to come._ + +3. When the verb applies to one subject and not to the others, +it should agree with that subject to which it applies; as, _The +employee, and not the employers, WAS to blame, The employers, and +not the employee, WERE to blame, The boy, as well as his sisters, +DESERVES praise._ + +4. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, each in +the singular, the verb should be singular; as, _Each book and each +paper WAS in its place, No help and no hope IS found for him, Either +one or the other IS he, Neither one nor the other IS he._ + +5. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, some of +which are singular and some plural, it should agree with the subject +nearest to it; as, _Neither the boy, nor his sisters DESERVE praise, +Neither the sisters nor the boy DESERVES praise._ + +6. When a verb separates its subjects, it should agree with the +first; as, _The leader WAS slain and all his men, The men WERE +slain, and also the leader._ + +EXERCISE 42 + +_Choose the proper form of the verb in the following sentences:_ + + 1. Hard and soft coal _is are_ used. + 2. The boy and the girl _have has_ come. + 3. Neither James nor I _are is_ to go. + 4. Neither James nor they _are is_ to go. + 5. Henry, and not his sister, _is are_ sure to be invited. + 6. The children and their father _was were_ on the train. + 7. Each man and each woman _was were_ present. + 8. Either Tennyson or Wordsworth _was were_ the author of that poem. + 9. Either the man or his children _was were_ lost. + 10. Either the children or their father _was were_ lost. + 11. Bread and milk _are is_ frugal but wholesome fare. + 12. The teacher _was were_ cut off by the fire, and also her pupils. + 13. The pupils _was were_ cut off by the fire, and also the teacher. + 14. Dogs and cats _is are_ useless animals. + 15. Neither the daughters nor their mother _is are_ at home. + 16. Either the soldier or his officers _is are_ mistaken. + 17. The cat and all her kittens _was were_ at the door. + 18. Tennyson, not Wordsworth, _were was_ the author. + 19. Each of the trustees _has have_ a vote. + 20. Our success or our failure _is are_ due solely to ourselves. + 21. Neither sincerity nor cordiality _characterize characterizes_ him. + 22. Everyone of these chairs _is are_ mine. + 23. Each day and each hour _bring brings_ new questions. + 24. The car and all its passengers _was were_ blown up. + 25. The ambition and activity of the man _has have_ been the + _cause causes_ of his success. + 26. Old and new hay _is are_ equally good for horses. + 27. Matthew or Paul _are is_ responsible for that belief. + 28. A man, a woman, and a child _is are_ comprised in the group. + 29. The pupils and also the teacher _were was_ embarrassed. + 30. The teacher and also the pupils _were was_ embarrassed. + 31. Neither he nor I _are is am_ going. + 32. Book after book _was were_ taken from the shelves. + 33. Either Aunt Mary or her daughters _is are_ coming. + 34. Either the daughters or Aunt Mary _is are_ coming. + 35. Aunt Mary, but not her daughters, _is are_ coming. + 36. The daughters, but not Aunt Mary, _is are_ coming. + 37. Both Aunt Mary and her daughter _is are_ coming. + 38. Mary, and not her mother, _is are_ coming. + 39. No preacher and no woman _is are_ allowed to enter. + 40. Every adult man and woman _has have_ a vote. + 41. Money, if not culture, _gains gain_ a way. + 42. Brain power, as well as money, _talk talks_. + 43. Each boy and girl _bring brings_ books. + +64. SOME MISCELLANEOUS CAUTIONS IN REGARD TO AGREEMENT IN NUMBER: + +1. Do not use a plural verb after a singular subject modified by an +adjective phrase; as, _The thief, with all his booty, was captured_. + +2. Do not use a singular form of the verb after _you_ and _they_. +Say: _You were, they are, they were_, etc., not, _you was, they +was,_ etc. + +3. Do not mistake a noun modifier for the noun subject. In the +sentence, _The SALE of boxes was increased, sale_, not _boxes_, +is the subject of the verb. + +4. When the subject is a relative pronoun, the number and the person +of the antecedent determine the number and the person of the verb. +Both of the following sentences are correct: _He is the only one +of the men THAT IS to be trusted, He is one of those men THAT ARE +to be trusted._ It is to be remembered that the singulars and the +plurals of the relative pronouns are alike in form; _that, who_, +etc., may refer to one or more than one. + +5. Do not use incorrect contractions of the verb with _not_. _Don't_ +cannot be used with _he_ or _she_ or _it_, or with any other singular +subject in the third person. One should say, _He doesn't_, not _he +don't; it doesn't_, not _it don't; man doesn't_, not _man don't_. The +proper form of the verb that is being contracted in these instances +is _does_, not _do_. _Ain't_ and _hain't_ are always wrong; no +such contractions are recognized. Such colloquial contractions +as _don't, can't_, etc., should not be used at all in formal +composition. + +EXERCISE 43 + +_Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:_ + + 1. The ship, with all her crew, were lost. + 2. You was there, John, was you not? + 3. They was never known to do that before. + 4. A barrel of apples were sold. + 5. How many were there who was there? + 6. This is one of the books that is always read. + 7. He don't know his own relatives. + 8. I ain't coming to-night. + 9. The art gallery, with all its pictures, was destroyed. + 10. John, when was you in the city? + 11. The book, with all its errors, is valuable. + 12. Who they was, I couldn't tell. + 13. This is one of the mountains which are called "The Triplets." + 14. This is one of the eleven pictures that has gained prizes. + 15. The hands of the clock is wrong. + 16. The gallery of pictures are splendid. + 17. This is one of those four metals that is valuable. + 18. This is the one of those four metals that are valuable. + 19. That answer, as you will see, hain't right. + 20. The whole box of books were shipped. + +EXERCISE 44 + +_In the following sentences correct such as are wrong:_ + + 1. "Cows" are a common noun. + 2. Such crises seldom occurs. + 3. Fifty dollars were given him as a present. + 4. There were four men, each of which were sent by a different bank. + 5. At that time the morals of men were very low. + 6. Mathematics are my most interesting study. + 7. There was once two boys who was imprisoned in the Tower. + 8. The jury is delivering its verdict. + 9. The "Virginians" is a famous book. + 10. Ten minutes were given him in which to answer. + 11. Everyone of these farms are mine. + 12. Lee, with his whole army, surrender. + 13. Farm after farm were passed by the train. + 14. He is one of the greatest men that has ever been president. + 15. Three hundred miles of wires were cut down. + 16. Three fourths of his time are wasted. + 17. Three quarts of oats is all that is needed. + 18. A variety of sounds charms the ear. + 19. A variety of recitations were given. + 20. The committee have adjourned. + 21. Washington was one of the greatest generals that has ever lived. + 22. Take one of the books that is lying on the table. + 23. The house is one of those that overlooks the bay. + 24. Question after question were propounded to him. + 25. He was one of the best orators that has been produced by the + school. + 26. He is one of those persons who are quick to learn. + 27. A black and white horse were in the ring. + 28. A black and a white horse was in the ring. + 29. The committee disagree on some points. + 30. Mary, where was you yesterday? + 31. The end and aim of his life are to get money. + 32. All the crop were lost. + 33. One of them are gone. + 34. There comes the children. + 35. Were either of these men elected? + 36. The alumni of this school is not very loyal. + 37. There seem to be few here. + 38. There seems to be a few here. + 39. Neither of the letters were received. + 40. In all those songs there are a sprightliness and charm. + 41. The Association of Engineers are still flourishing. + 42. Neither John nor Henry have come. + 43. Either this book or that are wrong. + 44. This book and that is wrong. + 45. This book, not that, is wrong. + 46. Either this book or those students is wrong. + 47. Either those students, or this book is wrong. + 48. This chemical with its compounds were the agents used in tanning. + +65. USE OF SHALL AND WILL. The use of the auxiliaries, _shall_ and +_will_, with their past tenses, is a source of very many errors. +The following outline will show the correct use of _shall_ and +_will_, except in dependent clauses and questions: + +To indicate simple futurity or probability: + + Use _shall_ with _I_ and _we_; use _will_ with + all other subjects. + +To indicate promise, determination, threat, or command on the part +of the speaker; i. e., action which the speaker means to control; + + Use _will_ with _I_ and _we_; use _shall_ with + all other subjects. + +Examine the following examples of the correct use of _shall_ and +_will_: + +Statements as to probable future events: + + _We shall_ probably be there. + I think _you will_ want to be there. + _It will_ rain before night. + +Statements of determination on the part of the speaker: + + _I will_ come in spite of his command. + _You shall_ go home. + _It shall_ not happen again, I promise you. + +66. SHALL AND WILL IN QUESTIONS. In interrogative sentences _shall_ +should always be used with the first person. In the second and third +persons that auxiliary should be used which is logically expected +in the answer. + +Examine the agreement in the use of _shall_ and _will_ in the following +questions and answers: + + QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. +_Shall_ I miss the car? You _will_ miss it. +_Shall_ you be there? I think I _shall_ (probability). +_Will_ he do it? I think he _will_ (assertion). +_Shall_ your son obey the teacher? He _shall_ (determination). +_Will_ you promise to come? We _will_ come (promise). + +67. SHALL AND WILL IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. In dependent clauses which +are introduced by _that_, expressed or understood, the auxiliary +should be used which would be proper if the dependent clause were +a principal clause. The sentence, _They assure us that they SHALL +come_, is wrong. The direct assurance would be, _We WILL come_. +The auxiliary, then, in a principal clause would be _will_. _Will_ +should, therefore, be the auxiliary in the dependent construction, +and the sentence should read, _They assure us that they WILL come_. +Further examples: + + I suppose _we shall_ have to pay. + He thinks that _you will_ be able to do it. + He has decided that _John shall_ replace the book. + +In all dependent clauses expressing a condition or contingency use +_shall_ with all subjects. Examples; + + _If he shall_ go to Europe, it will be his tenth trip abroad. + _If you shall_ go away, who will run the farm? + _If I shall_ die, I shall die as an honest man. + +EXERCISE 45 + +_Justify the correct use of SHALL and WILL in the following sentences:_ + + 1. I will go if you wish. + 2. I shall probably go if you wish. + 3. I will have it in spite of all you can do. + 4. We shall return by way of Dover. + 5. We will fight it out on this line if it takes all summer. + 6. I feel that I shall not live long. + 7. We think we shall come to-morrow. + 8. I promise you, the money shall be raised. + 9. You will then go to Philadelphia. + 10. You shall never hear from me again. + 11. He will surely come to-morrow. + 12. How shall you answer him? + 13. I think I shall ride. + 14. He is sure they will come. + 15. He is sure that I will come. + 16. Shall you be there? + 17. Will he who fails be allowed to have a reexamination? + 18. Will you be there? + 19. Will all be there? + 20. He says he shall be there. + 21. He has promised that he will be there. + 22. I fear that he will fail to pass. + 23. We think she will soon be well. + 24. We are determined that they shall pay. + 25. We expect that they will bring their books. + 26. I doubt that he will pay. + 27. We have promised that we will do it. + 28. If he shall ask, shall I refer him to you? + +EXERCISE 46 + +_Fill the blanks in the following sentences with SHALL or WILL:_ + + 1. I think I ---- find the work easy. + 2. I ---- probably be refused, but I ---- go anyway. + 3. ---- you be busy to-night? Yes, I ---- be in class until ten. + 4. I ---- probably fail to pass the examination. + 5. If no one assists me, I ---- drown. + 6. No. I ---- never sell my library. + 7. If I fail I ---- be obliged to take an examination. + 8. ---- my men begin work to-day? + 9. ---- you stop at Chicago on your way West? No, I don't, think + I ----. + 10. ---- you promise me to sing at the concert to-night? Yes, I + ---- sing to-night. + 11. ---- I put more wood on the fire? + 12. I ---- be lost; no one ---- help me. + 13. It ---- be there when you need it. + 14. It is demanded that the pupils ---- be orderly and attentive. + 15. I think it ---- rain soon. + 16. We ---- be disappointed. + 17. ---- we be permitted to go? + 18. We ---- do it for you. + 19. ---- I go or remain at home? + 20. I ---- be very grateful to you if you ---- do this. + 21. If you ---- ask her, she ---- go with you. + 22. If you ---- stop, I ---- go with you. + 23. Where ---- we join you? + 24. I think we ---- be there in time. + 25. I ---- go to the river for a boat ride. + 26. When ---- you be twenty years of age? + 27. ---- we ever see you again? + 28. Perhaps we ---- return next year. + 29. We promise, we ---- return. + 30. You ---- probably suffer for it. + 31. I ---- not impose on you in that way. + 32. ---- I ask for your mail? + 33. I hope that we ---- be there before the curtain rises. + 34. ---- they probably be there? + 35. ---- you please fetch me a paper? + 36. ---- we stop for you on our way downtown? + 37. When ---- I find you in your office? + 38. They ---- never do it if I can help. + 39. You ---- do as I say. + 40. I ---- never, never, go there again. + 41. We ---- decide what to do about that at our next meeting which + ---- be in October. + 42. ---- it make any difference to you? + 43. ---- I go with you? + 44. No, you ---- please stay here. + 45. He ---- never enter this house again. + 46. It is believed that they ---- probably be present. + 47. He fears that he ---- die. + 48. He requests that you ---- come to-day at seven o'clock. + 49. She asks that it ---- be sent at once. + 50. It is thought that his death ---- not seriously change things. + 51. It is believed that the emperor ---- have to retract. + 52. A story is told that ---- gain little credence. + 53. I fear that I ---- take cold. + 54. She says that I ---- take cold. + 55. They say that they ---- do it in spite of anything done to prevent. + 56. He is determined that he ---- go away. + 57. She is determined that he ---- go to school. + 58. They say they ---- probably not go. + 59. John thinks he ---- probably live to be past sixty. + 60. He tells me that he thinks that he ---- be elected. + 61. They say that they ---- meet you. + 62. They assure us that we ---- find good stores in Berlin. + 63. He says he fears he ---- miss his train. + 64. Wright says his father ---- become famous. + 65. He writes that he ---- be here to-day. + 66. Do you say that you ---- be present? + 67. The book says that ---- be wrong. + 68. Does she say that she ---- come? + 69. I told you that I ---- not come. + 70. I tell you that she ---- not come. + 71. He says that he ---- go as a matter of duty. + 72. John says that ---- not happen anyway. + 73. Does he say that he ---- surely come? + 74. Does John write what he ---- promise to do in the matter? + 75. ---- you be sure to be there? + +EXERCISE 47 + +_Write five sentences in which SHALL is used in an independent +clause, and five in which SHALL is used in a dependent clause._ + +_Write five sentences in which WILL is used in an independent clause, +and five in which WILL is used in a dependent clause._ + +_Write five interrogative sentences in which SHALL is used and five +in which WILL is used._ + +68. SHOULD AND WOULD. _Should_ and _would_ are the past tenses +of _shall_ and _will_, and have corresponding uses. _Should_ is +used with _I_ and _we_, and _would_ with other subjects, to express +mere futurity or probability. _Would_ is used with _I_ and _we_, +and _should_ with other subjects, to express conditional promise +or determination on the part of the speaker. Examples: + +Futurity: + + I _should_ be sorry to lose this book. + If we _should_ be afraid of the storm, we _should_ be foolish. + It was expected that they _would_ be here. + +Volition or determination: + + If it _should_ occur, we _would_ not come. + It was promised that it _should_ not occur again. + He decided that it _should_ be done. + +_Should_ is sometimes used in the sense of _ought_, to imply duty; +as, _He should have gone to her aid_. + +_Would_ is often used to indicate habitual action; as, _This would +often occur when he was preaching_. + +EXERCISE 48 + +_Justify the correct use of SHOULD and WOULD in the following +sentences:_ + + 1. I feared that they would not come. + 2. He should know his duty better than that. + 3. I should be displeased if he would act that way. + 4. We should be ruined if we did that. + 5. You should have seen his face. + 6. We would often take that road. + 7. He said that he would come at once. + 8. If that should happen, we should not come. + 9. If you were I, what should you do? + 10. I should see the president of the class. + 11. We should have been at the meeting. + 12. He said that we should have been at the meeting. + 13. He promised that he would be at the meeting. + 14. If I should say so, he would dislike me. + 15. Should he come, I would go with him. + 16. They would usually stop at the new hotel. + 17. What would they do in the city? + 18. She asked if she should write the letter. + 19. She said they would write the letter. + 20. She agreed that it would be right. + 21. She assured us that she would attend to it. + +EXERCISE 49 + +_Fill in the blanks with SHOULD or WOULD in the following sentences:_ + + 1. I fear I ---- be drowned if I ---- go swimming. + 2. I ---- be much pleased to meet him. + 3. It was feared that they ---- not accept. + 4. If it ---- storm, we ---- not start. + 5. She ---- often come to class with no books. + 6. I believed that he ---- come late. + 7. He ---- never have been invited. + 8. If that had become known, we ---- surely have been ruined. + 9. To think that he ---- do such a thing! + 10. I ---- like to see the game. + 11. You ---- not enjoy it. + 12. ---- you like to see the game? + 13. ---- I bring my opera glasses? + 14. Mary ---- never have known it. + 15. He ---- have easily deceived her. + 16. They were anxious that we ---- not miss the train. + 17. If we ---- come late, ---- it make any difference? + 18. If they had proposed it, we ---- have voted it down. + 19. On what date ---- that come? + 20. I suppose I ---- have done it; but, it ---- have inconvenienced me. + 21. Had Lee known that, he ---- never have surrendered. + 22. I ---- never have believed she ---- do such a thing. + 23. We ---- never have come. + 24. ---- you think him capable of such a trick? + 25. I knew I ---- not be here on time. + 26. ---- they dare to attempt opposition? + 27. How ---- you go about it? + 28. Lincoln, under those circumstances, ---- probable not have been + elected. + 29. It ---- have changed our whole history. + 30. He said that it ---- have changed our whole history. + 31. He said he ---- come. + 32. She thinks they ---- not do it. + 33. We believe that we ---- like to go at once. + 34. They say it ---- be done now. + 35. I think I ---- like to go. + +EXERCISE 50 + +_Write five sentences in which SHOULD is used independently, and +five in which SHOULD is used dependently._ + +_Write five sentences in which WOULD is used independently, and +five in which WOULD is used dependently._ + +_Write five sentences in which SHOULD is used in questions, and +five in which WOULD is used in questions._ + +69. USE OF MAY AND MIGHT, CAN AND COULD. _May_, with its past tense, +_might_, is properly used to denote permission. _Can_, with its +past tense, _could_, refers to the ability or possibility to do +a thing. These two words are often confused. + +EXERCISE 51 + +_Fill the blanks in the following sentences:_ + + 1. ---- I go home? + 2. ---- we get tickets at that store? + 3. ---- the mountain be climbed? + 4. ---- we come into your office? + 5. You ---- stay as long as you wish. + 6. ---- you finish the work in an hour? + 7. How ---- you say such a thing? + 8. Several people ---- use the same book. + 9. We ---- afford to delay a while. + 10. ---- John go with me? + 11. You ---- often hear the noise. + 12. What ---- not be done in a week? + 13. That ---- be true, but it ---- not be relied on. + 14. What ---- he do to prevent it? + 15. When ---- we hand in the work? + +70. PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS. The past participle has already been +mentioned as one of the principal parts of the verb. Generally, the +PARTICIPLES are those forms of the verb that ARE USED ADJECTIVELY; +as, _seeing, having seen, being seen, having been seen, seen, playing, +having played_, etc. In the following sentences note that the verb +form in each case modifies a substantive: _He, HAVING BEEN INVITED +TO DINE, came early, John, BEING SICK, could not come_. The verb +form in all these cases is called a participle, and must be used +in connection with either a nominative or objective case of a noun +or pronoun. + +The GERUND is the same as the participle in its forms, but differs +in that, while the participle is always used adjectively, the GERUND +IS ALWAYS USED SUBSTANTIVELY; as, _I told OF HIS WINNING the race, +AFTER HIS ASSERTING it, I believe the statement_. + +71. MISUSES OF PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS. + +1. A participle should not be used unless it stands in a grammatical +and logical relation to some substantive that is present in the +sentence. Failure to follow this rule leads to the error known +as the "dangling participle." It is wrong to say, _The dish was +broken, RESULTING from its fall_, because _resulting_ does not +stand in grammatical relation to any word in the sentence. But +it would be right to say, _The dish was broken as a result of its +fall_. Examine, also, the following examples: + +Wrong: I spent a week in Virginia, _followed_ by a week at Atlantic +City. + +Right: I spent a week in Virginia, _following_ it by a week at Atlantic +City. + +Right: I spent a week in Virginia, _and then_ a week at Atlantic +City. + +2. A participle should not stand at the beginning of a sentence or +principal clause unless it belongs to the subject of that sentence +or clause. Compare the following: + +Wrong: Having been sick, it was decided to remain at home. + +Right: Having been sick, I decided to remain at home. + +3. A participle preceded by _thus_ should not be used unless it +modifies the subject of the preceding verb. Compare the following: + +Wrong: He had to rewrite several pages, _thus causing_ him a great +deal of trouble. + +Right: He had to rewrite several pages, _and was thus caused_ a +great deal of trouble. + +Right: He had to rewrite several pages, _thus experiencing_ a great +deal of trouble. + +4. The gerund is often used as the object of a preposition, and +frequently has a noun or pronoun modifier. Owing to confusion between +the gerund and the participle, and to the failure to realize that +the gerund can only be used substantively, the objective case of a +modifying noun or pronoun is often wrongly used before the gerund. +A substantive used with the gerund should always be in the possessive +case. Say, _I heard OF JOHN'S COMING_, not, _I heard OF JOHN COMING_. + +5. When a gerund and a preposition are used, the phrase should +be in logical and immediate connection with the substantive it +modifies, and the phrase should never introduce a sentence unless +it logically belongs to the subject of that sentence. Exception: +When the gerund phrase denotes a general action, it may be used +without grammatical connection to the sentence; as, _In traveling, +good drinking water is essential_. Compare the following wrong +and right forms: + +Wrong: _After seeing his mistake_, a new start was made. + +Right: _After seeing his mistake_, he made a new start. + +Wrong: _By writing rapidly, the work_ can be finished. + +Right: _By writing rapidly, you_ can finish the work. + +Wrong: _In copying the exercise_, a mistake was made. + +Right: _In copying the exercise, I_ made a mistake. + +EXERCISE 52 + +_In the following sentences, choose the proper form of the substantive +from those italicized:_ + + 1. He spoke of _John John's_ coming down. + 2. The idea of _his him_ singing is absurd. + 3. Do you remember _me my_ speaking about it? + 4. What is the use of _you your_ reading that? + 5. _He his him_ being arrested was a sufficient disgrace. + 6. _He him his_ being now of age, sold the farm. + 7. _He him his_ selling it was very unexpected. + 8. You should have heard _him his_ telling the story. + 9. You should have heard _his him_ telling of the story. + 10. To think of _them they their_ having been seen there! + 11. What is the object of _Mary Mary's_ studying French? + 12. _It its_ being John was a great surprise. + 13. What is the use of _them they their_ talking so much? + 14. _John John's_ going to school takes all his evenings. + 15. The beauty of _James James's_ writing got him the position. + 16. He had heard about _me my_ coming to-day. + 17. _John John's_ coming was a surprise. + +EXERCISE 53 + +_Wherever participles or gerunds are improperly used in the following +sentences, correct the sentences so as to avoid such impropriety. +See §107 for rule as to punctuation:_ + + 1. Having assented to your plan, you try to hold me responsible. + 2. He asked him to make the plans, owing to the need of an experienced + architect. + 3. It was decided to send his son abroad being anxious for his health. + 4. On hearing that, a new plan was made. + 5. Moving slowly past our window, we saw a great load of lumber. + 6. Intending to go to the theater, the whole afternoon was spent in + town. + 7. He was taken into the firm, thus gaining an increased income. + 8. Not having the lesson prepared, he told John to stay after class. + 9. No letter was written for more than a week, causing considerable + anxiety. + 10. Expecting us to come, we disappointed him. + 11. After telling me the story, I left him. + 12. By reading aloud to the class, they do not gain much. + 13. He had to wait several hours for the train, thus causing him to + lose a great deal of valuable time. + 14. After listening to his lecture for an hour he became tiresome. + 15. We listened attentively to his lecture, thus showing our interest. + +72. INFINITIVES. The Infinitives are formed by the word _to_ and +some part of the verb or of the verb and auxiliary. For _see_ and +_play_ as model verbs, the infinitives are as follows: + +PRESENT ACTIVE PRESENT PASSIVE + to see to be seen + to play to be played + +PRESENT PERFECT ACTIVE PRESENT PERFECT PASSIVE + to have seen to have been seen + to have played to have been played + +The word _to_ is frequently omitted. In general, other verbs follow +the same endings and forms as do the infinitives above. + +It is necessary to know the difference between the two tenses, since +the misuse of tenses leads to a certain class of errors. + +73. SEQUENCE OF INFINITIVE TENSES. The wrong tense of the infinitive +is frequently used. The following rules should be observed: + +1. If the action referred to by the infinitive is of the same time +or of later time than that indicated by the predicate verb, the +PRESENT INFINITIVE should be used. + +2. When the action referred to by the infinitive is regarded as +completed at the time indicated by the predicate verb, the PERFECT +INFINITIVE should be used. + +Examine the following examples: + +Wrong: _I should have liked to have gone._ + +Right: _I should have liked to go_ (same or later time). + +Right: _I should like to have gone_ (earlier time). + +Wrong: _It was bad to have been discovered._ + +Right: _It is bad to have been discovered_ (earlier time). + +Right: _It was bad to be discovered_ (same or later time). + +Right: _She did not believe her son to have committed the crime_ +(earlier time). + +Right: _When he died, he believed himself to have been defeated +for the office_ (earlier time.) + +EXERCISE 54 + +_In the following sentences choose the proper form from those +italicized:_ + + 1. I was sorry _to have heard to hear_ of John's death. + 2. Should you have been willing _to go to have gone_ with us? + 3. The game was intended _to be played to have been played_ + yesterday. + 4. I intended _to write to have written_ long ago. + 5. He wished _to have met to meet_ you. + 6. I should have liked _to meet to have met_ you. + 7. Mary was eager _to have gone to go_. + 8. Nero was seen _to have fiddled to fiddle_ while Rome burned. + 9. Nero is said _to have fiddled to fiddle_ while Rome burned. + 10. This was _to be done to have been done_ yesterday. + 11. They agreed _to finish to have finished_ it yesterday. + 12. He was willing _to sing to have sung_ alone. + 13. He expected _to have spoken to speak_ here to-morrow. + 14. The Civil War is said _to cause to have caused_ more loss of life + than any other war. + 15. Blackstone is said _to have failed to fail_ at the practice of law. + 16. It would have been hard _to accomplish to have accomplished_ + that result. + 17. He was foolish enough _to have spoiled to spoil_ six negatives. + 18. I wanted _to have attended to attend_ the convention. + 19. It would be terrible _to be lost to have been lost_ in the forest. + 20. We were asked _to have waited to wait_. + 21. I am eager _to have seen to see it_. + 22. I am pleased _to meet to have met_ you. + +74. SPLIT INFINITIVES. In the sentence, care should be taken to +avoid as much as possible the inserting of an adverb or an adverbial +modifier between the parts of the infinitive. This error is called +the "split infinitive." Compare the following: + +Bad: He seemed _to easily learn_. +Good: He seemed _to learn easily_. + +Bad: He is said _to have rapidly run_ along the street. +Good: He is said _to have run rapidly_ along the street. + +EXERCISE 55 + +_Correct the following split infinitives:_ + + 1. She is known to have hurriedly read the note. + 2. Mary tried to quickly call help. + 3. He was asked to slowly read the next paragraph. + 4. John attempted to rudely break into the conversation. + 5. The plan was to secretly destroy the documents. + 6. His policy was to never offend. + 7. He wished to in this way gain friends. + 8. He proposed to greatly decrease his son's allowance. + +75. AGREEMENT OF VERB IN CLAUSES. In a compound predicate, the +parts of the predicate should agree in tense; PAST TENSE SHOULD +FOLLOW PAST TENSE, AND PERFECT TENSE FOLLOW PERFECT TENSE. Examine +the following: + +Wrong: He _has tried_ to do, and really _did_ everything possible +to stop his son. + +Right: He _has tried_ to do, and really _has done_ everything possible +to stop his son. + +Right: He _tried_ to do, and really _did_ everything possible to +stop his son. + +Wrong: I _hoped_ and _have worked_ to gain this recognition. + +Right: I _hoped_ and _worked_ to gain this recognition. + +Right: I _have hoped_ and _have worked_ to gain this recognition. + +EXERCISE 56 + +_Correct the following sentences:_ + + 1. I went last week and have gone again this week. + 2. I have heard of his being here, but not saw him. + 3. I saw John, but I have not seen Henry. + 4. He desired to see John, but has not wished to see Henry. + 5. John was sent for, but has not yet arrived. + 6. I endeavored to find a way of avoiding that, but have not succeeded. + 7. I have never seen its superior, and, in fact, never saw its equal. + 8. She has succeeded in getting his promise, but did not succeed + in getting his money. + 9. I hoped and have prayed for your coming. + 10. I have believed and usually taught that theory. + 11. I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work. + 12. No one has wished to see so much and saw so little of the world + as I. + 13. He has gained the favor of the king and was sent to Italy. + 14. We have needed you and did our best to find you. + +76. OMISSION OF THE VERB OR PARTS OF THE VERB. The verb or some +of its parts are often omitted. This omission sometimes makes the +sentence ungrammatical or doubtful in its meaning. + +_I like him better than John_. This sentence may have the meaning +shown in either of its following corrected forms: _I like him better +than John DOES_, or _I like him better than I LIKE John_. + +As a matter of good usage, the verb or any other part of speech +should be repeated wherever its omission either makes the sentence +ambiguous or gives it an incomplete sound. + +Bad: _He was told to go where he ought not_. +Good: _He was told to go where he ought not to go_. +Good: _He was told to go where he should not go_. + +EXERCISE 57 + +_Correct the following sentences:_ + + 1. I admire Mary more than John. + 2. I think she is older than John. + 3. He should have succeeded in gaining the end he tried. + 4. I asked him to do what I should not have. + 5. I did what I ought not. + 6. We wish him better luck than Mary. + 7. We want to see him more than Henry. + 8. I should hate him worse than you. + 9. He wanted me to do what I didn't care to. + 10. You may, as you please, do it or not. + 11. She may go if she wishes or not. + 12. We think of you oftener than mother. + +77. MODEL CONJUGATIONS OF THE VERBS TO BE AND TO SEE. + +CONJUGATION OF TO BE + +PRINCIPAL PARTS: AM, WAS, BEEN + +INDICATIVE MODE + +PRESENT TENSE + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. I _am_ We _are_ +2. [*]Thou _art_ (you _are_) You _are_ +3. He _is_ They _are_ + +[Footnote *: The forms, _thou art, thou wast, thou hast_, etc., +are the proper forms in the second person singular, but customarily +the forms of the second person plural, _you are, you were, you +have_, etc., are used also in the second person singular. These +distinct second person singular forms will be used throughout the +model conjugations.] + +PAST TENSE + +1. I _was_ We _were_ +2. Thou _wast_ or _wert_ You _were_ +3. He _was_ They _were_ + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE + +(_Have_ with the past participle, _been_.) + +1. I _have been_ We _have been_ +2. Thou _hast been_ You _have been_ +3. He _has been_ They _have been_ + +PAST PERFECT TENSE + +(_Had_ with the past participle, _been_.) + +1. I _had been_ We _had been_ +2. Thou _hadst been_ You _had been_ +3. He _had been_ They _had been_ + +FUTURE TENSE + +(_Shall_ or _will_ with the present infinitive, _be_.[*]) + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. I _shall be_ We _shall be_ +2. Thou _shalt be_ You _shall be_ +3. He _shall be_ They _shall be_ + +[Footnote *: To determine when to use _shall_ and when to use _will_ +in the future and future perfect tenses, see §§ 65, 66, and 67. +In these model conjugations the forms of _shall_ are given with +the future and the forms of _will_ with the future perfect.] + +FUTURE PERFECT TENSE + +(_Shall_ or _will_ with the perfect infinitive, _have been_.[*]) + +1. I _will have been_ We _will have been_ +2. Thou _wilt have been_ You _will have been_ +3. He _will have been_ They _will have been_ + +[Footnote *: See Note under Future Tense.] + +SUBJUNCTIVE MODE + +(Generally follows _if, though, lest, although_, etc. See §59.) + +PRESENT TENSE + +1. (If) I _be_ (If) we _be_ +2. (If) thou _be_ (If) you _be_ +3. (If) he _be_ (If) they _be_ + +PAST TENSE + +1. (If) I _were_ (If) we _were_ +2. (If) thou _were_ (If) you _were_ +3. (If) he _were_ (If) they _were_ + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE + +(_Have_, unchanged, with the past participle, _been_.) + +1. (If) I _have been_ (If) we _have been_ +2. (If) thou _have been_ (If) you _have been_ +3. (If) he _have been_ (If) they _have been_ + +PAST PERFECT TENSE + +(_Had_, unchanged, with the past participle, _been_.) + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. (If) I _had been_ (If) we _had been_ +2. (If) thou _had been_ (If) you _had been_ +3. (If) he _had been_ (If) they _had been_ + +FUTURE TENSE + +(_Shall_ or _will_, unchanged, with present infinitive _be_.[*]) + +[Footnote *: See Note to Future Indicative.] + +1. (If) I _shall be_ (If) we _shall be_ +2. (If) thou _shall be_ (If) you _shall be_ +3. (If) he _shall be_ (If) they _shall be_ + +FUTURE PERFECT TENSE + +(_Shall_ or _will_, unchanged, with the perfect infinitive, _have +been_.*) + +1. (If) I _shall have been_ (If) we _shall have been_ +2. (If) thou _shall have been_ (If) you _shall have been_ +3. (If) he _shall have been_ (If) they _shall have been_ + +POTENTIAL MODE[*] + +[Footnote *: The distinct potential mode is no longer used by many +authorities on grammar, and the potential forms are regarded as +of the indicative mode. It has, however, been thought best to use +it in these model conjugations. + +As to when to use the different auxiliaries of the potential mode +see §§ 68 and 69. The conjugation with _must_ (or _ought to_) is +sometimes called the OBLIGATIVE MODE. The conjugation with _should_ +or _would_ is sometimes called the CONDITIONAL MODE.] + +PRESENT TENSE + +(_May, can_, or _must_, with the present infinitive, _be_.) + +1. I _may, can_, or _must be_ We _may, can_, or _must be_ +2. Thou _mayst, canst_, or _must be_ You _may, can_, or _must be_ +3. He _may, can_, or _must be_ They _may, can_, or _must be_ + +PAST TENSE + +(_Might, could, would_, or _should_, with the present infinitive, +_be_.) + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. I _might, could, would_, or We _might, could, would_, or + _should be_ _should be_ +2. Thou _mightst, couldst,_ You _might, could, would,_ or + _wouldst,_ or _shouldst be_ _should be_ +3. He _might, could, would,_ They _might, could, would,_ or + or _should be_ _should be_ + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE + +(_May, can_, or _must_, with the perfect infinitive, _have been_. +For forms substitute _have been_ for _be_ in the present potential.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE + +(_Might, could, would_, or _should_, with the perfect infinitive +_have been_. For forms substitute _have been_ for _be_ in the past +potential.) + +IMPERATIVE MODE[*] + +[Footnote *: The imperative is the same in both singular and plural.] + +_Be_ + +INFINITIVE MODE + +PRESENT TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE +_To be To have been_ + +PARTICIPLES + +PRESENT TENSE PERFECT TENSE +_Being Having been_ + +GERUNDS + +(Same as participles) + +CONJUGATION OF TO SEE + +PRINCIPAL PARTS: SEE, SAW, SEEN + +INDICATIVE MODE + +PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. I _see_ We _see_ +2. Thou _seest_ You _see_ +3. He _sees_ They _see_ + +_Emphatic_ + +1. I _do see_ We _do see_ +2. Thou _dost see_ You _do see_ +3. He _does see_ They _do see_ + +_Progressive_ + +1. I _am seeing_ We _are seeing_ +2. Thou _art seeing_ You _are seeing_ +3. He _is seeing_ They _are seeing_ + +PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +1. I _am seen_ We _are seen_ +2. Thou _art seen_ You _are seen_ +3. He _is seen_ They _are seen_ + +_Progressive_ + +1. I _am being seen_ We _are being seen_ +2. Thou _art being seen_ You _are being seen_ +3. He _is being seen_ They _are being seen_ + +PAST TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +1. I _saw_ We _saw_ +2. Thou _sawest_ You _saw_ +3. He _saw_ They _saw_ + +_Emphatic_ + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. I _did see_ We _did see_ +2. Thou _didst see_ You _did see_ +3. He _did see_ They _did see_ + +_Progressive_ + +1. I _was seeing_ We _were seeing_ +2. Thou _wast_ or _wert seeing_ You _were seeing_ +3. He _was seeing_ They _were seeing_ + +PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +1. I _was seen_ We _were seen_ +2. Thou _wast_ or _wert seen_ You _were seen_ +3. He _was seen_ They _were seen_ + +_Progressive_ + +1. I _was being seen_ We _were being seen_ +2. Thou _wert_ or _wast being seen_ You _were being seen_ +3. He _was being seen_ They _were being seen_ + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect indicative +of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the present perfect indicative +of _to be_.) + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect indicative +of _to be_.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect indicative of +_to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the past perfect indicative +of _to be_.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect indicative +of _to be_.) + +FUTURE TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the future indicative of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the future indicative of _to +be_.) + +FUTURE TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the future indicative of _to be_.) + +FUTURE PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _have seen_ for _have been_ in the future perfect indicative +of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _have been seeing_ for _have been_ in the future perfect +indicative of _to be_.) + +FUTURE PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _have been seen_ for _have been_ in the future perfect +indicative of _to be_.) + +SUBJUNCTIVE MODE + +PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. (If) I _see_ (If) we _see_ +2. (If) thou _see_ (If) you _see_ +3. (If) he _see_ (If) they _see_ + +_Emphatic_ + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. (If) I _do see_ (If) we _do see_ +2. (If) thou _do see_ (If) you _do see_ +3. (If) he _do see_ (If) they _do see_ + +_Progressive_ + +1. (If) I _be seeing_ (If) we _be seeing_ +2. (If) thou _be seeing_ (If) you _be seeing_ +3. (If) he _be seeing_ (If) they _be seeing_ + +PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +1. (If) I _be seen_ (If) we _be seen_ +2. (If) thou _be seen_ (If) you _be seen_ +3. (If) he _be seen_ (If) they _be seen_ + +PAST TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +1. (If) I _saw_ (If) we _saw_ +2. (If) thou _saw_ (If) you _saw_ +3. (If) he _saw_ (If) they _saw_ + +_Emphatic_ + +1. (If) I _did see_ (If) we _did see_ +2. (If) thou _did see_ (If) you _did see_ +3. (If) he _did see_ (If) they _did see_ + +_Progressive_ + +1. (If) I _were seeing_ (If) we _were seeing_ +2. (If) thou _were seeing_ (If) you _were seeing_ +3. (If) he _were seeing_ (If) they _were seeing_ + +PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +1. (If) I _were seen_ (If) we _were seen_ +2. (If) thou _were seen_ (If) you _were seen_ +3. (If) he _were seen_ (If) they _were seen_ + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the present perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect subjunctive of +_to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the past perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +FUTURE TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the future subjunctive of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the future subjunctive of _to +be_.) + +FUTURE TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the future subjunctive of _to +be_.) + +FUTURE PERFECT--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the future perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the future perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +FUTURE PERFECT--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _been seen_ for the future perfect subjunctive of _to +be_.) + +POTENTIAL MODE + +PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to +be_.) + +PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to be_.) + +PAST TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.) + +PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.) + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _have seen_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to +be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _have been seeing_ for _be_ in the present potential +of _to be_.) + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _have been seen_ for _be_ in the present potential of +_to be_.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _have seen_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _have been seeing_ for _be_ in the past potential of +_to be_.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _have been seen_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to +be_.) + +IMPERATIVE MODE + +ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_see_. + +_Emphatic_ + +_do see_. + +_Progressive_ + +_be seeing_. + +PASSIVE VOICE + +_be seen_ + +INFINITIVE MODE + +PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_to see._ + +_Progressive_ + +_to be seeing._ + +PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_to be seen_ + +PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_to have seen._ + +_Progressive_ + +_to have been seeing._ + +PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_to have been seen._ + +PARTICIPLES + +PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_seeing_ + +PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_being seen_ + +PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE[*] + +_seen_ + +[Footnote *: There is no past participle in the active voice.] + +PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_having seen_ + +_Progressive_ + +_having been seeing_ + +PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_having been seen_ + +GERUNDS + +PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_seeing_ + +PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_being seen_ + +PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_having seen_ + +PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_having been seen_ + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATIVE ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, +AND PREPOSITIONS + +78. INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES. A sentence may consist of +two or more independent clauses, or it may consist of one principal +clause and one or more dependent clauses. + +INDEPENDENT CLAUSES are joined by conjunctions; such as, _hence, +but, and, although_, etc. + +DEPENDENT CLAUSES are joined to the sentence by relative adverbs; +such as, _where, when_, etc., or by relative pronouns; as, _who, +what_, etc. These dependent clauses may have the same office in +the sentence as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or adverbs. (See §7.) + +79. CASE AND NUMBER OF RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. Failure +to use the proper case and number of the relative pronouns has +already been touched upon (see §29), but a further mention of this +fault may well be made here. + +The relative pronoun has other offices in the sentence than that +of connecting the dependent and principal clauses. It may serve +as a subject or an object in the clause. The sentence, _I wonder +WHOM will be chosen_, is wrong, because the relative here is the +subject of _will be chosen_, not the object of _wonder_, and should +have the nominative form _who_. Corrected, it reads, _I wonder +WHO will be chosen_. Examine the following sentences: + +Wrong: We know _who_ we mean. + +Right: We know _whom_ we mean. + +Wrong: You may give it to _whoever_ you wish. + +Right: You may give it to _whomever_ you wish. + +Wrong: Do you know _whom_ it is? + +Right: Do you know _who_ it is? (Attribute complement.) + +Wrong: Everybody _who were_ there were disappointed. (Disagreement +in number.) + +Right: Everybody _who was_ there was disappointed. + +The relative pronoun takes the case required by the clause it +introduces, not the case required by any word preceding it. Thus, +the sentence, _He gave it to WHO had the clearest right_, is correct, +because _who_ is the subject of the verb _had_, and therefore in +the nominative case. _Give it to WHOMEVER they name_, is right, +because _whomever_ is the object of _they name_. + +Errors in the use of interrogative pronouns are made in the same +way as in the use of the relatives. The interrogative pronoun has +other functions besides making an interrogation. It serves also as +the subject or object in the sentence. Care must be taken, then, +to use the proper case. Say, _Whom are you looking for?_ not, _Who +are you looking for?_ + +NOTE. Some writers justify the use of _who_ in sentences like the +last one on the ground that it is an idiom. When, as in this book, +the object is training in grammar, it is deemed better to adhere +to the strictly grammatical form. + +EXERCISE 58 + +_In the following sentences, choose the proper forms from those +italicized:_ + + 1. _Who whom_ do you wish to see? + 2. You will please write out the name of _whoever whomever_ you want. + 3. I saw _who whom_ was there. + 4. _Who whom_ was it you saw? + 5. _Who whom_ did you see? + 6. John did not know _whom who_ to ask. + 7. Why did he not ask _whomever whoever_ was there? + 8. _Who whom_ can tell the difference? + 9. Give it to _whoever whomever_ you please. + 10. None of those who _were was_ wanted _was were_ there. + 11. The one of those who _were was_ wanted was not there. + 12. He is one of those fellows who _are is_ always joking. + 13. _Whom who_ was called "The Rail Splitter?" + 14. Do you not know _whom who_ it was? + 15. That is one of the birds that _is are_ very rare. + 16. One of the books which _was were_ brought was one hundred years old. + 17. I am not among those _who whom were was_ there. + 18. Only one of the men who _were was_ on board survived. + 19. Everyone else who _was were_ there _was were_ lost. + 20. I am the one of the three men who _is am are_ guilty. + 21. He was chosen one of the four speakers who _was were_ to speak + on Commencement Day. + 22. It was one of the books which _were was_ being sought by the + librarian. + 23. Give it to one of the men _who whom_ is found there. + 24. To _who whom_ did you give it? + 25. It was for _whomever whoever_ was present. + 26. Ask _whomever whoever_ is nearest the door. + +80. CONJUNCTIVE OR RELATIVE ADVERBS. It is better to use a _WHEN_ +CLAUSE only in the subordinate part of the sentence, to state the +time of an event. Compare the following: + +Bad: He was turning the corner, when suddenly he saw a car approaching. +Good: When he was turning the corner, he suddenly saw a car approaching. + +Bad: When the news of the fire came, it was still in the early morning. +Good: The news of the fire came when it was still in the early morning. + +81. Do not use a _WHEN_ or a _WHERE_ CLAUSE in defining a subject +or in place of a predicate noun. + +Bad: Commencement is when one formally completes his school course. +Good: Commencement is the formal completion of one's school course. + +Bad: Astronomy is where one studies about the stars. +Good: Astronomy is the study of the stars. + +82. _So, then_, and _also_, the conjunctive adverbs, should not +be used to unite coördinate verbs in a sentence unless _and_ or +_but_ be used in addition to the adverb. + +Bad: The boys' grades are low, _so_ they indicate lack of application. +Good: The boys' grades are low, _and so_ indicate lack of application. + +Bad: He read for a while, _then_ fell asleep. +Good: He read for a while, _and then_ fell asleep. + +Bad: I'll be down next week; _also_ I shall bring Jack along. +Good: I'll be down next week; _and also_ I shall bring Jack along. + +EXERCISE 59 + +_Correct the following sentences:_ + + 1. Anarchism is when one believes in no government. + 2. I am studying German, also French. + 3. The clock had just struck five when the cab came. + 4. I shall work until nine o'clock, then I shall retire. + 5. I was sick all day, so I couldn't come to the office. + 6. I was going up street yesterday when unexpectedly I met Jones. + 7. Death is when one ceases to live. + 8. Dinner is ready, so I shall have to cease work. + 9. He told half of the story, then he suddenly stopped. + 10. He loves good music, also good pictures. + 11. A restaurant is where meals are served. + +83. CONJUNCTIONS. There are certain conjunctions, and also certain +pairs of conjunctions that frequently cause trouble. + +AND or BUT should not be used to join a dependent clause to an +independent clause; as, _It was a new valise AND differing much +from his old one_. Say instead, _It was a new valise, differing +much from his old one_, or _It was a new valise, and differed very +much from his old one_. Similarly, _It was a new book WHICH_ (not +_and which_) _interested him very much_. This "and which" construction +is a frequent error; _and which_ should never be used unless there +is more than one relative clause, and then never with the first +one. + +BUT or FOR should not be used to introduce both of two succeeding +statements. Both of the following sentences are bad by reason of +this error: _He likes geometry, BUT fails in algebra, BUT studies +it hard, He read all night, FOR the book interested him, FOR it +was along the line of his ambition_. + +THAN and AS should not be followed by objective pronouns in sentences +like this: _I am as large AS HIM_. The verb in these sentences +is omitted. If it is supplied, the error will be apparent. The +sentence would then read, _I am as large as HIM (is large)_. The +correct form is, _I am as large as he (is large)_. Similarly, _He +is taller than I (am tall), She is brighter than HE (is bright)_. + +AS may be used as either a conjunction or an adverb. _He is AS +tall AS I_. The first _as_ is an adverb, the second _as_ is a +conjunction. _As_ is properly used as an adverb when the equality +is asserted, but, when the equality is denied, _so_ should be used +in its place. _He is AS old AS I_, is correct, but the denial should +be, _He is NOT SO old AS I_. After _not_ do not use _as_ when _as_ +is an adverb. + +NEITHER, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by NOR; +as, _Neither he NOR (not or) I can come. Neither_ should never +be followed by _or_. + +EITHER, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by OR. + +84. PLACING OF CORRELATIVES. The correlatives, such as _neither--nor, +either--or, not only--but also_, should be placed in clear relation +to similar parts of speech or similar parts of the sentence. One +should not be directed toward a verb and the other toward some +other part of speech. + +Bad: He _not only_ brought a book, _but also_ a pencil. +Good: He brought _not only_ a book _but also_ a pencil. + +Bad: He would offer _neither_ reparation _nor_ would he apologize. +Good: _Neither_ would he offer reparation _nor_ would he apologize. +Good: He would offer _neither_ reparation _nor_ apology. + +85. The prepositions _without, except, like_, and the adverb _directly_ +should not be used as conjunctions. + +Wrong: _Without_ (_unless_) you attend to class-room work, you cannot +pass. + +Wrong: This she would not do _except_ (_unless_) we promised to +pay at once. + +Wrong: I acted just _like_ (_as_) all the others (did). + +Wrong: _Directly_ (_as soon as_) he came, we harnessed the horses. + +EXERCISE 60 + +_Correct the following sentences:_ + + 1. Mary is as old as her. + 2. I read as much as him. + 3. He either wore his coat or a sort of vest. + 4. He walked to the next town, but did not come back, but stayed + all night. + 5. We are better players than them. + 6. He became thoroughly under the influence of the hypnotist and + doing many absurd things. + 7. There we met a man named Harmon and whom we found very + entertaining. + 8. They work harder than us. + 9. John is not as tall as you. + 10. Neither John or James is as tall as you. + 11. I admire Mary more than she. + 12. That can't be done without you get permission from the principal. + 13. He dresses just like I do. + 14. Directly he came we launched the canoes. + 15. This cannot be done except you are a senior. + 16. Neither she nor I was present. + 17. He not only had a trained pig but also a goose. + 18. Mary is not as pretty as Helen. + 19. The men neither interested him nor the places. + 20. He has traveled more than me. + 21. We like him very much, for he is very interesting, for he has + traveled so much. + 22. It is a good book and which has much valuable information. + 23. It was a rough town and harboring many criminals. + 24. He took an interest neither in studies, nor did he care for + athletics. + 25. He neither took an interest in studies nor athletics. + +EXERCISE 61 + +_Construct sentences in which the following words are correctly +used:_ + +When, where, than, as--as, so--as, neither--nor, not only--but also, +either--or, except, like, without, directly. + +86. PREPOSITIONS. Some mistakes are made in the use of prepositions. +Note the following brief list of words with the appropriate prepositions +to be used with each: + +agree _with_ a person differ _from_ (person or thing) +agree _to_ a proposition differ _from_ or _with_ an opinion +bestow _upon_ different _from_ +compare _with_ (to determine value) glad _of_ +compare _to_ (because of similarity) need _of_ +comply _with_ part _from_ (a person) +confide _in_ (to trust in) part _with_ (a thing) +confide _to_ (to intrust to) profit _by_ +confer _on_ (to give) prohibit _from_ +confer _with_ (to talk with) reconcile _to_ (a person) +convenient _to_ (a place) reconcile _with_ (a statement) +convenient _for_ (a purpose) scared _by_ +dependent _on_ think _of_ or _about_ + +Do not use prepositions where they are unnecessary. Note the following +improper expressions in which the preposition should be omitted: + +continue _on_ _down_ until +covered _over_ inside _of_ +off _of_ outside _of_ +started _out_ where _to_? +wish _for_ to come remember _of_ +more than you think _for_ + +Do not omit any preposition that is necessary to the completeness +of the sentence. + +Bad: He is a dealer and shipper _of_ coal. + +Good: He is a dealer _in_ and shipper _of_ coal. + +EXERCISE 62 + +_Illustrate in sentences the correct use of each of the expressions +listed under the first paragraph of_ §86. + +_Form sentences in which correct expressions are used in place of +each of the incorrect expressions listed under the second paragraph +of_ §86. + + + + +QUESTIONS FOR THE REVIEW OF GRAMMAR + +SENTENCES, PARTS OF SPEECH, AND SENTENCE ELEMENTS. What are the +four kinds of sentences? What are the different parts of speech? +Define each. What is the difference between a clause and a phrase? +What is the difference between a principal clause and a subordinate +clause? Illustrate. Illustrate an adverbial clause. An adjective +clause. Illustrate an adverbial phrase. An adjective phrase. What is +an attribute complement? Illustrate. What is an object complement? +Illustrate. Illustrate and explain the difference between simple, +complex, and compound sentences. + +NOUNS. What is the difference between singular and plural number? +How is the plural of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in _s, +ch, sh, x_, or _z_? In _y_? In _f_ or _fe_? In _o_? Of letters, +figures, etc.? Of compound nouns? Of proper names and titles? How +is the possessive case of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in +_s_ or in an _s_ sound? Of a compound noun or of a group of words? +What is gender? How is the feminine gender formed from the masculine? +What is the difference between common and proper nouns? + +PRONOUNS. What is a pronoun? What is the antecedent of a pronoun? +What is the rule for their agreement? What is meant by "person" +in pronouns? Name five pronouns of each person. Name the pronouns +that indicate masculine gender. Feminine. Neuter. What pronouns may +be used to refer to antecedents that stand for persons of either +sex? To antecedents that are collective nouns of unity? To animals? +What are nouns of common gender? By what pronouns are they referred +to? Should a singular or a plural pronoun be used after _everybody_? +After _some one_? After _some people_? After two nouns connected by +_or_? By _nor_? By _and_? What are relative pronouns? Name them. +With what kind of antecedents may each be used? What is the difference +between the explanatory relative and the restrictive relative? +Illustrate. What is an interrogative pronoun? What pronouns may +be used only in the nominative case? In the objective case? When +should the nominative case be used? The objective? The possessive? +May _thou_ and _you_ be used in the same sentence? When should _but +that_ be used, and when _but what_? May _them_ be used adjectively? +May _which_ be used with a clause as an antecedent? May _which_ and +_that_, or _who_ and _that_ be used in the same sentence with the +same antecedent? + +ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. Distinguish between adjectives and adverbs. +Illustrate. What is comparison? What is the positive degree, the +comparative, the superlative? Illustrate each. May one say, _He is +the largest of the two?_ Reason? _He is the larger of the three?_ +Reason? _He is the largest of all?_ Reason? Name three adjectives +which cannot be compared. May one say, _Paris is larger than any +city?_ Reason? _Paris is larger than all cities?_ Reason? _Paris +is the largest of any other city?_ Reason? Is a singular or plural +noun demanded by _every_? By _two_? By _various_? By _each_? With +how many objects may _either_ be used? _Neither_? Where should +the adjective or adverb be placed in the sentence? What is meant +by a double negative? Illustrate. What is its effect? What is the +definite article? + +VERBS. What is a verb? What is a principal verb? An auxiliary? +Illustrate. What are the principal parts of a verb? Name each. +With what is the s-form used? With which form can no auxiliary +be used? Make a sentence using each of the principal parts of the +verbs, _go, see, begin, come, drink, write_. What is a transitive +verb? Illustrate. An intransitive verb? Illustrate. What is the +difference between active and passive voice? Does a transitive or +does an intransitive verb have both voices? Illustrate the passive +voice. Distinguish between the use of _sit_ and _set_. Of _lay_ and +_lie_. Of _rise_ and _raise_. What is the general rule for the use +of the subjunctive mode? In what way and where does the subjunctive +of _be_ differ from the indicative in its forms? How do other verbs +differ in the form of the subjunctive? In what respects should a +verb agree with its subject? Does the form of the subject always +determine its number? What should be the guide in determining whether +to use a singular or plural verb? What class of subjects may not be +used with _don't, can't_, etc.? What determines whether to use +a singular or a plural verb after _who_, _which_, and _that_? What +form of the verb is used after _you_? After _they_? When are _shall_ +and _should_ used with _I_ and _we_? When with other subjects? +What rule governs their use in questions. What form is used in +dependent clauses introduced by _that_, expressed or understood? In +contingent clauses? Distinguish the use of _may_ and _might_ from +_can_ and _could_. What is a "dangling participle"? Is it an error? +May the gerund be correctly used without any grammatical connection +to the rest of the sentence? As the object of a preposition is a +participle or gerund used? Which is used adjectively? Which may +be used in connection with a possessive substantive as a modifier? +When it is dependent on another verb, in what case should the present +infinitive be used? When the perfect infinitive? What is a "split +infinitive"? Need the parts of a compound predicate agree in tense? + +CONNECTIVES. By what are independent clauses connected? Dependent +clauses? Name two conjunctive adverbs. Should a _when_ clause be +used in a subordinate or in the principal part of the sentence? +May _so, then_, or _also_ be used alone as conjunctive adverbs? May +_and_ or _but_ be used to join a dependent clause to a principal +clause? What case should follow _than_ or _as_? Should _neither_ +be followed by _nor_ or _or_? + + + + +A GENERAL EXERCISE ON GRAMMAR + +EXERCISE 63 + +_Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong. After each +sentence, in parenthesis, is placed the number of the paragraph +in which is discussed the question involved:_ + + 1. He likes to boast of Mary cooking. (71.) + 2. It is an error and which can't be corrected. (83.) + 3. He said he should come if he could. (68.) + 4. Can I use your pencil? (69.) + 5. If you were I, what would you do? (68.) + 6. We would like to go. (68.) + 7. Neither the members of the committee nor the chairman is + present. (63-5.) + 8. He only spoke of history, not of art. (45.) + 9. Socialists don't have no use for trusts. (46.) + 10. This is John's book. (13.) + 11. I feared that they should not come. (68.) + 12. Mother's and father's death. (15-4.) + 13. Mary was eager to have gone. (73.) + 14. The boys, as well as their teacher, is to be praised. (64-1.) + 15. The members of Congress watch each other. (44.) + 16. I fear that I will take cold. (67.) + 17. Some one has forgotten their umbrella. (20.) + 18. Neither of the three is well. (43.) + 19. Whom do you consider to be the brighter man in the class? + (29) (41.) + 20. He is determined that he shall go away. (67.) + 21. Neither John nor James brought their books. (22.) + 22. Whom did the man say he was? (29.) + 23. His clothes look prettily. (38.) + 24. The play progressed smooth until the last act. (38.) + 25. Henry and William is to come to-morrow. (22.) + 26. This is the lesser of the two evils. (40.) + 27. Do you think you will stop at Chicago? (66.) + 28. I am believed to be him. (29.) + 29. He sings very illy. (40.) + 30. When they come to build the bridge the stream was too deep + for them to work. (54.) + 31. She is very discontented. (48.) + 32. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.) + 33. The barrel bursted from the pressure. (54.) + 34. Shall my work soon begin? (66.) + 35. He is six foot tall. (42.) + 36. Seeing his mistake, I was not urged further by him. (71.) + 37. Will the dog bite? (66.) + 38. I am believed to be he. (29.) + 39. I am eager to have seen it. (73.) + 40. I think it shall rain soon. (67.) + 41. She showed the dish to Mary and I. (29.) + 42. Mary asked her mother to wash her face. (34-4.) + 43. Who did the man say he was? (29.) + 44. He deserved the place, for he is well educated, for he has + been through Oxford University. (83.) + 45. Choose who you please. (29.) + 46. It don't make any difference about that. (64-5.) + 47. The pump was froze fast. (54.) + 48. A boat load of fishes was the days catch. (13-12.) + 49. Wagner was never too rattled to play. (48.) + 50. It is him. (29.) + 51. He did it hisself. (31.) + 52. He eat all there was on the table. (54.) + 53. He sent a chest of tea, and it was made of tin. (34-4.) + 54. The murderer was hung at noon. (54.) + 55. It is a queer kind of a book. (47.) + 56. You may give it to whoever you wish. (32.) + 57. Whoever is nominated, will you vote for him? (32.) + 58. I think I will find the work easy. (67.) + 59. He sent his son abroad, being anxious for his health. (71.) + 60. Neither they nor Mary was there. (22.) + 61. Brewer's the blacksmith's shop. (15-6.) + 62. Goliath was slew by David. (54.) + 63. Myself and mother are sick. (30.) + 64. John is as good, if not better than she. (41-4.) + 65. If anybody creates a disturbance, have the police put them + out. (21.) + 66. The paper was addressed to John and herself. (30.) + 67. John's and William's dog. (15-4.) + 68. Tell the boy and girl to come here. (47.) + 69. Everybody's else mail has came. (15, 54.) + 70. He knows nothing about it but that he has read in the + paper. (34-6.) + 71. Awake me early in the morning. (57.) + 72. If he be honest, he has not shown it. (60.) + 73. Either Adams or Monroe were president. (63-4.) + 74. Washington, the general and the president, was born on + February 22d. (47.) + 75. Horne's and Company's Store. (15-4.) + 76. A hole had been tore in the ships' side. (54.) + 77. I sat my chair by the window. (57.) + 78. I sat myself down to rest. (57.) + 79. I can't hardly see to write. (46.) + 80. John is one of the people who comes each night. (64-4.) + 81. He laid on the couch all day. (57.) + 82. Death is when one ceases to live. (81.) + 83. I was told to set here. (57.) + 84. Iron is more useful than any other metal. (41-3.) + 85. I not only told him, but also Morton. (84.) + 86. McKinley was nowhere near so strenuous as Roosevelt. (40.) + 87. It weighs several ton. (42.) + 88. John is not as bright as Henry. (83.) + 89. Germany and France's ships. (15-4.) + 90. John's employer's wife's friend. (15-5.) + 91. You had ought to go home. (54.) + 92. This is the man who wants the ticket. (26.) + 93. Which is the larger of the three? (41-1.) + 94. An axe is the tool which they use. (26.) + 95. It is that characteristic that makes him so disagreeable. (26.) + 96. The horse which we drove, and the horse which you had last + week are the same. (26, 34-5.) + 97. I don't like those kind of people. (42.) + 98. I do not question but what he is right. (34-6.) + 99. Let him lay there. (57.) + 100. My friend and me drove to Hughesville. (29.) + 101. American and English grammar is alike. (63-1.) + 102. William and Mary has to go to the city. (63-2.) + 103. The boy, and not his parents, were wrong. (63-3.) + 104. The price of meat has raised. (57.) + 105. This train runs slow. (38.) + 106. Which is the best of the two? (41-1.) + 107. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.) + 108. Without the safety catch is raised, the gun can't be + discharged. (85.) + 109. The family is all at home. (62.) + 110. The horse run the mile in two minutes. (54.) + 111. This suit hasn't hardly been wore. (46, 54.) + 112. The knife has laid there all day. (57.) + 113. The noise of the street was very loud, which kept me awake. (34-9.) + 114. The jury has agreed. (62.) + 115. Such things make him terrible nervous. (38.) + 116. Whom do you think is the brightest man? (29.) + 117. The army were defeated. (62.) + 118. If I was you, I should go at once. (60.) + 119. She may go if she wishes or not. (76.) + 120. Everybody whom was there was given a vote. (79.) + 121. I like her better than you. (76.) + 122. Who do you want? (79.) + 123. Knox is one of the alumnuses of the college. (13-13.) + 124. By law, no one is allowed to kill more than two deers. (13.) + 125. The clock had just struck five when the cab came. (80.) + 126. When was you there? (64-2.) + 127. He is as tall as me. (83.) + 128. Neither John nor her will come. (29.) + 129. You hear such statements everywheres. (34-8, 40.) + 130. You never can tell whom you will meet on the train. (79.) + 131. I wish you were more like she. (29.) + 132. Winter, with her frost, destroyed them all. (20.) + 133. Tell everybody to cast their vote for Jones. (21.) + 134. He is the only one of the members who pay dues. (64-4.) + 135. Was it necessary, I should jump? (60.) + 136. The production of oranges were encouraged. (64-3.) + 137. The ship, with all its passengers, were lost. (64-1.) + 138. He has fell from his chair. (57.) + 139. I will raise and go to my father. (57.) + 140. The policeman failed the ruffian with his club. (57.) + 141. They make pottery in Trenton. (34-8.) + 142. Iron is more useful than all metals. (41-3.) + 143. I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work. (75.) + 144. He won't come, except we pay his expenses. (85.) + 145. Neither German or French is taught there. (83.) + 146. We have needed you and did our best to find you. (75.) + 147. He awoke at nine. (57.) + 148. I wish I was a bird. (60.) + 149. If it rains, I stay at school. (60.) + 150. Thou shouldst pray when you are in trouble. (34-2.) + 151. The Indians, they hid behind trees. (34-3.) + 152. We started out for the city at noon. (86.) + 153. The king, he said they should kill him. (34-3.) + 154. Outside of the house stood a large moving van. (86.) + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +SENTENCES + +87. Classified as to their rhetorical construction, sentences are +considered as loose, periodic, and balanced. + +The LOOSE SENTENCE is so constructed that it may be closed at two +or more places and yet make complete sense; as, + +Napoleon felt his _weakness_, and tried to win back popular _favor_ +by concession after _concession_, until, at his fall, he had nearly +restored parliamentary _government_. + +Note that this sentence could be closed after the words. _weakness, +favor_, and _concession_, as well as after _government_. + +88. The PERIODIC SENTENCE holds the complete thought in suspense +until the close of the sentence. Compare the following periodic +sentence with the loose sentence under §87: + +Napoleon, feeling his weakness, and trying to win back popular favor +by concession after concession, had, at his fall, nearly restored +parliamentary government. + +Both loose and periodic sentences are proper to use, but, since +periodic sentences demand more careful and definite thought, the +untrained writer should try to use them as much as possible. + +89. The BALANCED SENTENCE is made up of parts similar in form, +but often contrasted in meaning; as, _He is a man; Jones is a +gentleman._ + +90. SENTENCE LENGTH. As to the length of the sentence there is +no fixed rule. Frequently, sentences are too long, and are, in +their thought, involved and hard to follow. On the other hand, if +there is a succession of short sentences, choppiness and roughness +are the result. One should carefully examine sentences which contain +more than thirty or thirty-five words to see that they are clear +in their meaning and accurate in their construction. + +EXERCISE 64 + +_Compose, or search out in your reading, five loose sentences, five +periodic sentences, and five balanced sentences._ + +EXERCISE 65 + +_In the following sentences, determine whether each sentence is +loose, periodic, or balanced. Change all loose sentences to the +periodic form:_ + +1. At the same time the discontent of the artisans made the lower +class fear a revolution, and that class turned to Napoleon, because +they felt him to be the sole hope for order and stable government. + +2. The members of the council were appointed by the king, and held +office only at his pleasure. + +3. A society and institutions that had been growing up for years +was overturned and swept away by the French Revolution. + +4. Galileo was summoned to Rome, imprisoned, and forced publicly +to adjure his teaching that the earth moved around the sun. + +5. He draws and sketches with tolerable skill, but paints abominably. + +6. Loose sentences may be clear; periodic sentences may not be clear. + +7. He rode up the mountains as far as he could before dismounting +and continuing the ascent on foot. + +8. They visited the town where their father had lived, and while +there, procured the key to the house in which he had been born. + +9. His death caused great grief and extreme financial distress in +the family. + +10. There stands the Tower of London in all its grimness and centuries +of age, holding within its walls the scene of many a stirring tragedy. + +11. Few men dislike him, but many would gladly see him overthrown +merely as an example. + +12. Germany is moving in the same direction, although the reformers +find it a hard task to influence public opinion, and a far harder +one to change the various laws prevalent in the many German states. + +13. Is this thing we call life, with all its troubles, pains, and +woes, after all, worth living? + +14. He read much, but advanced little intellectually, for all the +facts and philosophy of his reading found no permanent lodgment +in his mind. + +15. His coming home was very unexpected, because he had started +on a trip that usually took ten days, and that he had said would +take longer this time. + +16. It was during the time of the National Convention that Napoleon +first became very prominent by defending the convention against +a mob. + +EXERCISE 66 + +_Combine each of the following groups of sentences into one well +constructed long sentence:_ + +1. In highly developed commercial communities banks cannot afford +space in their vaults for valuables. Especially, they cannot afford +it merely to accommodate their patrons. Hence, in such communities +the furnishing of places for safe deposit has become a separate +business. + +2. History should be a part of the course in all schools. It develops +the memory. It furnishes the explanation of many social phenomena. +It broadens the intellectual view. It gives culture as no other +study can give it. + +3. He never desired a higher education. This was possible because +of the money bequeathed to him by his father. It had left him no +need for a great earning capacity. More likely, it was because +of the inborn dulness and lethargy of his mind. + +4. New York is the pivotal state in all national elections. Its +great number of electors makes it always possible for it to throw +the election either way. Therefore, until one knows to which party +New York will fall, he cannot tell how the election will result. + +5. Our forefathers were devout. They were easily shocked in many +ways. However, they permitted many liberties in the application +of sermons to particular individuals. Such things would nowadays +be strongly disapproved or resented. + +6. Man's life is divided into two parts by a constantly moving +point. This point is called the present. It divides the past from +the future. + +7. The Spartans were tormented by ten thousand absurd restraints. +They were unable to please themselves in the choice of their wives. +They were unable to please themselves in their choice of food or +clothing. They were compelled to assume a peculiar manner, and +to talk in a peculiar style. Yet they gloried in their liberty. + +8. The mere approach to the temperance question is through a forest +of statistics. This forest is formidable and complicated. It causes +one, in time, to doubt the truth of numbers. + +9. They passed the old castle. It was almost unrecognizable. This +was by reason of the scaffolding which surrounded it. The castle +was now being transformed into a national museum. + +10. He stood looking with curiosity at John Peters. Peters limped +slightly. Otherwise, he looked well and happy. He was moving about +shaking hands right and left. + +11. They rushed at him with a yell. He had by this time reached +the base of the fountain. With a sudden wonderful leap he sprang +onto the railing. There he was out of reach. He balanced himself +by touching the brackets which held the lamps. + +12. The unintelligent worker reminds one of the squirrel on the +wheel. The squirrel rushes round and round and round all day long. +At the end of the day the squirrel is still a squirrel. It is still +rushing round and round. It is getting nowhere. + +13. The man looked at the ladder. He believed he could reach it. +There was a sudden flash of hope in his face. His face was already +scorched by the fire. + +14. Smith was financially embarrassed. He was determined to get +to his home. He crawled on top of the trucks of an express car. +The car was about to leave the terminal. He courted almost certain +death. + +15. The commander again looks toward the hills. He looks for a +long time. Something seems to excite his apprehension. He converses +earnestly with the staff officer. Then the two look more than once +toward a poplar tree. The tree stands at the top of the hill. Only +its top half shows. The hill is on the east. + +16. The most important political question has been the tariff question. +This has been most important for ten years. It is important because +it is believed to have caused high prices and trusts. + +17. The pleasantest month is June. It has flowers. It has mild +weather. It has a slight haze in the atmosphere. These things seem +to flood one's soul with peace and contentment. + +91. The essential qualities that a sentence should possess, aside +from correctness, are those of Unity, Coherence, Emphasis, and +Euphony. + +UNITY. Unity demands that the sentence deal with but one general +thought, and that it deal with it in such a consistent and connected +manner that the thought is clearly and effectively presented. Unity +demands, also, that closely related thoughts should not be improperly +scattered among several sentences. + +1. Statements having no necessary relation to one another should +not be embodied in one sentence. + +Bad: The house sat well back from the road, _and its owner_ was +a married man. +Good: The house sat well back from the road. _Its owner_ was a +married man. + +a. Avoid the "comma blunder"; that is, do not use a comma to divide +into clauses what should be separate sentences, or should be connected +by a conjunction. + +Bad: Jones lives in the country, _he_ has a fine library. +Good: Jones lives in the country. _He_ has a fine library. +Good: Jones lives in the country _and has_ a fine library. + +b. Avoid the frequent use of the parenthesis in the sentence. + +Bad: This is a city (it is called a city, though it has but twelve +hundred people) that has no school-house. + +2. Avoid all slipshod construction of sentences. + +a. Avoid adding a clause to an apparently complete thought. + +Bad: That is not an easy problem, _I think_. +Good: That, _I think_, is not an easy problem. +Good: _I do not think_ that is an easy problem. + +Bad: He could not be elected mayor again under any circumstances, +_at least so I am told_. +Good: He could not, _I am told_, be elected mayor again under any +circumstances. +Good: _I am told_ that he could not under any circumstances be elected +mayor again. + +b. Avoid long straggling sentences. + +Poor: The students often gathered to watch the practice of the +team, but, just before the last game, the management excluded almost +all, and only a few who had influence were allowed to enter, and +this favoritism caused much hard feeling and disgust, so that the +students were reluctant to support the team, and lost most of their +interest, a fact which had a bad effect on the athletics of the +institution. + +3. Unite into one sentence short sentences and clauses that are +closely and logically connected with one another. + +Bad: That it is a good school is not without proof. Its diploma +admits to all colleges. +Good: That it is a good school is not without proof, for its diploma +admits to all colleges. +Good: That its diploma admits to all colleges is proof that it is +a good school. + +Bad: This fact was true of all of us. With the exception of John. +Good: This fact was true of all of us, with the exception of John. + +Bad: Edward came. But John never appeared. +Good: Edward came, but John never appeared. + +Bad: The town has two railroads running through it. Also, three +trolley lines. +Good: The town has two railroads running through it, and also three +trolley lines. +Good: The town has two railroads and three trolley lines running +through it. + +4. Do not change the point of view. + +Bad: _We_ completed our themes, and _they_ were handed in to the +teacher. (In the first part of the sentence, the subject is _we_; +in the second it is _themes_.) +Good: We completed our themes and handed them in to the teacher. +Good: Our themes were completed and handed in to the teacher. + +Bad: The _stage_ took us to the foot of the hill, and _we_ walked +from there to the top, where _our friends_ met us. +Good: _We_ were taken to the foot of the hill by the stage, and _we_ +walked from there to the top, where _we_ were met by our friends. + +EXERCISE 67 + +_Revise such of the following sentences as violate the principles +of unity:_ + +1. I frequently had ridden on a bicycle, and though the first ride +made me stiff, I felt little inconvenience afterwards. + +2. Of the firm Jones & Smith, Jones is a man to be respected. While +Smith is thoroughly dishonest. + +3. John had plenty of energy and ambition. And it is hard to understand +why he didn't succeed. + +4. I have taken thorough courses in history in both grade school +and high school, and I also worked on the farm in the summer. + +5. In the East the people are conservative. But, in the West, they +are radical and progressive. + +6. The news came that special rates would be given from Chicago, +and that we could go to Seattle and back for fifty dollars, and +so, when our checks came, we seized our grips and started on a +trip which was so long and eventful, but as enjoyable as any two +months we had ever spent, and gave us an experience that was very +valuable in our work, which we took up on our return in the fall. + +7. The town has a fine public library, besides there are a number +of steel mills. + +8. One may reach Boston in two ways. Either by water or by rail. + +9. Women (and Christian American women, too) frequently try to evade +the customs laws. + +10. My aunt has some of Jefferson's silver spoons, so she says. + +11. He graduated from college (I think it was Harvard, though I +am not sure) and then taught for three years. + +12. This is one of Hugo's novels, it is very good. + +13. He accomplishes everything he undertakes, if it is at all possible. + +14. Washington was president of the United States. But Hamilton +guided its financial policy. + +15. Every year they sell three hundred sets, and Mr. West helps +to write the letters. + +16. The country people were the chief patrons of the store. Although +no small amount of trade came from the town. + +17. The box sat under a tree, and the dog, which was a collie, +would go when he was told and sit on it, and no one could call +him away but his master who was very often cruelly slow in doing +so, but the dog never lost patience. + +18. He was one of those persons (of whom there are so painfully +many) who never do what they promise. + +19. He then went to his room, which was in the back of the house, +to sleep, and his books were found there the next day. + +20. He was the man that I had mentioned, who had been recommended +for the position. Who had been refused because of his deficiencies +in English. + +21. I can't go, I don't think. + +22. He was a very big and very strong man. And, he should have made +a great football player. + +23. He will surely be elected, I haven't any fear. + +24. The food was good, and the service was fine, but we did not +care to stay on account of the weather, which was rainy most of +the time, and because it was an out-of-the-way place. + +25. He converses intelligently and pleasantly, and never gossips, +hence he is an agreeable companion. + +26. He died of smallpox, and was ninety years old. + +27. There were twenty boys in the class. Each past twenty-five years +of age. + +28. He is in every way honorable, at least so far as money matters +are concerned. + +29. I had not previously thought of going to college, but now I +was enthusiastic on the matter, and all my time (at least most +of it) was devoted to poring over catalogues, of which I had a +great number, and many of which I knew by heart from having gone +over them so often, and finally a college was selected which seemed +to suit me, so I went there in the fall to study chemistry. + +30. He was very sensitive. So that we could tease him very little +without making him angry. + +31. There are a great number of stations along this short line of +railroad, these, however, do little business. + +32. They stopped and asked us the road to Milton, and it was discovered +that they were going in the wrong direction, as Milton lay south +of Williamsport, and we were camping twenty miles north. + +33. He will most likely be suspended, it may perhaps be. + +34. That day my cousin went home, and the next day John came to +spend a few hours with me, and in the afternoon we drove all over +the valley, but neither of us grew tired, because there were so +many things to converse about, and so many long treasured questions +to ask, and John left in the evening, and then I went to bed. + +35. He has been proved a gambler, there you have it all. + +36. Mrs. Smith (whose husband had been killed by a falling beam +in one of the buildings he was constructing) consented to give +us a room and board. + +37. He read his lesson carefully, then he closed the book to think +it over. + +38. He is the most peculiar person I ever met--in the last few years +at least. + +39. I am reading a book, it is very interesting. + +40. They get a great deal of amusement when he is walking (which +he does every nice day) by whistling in time with his steps. + +41. He gave me this book which you see, and I have been able to +get a vast amount of information out of it. + +42. It was noticed by everyone that he always behaved well. When +he was in school. + +43. The magician was present. And pleased everybody with his +performances. + +44. Because he liked music, John was considered an odd fellow, and +his father was dead. + +92. COHERENCE. Coherence in the sentence demands that the arrangement +and the construction of the sentence be clear and free from ambiguity. + +1. Frame the sentence so that it can have but one possible meaning. + +Wrong: He owned several dogs and was greatly troubled with the mange. + +Right: He owned several dogs and was greatly troubled _because they +had_ the mange. + +Right: He was greatly troubled because several of _his dogs had_ +the mange. + +2. See that the antecedent of every pronoun is clear and explicit. + +Wrong: The dog was bitten on the front _foot which_ has since died. + +Right: The _dog, which_ has since died, was bitten on the front foot. + +Right: The dog was bitten on the front foot and has since died. + +3. See that the word to which each modifier refers is unmistakable. + +a. Place every modifying element as near as possible to the word +which it modifies. + +Wrong: He was sitting in a chair reading a _book made_ in the mission +style. + +Right: He was sitting in a _chair made_ in the mission style and +was reading a book. + +Right: He was sitting reading a book in a chair made in the mission +style. + +Wrong: The table had been inlaid by his _father, containing_ over +fifteen hundred pieces. + +Right: The _table, containing_ over fifteen hundred pieces, had +been inlaid by his father. + +Right: The table contained over fifteen hundred pieces and had been +inlaid by his father. + +b. Avoid the "squinting construction." By this term is meant the +placing of a clause so that it is impossible to tell whether it +refers to the preceding or succeeding part of the sentence. + +Wrong: It would be hard to explain, _if you were to ask me_, what +the trouble was. + +Right: If you were to ask me what the trouble was, it would be hard +to explain. + +4. Place correlatives so that there can be no doubt as to their +office. _Neither--nor, both--and_, etc., are frequently not placed +next to the expressions they are meant to connect. See §84. + +Wrong: He _neither_ brought a trunk _nor_ a suit-case. + +Right: He brought _neither_ a trunk _nor_ a suit-case. + +Wrong: He _not only_ received money from his father, _but also_ +his mother. + +Right: He received money _not only_ from his father, _but also_ +from his mother. + +Right: He _not only_ received money from his father, _but also_ +received it from his mother. + +5. Omit no word that is not accurately implied in the sentence. + +Wrong: The man _never has_, and _never will_ be successful. + +Right: The man _never has been_, and _never will be_ successful. + +Wrong: It _is no_ concern to him. + +Right: It _is of no_ concern to him. + +6. Use a summarizing word, in general, to collect the parts of a +long complex sentence. + +Republicans, Democrats, Socialists, Prohibitionists, and +Populists--_all_ were there. + +7. Express similar thoughts, when connected in the same sentence, +in a similar manner. + +Bad: I decided _on doing_ the work that night, and _to write_ it +out on the typewriter. +Good: I decided _to do_ the work that night and _to write_ it out +on the typewriter. + +Bad: _Textbooks are going_ out of use in the modern law schools, +but some schools still use them. +Good: _Textbooks are going_ out of use in the modern law schools, +but in some _they_ are still used. +Good: Though _textbooks are going_ out of use in modern law schools, +_they are still used_ in some of them. + +Bad: _One_ should never try to avoid work in school, for _you_ always +increase your trouble by doing so. +Good: _One_ should never try to avoid work in school, for _one_ +always increases his trouble by doing so. +Good: _One_ usually only increases _his_ troubles by trying to avoid +work in school. + +EXERCISE 68 + +_Point out and correct any lack of coherence that exists in the +following sentences:_ + + 1. Chicken lice are troubling all the farmers in the state. + + 2. The statute requires that one study three years, and that you + pass an examination. + + 3. He is home. + + 4. Rich and poor, old and young, large and small, good and bad, + were in the assemblage. + + 5. He both presented me with a gold piece and an increase in salary. + + 6. Tell the doctor, if he comes before seven, to call. + + 7. When the dog came on the porch, feeling playful, I laid aside + my paper. + + 8. I only knew John. + + 9. The cart was pulled by a man creaking under a heavy load. + +10. John told his father that his coat was too tight for him. + +11. I not only knew the president but also the whole board of directors. + +12. The boxes were full of broken glass with which we made fire. + +13. Mrs. Smith wants washing. + +14. A young woman died very suddenly last Sunday while I was away + from home as a result of a druggist's mistake. + +15. He was hit in the discharge of his duty by a policeman. + +16. A dog has been found by Mrs. Jones with one black ear. + +17. In taking the census innumerable errors are made, thus making + the result unreliable. + +18. It was a pleasure to see them work and their good nature. + +19. The boy went to the teacher and told him that his trouble was + that he used the wrong book. + +20. John was not punished because of his ill health, and he was + not entirely to blame for it. + +21. They said they saw them coming before they saw them. + +22. The officers arrested the men and they were then locked up. + +23. You made the same mistake that you now make last week. + +24. Wishing to make no mistake the boy was told by him to see the + professor. + +25. It resulted opposite to that in which it was expected. + +26. They are required to report both on their way to work and coming + home. + +27. Under his direction we were taught grammar and something of + composition was taken up. + +28. Taking all precautions, a watchman is on duty every night. + +29. We tried to study, but didn't do any. + +30. I do not care either to see you or Henry. + +31. He has a number of kennels with many dogs scattered over the + farm. + +32. Mrs. X. wants a picture of her children painted very badly. + +33. One of the drawbacks to the work is that time is very scarce, + in this way limiting what can be done. + +34. The bicycle was easy to learn to ride, which I did. + +35. Rails are placed along the sides of the bridges, and horses + are forbidden to trot over them. + +36. John told Henry that he thought he needed help. + +37. He has to stop for rest, and to avoid getting too far ahead. + +38. Board, room, clothes, laundry, and amusements, are higher there + than here. + +39. Mathematics is not only necessary, but also languages. + +40. After having read the proof, it is rolled up, and you mail it + back to the printer. + +41. The baskets were unpacked and the girls waited upon them. + +42. They knew all that was to be learned, including John. + +43. We could say that the greater part of us had both seen the Niagara + Falls and Canada. + +44. Let him wear a loose shoe that has sore feet. + +45. Being out of work, and as I did not wish to loaf, I started + to school. + +46. He tried to study unsuccessfully, and in the end failed. + +47. He built a house for his wife with seven windows. + +48. He sent her an invitation to go for a ride on the back of his + business card. + +49. I saw five automobiles the other night sitting on our front + door step. + +50. Mrs. Smith was killed last night while cooking in a dreadful + manner. + +51. Post cards are both increasing in variety and beauty. + +52. He neither told John nor his father. + +53. Mary told her mother, if she were needed, she would be called. + +54. He bought a horse when ten years old. + +55. The child the parent often rebuked. + +56. Sitting on a chair the entire house could be watched. + +57. Coming along the road a peculiar noise was heard by us. + +58. Under the enforced sanitary laws people ceased to die gradually. + +59. I knew him as a physician when a boy. + +60. He came leading his dog on a bicycle. + +61. When wanted he sent me a letter. + +93. EMPHASIS. Emphasis demands that the sentence be so arranged +that the principal idea shall be brought into prominence and the +minor details subordinated. + +1. Avoid weak beginnings and weak endings in the sentence. + +Bad: He was a student who did nothing right _as a rule_. +Good: He was a student, who, _as a rule_, did nothing right. + +2. A change from the normal order often makes a great change in +emphasis. + +Normal: A lonely owl shrieked from a thick tree not far back of +our camp. + +Changed: From a thick tree not far back of our camp a lonely owl +shrieked. + +3. Where it is suitable, arrange words and clauses so as to produce +a climax; i. e., have the most important come last. + +Bad: Human beings, dogs, cats, horses, all living things were destroyed. +Good: Cats, dogs, horses, human beings, all living things were +destroyed. + +4. Avoid all words which add nothing to the thought. + +Bad: He is universally praised by all people. +Good: He is universally praised. + +Bad: The darkness was absolutely impenetrable, and not a thing could +be seen. +Good: The darkness was absolutely impenetrable. + +Bad: Mr. Smith bids me say that he regrets that a slight indisposition +in health precludes his granting himself the pleasure of accepting +your invitation to come to your house to dine. +Good: Mr. Smith bids me say that he regrets that sickness prevents +his accepting your invitation to dine. + +EXERCISE 69 + +_Reconstruct all of the following sentences that violate the principles +of emphasis:_ + + 1. Children, women, and men were slain without pity. + + 2. I'll prove his guilt by means of marked money, if I can. + + 3. Most of the students have done good work, although some have not. + + 4. Will you please start up the machine. + + 5. Where ignorance leads to a condition of blissful happiness, it + would be folly to seek a condition of great wisdom. + + 6. A man having foolishly tried to board a moving train yesterday, + was killed by being run over. + + 7. As a maker of violins he has never had an equal before nor since. + + 8. All his friends were collected together. + + 9. The field was so wet that we could not play on it, except + occasionally. + +10. Few were superior to him as a sculptor. + +11. Railway companies, trolley companies, cable companies, and even + hack lines were affected by the change. + +12. Books were his constant companions, and he was with them always. + +13. That great, gaunt mass of stones, rock, and earth, which falls + upon your vision at the edge of the horizon of your view, is + known by the appellation of Maxon Mountain. + +14. The noise of trains is heard ceaselessly from morning till night, + without stopping at all. + +15. He tried to do right so far as we know. + +16. That knowledge is the important thing to gain beyond all else. + +94. EUPHONY. Euphony demands that the sentence be of pleasing sound. + +1. Avoid repeating the same word in a sentence. + +Bad: He _commanded_ his son to obey his _commands_. + +2. Avoid words and combinations of words that are hard to pronounce. + +Bad: He seized quickly a thick stick. + +3. Avoid a rhyme and the repetition of a similar syllable. + +Bad: They went for a _walk_ in order to _talk_. + +EXERCISE 70 + +_Correct such of the following sentences as lack euphony:_ + + 1. In the problems, he solved one once. + + 2. Most of the time he does the most he can. + + 3. She worries about what to wear wherever she goes. + + 4. It is impossible for one to believe that one so changeable can + be capable of such work. + + 5. Those are our books. + + 6. Every time there was a chance for error, error was made. + + 7. It is true that the man spoke truly when he said, "Truth is stranger + than fiction." + + 8. The well must have been well made, else it would not have served + so well. + + 9. Everything he said was audible throughout the auditorium. + +10. He acted very sillily. + +11. He is still worried over the ill fulfillment of John's promise. + +12. In his letters there is something fine in every line. + +13. They ordered the members of the order to pay their dues. + +EXERCISE 71. A GENERAL EXERCISE ON SENTENCES + +_Revise the following sentences. In parentheses after each sentence +is the number of the paragraph in which the error involved is set +forth:_ + + 1. Not only should we go to church, but also prayer-meeting. (92-4.) + + 2. In the East, just above the horizon, Mars may be readily seen + in the evenings. (93-1.) + + 3. There is nothing distinctive about the style of the book, and + it tells the story of a young Russian couple. (91-1.) + + 4. The nasal noise in his enunciation was displeasing. (94-2.) + + 5. Books, papers, records, money, checks, and receipts, were burned. + (92-6.) + + 6. I tried to learn to write plainly, and have failed. (92-7.) + + 7. He has not and never will succeed in doing that. (92-5.) + + 8. He is sick as a result of the picnic, it may be. (91-2.) + + 9. Finally they stepped from the boat into the water, and tried + to move it by all of them pushing. (92-2.) + +10. One is sure to become dull in mind, and ill in health, if you + fail to exercise. (93-1.) + +11. The trip was comparatively quickly and easily made. (94-1.) + +12. She was of ordinary family, but he didn't think of criticizing + that, since his own parents were of the German peasantry. (91-4.) + +13. The man was sentenced to either be hanged or life-imprisonment. + (92-7.) + +14. People of wealth (and it is by no means an exception to the + rule) fail to notice the misery about them. (91-1-b.) + +15. There one can see miles and miles. For there are no mountains. + (91-3-a.) + +16. She told her that she thought that she had come too soon. (92-2.) + +17. By the judge's mistake, he was made a free man, and started + on a career of crime again. (93-1.) + +18. Flora Macdonald was a genuine heroine. (94-3.) + +19. No criticism was made of the object, but of the means. (92-5.) + +20. If you observe the relation of spelling to pronunciation, you + will have little trouble in pronunciation. (94-1.) + +21. He threw the stone at the window. And then he ran. (91-3.) + +22. The reading of Poe's stories at least is entertaining, if not + elevating. (92-3-b.) + +23. John the lion killed. (92-3-b.) + +24. He arose suddenly upsetting the table. (92-3-b.) + +25. Bridget was a faithful servant, she never failed in her duties + for more than five years. (91-1-a.) + +26. Instead of six, now four years only are to be spent in college. + (92-3-a.) + +27. We started down the river toward Harrisburg. But we did not + get very far. For a storm soon came upon us. (91-3.) + +28. He says that he has the book at his home which belongs to Anderson. + (92-2). + +29. I secured a horse and went for a ride, and after my return, + we had supper. (91-4.) + +30. Two of the company were killed in the battle. The others escaped + without a scratch. (91-3.) + +31. Different from most persons, he will not mention to any one + his faults. (92-2.) + +32. Not only is the book interesting, but it is instructive also. + (93-1.) + +33. May not only he be satisfied with the result, but delighted. + (92-4.) + +34. Main Street is very long, and the hotels are on Market Street. + (91-1.) + +35. He saw the money passing the store which had been lost. (92-2.) + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION + +RULES FOR CAPITALIZATION + +95. Capitalize all proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper +nouns. + +France, French, Paris, Parisian, John, etc. + +96. Capitalize all titles when used with proper nouns. Capitalize, +also, the titles of governmental officers of high rank even when +used separately. Do not capitalize other titles when used separately. + +Uncle Sam, Bishop Anselm, Professor Morton, the Postmaster General, +Postmaster Smith of Kelley Cross Roads, the postmaster of Kelley +Cross Roads. + +97. Capitalize the important words in titles of books. + +The Master of Ballantrae, The Trail of the Lonesome Pine, The Discovery +of America. + +98. Capitalize the first word of every sentence, of every line of +poetry, and of every complete sentence that is quoted. + +He said, "Is it I whom you seek?" + +He said she was a "perfect woman, nobly planned." + +99. Capitalize the words, _mother, father_, etc., when used with +proper names of persons, or when used without a possessive pronoun +to refer to some definite person. Capitalize also, common nouns +in phrases used as proper nouns. + +Father John, my Uncle John, my uncle, if Uncle writes, if my uncle +writes, along the river, along the Hudson River, Madison Square. + +100. Capitalize the names, _North, South, East_, and _West_, when +referring to parts of the country; words used to name the Deity; +the words, _Bible_ and _Scriptures_; and the words _I_ and _O_, +but not _oh_ unless it is at the beginning of a sentence. + +EXERCISE 72 + +_Secure five examples under each of the above rules, except the +last._ + +RULES FOR PUNCTUATION + +101. Punctuation should not be done for its own sake, but simply +to make the meaning clearer; never punctuate where no punctuation +is needed. + +The following rules of punctuation are generally accepted: + +_The Period_ (.) + +102. Use the period after (1) every complete sentence that is not +interrogative nor exclamatory; (2) after every abbreviation; and +(3) after _Yes_ and _No_ when used alone. + +_The Interrogation Point_ (?) + +103. Use the interrogation point after every direct question. + +_The Exclamation Point_ (!) + +104. Use the exclamation point after every exclamatory sentence +or expression. + +Alas! It is too late. + +Fire if you dare! + +_The Comma_ (,) + +105. Use the comma after each word of a series of words that all +have the same grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence, +unless conjunctions are used between all of those words. + +Ours is a red, white, and blue flag. + +He talked, smoked, and read. + +He talked and smoked and read. + +Do not, however, precede the series by a comma. + +Wrong: He lectures on, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays. + +Right: He lectures on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays. + +106. Use the comma to separate two adjectives modifying the same +noun, but not if one modifies both the other adjective and the +noun. + +An honest, upright man. + +An old colored man. + +A soiled red dress. + +107. Use the comma to set off non-emphatic introductory words or +phrases, and participial phrases. + +John, come here. + +By the way, did you see Mary? + +After having done this, Cæsar crossed the Rubicon. + +Cæsar crossed the Rubicon, thus taking a decisive step. + +108. Use the comma to set off appositive expression (see §29, Note +1), or a geographical name that limits a preceding name. + +He was told to see Dr. Morton, the principal of the school. + +Muncy, Pennsylvania, is not spelled the same as Muncie, Indiana. + +109. Use the comma to set off any sentence element that is placed +out of its natural order. + +If it is possible, he will do it. + +To most people, this will seem absurd. + +110. Use the comma to set off slightly parenthetical remarks that +are thrown into the sentence. If the break is very marked, use +the dash or parenthesis. + +That, if you will permit me to explain, cannot be done without +permission from the police. + +Two men, Chase and Arnold, were injured. + +He, himself, said it. + +111. Use the comma to set off explanatory or non-restrictive clauses, +but not to set off restrictive clauses. (See §§ 25 and 26.) + +Mr. Gardner, who has been working in the bank, sang at the church. + +But: The Mr. Gardner whom you know is his brother. + +112. Use the comma to separate coördinate clauses that are united +by a simple conjunction. + +He can sing well, but he seldom will sing in public. + +He doesn't wish to sing, and I do not like to urge him. + +113. Use the comma to separate the members of a compound sentence +when those members are short and closely connected in their thought. + +John carried the suit-case, I the hat box, and William the umbrella. + +114. Use the comma to separate dependent and conditional clauses +introduced by such words as _if, when, though,_ unless the connection +be close. + +He did not stop, though I called repeatedly. + +Your solution is right in method, even if you have made a mistake +in the work. + +But: You are wrong when you say that. + +115. Use the comma to set off short, informal quotations, unless +such quotation is a word or phrase closely woven into the sentence. + +William said, "Good morning"; but, "Hello," was Henry's greeting. + +But: He introduced the man as "my distinguished friend." + +116. Use the comma to set off adverbs and adverbial phrases; such +as, _however, then, also, for example, so to speak,_ etc. + +Such a man, however, can seldom be found. + +This sentence, for example, can be improved by changing the order. + +117. Use the comma whenever for any reason there is any distinct +pause in the sentence that is not otherwise indicated by punctuation, +or whenever something clearly is omitted. + +We want students, not boys who simply come to school. + +Cæsar had his Brutus; Charles the First, his Cromwell; ... + +_The Semicolon_ (;) + +118. Use the semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound sentence +that are long or that are not joined by conjunctions. + +He says that he shall teach for two more years; then he shall probably +return to college. + +119. Use a semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound sentence +that are joined by a conjunction, only when it is desirable to +indicate a very definite pause. + +I have told you of the theft; but I have yet to tell you of the +reason for it. + +120. Use a semicolon to separate the parts of a compound or a complex +sentence, when some of those parts are punctuated by commas. + +As men, we admire the man that succeeds; but, as honest men, we +cannot admire the man that succeeds by dishonesty. + +Wrong: He spends his money for theatres, and dinners, and wine, +and for his family he has not a cent. + +Right: He spends his money for theatres, and dinners, and wine; +and for his family he has not a cent. + +121. Use a semicolon before certain adverbs and adverbial expressions, +when they occur in the body of the sentence and are used conjunctively; +such as, _accordingly, besides, hence, thus, therefore_, etc. + +I do not care to see the game; besides, it is too cold. + +John is sick; however, I think he will be here. + +122. Use the semicolon before the expressions, _namely, as, that +is_, etc., or before their abbreviations, _viz., i.e.,_ etc., when +they are used to introduce a series of particular terms, simple +in form, which are in apposition with a general term. + +At present there are four prominent political parties; namely, the +Republican, the Democratic, the Prohibition, and the Socialist. + +_The Colon_ (:) + +123. Use the colon after an introduction to a long or formal quotation, +before an enumeration, or after a word, phrase, or sentence that +constitutes an introduction to something that follows. + +Mr. Royer says in his letter: "You will remember that I promised +to send you a copy of my latest musical composition. I am mailing +it to you to-day." + +There are four essentials of a legal contract: competent parties, +consideration, agreement, and legal subject matter. + +124. Use the colon after the salutation of a formal letter. (See +§161.) + +_The Dash_ (--) + +125. Use the dash to indicate any sudden break in thought or +construction. + +I am pleased to meet you, Captain--what did you say your name is? + +The man I met--I refer to Captain Jones--was in the naval service. + +126. Use the dash in the place of the comma to set off more definitely +some part of a sentence. + +I was always lacking what I needed most--money. + +127. Use the dash preceded by a comma before a word which sums up +the preceding part of a sentence. + +Democrats, Republicans, Prohibitionists, Socialists, and +Populists,--_all_ were there. + +128. Do not use dashes where not required or in place of some other +mark of punctuation. + +_The Parenthesis Marks_ ( ) + +129. Use the parenthesis marks only to enclose a statement that +is thrown into the sentence, but is grammatically independent of +it. + +He belongs (at least so it is said) to every secret society in town. + +130. Do not use a comma or other punctuation mark with the parenthesis +marks unless it would be required even if there were no parenthesis. +When other punctuation is used it should follow the parenthesis. + +They sent us (as they had agreed to do) all the papers in the case. + +We expect John to bring his roommate home with him (he has been +very anxious to do so); but we expect no one else. + +Modern usage is to avoid entirely the use of the parentheses. + +_The Bracket_ [ ] + +131. Use the bracket to enclose some statement or word of the writer +that is thrown into a quotation by way of explanation or otherwise. + +His letter reads: "We have decided to get Mr. Howard [his cousin] +to deliver the address..." + +_The Quotation Marks_ (" ") + +132. Use quotation marks to enclose quotations of the exact language +of another. + +The Bible says, "Charity suffereth long." + +133. Use single quotation marks (' ') to enclose a quotation within +a quotation. + +The speaker in closing said: "I can imagine no more inspiring words +than those of Nelson at Trafalgar, 'England expects every man to +do his duty.'" + +134. If a quotation consists of several paragraphs, quotation marks +should precede each paragraph and follow the last. + +135. Do not use quotation marks to enclose each separate sentence +of a single continuous quotation. + +136. Do not use quotation marks to enclose well-known nicknames, +titles of books, proverbial phrases, or to indicate one's own literary +invention. + +137. Examine the location of quotation marks and other punctuation +in the following sentences: + +Wrong: "You may do as you wish, he said, if you only wish to do +right." + +Right: "You may do as you wish," he said, "if you only wish to do +right." + +Wrong: "Can you come," she asked? + +Right: "Can you come?" she asked. + +_The Apostrophe_ (') + +138. Use the apostrophe to mark certain plurals and possessives. +See §§ 13 and 15. + +Use the apostrophe to indicate the omission of letters. + +Doesn't, Can't, What's the matter? + +_The Hyphen_ (-) + +139. Use the hyphen when a word must be divided at the end of a +line. + +Never divide words of one syllable, nor short words; such as, _though, +through, also, besides, over_, etc. + +Never divide words except at the end of a syllable, and always +put the hyphen at the end of the first line, not at the beginning +of the second. + +Wrong division: _int-end, prop-ose, superint-endent, expre-ssion_. + +Proper division: _in-tend, pro-pose, superin-tendent, expres-sion_. + +In writing it is good usage not to divide a word like _expression_ +by placing _ex_ on one line and the rest of the word on the next +line. + +140. Use the hyphen to divide certain compound words. No rule can +be given by which to determine when compounded words demand the +hyphen. Only custom determines. + +Always use a hyphen with _to-day, to-morrow_, and _to-night_. + +EXERCISE 73 + +_Punctuate and capitalize the following selections. For instructions +as to paragraphing and the arrangement of conversation, see_ §§ +143 _and_ 144: + + 1. however father had told us not to expect good accommodations + because it is a very small town + + 2. tomorrow if it is a clear day we will go to pittsburgh + + 3. will that be satisfactory was his question + + 4. it doesnt make any difference said she whether you come or not + + 5. whats the matter with you john + + 6. john replied i mean that poem that begins the curfew tolls the + knell of parting day + + 7. and that day i was only a child then I travelled all alone to + new york city + + 8. he is a member at least he claims to be of the presbyterian church + + 9. the author says that the hero of waterloo wellington was a general + of great military training + +10. buddhist brahmin mohammedan christian jewish every religion + was represented + +11. his letter will tell what he wants or will attempt to do so + +12. you will please hand in the following sentences one three seven + and nine + +13. four presidents have been unitarians namely the two adams fillmore + and taft + +14. the verse to which you refer is as follows + the boast of heraldry the pomp of power + all that beauty all that wealth eer gave + await alike the inevitable hour + the paths of glory lead but to the grave + +15. a noun is the name of something as william france book cat + +16. the train leaves at eight therefore we shall have to rise at + seven at latest + +17. the different points discussed are these first the history of + the divine right theory second the exponents of the theory and + third the result of the theory + +18. in the first problem divide in the second multiply + +19. if the break is slight use a comma if it is more perceptible + use a semicolon if it is very sharp use a period + +20. william if you gear me answer + +21. he told mother that he must go home at least that is what she + understood + +22. as noise it is an undoubted success as music it is a flat failure + +23. that may be true but i still doubt it + +24. separate the clauses by a comma unless the connection be close + +25. even though that be true it does not prove what we want proved + +26. mary said yes but helen said no + +27. he is called the peerless leader + +28. such a man for example was lincoln + +29. if as you say it ought to be done why dont you do it + +30. that too is a mistake + +31. that is wool not cotton as you seem to think + +32. the english are stolid the french lively + +33. in that case let us have war + +34. such an opinion i may say is absurd + +35. alas when i had noticed my mistake it was too late + +36. the house which was built by smith is on the corner of a large lot + +37. he means the house that has green shutters + +38. those are all good books but none of them will do + +39. dickens wrote nicholas nickleby hugo les miserables thackeray + henry esmond + +40. he is a good student and also a great athlete + +41. he gave me a red silk handkerchief + +42. having assigned the lesson he left the room + +43. royers address is danville illinois + +44. you will find it discussed in paragraphs one two and three + +45. i had classes under the president dr harris + +46. moreover naxon the cashier has fled + +47. oh that is what you mean is it + +48. for this you will need a piece of clean white paper + +49. the bible says the lord thy god is a jealous god + +50. the boundary of uncle sams lands is the rio grande river + +51. theodore roosevelt is not the only strenuous man in history + +52. the north quickly recovered from the civil war + +53. he told mother to write to my uncle about it + +54. he said then why are you here + +55. in that army old young and middle aged men served for their + country could no longer raise a picked army +56. he was told to ask the principal professor morton + +57. in the same town muncy lives smith now a respected man + +58. a peasant named ali according to a good old oriental story + needing badly a donkey for some urgent work decided to apply to + his neighbor mehmed whose donkey ali knew to be idle in the stable + that day i am sorry my dear neighbor said mehmed in reply to alis + request but i cannot please you my son took the donkey this morning + to the next village i assure you insisted ali i shall take the + very best care of him my dear neighbor can you not take my word + demanded mehmed with a show of anger i tell you the donkey is out + but at this point the donkey began to bray loudly there that is + the donkey braying now well said the justly indignant mehmed if you + would rather take my donkeys word than my word we can be friends + no longer and under no circumstances can i lend you anything. + +59. a coroner was called upon to hold an inquest over the body of + an italian the only witness was a small boy of the same nationality + who spoke no english the examination proceeded thus where do you + live my boy the boy shook his head do you speak english another + shake of the head do you speak french another shake do you speak + german still no answer how old are you no reply have you father + and mother no reply do you speak italian the boy gave no sign well + said the coroner i have questioned the witness in four languages and + can get no answer it is useless to proceed the court is adjourned. + +NOTE. Further exercise in punctuation may be had by copying without +the marks of punctuation selections from books, and afterwards +inserting the proper marks. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE PARAGRAPH + +141. The PARAGRAPH is a connected series of sentences all dealing +with the development of a single topic. Where the general subject +under discussion is very narrow, the paragraph may constitute the +whole composition; but usually, it forms one of a number of subtopics, +each dealing with some subdivision of the general subject. For each +one of these subtopics a separate paragraph should be made. + +The purpose of the paragraph is to aid the reader to comprehend +the thought to be expressed. The paragraph groups in a logical way +the different ideas to be communicated. It gives rest to the eye +of the reader, and makes clearer the fact that there is a change +of topic at each new paragraph. + +142. PARAGRAPH LENGTH. There is no fixed rule governing the proper +length of the paragraph, but, probably, no paragraph need be more +than three hundred words in length. If the whole composition is not +more than two hundred and fifty words in length, it will not often +need to be subdivided into paragraphs. In a letter, paragraphing +should be more frequent than in other compositions. + +Paragraphing should not be too frequent. If paragraphing is too +frequent, by making each minute subdivision of equal importance, +it defeats its purpose of grouping ideas about some general topic. + +143. Sometimes a sentence or even a part of a sentence may be set +off as a separate paragraph in order to secure greater emphasis. +This, however, is only using the paragraph for a proper purpose--to +aid in gaining clearness. + +144. PARAGRAPHING OF SPEECH. In a narrative, each direct quotation, +together with the rest of the sentence of which it is a part, should +constitute a separate paragraph. This rule should be always followed +in writing a conversation. Examine the following: + +A certain Scotch family cherishes this anecdote of a trip which +Dr. Samuel Johnson made to Scotland. He had stopped at the house +of this family for a meal, and was helped to the national dish. +During the meal the hostess asked: + +"Dr. Johnson, what do you think of our Scotch broth?" + +"Madam," was the answer, "in my opinion it is fit only for pigs." + +"Then have some more," said the woman. + +The only case in which the quoted words can be detached from the +remainder of the sentence is where they form the end of the sentence +after some introductory words, as in the second paragraph of the +example just given. + +145. INDENTATION OF THE PARAGRAPH. The first sentence of each new +paragraph should be indented. See example under §144. No other +sentence should be so indented. + +146. The essential qualities which each paragraph should have are: +Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis. + +UNITY. Unity requires that the paragraph should deal with only one +subject, and should include nothing which does not have a direct +bearing on that subject. Thus, in the following paragraph, the +italicized sentence violates the principle of Unity, because, very +obviously it belongs to some other paragraph: + +Never did any race receive the Gospel with more ardent enthusiasm +than the Irish. _St. Patrick, a zealous priest, was thought to +have banished the snakes from the island_. So enthusiastic were +the Irish, that, not content with the religious work in Ireland, +the Irish Church sent out its missionaries to Scotland, to Germany, +and to the Alps and Apennines. It founded religious houses and +monasteries.... + +Separate paragraphs should not be made of matter which belongs +together. If the ideas can all be fairly included under one general +topic, unity demands that they be grouped in one paragraph. Thus, +in describing the route followed in a certain journey, one should +not use a separate paragraph for each step in the journey. + +Wrong: + +In returning to the University, I went from Pittsburgh to Cleveland. + +Then I took a berth for the night on one of the lake steamers running +from Cleveland to Detroit. + +From Detroit I completed the journey to Ann Arbor on an early train +the next morning. + +If unity is to be secured, not only must all the ideas brought +out in the paragraph deal with the same topic, but also, they must +be developed in some consistent, systematic order. A certain point +of view should be generally maintained as to tense, subject, and +manner of expression. + +147. HOW TO GAIN UNITY. Careful thought before beginning the paragraph +is necessary if unity is to be gained. The topic of the paragraph +should be determined, and should be clearly indicated by a topic +sentence. Usually this topic sentence should be placed near the +beginning of the paragraph. The first sentence is the clearest +and best place for it. The topic sentence need not be a formal +statement of the subject to be discussed, but may be any sentence +that shows what is to be the central idea of the paragraph. + +With the topic determined, there are various ways of developing it. +It may be developed by repetition; by adding details and specific +instances to the general statement; by presenting proof; by +illustration; or by showing cause or effect. + +148. Examine the following paragraphs. Each possesses the quality +of unity. The topic sentence in each case is italicized. + +_To rule was not enough for Bonaparte._ He wanted to amaze, to +dazzle, to overpower men's souls, by striking, bold, magnificent, +and unanticipated results. To govern ever so absolutely would not +have satisfied him, if he must have governed silently. He wanted +to reign through wonder and awe, by the grandeur and terror of his +name, by displays of power which would rivet on him every eye, and +make him the theme of every tongue. Power was his supreme object; +but power which should be gazed at as well as felt, which should +strike men as a prodigy, which should shake old thrones as an +earthquake, and, by the suddenness of its new creations, should +awaken something of the submissive wonder which miraculous agency +inspires. + +From _The Character of Napoleon Bonaparte_, by Channing. + +_There is something in the very season of the year that gives a +charm to the festivity of Christmas._ At other times we derive a +great portion of our pleasures from the mere beauties of Nature. +Our feelings sally forth and dissipate themselves over the sunny +landscape and we "live abroad and everywhere." The song of the bird, +the murmur of the stream, the breathing fragrance of spring, the +soft voluptuousness of summer, the golden pomp of autumn; earth with +its mantle of refreshing green, and heaven with its deep delicious +blue and its cloudy magnificence--all fill us with mute but exquisite +delight, and we revel in the luxury of mere sensation. But in the +depth of winter, when Nature lies despoiled of every charm, and +wrapped in her shroud of sheeted snow, we turn our gratifications +to moral sources. The dreariness and desolation of the landscape, +the short gloomy days and darksome nights, while they circumscribe +our wanderings, shut in also our feelings from rambling abroad, +and make us more keenly disposed for the pleasures of the social +circle. Our thoughts are more concentrated; our friendly sympathies +more aroused. We feel more sensibly the charm of each other's society, +and are brought more closely together by dependence on each other for +enjoyment. Heart calleth unto heart, and we draw our pleasures from +the deep wells of living kindness which lie in the quiet recesses of +our bosoms; and which, where resorted to, furnish forth the pure +element of domestic felicity. + +From _Christmas_, by Washington Irving. + +149. COHERENCE. Coherence demands that each paragraph shall be +perfectly clear in its meaning, and that it be so constructed that +it may be readily grasped by the reader. The relation of sentence +to sentence, of idea to idea, must be clearly brought out. The +whole fabric of the paragraph must be woven together--it must not +consist of disconnected pieces. + +150. HOW TO GAIN COHERENCE. Where vividness or some other quality +does not gain coherence in the sentence, it is usually gained by +the use of words or phrases which refer to or help to keep in mind +the effect of the preceding sentences, or which show the bearing of +the sentence on the paragraph topic. These words may be of various +sorts; as, _it, this view, however, in this way_, etc. Sometimes +the subject is repeated occasionally throughout the paragraph, +or is directly or indirectly indicated again at the end of the +paragraph. + +Examine carefully the following selections. Note the italicized +words of coherence, and note in each case how they aid the flow +of thought from sentence to sentence, and help to keep in mind +the paragraph topic. + +I will give you my opinion and advice in regard to the _two books_ +you have named. The _first_ is interesting and easy to read. _It_ +is, _also_, by no means lacking in the value of the information +it presents. _But the second_, while it is no less interesting +and equally valuable in its contents, seems to me far more logical +and scholarly in its construction. _In addition to this_ I think +you will find it cheaper in price, by reason of its not being so +profusely illustrated. _Therefore_, I should advise you to procure +the _second_ for your study. _Either, indeed_, will do, but since +you have a choice, take the better one. + +A Husbandman who had a quarrelsome family, after having tried in +vain to reconcile them by words, thought he might more readily +prevail by an example. _So_ he called his sons and bade them lay +a bundle of sticks before him. _Then having tied them_ up into a +fagot, he told _the lads_, one after another, to take it up and +break it. _They all tried_, but tried in vain. _Then_, untying +_the fagot_, he gave _them_ the sticks to break one by one. _This_ +they did with the greatest ease. _Then_ said the father: "_Thus_, +my sons, as long as you remain united, you are a match for all your +enemies; but differ and separate, and you are undone." _Æsop's +Fables_. + +Examine also the selections under §§ 205 and 206. + +151. EMPHASIS. The third quality which a paragraph should possess +is emphasis. The paragraph should be so constituted as to bring +into prominence the topic or the point it is intended to present. +The places of greatest emphasis are usually at the beginning and at +the end of the paragraph. In short paragraphs sufficient emphasis +is generally gained by having a topic sentence at the beginning. +In longer paragraphs it is often well to indicate again the topic +at the end by way of summary in order to impress thoroughly on +the reader the effect of the paragraph. + +EXERCISE 74 + +_The few following suggestions for practice in paragraph construction +are given by way of outline. Additional subjects and exercises +will readily suggest themselves to teacher or student._ + +_These topics are intended to apply only to isolated +paragraphs--"paragraph themes." As has been suggested, more latitude +in the matter of unity is allowed in compositions so brief that +more than one paragraph is unnecessary._ + +Write paragraphs: + + 1. Stating the refusal of a position that has been offered to you, + and giving your reasons for the refusal. + + 2. Describing the appearance of some building. Give the general + appearance and then the details. + + 3. Explaining how to tie a four-in-hand necktie. + + 4. Stating your reasons for liking or not liking some book or play. + + 5. Describing the personal appearance of some one of your acquaintance. + + 6. To prove that the world is round. + + 7. To prove that it pays to buy good shoes. (Develop by illustration.) + + 8. Showing by comparison that there are more advantages in city + life than in country life. + +Write paragraphs on the following subjects: + + 9. My Earliest Recollection. + +10. The Sort of Books I Like Best. + +11. Why I Like to Study X Branch. + +12. My Opinion of My Relatives. + +13. The Man I Room With. + +14. Why I Was Late to Class. + +15. What I Do on Sundays. + +16. How to Prevent Taking Cold. + +17. How to Cure a Cold. + +18. My Best Teacher. + +19. My Favorite Town. + +20. Why I Go Fishing. + +21. My Favorite Month. + +22. What Becomes of My Matches. + +23. Baseball is a Better Game than Football. + +24. The View from X Building. + +25. Why I Go to School. + +26. My Opinion of Rainy Days. + +27. My Most Useful Friend. + +28. Why I Dislike Surprise Parties. + +29. Why I Like to Visit at X's. + +30. The Police Service of X Town. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +LETTER-WRITING + +NOTE TO TEACHER.--For the purpose of training in composition, in +the more elementary work, letter-writing affords probably the most +feasible and successful means. Letter-writing does not demand any +gathering of material, gains much interest, and affords much latitude +for individual tastes in topics and expression. Besides, letter-writing +is the field in which almost all written composition will be done +after leaving school; and so all training in school will be thoroughly +useful. For this reason, it is suggested that letter-writing be +made one of the chief fields for composition work. + +In Exercise 75, are given a number of suggestions for letter-writing. +Others will readily occur to the teacher. + +THE HEADING + +152. POSITION OF HEADING. In all business letters the writer's +address and the date of writing should precede the letter and be +placed at the upper right hand side of the sheet not less than an +inch from the top. This address and date is called the HEADING. +In friendly letters the parts of the heading are sometimes placed +at the end of the letter on the left side a short distance below +the body of the letter. This is permissible, but to place it at +the beginning in all letters is more logical and customary. Never +write part of the heading at the beginning and part at the end +of the letter. + +153. ORDER OF HEADING. The parts of the heading should be sufficient +to enable the accurate addressing of a reply, and should be in +the following order: (1) the street address, (2) the town or the +city address, (3) the date. If all cannot be easily placed on one +line, two or even three lines should be used; but, in no case, +should the above order be varied. Examples: + +Wrong: March 31, 1910, Red Oaks, Iowa, 210 Semple Street. + +Right: 210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa, March 31, 1910. + +Right: 210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa, + March 31, 1910. + +Right: 210 Semple Street, + Red Oaks, Iowa, + March 31, 1910. + +If only two lines are used, put the writer's address on the first +line and the date on the second. + +Wrong: January 19, 1910, Sharon, Pennsylvania, + The Hotel Lafayette. + +Right: The Hotel Lafayette, Sharon, Pennsylvania, + January 19, 1910. + +154. PUNCTUATION OF HEADING. Place a period after each abbreviation +that is used. In addition to this, place commas after the street +address, after the town address, after the state address, and after +the number of the day of the month. Place a period after the number +of the year. Examine the correct address under §153. + +155. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN HEADINGS. Avoid the use of abbreviations +in the friendly letter, and avoid their too frequent use in the +business letter. + +It is better to avoid abbreviating any but the longer names of states. + +Avoid all such abbreviations as the following: _St._ for _Street; +Ave._ for _Avenue; Apart._ for _Apartments; Chi._ for _Chicago; +Phila._ for _Philadelphia_. + +Wrong: Hardie Apart., Pbg., Pa. + +Right: Hardie Apartments, Pittsburg, Pa. + +Do not use the sign # before the street number. + +Do not omit the word _Street_. + +Wrong: 229 Market. + +Right: 229 Market Street. + +Do not write the date thus: _9/10/10_. Represent the numbers by +figures, not words. See §§ 75 and 76. Do not use _st., rd.,_ etc., +after the number of the day. + +Wrong: 9/8/09. + +Right: September 8, 1909. + +Wrong: September the Ninth, Nineteen Hundred and Nine. + +Right: September 9, 1909. + +Wrong: March 10th, 1910. + +Right: March 10, 1910. + +THE INSIDE ADDRESS + +156. POSITION OF INSIDE ADDRESS. In strictly commercial letters +the name and the address of the person to whom the letter is being +sent should come at the beginning of the letter, and should begin +flush with the margin at the left side of the page, and a little +below the level of the heading. The second line of the inside address +should be set in a little from the margin. See model letters under +§174. + +In formal friendly letters and in letters of a non-commercial nature, +the inside address should stand a little below the bottom of the +letter at the left side of the page. In informal friendly letters +the inside address may be omitted. + +157. PUNCTUATION OF INSIDE ADDRESS. In punctuating the inside address, +place a period after each abbreviation that is used. In addition +to this, place a comma after the name of the addressee, a comma +after the street address, if one be given, and after the name of +the town or city. Place a period after the name of the state or +country. Examine the correct inside address under §174. + +158. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN THE INSIDE ADDRESS. Do not omit the +town, city, or state address from the inside address. + +Wrong: Mr. E. P. Griffith, + My dear Sir: + +Right: Mr. E. P. Griffith. + Muskogee, Oklahoma. + My dear Sir: + +Right: Mr. E. P. Griffith, + 221 Fiji Avenue, + Muskogee, Oklahoma. + My dear Sir: + +Do not omit proper titles. + +Wrong: R. R. Stolz, + Muncy, Pennsylvania. + +Right: Mr. R. R. Stolz, + Muncy, Pennsylvania. + +When two or more men are addressed, do not omit the title _Mr._, +before the name of each of the men, unless their names constitute +a partnership or trading name. + +Right: Jones & Smith, (_firm name_) + New York City. + Gentlemen: + +Right: Mr. Jones and Mr. Smith, (_not a firm name_) + New York City. + Gentlemen: + +Avoid all abbreviations of titles preceding the name except _Mr., +Mrs., Messrs._, and _Dr._ Abbreviations of titles placed after +the name, such as, _Esq., D.D., A.M._, etc., are proper. + +Do not use _Mr._ and _Esq._ with the same name. + +Avoid all other abbreviations except in case of a state with a +very long name. In this case it is permissible to abbreviate, but +it is better form to write the name in full. _United States of +America_ may be abbreviated to _U. S. A._ + +Wrong: Merch. Mfg. Co., + N. Y. C. + Gentlemen: + +Right: The Merchants' Manufacturing Company. + New York City. + Gentlemen: + +Wrong: Mr. William Shipp, + Bangor, Me. + Dear Sir: + +Right: Mr. William Shipp, + Bangor, Maine. + Dear Sir: + +Do not place a period after the title _Miss. Miss_ is not an +abbreviation. + +THE SALUTATION + +159. POSITION OF SALUTATION. The salutation should begin flush +with the margin and on the line next below the inside address. See +correctly written letters under §174. + +160. FORM OF SALUTATION. The salutation varies with the form of +the letter and the relations between the writer and receiver of +the letter. Where the parties are strangers or mere business +acquaintances the most common salutations for individuals are, +_Dear Sir, Dear Madam_, or _My dear Sir, My dear Madam_. For a +group of persons, or for a company or a partnership, _Gentlemen, +Dear Sirs, Dear Madams_ or _Mesdames_ are used. In less formal +business letters such salutations as, _My dear Mr. Smith_, or _Dear +Miss Jaekel_ may be used. + +In the case of informal and friendly letters, as in business and +formal letters, the salutation to be used is largely a matter of +taste. The following are illustrations of proper salutations for +friendly letters: _My dear Doctor, Dear Cousin, Dear Cousin Albert, +Dear Miss Jaekel, Dear Major, My dear Miss Smith, Dear William, +Dear Friend,_ etc. + +It is considered more formal to prefix _My_ to the salutation. + +It is over formal to use simply _Sir_ or _Madam_ in any letter, +or to use _Dear Sir_ or _Dear Madam_ when writing to a familiar +friend. + +If one uses a very familiar salutation, such as _Dear Brown, Dear +John,_ etc., it is better to put the inside address at the close +of the letter, or to omit it. + +161. PUNCTUATION OF SALUTATION. Punctuate the salutation with a +colon, except in informal letters, when a comma may be used. + +162. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN THE SALUTATION. Use no abbreviations +except _Dr., Mr., Mrs._ Do not use the abbreviation _Dr._, when +that title is used as a final word in a salutation. + +Wrong: My dear Maj. Wren: + +Right: My dear Major Wren: + +Wrong: My dear Dr.: + +Right: My dear Doctor: + +Do not use a name alone as a salutation. + +Wrong: Mr. W. W. Braker: + Will you please inform ... + +Right: Mr. W. W. Braker, + Muncy, Pennsylvania. + Dear Sir: + Will you please inform ... + +In the salutation capitalize only the important nouns and the first +word of the salutation. + +Wrong: My Dear Sir: + +Right: My dear Sir: + +Wrong: My very Dear Friend: + +Right: My very dear Friend: + +Wrong: Dear sir: + +Right: Dear Sir: + +THE BODY OF THE LETTER + +163. THE SUBJECT MATTER OF THE LETTER. In friendly letters much +latitude is allowed in the body of the letter, but business letters +should be brief and to the point. No letter, however, should be +lacking in the courteous forms or in completeness. + +164. FORM OF BODY. The body of the letter usually begins on the +line below the salutation and is indented the same distance from +the margin as any other paragraph would be indented. See model +letters under §174. + +In commercial letters paragraph divisions are made more frequently +than in other composition. Each separate point should be made the +subject of a separate paragraph. + +165. FAULTS IN BODY OF THE LETTER. In letters that are intended to +be complete and formal, avoid the omission of articles, pronouns, +and prepositions. Avoid also expressions that are grammatically +incomplete. Only in extremely familiar and hasty letters should +the "telegraph style" be adopted. + +Bad: Received yours of the 10th. Have had no chance to look up man. +Will do so soon. + +Good: I have received your letter of the tenth. I have had no chance +as yet to look up the man, but I will do so soon. + +Bad: Address c/o John Smith, Mgr. Penna. Tele. + +Good: Address in care of John Smith, Manager of the Pennsylvania +Telegraph. + +Bad: In reply will say ... + +Good: In reply I wish to say ... + +Bad: Yours of the 10th at hand. + +Good: Your letter of the 10th is at hand. + +Bad: Your favor received ... + +Good: We have received your letter ... + +Bad: Enclose P. O. money order for $2. + +Good: We enclose post office money order for two dollars, ($2). + +Bad: We have read your plan. Same is satisfactory. + +Good: We have read your plan, and it is satisfactory. + +Avoid the use of abbreviations in the letter. + +It is well to avoid the too frequent use of the pronoun _I_ in +the letter, though care must be taken not to carry this caution +to extremes. _I_, however, should not be omitted when necessary +to the completeness of the sentence. Do not try to avoid its use +by omitting it from the sentence, but by substituting a different +form of sentence. + +There is no objection to beginning a letter with _I_. + +Punctuate the letter just as carefully as any other composition. + +Excepting in letters of a formal nature, there is no objection +to the use of colloquial expressions such as _can't, don't,_ etc. + +Unless you have some clear reason to the contrary, avoid the use +of expressions that have been used so much that they are worn out +and often almost meaningless. Such expressions as the following ones +are not wrong, but are often used when they are both inappropriate +and unnecessary. + +Your esteemed favor is at hand. + +In reply permit me to say ... + +We beg leave to advise ... + +We beg to suggest ... + +Thanking you for the favor, we are ... + +Please find enclosed ... + +In answer to your favor of the tenth ... + +We take pleasure in informing you ... + +In reply would say ... + +We beg to acknowledge receipt of your favor ... + +Awaiting your further orders, we are ... + +THE CLOSE + +166. FINAL WORDS. Business letters frequently close with some final +words, such as, _Thanking you again for your kind assistance, I am +..., A waiting your further orders, we are_ ..., etc. These expressions +are not wrong, but are often used when not at all necessary. + +167. THE COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE. The complimentary close should be +written on a separate line near the middle of the page, and should +begin with a capital letter. Appropriateness is the only guide +to the choice of a complimentary close. + +The following complimentary closes are proper for business letters: + + Yours respectfully, Yours very truly, + Yours truly, Very truly yours, + +The following complimentary closes are proper for friendly letters: + + Yours sincerely, Very truly yours, + Yours very truly, Your loving son, + Yours cordially, Affectionately yours, + +168. FAULTS IN THE CLOSE. Do not use abbreviations, such as, _Yrs. +respy., yrs. try.,_ etc. + +169. THE SIGNATURE OF THE WRITER. The letter should be so signed as +to cause no doubt or embarrassment to any one addressing a reply. +The signature should show whether the writer is a man or a woman; +and, if a woman, it should indicate whether she is to be addressed +as _Miss_ or _Mrs._ In formal letters it is customary for a woman +to indicate how she is to be addressed by signing her name in the +following manner: + + Sincerely yours, + Caroline Jones. + (Mrs. William Jones). + + Very truly yours, + (Miss) Matilda Stephens. + +In signing a company name write first the name of the company, and +after it the name of the writer. Example: + +D. Appleton & Company, + per J. W. Miller. + +MISCELLANEOUS DIRECTIONS + +170. In beginning the letter, place the address and date an inch +and a half or two inches below the top of the page. + +Leave a margin of about a half inch or more on the left side of +the page. Indent the beginning of each paragraph about an inch +or more beyond the margin. + +In using a four-page sheet, write on the pages in their order, 1, +2, 3, 4. + +In the correctly written forms of letters under §174 observe the +indentation of the lines. The first line of the inside address +should be flush with the margin, the second somewhat set in. The +salutation should begin flush with the margin. The body of the letter +should begin on the line below the salutation, and some distance +in from the margin. + +THE OUTSIDE ADDRESS + +171. POSITION OF OUTSIDE ADDRESS. Place the address on the envelope +so that it balances well. Do not have it too far toward the top, +too close to the bottom, nor too far to one side. See addressed +envelope under §173. Place the stamp squarely in the upper right-hand +corner, not obliquely to the sides of the envelope. + +172. PUNCTUATION OF OUTSIDE ADDRESS. Punctuation may be omitted +at the end of the lines of the address. If it is used, place a +period at the end of the last line, and a comma after each preceding +line. + +Within the lines punctuate just as you would in the inside address. + +If an abbreviation ends the line, always place a period after it, +whether the other lines are punctuated or not. + +173. FAULTS IN THE OUTSIDE ADDRESS. Avoid the use of abbreviations +except those that would be proper in the inside address or in the +heading. See §§ 155 and 158. + +Do not use the sign # before the number of the street address. No +letters or sign at all should be used there. See §155. + +Compare the following forms of addresses: + +Bad: Col. Wm. Point, + #200 John St., + Trenton, N. J. + +Good: Colonel William Point, + 200 John Street, + Trenton, + New Jersey. + +Good: Colonel William Point + 200 John Street + Trenton, New Jersey + +Bad: Chas. Jones, + c/o Edward Furrey, + Wilkinsburg, Pa. + +Good: Mr. Charles Jones + In care of Mr. Edward Furrey + Wilkinsburg + Pennsylvania + +Bad: Rev. Walter Bertin + +Good: The Reverend Walter Bertin + +Bad: Pres. of Bucknell Univ. + +Good: For the President of Bucknell University. + +A properly arranged address: + +[Illustration: Mr. Robert D. Royer, + 201 Tenth Street, + Danville, + Illinois.] + +174. CORRECTLY WRITTEN LETTERS + + 200 Mead Avenue, + Wilkinsburg, Pennsylvania, + January 12, 1909. +Mr. A. M. Weaver, + Cambridge, Massachusetts. + +My dear Sir: + +I have received your letter of inquiry about the sale of my law +books. I will say in answer that at present I have no intention +of selling them. + +You may, however, be able to secure what you want from H. B. Wassel, +Esquire, Commonwealth Building, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. He has +advertised the sale of a rather extensive list of books. + + Very truly yours, + Charles M. Howell. + + Muncy, New York, January 12, 1909. +My dear Professor Morton: + +We are trying to establish in the school here some permanent system +of keeping students' records. I have been told that you have worked +out a card method that operates successfully. If you can give me +any information in regard to your method, I shall consider it a +very great favor. I enclose a stamped envelope for your reply. + + Very sincerely yours, + Harris A. Plotts. + +Professor E. A. Morton, + Braddock, Pennsylvania. + + Braddock, Pennsylvania, January 12, 1909. +My dear Mrs. Hagon: + +I wish to thank you for your kind aid in securing Captain Howard +to deliver one of the lectures in our course. Only your influence +enabled us to get so good a man at so Iowa price. + + Very sincerely, + Sylvester D. Dunlop. + + 173 State Street, Detroit, Michigan, + January 23, 1910. +To whom it may concern: + +It gives me great pleasure to testify to the character, ability +and attainments of Mr. E. J. Heidenreich. He has been a trusted +personal associate of mine for more than twenty years. He may be +counted upon to do successfully anything that he is willing to +undertake. + + Harry B. Hutchins. + +My dear Walter: + +I am to be in the city only a few more weeks before leaving permanently. +Before I go, I should like to have you come out and take dinner with +me some evening. How would next Wednesday at six o'clock suit you? +If you can come at that time, will you please write or telephone +to me sometime before Tuesday? + + Very cordially yours, + Paul B. Vandine. + +6556 Broad Street, + Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, + March 30, 1909. + + The Lafayette, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, + March 31, 1909. +My dear Paul: + +I shall be very glad to accept your invitation to take dinner with +you before you take final leave of the city. The time you mention, +next Wednesday evening, is entirely satisfactory to me. + +I was more than pleased to receive your invitation, for the prospect +of talking over old times with you is delightful. + + Sincerely yours, + Walter Powell. + + Napoleon, Ohio, February 28, 1908. +The American Stove Company, + Alverton, Pennsylvania. + +Gentlemen: + +With this letter I enclose a check for ten dollars, for which please +send me one of your small cook stoves, of the sort listed in your +catalogue on page two hundred thirty-eight. + +It will be a great favor if you will hasten the shipment of this +stove as much as possible, since it is urgently needed in a summer +cottage that I have for rent. + + Very truly yours, + Ernest Burrows. + + 223 Siegel Street, New York City, + June 5, 1910. +The Acme Tapestry Company, + Syracuse, New York. + +Dear Sirs: + +Will you please send me a price list and descriptive catalogue of +your tapestries and carpets? + +I have been commissioned to purchase all the tapestries and carpets +that may be needed for the new Young Women's Christian Association +Building, on Arlington Avenue, this city. I understand that institutions +of this sort are allowed a ten per cent discount by you. Will you +please tell me if this is true? + + Very truly yours, + Anna R. Fleegor. + (Mrs. C. C. Fleegor.) + + Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, May 10, 1910. +The Merchant's Electric Wiring Company, + Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. + +Gentlemen: + +I am writing to ask if you can give me employment in your work +for about ten weeks beginning June 15th. I am at present taking +a course in electrical engineering at Bucknell University, and +am in my sophomore year., It is my plan to gain some practical +experience in various sorts of electrical work during the vacations +occurring in my course. This summer I want to secure practical +experience in electric wiring. + +If you wish references as to my character and ability, I would +refer you to Mr. William R. Stevenson, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, and +to Mr. Harry E. McCormick, Superintendent of the Street Railways +Company, Danville, Illinois. + +Salary is a very slight object to me in this work, and I shall be +willing to accept whatever compensation you may see fit to offer +me. + + Respectfully yours, + Harvey H. Wilkins. + + Drawsburg, Ohio, May 21, 1910. +My dear Norman: + +I have just heard of your good fortune and hasten to assure you +of my sincere pleasure in the news. May you find happiness and +prosperity in your new location. But do not forget that your old +friends are still living and will always be interested in your +welfare. + + Your affectionate cousin, + Mary E. Johnston. + + 223 Holbrook Avenue, Wilkinsburg, Indiana. + November 10, 1908. +The Jefferson Life Insurance Company, + Norfolk, Virginia. + +Gentlemen: + +I am the holder of Policy Number 2919 in your company. In that +Policy, which was taken out about ten years ago, my occupation +is stated to be carpenter. Lately I have changed occupations, and +am now engaged in conducting a store. If, in order to maintain the +validity of my policy, the change of occupation should be recorded +on your books, will you please have the proper entry made. + +I should like to know if at the present time my policy has any cash +surrender value, and if so, what that value is. + + Very truly yours, + Arthur J. Pearse. + + Bunnell Building, Scranton, Pennsylvania, + April 20, 1909. +Mr. James R. Elliot, + Germantown, Colorado. + +My dear Elliot: + +Will you please send me, as soon as you conveniently can, the addresses +of George English, Ira S. Shepherd, and G. N. Wilkinson. + +This request for addresses may lead you to think that wedding +invitations are to be looked for. Your conclusion, I am happy to +say, is a correct one; I expect to be married sometime in June. + + Cordially your friend, + Charles R. Harris. + + The Anglo-American Hotel, Vienna, Austria, + March 19, 1907. +Dear Aunt Emily: + +You will no doubt be surprised when you read the heading of this +letter and learn that we are now in Vienna. We had really intended, +as I wrote to you, to spend the entire months of March and April +in Berlin, but a sudden whim sent us on to this city. + +Until we came to Vienna I had but a very vague idea of the city, +and thought it a place of little interest. I was surprised to find +it a place of so many beautiful buildings and beautiful streets. +Still more was I surprised to find what a festive, stylish place +it is. Paris may have the reputation for fashion and frivolity, +but Vienna lacks only the reputation; it certainly does not lack +the fashionable and frivolous air. + +The other day in one of the shops here, I discovered, as I thought, +a very fine miniature. I purchased it to present to you, and have +already sent it by post. It ought to reach you as soon as this +letter. + +We have not received the usual letter from you this week, but suppose +it is because we so suddenly changed our address. The necessity +of forwarding it from Berlin has probably caused the delay. + +Father and Mother join in sending their love to you. + + Your affectionate niece, + Mary. + +NOTES IN THE THIRD PERSON + +175. It is customary and desirable to write certain kinds of notes +in the third person. Such a note contains nothing but the body +of the note, followed at the left side of the paper, by the time +and the place of writing. + +Use no pronoun but that of the third person. Never use any heading, +salutation, or signature. Use no abbreviations except _Mr., Mrs._, +or _Dr._ Spell out all dates. + +176. CORRECTLY WRITTEN NOTES IN THE THIRD PERSON. + +Mrs. Harry Moore requests the pleasure of Mr. Leighou's company +at dinner on Sunday, June the first, at two o'clock. + +1020 Highland Street, + Washington, Pennsylvania, +May the twenty-fifth. + +The Senior Class of Bucknell University requests the pleasure of +Professor and Mrs. Morton's company on Tuesday evening, June the +tenth, at a reception in honor of Governor Edwin S. Stuart. + + Bucknell University, + June the fifth. + +Mr. Leighou regrets that a previous engagement prevents his acceptance +of Mrs. Moore's kind invitation for Sunday, June the first. + + 110 Braddock Avenue, + May the twenty-seventh. + +EXERCISE 75 + +_Make use of some of the following suggestions for letters. Have +every letter complete in all its formal parts. Fill in details +according to your own fancy:_ + + 1. A letter to the X Express Company of your town, complaining of + their delay in delivering a package to you. + + 2. A letter to a friend, thanking him for the entertainment afforded + you on a recent visit to his house. + + 3. A letter to the X Book Company, inquiring what dictionary they + publish, the prices, etc. + + 4. A letter to Mr. X, asking him for a position in his office, and + stating your qualifications. + + 5. A letter congratulating a friend on some good fortune that has + befallen him. + + 6. A letter asking a friend his opinion of some business venture + that you are thinking of entering upon. Explain the venture. + + 7. A letter to your home, describing to your parents your school. + + 8. A letter to a friend, telling him of the chance meeting with + some friend. + + 9. A letter to the X store ordering from them material for covering + a canoe that you are building. Explain your needs. + +10. A letter describing experiences which you had on your vacation. + +11. A letter arranging to meet a friend at a certain place, time, etc. + +12. A letter explaining how to reach your home from the railway + station. Leave no doubt. + +13. A letter describing some new acquaintance. + +14. A letter telling some humorous story that you have recently heard. + +15. A letter to a relative telling him the recent occurrences in + your town. + +16. A letter detailing your plans for the succeeding year. + +17. A letter describing some play which you have recently attended. + +18. A letter to your parents explaining to them why you failed in + an examination. + +19. A letter inviting a friend to visit you at a certain time. + +20. A letter accepting an invitation to visit a friend. + +21. A letter stating your opinions on some public question; as, + prohibition, woman suffrage, etc. + +22. A letter discussing the baseball prospects in your town or school. + +23. A letter to the X school, inquiring about courses of study given, + prices, etc. + +24. A formal third person invitation to a reception given to some + organization to which you belong. + +25. A formal third person acceptance of such invitation. + +26. A travel letter describing your visit to various places of interest. + +27. A letter describing a day's outing to a friend who was unable + to go with you. + +28. A letter describing a house to a man who wishes to purchase it. + +29. A letter to a schoolmate describing to him various events which + happened at school during his absence. + +30. A letter in reply to an inquiry from a friend as to what outfit + he will need to take along on a prospective camping trip. + +31. A letter describing to a friend the appearance and characteristics + of a dog which you have lately bought. + +32. A letter to your parents telling them of your boarding place, + your recent visit to the theater, your meeting an old friend, your + work, your new acquaintances. Arrange the topics and make the + transition as smooth as possible. + +33. A letter telling about an intended celebration by the school + of some national holiday. + +34. A letter about a lecture that you recently attended. Describe + the place, occasion, lecturer, address, etc. + +35. A letter telling a friend the first impression you formed of + your school. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE WHOLE COMPOSITION + +177. By the term WHOLE COMPOSITION or THEME is meant a composition +consisting of a number of related paragraphs all dealing with one +general subject, whether the composition be a narration, a description, +or an exposition. + +The following general principles applying to the construction of the +whole composition are stated for the guidance of the inexperienced +writer. + +178. STATEMENT OF SUBJECT. Care should be used in the statement of +the subject. It should not be so stated as to be more comprehensive +than the composition, but should be limited to cover only what is +discussed. For a small essay, instead of a big subject, take some +limited phase of that subject: + +Too broad: _College, Photography, Picnics_. + +Properly limited: _A College Education as an Aid to Earning Power, +Does College Life Make Loafers? Photography as a Recreation, How +Picnics Help the Doctor._ + +179. THE OUTLINE. Just as in the building of a house or of a machine, +if anything creditable is to be attained, a carefully made plan is +necessary before entering on the construction; so in the writing +of an essay or theme, there should be made some plan or outline, +which will determine what different things are to be discussed, +and what is to be the method of developing the discussion. By the +inexperienced writer, at least, a composition should never be begun +until an outline has been formed for its development. As soon as +the material for the composition is in hand, the outline should be +made. It should be an aid in the construction of the composition, +not a thing to be derived after the composition is completed. Only +by the previous making of an outline can a logical arrangement be +gained, topics properly subordinated, and a suitable proportion +secured in their discussion. + +In the previous chapter on the paragraph the following different +subtopics, were discussed: + +Definition of Paragraph. How to Secure Unity. +Length of Paragraph. How to Secure Coherence. +The Topic Sentence. Too Frequent Paragraphing. +Unity in the Paragraph. Paragraphing of Speech. +Coherence in the Paragraph. Paragraphing for Emphasis. +Examples of Unity. Examples showing how Unity is +Purpose of the Paragraph. Destroyed. +Emphasis in the Paragraph. The Paragraph Theme. + +If the topics had been taken up in the above irregular order, a +sorry result would have been obtained. Compare the above list of +topics with the following arrangement of the same topics in a logical +outline. + +THE PARAGRAPH + +1. Its definition and purpose. +2. Its length. + Paragraphing of speech. + Paragraphing for emphasis. + Too frequent paragraphing. +3. Its essential qualities. + A. Unity. + Definition. + Examples showing how unity is destroyed. + How to secure unity. + The topic sentence. + Development of topic sentence. + Examples showing unity. + B. Coherence. + Definition. + How to secure coherence. + Examples showing coherence. + C. Emphasis. + Places of emphasis in the paragraph. +4. Practical construction of the paragraph. +5. The paragraph theme. + +180. USE AND QUALITIES OF THE OUTLINE. The use of the outline is +not restricted to an expository composition, as above, but is also +necessary in narration and description. Usually, in a narration, +the order of time in which events occurred, is the best order in +which to present them, though other arrangements may frequently +be followed with very good reason. + +In a description different methods may be followed. Often a general +description is given, and then followed by a statement of various +details. Thus, in describing a building, one might first describe +in a general way its size, its general style of architecture, and +the impression it makes on the observer. Then more particular +description might be made of its details of arrangement and +peculiarities of architecture and ornamentation. + +The whole object of the outline is to secure clearness of statement +and to avoid confusion and repetition. To secure this end the outline +should present a few main topics to which all others either lead +up or upon which they depend. These topics or subtopics should all +bear some apparent and logical relation to one another. The relation +may be that of chronology; that of general statement followed by +details; that of cause and effect; or any other relation, so long +as it is a logical and natural one. + +The outline should not be too minute and detailed. It should be +sufficient only to cover the various divisions of the subject-matter, +and to prevent the confusion of subtopics. A too detailed outline +tends to make the composition stiff and formal. + +The outline should have proportion. The essential features of the +subject should be the main topics. Minor subjects should not be +given too great prominence, but should be subordinated to the main +topics. + +181. THE BEGINNING OF THE COMPOSITION. To choose a method of beginning +a composition often causes trouble. Usually a simple, direct beginning +is the best. But sometimes an introductory paragraph is necessary +in order to explain the writer's point of view, or to indicate +to what phases of the subject attention is to be given. Examine +the following methods of beginning. + +THE INDUSTRY OF LAWYER + +Oddly enough, hardly any notice is taken of an industry in which +the United States towers in unapproachable supremacy above all +other nations of the earth. The census does not say a word about +it, nor does there exist more than the merest word about it in +all the literature of American self-praise. + +MY CHILDHOOD FEAR OF GHOSTS + +Nothing stands out more keenly in the recollection of my childhood, +than the feelings of terror which I experienced when forced to go +to bed without the protecting light of a lamp. Then it was that +dread, indefinite ghosts lurked behind every door, hid in every +clothes-press, or lay in wait beneath every bed. + +THE USES OF IRON + +No other metal is put to so many uses and is so indispensable as +iron. + +The opening sentences of a composition should be able to stand +alone; their meaning or clearness should not depend upon reference +to the title. + +Bad: + +THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL + +There is a rapidly growing belief _that this study_ has too large +a place in our high-school courses of study. + +Good: + +THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL + +There is a rapidly growing belief _that Latin_ has too large a place +in our high school courses of study. + +182. UNITY IN THE COMPOSITION. Unity is an essential element of +the whole composition as well as of the paragraph, and its demands +here are in general the same. Nothing must be brought into the +composition which does not fall well within the limits of the subject. +In the different subdivisions, also, nothing must be discussed +which properly belongs to some other division of the topic. + +As in the paragraph, a definite point of view should be adopted +and adhered to. There must not be a continual changing of relation +of parts of the composition to the subject, nor of the writer's +relation to the subject. + +A consistent point of view is especially necessary in a narrative. +If the writer is telling of events within his own experience, care +must be taken not to bring in any conversation or occurrence, at +which, by his own story, he could not have been present. A continual +changing back and forth between present and past tenses must also +be avoided. One or the other should be adopted consistently. + +183. COHERENCE IN THE COMPOSITION. A composition must also be coherent. +Its different parts must be closely knit together and the whole +closely knit to the subject. Just as in the paragraph, words of +reference and transition are needed, so in the composition, words, +or sentences of reference and transition are needed, in order to +bind the whole together and show the relation of its parts. + +For this purpose, the beginning of a new division or any definite +change of topic should be closely marked, so as to prevent confusion. +There should be transition sentences, or sentences which show the +change of topic from paragraph to paragraph, and yet at the same +time bridge the thought from paragraph to paragraph. These transition +sentences may come at the end of a preceding paragraph, or at the +beginning of a following one, or at both of these places. + +Examine the following parts of paragraphs in which the words or +phrases showing transition from part to part are italicized: + +(Last sentence of first paragraph) + +... The American War was pregnant with misery of every kind. + +(Second paragraph) + +_The mischief, however,_ recoiled on the unhappy people of this +country, who were made the instruments by which the wicked purposes +of the authors were effected. The nation was drained of its best +blood, and of its vital resources of men and money. The expense +of the war was enormous--much beyond any former experience. + +(Third paragraph) + +_And yet, what has the British nation received in return_ for this +expense.... + +... I was now enabled to see the _extent and aspect of my prison. +In its size_ I had been greatly mistaken.... + +(Beginning of paragraph following one on Unity in the paragraph) + +_The second of the essentials of the paragraph_, coherence, demands +that.... + +Frequently, in the longer compositions, a separate paragraph is +devoted to accomplishing the transition from part to part. Observe +the following: + +(Paragraph 7) + +... The only other law bearing on this matter is the Act of Assembly +of last year authorizing the receipts from the automobile taxes +to be used in the construction of roads. This then completes the +enumeration of what has already been done toward building good +roads. + +(Paragraph 8. Transitional paragraph) + +_There are, however, several promising plans for the securing of +this important result, which are now being seriously discussed._ + +(Paragraph 9) + +_The first of these plans is_ ... + +The following are a few of the words and phrases often used to +indicate transition and to show relation between the paragraphs: +_So much for, It remains to mention, In the next place, Again, +An additional reason, Therefore, Hence, Moreover, As a result of +this, By way of exception._ + +Examine the selection under §187. + +184. THE ENDING OF THE COMPOSITION. In a longer composition, the +ending should neither be too abrupt, nor, on the other hand, should +it be too long drawn out. It should be in proportion to the length +of the composition. Usually, except in the case of a story, it +should consist of a paragraph or two by way of summary or inference. +In a story, however, the ending may be abrupt or not. The kind of +ending depends entirely upon the nature and the scheme of development +of the story. Examine the following endings: + +Ending of a theme on _The Uses of Iron_: + +Only some of the more important uses of this wonderful metal, iron, +have been mentioned. There are hundreds of other uses to which it +is constantly put--uses which no other metal could fill. Gold may +once have been called the king of metals, but it has long since +lost its claim to that title. + +Ending of a story: + +John heard her answer, and began to move slowly away from the gate. + +"Good-bye," he said. + +And then he was gone, forever. + +Suggested subjects for the making of outlines and compositions. + + 1. How I Spent my Vacation. + 2. Shall Final Examinations be Abolished? + 3. The Subjects which Should be Taught in High Schools. + 4. My Qualifications for a Position. + 5. The Uses of Iron. + 6. Paul Revere's Ride. + 7. The City Park. + 8. My Town as a Place of Residence. + 9. The Value of Railroads. + 10. Why I Believe in Local Option. + 11. A Winter's Sleigh Ride. + 12. Shall Foreign Immigration be Restricted? + 13. My Youthful Business Ventures. + 14. Why I Belong to the X Political Party. + 15. Various Methods of Heating a House. + +185. Below is given in full Lincoln's _Gettysburg Speech_. It is +perfect in its English and its construction. Study it with especial +reference to its coherence, unity, and emphasis. Some of the words +of coherence have been italicized. + +Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers, brought forth upon this +continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the +proposition that all men are created equal. _Now_ we are engaged +in a great civil war, testing whether _that nation_, or any nation +so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. + +We are met on a great battle-field of _that war_. We have come +to dedicate a portion of _that field_ as the final resting-place +for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. +It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do _this. But_ +in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we +cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who +_struggled here_ have consecrated it far above our power to add +or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what +we say here; but it can never forget what _they did here_. + +It is for us, the living, _rather_, to be dedicated here to the +unfinished work which _they who fought here_ have thus far so nobly +advanced. _It is rather for us_ to be here dedicated to the great +task remaining before us, that from these honored dead we take +increased devotion to that cause for which they here gave the last +full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that _these +dead_ shall not have died in vain; that _this nation_, under God, +shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, +by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth. + +186. _Small Economies_, from Mrs. Gaskell's _Cranford_. + +I have often noticed that everyone has his own individual small +economies--careful habits of saving fractions of pennies in some +one peculiar direction--any disturbance of which annoys him more +than spending shillings or pounds on some real extravagance. + +An old gentleman of my acquaintance, who took the intelligence of +the failure of a Joint-Stock Bank, in which some of his money was +invested, with a stoical mildness, worried his family all through a +long summer's day because one of them had torn (instead of cutting) +out the written leaves of his now useless bank-book. Of course, the +corresponding pages at the other end came out as well, and this +little unnecessary waste of paper (his private economy) chafed +him more than all the loss of his money. Envelopes fretted his +soul terribly when they first came in. The only way in which he +could reconcile himself to such waste of his cherished article +was by patiently turning inside out all that were sent to him, +and so making them serve again. Even now, though tamed by age, I +see him casting wistful glances at his daughters when they send +a whole inside of a half-sheet of note paper, with the three lines +of acceptance to an invitation, written on only one of the sides. + +I am not above owning that I have this human weakness myself. String +is my foible. My pockets get full of little hanks of it, picked up +and twisted together, ready for uses that never come. I am seriously +annoyed if any one cuts the string of a parcel instead of patiently and +faithfully undoing it fold by fold. How people can bring themselves +to use india-rubber bands, which are a sort of deification of string, +as lightly as they do, I cannot imagine. To me an india rubber band +is a precious treasure. I have one which is not new--one that I +picked up off the floor nearly six years ago. I have really tried +to use it, but my heart failed me, and I could not commit the +extravagance. + +Small pieces of butter grieve others. They cannot attend to conversation +because of the annoyance occasioned by the habit which some people +have of invariably taking more butter than they want. Have you not +seen the anxious look (almost mesmeric) which such persons fix on +the article? They would feel it a relief if they might bury it out +of their sight by popping it into their own mouths and swallowing +it down; and they are really made happy if the person on whose +plate it lies unused suddenly breaks off a piece of toast (which +he does not want at all) and eats up his butter. They think that +this is not waste. + +Now Miss Matty Jenkins was chary of candles. We had many devices +to use as few as possible. In the winter afternoons she would sit +knitting for two or three hours--she could do this in the dark, or +by firelight--and when I asked if I might not ring for candles to +finish stitching my wristbands, she told me to "keep blind man's +holiday." They were usually brought in with tea; but we only burnt +one at a time. As we lived in constant preparation for a friend +who might come in any evening (but who never did), it required +some contrivance to keep our two candles of the same length, ready +to be lighted, and to look as if we burnt two always. The candles +took it in turns; and, whatever we might be talking or doing, Miss +Matty's eyes were habitually fixed upon the candle, ready to jump +up and extinguish it and to light the other before they had become +too uneven in length to be restored to equality in the course of +the evening. + +One night, I remember this candle economy particularly annoyed me. +I had been very much tired of my compulsory "blind man's holiday," +especially as Miss Matty had fallen asleep, and I did not like to +stir the fire and run the risk of awakening her; and so I could +not even sit on the rug, and scorch myself with sewing by firelight, +according to my usual custom.... + +187. A LIST OF BOOKS FOR READING. These books are of a varied character +and are all interesting and of recognized excellence in their English. +Most of them are books that, as a matter of general education, +should be read by everyone. + +Fiction: + Treasure Island--Stevenson. + Kidnapped--Stevenson. + Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde--Stevenson. + The Scarlet Letter--Hawthorne. + Twice Told Tales--Hawthorne. + The Luck of Roaring Camp--Bret Harte. + Tales of Mystery and Imagination--Poe. + Silas Marner--Eliot. + Robinson Crusoe--Defoe. + Ivanhoe--Scott. + Henry Esmond--Thackeray. + Pilgrim's Progress--Bunyan. + The Spy--Cooper. + The Man without a Country--Hale. + Tales of a Traveller--Irving. + The Legend of Sleepy Hollow--Irving. + Rip Van Winkle--Irving. + Lorna Doone--Blackmore. + Uncle William--Lee. + The Blue Flower--Van Dyke. + +Non-fiction: + Sesame and Lilies--Ruskin. + Stones of Venice--Ruskin. + The American Commonwealth--Bryce. + A History of the English People--Green. + Views Afoot--Taylor. + The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table--Holmes. + Conspiracy of Pontiac--Parkman. + Autobiography--Franklin. + Lincoln--Douglas Debates. + Critical Periods of American History--Fiske. + Certain Delightful English Towns--Howells. + The Declaration of Independence. + Bunker Hill Oration--Webster. + On Conciliation with America--Burke. + The Sketch Book--Irving. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +WORDS.--SPELLING.--PRONUNCIATION + +188. To write and to speak good English, one must have a good working +vocabulary. He must know words and be able to use them correctly; +he must employ only words that are in good use; he must be able +to choose words and phrases that accurately express his meaning; +and he must be able to spell and pronounce correctly the words +that he uses. + +WORDS + +189. GOOD USE. The first essential that a word should have, is +that it be in good use. A word is in good use when it is used +grammatically and in its true sense, and is also: + +(1) _Reputable_; in use by good authors and writers in general. +The use of a word by one or two good writers is not sufficient +to make a word reputable; the use must be general. + +(2) _National_; not foreign or local in its use. + +(3) _Present_; used by the writers of one's own time. + +190. OFFENSES AGAINST GOOD USE. The offenses against good use are +usually said to be of three classes: Solecisms, Barbarisms, and +Improprieties. + +191. SOLECISMS are the violations of the principles of grammar. +Solecisms have been treated under the earlier chapters on grammar. + +192. BARBARISMS. The second offense against good use, a barbarism, +is a word not in reputable, present or national use. The following +rules may be given on this subject: + +1. AVOID OBSOLETE WORDS. Obsolete words are words that, once in +good use, have since passed out of general use. This rule might +also be made to include obsolescent words: words that are at present +time passing out of use. Examples of obsolete words: + + methinks yesterwhiles twixt + yclept afeard shoon + +2. AVOID NEWLY COINED EXPRESSIONS OR NEW USES OF OLD EXPRESSIONS. +There are a great many words current in the newspapers and in other +hasty writing that have not the sanction of general good use at +the present time, though many of these words may in time come into +use. A safe rule is to avoid all words that are at all doubtful. +Examples: + + an invite an exposé a try + enthuse a combine fake + +A common newspaper fault is the coining of a verb or adjective from +a noun, or a noun from a verb. Examples: + + locomote suicided derailment + pluralized burglarized refereed + +3. AVOID FOREIGN WORDS. A foreign word should not be used until it +has become naturalized by being in general, reputable use. Since +there are almost always English words just as expressive as the +foreign words, the use of the foreign words usually indicates +affectation on the part of the one using them. Examples: + + billet-doux (love letter) conversazione (conversation) + ad nauseam (to disgust) distingué (distinguished) + ad infinitum (infinitely) entre nous (between us) + +4. AVOID PROVINCIALISMS. Provincialisms are expressions current +and well understood in one locality, but not current or differently +understood in another locality. Examples: + + guess (think) reckon (suppose) + near (stingy) smart (clever) + tuckered (tired out) lift (elevator) + tote (carry) ruination (ruin) + +5. AVOID VULGARISMS. Vulgarisms are words whose use shows vulgarity +or ignorance. Such words as the following are always in bad taste: + + chaw nigger your'n + gal flustrated hadn't oughter + haint dern his'n + +6. AVOID SLANG. Slang is a form of vulgarism that is very prevalent +in its use even by educated people. Slang words, it is true, sometimes +come into good repute and usage, but the process is slow. The safest +rule is to avoid slang expressions because of their general bad +taste and because of their weakening effect on one's vocabulary +of good words. Examples of slang: + + grind swipe booze + long green on a toot dough + pinch peach dukes + +7. AVOID CLIPPED OR ABBREVIATED WORDS. The use of such words is +another form of vulgarism. Examples: + + pard (partner) rep (reputation) + doc (doctor) cal'late (calculate) + musee (museum) a comp (complimentary ticket) + +8. AVOID TECHNICAL OR PROFESSIONAL WORDS. Such words are usually +clearly understood only by persons of one class or profession. +Examples: + + valence hagiology allonge + kilowatt sclerosis estoppel + +193. WHEN BARBARISMS MAY BE USED. In the foregoing rules barbarisms +have been treated as at all times to be avoided. This is true of +their use in general composition, and in a measure true of their +use in composition of a special nature. But barbarisms may sometimes +be used properly. Obsolete words would be permissible in poetry +or in historical novels, technical words permissible in technical +writing, and even vulgarisms and provincialisms permissible in +dialect stories. + +EXERCISE 76 + +_Substitute for each of the barbarisms in the following list an +expression that is in good use. When in doubt consult a good +dictionary:_ + +Chaw, quoth, fake, reckon, dern, forsooth, his'n, an invite, entre +nous, tote, hadn't oughter, yclept, a combine, ain't, dole, a try, +nouveau riche, puny, grub, twain, a boom, alter ego, a poke, cuss, +eld, enthused, mesalliance, tollable, disremember, locomote, a right +smart ways, chink, afeard, orate, nary a one, yore, pluralized, +distingué, ruination, complected, mayhap, burglarized, mal de mer, +tuckered, grind, near, suicided, callate, cracker-jack, erst, +railroaded, chic, down town, deceased (verb), a rig, swipe, spake, +on a toot, knocker, peradventure, guess, prof, classy, booze, per +se, cute, biz, bug-house, swell, opry, rep, photo, cinch, corker, +in cahoot, pants, fess up, exam, bike, incog, zoo, secondhanded, +getable, outclassed, gents, mucker, galoot, dub, up against it, +on tick, to rattle, in hock, busted on the bum, to watch out, get +left. + +EXERCISE 77 + +_Make a list of such barbarisms as you yourself use, and devise +for them as many good substitute expressions as you can. Practice +using the good expressions that you have made._ + +EXERCISE 78 + +_Correct the italicized barbarisms in the following sentences:_ + + 1. They can go _everywheres_. + 2. He spends all his time _grinding_. + 3. There _ain't_ a _sightlier_ town in the state. + 4. He ate the whole _hunk_ of cake. + 5. He was treated very _illy_. + 6. Smith's new house is very _showy_. + 7. Not _muchly_ will I go. + 8. All were ready for breakfast before _sun-up_. + 9. Do you like _light-complected_ people? + 10. I had never _orated_ before. + 11. Their clothes are always _tasty_ in appearance. + 12. He has money, but he is very _near_. + 13. He left the room _unbeknown_ to his mother. + 14. If manners are any indication, she belongs to the _nouveau riche_. + 15. I feel pretty _tollable_ today. + 16. I _reckon_ all will be able to get seats. + 17. Do you _callate_ to get there before noon? + 18. If I had as much _long green_ as he has, I wouldn't be such a +_tight-wad_. + 19. He was the _beau ideal_ of soldier. + 20. John is a _crazy cuss_. + 21. Let me say _en passant_ we did not ask for the tickets. + 22. Even at that time John had a bad _rep_. + 23. That woman is the Countess of Verdun, _née_ Smith. + 24. _Methinks_ you are wrong. + 25. The teacher _spake_ sharply to her. + 26. I _didn't go for to do_ it. + 27. It will be published _inside of_ two months. + 28. The duke and his wife were travelling _incog_. + 29. I hadn't _thought on_ that. + 30. There is little difference _twixt_ the two. + 31. Come now, _fess up_. + 32. It's a _right smart ways_ to Williamsport. + 33. You _wot_ not what you say. + 34. He bought a _poke_ of apples for his lunch. + 35. Brown runs a pretty _classy_ store. + 36. I finally _got shut_ of him. + 37. I _could of_ jumped across. + 38. That can't be done _nohow_. + 39. You make such _dumb_ mistakes. + 40. I never saw such a _bum_ show. + +194. IMPROPRIETIES. The third offense against good use, an impropriety, +is the use of a proper word in an improper sense. In many cases an +offense against good use may be called a barbarism, an impropriety, +or a solecism, since the fields covered by the three terms somewhat +overlap one another. Many improprieties have their origin in the +similarities in sound, spelling or meaning of words. The following +exercises deal with a number of common improprieties resulting +from the confusion of two similar words. + +EXERCISE 79 + +_Study the proper use of the words given under each of the following +divisions. In each group of sentences fill the blanks with the +proper words:_ + +ACCEPT, EXCEPT. See Glossary at end of book, under _except_. + + 1. I cannot ---- your gift. + 2. Have you no books ---- these? + 3. Cicero was not ---- from the list of those condemned. + 4. He ---- the invitation. + +AFFECT, EFFECT. See Glossary under _effect_. + + 1. Will your plan ---- a reform from the present condition? + 2. The sad news will seriously ---- his mother. + 3. How was the bank ---- by the indictment of its president? + 4. The change of schedule was ---- without a hitch. + +AGGRAVATE, IRRITATE. See Glossary. + + 1. Her manner ---- me. + 2. The crime was ---- by being committed in cold blood. + 3. The children do everything they can to ---- her. + 4. His illness was ---- by lack of proper food. + +ALLUDE, MENTION. See Glossary. + + 1. He ---- (to) certain events which he dared not name directly. + 2. The attorney ---- (to) no names. + 3. That passage in his book delicately ---- (to) his mother. + 4. In his speech the labor leader boldly ---- (to) his recent arrest. + +ARGUE, AUGUR. _To argue_ is to state reasons for one's belief. _To +augur_ means _to foretell, to presage_. + + 1. The reported quarrel ---- ill for the army. + 2. He will ---- at length on any subject. + 3. Her darkening looks ---- a quarrel. + +AVOCATION, VOCATION. A _vocation_ is one's principal work or calling. +_An avocation_ is something aside from or subordinate to that principal +calling. + + 1. The young physician enthusiastically pursues his ----. + 2. Law is his ----, but politics is his ----. + 3. The ministry should be one's ----, never his ----. + 4. While preparing for his life work, school teaching was for a +time his ----. + +BESIDES, BESIDE. _Besides_ means _in addition to. Beside_ refers +to place; as, _He sits beside you_. + + 1. ---- you, who else was there? + 2. Is there nothing ---- this to do? + 3. John walked ---- me. + 4. ---- me was a tree. + +CALCULATE, INTEND. _To calculate_ means _to compute, to adjust_ or +_to adapt. Intend_ means _to have formed the plan to do something_. + + 1. He ---- to sell books this summer. + 2. He ---- that the work will take ten years. + 3. He ---- to finish it as soon as he can. + 4. The oil is ---- to flow at the rate of a gallon a minute. + +CHARACTER, REPUTATION. See Glossary. + + 1. In this community his ---- is excellent. + 2. One's friends may endow him with a good ----, but not with a good ----. + 3. Slander may ruin one's ----, but it will not destroy his ----. + 4. See that your ---- is right, and your ---- will establish itself. + +CLAIM, ASSERT. _To claim_ means to make a demand for what is one's +own. It should not be confused with _assert_. + + 1. I ---- that I am innocent. + 2. John ---- the property as his. + 3. They ---- their right to the land. + 4. The cashier ---- the money in payment of a note. + 5. Do you still ---- that you were born in America? + +COUNCIL, COUNSEL, CONSUL. A _council_ is a group of persons called +in to hold consultation. _Counsel_ means _an adviser_, as a lawyer; +or _advice_ that is given. _Consul_ is an officer of the government. + + 1. In the colonies each governor had his ----. + 2. The advisers gave him ---- when he desired it. + 3. The United States has a ---- in every important foreign port. + 4. In criminal cases the accused must be provided with ----. + 5. The president's cabinet constitutes for him a sort of ----. + 6. In Rome two ---- were elected to manage the affairs of the state. + +EMIGRATION, IMMIGRATION. See Glossary. + + 1. Foreign ---- into the United States is greatly restricted. + 2. The ---- of the citizens of the United States to Canada is +becoming a matter of concern. + 3. Our ---- Bureau enforces the Chinese Exclusion Act. + 4. The treatment of the royalists caused a great ---- from France. + +GOOD, WELL. _Good_ is an adjective. _Well_ is usually an adverb, +though sometimes an adjective; as, _Are you well to-day?_ + + 1. She talks very ----. + 2. She prepares a ---- paper, even if she does not write ----. + 3. Do ---- what you are doing. + 4. Did you have a ---- time? + 5. Recite it as ---- as you can. + +HOUSE, HOME. _House_ means only _a building. Home_ means a place +that is one's habitual place of residence. + + 1. He thought often of the flowers about the door of his old ----. + 2. They have recently bought a ---- which they intend to make their ----. + 3. Mr. Heim lives here now, but his ---- is in Lewisburg. + 4. He has several miserable ---- that he rents. + 5. Such a place is not fit to be called a ----. + +MOST, ALMOST. _Almost_ is an adverb meaning _nearly. Most_ never +has this meaning. + + 1. I was ---- injured when the machine broke. + 2. It is ---- time for him to come. + 3. The ---- discouraging thing was his indifference. + 4. I ---- missed the car. + 5. ---- of the books are torn. + +LET, LEAVE. See Glossary, under _leave_. + + 1. Will his employer ---- him go so early. + 2. I shall ---- at noon. + 3. ---- me help you with your coat. + 4. ---- me here for a while. + 5. This book I ---- with you. + 6. Do not ---- that danger disturb you. + +LIKE, AS. _Like_ should not be used as a conjunction in the sense +of _as_. As a preposition it is correct. It is wrong to say, _Do +like I do_; but right to say, _Do as I do_. + + 1. He looks ---- James. + 2. Read ---- James does. + 3. Does she look ---- me? + 4. She thinks of it ---- I thought. + 5. Lincoln could do a thing ---- that. + 6. Other men could not do ---- Lincoln did. + +LIKELY, LIABLE, PROBABLY. It is better to avoid using _likely_ as +an adverb; but it may be used as an adjective; as, _He is likely +to come. Probably_ refers to any sort of possibility. _Liable_ +refers to an unpleasant or unfavorable possibility; it should not +be used as equivalent to _likely_. + + 1. He is ---- to arrest for doing that. + 2. The president's car will ---- arrive at noon. + 3. It is ---- to rain to-day. + 4. Is he ---- to write to us? + 5. Continued exposure makes one more ---- to serious illness. + 6. What will ---- come of it? + +LOAN, LEND. _Loan_ should be used only as a noun, and _lend_ only +as a verb. + + 1. I wish to obtain a ---- of fifty dollars. + 2. Will you ---- me your knife? + 3. A ---- of money loses both itself and friend. + 4. A ---- is something that one ---- to another. + +MAD, ANGRY. Mad means _insane, uncontrollably excited through fear_, +etc. It should not be used for _angry_ or _vexed_. + + 1. His manner of speaking makes me ----. + 2. It makes one ---- to see such behavior. + 3. The noise almost drove me ----. + +MUCH, MANY. _Much_ refers to quantity; _many_ to number. + + 1. Sometimes they have as ---- as fifty in a class. + 2. ---- of the trouble comes from his weak eyes. + 3. Do you use ---- horses on the farm? + 4. How ---- marbles did the boy have? + +NEAR, NEARLY. _Near_ is an adjective; _nearly_ an adverb. + + 1. Is the work ---- finished? + 2. The man was ---- the end of the porch. + 3. It was ---- noon when Blucher came. + 4. They are ---- insane with worry. + 5. Mary is not ---- so old as John. + +OBSERVATION, OBSERVANCE. _Observation_ means to _watch, to look at. +Observance_ means _to celebrate, to keep_. _Observation_ applies +to a fact or an object; _observance_ to a festival, a holiday, or +a rule. + + 1. The ---- of the astronomer proved the theory. + 2. Sunday ---- is of value to one's bodily as well as to one's spiritual health. + 3. The ---- of the sanitary regulations was insisted upon. + 4. The scientist needs highly developed powers of ----. + +RESPECTIVELY, RESPECTFULLY. _Respectively_ means _particularly, +relating to each. Respectfully_ means _characterized by high regard._ + + 1. These three kinds of architecture were characterized ---- as +"severe," "graceful," and "ornate." + 2. Sign your letter "Yours ----," not "yours ----." + 3. Their shares were ---- two hundred dollars and five hundred dollars, + 4. The class ---- informed the faculty of their desire. + +SUSPECT, EXPECT. _Suspect_ means _to mistrust. Expect_ means _to +look forward to_. + + 1. I ---- that he will come. + 2. He ---- his brother of hiding his coat. + 3. When do you ---- to finish the work? + 4. The man was never before ---- of having done wrong. + +TEACH, LEARN. See Glossary under _learn_. + + 1. You must ---- him to be careful. + 2. He must ---- to be careful. + 3. To ---- a class to study is a difficult task. + 4. Who ---- your class to-day. + +TRANSPIRE, HAPPEN. _Transpire_ does not mean _to happen_. It means +_to become gradually known, to leak out_. + + 1. She knows everything that ---- in the village. + 2. It ---- that he had secretly sold the farm. + 3. No more important event than this has ---- in the last ten years. + 4. It has now ---- that some money was stolen. + +QUITE, VERY. _Quite_ is not in good use in the sense of _very_ or +_to a great degree_. It properly means _entirely_. + + 1. The book is ---- easy to study. + 2. Have you ---- finished your work. + 3. The train ran ---- slowly for most of the distance. + 4. That is ---- easy to do. + 5. We were ---- unable to reach the city any sooner. + +EXERCISE 80 + +_The following list includes some groups of words that are often +confused. Far the proper meaning of the words refer to a good +dictionary. Write sentences using the words in their proper senses:_ + + practical, skilled sensible, sensitive + couple, two access, accession + future, subsequent allusion, illusion, delusion + folk, family conscience, consciousness + evidence, testimony identity, identification + party, person, firm limit, limitation + plenty, many, enough of majority, plurality + portion, part materialize, appear + solicitation, solicitude invent, discover + human, humane prescribe, proscribe + bound, determined some, somewhat, something + fix, mend mutual, common + foot, pay noted, notorious + creditable, credible wait for, wait on + exceptionable, exceptional in, into + +EXERCISE 81 + +_Show how the use of each of the two italicized words in the following +sentences would affect the meaning of the sentence:_ + + 1. We experienced a _succession series_ of hindrances. + 2. That _statement assertion_ was made by an eye witness. + 3. The student has remarkable _ability capacity_. + 4. In my _estimate estimation_ the cost will be higher than fifty dollars. + 5. The _import importance_ of his words is not fully understood. + 6. The _union unity_ of the clubs is remarkable. + 7. The _acts actions_ of the president were closely watched. + 8. The man needed a new _stimulus stimulant_. + 9. He was _captivated captured_ by her unusual charms. + 10. We are quick to _impute impugn_ motives that we think to exist. + 11. He was _convinced convicted_ by John's argument. + 12. The dog's suffering was _alleviated relieved_ by the medicine. + 13. He _persuaded advised_ me to consult a lawyer. + 14. His behavior was _funny odd_. + 15. The plan seems _practical practicable_. + 16. That is the _latest last_ letter. + 17. That certainly was not a _human humane_ action. + 18. He _waited on waited for_ his mother. + 19. The _completeness completion_ of the work brought many congratulations. + +EXERCISE 82 + +_Supply a word which will remedy the italicized impropriety in each +of the following sentences. When in doubt consult a dictionary:_ + + 1. The _majority_ of the illustrations are good. + 2. No one can accurately _predicate_ what the weather will be. + 3. Shall you _except_ the invitation? + 4. They _claim_ that the assertion cannot be proved. + 5. They finally _located_ the criminal in Dravosburg. + 6. I shall _leave_ you go at noon. + 7. The _balance_ of the essay was uninteresting. + 8. By questions they tried to _eliminate_ the true story. + 9. They _impugn_ false motives to me. + 10. He was greatly _effected_ by the news. + 11. Sabbath _observation_ was then very strict. + 12. They _expect_ that she wrote the letter. + 13. The _invention_ of electricity has revolutionized all manufactures. + 14. Who _learned_ her to sing? + 15. Edison _discovered_ the phonograph. + 16. One cannot comprehend the _enormity_ of a billion of dollars. + 17. Many _complements_ were paid to her beauty. + 18. His _consciousness_ pricked him. + 19. How could any one be guilty of such a cruel _action_. + 20. The _advancement_ of the army was very slow. + +195. IDIOMS. There are in English, as in other languages, a number +of expressions that cannot be justified by the rules of grammar or +rhetoric; and yet these expressions are among the most forcible +ones in the language, and are continually used by the best writers. +These expressions that lie outside all rules we call idioms. Compare +the following idiomatic expressions with the unidiomatic expressions +that succeed them. The second expression in each group is in accord +with the strict rules of composition; but the first, the idiomatic, +is far more forceful. + +Idiomatic: The book which I read about. + +Unidiomatic: The book about which I read. + +Idiomatic: More than one life was lost. + +Unidiomatic: More lives than one life were lost. + +Idiomatic: Speak loud. Speak louder. + +Unidiomatic: Speak loudly. Speak more loudly. + +Idiomatic: A ten-foot pole. + +Unidiomatic: A ten-feet pole. + +Idiomatic: He strove with might and main. + +Unidiomatic: He strove with might. (Might and main are two words +of the same meaning.) + +Idiomatic: He lectured on every other day. + +Unidiomatic: He lectured on one day out of every two. + +Idioms are not to be avoided. On the contrary, because they contribute +great ease and force to composition, their use is to be encouraged. +But the distinction between idiomatic and unidiomatic expressions +is a fine one, and rests solely on usage. Care must be taken not +to go beyond the idiomatic. There is probably little danger that +the ordinary writer or speaker will not use idioms enough. + +The following expressions are examples of commonly used idioms: + +He was standing at the door _in his shirt sleeves_. + +I _don't think_ it will rain (I think it will not rain). + +She walked out of the room _on her father's arm_. + +John was a poor _shot_. + +Do you feel _like a little candy_? + +See what my foolishness has brought me _to_. + +What part of the city will they settle _in_? + +What was the house built _for_? + +John needs a match to light his pipe _with_. + +That is all I ask _for_. + +What are you driving _at_? + +_Hard put to it._ + +_By all odds._ + +_Must needs._ + +I must _get up_ by noon. + +_Get rid of._ + +_Get used to._ + +_Never so good._ + +_Whether or no._ + +I can't go _either_. + +_You forget yourself_ when you speak so harshly. + +I can come only _every other_ day. + +If the bell rings _answer the door_. + +_I take it_ that you will be there too. + +_Come and see_ me. + +_Try and_ do it. + +The thief _took to his heels_. + +196. CHOICE OF WORDS. The words in which a thought is expressed may +not offend against good use, and yet still be objectionable because +they do not accurately and appropriately express the thought. One +should choose not merely a word that will approximately express +the thought, but the one word that best expresses it. The following +suggestions are given to aid in the choice of words: + +1. CHOOSE SIMPLE ENGLISH WORDS and avoid what is called "fine writing." +Young writers and newspaper writers are greatly given to this offense +of fine or bombastic writing. Examples: + +FINE WRITING SIMPLE STYLE +Was launched into eternity Was hanged +Disastrous conflagration Great fire +Called into requisition the services Sent for the doctor + of the family physician +Was accorded an ovation Was applauded +Palatial mansion Comfortable house +Acute auricular perceptions Sharp ears +A disciple of Izaak Walton A fisherman + +2. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN GENERAL AND SPECIFIC TERMS. In some cases +general words may be used to advantage, but more often specific +words should be used, since they call to the mind a definite image. +Compare these sentences: + +The _high color_ of his face showed his embarrassment. + +His _crimson_ face showed his embarrassment. + +He was a _large_ man. + +He was a _fat_ man. + +He was a man of _large frame_. + +He was a _tall, heavily proportioned_ man. + +He was a man _six feet four inches tall_ and _heavy_ in proportion. + +It was an _impressive_ building. + +It was a building of _impressive size_. + +It was a building of _impressive beauty_. + +His _fault_ was robbery. + +His _crime_ was robbery. + +3. AVOID OVER-STATEMENT OF FACTS. The use of words that are too +strong is a fault especially characteristic of Americans. Examples: + +Poor: The concert was _simply exquisite_. + +Better: The concert was _very good_. + +Poor: She was _wild_ over the mistake. + +Better: She was _much annoyed_ by the mistake. + +4. AVOID HACKNEYED PHRASES; expressions that have been worked to +death. Examples: + +His paternal acres. + +The infuriated beast. + +The gentle zephyrs of springtime. + +Was gathered to his fathers. + +The blushing bride was led to the hymeneal altar. + +Applauded to the echo. + +EXERCISE 83 + +_For each of the following expressions devise the best simple English +expression that you can:_ + + 1. Individual was precipitated. + 2. Tendered him a banquet. + 3. At the witching hour of midnight. + 4. The devouring element was checked. + 5. Piscatorial sport. + 6. Pedal extremities. + 7. Fraught with tremendous possibilities. + 8. Amid the plaudits of the multitude. + 9. Caudal extremity. + 10. Passed to his long home. + 11. Dissected the Thanksgiving bird. + 12. Presided at the organ. + 13. Finger of scorn pointed at him. + 14. Wended his way. + 15. The green eyed monster. + 16. The whole aggregation of knowledge chasers. + 17. Maternal ancestor. + 18. Shuffled off this mortal coil. + 19. Failed to materialize at the banquet. + 20. Tonsorial artist. + 21. Twirler of the sphere. + 22. Pugilistic encounters. + 23. Performed his matutinal ablutions. + 24. Partook of a magnificent collation. + 25. Solemnized the rites of matrimony. + +EXERCISE 84 + +_In the third paragraph of the selection from Cranford (see §186) +observe the use of the following words: HUMAN, WEAKNESS, HANKS, +TWISTED, ANNOYED, and UNDOING. Study the specific nature of these +words by grouping about each of them other words of somewhat similar +meaning, and then comparing the force of the various words in each +group._ + +_This sort of exercise may be continued by choosing passages from +any careful writer and studying the words that he has used._ + +EXERCISE 85 + +_Substitute for each of the following expressions some expression +that will be less general or less exaggerated:_ + + 1. She is _nice_ looking. + 2. We had a _perfectly gorgeous_ time. + 3. John is a _professional_ man. + 4. The play was _simply exquisite_. + 5. To hear his voice makes me feel _funny_. + 6. The opposing team was _completely annihilated_. + 7. A _noise_ caught our attention. + 8. His manners are _horrid_. + 9. We had a _great_ time. + 10. Such arrogance is _unendurable_. + 11. That is a _good_ book. + +197. HOW TO IMPROVE ONE'S VOCABULARY. The few following suggestions +may be found helpful in the acquiring of a good vocabulary: + +1. CULTIVATE THE DICTIONARY HABIT. Learn the meaning, pronunciation, +and spelling of each new word that you meet. Only when these three +things are grasped about each word, does one really know the word. +Some persons have found it an invaluable aid to carry with them a +small note book or card on which they note down to be looked up +at a convenient time words concerning which they are in doubt. + +2. IN YOUR WRITING AND SPEAKING USE AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE THE NEW +WORDS THAT YOU ACQUIRE. + +3. CONSTRUCT GOOD ENGLISH EXPRESSIONS for all the slang, fine writing, +and hackneyed phrases that you meet, and then use the good expressions +instead of the bad ones. + +4. STUDY SYNONYMS; words of similar form and meaning. Only by a +knowledge of synonyms can you express fine shades of meaning. _Crabbe's_ +English Synonyms and _Fernald's_ Synonyms and Antonyms are good +books of reference for this purpose. In addition to these books, +lists of synonyms will be found in many books that are designed +for general reference. + +5. TRY TO GET THE ONE WORD that will best express the idea. + +6. READ GOOD BOOKS and good magazines, and read them carefully. + +7. CULTIVATE THE SOCIETY of those who use good language. + +EXERCISE 86 + +_Look up the meaning of each of the words in the following groups of +synonyms. Construct sentences in which each word is used correctly:_ + + 1. Love, like. + 2. Wit, humor. + 3. Discover, invent. + 4. Observe, watch. + 5. Pride, vanity, conceit. + 6. Proof, evidence, testimony. + 7. Balance, rest, remainder. + 8. Word, term, expression. + 9. Bring, fetch, carry. + 10. Abandon, desert, forsake. + 11. Propose, purpose, intend. + 12. Healthful, healthy, wholesome. + 13. Student, pupil, scholar. + 14. Capacity, power, ability. + 15. Blame, censure, criticism. + 16. Accede, agree, yield, acquiesce. + 17. Trickery, cunning, chicane, fraud. + 18. Instruction, education, training, tuition. + 19. Hardship, obstacle, hindrance, difficulty. + 20. Maxim, precept, rule, law + 21. Multitude, crowd, throng, swarm. + 22. Delight, happiness, pleasure, joy. + 23. Work, labor, toil, drudgery, task. + 24. Silent, mute, dumb, speechless. + 25. Kill, murder, assassinate, slay. + 26. Hatred, enmity, dislike, ill-will. + 27. Example, pattern, sample, model. + 28. Obvious, plain, clear, apparent. + 29. Noted, eminent, famous, prominent, notorious. + 30. Old, aged, antique, ancient, antiquated, obsolete. + +SPELLING + +198. The following is a list of words that are frequently misspelled +or confused. Where possible, an effort has been made to arrange +them in groups in order that they may be more easily remembered. +The word with an added ending has been used in most cases in place +of the bare word itself as, _occasional_ instead of _occasion_. +A few rules have been included. + + accede descend pressure + accident fascinate misspelled + accommodate mischievous possession + accordance miscellaneous + accuracy muscle recollection + succeed susceptible dispelled + occasional miscellaneous + occur existence monosyllable + experience intellectual + across sentence parallel + amount embellishment + apart foregoing wholly + arouse forehead woolly + village + already forty villain + all right foreign till + forfeit + amateur formally perpetual + grandeur formerly persuade + perspiration + appal fulfill + apparatus willful police + appetite policies + approximate guardian + opportunity guessing presence + opposite precede + disappoint imminent preceptor + disappearance immediately + accommodation fiend + choose commission siege + chosen grammar friend + inflammation yielding + boundary recommend + elementary summary seize + symmetrical receive + final committee receipt + finally + usual ledger succeed + usually legible proceed + + ascend assassin recede + ascent dissimilar secede + discerning essential accede + discipline messenger intercede + discontent concede + discreet necessary supersede + descent necessity + passport + +199. Words ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, +if monosyllables, or if the last syllable is accented, double the +final consonant before the ending _-ed_ and _-ing_, but not before +_-ence_; as, + + rob, rob_bed_, rob_bing_, rob_bers_. + confer, confer_red_, confer_ring_, confer_ence_. + transmit, transmit_ted_, transmit_ting_, transmi_ssion_. + impel, impel_led_, impel_ling_, imp_ulsion_. + +Similar to the above are. + +defer, infer, prefer, refer, transfer, occur (occurrence), abhor +(abhorrence), omit, remit, permit, commit, beset, impel, compel, +repel, excel (excellence), mob, sob, rub, skid. + +If these words are not accented on the last syllable, the consonant +is not doubled; as, + +benefit, benefit_ed_, benefit_ing_, benefi_cial_. + +Similar are: + +differ, summon, model. + +200. Words ending in silent _e_ drop the _e_ before a suffix beginning +with a vowel; as, + + arrive, arriv_ing_, arriv_ed_, arriv_al_. + precede, preced_ed_, preced_ing_, preced_ence_. + receive, receiv_ed_, receiv_ing_. + +Similar are: + +move, write, blame, tame, come, receive, believe, relieve, grieve, +deceive, conceive, perceive, seize, precede, concede, supersede, +recede, argue, rue, construe, woe, pursue. + +201. Words ending in _-ge, -ce_, or _-se_, retain the _e_ before +endings: as, + +arrange, arrangement; arrange, arranging. + +Similar are: + +gauge, manage, balance, finance, peace, service, amuse, use. + +202. Words in _-dge_ do not retain the _e_ before endings; as, +acknowledge, acknowledg_ment_, acknowledg_ed_, acknowledg_ing_. + +Similar are: + +nudge, judge. + +203. Most words ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant change _y_ +to _i_ before all endings except-_ing_: + +busy, bus_iness_, bus_ied_, busy_ing_. + +Similar are: + +duty, mercy, penny, pity, vary, weary, study. + +204. WORDS OF SIMILAR SOUND: + +canvas (cloth) principle (rule) +canvass (all meanings except _cloth_) principal (chief) +capitol (a building) stationary (immovable) +capital (all meanings except _building_) stationery (articles) +counsel (advice or an adviser) miner (a workman) +council (a body of persons) minor (under age) +complement (a completing element) angel (a spiritual being) +compliment (praise) angle (geometrical) + +205. MISCELLANEOUS WORDS: + +annual laundry schedule +awkward leisure separate +beneficial lenient Spaniard +decimal license speak +exhilarate mechanical specimen +familiarize mediæval speech +fiber medicine spherical +fibrous militia subtle +genuine motor surely +gluey negotiate technical +height origin tenement +hideous pacified their +hundredths phalanx therefore +hysterical physique thinnest +icicle privilege until +irremediable prodigies vengeance +laboratory rarefy visible +laid rinse wherein +larynx saucer yielding + +PRONUNCIATION + +206. The following list is made up of words that are frequently +mispronounced. An effort has been made to arrange them in groups +according to the most frequent source of error in their pronunciation. + +The only marks regularly used are the signs for the long and short +sounds of the vowel. + + a as in _hate_ i as in _high_ u as in _use_ + a as in _hat_ i as in _hit_ u as in _run_ + + e as in _me_ o as in _old_ oo as in _boot_ + e as in _met_ o as in _hop_ oo as in _foot_ + +When sounds are not otherwise indicated take the sound that comes +most naturally to the tongue. + +207. a AS IN _HATE_: + + WORD CORRECT PRONUNCIATION + alma mater _alma mater_ + apparatus _apparatus_ + apricot _apricot_ + attaché _attasha'_ + audacious _audashus_ + ballet _bal'la_ + blasé _blaza'_ + blatant _blatant_ + chasten _chasen_ + Cleopatra _Cleopatra_ + compatriot _compatriot_ + gratis _gratis_ or _grahtis_ + harem _harem_ or _hahrem_ + heinous _hanous_ + hiatus _hiatus_ + implacable _implakable_ + nape _nap_ + née _na_ + négligé _naglezha'_ + patron _patron_ + protégé _protazha'_ + résumé _razuma'_ + tenacious _tenashus_ + tomato _tomato_ or _tomahto_ + valet _va'la_ or _val'et_ + vase _vas, vahz_, or _vaz_ + veracious _verashus_ + vivacious _vivashus_ + +208. a AS IN _HAT_: + + alternative _alternative_ + Arab _Ar'ab_, not _arab_ + arid _ar'id_ + asphalt _asfalt_, not _fawlt_ + bade _bad_ + catch not _ketch_ + defalcate _defal'kate_, not _fawl_ + dilletante _dilletan'te_ + forbade _forbad_ + granary _granary_ + program _pro'gram_, not _grum_ + rapine _rap'in_ + rational _rational_ + sacrament _sacrament_ + +209. Ä AS IN _ARM_: + + aunt _änt_ + behalf _behäf_ + calf _käf_ + calm _käm_ + half _häf_ + laugh _läf_ + psalm _säm_ + +210. e AS IN _ME_: + + amenable _amenable_ + clique _klek_, not _klick_ + creek _krek_, not _krick_ + either _eether_ (preferable) + mediocre _mediocre_ + naïve _na'eve_ (_a_ as in _arm_) + neither _neether_ (preferable) + precedence _prece'dence_ + precedent _prece'dent_ (when an adjective) + predecessor _predecessor_ + predilection _predilection_ + premature _premature_ + quay _ke_ + resplendent _resplen'dent_ + sacrilegious _sacrilegious_, not -_religious_ + series _serez_ + sleek _slek_, not _slick_ + suite _swet_, not like _boot_ + +211. e AS IN _MET_: + + again _agen_ + against _agenst_ + crematory _krem'atory_ + deaf _def_, not _def_ + heroine _heroin_, not like _hero_ + measure _mezhure_, not _ma_ + metric _metrik_ + precedent _prec'edent_ (noun) + prelate _prel'at_ + presentation _prezentation_ + sesame _ses'ame_ + steady _stedy_, not _stiddy_ + tenet _ten'et_ + weapon _wepon_, not _wepon_ + +212. i AS IN _HIGH_: + + appendicitis _appendicitis_ + biennial _biennial_ + biography _biography_ + bronchitis _bronkitis_ + carbine _carbine_ + decisive _decisive_ + demise _demise_ + dynasty _di'nasty_ + finis _finis_ + grimy _grimy_ + hiatus _hia'tus_ + inquiry _inqui'ry_ + long-lived _long-livd_ + peritonitis _peritonitis_ + privacy _privacy_ + short-lived _short-livd_ + simultaneous _simultaneous_ + tiny _tiny_, not _teny_ + +213. i AS IN _HIT_: + + bicycle _bi'sicle_ + breeches _briches_ + breeching _briching_ + feminine _feminin_ + genuine _genuin_ + hypocrisy _hipok'risy_ + italic _ital'ik_ + Italian _italyan_ + maritime _maritim_ + pretty _pritty_ + puerile _pu'eril_ + respite _res'pit_ + tribune _trib'un_ + +214. o AS IN _OLD_: + + Adonis _Adonis_ + apropos _apropo_ + bowsprit _bowsprit_ + brooch _broch_ not _broosh_ + compromise _compromize_ + jowl _jol_, not like _owl_ + molecular _molecular_ + ogle _ogle_ + trow _tro_ + vocable _vocable_ + zoology _zoology_, not _zoo_ + +215. o AS IN _HOP_: + + choler _koler_ + dolorous _dolorous_ + florid _florid_ + molecule _molecule_ + obelisk _obelisk_ + probity _probity_ + solecism _solesism_ + solstice _solstice_ + stolid _stolid_ + +216. oo AS IN _BOOT_: + + bouquet _booka'_ + canteloupe _can'taloop_ + coup d'état _koo data'_ + coupon _koo'pon_ + ghoul _gool_ + hoof _hoof_ + roof _roof_ + root _root_ + route _root_ + routine _rootine_ + wound _woond_ + +217. u AS IN _USE_: + + accurate _ak'kurat_ + culinary _kulinary_ + gubernatorial _gubernatorial_ + jugular _jugular_ + +218. u AS IN _US_: + + constable _kunstable_ + courtesan _kur'tezan_ + hover _huver_ + iron _iurn_ + monetary _munetary_ + nothing _nuthing_ + wont _wunt_ (different from _won't_) + +219. MISCELLANEOUS WORDS. + + adobe _ado'ba_ + algebra not _bra_ + alien _alyen_, not _alien_ + ameliorate _amelyorate_ + antarctic _antarktik_ + anti not _anti_ + archangel _arkangel_ + archbishop _arch_, not _ark_ + arch fiend _arch_, not _ark_ + architect _arkitect_ + awkward _awkward_, not _ard_ + Beethoven _batoven_ + Bingen _Bing'en_ + blackguard _blag'gard_ + Bowdoin _bodn_ + brougham _broom_ + business _bizness_ + caldron _kawldron_ + calk _kawk_ + Cayenne _kien'_ + courtier _kortyer_ + cuckoo _kookoo_ + dilemma _dilem'ma_ + directly not _directly_ + dishevelled _dishev'ld_ + Don Juan _Don Juan_ or _hooan_ + drought _drowt_ + drouth _drowth_ + extempore _extempore_ (four syllables) + familiarity _familyarity_ + gaol _jal_ + genealogy _-alogy_, not _-ology_ + gemus _genyus_ + Gloucester _gloster_ + gooseberry _gooz_, not _goos_ + Hawaiian _Hawi'yan_ (_a_ as in _arm_) + Helena _hel'ena_ (except _St. Hele'na_) + inconvenience _inconvenyence_ + Israel _izrael_, not _issrael_ + jeans _janes_ + joust _just_ or _joost_ + larynx _lar'inx'_ or _la'rinx_, not _larnix_ + literature _literature_, or _choor_ + Messrs. _meshyerz_ or _mesyerz_ + Mineralogy _-alogy_, not _-ology_ + nature _nature_, or _choor_ + oleomargarine _g_ is hard, as in _get_ + orchid _orkid_ + oust _owst_, not _oost_ + peculiar _peculyar_ + pecuniary _pekun'yari_ + perspiration not _prespiratian_ + prestige _pres'tij_ or _prestezh'_ + pronunciation _pronunzeashun_ or _pronunsheashun_ + saucy not _sassy_ + schedule _skedyul_ + semi not _semi_ + theater _the'ater_ not _thea'ter_ + turgid _turjid_ + usage _uzage_ + usurp _uzurp_ + vermilion _vermilyun_ + wife's not _wives_ + Xerxes _zerxes_ + +220. WORDS WITH A SILENT LETTER: + + almond _ahmund_ + chasten _chasen_ + chestnut _chesnut_ + glisten _glissen_ + kiln _kill_ + often _ofen_ + ostler _osler_ + poignant _poin'ant_ + psalter _sawlter_ + salmon _samun_ + schism _sism_ + soften _sofen_ + subtle _sutle_ + sword _sord_ + thyme _time_ + toward _tord_ + +221. WORKS CHIEFLY OF FOREIGN PRONUNCIATION: + + WORD CORRECT PRONUNCIATION + bivouac _biv'wak_ + chargé d'affaires _shar zha'daffar'_ + connoisseur _connissur_ + dishabille _dis'abil_ + ennui _onwe_, not _ongwe_ + finale _finah'le_ + foyer _fwaya'_ + massage _masahzh_ + naïve _nah'ev_ + papier maché _papya mahsha_ + piquant _pe'kant_ + prima facie _prima fa'shie_ + pro tempore _pro tem'pore_ + régime _razhem'_ + +222. WORDS OFTEN PRONOUNCED WITH A WRONG NUMBER OF SYLLABLES: + + aerial _aereal_, not _areal_ + athlete two sylables, not _ath e lete_ + attacked _attakt_, two syllables + casualty _kazh'ualte_, not _ality_ + conduit _condit_ or _kundit_, not _dooit_ + different three syllables, not _diffrunt_ + elm not _ellum_ + helm not _hel um_ + history three syllables, not _histry_ + honorable not _honrable_ + hygienic _hy gi en' ic_, four syllables + interest not _intrust_ + interesting not _intrusting_ + ivory not _ivry_ + omelet not _omlet_ + realm not _rellum_ + separable not _seprable_ + ticklish two syllables, not _tickelish_ + valuable _valuable_, not _valuble_ + vaudeville _vodvil_ + Zeus _zus_, not _zeus_ + +223. WORDS ACCENTED ON THE FIRST SYLLABLE: + + admirable _ad'mirable_ + alias _a'lias_ + applicable _ap'plicable_ + bicycle _bi'sikle_ + chastisement _chas'tisement_ + construe _con'strue_ + despicable _des'picable_ + desultory _des'ultory_ + disputant _dis'putant_ + exigency _ex'ijency_ + explicable _ex'plicable_ + exquisite _ex'quisite_ + extant _ex'tant_ + formidable _for'midable_ + Genoa _jen'oa_ + gondola _gon'dola_ + harass _har'ass_ + hospitable _hos'pitable_ + impious _im'pious_, not _imp?ous_ + industry _in'dustry_ + inventory _in'ventory_ + lamentable _lam'entable_ + mischievous _mis'chievous_ + obligatory _ob'ligatory_ + pariah _pa'riah_ + peremptory _per'emptory_ + preferable _pref'erable_ + Romola _Rom'ola_ + vehemence _ve'hemence_ + +224. WORDS ACCENTED ON THE SECOND SYLLABLE: + + WORD CORRECT PRONUNCIATION + abdomen _abdo'men_ + acclimate _accli'mate_ + acumen _acu'men_ + albumen _albu'men_ + artificer _artif'iser_ + bitumen _bitu'men_ + chicanery _shika'nery_ + illustrate _illus'trate_ + incognito _inkog'nito_ + incomparable _incom'parable_ + indisputable _indis'putable_ + inexorable _inex'orable_ + inexplicable _inex'plicable_ + inhospitable _inhos'pitable_ + inquiry _inqui'ry_ + irrevocable _irrev'ocable_ + misconstrue _miscon'strue_ + nitrogenous _nitroj'enous_ + opponent _oppo'nent_ + pianist _pian'ist_ + refutable _refut'able_ + syllabic _syllab'ic_ + telegraphy _teleg'raphy_ + vagary _vaga'ry_ + Yosemite _yo swm' i te_ + +225. WORDS ACCENTED ON THE LAST SYLLABLE: + + address _address'_ + adept _adept'_ + adult _adult'_ + ally _ally'_ + commandant _commandänt' (ä as in arm)_ + contour _contour'_ + dessert _dessert'_ + dilate _dilate'_ + excise _eksiz'_ + finance _finance'_ + grimace _grimace'_ + importune _importune'_ + occult _occult'_ + pretence _pretence'_ + research _research'_ + robust _robust'_ + romance _romance'_ + tirade _tirade'_ + +226. WORDS WHOSE PRONUNCIATION DEPENDS ON MEANING: + + accent _Accent'_ the first syllable. + Place the _ac'cent_ upon the first syllable. + + aged An _a'ged_ man. + Properly _aged_ wine (one syllable). + + blessed The _bless'ed_ saints. + Let them be _blessed_ (one syllable). + + contrast The strange _con'trast_. + _Contrast'_ the two. + + converse Did you _converse'_ with him? + Is the _con'verse_ true? + + desert The sandy _des'ert_. + They _desert'_ their friends. + + learned He _learned_ (one syllable) to sing. + A _learn ed_ man. + + precedent A _prece'dent_ place. + It establishes a _prec'edent_. + + project A new _proj'ect_. + To _project'_ from. + + + + +GLOSSARY OF MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS + +ADMIRE. Do not use _admire_ in the sense of _like_. + +Wrong: I should _admire_ to be able to do that. + +Right: I should _like_ to be able to do that. + +AGGRAVATE. Do not use _aggravate_ in the sense of _irritate_ or +_disturb_. _Aggravate_ means _to make worse_. + +Wrong: His impudence _aggravates_ me. + +Right: His impudence _irritates_ me. + +AIN'T. _Ain't_ and _hain't_ are never proper as contractions of +_am not, is not_, or _are not_. + +ALLOW. Do not use _allow_ in the sense of _assert, say_, or _intend_. + +Wrong: He _allowed_ that he had better start. I _allow_ to be back +before noon. + +Right: He _said_ that he had better start. I _intend_ to be back +before noon. + +ALLUDE. Do not use _allude_ in the sense of _refer_. To _allude_ +to a thing means to refer to it in an indirect way. + +Wrong: He _alluded_ by name to John Milton. + +Right: He _alluded_ to Milton by the term "Blind Poet." + +ANY. Do not use _any_ in the sense of _at all_ or _to any degree_. + +Wrong: Because of the injury he can not see _any_. + +AS. Do not use _as_ for the relative pronouns _who_ and _that_. + +Wrong: I am the man _as_ digs your garden. Not _as_ I remember. + +Right: I am the man _who_ digs your garden. Not _that_ I remember. + +AS. Do not use _as_ in the sense of _since_ or _because_. + +Wrong: I cannot come _as_ I am sick now. + +Right: I cannot come; I am sick now. + +Right: I cannot come _because_ I am sick now. + +AT. Do not use _at_ for _in_ with the names of large cities + +Wrong: He lives _at_ Philadelphia. + +Right: He lives _in_ Philadelphia. + +ATTACKTED. Do not use this form for _attacked_. + +AWFUL, AWFULLY. These are two very much overworked words. Substitute +other and more accurate expressions. + +Wrong: We have had an _awfully_ good time. That is an _awfully_ +pretty dress. + +Right: We have had an _exceedingly_ nice time. That is a _very_ +pretty dress. + +BADLY. Do not use _badly_ in the sense of _very much_. + +Wrong: She wanted _badly_ to come. + +Right: She wanted _very much_ to come. + +BESIDE, BESIDES. _Beside_ means _next to. Besides_ means _in addition +to_. + +Right: John lives _beside_ his mother. + +Right: _Besides_ the daughters, there are three sons. + +BETWEEN. Do not use _between_ when referring to more than two objects. + +Wrong: There is bad feeling _between_ the members of the class. + +Right: There is bad feeling _among_ the members of the class. + +BLOWED. Do not use _blowed_ for _blew_ or _blown_. There is no such +word. + +BEST. Do not use _best_ when only two objects are referred to. +Use _better_. _Best_ should be used only when more than two are +referred to. + +Wrong: He is the _best_ of the two brothers. + +Right: He is the _better_ of the two brothers. + +Right: He is the _best_ of the three brothers. + +BOUND. Do not use _bound_ for _determined_. + +Wrong: He was _bound_ to go skating. + +Right: He was _determined_ to go skating. + +Right: He _bound_ himself to pay three hundred dollars. + +BUT. Do not use _but_ after a negative in the sense of _only_. See +§46. + +Wrong: There _isn't but_ one apple left. + +Right: There _is but_ one apple left. + +CALCULATE. Do not use _calculate_ in the sense of _think, expect_, +or _intend_. + +CAN. Do not use _can_ to denote permission. It denotes ability or +possibility. _May_ denotes permission. See §69 + +Wrong: _Can_ I speak to you for a minute? + +Right: _May_ I speak to you for a moment? + +CHARACTER, REPUTATION. Do not confuse these two words. _Character_ +means one's moral condition. _Reputation_ means the morality that +others believe one to possess. + +CLUM. There is no such form of the verb _climb_. + +COMPLECTED. Do not use _complected_ for _complexioned_. See §40. + +CONCLUDE. Do not use conclude in the sense of _forming an intention._ + +Right: Finally, I _decided_ to go home. + +Right: I was forced to _conclude_ that I had made an error. + +CONSIDERABLE. Do not use _considerable_ in the sense of _very much_. + +Wrong: This lesson is _considerable_ better than yesterday's. + +CUTE. A much overworked word. Use some expression that is more accurate; +as, _pretty, amusing_, etc. + +DECEASE, DISEASE. Do not confuse _decease_ and _disease_. The first +means _death_, the second _sickness_. _The deceased_ means a person +who is dead. + +Wrong: The _diseased_ will be buried at four o'clock. + +Wrong: The property of the _diseased_ will be sold at auction. + +DECEASE. Do not use _decease_ as a verb in the sense of _die_. + +Wrong: His father _deceased_ last year. + +DEMAND. _Demand_ should not have a person as its object. + +Wrong: He _demanded_ John to pay. + +Right: He _demanded_ payment from John. He _demanded_ that John +pay. + +DIFFERENT. Use the preposition _from_ after _different_, not _than_. + +DON'T. Do not use _don't_ with a subject in the third person singular. +See §64. + +DOWN. Do not use _down_ as a verb in the sense of _defeat_ or +_overthrow_. + +Wrong: Our football team _has downed_ every other team in the state. + +Right: Our football team _has defeated_ every other team in the +state. + +DROWNDED. _Drownded_ is not a proper form of the verb _drown_. Say +_drowned_. (Pronounced _drownd._) + +EACH OTHER. Do not use _each other_ to refer to more than two objects. +See §44. + +Wrong: The members of the regiment helped _each other_. + +Right: The members of the regiment helped _one another_. + +EFFECT, AFFECT. Do not confuse _effect_ and _affect. Effect_ means +_a result_, or _to cause a thing to be done. Affect_ means _to +disturb_ or _have an influence on_. + +Wrong: The news _effected_ him seriously. + +Right: The news _affected_ him seriously. + +Wrong: The _affect_ of this news was to cause war. + +Right: The _effect_ of this news was to cause war. + +EITHER. Do not use _either_ with reference to more than two objects, +nor follow it by a plural verb. See §43. + +Wrong: _Either_ of the three will do. _Either_ you or John _have_ +done it. + +Right: _Any one_ of the three will do. _Either_ you or John _has_ +done it. + +EMIGRATE, IMMIGRATE. Do not confuse _emigrate_ and _immigrate_. +_To emigrate_ means _to go out of a place_, to _immigrate_ means +_to come into a place_. + +Right: The Italians _emigrate_ from their country. + +Right: Of those who _immigrate_ to America, a large number are Italians. + +ENOUGH. Do not follow _enough_ by a clause beginning with _that_ +or _so that_. + +Wrong: I studied _enough_ that I could recite the lesson. + +Right: I studied _enough to_ recite the lesson. + +ENTHUSE. Do not use _enthuse_ in the sense of to create enthusiasm. + +Wrong: He tried to _enthuse_ his audience. + +Right: He tried to _arouse_ enthusiasm in his audience. + +ETC. _Etc._ stands for _et cetera_, and means _and so forth_. Do +not spell it _ect_. Do not use it in composition that is intended +to be elegant. + +EVERYBODY. _Everybody_ should not be followed by a plural verb or +a plural pronoun. See §21. + +EXCEPT, ACCEPT. Do not confuse these two words. _Accept_ means _to +acknowledge_. _Except_ means _to exclude_. + +Right: I cannot _accept_ such slovenly work. + +Wrong: I _except_ your apology. + +EXCEPT. Do not use _except_ for _unless_. See §85. + +Wrong: I can not sleep _except_ it is quiet. + +EXPECT. Do not use _expect_ in the sense of _suppose_ or _think_. + +Wrong: I _expect_ you have read that book. + +Right: I _suppose_ you have read that book. + +FINE. Do not use _fine_ in place of some more definite word. _Fine_ +is a much over-worked word. + +Wrong: The book is _fine_ for class-room work. + +Right: The book is _well adapted_ for class-room work. + +FIRSTLY. _Firstly_ should never be used. Say _first_. See §40. + +FIRST-RATE. Do not use _first-rate_ as an adverb in the sense of +_very well_. + +Wrong: That does _first-rate_. + +Right: That does _very well_. + +Right: He is a _first-rate fellow_. + +FORMER. Do not use _former_ when more than two are referred to. +Say _first_. See §41. + +FROM. Do not use _from_ with _whence, hence_ and _thence_. + +Wrong: _From whence_ have you come? + +Right: _Whence_ have you come? _From where_ have you come? + +FUNNY. Do not use _funny_ for _singular_ or _strange_. _Funny_ is +an overworked word. + +Wrong: It is _funny_ that he died. + +Right: It is _singular_ that he died. + +GENT. Do not use the word at all. Say _gentleman_ or _man_. + +GENTLEMAN. Do not use _gentleman_ to denote sex only. Say _man_. +_Gentleman_ is properly used, however, to denote a person of refinement. + +Wrong: Only _gentlemen_ are allowed to vote in Pennsylvania. + +Right: Mr. Lincoln was a _gentleman_ in the true sense of the word. + +GOT. Do not use got with _have_ or _had_ to indicate merely _possession_ +or _obligation. Got_ means acquired through effort. + +Wrong: I _have got_ the measles. You _have got_ to do it. + +Right: I _have_ the measles. You _must_ do it. + +Right: After much study I _have got_ my lesson. + +GRAND. Do not use _grand_ in place of some more definite and accurate +expression. It is another over-worked word. + +Wrong: We have had a _grand time_ this afternoon. + +Right: We have had a _very pleasant_ time this afternoon. + +GUESS. Do not use _guess_ in the sense of _think_ or _suppose_. + +Wrong: I _guess_ the trains are late to-day. + +Right: I _suppose_ the trains are late to-day. + +Right: Can you _guess_ the riddle? + +HAD OUGHT. Do not use _had_ with _ought_. See §54. + +HARDLY. Do not use _hardly_ after a negative. See §46. + +Wrong: I _can not hardly_ believe that. + +Right: I _can hardly_ believe that. + +HAVE. Do not use _have_ after _had_. + +Wrong: If I _had have been_ able to go. + +Right: If I _had been_ able to go. + +HEIGHTH. Do not use _heighth_ for _height_. + +HUNG. Do not confuse _hung_ and _hanged_. _Hanged_ is the proper +word to use in reference to executions. + +Wrong: He was condemned _to be hung_. + +Right: He was condemned _to be hanged_. + +Right: The picture was _hung_ in the parlor. + +HUMBUG. Do not use _humbug_ as a verb. + +Wrong: He has _humbugged_ the people for years. + +ILLY. Do not use _illy_ for the adverb _ill_. See §40. + +IN, INTO. Do not confuse _in_ and _into_. + +Wrong: He went _in_ the house. + +Right: He went _into_ the house. + +Right: He exercised _in_ a gymnasium. + +KIND. Do not precede kind by _those_ or _these_. + +Wrong: I do not like _those kind_ of plays. + +Right: I do not like _that kind_ of play. + +KIND OF A. Do not use _a_ or _an_ after _kind of_. See §47. + +Wrong: It is _one kind of_ a mistake. + +Right: It is _one kind of_ mistake. + +LADY. Do not use _lady_ to designate sex only. It is properly used +to indicate persons of refinement. + +Wrong: Is Mrs. Johnson a colored _lady_? + +Right: Is Mrs. Johnson a colored _woman_? + +Right: Mrs. Johnson is a colored _woman_, and _a lady_. + +LATTER. Do not use _latter_ to refer to more than two objects. Use +_last_. See §41. + +LAY. Do not confuse _lay_ and _lie_. See §57. + +LEARN. Do not confuse _learn_ and _teach_. _Learn_ means _to acquire +knowledge. Teach_ means _to impart knowledge_. + +Wrong: He can _learn_ you as much as any one can. + +Right: He can _teach_ you as much as any one can. + +LEAVE. Do not confuse _leave_ and _let_. Leave means _to let remain_. +Let means _to give permission_. + +Wrong: Will your mother _leave_ you go? + +Right: Will your mother _let_ you go? + +Right: I shall _leave_ my trunk in my room. + +LIABLE. Do not use _liable_ for _likely_. + +Wrong: It is _liable_ to rain to-day. + +Right: It is _likely_ to rain to-day. + +Right: He is _liable_ for all that he has agreed to pay. + +LIGHTNING. Do not use _lightning_ as a verb in place of _lightens_. + +Wrong: During the storm, it _lightnings_ frequently. + +Right: During the storm, it _lightens_ frequently. + +LIKE. Do not use _like_ for _as_. _Like_ is a preposition. _As_ +is a conjunction. + +Wrong: He doesn't talk _like_ he did yesterday. + +Right: He doesn't talk _as_ he did yesterday. + +Right: It looks _like_ a mahogany chair. + +LIT ON. Do not use _lit on_ in the sense of _met with_ or _discovered_. + +Wrong: I at last _lit on_ this plan. + +LOT. Do not use _lot_ in the sense of _a great number_ or _a great +deal_. + +Wrong: A _lot_ of people were there, She talks _a lot_. + +MOST. Do not use _most_ for _almost_. + +Wrong: I have _most_ completed the book. + +Right: I have _almost_ completed the book. + +Right: He has done _the most_ of the work. + +MRS. Do not use _Mrs._ before titles; as, _Mrs. President, Mrs. +Professor, Mrs. Doctor_. + +MUCH. Do not use _much_ for _many_. _Much_ refers to quantity. _Many_ +refers to number. + +Wrong: As _much as_ five hundred people were present. + +Right: As _many as_ five hundred people were present. + +MUTUAL. Do not confuse _mutual_ and _common_. _Mutual_ means +_interchanged_. + +Wrong: John and William had a _mutual_ liking for Mary. + +Right: John and William had a _common_ liking for Mary. + +Right: John and William had a _mutual_ liking for each other. + +NEAR. Do not use _near_ for _nearly_. + +Wrong: He ran _near_ all the way to the station. I came _nearly_ +making the same mistake. + +Right: He ran _nearly_ all the way to the station. I came _near_ +making the same mistake. + +NERVE. Do not use _nerve_ in the sense of _impudence_. + +NEWSY. Do not use _newsy_ in the sense of _full of news_. + +NEITHER. Do not use _neither_ with reference to more than two objects, +nor follow it by a plural verb. + +Wrong: _Neither_ of the three could come. _Neither_ of the two _are_ +here. + +Right: _No one_ of the three could come. _Neither_ of the two _is_ +here. + +NO GOOD. Do not use _no good_ in the sense of _worthless_ or _not +good_. + +Wrong: The book is _no good_. + +NO PLACE. Do not use _no place_ after a negative. See §46. + +Wrong: I am not going _no place_. + +Right: I am not going _anywhere_. I _am going nowhere_. + +NOTORIOUS. Do not use _notorious_ in the sense of _famous_ or _noted. +Notorious_ means of _evil reputation_. + +Wrong: Gladstone was a _notorious_ statesman of England. + +Right: Several _notorious thieves_ were arrested. + +NOWHERE NEAR. Do not use _nowhere near_ for _not nearly_. See §40. + +Wrong: _Nowhere near_ so many people came as were expected. + +Right: _Not nearly_ so many people came as were expected. + +Right: James was _nowhere near_ the scene of the fire. + +OF. Do not use _of_ for _have_ in such expressions as _could, have, +might have, should have_, etc. + +Wrong: If I _could of_ been there. + +Right: If I _could have_ been there. + +ONLY. Guard against the improper use of _only_ after a negative. +See §46. + +Wrong: There _are not only_ four books on that subject. + +Right: There _are only_ four books on that subject. + +OUTSIDE OF. Do not use _outside of_ for _aside from_. + +Wrong: _Outside of_ James, all had a good time. + +Right: _Aside from_ James, all had a good time. + +OVER WITH. Do not use _over with_ for _over_. + +Wrong: I must write the letter and have it _over with_. + +PANTS. Do not use the word _pants_ for _trousers_. + +PHOTO. Do not use _photo_ for _photograph_. + +PIECE. Do not use _piece_ in the sense of _way_ or _distance_. + +Wrong: I shall walk a _little piece_ with you. + +Right: I shall walk a _little way_ with you. + +PLACE. Do not use _place_ after _any, every, no_, etc., in the sense +of _anywhere, everywhere, nowhere_, etc. + +Wrong: I can not find it _any place_. + +Right: I can not find it _anywhere_. + +PLENTY. Do not use _plenty_ as an adjective or an adverb. + +Wrong: Money is _plenty_. He is _plenty able_ to do it. + +Right: Money is _plentiful_. He is _quite able_ to do it. + +POORLY. Do not use _poorly_ for _ill_ or _bad_. + +Wrong: He feels very _poorly_. + +PRINCIPLE, PRINCIPAL. Do not confuse _principle_ and _principal_. +_Principle_ means a _rule_ or _truth_. _Principal_ means _leader, +chief, the most important_. + +PROPOSE. Do not use _propose_ in the sense of _intend_. + +Wrong: I _propose_ to tell all I know. + +Right: I _intend_ to tell all I know. + +PROVIDING. Do not use _providing_ for _if_ or _on the condition_. + +Wrong: I will go _providing_ you can get tickets for three. + +Right: I will go _on the condition that_ you get the tickets. + +RAISE, RISE. Do not confuse _raise_ with _rise_. See §57. + +RECOMMEND, RECOMMENDATION. Do not use _recommend_ as a noun. +_Recommendation_ is the noun. + +Wrong: Her employer gave her a good _recommend_. + +Right: Her employer gave her a good _recommendation_. + +RIGHT AWAY, RIGHT OFF. Do not use _right away_ or _right off_ in +the sense of _immediately_. + +Wrong: After the play we will come _right off_. + +Right: After the play we will come _at once_. + +SAME. Do not use _same_ as a pronoun. + +Wrong: I will write the letter and mail _same_ at once. + +Right: I will write the letter and mail _it_ at once. + +SAY. Do not use _say_ in the sense of _order_ or _command_. + +Wrong: Your mother _said for_ you to come home at once. + +Right: Your mother _said that_ you should come home at once. + +SCARCELY. Do not use _scarcely_ after a negative. See §46. + +Wrong: There _was not scarcely_ a pound of meat for us all. + +Right: There _was scarcely_ a pound of meat for us all. + +SELDOM EVER. Do not use _seldom_ with _ever_. Say instead _seldom_ +or _seldom, if ever_. + +Wrong: Fires _seldom ever_ occur. + +Right: Fires _seldom_ occur. Fires _seldom, if ever_ occur. + +SHUT OF. Do not use _shut of_ in the sense of _rid of_. + +Wrong: We are _shut of_ him at last. + +SIGHT. Do not use _sight_ in the sense of _many_ or _much_. + +Wrong: A great _sight of people_ flocked to hear him. + +Right: A great _many people_ flocked to hear him. + +SIT, SET. Do not confuse these two words. See §57. + +SO. Do not use _so_ alone as a conjunction. Say _so that_. + +Wrong: He spoke in the open air, _so_ more could see and hear him. + +Right: He spoke in the open air, _so that_ more could see and hear +him. + +SOME. Do not use _some_ as an adverb in the sense of _somewhat_ +or a _little_. + +Wrong: He plays the violin _some_. + +Right: He plays the violin _a little_. + +SORT OF A. Do not use _a_ after _sort of_. See _Kind of a_. + +SORT. Do not precede _sort_ by _these_ or _those_. See _Kind_. + +SUCH. Do not follow _such_ by _who, which_, or _that_ as relatives. + +Wrong: All _such persons who_ think so will soon see their mistake. + +Right: All _such persons as_ think so will soon see their mistake. + +Right: He spoke with _such_ force _that_ we were compelled to listen. +(_That_ is not a relative here.) + +TASTY. Do not use _tasty_ in the sense of _tasteful_. + +THAT. Do not use _that_ as an adverb. + +Wrong: I did not think the book was _that_ small. + +Right: I did not think that the book was _so_ small. + +THAT THERE, THIS HERE, THESE HERE, THOSE THERE. _There_ and _here_, +in all these expressions are worse than unnecessary. + +THEM THERE. Do not use _them there_ for _those_. + +Wrong: Bring me _them there_ books. + +Right: Bring me _those_ books. + +THREE FIRST, TWO FIRST, ETC. Do not say _three first_, but _first +three_. There can be only one _first_. + +TOO. Do not use _too_ alone before a verb or a participle. + +Wrong: He is _too excited_ to listen to you. + +Right: He is _too much excited_ to listen to you. + +VERY. Do not use _very_ alone before a verb or a participle. + +Wrong: You are _very_ mistaken. + +Right: You are _very much_ mistaken. + +WAIT ON, WAIT FOR. Do not confuse these two expressions. _Wait on_ +means _to serve_. _Wait for_ means _to await_. + +Wrong: Do not _wait on_ me if I do not come at noon. + +Right: Do not _wait for_ me if I do not come at noon. + +WAKE, AWAKE. Do not confuse _wake_ and _awake_. See §57. + + + + +INDEX + +References are to pages. Sections or subdivisions on the pages are +sometimes indicated in parenthesis after the page numbers. + +Since the _EXERCISES_ follow throughout the subjects treated, +exercises on any subject may be found by looking up that subject +in this text index. + +_A_, use of article. +Abbreviated words, rule against. +Abbreviations, punctuation of (§102); use of, in letters. +_Accept_, for _except_, Glossary. +Active voice and passive voice, explained; forms of. +Adjectives, defined; capitalization of proper; confused with adverbs; + distinguished from adverbs; errors in comparison of; improper forms + of; list of irregular; placing of; adjective pronouns; punctuation + of two or more adjectives modifying same noun (§106); singular and + plural. +_Admire_, for _like_, Glossary. +Adverbs, defined; comparison of; conjunctive; confusion with adjectives; + distinguished from adjectives; double negative; errors in comparison; + list of irregularly compared; omission of; punctuation of (§116), (§121). +_Æsop's Fables_, quotation from. +_Affect_, for _effect_, Glossary. +_Aggravate_, for _irritate_, Glossary. +Agreement, of adjective and noun; of pronoun and antecedent; of verb and + subject; of verb in clauses. +Ain't, Glossary. +_Allow_, for _assert_ or _intend_, Glossary. +_Allude_, for _refer_, Glossary. +_Also_, without _and_. +_Among_, for _between_, Glossary. +_An_, use of article. +_And_, use of. +Antecedents, of pronouns, defined; agreement of pronouns and; clearness + of; compound; indefinite; of relative pronouns. +_Any_, for _at all_, Glossary. +Apostrophe, general use of; with plural nouns; with possessive nouns; + with possessive pronouns. +Apposition, explained. +Appositives, punctuation of (§108). +_Argue_, for _augur_. +_Arise_. +Articles, explained; use of. +_As_, as conjunction or adverb; as a relative pronoun, Glossary; for + _like_; for _since_, Glossary; punctuation of (§122). +_At_, for _in_, Glossary. +_Attackted_, mispronunciation of _attacked_, Glossary. +Attribute complement, explained; case of (note 2). +Auxiliary verbs, explained; _shall_ and _will_; _should_ and _would_; + _may, can, might_, and _could_. +_Avocation_, for _vocation_. +_Awake_, for _wake_, Glossary. +_Awful_, for _awfully_, Glossary. + +_Bad_, for _badly_, Glossary. +Balanced sentence. +Barbarisms, defined; rules for avoidance of; when proper. +Beginning of the composition. +_Beside_, for _besides_, Glossary. +_Best_, for _better_, Glossary. +_Between_, for _among_, Glossary. +_Bible_, capitalization of (§100). +_Blowed_, for _blew_, Glossary. +Body, of the letter. +Books for reading, list of. +_Bound_, for _determined_, Glossary. +Brackets, use of. +_But_, as a relative pronoun; with a negative; with a dependent clause; + to introduce two succeeding statements. +_But that_, for _but what_. + +_Calculate_, for _intend_. +_Can_, use of; model conjugation of. +"Cant expressions," in letters. +Capitalization, rules for. +Cases, classified and defined; case forms of pronouns; +case of word in apposition; case forms of relative pronouns; outline + for use of case forms; rules for forming possessive. +_Character_, for _reputation_, Glossary. +_Character of Napoleon Bonaparte_, by Channing, quotation from. +Choice of words, rules to aid in. +_Christmas_, by Washington Irving, quotation from. +_Claim_, for _assert_. +Clauses, defined; adjective; adverbial; agreement, of verb in; + principal or independent; subordinate or dependent; substantive; + _when_ and _where_ clauses. +Climax in sentences. +Clipped words, rule against. +Close of letter. +_Clum_, for _climbed_, Glossary. +"_In care of_," misuse of _c|o_ for. +Coherence, of paragraph; how to gain in paragraph; illustrations of + in paragraph; of sentence; of whole composition; words of. +Colon. +"Comma blunder". +Comma. +Common gender, defined, of nouns and pronouns. +Comparative degree; misuse of, in reference to more than two things. +Comparison, degrees of; irregular forms in; errors in; manner of comparing. +_Complected_, for _complexioned_, Glossary. +Complex sentence. +Complimentary close, in letters. +Compound nouns, explained; rules for forming plurals of. +Compound pronouns, personal; relative. +Compound sentence. +Compound subject; agreement of verb with. +Compound words, use of hyphen with (§140). +_Concluded_, for _to form an opinion_, Glossary. +Conditional clauses, punctuation of (§114). +Confusion of adjectives and adverbs. +Conjunctions, defined; misuses of; correlatives. +_Considerable_, for _considerably_, Glossary. +_Consul_, for _council_, or _counsel_. +Contractions of _not_, use of, in formal composition. +Co-ordinate clauses, punctuation of (§§112, 113), (§§118, 119, 120). +Copulative verb. +Correctly written letters. +Correlatives, placing of. +_Could_, use of; model conjugations of. +_Council, counsel_ and _consul_ confused. +_Cranford_, by Mrs. Gaskell, selection from. +_Cute_, for _pretty, clever_, etc., Glossary. + +Dash, use of. +_Decease_, Glossary. +Definition, by a _when_ or _where_ clause. +Degrees in comparison, classified. +_Demand_, Glossary. +Dependent and conditional clauses, punctuation of (§114), (§§119, 120). +Dictionary, value of its use. +_Different_, with _than_, Glossary. +_Directly_, misused as a conjunction. +_Disease_, Glossary. +Division of words at ends of lines (§139). +_Don't_, Glossary. +Double negatives. +_Down_, misuse as a verb, Glossary. +_Drownded_, mispronunciation of _drowned_, Glossary. + +_East_, capitalization of (§100). +_Each other_, misuse with more than two objects, Glossary. +_Effect_, for _affect_, Glossary. +_Either_, misuse with more than two objects, Glossary. +_Either-or_. +Elements of the sentence: Principal elements, subject; + predicate. Subordinate elements: attribute complement; adjective + modifier; adverbial modifier; object complement. +_Emigration_, for _immigration_, Glossary. +Emphasis, in paragraphs; in sentence. +Ending of whole composition. +_Enough_, Glossary. +_Euthuse_, Glossary. +Enumerations, punctuation before, (§§122, 123). +_Esq._, misuse after Mr.. +_Etc._, misspelling of, Glossary. +Euphony, in sentences. +_Everybody_, followed by a plural form, Glossary. +_Everywheres_, for _everywhere_. +Examples, of beginning of whole composition; of correctly written letters; + of ending of whole composition; of outline of whole composition. +Exclamation point, use of. +_Except_, for _accept_, Glossary. +Explanatory relative clauses, punctuation of (§111). +Expletives. +_Expect_, for _suppose_. + +_Fall_, for _fell_. +_Father_, capitalization of (§99). +_Fell_, for _fall_. +Feminine gender, defined; of nouns and pronouns. +Final words, in letters. +"Fine-writing". +_Fine_, Glossary. +_Firstly_, Glossary. +_First-rate_, Glossary. +_For_, used to introduce two succeeding clauses. +Foreign words. +_Former_, Glossary. +Form of letters. +From, Glossary. +_Funny_, for _singular_, Glossary. + +Gender, defined and classified formation of feminine from + masculine; gender of pronouns. +General terms, use of. +_Gent_, Glossary. +_Gentleman_, Glossary. +Geographical names, punctuation of (§108). +Gerunds, explanation of; confusion with participle; with noun or + pronoun modifier; placing of gerund phrase. +Gettysburg speech, by Lincoln. +_Good_, for _well_. +Good use of words; offenses against. +_Got_, Glossary. +_Grand_, Glossary. +Grave forms of personal pronouns, use of. +_Guess_, for _think_, Glossary. + +Hackneyed expressions, general rule against; in letters. +_Had, ought_, Glossary. +_Hain't_, Glossary. +_Hanged_, confused with _hung_, Glossary. +_Hardly_, placing of; with a negative, Glossary. +_Have_, misuse after _had_, Glossary. +Heading, of letters. +_Heighth_, for _height_, Glossary. +_Here_, misuse with demonstratives, Glossary. +_Her'n_. +_Him_, misuse with gerund. +_Hisself_. +_His'n_. +_Home_, confused with _house_; for _at home_, Glossary. +_Humbug_, Glossary. +_Hung_, confused with _hanged_, Glossary. +Hyphen, use of. + +_I_, capitalization of (§100). Order of. +In the letter. +Idioms. +_i. e._, punctuation of (§122). +_Illy_, Glossary. +_Immigration_, confused with _emigration_, Glossary. +Imperative mode. +Improving one's vocabulary, rules for. +Improprieties. +Indentation, of paragraph; of paragraph, in letters. +Infinitives, explanation of; forms of; cases used with; rules for + sequence of infinitive tenses; split. +Inflection, defined. +_In_, confused with _into_, Glossary. +Inside address of letters. +Interjection. +Interrogation point, use of. +Interrogative pronouns. +Intransitive verbs, see _Transitive_. +Introductory words or phrases, punctuation of (§107). + +_Kind_, with plural modifiers, Glossary. +_Kind of a_. + +_Lady_, Glossary. +_Latter_, confused with _last_, Glossary. +_Lay_, confused with lie. +_Learn_, for _teach_, Glossary. +_Leave_, for _let_, Glossary. +_Lend_, confused with _loan_. +Length, of paragraphs; of sentences. +Letter writing; body of letter; close; heading; illustrations of + correctly written letters; inside address; miscellaneous + directions; notes in third person; outside address; salutation. +_Liable_, for _likely_. +_Lie_, confused with _lay_. +_Lightning_, Glossary. +_Like_, misuse as a conjunction. +_Lit on_, Glossary. +_Loan_, confused with _lend_. +Loose sentences. +_Lot_ for _a great deal_, Glossary. + +_Mad_, for _angry_. +Masculine gender, defined; of pronouns. +_May_; model conjugation of. +_Messrs._, use of. +_Might_; model conjugations of. +Mode, definition of; indicative; infinitive; imperative; obligative, + footnote; participal; potential, of; subjunctive. +Modifiers, placing of. +_Most_ for _almost_. +_Mother_, capitalization of (§99). +_Mrs._, Glossary. +_Much_, for _many_. +_Muchly_. +_Mutual_, confused with _common_, Glossary. + +Name, form of verb. +_Namely_, punctuation of (§122). +_Near_, confused with _nearly_. +_Neither_, misuse with more than two objects, Glossary. +_Neither-nor_. +_Nerve_, Glossary. +Neuter gender, defined; of nouns and pronouns. +Newly coined expressions, rule against. +_Newsy_, Glossary. +Nominative case, defined; when used, note. +_No place_, Glossary. +_No_, punctuation of (§102). +_No good_, for _worthless_. +_North_, capitalization of (§100). +_Not muchly_. +Notes in the third person. +_Not only--but also_. +_Notorious_, confused with _noted_, Glossary. +Nouns, common; proper; case of; gender of; number of. +_Nowhere near_, for _not nearly_, Glossary. +Number, defined; agreement of verb and subject in number; singular; + plural; of relative pronouns; of pronouns; of pronouns with + compounded antecedent; rules for forming plurals of nouns. +_Number_, sign #, used for. + +_O_ and _oh_, capitalization of (§100). +Object complement, explained. +Objective case, defined; when used. +Obligative mode (footnote). +_Observance_, confused with _observation_. +Obsolete words. +_Of_, Glossary. +Omission, of adverb _much_; of important words; of prepositions; + punctuation in case of (§117); (§138); of verbs. +_One another_, use of. +_Only_, placing of; with a negative, Glossary. +Order of heading in letters. +_Other_, use of in comparison. +_Ought_. +Outline, for composition; illustration of. +Outside address, of letters. +_Outside of_, Glossary. +Over-statement of facts, rule against. +_Over with_, Glossary. + +_Pants_, Glossary. +Paragraphing of letters. +Paragraphs; coherence in; emphasis in; indentation of; in letters; + length of; unity in. +Parenthesis marks, use of; too frequent use of. +Parts of speech, classified. +Passive voice and active voice explained; forms of. +Past participle, explanation and use of. +Past tense, explanation and use of. +Participles, explanation of; confusion with gerunds; dangling; at + beginning of sentence; preceded by _thus_. +Period, use of. +Periodic sentence. +Personal pronouns, defined; classified; compound personal pronouns; + use of common and of grave forms of; unnecessary use of. +_Piece_, Glossary. +_Photo_, Glossary. +Phrases, defined; prepositional; verb; punctuation of adverbial + phrases (§116), (§121). +_Place_, Glossary. +Placing of adjectives and adverbs. +_Plenty_, Glossary. +Plural number, explained; rules for forming plurals of nouns. +Point of view, in paragraph; in sentence; in whole composition. +_Poorly_, for _ill_, Glossary. +Positive degree. +Position, in letters, of complimentary close; of heading; of inside + address; of salutation; of outside address. +Possessive case, defined; rules for forming possessives of nouns; + when used. +Potential mode, explanation and forms of. +Predicate of the sentence; defined; compound, predicate, explained. +Prepositional phrase. +Prepositions, defined; omission of; proper use of; unnecessary use + of; used as conjunctions. +_Principal_, confused with _principle_, Glossary. +Principal parts of verbs, explained; classified; list of; rules for + use of. +Principal verbs, explained. +Professional words. +Pronouns, defined; adjective; antecedent of, defined; agreement with + antecedent; case forms of; compound personal; compound relative; + gender of; interrogative; number of; outline of, use of case forms + of; relative; rules determining gender of; with compound antecedents. +Pronunciation, lists of frequently mispronounced words; words given + wrong sounds; words given wrong accent; words of foreign pronunciation; + words of similar spelling. +Proper adjectives, capitalization of (§95). +Proper nouns, defined; capitalization of (§95). +_Propose_, for _intend_, Glossary. +_Providing_, for _if_, Glossary. +Provincialisms, definition and rule against use of. +Punctuation, rules for; in letters, body; heading; inside address; + outside address; salutation. + +Qualities, essential: Of sentences, unity; emphasis; euphony. Of + paragraphs, unity; coherence; emphasis. Of whole composition, unity; + coherence. +_Quite_, for _very_. +Quotation marks, use of. +Quotations, punctuation of (§115), (§123), (§131), (§§132-137). + +_Raise_, confused with _rise_, Glossary. +_Recommend_, confused with _recommendation_, Glossary. +Relative causes, cases in; explanatory or non-restrictive; introduction + of successive; punctuation of (§111); use of _when_ or _where_ clause. +Relative pronouns, defined and explained; agreement of verb + with; case and number of; compound; explanatory or non-restrictive; + restrictive; use of, with different antecedents. +Repetition of similar words or syllables. +_Reputation_, confused with _character_, Glossary. +_Respectfully_, confused with _respectively_. +_Rev._. +_Right away_, Glossary. +_Right off_, Glossary. +_Rise_, confused with _raise_, Glossary. + +Salutation, in letters. +_Some_, misuse as a pronoun, Glossary. +_Say_, for _order_ or _command_, Glossary. +_Scarcely_, placing of; with a negative, Glossary. +Scriptures, capitalization, of (§100). +_Seldom ever_, Glossary. +Semi-colon, use of. +Sentence elements out of natural order, (§109). +Sentences: defined; declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory; + essential qualities of; loose, periodic, balanced; simple, complex, + compound; length of; slipshod construction of. +Sequence of tenses, infinitive; in clauses. +Series of words, punctuation of. +_Set_, confused with _sit_, Glossary. +S-form of verb. +_Shut of_, for _rid of_, Glossary. +_Sight_, for _many_, Glossary. +Signature of writer, in letters. +Simple sentence, defined. +Simple words, use of. +Similar expressions of similar thoughts. +Singular form of verb, explanation and use of, after you and they. +Singular number, explained. +_Sit_, confused with _set_, Glossary. +_Shall_ and _will_, use of, in dependent clauses; in principal clauses; + in questions; model conjugations of; past tenses of. +_Should_ and _would_, model conjugations of; use of. +Slang. +_So_, use of. +Solecisms. +_Some_, misuse as an adverb, Glossary. +_Somebody else's_. +_Sort_, with plurals, Glossary. +_Sort of a_, Glossary. +_South_, capitalization of, (§100). +Speech, paragraphing of. +Specific terms, use of. +Spelling, lists of words frequently misspelled; rules for; of words of + similar sound. +"Squinting construction." +_Street_, omission of in letters. +Subject of sentence or clause, defined; agreement of verb and subject; + compound; relative pronoun as, of whole composition; statement of, + in composition. +Subject matter of letters. +Subjunctive mode. +_Such_, Glossary. +Summarizing word, use of; punctuation of, (§127). +Superlative degree; misuse in comparing only two things. +_Suspect_, for _expect_. +Syllables, division of words into, (§139). +Synonyoms, value of. + +_Tasty_, for _tasteful_, Glossary. +Technical words. +"Telegraph style," in letters. +Tense, explained; sequence of. +_Than_, use of. +_That_, with what antecedents used; as a restrictive relative; + misuse of, Glossary. +_That is_, punctuation of, (§122). +_The_, use of article. +_Their'n, theirself, theirselves_. +_Them_, for _those_. +_Then_, use of. +_There_, improper use of after demonstratives, Glossary. +_They_, indefinite use of; with singular verb. +Third person, notes in the. +_Those kind_, and _these sort_. +_Three first_, Glossary. +_Thusly_. +Title of whole composition. +Titles, abbreviations of; capitalization of, (§§ 96, 97). +_To-day, to-morrow, to-night_, hyphens with, (§140). +_Too_, misuse of, Glossary. +Transition, in whole composition. +Transitive and intransitive verbs, confusion of; explanation of. +_Transpire_, for _happen_. +_Try and_, Glossary. +_Two first_, Glossary. + +_Unbeknown_, for _unknown_. +Unity: Of paragraph; how to gain; illustrations of. + Of sentence. Of whole composition. +Unnecessary words, use of. + +Verb phrase, explained. +Verbs, defined; agreement of verb and subject; agreement of verb in + clauses; auxiliary; gerunds; infinitives; mode; model conjugations + of _to-be_ and _to see_; omission of verbs or parts of; participles; + principal; principal parts; principal parts, list of; transitive and + intransitive; use of auxiliaries; voice. +_Very_. +_viz._, punctuation of, (§122). +Vocabulary, rules for improvement of. +_Vocation_, confused with _avocation_. +Vulgarisms. + +_Wake_, confused with _awake_, Glossary. +_Wait on_, confused with _wait for_, Glossary. +_Ways_, Glossary. +Weak beginnings and endings of sentences. +_Well_, confused with _good_. +_West_, capitalization of, (§100). +_What_, with what antecedents. +_When_. +_Where_. +_Which_, with clause or phrase as antecedent; with what antecedents used. +_Who_, with what antecedents used. +Whole composition; beginning of, ending of; paragraph composition or + paragraph theme. +_Will_, use of, see _shall_. +_Without_, misuse as a conjunction. +Words, choice of; clipped or abbreviated; division of at ends of lines, + (§139); foreign; good use of; how to improve vocabulary of, idioms; + in place of figures in letters; newly-coined; of coherence; + professional; pronunciation of, provincialisms; simple English; slang; + spelling of; technical words; vulgarisms. +_Would_, see _should_. + +_Yes_, punctuation of, (102). +_You_, indefinite use of; with singular verb. +_Yours truly_ and _yours respectfully_, wrong abbreviation of. +_Your'n_. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Practical Grammar and Composition, by Thomas Wood + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION *** + +***** This file should be named 22577-8.txt or 22577-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/2/5/7/22577/ + +Produced by Robert J. 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