diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 01:48:14 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 01:48:14 -0700 |
| commit | 2651a80132aeb4b2662ba3d1eb397b018e773559 (patch) | |
| tree | 221814ef14ca82a6dbaad01c610b3fcc38f380c5 /22298.txt | |
Diffstat (limited to '22298.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 22298.txt | 7957 |
1 files changed, 7957 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/22298.txt b/22298.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2cc2cab --- /dev/null +++ b/22298.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7957 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Practical Mechanics for Boys, by J. S. Zerbe + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Practical Mechanics for Boys + +Author: J. S. Zerbe + +Release Date: August 11, 2007 [EBook #22298] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS *** + + + + +Produced by Joe Longo and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS + +PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS + + + + +THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS + +PRACTICAL MECHANICS +FOR BOYS + +In language which every boy can understand +and so arranged that he may readily carry +out any work from the instructions given. + +WITH MANY ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS + +By J. S. ZERBE, M.E. + +_Author of_ + +CARPENTRY FOR BOYS +ELECTRICITY FOR BOYS + + +M. A. DONOHUE & COMPANY + +CHICAGO :: NEW YORK + +COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY +THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY + +Made in U. S. A. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +INTRODUCTORY Page 1 + +I. ON TOOLS GENERALLY Page 7 + + Varied Requirements. List of Tools. Swivel Vises. Parts of Lathe. + Chisels. Grinding Apparatus. Large Machines. Chucks. Bench Tools. + Selecting a Lathe. Combination Square. Micrometers. Protractors. + Utilizing Bevel Protractors. Truing Grindstones. Sets of Tools. The + Work Bench. The Proper Dimensions. How Arranged. + +II. HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS Page 26 + + Importance of the Cutting Tool. The Grinder. Correct Use of Grinder. + Lathe Bitts. Roughing Tools. The Clearance. The Cutting Angle. Drills. + Wrong Grinding. Chisels. Cold Chisels. System in Work. Wrong Use of + Tools. + +III. SETTING AND HOLDING TOOLS Page 34 + + Lathe Speed. The Hack-saw. Hack-saw Frame. The Blade. Files. + Grindstones. Emery and Grinding Wheels. Carelessness in Holding Tools. + Calipers. Care in Use of Calipers. Machine Bitts. The Proper Angle for + Lathe Tools. Setting the Bitt. The Setting Angle. Bad Practice. Proper + Lathe Speeds. Boring Tools on Lathe. The Rake of the Drill. Laps. Using + the Lap. Surface Gages. Uses of the Surface Gage. + +IV. ON THE FIRST USE OF THE FILE Page 48 + + The First Test. Filing an Irregular Block. Filing a Bar Straight. + Filing Bar with Parallel Sides. Surfacing Off Disks. True Surfacing. + Precision Tools. Test of the Mechanic. Test Suggestions. Use of the + Dividers. Cutting a Key-way. Key-way Difficulties. Filing Metal Round. + Kinds of Files. Cotter-file. Square. Pinion. Half-round. Round. + Triangular. Equalizing. Cross. Slitting. Character of File Tooth. + Double Cut. Float-cut. Rasp Cut. Holding the File. Injuring Files. + Drawing Back the File. + +V. HOW TO COMMENCE WORK Page 61 + + Familiarity with Tools. File Practice. Using the Dividers. Finding + Centers. Hack-saw Practice. Cutting Metal True. Lathe Work. First + Steps. Setting the Tool. Metals Used. The Four Important Things. + Turning Up a Cylinder. Turning Grooves. Disks. Lathe Speeds. + +VI. ILLUSTRATING SOME OF THE FUNDAMENTAL DEVICES Page 68 + + Belt Lacing. Gears. Crown Wheel. Grooved Friction Gearing. A Valve + which Closes by the Water Pressure. Cone Pulleys. Universal Joint. + Trammel for Making Ellipses. Escapements. Simple Device to Prevent a + Wheel or Shaft from Turning Back. Racks and Pinions. Mutilated Gears. + Simple Shaft Coupling. Clutches. Ball and Socket Joints. Tripping + Devices. Anchor Bolt. Lazy Tongs. Disk Shears. Wabble Saw. Crank Motion + by a Slotted Yoke. Continuous Feed by Motion of a Lever. Crank Motion. + Ratchet Head. Bench Clamp. Helico-volute Spring. Double helico-volute. + Helical Spring. Single Volute Helix Spring. Flat Spiral, or Convolute. + Eccentric Rod and Strap. Anti-dead Center for Lathe. + +VII. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS Page 79 + + Elasticity. Traction. Torsion. Flexure. Tenacity. The Most Tenacious + Metal. Ductility. Malleability. Hardness. Alloys. Resistance. + Persistence. Conductivity. Equalization. Reciprocity. Molecular Forces. + Attraction. Cohesion. Adhesion. Affinity. Porosity. Compressibility. + Elasticity. Inertia. Momentum. Weight. Centripetal Force. Centrifugal + Force. Capillary Attraction. The Sap of Trees. Sound. Acoustics. Sound + Mediums. Vibration. Velocity of Sound. Sound Reflections. Resonance. + Echos. Speaking Trumpet. The Stethoscope. The Vitascope. The + Phonautograph. The Phonograph. Light. The Corpuscular Theory. + Undulatory Theory. Luminous Bodies. Velocity of Light. Reflection. + Refraction. Colors. The Spectroscope. The Rainbow. Heat. Expansion. + +VIII. HOW DRAUGHTING BECOMES A VALUABLE AID Page 95 + + Lines in Drawing. Shading. Direction of Shade. Perspectives. The Most + Pronounced Lines. Direction of Light. Scale Drawings. Degree, and What + it Means. Memorizing Angles. Section Lining. Making Ellipses and + Irregular Curves. Focal Points. Isometric and Perspective. The + Protractor. Suggestions in Drawing. Holding the Pen. Inks. Tracing + Cloth. Detail Paper. How to Proceed. Indicating Material by Section + Lines. + +IX. TREATMENT AND USE OF METALS Page 112 + + Annealing. Toughness and Elasticity. The Process. Tempering. Tempering + Contrasted with Annealing. Materials Used. Gradual Tempering. Fluxing. + Uniting Metals. Alloying Method. Welding. Sweating. Welding Compounds. + Oxidation. Soldering. Soft Solder. Hard Solder. Spelter. Soldering + Acid. The Soldering Iron. + +X. ON GEARING, AND HOW ORDERED Page 121 + + Spur and Pinion. Measuring a Gear. Pitch. Diametral Pitch. Circular + Pitch. How to Order a Gear. Bevel and Miter Gears. Drawing Gears. + Sprocket Wheels. + +XI. MECHANICAL POWER Page 128 + + The Lever. Wrong Inferences from Use of Lever. The Lever Principle. + Powers vs. Distance Traveled. Power vs. Loss of Time. Wrongly-Directed + Energy. The Lever and the Pulley. Sources of Power. Water Power. + Calculating Fuel Energy. The Pressure or Head. Fuels. Power from Winds. + Speed of Wind and Pressure. Varying Degrees of Pressure. Power from + Waves and Tides. A Profitable Field. + +XII. ON MEASURES Page 139 + + Horse Power. Foot Pounds. Energy. How to Find Out the Power Developed. + The Test. Calculations. The Foot Measure. Weight. The Gallon. The + Metric System. Basis of Measurement. Metrical Table, Showing + Measurements in Feet and Inches. + +XIII. USEFUL INFORMATION FOR THE WORKSHOP Page 148 + + Finding the Circumference of a Circle. Diameter of a Circle. Area of a + Circle. Area of a Triangle. Surface of a Ball. Solidity of a Sphere. + Contents of a Cone. Capacity of a Pipe. Capacity of Tanks. To Toughen + Aluminum. Amalgams. Prevent Boiler Scaling. Diamond Test. Making Glue + Insoluble in Water. Taking Glaze Out of Grindstone. To Find Speeds of + Pulleys. To Find the Diameters Required. To Prevent Belts from + Slipping. Removing Boiler Scale. Gold Bronze. Cleaning Rusted Utensils. + To Prevent Plaster of Paris from Setting Quickly. The Measurement of + Liquids with Spoons. + +XIV. SIMPLICITY OF GREAT INVENTIONS AND OF NATURE'S MANIFESTATION + Page 152 + + Invention Precedes Science. Simplicity in Inventions. + The Telegraph. Telephone. Transmitter. Phonograph. + Wireless Telegraphy. Printing Telegraph. Electric Motor. + Explosions. Vibrations in Nature. Qualities of + Sound. The Photographer's Plate. Quadruplex Telegraphy. + Electric Harmony. Odors. Odophone. A Bouquet + of Vibrations. Taste. Color. + +XV. WORKSHOP RECIPES AND FORMULAS Page 160 + + Adhesives for Various Uses. Belt Glue. Cements. Transparent Cement. U. + S. Government Gum. To Make Different Alloys. Bell-metal. Brass. + Bronzes. Boiler Compounds. Celluloid. Clay Mixture for Forges. Modeling + Clay. Fluids for Cleaning Clothes, Furniture, etc. Disinfectants. + Deodorants. Emery for Lapping Purposes. Explosives. Fulminates. Files, + and How to Keep Clean. Renewing Files. Fire-proof Materials or + Substances. Floor Dressings. Stains. Foot Powders. Frost Bites. Glass. + To Frost. How to Distinguish. Iron and Steel. To Soften Castings. + Lacquers. For Aluminum and Brass. Copper. Lubricants. Paper. + Photography. Plasters. Plating, Coloring Metals. Polishes. Putty. Rust + Preventives. Solders. Soldering Fluxes. Steel Tempering. Varnishes. + Sealing Wax. + +XVI. HANDY TABLES Page 178 + + Table of Weights for Round and Square Steel. Table of Weight of Flat + Steel Bars. Avoirdupois Weight. Troy Weight. Apothecaries' Weight. + Linear Measure. Long Measure. Square Measure. Solid or Cubic Measure. + Dry Measure. Liquid Measure. Paper Measure. Table of Temperatures. + Strength of Various Metals. Freezing Mixtures. Ignition Temperatures. + Power and Heat Equivalents. + +XVII. INVENTIONS AND PATENTS, AND INFORMATION ABOUT THE + RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF INVENTORS AND WORKMEN, + Page 188 + + The Machinist's Opportunities. What is an Inventor? Idea Not Invention. + What an Invention Must Have. Obligation of the Model Builder. Paying + for Developing Devices. Time for Filing an Application. Selling an + Unpatented Invention. Joint Inventors. Joint Owners Not Partners. + Partnerships in Patents. Form of Protection Issued by the Government. + Life of a Patent. Interference Proceedings. Concurrent Applications. + Granting Interference. Steps in Interference. First Sketches. First + Model. First Operative Machine. Preliminary Statements. Proving + Invention. What Patents Are Issued For. Owner's Rights. Divided and + Undivided Patents. Assignments. How Made. What an Invention Must Have. + Basis for Granting Patent in the United States. Reasons for Granting + Abroad. Original Grants of Patents. International Agreement. + Application for Patents. Course of Procedure. Costs. Filing a Matter of + Secrecy. + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + FIG. PAGE + 1. Bench vise 8 + 2. Pipe grip for vise 9 + 3. Swivel vise 10 + 4. Speed lathe 11 + 5. Calipers 12 + 6. Engine lathe 13 + 7. Center gage 14 + 8. Pocket screw and wire gage 15 + 9. Handy bench vise 16 + 10. Combination square 17 + 11. Uses of the combination square 18 + 12. A quick adjusting micrometer 19 + 13. Universal bevel protractor 20 + 14. Uses of universal bevel protractor 21 + 15. Grindstone truing device 22 + 16. Set of tools and case 23 + 17. The work bench 24 + 18. Hook tool 28 + 19. Parting tool 28 + 20. Knife tool 28 + 21. Right-hand side tool 28 + 22. Internal tool 28 + 23. Left-hand side tool 28 + 24. Tool for wrought iron 29 + 25. Tool for cast iron 29 + 26. End view of drill 31 + 27. Side view of drill 31 + 28. Hack-saw frame 35 + 29. Hack-saw blade 35 + 30. Plain hook tool 38 + 31. Plain straight tool 38 + 32. Proper angles for tools 39 + 33. Angles for tools 39 + 34. Angles for tools 39 + 35. Set of the bitt 40 + 36. Correct angle 41 + 37. Wrong angle 41 + 38. Too low 42 + 39. Improper set 42 + 40. Internal set 43 + 41. Set for brass 43 + 42. Surface gage 44 + 43. Uses of surface gage 46 + 44. Rounded surface 49 + 45. Winding surface 49 + 46. Hexagon nut 51 + 47. Laying off hexagon nut 51 + 48. Cutting key-way 52 + 49. Key-seat rule 54 + 50. Filing metal round 54 + 51. Filing metal round 54 + 52. Making a round bearing 55 + 53. Making a round bearing 55 + 54. Cross section of file 56 + 55. Files 58 + 56. Correct file movement 59 + 57. Incorrect file movement 60 + 58. Belt lacing 69 + 59. Belt lacing 69 + 60. Belt lacing 69 + 61. Belt lacing 69 + 62. Bevel gears 71 + 63. Miter gears 71 + 64. Crown wheel 71 + 65. Grooved friction gears 71 + 66. Valve 71 + 67. Cone pulleys 71 + 68. Universal joint 71 + 69. Trammel 73 + 70. Escapement 73 + 71. Device for holding wheel 73 + 72. Rack and pinion 73 + 73. Mutilated gears 73 + 74. Shaft coupling 73 + 75. Clutches 75 + 76. Ball and socket joints 75 + 77. Fastening ball 75 + 78. Tripping devices 75 + 79. Anchor bolt 75 + 80. Lazy tongs 75 + 81. Disc shears 75 + 82. Wabble saw 76 + 83. Continuous crank motion 76 + 84. Continues feed 76 + 85. Crank motion 76 + 86. Ratchet head 76 + 87. Bench clamp 76 + 88. Helico-volute spring 77 + 89. Double helico-volute 77 + 90. Helical spring 77 + 91. Single volute-helix 77 + 92. Flat spiral or convolute 77 + 93. Eccentric rod or strap 77 + 94. Anti dead-centers for lathes 77 + 95. Plain circle 95 + 96. Ring 96 + 97. Raised surface 96 + 98. Sphere 96 + 99. Depressed surface 96 + 100. Concave 97 + 101. Forms of cubical outlines 98 + 102. Forms of cubical outlines 98 + 103. Forms of cubical outlines 98 + 104. Forms of cubical outlines 98 + 105. Shading edges 99 + 106. Shading edges 99 + 107. Illustrating heavy lines 100 + 108. Illustrating heavy lines 100 + 109. Lines on plain surfaces 101 + 110. Lines on plain surfaces 101 + 111. Illustrating degrees 102 + 112. Section lining 103 + 113. Drawing an ellipse 104 + 114. Perspective at angles 106 + 115. Perspective of cube 107 + 116. Perspective of cube 107 + 117. Perspective of cube 107 + 118. Protractor 108 + 119. Using the protractor 109 + 120. Section-lining metals 110 + 121. Spur gears 122 + 122. Miter gear pitch 123 + 123. Bevel gears 124 + 124. Laying of miter gears 125 + 125. Sprocket wheel 128 + 126. Simple lever 129 + 127. Lever action 130 + 128. The pulley 132 + 129. Change of direction 133 + 130. Change of direction 133 + 131. Steam pressure 135 + 132. Water pressure 135 + 133. Prony brake 141 + 134. Speed indicator 142 + + + + +PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS + + + + +INTRODUCTORY + + +The American method of teaching the mechanical arts has some +disadvantages, as compared with the apprentice system followed in +England, and very largely on the continent. + +It is too often the case that here a boy or a young man begins work in a +machine shop, not for the avowed purpose of learning the trade, but +simply as a helper, with no other object in view than to get his weekly +wages. + +Abroad, the plan is one which, for various reasons, could not be +tolerated here. There he is bound for a certain term of years, and with +the prime object of teaching him to become an artisan. More often than +otherwise he pays for this privilege, and he knows it is incumbent on +him "to make good" right from the start. + +He labors under the disadvantage, however, that he has a certain tenure, +and in that course he is not pushed forward from one step to the next on +account of any merit of his own. His advancement is fixed by the time he +has put in at each part of the work, and thus no note is taken of his +individuality. + +Here the boy rises step after step by virtue of his own qualifications, +and we recognize that one boy has the capacity to learn faster than +another. If he can learn in one year what it requires three in another +to acquire, in order to do it as perfectly, it is an injury to the apt +workman to be held back and deterred from making his way upwardly. + +It may be urged that the apprentice system instills thoroughness. This +may be true; but it also does another thing: It makes the man a mere +machine. The true workman is a thinker. He is ever on the alert to find +easier, quicker and more efficient means for doing certain work. + +What is called "Efficiency" in labor methods, can never obtain in an +apprenticeship system for this reason. In a certain operation, where +twelve motions are required to do a certain thing, and a minute to +perform the twelve operations, a simplified way, necessitating only +eight motions, means a difference in saving one-third of the time. The +nineteen hundred fewer particular movements in a day's work, being a +less strain on the operator, both physically and mentally, to say +nothing whatever of the advantages which the proprietor of the shop +would gain. + +I make this a leading text in the presentation of this book; namely, +that individual merit and stimulus is something of such extreme +importance that it should be made the keynote for every boy who tries to +become a mechanic. + +The machinist easily occupies a leading place in the multitude of trades +and occupations. There is hardly an article of use but comes to the +market through his hands. His labor is most diverse, and in his +employment doing machine work he is called upon to do things which vary +widely in their character. + +These require special knowledge, particular tools, and more frequently +than otherwise, a high order of inventive ability to enable him to +accomplish the task. + +The boy should be taught, at the outset, that certain things must be +learned thoroughly, and that habits in a machine shop can be bad as well +as good. When he once becomes accustomed to putting a tool back in its +rightful place the moment he is through with it, he has taken a long +step toward efficiency. + +When he grasps a tool and presents it to the work without turning it +over several times, or has acquired the knack of picking up the right +tool at the proper place, he is making strides in the direction of +becoming a rapid and skilled workman. + +These, and many other things of like import, will require our attention +throughout the various chapters. + +It is not the intention of the book to make every boy who reads and +studies it, a machinist; nor have we any desire to present a lot of +useful articles as samples of what to make. The object is to show the +boy what are the requirements necessary to make him a machinist; how to +hold, handle, sharpen and grind the various tools; the proper ones to +use for each particular character of work; how the various machines are +handled and cared for; the best materials to use; and suggest the +numerous things which can be done in a shop which will pave the way for +making his work pleasant as well as profitable. + +It also analyzes the manner in which the job is laid out; how to set the +tools to get the most effective work; and explains what is meant by +making a finished piece of workmanship. These things, properly acquired, +each must determine in his own mind whether he is adapted to follow up +the work. + +Over and above all, we shall try to give the boy some stimulus for his +work. Unless he takes an interest in what he is doing, he will never +become an artisan in the true sense of the word. + +Go through the book, and see whether, here and there, you do not get +some glimpses of what it means to take a pleasure in doing each +particular thing, and you will find in every instance that it is a +satisfaction because you have learned to perform it with ease. + +I do not know of anything which has done as much to advance the arts and +manufactures, during the last century, as the universal desire to +improve the form, shape and structure of tools; and the effort to invent +new ones. This finds its reflection everywhere in the production of new +and improved products. + +In this particular I have been led to formulate a homely sentence which +expresses the idea: Invention consists in doing an old thing a new way; +or a new thing any way. + +THE AUTHOR. + + + + +CHAPTER I + +ON TOOLS GENERALLY + + +Judging from the favorable comments of educators, on the general +arrangement of the subject matter in the work on "Carpentry for Boys," I +am disposed to follow that plan in this book in so far as it pertains to +tools. + +In this field, as in "Carpentry," I do not find any guide which is +adapted to teach the boy the fundamentals of mechanics. Writers usually +overlook the fact, that as the boy knows nothing whatever about the +subject, he could not be expected to know anything about tools. + +To describe them gives a start in the education, but it is far short of +what is necessary for one in his condition. If he is told that the +chisel or bit for a lathe has a diamond point, or is round-nosed, and +must be ground at a certain angle, he naturally wants to know, as all +boys do, _why_ it should be at that angle. + +So in the setting of the tools with relation to the work, the holding +and manipulation of the file, of the drill for accurate boring, together +with numerous little things, are all taken for granted, and the boy +blunders along with the ultimate object in sight, without having the +pathway cleared so he may readily reach the goal. + +VARIED REQUIREMENTS.--The machinist's trade is one which requires the +most varied tools of all occupations, and they are by all odds the most +expensive to be found in the entire list of vocations. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 1. Bench Vise._] + +This arises from the fact that he must work with the most stubborn of +all materials. He finds resistance at every step in bringing forth a +product. + +LIST OF TOOLS.--With a view of familiarizing the boy with this great +variety the following list is compiled, from which we shall select the +ones essential in the initial equipment of a small shop. + +VISES.--One small, good vise is infinitely preferable to two bad ones. +For ordinary work a 3-inch jaw is preferable, and it should be firmly +mounted on the bench. So many kinds are now made that it would be a +costly thing to purchase one for each special use, therefore the boy +will find it profitable to make some attachments for the ordinary vise. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 2. Pipe Grip for Vise._] + +SWIVEL VISES.--A swivel vise is always a good tool, the cost being not +excessive over the ordinary kind. Then a pair of grips for holding pipe, +or round material which is to be threaded, can readily be made. + +The drawing (Fig. 2) shows a serviceable pair of grips, made to fit the +jaws of a vise, and will be acceptable in much of the work. Then, the +vise should be provided with copper caps for the jaws to be used when +making up articles which would otherwise be injured by the jaws. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 3. Swivel Vise._] + +Let us get a comprehensive view of the different kinds of tools +necessary in a fully equipped shop. + +PARTS OF LATHE.--The first thing of importance is the lathe, and of +these there is quite a variety, and among the accompaniments are the +slide rest, mandrel, back gear, division plate, angle plate, cone plate +and various chucks. + +There must also be change wheels, studs and quadrant plates, self-acting +feed for surfacing and cross slide, and clamping nuts. + +Drilling machines, both hand and power, hand and ratchet braces and +breast-drill stocks. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 4--Speed Lathe._] + +CHISELS.--Chisels of various kinds, for chipping and cross-cutting; +round-nosed, centering, set punches, tommies and drifts. + +Back, tee and centering square; bevels, spirit level, inside and outside +calipers, straight edges, rules and surface plates. + +Gages for boring, scribing blocks, steel and brass scribes, stocks and +dies, screw-plates, taps for bolts, reamers. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 5. Calipers_] + +Files for various descriptions, countersinks, frame and hack saws. + +GRINDING APPARATUS.--Emery wheel, cloth and paper, paper, flour emery, +polishing powders, laps and buffs, and polishing sticks. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 6. Engine Lathe._ + _A. Lathe Bed_ + _B. Rack Gear_ + _C. Live Center_ + _D. Dead Center_ + _E. Dead Spindle_ + _F. Face Plate_ + _G. Feed Screw_ + _H. Train of Gears_ + _I. Head Stock_ + _J. Mandrel_ + _K. Cone Pulley_ + _L. Angle Plate for Tool Holder_ + _M. Tool Post_ + _N. Tail Stock_ + _O. Wheel for Slide Rest Mechanism_ + _P. Locking Lever for Tail Stock._] + +Forge, anvils, tongs, swages, punches, bolt tools, hot and cold chisels, +blow-pipe, soldering iron, hard and soft solders, borax, spirits of +salts, oil, resin and spelter. + +To this may be added an endless variety of small bench tools, +micrometers, protractors, arbors, collets, box tools and scrapers. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 7. Center Gage._] + +LARGE MACHINES.--The list would not be complete without the planer, +shaper and milling machine, with their variety of chucks, clamps and +other attachments, too numerous to mention. + +The foregoing show what a wonderful variety of articles are found in a +well-equipped shop, all of which can be conveniently used; but to the +boy who has only a small amount of money, a workable set is indicated as +follows: + +A small lathe, with an 8-inch swing, can be obtained at a low cost, +provided with a countershaft complete. + +CHUCKS.--With this should go a small chuck, and a face-plate for large +work, unless a large chuck can also be acquired. This, with a dozen +tools of various sizes, and also small bits for drilling purposes. + +The lathe will answer all purposes for drilling, but small drilling +machines are now furnished at very low figures, and such a machine will +take off a great deal of duty from the lathe. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 8. Pocket Screw and Wire Gage._] + +As the lathe is of prime importance, never use it for drilling, if you +have a driller, as it always has enough work to do for tuning up work. + +BENCH TOOLS.--Of bench tools, a 3-inch vise, various files, center +punch, two hammers, round and A-shaped peons, hack saw, compasses, +inside and outside calipers, screw driver, cold chisels, metal square, +level, straight edge, bevel square, reamers, small emery wheel and an +oil stone, make a fairly good outfit to start with, and these can be +added to from time to time. + +Everything in the machine shop centers about the lathe. It is the king +of all tools. The shaper and planer may be most efficient for surfacing, +and the milling machine for making grooves and gears, or for general +cutting purposes, but the lathe possesses a range of work not possible +with either of the other tools, and for that reason should be selected +with great care. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 9. Handy Bench Vise._] + +SELECTING A LATHE.--The important things about a lathe are the spindle +bearings and the ways for the tool-holder. The least play in either will +ruin any work. Every other part may be defective, but with solidly +built bearing-posts and bearings, your lathe will be effective. + +For this reason it will not pay to get a cheap tool. Better get a small, +6-inch approved tool of this kind, than a larger cheap article. It may +pay with other tools, but with a lathe never. + +Never do grinding on a lathe. The fine emery, or grinding material, is +sure to reach the bearings; it matters not what care is exercised. There +is only one remedy for this--overhauling. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 10.--Combination Square._] + +COMBINATION SQUARE.--A tool of this kind is most essential, however +small. It can be used as a try-square, and has this advantage, that the +head can be made to slide along the rule and be clamped at any point. It +has a beveling and a leveling device, as well. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 11.--Uses of the Combination Square._] + +The combination square provides a means for doing a great variety of +work, as it combines the qualities of a rule, square, miter, depth gage, +height gage, level and center head. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 12.--A Quick Adjusting Micrometer._] + +The full page illustration (Fig. 11) shows some of the uses and the +particular manner of holding the tool. + +MICROMETERS.--Tools of this description are made which will accurately +measure work in dimensions of ten-thousandths of an inch up to an inch. + +The illustration (Fig. 12) shows an approved tool, and this is so +constructed that it can instantly be changed and set by merely pressing +the end of the plunger as shown. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 13.--A Universal Bevel Protractor._] + +PROTRACTORS.--As all angles are not obtainable by the square or bevel, a +protractor is a most desirable addition to the stock of tools. As one +side of the tool is flat it is convenient for laying on the paper when +drafting, as well as for use on the work. + +The protractor has a graduated disk, and is adjustable so it can be +disposed at any angle. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 14.--Universal Bevel Protractor, showing its +uses._] + +All special tools of this kind are serviceable, and the boy should +understand their uses, even though he is not able for the time being to +acquire them. To learn how they are applied in daily use is an education +in itself. + +UTILIZING BEVEL PROTRACTOR.--Examine the full-page illustration (Fig. +14), and see how the bevel protractor is utilized to measure the angles +of work, whether it is tapering heads or different kinds of nuts, or end +and side surfacing, and it will teach an important lesson. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 15.--Grindstone Truing Device._] + +TRUING GRINDSTONES.--Devices for truing up grindstones are now made, and +the illustration (Fig. 15) shows a very efficient machine for this +purpose. It can be applied instantly to the face of the stone, and it +works automatically, without interfering with the use of the stone. + +It is frequently the case that an emery wheel will become glazed, due to +its extreme hardness. This is also caused, sometimes, by running it at +too high a speed. If the glazing continues after the speed is reduced, +it should be ground down an eighth of an inch or so. This will, usually, +remedy the defect. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 16.--Set of Tools and Case._] + +SETS OF TOOLS.--A cheap and convenient set of precision tools is shown +in Fig. 16, which is kept in a neat folding leather case. The set +consists of a 6-inch combination square, complete center punch, 6-inch +flexible steel rule center gage, 4-inch calipers, 4-inch outside caliper +with solid nut, 4-inch inside caliper with solid nut, and a 4-inch +divider with a solid nut. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 17. The Work Bench._] + +THE WORK BENCH.--This is the mechanic's fort. His capacity for work will +depend on its arrangement. To the boy this is particularly interesting, +and for his uses it should be made full three inches lower than the +standard height. + +A good plan to judge of the proper height is to measure from the jaws of +the vise. The top of the jaw should be on a level with the elbows. Grasp +a file with both hands, and hold it as though in the act of filing +across the work; then measure up from the floor to the elbows, when they +are held in that position. + +THE PROPER DIMENSIONS.--This plan will give you a sure means of +selecting a height that is best adapted for your work. The regulation +bench is about 38 inches high, and assuming that the vise projects up +about 4 inches more, would bring the top of the jaws about 42 to 44 +inches from the floor. It is safe to fix the height of the bench at not +less than 34 inches. + +This should have a drawer, preferably near the right-hand end of the +bench. The vise should be at the left side, and the bench in your front +should be free of any fixed tools. + +HOW ARRANGED.--Have a rack above the bench at the rear, for the various +tools when not in use, and the rear board of the bench should be +elevated above the front planks several inches, on which the various +tools can be put, other than those which are suspended on the rack +above. + +The advantage of this is, that a bench will accumulate a quantity of +material that the tools can hide in, and there is nothing more annoying +than to hunt over a lot of trash to get what is needed. It is necessary +to emphasize the necessity of always putting a tool back in its proper +place, immediately after using. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS + + +It is singular, that with the immense variety of tools set forth in the +preceding chapter, how few, really, require the art of the workman to +grind and sharpen. If we take the lathe, the drilling machine, as well +as the shaper, planer, milling machine, and all power-driven tools, they +are merely mechanism contrived to handle some small, and, apparently, +inconsequential tool, which does the work on the material. + +IMPORTANCE OF THE CUTTING TOOL.--But it is this very fact that makes the +preparation of that part of the mechanism so important. Here we have a +lathe, weighing a thousand pounds, worth hundreds of dollars, +concentrating its entire energies on a little bit, weighing eight +ounces, and worth less than a dollar. It may thus readily be seen that +it is the little bar of metal from which the small tool is made that +needs our care and attention. + +This is particularly true of the expensive milling machines, where the +little saw, if not in perfect order, and not properly set, will not only +do improper work, but injure the machine itself. More lathes are ruined +from using badly ground tools than from any other cause. + +In the whole line of tools which the machinist must take care of daily, +there is nothing as important as the lathe cutting-tool, and the +knowledge which goes with it to use the proper one. + +Let us simplify the inquiry by considering them under the following +headings: + +1. The grinder. + +2. The grinding angle. + +THE GRINDER.--The first mistake the novice will make, is to use the tool +on the grinder as though it were necessary to grind it down with a few +turns of the wheel. Haste is not conducive to proper sharpening. As the +wheel is of emery, corundum or other quickly cutting material, and is +always run at a high rate of speed, a great heat is evolved, which is +materially increased by pressure. + +Pressure is injurious not so much to the wheel as to the tool itself. +The moment a tool becomes heated there is danger of destroying the +temper, and the edge, being the thinnest, is the most violently +affected. Hence it is desirable always to have a receptacle with water +handy, into which the tool can be plunged, during the process of +grinding down. + +CORRECT USE OF GRINDER.--Treat the wheel as though it is a friend, and +not an enemy. Take advantage of its entire surface. Whenever you go into +a machine shop, look at the emery wheel. If you find it worn in creases, +and distorted in its circular outline, you can make up your mind that +there is some one there who has poor tools, because it is simply out of +the question to grind a tool correctly with such a wheel. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 18. Hook Tool._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 19. Parting Tool._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 20. Knife Tool._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 21. Right-hand Side Tool._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 22. Internal Tool._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 23. Left-hand Side Tool._] + +Coarse wheels are an abomination for tool work. Use the finest kinds +devised for the purpose. They will keep in condition longer, are not so +liable to wear unevenly, and will always finish off the edge better than +the coarse variety. + +LATHE BITS.--All bits made for lathes are modifications of the foregoing +types (Figs. 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23). + +As this chapter deals with the sharpening methods only, the reader is +referred to the next chapter, which deals with the manner of setting +and holding them to do the most effective work. + +When it is understood that a cutting tool in a lathe is simply a form of +wedge which peels off a definite thickness of metal, the importance of +proper grinding and correct position in the lathe can be appreciated. + +ROUGHING TOOLS.--The most useful is the roughing tool to take off the +first cut. As this type of tool is also important, with some +modifications, in finishing work, it is given the place of first +consideration here. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 24. Tool for Wrought iron._ _Fig. 25. Tool for Cast +iron._] + +Fig. 24 shows side and top views of a tool designed to rough off wrought +iron, or a tough quality of steel. You will notice, that what is called +the top rake (A) is very pronounced, and, as the point projects +considerably above the body of the tool itself, it should, in practice, +be set with its cutting point above the center. + +THE CLEARANCE.--Now, in grinding, the important point is the clearance +line (B). As shown in this figure, it has an angle of 10 degrees, so +that in placing the tool in the holder it is obvious it cannot be placed +very high above the center, particularly when used on small work. The +top rake is ground at an angle of 60 degrees from the vertical. The arc +of the curved end depends on the kind of lathe and the size of the work. + +The tool (Fig. 25), with a straight cutting edge, is the proper one to +rough off cast iron. Note that the top rake (C) is 70 degrees, and the +clearance 15 degrees. + +THE CUTTING ANGLE.--Wrought iron, or mild steel, will form a ribbon when +the tool wedges its way into the material. Cast iron, on the other hand, +owing to its brittleness, will break off into small particles, hence the +wedge surface can be put at a more obtuse angle to the work. + +In grinding side-cutters the clearance should be at a less angle than 10 +degrees, rather than more, and the top rake should also be less; +otherwise the tendency will be to draw the tool into the work and swing +the tool post around. + +DRILLS.--Holders for grinding twist drills are now furnished at very low +prices, and instructions are usually sent with the machines, but a few +words may not be amiss for the benefit of those who have not the means +to purchase such a machine. + +Hand grinding is a difficult thing, for the reason that through +carelessness, or inability, both sides of the drill are not ground at +the same angle and pitch. As a result the cutting edge of one side will +do more work than the other. If the heel angles differ, one side will +draw into the work, and the other resist. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 26. End view._ _Fig. 27. Side view._] + +WRONG GRINDING.--When such is the case the hole becomes untrue. The +sides of the bit will grind into the walls, or the bit will have a +tendency to run to one side, and particularly if boring through metal +which is uneven in its texture or grain. + +Figs. 26 and 27 show end and side views of a bit properly ground. If a +bit has been broken off, first grind it off square at the end, and then +grind down the angles, so that A is about 15 degrees, and be sure that +the heel has sufficient clearance--that is, ground down deeper than the +cutting point. + +CHISELS.--A machine shop should always have a plentiful supply of cold +chisels, and a particular kind for each work, to be used for that +purpose only. This may seem trivial to the boy, but it is really a most +important matter. + +Notice the careless and incompetent workman. If chipping or cutting is +required, he will grasp the first chisel at hand. It may have a curved +end, or be a key-way chisel, or entirely unsuited as to size for the +cutting required. + +The result is an injured tool, and unsatisfactory results. The rule +holds good in this respect as with every other tool in the kit. _Use a +tool for the purpose it was made for_, and for no other. Acquire that +habit. + +COLD CHISELS.--A cold chisel should never be ground to a long, tapering +point, like a wood chisel. The proper taper for a wood chisel is 15 +degrees, whereas a cold chisel should be 45 degrees. A drifting chisel +may have a longer taper than one used for chipping. + +It is a good habit, particularly as there are so few tools which require +grinding, to commence the day's work by grinding the chisels, and +arranging them for business. + +SYSTEM IN WORK.--Then see to it that the drills are in good shape; and +while you are about it, look over the lathe tools. You will find that it +is better to do this work at one time, than to go to the emery wheel a +dozen times a day while you are engaged on the job. + +Adopt a system in your work. Don't take things just as they come along, +but form your plans in an orderly way, and you will always know how to +take up and finish the work in the most profitable and satisfactory way. + +WRONG USE OF TOOLS.--Never use the vise as an anvil. Ordinary and proper +use of this tool will insure it for a lifetime, aside from its natural +wear. It may be said with safety that a vise will never break if used +for the purpose for which it was intended. One blow of a hammer may ruin +it. + +Furthermore, never use an auxiliary lever to screw up the jaws. If the +lever which comes with it is not large enough to set the jaws, you may +be sure that the vise is not large enough for your work. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +SETTING AND HOLDING TOOLS + + +Some simple directions in the holding and setting of tools may be of +service to the novice. Practice has shown the most effective way of +treating different materials, so that the tools will do the most +efficient work. + +A tool ground in a certain way and set at a particular angle might do +the work admirably on a piece of steel, but would not possibly work on +aluminum or brass. + +LATHE SPEED.--If the lathe should run at the same speed on a piece of +cast iron as with a brass casting, the result would not be very +satisfactory, either with the tool or on the work itself. + +Some compositions of metal require a high speed, and some a hooked tool. +These are things which each must determine as the articles come to the +shop; but there are certain well-defined rules with respect to the +ordinary metals that should be observed. + +THE HACK SAW.--Our first observation should be directed to the hand +tools. The hack saw is one of the most difficult tools for the machinist +to handle, for the following reasons: + +First, of the desire to force the blade through the work. The blade is a +frail instrument, and when too great a pressure is exerted it bends, and +as a result a breakage follows. To enable it to do the work properly, it +must be made of the hardest steel. It is, in consequence, easily +fractured. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 28.--Hack Saw Frame._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 29.--Hack Saw Blade._] + +Second. The novice will make short hacking cuts. This causes the teeth +to stick, the saw bends, and a new blade is required. Take a long +sweeping cut, using the entire length of the blade. Do not oscillate the +blade as you push it through the work, but keep the tooth line +horizontal from one end of the stroke to the other. The moment it begins +to waver, the teeth will catch on the metal on the side nearest to you, +and it will snap. + +Third. The handle is held too loosely. The handle must be firmly held +with the right hand, and the other held by the fingers lightly, but in +such a position that a steady downward pressure can be maintained. If +loosely held, the saw is bound to sag from side to side during the +stroke, and a short stroke accentuates the lateral movement. A long +stroke avoids this. + +The hack saw is one of the tools which should be used with the utmost +deliberation, combined with a rigid grasp of the handle. + +FILES.--For remarks on this tool see Chapter IV, which treats of the +subject specially. + +GRINDSTONES, EMERY AND GRINDING WHEELS.--A good workman is always +reflected by his grinding apparatus. This is true whether it has +reference to a grindstone, emery, corundum wheel, or a plain oil stone. +Nothing is more destructive of good tools than a grooved, uneven, or +wabbly stone. It is only little less than a crime for a workman to hold +a tool on a revolving stone at one spot. + +CARELESSNESS IN HOLDING TOOLS.--The boy must learn that such a habit +actually prevents the proper grinding, not only of the tool he has on +the stone, but also of the one which follows. While it is true that all +artificially made grinders will wear unevenly, even when used with the +utmost care, due to uneven texture of the materials in the stone, +still, the careless use of the tool, while in the act of grinding, only +aggravates the trouble. + +Another fault of the careless workman is, to press the bit against the +stone too hard. This cuts the stone more than it wears off the tool, and +it is entirely unnecessary. Furthermore, it heats up the tool, which +should be avoided. + +CALIPERS.--A true workman, who endeavors to turn out accurate work, and +preserve his tools, will never test the work with his calipers while the +piece is turning in the lathe. A revolving cast iron disk will cut ruby, +the hardest substance next to the diamond, so it is not the hardness of +the material which resists wear, but the conditions under which it is +used. + +CARE IN USE OF CALIPERS.--The calipers may be of the most hardened +steel, and the work turned up of the softest brass, the latter, when +revolving, will grind off the point of the tool, for the reason that the +revolving piece constantly presents a new surface to the point of the +calipers, and when tests are frequently made, it does not take long to +change the caliper span so that it must be reset. + +As stated elsewhere, the whole energy of the lathe is concentrated on +the bit or cutting tool, hence, in order to get the most effective work +out of it requires care; first, in grinding; and, second, in setting. + +MACHINE BITS.--It does not always matter so much whether you use a +square, pointed, or a round-nosed bit, provided it is properly ground +and set in the tool holder. As a rule, the more brittle the metal the +less the top rake or angle should be. + +In the chapter relating to the grinding of tools, references were made +as to the most serviceable bits for the various metals. We are concerned +here with the setting or holding of these articles. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 30. Plain Hook Tool_ _Fig. 31. Plain Straight +Tool._] + +The two illustrations here given show a pair of plain bits, in which +Fig. 30 represents a hook-shaped formation, and Fig. 31 a straight +grind, without any top rake. The hooked bit would do for aluminum, or +steel, but for cast iron the form shown in Fig. 31 would be most +serviceable. + +Then the side bits, such as the round-nosed, Fig. 32 and the square end, +Fig. 33, may be ground hooked, or with a top rake, or left flat. + +The too common mistake is to grind the lower or clearance side at too +great an angle. Fig. 34 shows the correct angle, and the dotted line A +illustrates the common tendency to grind the clearance. + +THE PROPER ANGLE FOR LATHE TOOLS.--Now there is a reason why the angle +of from 10 to 15 should be maintained in the clearance. The point of the +tool must have suitable support for the work it is required to do, so it +will not chatter or yield in the slightest degree. A bit ground along +the dotted line has a cutting edge which will spring down, and +consequently break or produce a rough surface. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 32. Fig. 33. Fig. 34. Proper Angles for Tools_] + +Then, again, the angle of the clearance acts as a guide, or rather, a +guard, to prevent the tool from going in too far, as will now be +explained. + +SETTING THE BIT.--In order to understand the correct setting, examine +the work A, in Fig. 35. + +A is a cylinder being turned up in the lathe, and B the cutting tool, +which approaches it on a horizontal line, C, extending out from the +center of the cylinder A. This setting is theoretically correct, and in +practice has been found most advantageous. + +In this case let us assume that the clearance angle D is 15 degrees, as +well as in the following figures. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 35. Set of the Bit_] + +Suppose we have a piece of tough steel, and the tool holder is raised so +that the point of the tool is at the 15 degree line E, as shown in Fig. +36, in which case the clearance line D is at right angles to the line E. +The line E is 15 degrees above the center line C. + +THE SETTING ANGLE.--Now, it is obvious that if the tool should be raised +higher than the line E it would run out of work, because the clearance +surface of the tool would ride up over the surface cut by the edge of +the tool. + +If, on the other hand, the tool should be placed lower, toward the line +C, the tendency would be to draw in the tool toward the center of the +work A. + +In Fig. 37 the tool has its point elevated, in which case it must be +lowered so the point will touch the work nearer the center line C. + +The foregoing arrangement of the tools will be found to be effective +where the material is soft and not too tough as with aluminum. + +BAD PRACTICE.--Figs. 38 and 39 show illustrations of bad practice which +should never be resorted to. Fig. 38 shows the tool, held in a +horizontal position, but with its point below the center line C. With +any rough metal the tool could not possibly work, except to act as a +scraper, and if it should be used in that position on cast iron, the +tool itself would soon be useless. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 36. Correct Angle_ _Fig. 37. Wrong Angle_] + +Fig. 39 is still worse, and is of no value for any purpose except in +polishing brass, where it would be serviceable. It would make a sorry +looking job with aluminum. Brass requires a tool with very little top +rake, and the point should be set near the center line C. + +LATHE SPEED.--It is often a question at what speeds to run the lathe for +different work. If you know the speeds of your lathe at low and high +gear, you must also consider the diameter of the work at the cutting +point. + +The rule is to have the bit cut from 15 to 20 feet per minute for +wrought iron; from 11 to 18 feet for steel; from 25 to 50 for brass; and +from 40 to 50 for aluminum. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 38. Too Low_ _Fig. 39. Improper Set_] + +As a result, therefore, if, at low speed, a piece 10 inches in diameter, +runs at the proper speed to cut at that distance from the center, it is +obvious that a piece 5 inches in diameter should ran twice as fast. This +is a matter which time and practice will enable you to judge with a fair +degree of accuracy. + +Observe this as a maxim: "Slow speed, and quick feed." + +BORING TOOLS ON LATHE.--The lathe is a most useful tool for boring +purposes, better for some work than the drilling machine itself. The +work which can be done better on a lathe than on a drilling machine, may +be classified as follows: + +1. When straight and true holes are required. + +2. In long work, where the lathe is used to turn up the article, and +where the drilling can be done at the same time. + +3. Anything that can be chucked in a lathe. + +4. Where the work is long and cannot be fixed in a drilling machine. The +long bed of the lathe gives room for holding such work. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 40. Internal Set_ _Fig. 41. Set for Brass_] + +THE RAKE OF THE DRILL.--A boring tool requires some knowledge in +setting. It should have a greater top rake than for the outside work, +and the cutting edge should also be keener, as a rule. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 42.--Surface Gage._] + +In this class of work the material bored must be understood, as well as +in doing outside work. + +The hooked tool, Fig. 40, is shown to be considerably above the center +line, and at that point it will do the most effective cutting on steel. +If, on the other hand, brass is operated on there should be no top +rake, as illustrated in Fig. 41, thus assuring a smooth job. + +LAPS.--This is a tool which is very useful, particularly for grinding +and truing up the cylinders of internal combustion engines, as well as +for all kinds of bores of refractory material which cannot be handled +with the cutting tool of the lathe. + +It is made up of a mandrel or rod of copper, with lead cast about it, +and then turned up true, so that it is but the merest trifle larger than +the hole it is to true up. + +USING THE LAP.--The roller thus made is turned rapidly in a lathe, and +the cylinder to be trued is brought up to it and the roller supplied +freely with emery powder and oil. As rapidly as possible the cylinder is +worked over on the roller, without forcing it, and also turned, so as to +prevent even the weight from grinding it unduly on one side. + +More or less of the emery will embed itself in the lead, and thus act as +an abrasive. The process is called "lapping." + +SURFACE GAGES.--Frequently, in laying out, it is necessary to scribe +lines at a given distance from some part of the work; or, the conditions +are such that a rule, a caliper, or dividers will not permit accurate +measurement to be made. + +For such purposes, what is called a surface gage was devised. This is +merely a heavy base, provided with a pivoted upright on which is +mounted a scribe that is held by a clamp so it may be turned to any +angle. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 43.--Showing uses of the Surface Gage._] + +SURFACE GAGE.--The clamp holding the scriber is vertically movable on +the pivoted upright. By resting the base of the surface gage on the line +to be measured from, and swinging one point of the scriber to the place +where the work is to be done, accuracy is assured. One end of the +scriber is bent, so it can be adapted to enter recesses, or such places +as could not be reached by the straight end. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +ON THE USE OF THE FILE + + +The most necessary tool in a machine shop is a file. It is one of the +neglected tools, because the ordinary boy, or workman, sees nothing in +it but a strip or a bar with a lot of cross grooves and edges, and he +concludes that the only thing necessary is to rub it across a piece of +metal until he has worn it down sufficiently for the purpose. + +THE FIRST TEST.--The fact is, the file is so familiar a tool, that it +breeds contempt, like many other things closely associated in life. + +Give the boy an irregular block of metal, and tell him to file it up +square, and he will begin to realize that there is something in the +handling of a file that never before occurred to him. + +He will find three things to astonish him: + +First: That of dimensions. + +Second: The difficulty of getting it square. + +Third: The character of the surface when he has finished it. + +FILING AN IRREGULAR BLOCK.--To file a block of an irregular character so +that the dimensions are accurate, is a good test for an accomplished +workman. The job is made doubly difficult if he is required to file it +square at the same time. It will be found, invariably, that the sides +will not be parallel, and by the time it is fully trued up the piece +will be too small. See Figs. 44 and 45. + +Then, unless the utmost care is taken, the flat sides _will not_ be +flat, but rounded. + +FILING A BAR STRAIGHT.--The next test is to get the boy to file a bar +straight. He has no shaper or planer for the purpose, so that it must be +done by hand. He will find himself lacking in two things: The edge of +the bar will not be straight; nor will it be square with the side of the +bar. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 44. Rounded Surface_ _Fig. 45. A Winding Face_] + +FILING BAR WITH PARALLEL SIDES.--Follow up this test by requiring him to +file up a bar, first, with two exactly parallel sides, and absolutely +straight, so it will pass smoothly between the legs of a pair of +calipers, and then file the two other sides in like manner. + +SURFACING OFF DISKS.--When the foregoing are completed there is still +another requirement which, though it appears simple, is the supreme +test. Set him to work at surfacing off a pair of disks or plates, say +one and a half inches in diameter, so that when they are finished they +will fit against each other perfectly flat. + +A pair of such disks, if absolutely true, will hold together by the +force of cohesion, even in a dry state, or they will, as it were, float +against each other. + +TRUE SURFACING.--Prior to about 1850 the necessity of true surfacing was +not so important or as well known as at the present time. About that +period Sir J. Whitworth, an eminent English engineer and mechanic, +called the attention of machinists to the great advantage arising from +true surfaces and edges for all types of machinery, and he laid the +foundation of the knowledge in accurating surfacing. + +PRECISION TOOLS.--Due to his energy many precision tools were made, all +tending to this end, and as a result machines became better and more +efficient in every way. + +It had this great advantage: It taught the workman of his day how to use +the file and scraper, because both must be used conjunctively to make an +absolutely flat plate. + +Contrary to general beliefs, shapers and planers do not make absolutely +accurate surfaces. The test of this is to put together two plates so +planed off. There is just enough unevenness to permit air to get between +the plates. If they were perfectly true they would exclude all air, and +it would be a difficult matter to draw them apart. + +TEST OF THE MECHANIC.--To make them perfectly flat, one plate has chalk +rubbed over it, and the two plates are then rubbed together. This will +quickly show where the high spots are, and the file and scraper are then +used to cut away the metal. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 46. Fig. 47. Hexagon Nut_] + +In England the test of the mechanic used to be determined by his ability +to file a piece of metal flat. It was regarded as the highest art. This +is not the most desirable test at the present time, and it is recognized +that a much severer test is to file a narrow piece exactly flat, and so +that it will not have a trace of roundness, and be square from end to +end. + +TEST SUGGESTIONS.--In a shop which does not have the advantage of a +planer or shaper, there are so many articles which must be filed up, +that it is interesting to know something of how the various articles are +made with a file. + +To file a hexagon, or six-sided nut will be a good test with a file. To +do this a little study in geometrical lines will save a vast amount of +time. In beginning the work, measure the radius with a divider, and then +step off and make six marks equidistant from each other on the round +surface. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 48. Cutting Key-way_] + +USE OF THE DIVIDERS.--The distance between each of these points is equal +to the radius, or half the diameter, of the round bar. See Fig. 46, +which shows this. The marks should be scribed across the surface, as +shown in Fig. 47, where the lines show the ends of the facets of the +outside of the nut. + +Do not let the file obliterate the lines at the rough cutting, but +leave enough material so you can make a good finish at the line. + +CUTTING A KEY-WAY.--Another job you may have frequent occasion to +perform, is to cut a way for a key in a shaft and in a wheel hub. +Naturally, this will be first roughed out with a cold chisel narrower +than the key is to be, and also slightly shallower than the dimensions +of the key. + +A flat file should be used for the purpose, first a heavy rough one, for +the first cutting. The better way is to have the key so it can be +frequently tried while the filing process is going on, so that to fit +the key in this way is a comparatively easy task. + +KEY-WAY DIFFICULTIES.--But the trouble commences when the groove is +filed for the depth. Invariably, the mistake will be made of filing the +width first, so the key will fit in. As a result, in deepening the +groove the file will contact with the walls, and you have a key-way too +wide for the key. + +To avoid this, file the depth, or nearly so, and then with a fine file +cut in the corners in the direction indicated by the dart, Fig. 48. + +A proper key is square in cross section. In such a case the depth of the +key-way, at each side wall, is just half the width of the key-way. + +An excellent key-seat rule can be made by filing out two right-angled +pieces, as shown in Fig. 49, which can be attached to the ordinary +six-inch metal rule, and this will enable you to scribe the line +accurately for the key-way on the shaft. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 49. Key-seat Rule_] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 50. Fig. 51. Filing Metal Round_] + +FILING METAL ROUND.--It is sometimes necessary to file a piece of metal +round. This is a hard job, particularly where it is impossible to scribe +the end of the piece. Suppose it is necessary to file up a bearing +surface, or surfaces, intermediate the ends of a square bar. + +You have in that case four sides to start from, the opposite sides +being parallel with each other, so that you will have two dimensions, +and four equal sides, as shown in Fig. 50. + +The first step will be to file off accurately the four corners 1, 2, 3, +4, so as to form eight equal sides or faces, as shown in Fig. 51. If you +will now proceed to file down carefully the eight corners, so as to make +sixteen sides, as in Fig. 52, the fourth set of corners filed down will +make the filed part look like the illustration Fig. 53 with thirty-two +faces. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 52. Fig. 53. Making a Bar Round_] + +This may be further filed down into sixty-four faces, and a few cuts of +the finishing file will take off the little ridges which still remain. +By using emery cloth, and wrapping it around the bearing portion, and +changing it continually, while drawing it back and forth, will enable +you to make a bearing which, by care, will caliper up in good shape. + +KINDS OF FILES.--Each file has five distinct properties; namely: the +length, the contour, the form in cross section, the kind of teeth, and +the fineness of the teeth. + +There are nine well-defined shapes for files. These may be enumerated as +follows: + +[Illustration: _Fig. 54. Cross Sections of Files._] + +No. 1. The cotter file. The small kind is called a verge or pivot file. + +No. 2. Square file, which may be tapering from end to end, or have +parallel sides throughout. + +No. 3. Watch pinion file. This may have its sides parallel or tapering, +to make a knife-shaped file. + +No. 4. Clock-pinion; which may be used for either nicking, piecing, or +squaring-off purposes. + +No. 5. Round, with parallel sides for gulleting purposes, or rat-tail +when it tapers. + +No. 6. Triangular, or three equally-sided body for saw filing. + +No. 7. Equalizing file. This is parallel when used for making +clock-pinions or endless screws; or for slitting, entering, warding, or +making barrel holes, when the body of the file tapers. + +No. 8. Cross, or double-round, half-file. + +No. 9. Slitting file; which has parallel sides only. A cant file. + +CHARACTER OF THE FILE TOOTH.--Files are distinguished principally by the +character of the oblique, or cross grooves and ridges which do the +cutting and abrading when the file is drawn across the surface. + +This is really more important than the shape, because the files, by +their cuttings, are adapted for the various materials which they are to +be used upon. + +The files are classified as _Double Cut_, of which there are the +_rough_, _middle_, _bastard_, _second cut_, _smooth_, and _dead smooth_. + +The _Float Cut_, which is either _rough_, _bastard_ or _smooth_; and + +The _Rasp Cut_, either _rough_, _bastard_ or _smooth_. + +Several types are illustrated in Fig. 55, which show the characteristics +of the various cuts. + +The rasps are used principally for soft material, such as wood or for +hoofs, in horse shoeing, hence they need not be considered in connection +with machine-shop work. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 55. Files._] + +HOLDING THE FILE.--The common mistake on the part of the beginner is to +drag the file across the work at an angle. The body of the file should +move across straight and not obliquely. + +Note this movement in Fig. 56 where the dash shows the correct movement +of the file with relation to the work. Also observe that the file +cutting ridges are not straight across the file, but at an angle to the +direction of the dart. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 56. Correct File Movement_] + +INJURING FILES.--Now the frequent practice is to use the file as shown +in Fig. 57, in which case it is moved across obliquely. The result is +that the angle of the file cut is so disposed that the teeth of the file +do not properly aid in the cutting, but in a measure retard the +operation. + +File teeth are disposed at an angle for the purpose of giving them a +shearing cut, which is the case when the file moves across the work on a +line with its body. + +To use a file as shown in Fig. 57 injures the file without giving it an +opportunity to cut as fast as it would when properly used. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 57. Incorrect File Movement_] + +DRAWING BACK THE FILE.--In drawing back a file it is always better to +allow it to drag over the work than to raise it up. It is frequently the +case that some of the material will lodge in the teeth, and the back +lash will serve to clear out the grooves. + +This is particularly true in filing copper, aluminum, lead, and like +metals, but it is well to observe this in all cases. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +HOW TO COMMENCE WORK + + +The question is often asked: Where and how shall the novice commence +work? + +When the shop is equipped, or partially so, sufficient, at least, to +turn out simple jobs, the boy will find certain tools which are +strangers to him. He must become acquainted with them and not only learn +their uses, but how to use them to the best advantage. + +FAMILIARITY WITH TOOLS.--Familiarity with the appearance of tools, and +seeing them in the hands of others will not be of any value. Nothing but +the immediate contact with the tool will teach how to use it. + +FILE PRACTICE.--The file is a good tool to pick up first. Select a piece +of metal, six or eight inches long, and follow the instructions laid +down in the chapter relating to the use of the file. + +Practice with several kinds and with different varieties of material +will soon give an inkling of the best kind to use with the metal you +have. Use the straight edge and the square while the filing process is +going on, and apply them frequently, to show you what speed you are +making and how nearly true you are surfacing up the piece. + +USING THE DIVIDERS.--Then try your hand using the dividers, in +connection with a centering punch. As an example, take two pieces of +metal, each about a foot long, and set the dividers to make a short +span, say an inch or so, and step off the length of one piece of metal, +and punch the last mark. Then do likewise with the other piece of metal, +and see how nearly alike the two measurements are by comparing them. + +You will find a variation in the lengths of the two measurements at the +first trials, and very likely will not be able to make the two pieces +register accurately after many trials, even when using the utmost care. + +Sooner or later you will learn that you have not stepped paths along the +two bars which were exactly straight, and this will account for the +variations. In order to be accurate a line should be drawn along each +piece of metal, and the dividers should step off the marks on that line. + +FINDING CENTERS.--By way of further experiment, it might be well to find +the exact center of the ends of a square bar, putting in the punch marks +and then mounting it in the lathe centers to see how accurately this has +been done. + +If either end is out of true the punch marks can be corrected by +inclining the punch, so that when it is struck it will move over the +point in the direction of its true center. This may be followed up by +centering the end of a round bar so as to make it true. This will be +found to be a more difficult job, unless you have a center head, a tool +made for that purpose. + +It is good practice, however, to make trials of all this work, as it +will enable you to judge of measurements. It can be done with the +dividers by using care in scribing the centers. + +HACK-SAW PRACTICE.--Practice with the hack-saw should be indulged in +frequently. Learn to make a straight cut through a bar. Try to do this +without using a square to guide you. One of the tests of a good mechanic +is ability to judge a straight cut. + +The following plan is suggested as a test for the eye. Use a bar of iron +or steel one inch square, and make a cut an eighth of an inch deep +across it; then turn it around a quarter, so as to expose the nest face, +and continue the cut along the side, the same depth, and follow this up +with the remaining two sides, and see how near the end of the first cut +and the finish cut come together. The test will surprise you. + +CUTTING METALS TRUE.--When you saw off the end of such a bar for trial +purposes, use a square, after the cut is made, and note how much it is +out of true in both directions. It is a curious fact that most mechanics +are disposed to saw or cut crooked in one direction, either to the right +or to the left. In tests made it is found that this defect is persisted +in. + +It is practice only which will remedy this, and it would be well for the +boy to learn this for himself as early in his career as possible, and +correct the tendency to veer in either direction. + +The test of sawing around a round bar is also commended. After a few +trials you will be surprised to see how your judgment will improve in +practice. + +LATHE WORK.--Learn the uses of the chuck. As you have, probably, +economized as much as possible, a universal chuck is not available, +hence the first experience will be with an independent chuck, where the +three dogs move independently of each other. This will give you some +work to learn how you can get the job true. + +Now, before attempting to cut the material, thoroughly learn all the +parts of the feed mechanism, and how to reverse, as well as to cross +feed. Learn the operation of the operative parts so that your hand will +instinctively find them, while the eye is on the work. + +FIRST STEPS.--See to it that your tools are sharp, and at the first +trials make light cuts. Practice the feeds by manually moving the tool +holder, for surface cutting as well as for cross cutting. + +SETTING THE TOOL.--Set the cutting tool at various angles, and try the +different tools, noting the peculiarities of each, at the different +speeds. Do not, by any means, use refractory metals for your first +attempt. Mild steel is a good test, and a light gray iron is admirable +for practice lessons. + +METALS USED.--Brass is good for testing purposes, but the difficulty is +that the tendency of the boy, at first, is to try to do the work too +rapidly, and brass encourages this tendency. Feed slowly and regularly +until you can make an even finish. + +Then chuck and re-chuck to familiarize yourself with every operative +part of the lathe, and never try to force the cutting tool. If it has a +tendency to run into the work, set it higher. If, on the other hand, you +find, in feeding, that it is hard to move the tool post along, the tool +is too high, and should be lowered. + +THE FOUR IMPORTANT THINGS.--Constant practice of this kind will soon +enable you to feel instinctively when the tool is doing good work. While +you are thus experimenting do not forget the speed. This will need your +attention. + +Remember, you have several things to think about in commencing to run +the lathe, all of which will take care of themselves when it becomes +familiar to you. These may be enumerated as follows: + +First: The kind of tool best to use. + +Second: Its proper set, to do the best work. + +Third: The speed of the work in the lathe. + +Fourth: The feed, or the thickness of the cut into the material. + +TURNING UP A CYLINDER.--The first and most important work is to turn up +a small cylinder to a calipered dimension. When it is roughed down ready +for the finish cut, set the tool so it will take off a sufficient amount +to prevent the caliper from spanning it, and this will enable you to +finish it off with emery paper, or allow another small cut to be taken. + +TURNING GROOVES.--Then follow this up by turning in a variety of annular +grooves of different depths and widths; and also V-shaped grooves, the +latter to be performed by using both the longitudinal and transverse +feeds. This will give you excellent practice in using both hands +simultaneously. + +The next step would be to turn out a bore and fit a mandrel into it. +This will give you the opportunity to use the caliper to good advantage, +and will test your capacity to use them for inside as well as for +outside work. + +DISCS.--A job that will also afford good exercise is to turn up a disc +with a groove in its face, and then chuck and turn another disk with an +annular rib on its face to fit into the groove. This requires delicacy +of measurement with the inside as well as the outside calipers. + +The groove should be cut first, and the measurement taken from that, as +it is less difficult to handle and set the tool for the rib than for the +groove. + +LATHE SPEEDS.--Do not make the too common mistake of running the mandrel +at high speeds in your initial tests. It is far better to use a slow +speed, and take a heavy cut. This is good advice at all times, but it is +particularly important with beginners. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +ILLUSTRATING SOME OF THE FUNDAMENTAL DEVICES + + +There are numerous little devices and shop expedients which are +desirable, and for which the boy will find uses as he progresses. + +We devote this chapter to hints of this kind, all of which are capable +of being turned out or utilized at various stages. + +LACING BELTS.--To properly lace a belt is quite an art, as many who have +tried it know. If a belt runs off the pulley it is attributable to one +of three causes: either the pulleys are out of line or the shafts are +not parallel or the belt is laced so it makes the belt longer at one +margin than the other. + +In Fig. 58 the lacing should commence at the center hole (A) of one belt +end and lace outwardly, terminating at the hole (B) in the center of the +other belt end, as shown in Fig. 58. + +In Fig. 59 the lacing commences at A, and terminates at the hole (B) at +the edge. This will be ample for all but the widest belts. + +Fig. 60 is adapted for a narrow belt. The lacing commences at one margin +hole (A), and terminates at the other margin hole (Z). + +Fig. 61 shows the outside of the belt. + +Fig. 62. GEARS.--This is something every boy ought to know about. Fig. +62 shows a pair of intermeshing bevel gears. This is the correct term +for a pair when both are of the same diameter. + +[Illustration: _Inside Fig. 58. Belt Lacing_ + _Outside Fig. 58. Belt Lacing_ + _Fig. 59. Belt Lacing_ + _Fig. 60. Belt Lacing_ + _Fig. 61. Belt Lacing_] + +MITER GEARS.--In Fig. 63 we have a pair of miter gears, one being larger +than the other. Remember this distinction. + +Fig. 64. CROWN WHEEL.--This is a simple manner of transmitting motion +from one shaft to another, when the shafts are at right angles, or +nearly so, without using bevel or miter gears. + +Fig. 65. GROOVED FRICTION GEARING.--Two grooved pulleys, which fit each +other accurately, will transmit power without losing too much by +friction. The deeper the grooves the greater is the loss by friction. + +Fig. 66. A VALVE WHICH CLOSES BY THE WATER PRESSURE.--The bibb has +therein a movable valve on a horizontal stem, the valve being on the +inside of the seat. The stem of the handle has at its lower end a crank +bend, which engages with the outer end of the valve stem. When the +handle is turned in either direction the valve is unseated. On releasing +the handle the pressure of the water against the valve seats it. + +Fig. 67. CONE PULLEYS.--Two cone pulleys of equal size and taper provide +a means whereby a change in speed can be transmitted from one shaft to +another by merely moving the belt to and fro. The slightest change is +available by this means. + +Fig. 68. UNIVERSAL JOINT.--A wheel, with four projecting pins, is placed +between the U-shaped yokes on the ends of the approaching shafts. The +pins serve as the pivots for the angles formed by the two shafts. + +Fig. 69. TRAMMEL FOR MAKING AN ELLIPSE.--This is a tool easily made, +which will be of great service in the shop. In a disc (A), preferably +made of brass, are two channels (B) at right angles to each other. The +grooves are undercut, so that the blocks (C) will fit and slide in the +grooves and be held therein by the dove-tailed formation. Each block is +longer than the width of the groove, and has an outwardly projecting pin +which passes through a bar (D). One pin (E) is movable along in a slot, +but is adjustable at any point so that the shape of the ellipse may be +varied. The end of the bar has a series of holes (G) for a pencil, so +that the size of the ellipse may also be changed. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 62. Bevel Gears_ + _Fig. 63. Miter Gears_ + _Fig. 64. Crown Wheel_ + _Fig. 65. Grooved Friction Gears_ + _Fig. 66. Valve_ + _Fig. 67. Cone Pulleys_ + _Fig. 68. Universal Joint_] + +Fig. 70. ESCAPEMENTS.--Various forms of escapements may be made, but the +object of all is the same. The device is designed to permit a wheel to +move intermittingly or in a step by step movement, by the swinging +motion of a pendulum. Another thing is accomplished by it. The teeth of +the escapement are cut at such an angle that, as one of the teeth of the +escapement is released from one tooth of the escapement wheel, the +spring, or the weight of the clock, will cause one of the teeth of the +escapement wheel to engage the other tooth of the escapement, and give +the pendulum an impulse in the other direction. In the figure, A is the +escapement, B the escapement wheels and _a_, _b_, the pallets, which +are cut at suitable angles to actuate the pendulum. + +Fig. 71. SIMPLE DEVICE TO PREVENT A WHEEL OR SHAFT FROM TURNING +BACK.--This is a substitute for a pawl and ratchet wheel. A is a drum or +a hollow wheel and B a pulley on a shaft, and this pulley turns loosely +with the drum (A). Four tangential slots (C) are cut into the perimeter +of the pulley (B), and in each is a hardened steel roller (D). It +matters not in what position the wheel (B) may be, at least two of the +rollers will always be in contact with the inside of the drum (A), and +thus cause the pulley and drum to turn together. On reversing the +direction of the pulley the rollers are immediately freed from binding +contact. + +Fig. 72. RACKS AND PINIONS.--The object of this form of mechanism is to +provide a reciprocating, or back-and-forth motion, from a shaft which +turns continually in one direction. A is the rack and B a mutilated +gear. When the gear turns it moves the rack in one direction, because +the teeth of the gear engage the lower rack teeth, and when the rack has +moved to the end its teeth engage the teeth of the upper rack, thus +reversing the movement of the rack. + +Fig. 73. MUTILATED GEARS.--These are made in so many forms, and adapted +for such a variety of purposes, that we merely give a few samples to +show what is meant by the term. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 69. Trammel_ + _Fig. 70. Escapement_ + _Fig. 71. Device for Holding Wheel_ + _Fig. 72. Rack and Pinion_ + _Fig. 73. Mutilated Gears_ + _Fig. 74. Shaft Coupling_] + +Fig. 74. SIMPLE SHAFT COUPLING.--Prepare two similarly formed discs (A, +B), which are provided with hubs so they may be keyed to the ends of the +respective shafts. One disc has four or more projecting pins (C), and +the other disc suitable holes (D) to receive the pins. + +Fig. 75. CLUTCHES.--This is a piece of mechanism which is required in so +many kinds of machinery, that we show several of the most approved +types. + +Fig. 76. BALL AND SOCKET JOINTS.--The most practical form of ball and +socket joints is simply a head in which is a bowl-shaped cavity the +depth of one-half of the ball. A plate with a central opening small +enough to hold in the ball, and still large enough at the neck to +permit the arm carrying the ball to swing a limited distance, is secured +by threads, or by bolts, to the head. The first figure shows this. + +Fig. 77 illustrates a simple manner of tightening the ball so as to hold +the standard in any desired position. + +Fig. 78. TRIPPING DEVICES.--These are usually in the form of hooks, so +arranged that a slight pull on the tripping lever will cause the +suspended articles to drop. + +Fig. 79. ANCHOR BOLT.--These are used in brick or cement walls. The bolt +itself screws into a sleeve which is split, and draws a wedge nut up to +the split end of the sleeve. As a result the split sleeve opens or +spreads out and binds against the wall sufficiently to prevent the bolt +from being withdrawn. + +Fig. 80. LAZY TONGS.--One of the simplest and most effective instruments +for carrying ice, boxes or heavy objects, which are bulky or +inconvenient to carry. It grasps the article firmly, and the heavier the +weight the tighter is its grasp. + +Fig. 81. DISC SHEARS.--This is a useful tool either for cutting tin or +paper, pasteboard and the like. It will cut by the act of drawing the +material through it, but if power is applied to one or to both of the +shafts the work is much facilitated, particularly in thick or hard +material. + +[Illustration: + _Fig. 75. Clutches_ + _Fig. 76. Ball and Socket Joints_ + _Fig. 77. Fastening Ball_ + _Fig. 78. Tripping Devices_ + _Fig. 79. Anchor Bolt_ + _Fig. 80. Lazy Tongs._ + _Fig. 81. Disc Shears._] + +Fig. 82. WABBLE SAW.--This is a most simple and useful tool, as it will +readily and quickly saw out a groove so that it is undercut. The saw is +put on the mandrel at an angle, as will be seen, and should be run at a +high rate of speed. + +Fig. 83. CRANK MOTION BY A SLOTTED YOKE.--This produces a straight +back-and-forth movement from the circular motion of a wheel or crank. It +entirely dispenses with a pitman rod, and it enables the machine, or the +part of the machine operated, to be placed close to the crank. + +Fig. 84. CONTINUOUS FEED BY THE MOTION OF A LEVER.--The simple lever +with a pawl on each side of the fulcrum is the most effective means to +make a continuous feed by the simple movement of a lever. The form shown +is capable of many modifications, and it can be easily adapted for any +particular work desired. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 82. Wabble Saw_ + _Fig. 83. Continuous Crank Motion_ + _Fig. 84. Continuous Feed_ + _Fig. 85. Crank Motion_ + _Fig. 86. Ratchet Head_ + _Fig. 87. Bench Clamp_] + +Fig. 85. CRANK MOTION.--By the structure shown, namely, a slotted lever +(A), a quick return can be made with the lever. B indicates the fulcrum. + +Fig. 86. RATCHET HEAD.--This shows a well-known form for common ratchet. +It has the advantage that the radially movable plugs (A) are +tangentially disposed, and rest against walls (B) eccentrically +disposed, and are, therefore, in such a position that they easily slide +over the inclines. + +Fig. 87. BENCH CLAMP.--A pair of dogs (A, B), with the ends bent toward +each other, and pivoted midway between the ends to the bench in such a +position that the board (C), to be held between them, on striking the +rear ends of the dogs, will force the forward ends together, and thus +clamp it firmly for planing or other purposes. + +[Illustration: + _Fig. 88. Helico-Volute Spring_ + _Fig. 89. Double Helico-Volute_ + _Fig. 90. Helical Spring_ + _Fig. 91. Single Volute Helix-Spring_ + _Fig. 92. Flat Spiral or Convolute_ + _Fig. 93. Eccentric Rod and Strap_ + _Fig. 94. Anti-Dead Center for Foot-Lathes_] + +Fig. 88. HELICO-VOLUTE SPRING.--This is a form of spring for tension +purposes. The enlarged cross-section of the coil in its middle portion, +with the ends tapering down to the eyes, provides a means whereby the +pull is transferred from the smaller to the larger portions, without +producing a great breaking strain near the ends. + +Fig. 89. DOUBLE HELICO-VOLUTE.--This form, so far as the outlines are +considered, is the opposite of Fig. 88. A compression spring of this +kind has a very wide range of movement. + +Fig. 90. HELICAL SPRING.--This form of coil, uniform from end to end, is +usually made of metal which is square in cross-section, and used where +it is required for heavy purposes. + +Fig. 91. SINGLE VOLUTE HELIX-SPRING.--This is also used for compression, +intended where tremendous weights or resistances are to be overcome, and +when the range of movement is small. + +Fig. 92. FLAT SPIRAL, OR CONVOLUTE.--This is for small machines. It is +the familiar form used in watches owing to its delicate structure, and +it is admirably adapted to yield to the rocking motion of an arbor. + +Fig. 93. ECCENTRIC ROD AND STRAP.--A simple and convenient form of +structure, intended to furnish a reciprocating motion where a crank is +not available. An illustration of its use is shown on certain types of +steam engine to operate the valves. + +Fig. 94. ANTI-DEAD CENTER FOR FOOT-LATHES.--A flat, spiral spring (A), +with its coiled end attached to firm support (B), has its other end +pivotally attached to the crank-pin (C), the tension of the spring being +such that when the lathe stops the crack-pin will always be at one side +of the dead-center, thus enabling the operator to start the machine by +merely pressing the foot downwardly on the treadle (D). + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS + + +A workman is able to select the right metals because he knows that each +has some peculiar property which is best adapted for his particular use. +These with their meaning will now be explained. + +ELASTICITY.--This exists in metals in three distinct ways: First, in the +form of _traction_. Hang a weight on a wire and it will stretch a +certain amount. When the weight is removed the wire shrinks back to its +original length. + +Second: If the weight on the wire is rotated, so as to twist it, and the +hand is taken from the weight, it will untwist itself, and go back to +its original position. This is called _torsion_. + +Third: A piece of metal may be coiled up like a watch spring, or bent +like a carriage spring, and it will yield when pressure is applied. This +is called _flexure_. + +Certain kinds of steel have these qualities in a high degree. + +TENACITY.--This is a term used to express the resistance which the body +opposes to the separation of its parts. It is determined by forming the +metal into a wire, and hanging on weights, to find how much will be +required to break it. If we have two wires, the first with a transverse +area only one-quarter that of the second, and the first breaks at 25 +pounds, while the second breaks at 50 pounds, the tenacity of the first +is twice as great as that of the second. + +To the boy who understands simple ratio in mathematics, the problem +would be like this: + +25 x 4 : 50 x 1, or as 2 : 1. + +THE MOST TENACIOUS METAL.--Steel has the greatest tenacity of all +metals, and lead the least. In proportion to weight, however, there are +many substances which have this property in a higher degree. Cotton +fibers will support millions of times their own weight. + +There is one peculiar thing, that tenacity varies with the form of the +body. A solid cylindrical body has a greater strength than a square one +of the same size; and a hollow cylinder more tenacity than a solid one. +This principle is well known in the bones of animals, in the feathers of +birds, and in the stems of many plants. + +In almost every metal tenacity diminishes as the temperature increases. + +DUCTILITY.--This is a property whereby a metal may be drawn out to form +a wire. Some metals, like cast iron, have absolutely no ductility. The +metal which possesses this property to the highest degree, is platinum. +Wires of this metal have been drawn out so fine that over 30,000 of them +laid side by side would measure only one inch across, and a mile of such +wire would weigh only a grain, or one seven-thousandth of a pound. + +MALLEABILITY.--This is considered a modification of ductility. Any +metal which can be beaten out, as with a hammer, or flattened into +sheets with rollers, is considered malleable. Gold possesses this +property to the highest degree. It has been beaten into leaves one +three-hundred-thousandth of an inch thick. + +HARDNESS.--This is the resistance which bodies offer to being scratched +by others. As an example, the diamond has the capacity to scratch all, +but cannot be scratched by any other. + +ALLOYS.--Alloys, that is a combination of two or more metals, are harder +than the pure metals, and for this reason jewelry, and coins, are +usually alloyed. + +The resistance of a body to compression does not depend upon its +hardness. Strike a diamond with a hammer and it flies to pieces, but +wood does not. One is brittle and the other is tough. + +The machinist can utilize this property by understanding that velocity +enables a soft material to cut a harder one. Thus, a wrought iron disc +rotating rapidly, will cut such hard substances as agate or quartz. + +RESISTANCE.--All metals offer more or less resistance to the flow of an +electric current. Silver offers the least resistance, and German silver +the greatest. Temperature also affects the flow. It passes more easily +over a cold than a warm conductor. + +PERSISTENCE.--All metals on receiving heat, will retain it for a certain +length of time, and will finally cool down to the temperature of the +surrounding atmosphere. Some, like aluminum, retain it for a long time; +others, as iron, will give it off quickly. + +CONDUCTIVITY.--All metals will conduct heat and cold, as well as +electricity. If one end of a metal bar is heated, the heat creeps along +to the other end until it has the same temperature throughout. This is +called _equalization_. + +If a heated bar is placed in contact with another, the effect is to +increase the temperature of the cold bar and lower that of the warm bar. +This is called _reciprocity_. + +MOLECULAR FORCES.--_Molecular_ attraction is a force which acts in such +a way as to bring all the particles of a body together. It acts in +three ways, dependent on the particular conditions which exist. + +First: _Cohesion_. This exists between molecules which are of the same +kind, as for instance, iron. Cohesion of the particles is very strong in +solids, much weaker in liquids, and scarcely exists at all between the +particles in gases. + +Second: _Adhesion_ is that property which exists between the surfaces of +bodies in contact. If two flat surfaces are pressed together, as for +instance, two perfectly smooth and flat pieces of lead, they will +adhere. If, for instance, oil should be put on the surfaces, before +putting them together, they would adhere so firmly that it would be +difficult to pull them apart. + +Third: _Affinity_. This is another peculiarity about materials. Thus, +while cohesion binds together the molecules of water, it is chemical +affinity which unites two elements, like hydrogen and oxygen, of which +water is composed. + +POROSITY.--All matter has little hollows or spaces between the +molecules. You know what this is in the case of a sponge, or pumice +stone. Certain metals have the pores so small that it is difficult to +see them except with a very powerful glass. Under great pressure water +can be forced through the pores of metals, as has been done in the case +of gold. Water also is porous, but the spaces between the molecules are +very small. + +COMPRESSIBILITY.--It follows from the foregoing statement, that if there +are little interstices between the molecules, the various bodies can be +compressed together. This can be done in varying degrees with all +solids, but liquids, generally, have little compressibility. Gases are +readily reduced in volume by compression. + +ELASTICITY.--This is a property by virtue of which a body resumes its +original form when compressed. India rubber, ivory and glass are +examples of elasticity; whereas, lead and clay do not possess this +property. Air is the most elastic of all substances. + +INERTIA.--This is a property of matter by virtue of which it cannot of +itself change its state of motion or of rest. + +Newton's first law of motion is, in substance, that matter at rest will +eternally remain at rest, and matter in motion will forever continue in +motion, unless acted on by some external force. + +A rider is carried over the head of a horse when the latter suddenly +stops. This illustrates the inertia of movement. A stone at rest will +always remain in that condition unless moved by some force. That shows +the inertia of rest. + +MOMENTUM.--This is the term to designate the quantity of motion in a +body. This quantity varies and is dependent on the mass, together with +the velocity. A fly wheel is a good example. It continues to move after +the impelling force ceases; and a metal wheel has greater momentum than +a wooden wheel at the same speed, owing to its greater mass. + +If, however, the wooden wheel is speeded up sufficiently it may have the +same momentum as the metal one. + +WEIGHT.--All substances have what is called _weight_. This means that +everything is attracted toward the earth by the force of gravity. +Gravity, however, is different from weight. All substances attract each +other; not only in the direction of the center of the earth, but +laterally, as well. + +Weight, therefore, has reference to the pull of an object toward the +earth; and gravity to that influence which all matter has for each other +independently of the direction. + +CENTRIPETAL FORCE.--This attraction of the earth, which gives articles +the property of weight, is termed centripetal force--that is, the +drawing in of a body. + +CENTRIFUGAL FORCE.--The direct opposite of centripetal, is centrifugal +force, which tends to throw outwardly. Dirt flying from a rapidly +moving wheel illustrates this. + +CAPILLARY ATTRACTION.--There is a peculiar property in liquids, which +deserves attention, and should be understood, and that is the name given +to the tendency of liquids to rise in fine tubes. + +It is stated that water will always find its level. While this is true, +we have an instance where, owing to the presence of a solid, made in a +peculiar form, causes the liquid, within, to rise up far beyond the +level of the water. + +This may be illustrated by three tubes of different internal diameters. +The liquid rises up higher in the second than in the first, and still +higher in the third than in the second. The smaller the tube the greater +the height of the liquid. + +This is called _capillary attraction_, the word capillary meaning a +hair. The phenomena is best observed when seen in tubes which are as +fine as hairs. The liquid has an affinity for the metal, and creeps up +the inside, and the distance it will thus move depends on the size of +the tube. + +THE SAP OF TREES.--The sap of trees goes upwardly, not because the tree +is alive, but due to this property in the contact of liquids with a +solid. It is exactly on the same principle that if the end of a piece of +blotting paper is immersed in water, the latter will creep up and +spread over the entire surface of the sheet. + +In like manner, oil moves upwardly in a wick, and will keep on doing so, +until the lighted wick is extinguished, when the flow ceases. When it is +again lighted the oil again flows, as before. + +If it were not for this principle of capillary attraction, it would be +difficult to form a bubble of air in a spirit level. You can readily see +how the liquid at each end of the air bubble rounds it off, as though it +tried to surround it. + +SOUND.--Sound is caused by vibration, and it would be impossible to +convey it without an elastic medium of some kind. + +_Acoustics_ is a branch of physics which treats of sounds. It is +distinguished from music which has reference to the particular kinds. + +_Sounds_ are distinguished from _noises_. The latter are discordant and +abrupt vibrations, whereas the former are regular and continuous. + +SOUND MEDIUMS.--Gases, vapors, liquids and solids transmit vibrations, +but liquids and solids propagate with greater velocity than gases. + +VIBRATION.--A vibration is the moving to and fro of the molecules in a +body, and the greater their movement the more intense is the sound. The +intensity of the sound is affected by the density of the atmosphere, and +the movement of the winds also changes its power of transmission. + +Sound is also made more intense if a sonorous body is near its source. +This is taken advantage of in musical instruments, where a +sounding-board is used, as in the case of the piano, and in the violin, +which has a thin shell as a body for holding the strings. + +Another curious thing is shown in the speaking tube, where the sound +waves are confined, so that they are carried along in one line, and as +they are not interfered with will transmit the vibrations to great +distances. + +VELOCITY OF SOUND.--The temperature of the air has also an effect on the +rate of transmission, but for general purposes a temperature of 62 +degrees has been taken as the standard. The movement is shown to be +about 50 miles in 4 minutes, or at the rate of 1,120 feet per second. + +In water, however, the speed is four times greater; and in iron nearly +fifteen times greater. Soft earth is a poor conductor, while rock and +solid earth convey very readily. Placing the ear on a railway track will +give the vibrations of a moving train miles before it can be heard +through the air. + +SOUND REFLECTIONS.--Sound waves move outwardly from the object in the +form of wave-like rings, but those concentric rings, as they are +called, may be interrupted at various points by obstacles. When that is +the case the sound is buffeted back, producing what is called echoes. + +RESONANCE.--Materials have a quality that produces a very useful result, +called _resonance_, and it is one of the things that gives added effect +to a speaker's voice in a hall, where there is a constant succession of +echoes. A wall distant from the speaker about 55 feet, produces an +almost instantaneous reflection of the sound, and at double that +measurement the effect is still stronger. When the distance is too short +for the reflecting sound to be heard, we have _resonance_. It enriches +the sound of the voice, and gives a finer quality to musical +instruments. + +ECHOES.--When sounds are heard after the originals are emitted they tend +to confusion, and the quality of resonance is lost. There are places +where echoes are repeated many times. In the chateau of Simonetta, +Italy, a sound will be repeated thirty times. + +SPEAKING TRUMPET.--This instrument is an example of the use of +reflection. It is merely a bell-shaped, or flaring body, the large end +of which is directed to the audience. The voice talking into the small +end is directed forwardly, and is reflected from the sides, and its +resonance also enables the vibrations to carry farther than without the +use of the solid part of the instrument. + +The ear trumpet is an illustration of a sound-collecting device, the +waves being brought together by reflection. + +THE STETHOSCOPE.--This is an instrument used by physicians, and it is so +delicate that the movements of the organs of the body can be heard with +great distinctness. It merely collects the vibrations, and transmits +them to the ears by the small tubes which are connected with the +collecting bell. + +THE VITASCOPE.--Numerous instruments have been devised to determine +the rate of vibration of different materials and structures, the most +important being the _vitascope_, which has a revolvable cylinder, +blackened with soot, and this being rotated at a certain speed, the +stylus, which is attached to the vibrating body, in contact with the +cylinder, will show the number per second, as well as the particular +character of each oscillation. + +THE PHONAUTOGRAPH.--This instrument is used to register the vibration of +wind instruments, as well as the human voice, and the particular forms +of the vibrations are traced on a cylinder, the tracing stylus being +attached to a thin vibrating membrane which is affected by the voice or +instrument. + +THE PHONOGRAPH.--This instrument is the outgrowth of the stylus forms of +the apparatus described, but in this case the stylus, or needle, is +fixed to a metallic diaphragm, and its point makes an impression on +suitable material placed on the outside of a revolvable cylinder or +disc. + +Light.-Light is the agent which excites the sensation of vision in the +eye. Various theories have been advanced by scientists to account for +the phenomenon, and the two most noted views are the _corpuscular_, +promulgated by Sir Isaac Newton, and the _undulatory_, enunciated by +Huygens and Euler. + +The _corpuscular_ theory conceives that light is a substance of +exceedingly light particles which are shot forth with immense velocity. +The _undulatory_ theory, now generally accepted, maintains that light is +carried by vibrations in ether. Ether is a subtle elastic medium which +fills all space. + +_Luminous_ bodies are those like the sun, which emit light. Rays may +_diverge_, that is, spread out; _converge_, or point toward each other; +or they may be _parallel_ with each other. + +VELOCITY OF LIGHT.--Light moves at the rate of about 186,000 miles a +second. As the sun is about 94,000,000 miles from the earth, it takes +8-1/2 minutes for the light of the sun to reach us. + +REFLECTION.--One of the most important things connected with light is +that of reflection. It is that quality which is utilized in telescopes, +microscopes, mirrors, heliograph signaling and other like apparatus and +uses. The underlying principle is, that a ray is reflected, or thrown +back from a mirror at the same angle as that which produces the light. + +When the rays of the sun, which are, of course, parallel, strike a +concave mirror, the reflecting rays are converged; and when the rays +strike a convex mirror they diverge. In this way the principle is +employed in reflecting telescopes. + +REFRACTION.--This is the peculiar action of light in passing through +substances. If a ray passes through water at an angle to the surface the +ray will bend downwardly in passing through, and then again pass on in a +straight line. This will be noticed if a pencil is stood in a glass of +water at an angle, when it will appear bent. + +Refraction is that which enables light to be divided up, or analyzed. In +this way white light from the sun is shown to be composed of seven +principal colors. + +COLORS.--If the light is passed through a prism, which is a triangularly +shaped piece of glass, the rays on emerging will diverge from each +other, and when they fall on a wall or screen the colors red, orange, +yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet are shown. + +The reason for this is that the ray in passing through the prism has the +different colors in it refract at different angles, the violet bending +more than the red. + +THE SPECTROSCOPE.--The ability to make what is thus called a _spectrum_, +brought forth one of the most wonderful instruments ever devised by man. +If any metal, or material, is fused, or put in such a condition that a +ray of light can be obtained from it, and this light is passed through a +prism, it will be found that each substance has its own peculiar +divisions and arrangements of colors. + +In this way substances are determined by what is called _spectrum +analysis_, and it is by means of this instrument that the composition of +the sun, and the planets and fixed stars are determined. + +THE RAINBOW.--The rainbow is one of the effects of refraction, as the +light, striking the little globular particles of water suspended in the +air, produces a breaking up of the white light into its component +colors, and the sky serves as a background for viewing the analysis thus +made. + +HEAT.--It is now conclusively proven, that heat, like light, magnetism +and electricity, is merely a mode of motion. + +The _mechanical_ theory of heat may be shown by rubbing together several +bodies. Heat expands all substances, except ice, and in expanding +develops an enormous force. + +EXPANSION.--In like manner liquids expand with heat. The power of +mercury in expanding may be understood when it is stated that a pressure +of 10,000 pounds would be required to prevent the expansion of mercury, +when heated simply 10 degrees. + +Gases also expand. While water, and the different solids, all have their +particular units of expansion, it is not so with gases, as all have the +same coefficient. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +HOW DRAUGHTING BECOMES A VALUABLE AID + + +The ability to read drawings is a necessary part of the boy's education. +To know how to use the tools, is still more important. In conveying an +idea about a piece of mechanism, a sketch is given. Now, the sketch may +be readable in itself, requiring no explanation, or it may be of such a +nature that it will necessitate some written description. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 95. Plain Circle_] + +LINES IN DRAWING.--In drawing, lines have a definite meaning. A plain +circular line, like Fig. 95, when drawn in that way, conveys three +meanings: It may represent a rim, or a bent piece of wire; it may +illustrate a disk; or, it may convey the idea of a ball. + +Suppose we develop them to express the three forms accurately. Fig. 96, +by merely adding an interior line, shows that it is a rim. There can be +no further doubt about that expression. + +Fig. 97 shows a single line, but it will now be noticed that the line is +thickened at the lower right-hand side, and from this you can readily +infer that it is a disk. + +SHADING.--Fig. 98, by having a few shaded lines on the right and lower +side, makes it have the appearance of a globe or a convex surface. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 96. Ring_ +_Fig. 97. Raised Surface_ +_Fig. 98. Sphere_] + +Shading or thickening the lines also gives another expression to the +same circular line. + +In Fig. 99, if the upper and left-hand side of the circle is heavily +shaded, it shows that the area within the circle is depressed, instead +of being raised. + +DIRECTION OF SHADE.--On the other hand, if the shading lines, as in Fig. +100, are at the upper left-hand side, then the mind at once grasps the +idea of a concave surface. + +The first thing, therefore, to keep in mind, is this fact: That in all +mechanical drawing, the light is supposed to shine down from the upper +left-hand corner and that, as a result, the lower vertical line, as well +as the extreme right-hand vertical line, casts the shadows, and should, +therefore, be made heavier than the upper horizontal, and the left-hand +vertical lines. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 99. Depressed Surface_ _Fig. 100. Concave_] + +There are exceptions to this rule, which will be readily understood by +following out the illustrations in the order given below. + +PERSPECTIVES.--The utility of the heavy lines will be more apparent when +drawing square, rectangular, or triangular objects. + +Let us take Fig. 101, which appears to be the perspective of a cube. +Notice that all lines are of the same thickness. When the sketch was +first brought to me I thought it was a cube; but the explanation which +followed, showed that the man who made the sketch had an entirely +different meaning. + +He had intended to convey to my mind the idea of three pieces, A, B, C, +of metal, of equal size, joined together so as to form a triangularly +shaped pocket as shown in Fig. 101. The addition of the inner lines, +like D, quickly dispelled the suggestion of the cube. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 101. Fig. 102. Fig. 103. Fig. 104. + Forms of Cubical Outlines_] + +"But," he remarked, "I want to use the thinnest metal, like sheets of +tin; and you show them thick by adding the inner lines." + +Such being the case, if we did not want to show thickness as its +structural form, we had to do it by making the lines themselves and the +shading give that structural idea. This was done by using the single +lines, as in Fig. 103, and by a slight shading of the pieces A, B, C. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 105. Fig. 106. Shading Edges_] + +THE MOST PRONOUNCED LINES.--If it had been a cube, or a solid block, the +corners nearest the eye would have been most pronounced, as in Fig. 104, +and the side next to the observer would have been darkest. + +This question of light and shadow is what expresses the surface +formation of every drawing. Simple strokes form outlines of the object, +but their thickness, and the shading, show the character enclosed by the +LINES. DIRECTION OF LIGHT.--Now, as stated, the casting of the shadow +downward from the upper left-hand corner makes the last line over which +it passes the thickest, and in Figs. 105 and 106 they are not the +extreme lines at the bottom and at the right side, because of the close +parallel lines. + +In Figs. 109 and 110 the blades superposed on the other are very thin, +and the result is the lines at the right side and bottom are made much +heavier. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 107. Fig. 108. Illustrating Heavy Lines_] + +This is more fully shown in Figs. 107 and 108. Notice the marked +difference between the two figures, both of which show the same set of +pulleys, and the last figure, by merely having the lower and the +right-hand lines of each pulley heavy, changes the character of the +representation, and tells much more clearly what the draughtsman sought +to convey. + +SCALE DRAWINGS.--All drawings are made to a scale where the article is +large and cannot be indicated the exact size, using parts of an inch to +represent inches; and parts of a foot to represent feet. + +In order to reduce a drawing where a foot is the unit, it is always best +to use one-and-a-half inches, or twelve-eighths of an inch, as the +basis. In this way each eighth of an inch represents an inch. If the +drawing should be made larger, then use three inches, and in that way +each inch would be one-quarter of an inch. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 109. Fig. 110. Lines on Plain Surfaces_] + +The drawing should then have marked, in some conspicuous place, the +scale, like the following: "Scale, 1-1/2" = 1'"; or, "Scale 3" = 1'." + +DEGREE, AND WHAT IT MEANS.--A degree is not a measurement. The word is +used to designate an interval, a position, or an angle. Every circle has +360 degrees, and when a certain degree is mentioned, it means a certain +angle from what is called a _base line_. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 111. Illustrating Degrees_] + +Look at Fig. 111. This has a vertical line A, and a horizontal line B. +The circle is thus divided into four parts, and where these lines A, B, +cross the circle are the cardinal points. Each of the four parts is +called a quadrant, and each quadrant has 90 degrees. + +Any line, like C, which is halfway between A and B, is 45 degrees. +Halfway between A and C, or between B and C, like the line D, is 22-1/2 +degrees. + +MEMORIZING ANGLES.--It is well to try and remember these lines by fixing +the angles in the memory. A good plan is to divide any of the quadrants +into thirds, as shown by the points E, F, and then remember that E is 30 +degrees from the horizontal line B, and that F is 60 degrees. Or, you +might say that F is 30 degrees from the vertical line A, and E 60 +degrees from A. Either would be correct. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 112. Section Lining_] + +SECTION LINING.--In representing many parts of a machine, or article, it +is necessary to show the parts cut off, which must be illustrated by +what is called "section lining." Adjacent parts should have the section +lines running at right angles to each other, and always at 45 degrees. + +Look at the outside and then the inside views of Fig. 112, and you will +see how the contiguous parts have the angles at right angles, and +clearly illustrate how every part of the wrench is made. Skill in +depicting an article, for the purpose of constructing it from the +drawing, will make the actual work on the bench and lathe an easy one. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 113. Drawing an Ellipse_] + +MAKING ELLIPSES AND IRREGULAR CURVES.--This is the hardest thing to do +with drawing tools. A properly constructed elliptical figure is +difficult, principally, because two different sized curves are +required, and the pen runs from one curve into the other. If the two +curves meet at the wrong place, you may be sure you will have a +distorted ellipse. + +Follow the directions given in connection with Fig. 113, and it will +give you a good idea of merging the two lines. + +First. Draw a horizontal line, A, which is in the direction of the major +axis of the ellipse--that is, the longest distance across. The narrow +part of the ellipse is called the minor axis. + +Second. Draw a perpendicular line, B, which we will call the center of +the ellipse, where it crosses the line A. This point must not be +confounded with the _focus_. In a circle the focus is the exact center +of the ring, but there is no such thing in an ellipse. Instead, there +are two focal points, called the _foci_, as you will see presently. + +Third. Step off two points or marking places, as we shall term them, +equidistant from the line B, and marked C, C. These marks will then +represent the diameter of the ellipse across its major axis. + +Fourth. We must now get the diameter of the minor axis, along the line +B. This distance will depend on the perspective you have of the figure. +If you look at a disk at an angle of about 30 degrees it will be half of +the distance across the major axis. + +So you may understand this examine Fig. 114. The first sketch shows the +eye looking directly at the disk 1. In the second sketch the disk is at +30 degrees, and now the lines 2 2, from the eye, indicate that it is +just half the width that it was when the lines 3 3 were projected. The +marks D D, therefore, indicate the distance across the minor axis in +Fig. 113. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 114. Perspection in Angles_] + +Fifth. We must now find the focal points of the ellipse. If the line A +on each side of the cross line B is divided into four parts, the outer +marks E may be used for the foci, and will be the places where the point +of the compass, or bow pen, is to be placed. + +Sixth. Describe a circle F, so it passes through the mark C, and move +the point of the compass to the center of the ellipse, at the star, and +describe a circle line G, from the mark C to the line B. This will give +a centering point H. Then draw a line I from H to E, and extend it +through the circle F. + +Seventh. If the point of the compass is now put at H, and the pencil or +pen on the circle line F, the curve J can be drawn, so the latter curve +and the curve F will thus merge perfectly at the line I. + +THE FOCAL POINTS.--The focal points can be selected at any arbitrary +point, between C and the line B, and the point H may be moved closer to +or farther away from the line A, and you will succeed in making the +ellipse correct, if you observe one thing, namely: The line I, which +must always run from H to E, and intersects the circle F, is the +starting or the ending point for the small curve F or the large circle +J. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 115. Fig. 116. Fig. 117. Perspectives of Cubes_] + +ISOMETRIC AND PERSPECTIVE.--A figure may be drawn so as to show an +isometric or a perspective view. Thus, a cube can be drawn so as to make +an isometric figure, as in Fig. 115, where the three sides are equal to +each other. + +Isometric means a method of drawing any object in such a manner that the +height, length and breadth may be shown in the proportion they really +bear to each other. Fig. 115 has the sides not only equal to each other, +in appearance to the eye, but they have the same outlines and angles. + +Contrast this figure with Figs. 116 and 117. In Fig. 116 two of the +sides are equal in angles and outline; and in Fig. 117 each side has a +different outline, and different angles. Nevertheless, all the cubes +are, in reality, of the same dimension. + +THE PROTRACTOR.--This is a most useful tool for the draughtsman. It +enables the user to readily find any angle. Fig. 118 shows an approved +form of the tool for this purpose. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 118. Protractor. Section Lining Metals_] + +SUGGESTIONS IN DRAWING.--As in the use of all other tools, so with the +drawing instrument, it must be kept in proper order. If the points are +too fine they will cut the paper; if too blunt the lines will be ragged. +In whetting the points hold the pen at an angle of 12 degrees. Don't +make too long an angle or slope, and every time you sharpen hold it at +the same angle, so that it is ground back, and not at the point only. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 119. Using the Protractor._] + +HOLDING THE PEN.--The drawing pen should be held as nearly vertical as +possible. Use the cleaning rag frequently. If the ink does not flow +freely, after you have made a few strokes, as is frequently the case, +gently press together the points. The least grit between the tines will +cause an irregular flow. + +INKS.--As prepared liquid inks are now universally used, a few +suggestions might be well concerning them. After half the bottle has +been used, add a half teaspoonful of water, shake it well, and then +strain it through a fine cotton cloth. This will remove all grit and +lint that is sure to get into the bottle however carefully it may be +corked. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 120. Section Lining Metals_] + +TRACING CLOTH.--It is preferable to use the dull side of the tracing +cloth for the reasons that, as the cloth is rolled with the glossy side +inside, the figure when drawn on the other side will be uppermost, and +will thus lie flat; and on the other hand, the ink will take better on +the dull side. + +If the ink does not flow freely, use chalk, fine pumice stone, or talc, +and rub it in well with a clean cloth, and then wipe off well before +beginning to trace. + +DETAIL PAPER.--The detail paper, on which the drawing is first made in +pencil, should show the figure accurately, particularly the points where +the bow pen are to be used, as well as the measurement points for the +straight lines. + +HOW TO PROCEED.--Make the circles, curves, and irregular lines first, +and then follow with the straight lines. Where the point of the circle +pen must be used for a large number of lines, as, for instance, in +shading, the smallest circles should be made first, and the largest +circles last, because at every turn the centering hole becomes larger, +and there is liability to make the circles more or less irregular. Such +irregularity will not be so noticeable in the large curves as in the +smaller ones. + +INDICATING MATERIAL BY THE SECTION LINES.--In section lining different +materials can be indicated by the character of the lines, shown in Fig. +120. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +TREATMENT AND USE OF METALS + + +ANNEALING.--A very important part of the novice's education is a +knowledge pertaining to the annealing of metals. Unlike the artisan in +wood, who works the materials as he finds them, the machinist can, and, +in fact, with many of the substances, must prepare them so they can be +handled or cut by the tools. + +Annealing is one of the steps necessary with all cutting tools, and it +is an absolute requirement with many metals for ordinary use, as well as +for many other articles like glass. This is particularly true in the use +of copper. + +TOUGHNESS AND ELASTICITY.--It means the putting of metals in such a +condition that they will not only be less brittle, but also tougher and +more elastic. Many substances, like glass, must be annealed before they +can be put in condition for use, as this material when first turned out +is so brittle that the slightest touch will shatter it, so that it must +be toughened. + +Malleable or wrought iron, if subjected to pressure, becomes brittle, +and it is necessary to anneal it. Otherwise, if used, for instance, for +boiler plates, from the rolled sheets, it would stand but little +pressure. + +The most immediate use the boy will have is the treatment of steel. He +must learn the necessity of this process, and that of tempering, in all +his cutting tools, and in the making of machinery where some parts are +required to be constructed of very hard metal. + +THE PROCESS.--To anneal steel it must be heated to a bright cherry red +and then gradually cooled down. For this purpose a bed of fine charcoal, +or iron filings and lime, is prepared, in which the article is embedded, +and permitted to remain until it is cold. + +There are many ways of doing the work, particularly in the use of +substances which will the most readily give up their carbon to the tool. +Yellow prussiate of potash is an excellent medium, and this is sprinkled +over the cherry-heated article to be annealed. The process may be +repeated several times. + +TEMPERING.--This is the reverse of annealing as understood in the art. +The word itself does not mean to "harden," but to put into some +intermediate state. For instance, "tempered clay" means a clay which has +been softened so it can be readily worked. + +On the other hand, a tempered steel tool is put into a condition where +it is hardened, but this hardness is also accompanied by another +quality, namely, _toughness_. For this reason, the word _temper_, and +not _hardness_, is referred to. A lathe tool, if merely hardened, would +be useless for that purpose. + +TEMPERING CONTRASTED WITH ANNEALING.--It will be observed that in +annealing three things are necessary: First, heating to a certain +temperature; second, cooling slowly; third, the particular manner of +cooling it. + +In tempering, on the other hand, three things are also necessary: + +First: The heating temperature should be a dull red, which is less than +the annealing heat. + +Second: Instead of cooling slowly the article tempered is dipped into a +liquid which suddenly chills it. + +Third: The materials used vary, but if the article is plunged into an +unguent made of mercury and bacon fat, it will impart a high degree of +toughness and elasticity. + +MATERIALS USED.--Various oils, fats and rosins are also used, and some +acids in water are also valuable for this purpose. Care should be taken +to have sufficient amount of liquid in the bath so as not to evaporate +it or heat it up too much when it receives the heated body. + +Different parts of certain articles require varying degrees of hardness, +like the tangs of files. The cutting body of the file must be extremely +hard, and rather brittle than tough. If the tang should be of the same +hardness it would readily break. + +_Gradual Tempering._--To prevent this, some substance like soap suds may +be used to cool down the tang, so that toughness without hardness is +imparted. + +The tempering, or hardening, like the annealing process, may be repeated +several times in succession, and at each successive heating the article +is put at a higher temperature. + +If any part of a body, as, for instance, a hammerhead, should require +hardening, it may be plunged into the liquid for a short distance only, +and this will harden the pole or peon while leaving the other part of +the head soft, or annealed. + +Glycerine is a good tempering substance, and to this may be added a +small amount of sulphate of potash. + +FLUXING.--The word _flux_ means to fuse or to melt, or to put into a +liquid state. The office of a flux is to facilitate the fusion of +metals. But fluxes do two things. They not only aid the conversion of +the metal into a fluid state, but also serve as a means for facilitating +the unity of several metals which make up the alloy, and aid in uniting +the parts of metals to be joined in the welding of parts. + +UNITING METALS.--Metals are united in three ways, where heat is used: + +First: By heating two or more of them to such a high temperature that +they melt and form a compound, or an alloy, as it is called. + +Second: By heating up the points to be joined, and then lapping the +pieces and hammering the parts. This is called forge work or welding. + +Third: By not heating the adjacent parts and using an easily fusible +metal, which is heated up and run between the two, by means of a +soldering iron. + +The foreign material used in the first is called a flux; in the second +it is termed a welding compound; and in the third it is known as a +soldering acid, or soldering fluid. + +The boy is not so much interested in the first process, from the +standpoint of actual work, but it is necessary that he should have some +understanding of it. + +It may be said, as to fluxes, generally, that they are intended to +promote the fusion of the liquefying metals, and the elements used are +the alkalis, such as borax, tartar, limestone, or fluor spar. + +These substances act as reducing or oxidizing agents. The most important +are carbonate of soda, potash, and cyanide of potassium. Limestone is +used as the flux in iron-smelting. + +WELDING COMPOUNDS.--Elsewhere formulas are given of the compounds most +desirable to use. It is obvious that the application of these substances +on the heated surfaces, is not only to facilitate the heating, but to +prepare the articles in such a manner that they will more readily adhere +to each other. + +OXIDATION.--Oxidation is the thing to guard against in welding. The +moment a piece of metal, heated to whiteness, is exposed, the air coats +it with a film which is called an _oxide_. To remove this the welding +compound is applied. + +The next office of the substance thus applied, is to serve as a medium +for keeping the welding parts in a liquid condition as long as possible, +and thus facilitate the unity of the joined elements. + +When the hammer beats the heated metals an additional increment of heat +is imparted to the weld, due to the forcing together of the molecules of +the iron, so that these two agencies, namely, the compound and the +mechanical friction, act together to unite the particles of the metal. + +SOLDERING.--Here another principle is involved, namely, the use of an +intermediate material between two parts which are to be united. The +surfaces to be brought together must be thoroughly cleaned, using such +agents as will prevent the formation of oxides. + +The parts to be united may be of the same, or of different materials, +and it is in this particular that the workman must be able to make a +choice of the solder most available, and whether hard or soft. + +SOFT SOLDER.--A soft solder is usually employed where lead, tin, or +alloys of lead, tin and bismuth are to be soldered. These solders are +all fusible at a low temperature, and they do not, as a result, have +great strength. + +Bismuth is a metal which lowers the fusing point of any alloy of which +it forms a part, while lead makes the solder less fusible. + +HARD SOLDER.--These are so distinguished because they require a +temperature above the low red to fuse them. The metals which are alloyed +for this purpose are copper, silver, brass, zinc and tin. Various alloys +are thus made which require a high temperature to flux properly, and +these are the ones to use in joining steel to steel, the parts to be +united requiring an intense furnace heat. + +SPELTER.--The alloy used for this purpose is termed "spelter," and +brass, zinc and tin are its usual components. The hard solders are used +for uniting brass, bronze, copper, and iron. + +Whether soft or hard solder is used, it is obvious that it must melt at +a lower temperature than the parts which are to be joined together. + +There is one peculiarity with respect to alloys: They melt at a lower +temperature than either of the metals forming the alloys. + +SOLDERING ACID.--Before beginning the work of soldering, the parts must +be cleaned by filing or sandpapering, and coated with an acid which +neutralizes the oxygen of the air. + +This is usually muriatic acid, of which use, say, one quart and into +this drop small pieces of zinc. This will effervesce during the time the +acid is dissolving the zinc. When the boiling motion ceases, the liquid +may be strained, or the dark pieces removed. + +The next step is to dissolve two ounces of sal ammoniac in a third of a +pint of water, and in another vessel dissolve an ounce of chloride of +tin. + +Then mix the three solutions, and this can be placed in a bottle, or +earthen jar or vessel, and it will keep indefinitely. + +THE SOLDERING IRON.--A large iron is always better than a small one, +particularly for the reason that it will retain its heat better. This +should always be kept tinned, which can be done by heating and plunging +it into the soldering solution, and the solder will then adhere to the +iron and cover the point, so that when the actual soldering takes place +the solder will not creep away from the tool. + +By a little care and attention to these details, the work of uniting +metals will be a pleasure. It is so often the case, however, that the +apparatus for doing this work is neglected in a shop; the acid is +allowed to become dirty and full or foreign matter, and the different +parts separated. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +ON GEARING AND HOW ORDERED + + +The technical name for gears, the manner of measuring them, their pitch +and like terms, are most confusing to the novice. As an aid to the +understanding on this subject, the wheels are illustrated, showing the +application of these terms. + +SPUR AND PINION.--When a gear is ordered a specification is necessary. +The manufacturer will know what you mean if you use the proper terms, +and you should learn the distinctions between spur and pinion, and why a +bevel differs from a miter gear. + +If the gears on two parallel shafts mesh with each other, they both may +be of the same diameter, or one may be larger than the other. In the +latter case, the small one is the pinion, and the larger one the spur +wheel. + +Some manufacturers use the word "gear" for "pinion," so that, in +ordering, they call them _gear_ and _pinion_, in speaking of the large +and small wheels. + +MEASURING A GEAR.--The first thing to specify would be the diameter. Now +a spur gear, as well as a pinion, has three diameters; one measure +across the outer extremities of the teeth; one measure across the wheel +from the base of the teeth; and the distance across the wheel at a point +midway between the base and end of the teeth. + +These three measurements are called, respectively, "outside diameter," +"inside diameter," and "pitch diameter." When the word _diameter_ is +used, as applied to a gear wheel, it is always understood to mean the +"pitch diameter." + +[Illustration: _Fig. 121. Spur Gears_] + +PITCH.--This term is the most difficult to understand. When two gears of +equal size mesh together, the pitch line, or the _pitch circle_, as it +is also called, is exactly midway between the centers of the two +wheels. + +Now the number of teeth in a gear is calculated on the pitch line, and +this is called: + +[Illustration: _Fig. 122. Miter Gear Pitch_] + +DIAMETRAL PITCH.--To illustrate: If a gear has 40 teeth, and the pitch +diameter of the wheel is 4 inches, there are 10 teeth to each inch of +the pitch diameter, and the gear is then 10 _diametral pitch_. + +CIRCULAR PITCH.--Now the term "circular pitch" grows out of the +necessity of getting the measurement of the distance from the center of +one tooth to the center of the next, and it is measured along the pitch +line. + +Supposing you wanted to know the number of teeth in a gear where the +pitch diameter and the diametral pitch are given. You would proceed as +follows: Let the diameter of the pitch circle be 10 inches, and the +diameter of the diametral pitch be 4 inches. Multiplying these together +the product is 40, thus giving the number of teeth. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 123. Bevel Gears._] + +It will thus be seen that if you have an idea of the diametral pitch and +circular pitch, you can pretty fairly judge of the size that the teeth +will be, and thus enable you to determine about what kind of teeth you +should order. + +HOW TO ORDER A GEAR.--In proceeding to order, therefore, you may give +the pitch, or the diameter of the pitch circle, in which latter case the +manufacturer of the gear will understand how to determine the number of +the teeth. In case the intermeshing gears are of different diameters, +state the number of teeth in the gear and also in the pinion, or +indicate what the relative speed shall be. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 124. Miter Gears._] + +This should be followed by the diameter of the hole in the gear and also +in the pinion; the backing of both gear and pinion; the width of the +face; the diameter of the gear hub; diameter of the pinion hub; and, +finally, whether the gears are to be fastened to the shafts by key-ways +or set-screws. + +Fig. 122 shows a sample pair of miter gears, with the measurements to +indicate how to make the drawings. Fig. 123 shows the bevel gears. + +BEVEL AND MITER GEARS.--When two intermeshing gears are on shafts which +are at right angles to each other, they may be equal diametrically, or +of different sizes. If both are of the same diameter, they are called +bevel gears; if of different diameters, miter gears. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 125. Sprocket Wheel._] + +It is, in ordering gears of this character, that the novice finds it +most difficult to know just what to do. In this case it is necessary to +get the proper relation of speed between the two gears, and, for +convenience, we shall, in the drawing, make the gears in the relation of +2 to 1. + +DRAWING GEARS.--Draw two lines at right angles, Fig. 124, as 1 and 2, +marking off the sizes of the two wheels at the points 3, 4. Then draw a +vertical line (A) midway between the marks of the line 2, and this will +be the center of the main pinion. + +Also draw a horizontal line (B) midway between the marks on the vertical +line (1), and this will represent the center of the small gear. These +two cross lines (A, B) constitute the intersecting axes of the two +wheels, and a line (5), drawn from the mark (3 to 4), and another line +(6), from the axes to the intersecting points of the lines (1, 2), will +give the pitch line angles of the two wheels. + +SPROCKET WHEELS.--For sprocket wheels the pitch line passes centrally +through the rollers (A) of the chain, as shown in Fig. 125, and the +pitch of the chain is that distance between the centers of two adjacent +rollers. In this case the cut of the teeth is determined by the chain. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +MECHANICAL POWERS + + +THE LEVER.--The lever is the most wonderful mechanical element in the +world. The expression, _lever_, is not employed in the sense of a stick +or a bar which is used against a fulcrum to lift or push something with, +but as the type of numerous devices which employ the same principle. + +Some of these devices are, the wedge, the screw, the pulley and the +inclined plane. In some form or other, one or more of these are used in +every piece of mechanism in the world. + +Because the lever enables the user to raise or move an object hundreds +of times heavier than is possible without it, has led thousands of +people to misunderstand its meaning, because it has the appearance, to +the ignorant, of being able to manufacture power. + +WRONG INFERENCES FROM USE OF LEVER.--This lack of knowledge of first +principles, has bred and is now breeding, so-called perpetual motion +inventors (?) all over the civilized world. It is surprising how many +men, to say nothing of boys, actually believe that power can be made +without the expenditure of something which equalizes it. + +The boy should not be led astray in this particular, and I shall try to +make the matter plain by using the simple lever to illustrate the fact +that whenever power is exerted some form of energy is expended. + +In Fig. 126 is a lever (A), resting on a fulcrum (B), the fulcrum being +so placed that the lever is four times longer on one side than on the +other. A weight (C) of 4 pounds is placed on the short end, and a +1-pound weight (D), called the _power_, on the short end. It will thus +be seen that the lever is balanced by the two weights, or that the +_weight_ and the _power_ are equal. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 126. Simple Lever_] + +THE LEVER PRINCIPLE.--Now, without stopping to inquire, the boy will +say: "Certainly, I can understand that. As the lever is four times +longer on one side of the fulcrum than on the other side, it requires +only one-fourth of the weight to balance the four pounds. But suppose I +push down the lever, at the point where the weight (D) is, then, for +every pound I push down I can raise four pounds at C. In that case do I +not produce four times the power?" + +I answer, yes. But while I produce that power I am losing something +which is equal to the power gained. What is that? + +[Illustration: _Fig. 127. Lever Action_] + +First: Look at Fig. 127; the distance traveled. The long end of the +lever is at its highest point, which is A; and the short end of the +lever is at its lowest point C. When the long end of the lever is pushed +down, so it is at B, it moves four times farther than the short end +moves upwardly, as the distance from C to D is just one-fourth that from +A to B. The energy expended in moving four times the distance balances +the power gained. + +POWER VS. DISTANCE TRAVELED.--From this the following law is deduced: +That whatever is gained in power is lost in the distance traveled. + +Second: Using the same figure, supposing it was necessary to raise the +short end of the lever, from C to D, in one second of time. In that case +the hand pressing down the long end of the lever, would go from A to B +in one second of time; or it would go four times as far as the short +end, in the same time. + +POWER VS. LOSS IN TIME.--This means another law: That what is gained in +power is lost in time. + +Distinguish clearly between these two motions. In the first case the +long end of the lever is moved down from A to B in four seconds, and it +had to travel four times the distance that the short end moves in going +from C to D. + +In the second case the long end is moved down, from A to B, in one +second of time, and it had to go that distance in one-fourth of the +time, so that four times as much energy was expended in the same time to +raise the short end from C to D. + +WRONGLY DIRECTED ENERGY.--More men have gone astray on the simple +question of the power of the lever than on any other subject in +mechanics. The writer has known instances where men knew the principles +involved in the lever, who would still insist on trying to work out +mechanical devices in which pulleys and gearing were involved, without +seeming to understand that those mechanical devices are absolutely the +same in principle. + +This will be made plain by a few illustrations. In Fig. 128, A is a +pulley four times larger, diametrically, than B, and C is the pivot on +which they turn. The pulleys are, of course, secured to each other. In +this case we have the two weights, one of four pounds on the belt, which +is on the small pulley (B), and a one-pound weight on the belt from the +large pulley (A). + +[Illustration: _Fig. 128. The Pulley_] + +THE LEVER AND THE PULLEY.--If we should substitute a lever (D) for the +pulleys, the similarity to the lever (Fig. 127) would be apparent at +once. The pivot (C) in this case would act the same as the pivot (C) in +the lever illustration. + +In the same manner, and for like reasons, the wedge, the screw and the +incline plane, are different structural applications of the principles +set forth in the lever. + +Whenever two gears are connected together, the lever principle is used, +whether they are the same in size, diametrically, or not. If they are +the same size then no change in power results; but instead, thereof, a +change takes place in the direction of the motion. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 129. Fig. 130. Change of Direction_] + +When one end of the lever (A) goes down, the other end goes up, as shown +in Fig. 129; and in Fig. 130, when the shaft (C) of one wheel turns in +one direction, the shaft of the other wheel turns in the opposite +direction. + +It is plain that a gear, like a lever, may change direction as well as +increase or decrease power. It is the thorough knowledge of these facts, +and their application, which enables man to make the wonderful machinery +we see on every hand. + +SOURCES OF POWER.--Power is derived from a variety of sources, but what +are called the _prime movers_ are derived from heat, through the various +fuels, from water, from the winds and from the tides and waves of the +ocean. In the case of water the power depends on the head, or height, of +the surface of the water above the discharging orifice. + +WATER POWER.--A column of water an inch square and 28 inches high gives +a pressure at the base of one pound; and the pressure at the lower end +is equal in all directions. If a tank of water 28 inches high has a +single orifice in its bottom 1" x 1" in size, the pressure of water +through that opening will be only one pound, and it will be one pound +through every other orifice in the bottom of the same size. + +CALCULATING FUEL ENERGY.--Power from fuels depends upon the expansion of +the materials consumed, or upon the fact that heat expands some element, +like water, which in turn produces the power. One cubic inch of water, +when converted into steam, has a volume equal to one cubic foot, or +about 1,700 times increase in bulk. + +Advantage is taken of this in steam engine construction. If a cylinder +has a piston in it with an area of 100 square inches, and a pipe one +inch square supplies steam at 50 pounds pressure, the piston will have +50 pounds pressure on every square inch of its surface, equal to 5,000 +pounds. + +THE PRESSURE OR HEAD.--In addition to that there will also be 50 pounds +pressure on each square inch of the head, as well as on the sides of the +cylinder. + +Fig. 131 shows a cylinder (A), a piston (B) and a steam inlet port (C), +in which is indicated how the steam pressure acts equally in all +directions. As, however, the piston is the only movable part, the force +of the steam is directed to that part, and the motion is then +transmitted to the crank, and to the shaft of the engine. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 131. Steam Pressure_] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 132. Water Pressure_] + +This same thing applies to water which, as stated, is dependent on its +head. Fig. 132 represents a cylinder (D) with a vertically movable +piston (E) and a standpipe (F). Assuming that the pipe (F) is of +sufficient height to give a pressure of 50 pounds to the square inch, +then the piston (E) and the sides and head of the cylinder (D) would +have 50 pounds pressure on every square inch of surface. + +FUELS.--In the use of fuels, such as the volatile hydrocarbons, the +direct expansive power of the fuel gases developed, is used to move the +piston back and forth. Engines so driven are called _Internal Combustion +Motors_. + +POWER FROM WINDS.--Another source of power is from the wind acting +against wheels which have blades or vanes disposed at such angles that +there is a direct conversion of a rectilinear force into circular +motion. + +In this case power is derived from the force of the moving air and the +calculation of energy developed is made by considering the pressure on +each square foot of surface. The following table shows the force exerted +at different speeds against a flat surface one foot square, held so that +the wind strikes it squarely: + +-------------------------------------------------------------------- +-----------------+--------------++-------------------+-------------- +SPEED OF WIND | PRESSURE || SPEED OF WIND | PRESSURE +-----------------+--------------++-------------------+-------------- +5 Miles per hour | 2 oz. || 35 miles per hour | 6 lb. 2 oz. +10 " " | 8 " || 40 " " | 8 " +15 " " | 1 lb. 2 " || 45 " " | 10 " 2 " +20 " " | 2 " || 50 " " | 12 " 2 " +25 " " | 3 " 2 " || 55 " " | 15 " 2 " +30 " " | 4 " 8 " || 60 " " | 18 " +-----------------+--------------++-------------------+-------------- + +VARYING DEGREES OF PRESSURE.--It is curious to notice how the increase +in speed changes the pressure against the blade. Thus, a wind blowing 20 +miles an hour shows 2 pounds pressure; whereas a wind twice that +velocity, or 40 miles an hour, shows a pressure of 8 pounds, which is +four times greater than at 20 miles. + +It differs, therefore, from the law with respect to water pressure, +which is constant in relation to the height or the head--that is, for +every 28 inches height of water a pound pressure is added. + +POWER FROM WAVES AND TIDES.--Many attempts have been made to harness the +waves and the tide and some of them have been successful. This effort +has been directed to the work of converting the oscillations of the +waves into a rotary motion, and also to take advantage of the to-and-fro +movement of the tidal flow. There is a great field in this direction for +the ingenious boy. + +A PROFITABLE FIELD.--In no direction of human enterprise is there such +a wide and profitable field for work, as in the generation of power. It +is constantly growing in prominence, and calls for the exercise of the +skill of the engineer and the ingenuity of the mechanic. Efficiency and +economy are the two great watchwords, and this is what the world is +striving for. Success will come to him who can contribute to it in the +smallest degree. + +Capital is not looking for men who can cheapen the production of an +article 50 per cent., but 1 per cent. The commercial world does not +expect an article to be 100 per cent, better. Five per cent. would be an +inducement for business. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +ON MEASURES + + +HORSE-POWER.--When work is performed it is designated as horse-power, +usually indicated by the letters H. P.; but the unit of work is called a +_foot pound_. + +If one pound should be lifted 550 feet in one second, or 550 pounds one +foot in the same time, it would be designated as one horse-power. For +that reason it is called a foot pound. Instead of using the figure to +indicate the power exerted during one minute of time, the time is taken +for a minute, in all calculations, so that 550 multiplied by the number +of seconds, 60, in a minute, equals 33,000 foot pounds. + +FOOT POUNDS.--The calculation of horse-power is in a large measure +arbitrary. It was determined in this way: Experiments show that the heat +expended in vaporizing 34 pounds of water per hour, develops a force +equal to 33,000 foot pounds; and since it takes about 4 pounds of coal +per hour to vaporize that amount of water, the heat developed by that +quantity of coal develops the same force as that exercised by an average +horse exerting his strength at ordinary work. + +All power is expressed in foot pounds. Suppose a cannon ball of +sufficient weight and speed strikes an object. If the impact should +indicate 33,000 pounds it would not mean that the force employed was one +horse-power, but that many foot pounds. + +If there should be 60 impacts of 550 pounds each within a minute, it +might be said that it would be equal to 1 horse-power, but the correct +way to express it would be foot pounds. + +So in every calculation, where power is to be calculated, first find out +how many foot pounds are developed, and then use the unit of measure, +33,000, as the divisor to get the horse-power, if you wish to express it +in that way. + +It must be understood, therefore, that horse-power is a simple unit of +work, whereas a foot pound is a compound unit formed of a foot paired +with the weight of a pound. + +ENERGY.--Now _work_ and _energy_ are two different things. Work is the +overcoming of resistance of any kind, either by causing or changing +motion, or maintaining it against the action of some other force. + +Energy, on the other hand, is the power of doing work. Falling water +possesses energy; so does a stone poised on the edge of a cliff. In the +case of water, it is called _kinetic_ energy; in the stone _potential_ +energy. A pound of pressure against the stone will cause the latter, in +falling, to develop an enormous energy; so it will be seen that this +property resides, or is within the thing itself. It will be well to +remember these definitions. + +HOW TO FIND OUT THE POWER DEVELOPED.--The measure of power produced by +an engine, or other source, is so interesting to boys that a sketch is +given of a Prony Brake, which is the simplest form of the Dynamometer, +as these measuring machines are called. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 133. Prony Brake_] + +In the drawing (A) is the shaft, with a pulley (A'), which turns in the +direction of the arrow (B). C is a lever which may be of any length. +This has a block (C'), which fits on the pulley, and below the shaft, +and surrounding it, are blocks (D) held against the pulley by a chain +(E), the ends of the chain being attached to bolts (F) which pass +through the block (C') and lever (C). + +Nuts (G) serve to draw the bolts upwardly and thus tighten the blocks +against the shaft. The free end of the lever has stops (H) above and +below, so as to limit its movement. Weights (I) are suspended from the +end of the lever. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 134. Speed Indicator_] + +THE TEST.--The test is made as follows: The shaft is set in motion, and +the nuts are tightened until its full power at the required speed is +balanced by the weight put on the platform. + +The following calculation can then be made: + +For our present purpose we shall assume that the diameter of the pulley +(A') is 4 inches; the length of the lever (C), 3 feet; the speed of the +shaft (A) and the pulley, 210 revolutions per minute; and the weight 600 +pounds. + +Now proceed as follows: + +(1) Multiply the diameter of the pulley (A') (4 inches) by 3.1416, and +this will give the circumference 12.5664 inches; or, 1.0472 feet. + +(2) Multiply this product (1.0472) by the revolutions per minute. 1.0472 +x 210 = 219.912. This equals the _speed_ of the periphery of the pulley. + +(3) The next step is to get the length of the lever (C) from the center +of the shaft (A) to the point from which the weights are suspended, and +divide this by one-half of the diameter of the pulley (A'). 36" / 2" = +18", or 1-1/2 feet. This is the _leverage_. + +(4) Then multiply the _weight_ in pounds by the _leverage_. 600 x 1-1/2 += 900. + +(5) Next multiply this product (900) by the _speed_, 900 x 219.912 = +197,920.8, which means _foot pounds_. + +(6) As each horse-power has 33,000 foot pounds, the last product should +be divided by this figure, and we have 197,920.8 / 33,000 = 5.99 H. P. + +THE FOOT MEASURE.--How long is a foot, and what is it determined by? It +is an arbitrary measure. The human foot is the basis of the measurement. +But what is the length of a man's foot? It varied in different countries +from 9 to 21 inches. + +In England, in early days, it was defined as a measure of length +consisting of 12 inches, or 36 barleycorns laid end to end. But +barleycorns differ in length as well as the human foot, so the standard +adopted is without any real foundation or reason. + +WEIGHT.--To determine weight, however, a scientific standard was +adopted. A gallon contains 8.33 pounds avoirdupois weight of distilled +water. This gallon is divided up in two ways; one by weight, and the +other by measurement. + +Each gallon contains 231 cubic inches of distilled water. As it has four +quarts, each quart has 57-3/4 cubic inches, and as each quart is +comprised of two pints, each pint has nearly 29 cubic inches. + +THE GALLON.--The legal gallon in the United States is equal to a +cylindrical measure 7 inches in diameter and 6 inches deep. + +Notwithstanding the weights and dimensions of solids and liquids are +thus fixed by following a scientific standard, the divisions into +scruples, grains, pennyweights and tons, as well as cutting them up into +pints, quarts and other units, is done without any system, and for this +reason the need of a uniform method has been long considered by every +country. + +THE METRIC SYSTEM.--As early as 1528, Fernal, a French physician, +suggested the metric system. Our own government recognized the value of +this plan when it established the system of coinage. + +The principle lies in fixing a unit, such as a dollar, or a pound, or a +foot, and then making all divisions, or addition, in multiples of ten. +Thus, we have one mill; ten mills to make a dime; ten dimes to make a +dollar, and so on. + +BASIS OF MEASUREMENT.--The question arose, what to use as the basis of +measurement, and it was proposed to use the earth itself, as the +measure. For this purpose the meridian line running around the earth at +the latitude of Paris was selected. + +One-quarter of this measurement around the globe was found to be +393,707,900 inches, and this was divided into 10,000,000 parts. Each +part, therefore, was a little over 39.37 inches in length, and this was +called a meter, which means _measure_. + +A decimeter is one-tenth of that, namely, 3.937 inches; and a decameter +39.37, or ten times the meter, and so on. + +For convenience the metrical table is given, showing lengths in feet and +inches, in which only three decimal points are used. + +Metrical Table, showing measurements in feet and inches: + +METRICAL TABLE, SHOWING MEASUREMENTS IN FEET +AND INCHES + +------------------------------------------ +------------+--------------+-------------- + Length | Inches | Feet +------------+--------------+-------------- +Millimeter | 0.039 | 0.003 +Centimeter | 0.393 | 0.032 +Decimeter | 3.937 | 0.328 +Meter | 39.370 | 3.280 +Decameter | 393.707 | 32.808 +Hectometer | 3937.079 | 328.089 +Kilometer | 39370.790 | 3280.899 +Myriameter | 393707.900 | 32808.992 +------------+--------------+-------------- + +METRIC SYSTEM, SHOWING THE EQUIVALENTS +IN OUR MEASURES + +1 Myriameter = 5.4 nautical miles, or 6.21 statute + miles. + +1 Kilometer = 0.621 statute mile, or nearly 5/8 + mile. + +1 Hectometer = 109.4 yards. + +1 Decameter = 0.497 chain, 1.988 rods. + +1 Meter = 39.37 inches, or nearly 3 ft. 3-3/8 + inches. + +1 Decimeter = 3.937 inches. + +1 Centimeter = 0.3937 inch. + +1 Millimeter = 0.03937 inch. + +1 Micron = 1/25400 inch. + +1 Hectare = 2.471 acres. + +1 Arc = 119.6 square yards. + +1 Centaire, or square +meter = 10.764 square feet. + +1 Decastere = 13 cubic yards, or about 2-3/4 + cords. + +1 Stere, or cubic meter = 1.308 cubic yards, or 35.3 cubic + feet. + +1 Decistere = 3-1/2 cubic feet. + +1 Kiloliter = 1 ton, 12 gal., 2 pints, 2 gills + old wine measure. + +1 Hectoliter = 22.01 Imperial gals., or 26.4 + U. S. gals. + +1 Decaliter = 2 gallons, 1 pint, 2-2/5 gills, imperial + measure, or 2 gals., 2 + qts., 1 pt., 1/2 gill, U. S. + +1 Liter = 1 pint, 3 gills, imperial, or 1 qt., + 1/2 gill U. S. measure. + +1 Decileter = 0.704 gill, imperial, or 0.845 gill + U. S. measure. + +1 Millier = 2,204.6 pounds avoirdupois. + +1 Metric quintal = 2 hundredweight, less 3-1/2 + pounds, or 220 pounds, 7 + ounces. + +1 Kilogram = 2 pounds, 3 ounces, 4-3/8 + drams avoirdupois. + +1 Hectogram = 3 ounces, 8-3/8 drams avoirdupois. + +1 Decagram = 154.32 grains Troy. + +1 Gram = 15.432 grains. + +1 Decigram = 1.542 grain. + +1 Centigram = 0.154 grain. + +1 Milligram = 0.015 grain. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +USEFUL INFORMATION FOR THE WORKSHOP + + +To find the circumference of a circle: Multiply the diameter by 3.1416. + +To find the diameter of a circle: Multiply the circle by .31831. + +To find the area of a circle: Multiply the square of the diameter by +.7854. + +To find the area of a triangle: Multiply the base by one-half the +perpendicular height. + +To find the surface of a ball: Multiply the square of the diameter by +3.1416. + +To find the solidity of a sphere: Multiply the cube of the diameter by +.5236. + +To find the cubic contents of a cone: Multiply the area of the base by +one-third the altitude. + +Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times. + +To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water: +Multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. + +Standard Horse-power: The evaporation of 30 pounds of water per hour +from a feed water temperature of 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit into steam at +70 pounds gauge pressure. + +To find the capacity of any tank in gallons: Square the diameter in +inches, multiply by the length, and then by .0034. + +In making patterns for aluminum castings provision must be made for +shrinkage to a greater extent than with any other metal or alloy. + +The toughness of aluminum can be increased by adding a small per cent. +of phosphorus. + +All alloys of metals having mercury are called _amalgams_. + +A sheet of zinc suspended in the water of a boiler will produce an +electrolytic action and prevent scaling to a considerable extent. + +Hydrofluoric acid will not affect a pure diamond, but will dissolve all +imitations. + +A strong solution of alum put into glue will make it insoluble in water. + +A grindstone with one side harder than the other can have its flinty +side softened by immersing that part in boiled linseed oil. + +One barrel contains 3-3/4 cubic feet. + +One cubic yard contains 7-1/4 barrels. + +To find the speed of a driven pulley of a given diameter: Multiply the +diameter of the driving pulley by its speed or number of revolutions. +Divide this by the diameter of the driven pulley. The result will be the +number of revolutions of the driven pulley. + +To find the diameter of a driven pulley that shall make any given number +of revolutions in the same time: Multiply the diameter of the driving +pulley by its number of revolutions, and divide the product by the +number of revolutions of the driven pulley. + +A piece of the well-known tar soap held against the inside of a belt +while running will prevent it from slipping, and will not injure the +belt. + +Boiler scale is composed of the carbonate or the sulphate of lime. To +prevent the formation it is necessary to use some substance which will +precipitate these elements in the water. The cheapest and most +universally used for this purpose are soda ash and caustic soda. + +Gold bronze is merely a mixture of equal parts of oxide of tin and +sulphur. To unite them they are heated for some time in an earthen +retort. + +Rusted utensils may be cleaned of rust by applying either turpentine or +kerosene oil, and allowing them to stand over night, when the excess may +be wiped off. Clean afterwards with fine emery cloth. + +Plaster of paris is valuable for many purposes in a machine shop, but +the disadvantage in handling it is, that it sets so quickly, and its use +is, therefore, very much limited. To prevent quick setting mix a small +amount of arrow root powder with the plaster before it is mixed, and +this will keep it soft for some time, and also increase its hardness +when it sets. + +For measuring purposes a tablespoon holds 1/2 ounce; a dessertspoon 1/4 +ounce; a teaspoon 1/8 ounce; a teacupful of sugar weighs 1/2 pound; two +teacupsful of butter weigh 1 pound; 1-1/3 pints of powdered sugar weigh +1 pound; one pint of distilled water weighs 1 pound. + +Ordinarily, 450 drops of liquid are equal to 1 ounce; this varies with +different liquids, some being thicker in consistency than others, but +for those of the consistency of water the measure given is fairly +accurate. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE SIMPLICITY OF GREAT INVENTIONS, AND OF NATURE'S MANIFESTATIONS + + +If there is anything in the realm of mechanics which excites the wonder +and admiration of man, it is the knowledge that the greatest inventions +are the simplest, and that the inventor must take advantage of one law +in nature which is universal in its application, and that is vibration. + +There is a key to every secret in nature's great storehouse. It is not a +complicated one, containing a multiplicity of wards and peculiar angles +and recesses. It is the very simplicity in most of the problems which +long served as a bar to discovery in many of the arts. So extremely +simple have been some of the keys that many inventions resulted from +accidents. + +INVENTION PRECEDES SCIENCE.--Occasionally inventions were brought about +by persistency and energy, and ofttimes by theorizing; but science +rarely ever aids invention. The latter usually precedes science. Thus, +reasoning could not show how it might be possible for steam to force +water into a boiler against its own pressure. But the injector does +this. + +If, prior to 1876, it had been suggested that a sonorous vibration could +be converted into an electrical pulsation, and transformed back again to +a sonorous vibration, science would have proclaimed it impossible; but +the telephone does it. Invention shows how things are done, and science +afterwards explains the phenomena and formulates theories and laws which +become serviceable to others in the arts. + +SIMPLICITY IN INVENTIONS.--But let us see how exceedingly simple are +some of the great discoveries of man. + +THE TELEGRAPH.--The telegraph is nothing but a magnet at each end of a +wire, with a lever for an armature, which opens and closes the circuit +that passes through the magnets and armature, so that an impulse on the +lever, or armature, at one end, by making and breaking the circuit, also +makes and breaks the circuit at the other end. + +TELEPHONE.--The telephone has merely a disk close to but not touching +the end of a magnet. The sonorous vibration of the voice oscillates the +diaphragm, and as the diaphragm is in the magnetic field of the magnet, +it varies the pressure, so called, causing the diaphragm at the other +end of the wire to vibrate in unison and give out the same sound +originally imparted to the other diaphragm. + +TRANSMITTER.--The transmitter is merely a sensitized instrument. It +depends solely on the principle of light contact points in an electric +circuit, whereby the vibrations of the voice are augmented. + +PHONOGRAPH.--The phonograph is not an electrical instrument. It has a +diaphragm provided centrally with a blunt pin, or stylus. To make the +record, some soft or plastic material, like wax, or tinfoil, is caused +to move along so that the point of the stylus makes impressions in it, +and the vibrations of the diaphragm cause the point to traverse a groove +of greater or smaller indentations. When this groove is again presented +to the stylus the diaphragm is vibrated and gives forth the sounds +originally imparted to it when the indentations were made. + +WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.--Wireless telegraphy depends for its action on what +is called induction. Through this property a current is made of a high +electro-motive force, which means of a high voltage, and this disturbs +the ether with such intensity that the waves are sent out in all +directions to immense distances. + +The great discovery has been to find a mechanism sensitive enough to +detect the induction waves. The instrument for this purpose is called a +coherer, in which small particles cohere through the action of the +electric waves, and are caused to fall apart mechanically, during the +electrical impulses. + +PRINTING TELEGRAPH.--The printing telegraph requires the synchronous +turning of two wheels. This means that two wheels at opposite ends of a +wire must be made to turn at exactly the same rate of speed. Originally, +this was tried by clock work, but without success commercially, for the +reason that a pendulum does not beat with the same speed at the equator, +as at different latitudes, nor at altitudes; and temperature also +affects the rate. The solution was found by making the two wheels move +by means of a timing fork, which vibrates with the same speed +everywhere, and under all conditions. + +ELECTRIC MOTOR.--The direct current electric motor depends for its +action on the principle that likes repel, and unlikes attract. The +commutator so arranges the poles that at the proper points, in the +revolution of the armature, the poles are always presented to each other +in such a way that as they approach each other, they are opposites, and +thus attract, and as they recede from each other they repel. A dynamo is +exactly the same, except that the commutator reverses the operation and +makes the poles alike as they approach each other, and unlike as they +recede. + +Steel is simply iron, to which has been added a small per cent of +carbon. + +Quinine is efficient in its natural state, but it has been made +infinitely more effectual by the breaking up or changing of the +molecules with acids. Sulphate of quinine is made by the use of +sulphuric acid as a solvent. + +EXPLOSIONS.--Explosions depend on oxygen. While this element does not +burn, a certain amount of it must be present to support combustion. +Thus, the most inflammable gas or liquid will not burn or explode unless +oxygenized. Explosives are made by using a sufficient amount, in a +concentrated form, which is added to the fuel, so that when it is +ignited there is a sufficient amount of oxygen present to support +combustion, hence the rapid explosion which follows. + +VIBRATION IN NATURE.--The physical meaning of vibration is best +illustrated by the movement of a pendulum. All agitation is vibration. +All force manifests itself in this way. + +The painful brilliancy of the sun is produced by the rapid vibrations of +the rays; the twinkle of the distant star, the waves of the ocean when +ruffled by the winds; the shimmer of the moon on its crested surface; +the brain in thinking; the mouth in talking; the beating of the heart; +all, alike, obey the one grand and universal law of vibratory motion. + +QUALITIES OF SOUND.--Sound is nothing but a succession of vibrations of +greater or less magnitude. Pitch is produced by the number of +vibrations; intensity by their force; and quality by the character of +the article vibrated. + +Since the great telephone controversy which took place some years ago +there has been a wonderful development in the knowledge of acoustics, or +sounds. It was shown that the slightest sound would immediately set into +vibration every article of furniture in a room, and very sensitive +instruments have been devised to register the force and quality. + +THE PHOTOGRAPHER'S PLATE.--It is known that the chemical action of an +object on a photographer's plate is due to vibration; each represents a +force of different intensity, hence the varying shades produced. Owing +to the different rates of vibrations caused by the different colors, the +difficulty has been to photograph them, but this has now been +accomplished. Harmony, or "being in tune," as is the common expression, +is as necessary in light, as in music. + +Some chemicals will bring out or "develop," the pictures; others will +not. Colors are now photographed because invention and science have +found the harmonizing chemicals. + +QUADRUPLEX TELEGRAPHY.--One of the most remarkable of all the wonders of +our age is what is known as duplex and quadruplex telegraphy. Every atom +and impulse in electricity is oscillation. The current which transmits +a telegram is designated in the science as "vibratory." + +But how is it possible to transmit two or more messages over one wire at +the same time? It is by bringing into play the harmony of sounds. One +message is sent in one direction in the key of A; another message in the +other direction in B; and so any number may be sent, because the +electrical vibrations may be tuned, just like the strings of a violin. + +ELECTRIC HARMONY.--Every sound produces a corresponding vibration in +surrounding objects. While each vibrates, or is capable of transmitting +a sound given to it by its vibratory powers, it may not vibrate in +harmony. + +When a certain key of a piano is struck every key has a certain +vibration, and if we could separate it from the other sounds, it would +reflect the same sound as the string struck, just the same as the walls +of a room or the air itself would convey that sound. + +But as no two strings in the instrument vibrate the same number of times +each second, the rapid movement of successive sounds of the keys do not +interfere with each other. If, however, there are several pianos in a +room, and all are tuned the same pitch, the striking of a key on one +instrument will instantly set in vibration the corresponding strings in +all the other instruments. + +This is one reason why a piano tested in a music wareroom has always a +more beautiful and richer sound than when in a drawing-room or hall, +since each string is vibrated by the other instrument. + +If a small piece of paper is balanced upon the strings of a violin, +every key of the piano may be struck, except the one in tune, without +affecting the paper; but the moment the same key is struck the vibration +of the harmonizing pitch will unbalance the paper. + +The musical sound of C produces 528 vibrations per second; D 616, and so +on. The octave above has double the number of vibrations of the lower +note. It will thus be understood why discord in music is not pleasant to +the ear, as the vibrations are not in the proper multiples. + +ODORS.--So with odors. The sense of smell is merely the force set in +motion by the vibration of the elements. An instrument called the +_odophone_ demonstrates that a scale or gamut exists in flowers; that +sharp smells indicate high tones and heavy smells low tones. Over fifty +odors have thus been analyzed. + +The treble clef, note E, 4th space, is orange; note D, 1st space below, +violet; note F, 4th space above clef, ambergris. To make a proper +bouquet, therefore the different odors must be harmonized, just the +same as the notes of a musical chord are selected. + +A BOUQUET OF VIBRATIONS.--The odophone shows that santal, geranium, +orange flower and camphor, make a bouquet in the key of C. It is easy to +conceive that a beautiful bouquet means nothing more than an agreeable +vibratory sensation of the olfactory nerves. + +TASTE.--So with the sense of taste. The tongue is covered with minute +cells surrounded by nervous filaments which are set in motion whenever +any substance is brought into contact with the surface. Tasting is +merely the movement of these filaments, of greater or less rapidity. + +If an article is tasteless, it means that these filaments do not +vibrate. These vibrations are of two kinds. They may move faster or +slower, or they may move in a peculiar way. A sharp acute taste means +that the vibrations are very rapid; a mild taste, slow vibrations. + +When a pleasant taste is detected, it is only because the filaments are +set into an agreeable motion. The vibrations in the tongue may become so +rapid that it will be painful, just as a shriek becomes piercing to the +ear, or an intense light dazzling to the eye; all proceed from the same +physical force acting on the brain. + +COLOR.--Color, that seemingly unexplainable force, becomes a simple +thing when the principles of vibration are applied, and this has been +fully explained by the spectroscope and its operation. + +When the boy once appreciates that this force, or this motion in nature +is just as simple as the great inventions which have grown out of this +manifestation, he will understand that a knowledge of these things will +enable him to utilize the energy in a proper way. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +WORKSHOP RECIPES AND FORMULAS + + +In a work of this kind, dealing with the various elements, the boy +should have at hand recipes or formulas for everything which comes +within the province of his experiments. The following are most carefully +selected, the objects being to present those which are the more easily +compounded. + +ADHESIVES FOR VARIOUS USES.--Waterproof glue. Use a good quality of +glue, and dissolve it in warm water, then add one pound of linseed oil +to eight pounds of the glue. Add three ounces of nitric acid. + +Leather or Card-board Glue. After dissolving good glue in water, to +which a little turpentine has been added, mix it with a thick paste of +starch, the proportion of starch to glue being about two to every part +of glue used. The mixture is used cold. + +A fine Belt Glue. Dissolve 50 ounces of gelatine in water, and heat +after pouring off the excess water. Then stir in five ounces of +glycerine, ten ounces of turpentine, and five ounces of linseed oil +varnish. If too thick add water to suit. + +For cementing Iron to Marble. Use 30 parts of Plaster of Paris, 10 parts +of iron filings, and one half part of sal ammoniac. These are mixed up +with vinegar to make a fluid paste. + +To cement Glass to Iron. Use 3 ounces of boiled linseed oil and 1 part +of copal varnish, and into this put 2 ounces of litharge and 1 ounce of +white lead and thoroughly mingle so as to make a smooth paste. + +Water-proof Cement. Boiled linseed oil, 6 ounces; copal, 6 ounces; +litharge, 2 ounces; and white lead, 16 ounces. To be thoroughly +incorporated. + +To unite rubber or leather to hard substances. One ounce of pulverized +gum shellac dissolved in 9-1/2 ounces of strong ammonia, will make an +elastic cement. Must be kept tightly corked. + +For uniting iron to iron. Use equal parts of boiled oil, white lead, +pipe clay and black oxide of manganese, and form it into a paste. + +Transparent Cement. Unite 1 ounce of india rubber, 67 ounces of +chloroform, and 40 ounces of mastic. This is to be kept together for a +week, and stirred at times, when it will be ready for use. + +To Attach Cloth to Metal. Water 100 parts, sugar 10 parts, starch 20 +parts, and zinc chloride 1 part. This must be first stirred and made +free of lumps, and then heated until it thickens. + +United States Government Gum. Dissolve 1 part of gum arabic in water and +add 4 parts of sugar and 1 part of starch. This is then boiled for a +few minutes, and thinned down as required. + +TO MAKE DIFFERENT ALLOYS.--Silver-aluminum. Silver one-fourth part, and +aluminum three-fourth parts. + +Bell-metal. Copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts. Or, copper, 72 parts; tin, +26 parts; zinc, 2 parts. Or, copper 2; 1 of tin. + +Brass. Copper, 66 parts; zinc, 32 parts; tin, 1 part; lead, 1 part. + +Bronzes. Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 30 parts; tin, 5 parts. Or, copper, 85 +parts; zinc, 10 parts; tin, 3 parts; lead, 2 parts. + +German Silver. 52 parts of copper; 26 parts zinc; 22 parts nickel. + +For Coating Mirrors. Tin, 70 parts; mercury, 30 parts. + +BOILER COMPOUNDS.--To prevent scaling. Use common washing soda, or +Glauber salts. + +TO DISSOLVE CELLULOID.--Use 50 parts of alcohol and 5 parts of camphor +for every 5 parts of celluloid. When the celluloid is put into the +solution it will dissolve it. + +To Soften Celluloid. This may be done by simply heating, so it will +bend, and by putting it in steam, it can be worked like dough. + +CLAY MIXTURE FOR FORGES.--Mix dry 20 parts of fire clay, 20 parts +cast-iron turnings, one part of common salt, and 1/2 part sal ammoniac, +and then add water while stirring, so as to form a mortar of the proper +consistency. The mixture will become very hard when heat is applied. + +A Modeling Clay. This is made by mixing the clay with glycerine and +afterwards adding vaseline. If too much vaseline is added it becomes too +soft. + +FLUIDS FOR CLEANING CLOTHES, FURNITURE, ETC.--For Delicate Fabrics. Make +strong decoction of soap bark, and put into alcohol. + +Non-inflammable Cleaner. Equal parts of acetone, ammonia and diluted +alcohol. + +Taking dried paint from clothing. Shake up 2 parts of ammonia water with +1 part of spirits of turpentine. + +Cleaning Furniture, etc. Unite 2.4 parts of wax; 9.4 parts of oil of +turpentine; 42 parts acetic acid; 42 parts citric acid; 42 parts white +soap. This must be well mingled before using. + +Removing Rust from Iron or Steel. Rub the surface with oil of tartar. +Or, apply turpentine or kerosene, and after allowing to stand over +night, clean with emery cloth. + +For Removing Ink Stains from Silver. Use a paste made of chloride of +lime and water. + +To clean Silver-Plated Ware. Make a mixture of cream of tartar, 2 parts; +levigated chalk, 2 parts; and alum, 1 part. Grind up the alum and mix +thoroughly. + +Cleaning a Gas Stove. Make a solution of 9 parts of caustic soda and 150 +parts of water, and put the separate parts of the stove in the solution +for an hour or two. The parts will come out looking like new. + +Cleaning Aluminum. A few drops of sulphuric acid in water will restore +the luster to aluminum ware. + +Oil Eradicator. Soap spirits, 100 parts; ammonia solution, 25; acetic +ether, 15 parts. + +DISINFECTANTS.--Camphor, 1 ounce; carbolic acid (75 per cent.), 12 +ounces; aqua ammonia, 10 drachms; soft salt water, 8 drachms. + +Water-Closet Deodorant. Ferric chloride, 4 parts; zinc chloride, 5 +parts; aluminum chloride, 4 parts; calcium chloride, 5 parts; magnesium +chloride, 3 parts; and water sufficient to make 90 parts. When all is +dissolved add to each gallon 10 grains of thymol and a quarter-ounce of +rosemary that had been previously dissolved in six quarts of alcohol. + +Odorless Disinfectants. Mercuric chloride, 1 part; cupric sulphate, 10 +parts; zinc sulphate, 50 parts; sodium chloride, 65 parts; water to make +1,000 parts. + +Emery for Lapping Purposes. Fill a pint bottle with machine oil and +emery flour, in the proportion of 7 parts oil and 1 part emery. Allow it +to stand for twenty minutes, after shaking up well, then pour off half +the contents, without disturbing the settlings, and the part so poured +off contains only the finest of the emery particles, and is the only +part which should be used on the lapping roller. + +EXPLOSIVES.--Common Gunpowder. Potassium nitrate, 75 parts; charcoal, 15 +parts; sulphur, 10 parts. + +Dynamite. 75 per cent. nitro-glycerine; 25 per cent. infusorial earth. + +Giant Powder. 36 per cent. nitro-glycerine; 48 per cent. nitrate of +potash; 8 per cent. of sulphur; 8 per cent. charcoal. + +Fulminate. Chlorate of potassia, 6 parts; pure lampblack, 4 parts; +sulphur, 1 part. A blow will cause it to explode. + +FILES.--How to Keep Clean. Olive oil is the proper substance to rub over +files, as this will prevent the creases from filling up while in use, +and preserve the file for a longer time, and also enable it to do better +cutting. + +To Renew Old Files. Use a potash bath for boiling them in, and +afterwards brush them well so as to get the creases clean. Then stretch +a cotton cloth between two supports, and after plunging the file into +nitric acid, use the stretched cloth to wipe off the acid. The object is +to remove the acid from the ridges of the file, so the acid will only +eat out or etch the deep portions between the ridges, and not affect the +edges or teeth. + +FIRE PROOF MATERIALS OR SUBSTANCES.--For Wood. For the kind where it is +desired to apply with a brush, use 100 parts sodium silicate; 50 parts +of Spanish white, and 100 parts of glue. It must be applied hot. + +Another good preparation is made as follows: Sodium silicate, 350 parts; +asbestos, powdered, 350 parts; and boiling water 1,000 parts. + +For Coating Steel, etc. Silica, 50 parts; plastic fire clay, 10 parts; +ball clay, 3 parts. To be thoroughly mixed. + +For Paper. Ammonium sulphate, 8 parts; boracic acid, 3 parts; borax, 2 +parts; water, 100 parts. This is applied in a liquid state to the paper +surface. + +FLOOR DRESSINGS.--Oil Stain. Neats' foot oil, 1 part; cottonseed oil, 1 +part; petroleum oil, 1 part. This may be colored with anything desired, +like burnt sienna, annatto, or other coloring material. + +Ballroom Powder. Hard paraffine, 1 pound; powdered boric acid, 7 pounds; +oil of lavender, 1 drachm; oil of neroli, 20 minims. + +FOOT POWDERS.--For Perspiring Feet. Balsam Peru, 15 minims; formic +acid, 1 drachm; chloral hydrate, 1 drachm; alcohol to make 3 ounces. + +For Easing Feet. Tannaform, 1 drachm; talcum, 2 drachms; lycopodium, 30 +grains. + +Frost Bites. Carbolized water, 4 drachms; nitric acid, 1 drop; oil of +geranium, 1 drop. + +GLASS.--To cut glass, hold it under water, and use a pair of shears. + +To make a hole through glass, place a circle of moist earth on the +glass, and form a hole in this the diameter wanted for the hole, and in +this hole pour molten lead, and the part touched by the lead will fall +out. + +To Frost Glass. Cover it with a mixture of 6 ounces of magnesium +sulphate, 2 ounces of dextrine, and 20 ounces of water. This produces a +fine effect. + +To imitate ground glass, use a composition of sandarac, 2-1/2 ounces; +mastic, 1/2 ounce; ether, 24 ounces; and benzine, 16 ounces. + +IRON AND STEEL.--How to distinguish them. Wash the metal and put it into +a solution of bichromate of potash to which has been added a small +amount of sulphuric acid. In a minute or so take out the metal, wash and +wipe it. Soft steel and cast iron will have the appearance of an +ash-gray tint; tempered steels will be black; and puddled or refined +irons will be nearly white and have a metallic reflection. + +To Harden Iron or Steel. If wrought iron, put in the charge 20 parts, by +weight, of common salt, 2 parts of potassium cyanide, .3 part of +potassium bichromate, .15 part of broken glass. + +To harden cast iron, there should be added to the charge the following: +To 60 parts of water, add 2-1/2 parts of vinegar, 3 parts of common +salt, and .25 part of hydrochloric acid. + +To soften castings: Heat them to a high temperature and cover them with +fine coal dust and allow to cool gradually. + +LACQUERS.--For Aluminum. Dissolve 100 parts of gum lac in 300 parts of +ammonia and heat for an hour moderately in a water bath. The aluminum +must be well cleaned before applying. Heat the aluminum plate +afterwards. + +For Brass. Make a compound as follows; Annatto, 1/4 ounce; saffro, 1/4 +ounce; turmeric, 1 ounce; seed lac, 3 ounces; and alcohol, 1 pint. Allow +the mixture to stand for three days, then strain in the vessel which +contains the seed lac, and allow to stand until all is dissolved. + +For Copper. Heat fine, thickly liquid amber varnish so it can be readily +applied to the copper, and this is allowed to dry. Then heat the coated +object until it commences to smoke and turn brown. + +LUBRICANTS.--Heavy machinery oils. Use paraffine, 8 pounds; palm oil, 20 +pounds; and oleonaptha, 12 pounds. Dissolve the paraffine in the +oleonaptha at a temperature of 160 degrees and then stir in the palm oil +a little at a time. + +For Cutting Tools. Heat six gallons of water and put in three and a half +pounds of soft soap and a half gallon of clean refuse oil. It should be +well mixed. + +For high-speed bearings. Use flaky graphite and kerosene oil. Apply this +as soon as there is any indication of heating in the bearings. + +For lathe centers, one part of graphite and four parts of tallow +thoroughly mixed and applied will be very serviceable. + +For Wooden Gears. Use tallow, 30 parts; palm oil; 20 parts; fish oil, 10 +parts; and graphite, 20 parts. + +PAPER.--FIRE PROOF PAPER.--Make the following solution: Ammonium +sulphate, 8 parts; boracic acid, 3 parts; water, 100 parts. Mix at a +temperature of 120 degrees. Paper coated with this will resist heat. + +Filter Paper. Dip the paper into nitric acid of 1.433 specific gravity, +and subsequently wash and dry it. This makes a fine filtering body. + +Carbon Paper. A variety of substances may be used, such as fine soot or +ivory black, ultramarine or Paris blue. Mix either with fine grain +soap, so it is of a uniform consistency and then apply to the paper with +a stiff brush, rubbing it in until it is evenly spread over the surface. + +Tracing Paper. Take unsized paper and apply a coat of varnish made of +equal parts of Canada balsam and oil of turpentine. To increase the +transparency give another coat. The sheets must be well dried before +using. + +PHOTOGRAPHY.--Developers. + +1. Pure water, 30 ounces; sulphite soda, 5 ounces; carbonate soda, 2-1/2 +ounces. + +2. Pure water, 24 ounces; oxalic acid, 15 grains; pyrogallic acid, 1 +ounce. + +To develop use of solution 1, 1 ounce; solution 2, 1/2 ounce; and water, +3 ounces. + +Stock solutions for developing: Make solution No. 1 as follows: water, +32 ounces; tolidol, I ounce; sodium sulphate, 1-1/2 ounces. + +Solution No. 2: Water, 32 ounces; sodium sulphate. + +Solution No. 3: Water, 32 ounces; sodium carbonate, from 4 to 6 ounces. + +Fixing bath. Add two ounces of S. P. C. clarifier (acid bisulphate of +sodium) solution to one quart of hypo solution 1 in 5. + +Clearing solution. Saturated solution of alum, 20 ounces; and +hydrochloric acid, 1 ounce. Varnish. Brush over the negative a solution +of equal parts of benzol and Japanese gold size. + +PLASTERS.--Court Plaster. Use good quality silk, and on this spread a +solution of isinglass warmed. Dry and repeat several times, then apply +several coats of balsam of Peru. Or, + +On muslin or silk properly stretched, apply a thin coating of smooth +strained flour paste, and when dry several coats of colorless gelatine +are added. The gelatine is applied warm, and cooled before the fabric is +taken off. + +PLATING.--Bronze coating. For antiques, use vinegar, 1,000 parts; by +weight, powdered bloodstone, 125 parts; plumbago, 25 parts. Apply with +brush. + +For brass where a copper surface is desired, make a rouge with a little +chloride of platinum and water, and apply with a brush. + +For gas fixtures. Use a bronze paint and mix with it five times its +volume of spirit of turpentine, and to this mixture add dried slaked +lime, about 40 grains to the pint. Agitate well and decant the clear +liquid. + +COLORING METALS.--Brilliant black for iron. Selenious acid, 6 parts; +cupric sulphate, 10 parts; water 1,000 parts; nitric acid, 5 parts. + +Blue-black. Selenious acid, 10 parts; nitric acid, 5 parts; cupric +sulphate; water, 1,000 parts. The colors will be varied dependent on +the time the objects are immersed in the solution. + +Brass may be colored brown by using an acid solution of nitrate of +silver and bismuth; or a light bronze by an acid solution of nitrate of +silver and copper; or black by a solution of nitrate of copper. + +To copper plate aluminum, take 30 parts of sulphate of copper; 30 parts +of cream of tartar; 25 parts of soda; and 1,000 parts of water. The +article to be coated is merely dipped into the solution. + +POLISHERS.--Floor Polish. Permanganate of potash in boiling water, +applied to the floor hot, will produce a stain, the color being +dependent on the number of coats. The floor may them be polished with +beeswax and turpentine. + +For Furniture. Make a paste of equal parts of plaster of paris, whiting, +pumice stone and litharge, mixed with Japan dryer, boiled linseed oil +and turpentine. This may be colored to suit. This will fill the cracks +of the wood. Afterwards rub over the entire surface of the wood with a +mixture of 1 part Japan, 2 of linseed oil, and three parts of +turpentine, also colored, and after this has been allowed to slightly +harden, rub it off, and within a day or two it will have hardened +sufficiently so that the surface can be polished. + +Stove Polish. Ceresine, 12 parts; Japan wax, 10 parts; turpentine oil, +100 parts; lampblack, 12 parts; graphite, 10 parts. Melt the ceresine +and wax together, and cool off partly, and then add and stir in the +graphite and lampblack which were previously mixed up with the +turpentine. + +PUTTY.--Black Putty. Whiting and antimony sulphide, and soluble glass. +This can be polished finely after hardening. + +Common Putty. Whiting and linseed oil mixed up to form a dough. + +RUST PREVENTIVE.--For Machinery. Dissolve an ounce of camphor in one +pound of melted lard. Mix with this enough fine black lead to give it an +iron color. After it has been on for a day, rub off with a cloth. + +For tools, yellow vaseline is the best substance. + +For zinc, clean the plate by immersing in water that has a small amount +of sulphuric acid in it. Then wash clean and coat with asphalt varnish. + +SOLDERS.--For aluminum. Use 5 parts of tin and 1 part of aluminum as the +alloy, and solder with the iron or a blow pipe. + +Yellow hard solder. Brass, 3-1/2 parts; and zinc, 1 part. + +For easily fusing, make an alloy of equal parts of brass and zinc. + +For a white hard solder use brass, 12 parts; zinc, 1 part; and tin, 2 +parts. + +SOLDERING FLUXES.--For soft soldering, use a solution of chloride of +zinc and sal ammoniac. Powdered rosin is also used. + +For hard soldering, borax is used most frequently. + +A mixture of equal parts of cryolite and barium chloride is very good in +soldering bronze or aluminum alloys. + +Other hard solders are alloyed as follows: brass, 4 parts; and zinc, 5 +parts. Also brass, 7 parts; and zinc, 2 parts. + +Steel Tempering-.-Heat the steel red hot and then plunge it into sealing +wax. + +For tempering small steel springs, they may be plunged into a fish oil +which has a small amount of rosin and tallow. + +VARNISHES.--Black Varnish. Shellac, 5 parts; borax, 2 parts; glycerine, +2 parts; aniline black, 6 parts; water, 45 parts. Dissolve the shellac +in hot water and add the other ingredients at a temperature of 200 +degrees. + +A good can varnish is made by dissolving 15 parts of shellac, and adding +thereto 2 parts of Venice turpentine, 8 parts of sandarac, and 75 parts +of spirits. + +A varnish for tin and other small metal boxes is made of 75 parts +alcohol, which dissolves 15 parts of shellac, and 3 parts of turpentine. + +SEALING WAX.--For modeling purposes. White wax, 20 parts; turpentine, 5 +parts; sesame oil, 2 parts; vermilion, 2 parts. + +Ordinary Sealing. 4 pounds of shellac, 1 pound Venice turpentine, add 3 +pounds of vermilion. Unite by heat. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +HANDY TABLES + + +TABLE OF WEIGHTS FOR ROUND AND SQUARE STEEL. + +The Estimate is on the basis of Lineal Feet. 1 cu. ft. of Steel--490 +lbs. + +==========+===================+==========+=================== + | | | + | Weight in Pounds | | Weight in Pounds + Sizes in | | Sizes in | + Inches +---------+---------+ Inches +---------+--------- + | Round | Square | | Round | Square +----------+---------+---------+----------+---------+--------- + 1/16 | .110 | .013 | 1-1/16 | 3.014 | 3.400 + 1/8 | .042 | .053 | 1-1/8 | 3.379 | 3.838 + 3/16 | .094 | .119 | 1-3/16 | 3.766 | 4.303 + 1/4 | .167 | .212 | 1-1/4 | 4.173 | 4.795 + 5/16 | .261 | .333 | 1-5/16 | 4.600 | 5.312 + 3/8 | .375 | .478 | 1-3/8 | 5.049 | 5.857 + 7/16 | .511 | .651 | 1-7/16 | 5.518 | 6.428 + 1/2 | .667 | .850 | 1-1/2 | 6.008 | 7.650 + 9/16 | .845 | 1.026 | 1-9/16 | 6.520 | 7.650 + 5/8 | 1.043 | 1.328 | 1-5/8 | 7.051 | 8.301 + 11/16 | 1.262 | 1.608 | 1-11/16 | 7.604 | 8.978 + 3/4 | 1.502 | 1.913 | 1-3/4 | 8.178 | 10.41 + 13/16 | 1.773 | 2.245 | 1-13/16 | 8.773 | 11.17 + 7/8 | 2.044 | 2.603 | 1-7/8 | 9.388 | 11.95 + 15/16 | 2.347 | 2.989 | 1-15/16 | 10.02 | 12.76 + 1 | 2.670 | 3.400 | 2 | 10.68 | 13.60 +----------+---------+---------+----------+---------+--------- + +WEIGHT OF FLAT STEEL BARS. + +=========+============================================================= +Thickness| + in | Width + Inches | +---------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+------+------ + 1/16 | .212| .265| .32 | .372| .425| .477| .53| .588| .63 + 1/8 | .425| .53 | .64 | .745| .85 | .955| 1.06| 1.17 | 1.27 + 3/16 | .638| .797| .957| 1.11 | 1.28 | 1.44 | 1.59| 1.75 | 1.91 + 1/4 | .85 | 1.06 | 1.28 | 1.49 | 1.70 | 1.91 | 2.12| 2.34 | 2.55 + 5/16 | 1.06 | 1.33 | 1.59 | 1.86 | 2.12 | 2.39 | 2.65| 2.92 | 3.19 + 3/8 | 1.28 | 1.59 | 1.92 | 2.23 | 2.55 | 2.87 | 3.19| 3.51 | 3.83 + 7/16 | 1.49 | 1.85 | 2.23 | 2.60 | 2.98 | 3.35 | 3.72| 4.09 | 4.46 + 1/2 | 1.70 | 2.12 | 2.55 | 2.98 | 3.40 | 3.83 | 4.25| 4.67 | 5.10 + 9/16 | 1.92 | 2.39 | 2.87 | 3.35 | 3.83 | 4.30 | 4.78| 5.26 | 5.74 + 5/8 | 2.12 | 2.65 | 3.19 | 3.72 | 4.25 | 4.78 | 5.31| 5.84 | 6.38 + 11/16 | 2.34 | 2.92 | 3.51 | 4.09 | 4.67 | 5.26 | 5.84| 6.43 | 7.02 + 3/4 | 2.55 | 3.19 | 3.83 | 4.47 | 5.10 | 5.75 | 6.38| 7.02 | 7.65 + 13/16 | 2.76 | 3.45 | 4.14 | 4.48 | 5.53 | 6.21 | 6.90| 7.60 | 8.29 + 7/8 | 2.98 | 3.72 | 4.47 | 5.20 | 5.95 | 6.69 | 7.44| 8.18 | 8.93 + 15/16 | 3.19 | 3.99 | 4.78 | 5.58 | 6.38 | 7.18 | 7.97| 8.77 | 9.57 + 1 | 3.40 | 4.25 | 5.10 | 5.95 | 6.80 | 7.65 | 8.50| 9.35 |10.20 +---------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+------+------ + +AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. + +For Merchandise of all kinds. + + 16 Drams (dr.) make 1 Ounce (oz.) + 16 Ounces make 1 Pound (pd.) + 25 Pounds make 1 Quarter (qr.) + 4 Quarters, or 100 lbs., make 1 Hundredweight (cwt.) + 20 Hundredweights make 1 Ton (T.) +2,240 Pounds make 1 Long ton (L. T.) + + +TROY WEIGHT. + +For Gold, Silver, and Precious Metals. + +24 Grains (gr.) make 1 Pennyweight (pwt.) +20 Pennyweights make 1 Ounce (oz.) +12 Ounces make 1 Pound (pd.) + + +APOTHECARIES WEIGHT. + +For Drugs, Medicals and Chemicals. + +20 Grains (gr.) make 1 Scruple (sc.) + 3 Scruples make 1 Dram (dr.) + 8 Drams make 1 Ounce (oz.) +12 Ounces make 1 Pound (pd.) + +LINEAR MEASURE. + +For Surveyors' Use. + +12 Inches make 1 Foot +3 Feet make 1 Yard +5-1/2 Yards make 1 Rod +40 Rods make 1 Furlong +8 Furlongs 1 Mile + + +LONG MEASURE. + +12 Inches make 1 Foot +3 Feet make 1 Yard +6 Feet make 1 Fathom +5-1/2 Yards make 1 Rod or pole +40 Poles make 1 Furlong +8 Furlongs make 1 Mile +3 Miles make 1 League +69-1/2 Miles make 1 Degree + + +SQUARE MEASURE. + +144 square inches make 1 square foot +9 square feet make 1 square yard +30-1/2 square yards make 1 square pole +40 square poles make 1 square rod +4 square rods make 1 acre +640 square acres make 1 acre mile + +SOLID OR CUBIC MEASURE. + +1,728 Cubic inches make 1 Cubic foot +27 Cubic feet make 1 Cubic yard +128 Cubic feet make 1 Cord of wood +24-3/4 Cubic feet make 1 Perch of stone + + +DRY MEASURE. + +2 Pints make 1 Quart (qt.) +8 Quarts make 1 peck (pk.) +4 Pecks make 1 Bushel (bu.) +36 Bushels make 1 Chaldron (ch.) + + +LIQUID MEASURE. + +4 Gills (g.) make 1 Pint (pt.) +2 Pints make 1 Quart (qt.) +4 Quarts make 1 Gallon (gal.) +31-1/2 Gallons make 1 Barrel (bbl.) +2 Bbls., or 63 gals., make. 1 Hogshead (hhd.) + + +PAPER MEASURE. + +24 Sheets (sh.) make 1 Quire (qu.) +20 Quires make 1 Ream (r.) +10 Reams make 1 Bale (ba.) or bundle. + +TABLE OF TEMPERATURES. + +Greatest artificial cold 220 degrees below Fahr. + " natural " 73.7 " " " +Mercury freezes 39 " " " +Mixture of snow and salt 4 " " " +Greatest density of water at 39.2 " above " +Blood Heat 97.9 " " " +Alcohol boils 172.4 " " " +Water boils 212 " " " +Mercury boils 662 " " " +Sulphur boils 824 " " " +Silver melts 1,749 " " " +Cast iron melts 2,786 " " " + + +STRENGTH OF VARIOUS METALS. + +The tests are made by using a cubic inch of the metal and compressing +it, and by trying to draw apart a square inch of metal. Indicated in +pounds. + +========================+=========+============= + | Tension | Compression +------------------------+---------+------------- +Aluminum | 15,000 | 12,000 +Brass, cast | 24,000 | 30,000 +Bronze, gun metal | 32,000 | 20,000 + " manganese | 60,000 | 120,000 + " phosphor | 50,000 | ...... +Copper, cast | 24,000 | 40,000 + " wire annealed. | 36,000 | ...... + " " unannealed | 60,000 | ...... +Iron, cast | 15,000 | ...... + " " annealed | 60,000 | 80,000 + " " unannealed | 80,000 | ...... + " wrought | 48,000 | 46,000 +Lead, cast | 2,000 | ...... +Steel castings | 70,000 | 70,000 + " plow | 270,000 | ...... + " structural | 60,000 | 60,000 + " wire annealed | 80,000 | ...... + " crucible | 180,000 | ...... +Tin | 3,800 | 6,000 +------------------------+---------+------------- + +FREEZING MIXTURES + +===============================================+======================= + |Temperature Changes + |in Degrees Fahrenheit + +---------+------------ + Mixtures | From | To +-----------------------------------------------+---------+------------ +Common salt, 1 part; snow, 3 parts | 32 | zero .0 +Common salt, 1 part; snow 1 part | 32 | -.4 +Calcium chloride, 3 parts; snow 1 part | 32 | -27 +Calcium chloride, 2 parts; snow 1 part | 32 | -44 +Sal ammoniac, 5 parts; salt-peter 5 parts; | | + water 16 parts. | 50 | -10 +Sal ammoniac, 1 part; salt-peter 1 part; | | + water 1 part | 46 | -11 +Ammonium nitrate, 1 part; water 1 part | 50 | -3 +Potassium hydrate, 4 parts; snow 3 parts | 32 | -35 +-----------------------------------------------+---------+------------ + +IGNITION TEMPERATURES. + +Phosphorus 120 degrees Fahrenheit +Bi-sulphide of carbon 300 " " +Gun-cotton 430 " " +Nitro-glycerine 490 " " +Phosphorus, amorphous 500 " " +Rifle powder 550 " " +Charcoal 660 " " +Dry pine wood 800 " " +Oak 900 " " + +POWER AND HEAT EQUIVALENTS. + +In studying matters pertaining to power and heat, certain terms are +used, such as horsepower, horsepower-hours, watts, watt-hours, kilowatt, +kilowatt-hours, foot-pounds, joule, and B. T. U. (British Thermal Unit). + +The following tables give a comprehensive idea of the values of the +different terms: + +1 Horsepower-hour = 0.746 kilowatt-hour = 1,980,000 foot-pounds + of water evaporated at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, + raised from 62 degrees to 212 degrees. + +1 Kilowatt-hour = 1,000 watt-hours = 1.34 horse-power-hours + = 2,653,200 foot-pounds = 3,600,000 joules + = 3,420 B. T. U. = 3.54 pounds of water evaporated + at 212 degrees = 22.8 pounds of water raised from + 62 to 212 degrees. + +1 Horsepower = 746 watts = 0.746 kilowatts.= 33,000 foot-pounds + per second = 2,550 B. T. U. per min. = 0.71 + B. T. U. per second = 2.64 pounds of water + evaporated per hour at 212 degrees. + +1 Kilowatt = 1,000 watts = 1.34 horsepower = 2,653,200 + foot-pounds per hour = 44,220 foot-pounds per + min. = 737 foot-pounds per second = 3,420 + B. T. U. per hour = 57 B. T. U. per min. = 0.95 + B. T. U. per second = 3.54 pounds of water + evaporated per hour at 212. + +1 Watt = 1 joule per second = 0.00134 horse-power = 0.001 + kilowatt = 342 B. T. U. per hour = 44.22 + foot-pounds per min. = 0.74 foot-pounds per second + = 0.0035 pounds of water evaporated per hour at + 212 degrees. + +1 B. T. U. (British Thermal Unit) = 1,052 watt-seconds = 778 + foot-pounds = 0.252 calorie = 0.000292 + kilowatt-hours = 0.000391 horsepower-hour + = 0.00104 pounds of water evaporated at 212 + degrees. + +1 Foot-pound = 1.36 joule = 0.000000377 kilowatt-hour = + 0.00129 B. T. U. = 0.0000005 horsepower-hour. + +1 Joule = 1 watt-second = 0.000000278 kilowatt-hour = + 0.00095 B. T. U. = 0.74 foot-pounds. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +INVENTIONS AND PATENTS, AND INFORMATION ABOUT THE RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF +INVENTORS AND WORKMEN + + +There is no trade or occupation which calls forth the inventive faculty +to a greater degree than the machinist's. Whether it be in the direction +of making some new tool, needed in some special work, or in devising a +particular movement, or mechanical expedient, the machinist must be +prepared to meet the issues and decide on the best structural +arrangement. + +Opportunities also come daily to the workers in machine shops to a +greater extent than other artisans, because inventors in every line +bring inventions to them to be built and experimentally tested. + +A knowledge of the rights and duties of inventors, and of the men who +build the models, is very desirable; and for your convenience we append +the following information: + +The inventor of a device is he who has conceived an idea and has put it +into some concrete form. + +A mere idea is not an invention. + +The article so conceived and constructed, must be both _new_ and +_useful_. There must be some utility. It may be simply a toy, or +something to amuse. + +If A has an idea, and he employs and pays B to work out the device, and +put it into practical shape, A is the inventor, although B may have +materially modified, or even wholly changed it. B is simply the agent or +tool to bring it to perfection, and his pay for doing the work is his +compensation. + +An inventor has two years' time within which he may apply for a patent, +after he has completed his device and begun the sale of it. If he sells +the article for more than two years before applying for a patent, this +will bar a grant. + +Two or more inventors may apply for a patent, provided each has +contributed something toward bringing it to its perfected state. Each +cannot apply separately. The patent issued will be owned by them +jointly. + +Joint owners of a patent are not partners, unless they have signed +partnership papers respecting the patent. Because they are partners in +some other enterprise, disconnected from the patent, that does not +constitute them partners in the patent. They are merely joint owners. + +If they have no special agreement with respect to the patent each can +grant licenses to manufacture, independently of the others, without +being compelled to account to the others, and each has a right to sell +his interest without asking permission of the others. + +An _inventor_ is one who has devised an invention. A _patentee_ is one +who owns a patent, or an interest in one, be he the inventor or not. + +The United States government does not grant Caveats. The only protection +offered is by way of patent. + +A patent runs for a period of seventeen years, and may be renewed by act +of Congress only, for a further term of seven years. + +An interference is a proceeding in the Patent Office to determine who is +the first inventor of a device. The following is a brief statement of +the course followed: + +When two or more applicants have applications pending, which, in the +opinion of the Examiner, appear to be similar, the Office may declare an +interference. + +If an applicant has an application pending, and the Examiner rejects it +on reference to a patent already issued, the applicant may demand an +interference, and the Office will then grant a hearing to determine +which of the two is entitled to the patent. + +The first step, after the declaration of interference, is to request +that each applicant file a preliminary statement, under oath, in which +he must set forth the following: + +First: The date of conception of the invention. + +Second: Date of the first reduction to writing, or the preparation of +drawings. + +Third: Date of making of the first model or device. + +Fourth: When a complete machine was first produced. + +These statements are filed in the Patent Office, and opened on the same +day, and times are then set for the respective parties to take +testimony. + +If one of the parties was the first to conceive and reduce to practice, +as well as the first to file his application, he will be adjudged to be +the first inventor, without necessitating the taking of testimony. + +If, on the other hand, one was the first to conceive, and the other the +first to file, then testimony will be required to determine the question +of invention. + +The granting of a patent is not conclusive that the patentee was, in +reality, the first inventor. The law is that the patent must issue to +the _first_ inventor, and if it can be proven that another party was the +first, a new patent will issue to the one who thus establishes his +right. The Commissioner of Patents has no right to take away the patent +first issued. Only the Courts are competent to do this. + +A patent is granted for the right to _make_, to _use_ and to _vend_. + +An owner of a patent cannot sell the right only to make, or to sell, or +to use. Such a document would be a simple license, only, for that +particular purpose. + +A patent may be sold giving a divided, or an undivided right. + +A divided right is where a State, or any other particular territorial +right is granted. An undivided right is a quarter, or a half, or some +other portion in the patent itself. + +If an inventor assigns his invention, and states in the granting clause +that he conveys "all his right and title in and to the invention," or +words to that effect, he conveys all his rights throughout the world. + +If the conveyance says, "all rights and title in and throughout the +United States," he thereby reserves all other countries. + +If a patent is issued, and the number and date of the patent are given, +the assignment conveys the patent for the United States only, unless +foreign countries are specifically mentioned. + +To convey an invention or patent, some definite number or filing date +must be given in the document, with sufficient clearness and certainty +to show the intent of the assignor. + +An invention does not depend on quantity, but on quality. It is that +which produces a new and a useful _result_. + +In the United States patents are granted for the purpose of promoting +the useful arts and sciences. + +In England, and in many other foreign countries, patents are granted, +not on account of any merit on the part of the inventor, but as a favor +of the crown, or sovereign. + +Originally patents were granted by the crown for the exclusive privilege +in dealing in any commodity, and for this right a royal fee was exacted. +>From this fact the term _royalty_ originated. + +An international agreement is now in force among nearly all countries, +which respects the filing of an application in any country, for a period +of one year in the other countries. + +In making an application for a patent, a petition is required, a +specification showing its object, use, and particular construction, +followed by a claim, or claims, and accompanied by a drawing, if the +invention will permit of it, (which must be made in black, with India +ink), and an oath. + +The oath requires the following assertions: That the applicant is the +first and original inventor of the device, and that he does not know +and does not believe the same was ever known or used before his +invention or more than two years before his application. + +He must also further allege that the invention was not patented or +described in any printed publication here or abroad, and not +manufactured more than two years prior to the application, and that he +has not made an application, nor authorized any one to do so more than +two years prior to his application. + +The first Government fee is $15, payable at the time of filing, and the +second and final fee is $20, payable at the time the patent is ordered +to issue. + +The filing of an application for patent is a secret act, and the Patent +Office will not give any information to others concerning it, prior to +the issue of the patent. + + + + +GLOSSARY OF WORDS + +USED IN TEXT OF THIS VOLUME + + +Abrupt. Suddenly; coming without warning. + +Abrasive. A material which wears away. + +Actuate. Influenced, as by sudden motive; incited to action. + +Accumulate. To bring together; to amass; to collect. + +Acoustics. The branch of physics which treats of sound. + +Adhesion. To hold together; a molecular force by means of + which particles stick together. + +Affinity. Any natural drawing together; the property or force + in chemicals to move toward each other. + +Aggravate. To incite; to make worse or more burdensome. + +Alloy. A combination of two or more metals. + +Altitude. Height; a vertical distance above any point. + +Alkali. Any substance which will neutralize an acid, as lime, + magnesia, and the like. + +Amalgam. Any compound of metal which has mercury as one + of the elements. + +Amiss. Wrong, fault, misdeed. + +Annealing. A process of gradually heating and cooling metals, + whereby hardness and toughness are brought about. + +Angle plate. A metal structure which has two bodies, or limbs, + at right angles to each other. + +Analysis. The separating of substances into their elementary + forms. + +Anchor bolt. A structure intended to be placed in a hole in a wall, + and held there by a brew which expands a part + of the structure. + +Apprentice. One who is learning a trade or occupation. + +Artificial. That which resembles the original; made in imitation + of. + +Arbor. A shaft, spindle, mandrel, or axle. + +Armature. A metallic body within the magnetic field of a magnet. + +Arbitrary. Stubborn determination. Doing a thing without regard + to consequences. + +Artisan. One skilled in any mechanical art. + +Attributable. That which belongs to or is associated with. + +Automatically. Operating by its own structure, or without outside + aid. + +Augmented. Added to; to increase. + +Auxiliary. To aid; giving or furnishing aid. + +Avoirdupois. The system of weights, of which the unit is sixteen + ounces. + +Back-saw. A saw which has a rib at its upper margin. + +Barleycorn. A grain of barley. + +Bastard. A coarse-grained file. + +B. T. U. British Thermal Unit. + +Back-gear. That gear on a lathe for changing the feed. + +Bevel. Not in a right line; slanting; oblique. + +Bibb. A form of water faucet. + +Bit, or bitt. A form of tool for cutting purposes on a lathe, planer, + shaper, or drilling machine. + +Borax. A white crystalline compound, of a sweetish taste. + Chemically it is sodium biborate. + +Buffs. Usually a wheel covered with leather or cloth, and + having emery dust on it, for fine polishing purposes. + +Buffeted. Thrown back. + +Bronze. An alloy of copper and tin. + +Calcium. Lime. + +Cant. A form of lever. + +Carbonate. A salt of carbonic acid. + +Caustic. Capable of corroding or eating away. + +Capillary. That quality of a liquid which causes it to move + upwardly or along a solid with which it is in contact. + +Caliper. An instrument for spanning inside and outside + dimensions. + +Centripetal. The force which tends to draw inwardly, or to the + center. + +Centrifugal. The outwardly-moving force from a body. + +Centering. To form a point equidistant from a circular line. + +Chloride. A compound of chlorine with one or more positive + elements, such as, for instance, salt. + +Circular pitch. The measurement around a gear taken at a point + midway between the base and end of the teeth. + +Circumference. The outside of a circular body. + +Clef. A character placed on a staff of music to determine + the pitch. + +Clutch. A mechanical element for attaching one part to another. + +Chuck, Independent. A disk of metal to be attached to the live spindle + of a lathe, and which has on its face a set of dogs + which move radially independently of each other. + +Chuck, Universal. A disk to be attached as above, provided with dogs + which are connected so they move radially in unison + with each other. + +Classified. Arranged in order, in such a manner that each of a + kind is placed under a suitable heading. + +Clearance. To provide a space behind the cutting edge of a tool + which will not touch the work being cut. + +Consistency. Harmonious; not contradictory. + +Coherer. That instrument in a wireless telegraphy apparatus + which detects the electrical impulses. + +Commutator. The cylindrical structure on the end of an armature, + which is designed to change the polarity of the + current. + +Concentrated. Brought together at one point. + +Coinage. The system of making money from metals. + +Compound. The unity of two or more elements. + +Constant. Being insistent and consistent; also a term to be + used in a problem which never varies. + +Conversion. The change from one state to another. + +Cone. A body larger at one end than at another; usually + applied to a form which is cylindrical in shape + but tapering, from end to end. + +Compression. The bringing together of particles, or molecules. + +Convolute. A spiral form of winding, like a watch spring. + +Coiled. A form of winding, like a string wound around a + bobbin. + +Conductivity. Applied generally to the quality of material which + will carry a current of electricity; also a quality + of a material to convey heat. + +Cohesion. The force by which the molecules of the same kind + are held together. + +Concentric. A line which is equidistant at all points from a + center. + +Confined. Held within certain bounds. + +Corpuscular. Molecular or atomic form. + +Converge. To come together from all points. + +Concave. A surface which is depressed or sunken. + +Convex. A surface which is raised, or projects beyond the + surface of the edges. + +Component. One of the elements in a problem or in a compound. + +Coefficient. A number indicating the degree or quality possessed + by a substance. An invariable unit. + +Cube. A body having six equal sides. + +Cross-section. A term used to designate that line which is at right + angles to the line running from the view point. + +Cross slide. The metal plate on a lathe which holds the tool post, + and which is controlled, usually, by a screw. + +Contiguous. Close to; near at hand. + +Countersink. The depression around a bore. + +Collet. A collar, clutch or clamping piece, which has jaws + to hold a bar or rod. + +Countershaft. A shaft which has thereon pulleys or gears to connect + operatively with the gears or pulleys on a + machine, and change the speed. + +Conducive. Tending to; promotive of a result. + +Corundum. An extremely hard aluminum oxide used for polishing. + +Cold chisel. A term applied to an extremely hard chisel used for + cutting and chipping metal. + +Combustion. The action or operation of burning. + +Conjunctively. Acting together. + +Comparatively. Similitude or resemblance, one with another. + +Cotter. A key to prevent a wheel turning on its shaft. + +Dead center. A term used to designate the inoperative point of + the crank. + +Depicting. Showing; setting forth. + +Deodorant. A substance which will decompose odors. + +Developer. A chemical which will bring out the picture in making + the film or plate in photography. + +Decimeter. The length of one-tenth of a meter in the metric + system. + +Decameter. The length of ten meters in the metric system. + +Defective. Not perfect; wrong in some particular. + +Diaphragm. A plate, such as used in a telephone system, to receive + and transmit vibrations. + +Dissolving. To change from a solid to a liquid condition. + +Division plate. A perforated plate in a gear-cutting machine, to aid + in dividing the teeth of a wheel. + +Dispelled. To drive away or scatter. + +Disinfectant. A material which will destroy harmful germs. + +Diametral pitch. The number of teeth in a gear as calculated on the + pitch line. + +Dimension. Measurement; size. + +Ductility. That property of metal which permits it to be drawn + out, or worked. + +Dividers. An instrument, like a compass, for stepping off + measurements, or making circles. + +Diverge. Spreading out from a common point. + +Drift. A cutting tool for smoothing a hole in a piece of + metal. + +Duplex. Two; double. + +Dynamite. An explosive composed of an absorbent, like earth, + combined with nitro-glycerine. + +Dynamometer. An instrument for measuring power developed. + +Eccentric. Out of center. + +Echoes. The reflection of sound. + +Effervesce. The action due to the unity of two opposite chemicals. + +Efficiency. The term applied to the quality of effectiveness. + +Ellipse. A form which is oblong, or having a shape, more or + less, like the longitudinal section of an egg. + +Electrolytic. The action of a current of water passing through a + liquid, and decomposing it, and carrying elements + from one electrode to the other. + +Elasticity. The quality in certain substances to be drawn out + of their normal shape, and by virtue of which they + will resume their original form when released. + +Embedded. To be placed within a body or substance. + +Emerge. To come out of. + +Emphasize. To lay particular stress upon. + +Emery. A hard substance, usually some of the finely divided + precious stones, and used for polishing and grinding + purposes. + +Enormous. A large amount; great in size. + +Enunciated. Proclaimed; given out. + +Equalization. To put on an even basis; to make the same + comparatively. + +Eradicator. To take out; to cause to disappear. + +Escapement. A piece of mechanism devised for the purpose of giving + a uniform rate of speed to the movement of + wheels. + +Essential. The important feature; the principal thing. + +Expansion. To enlarge; growing greater. + +Equidistant. The same distance from a certain point. + +Evolved. Brought out of; the result of certain considerations. + +Facet. A face. + +Facilitated. Made easy. + +Flux. Any substance which will aid in uniting material under + heat. The act of uniting. + +Fluid. Any substance in which the particles freely interchange + positions. + +Flour emery. Emery which is finely ground. + +Flexible. The quality of any material which will permit bending. + +Float cut. The term when applied to a tool where the cut is an + easy one. + +Flexure. The springing yield in a substance. + +Foot pound. A unit, usually determined by the number of pounds + raised one foot in one second of time. 550 pounds + raised one foot in one second of time, means so + many foot pounds. + +Formulate. To arrange; to put in order from a certain + consideration of things. + +Focus. The center of a circle. + +Foci. One of the points of an ellipse. + +Formation. The structure of a machine or of a compound. + +Fractured. Broken. + +Fundamental. Basis; the first form; the original structure. + +Fulcrum. The resting place for a lever. + +Fusion. Melting. The change of a metal from a solid to a liquid + state by heat. + +Fusible. That which is capable of being melted. + +Fulminate. A substance that will ignite or explode by heat or + friction. + +Gamut. The scale of sound or light, or vibrations of any kind. + +Gear. A toothed wheel of any kind. + +Gelatine. A tasteless transparent substance obtained from animal + tissues. + +Globular. Having the form of a globe or ball. + +Glazed. Having a glossary appearance. + +Graphite. A metallic, iron-black variety of carbon. + +Graduated. To arrange in steps; a regular order or series. + +Grinder. Any mechanism which abrades or wears down a substance. + +Gullet. The curved notches or grooves between projecting parts + of mechanism. + +Harmonizing. To make the various parts act together in unison. + +H. P. The symbol for horse power. + +Helico. A form resembling that of the threads of a screw. + +Hexagon. Six-sided. + +Heliograph. The system of signaling by using flashlights. + +Horizontal. Things level with the surface of the earth; like the + surface of water. + +Hydrogen. The lightest of all the elements. A tasteless, + colorless substance. + +Import. To bear, or convey as a meaning. + +Impulse. The application of an impelling force. + +Impact. A collision; striking against. + +Invariably. Constant; without failing. + +Inertia. The quality of all materials to remain at rest, or to + continue in motion, unless acted on by some external + force. + +Intersect. To divide at a certain point. The crossing point of one + line over another. + +Interval. A space; a distance between. + +Intensity. Strained or exerted to a high degree. + +Interstices. The spaces between the molecules or atoms in a + substance. + +Intermediate. Between. + +Intermeshing. The locking together of gear wheels. + +Internal. That which is within. + +Inability. Unable to perform or do. + +Initial. The first; at the start. + +Increment. One of the parts which go to make up the whole. + +Inference. Drawing a conclusion from a certain state of things. + +Insoluble. A substance which cannot be liquefied by a liquid. + +Indentations. Recesses, or cut-out parts or places. + +Induction. The movement of electricity through the air from + one conductor to another. + +Inflammable. That which will burn. + +Inclining. At an angle; sloping. + +Inconsequential. Not of much importance. + +Isometric. That view of a figure which will give the relation + of all the parts in their proper proportions. + +Jaw. The grasping part of a vise, or other tool. + +Joule. The practical unit of electrical energy. + +Key-way. A groove in a shaft and in the hub of a wheel, to + receive therein a locking key. + +Kilowatt. A unit of electrical power; one thousand watts. + +Kinetic. Consisting of motion. + +Lacing. The attaching of the ends of a belt to each other. + +Lap. A tool, usually of copper or lead, on which flour emery + is spread, with oil, and used to grind out the interior + of cylinders. + +Lapping. The act of using a lap to grind out cylinders. + +Lacquer. A varnish for either wood or metal. + +Lazy-tongs. A form of tool, by means of which a long range of + movement is attainable, and great grasp of power. + +Levigated. Reduced to a fine powder. + +Litharge. A form of lead used in paints for drying purposes. + +Longitudinal. Lengthwise. + +Luminous. That which has the capacity to light up. + +Magnet. A bar of iron or steel that has electricity in it + capable of attracting certain metals. + +Manipulation. Capable of being handled. + +Mandrel. The revolving part of a lathe; a rod or bar which + turns and carries mechanical elements thereon. + +Manually. Operated by hand. + +Margin. An edge. + +Malleability. Softness. The state of being formed by hammering. + +Magnetism. A quality of certain metals to receive and hold a + charge of electricity. + +Major axis. The measurement across the longest part of an ellipse. + +Minor axis. The distance across the narrowest part of an ellipse. + +Meridian. The time when the sun crosses the middle of the + heavens; midday. + +Metric. Measure; a system which takes the unit of its + measurement from the circumference of the earth. + +Micrometer. A tool for measuring small spaces or intervals. + +Milling machine. A large tool for the purpose of cutting gears and + grooves or surfaces. + +Miter. A meeting surface between two right-angled pieces. + +Momentum. That quality of matter which is the combined energy + of mass and speed. + +Molecular. Any substance that is made up of any particles; the + component elements in any substance. + +Modifications. Changes; improved arrangements. + +Multiplicity. Many; numerous; a large quantity. + +Mutilated. As applied to a gear, one in which certain teeth are + removed. + +Nautical. Marine; applied to shipping, and the like. + +Neutralizes. Any substance, like a chemical, which, when added + to another chemical, will change them both. + +Nitro-glycerine. An explosive made from glycerine and nitrogen. + +Oblique. At an angle; inclined. + +Obliterate. To wipe out. + +Obvious. That which can be seen; easily observed. + +Obtuse. A blunt angle; not noticeable. + +Odophone. An instrument for determining and testing odors. + +Olfactory. The nerves of the sense of smell. + +Orifice. An opening; a hole. + +Oscillation. A movement to and fro, like a pendulum. + +Oxygen. The most universal gas, colorless and tasteless; is + called the acid-maker of the universe and unites + with all known substances, producing an acid, an + alkali, or a neutral compound. + +Oxidizing. To impart to any substance the elements of oxygen. + +Oxide. Any substance which has oxygen added to it. + +Pallet. A part of a tooth or finger which acts on the teeth + of a wheel. + +Parallel. Lines or sides at equal distance from each other from + end to end. + +Paraffine. A light-colored substance, produced from refined + petroleum. + +Perimeter. The outer margin of a wheel; the bounding line of any + figure of two dimensions. + +Periphery. The outer side of a wheel. + +Peen. The nailing end of a hammer. + +Persistence. That quality of all matter to continue on in its + present condition. + +Perpendicular. A line drawn at right angles to another. + +Perpetual. Without end. + +Perspective. A view of an object which takes in all parts at one + side. + +Physically. Pertaining to the body. + +Phonautograph. An apparatus for recording sound. + +Phonograph. An apparatus for taking and sending forth sound + vibration. + +Phenomena. Any occurrence in nature out of the ordinary. + +Pitman. The rod or bar which connects the piston and crank. + +Pivot. A point or bar on which anything turns. + +Pinion. A small toothed wheel. + +Pitch. The number of vibrations. The term used to give the + number of teeth in a wheel. + +Pitch diameter. The point from which the measurements are made in + determining the pitch. + +Pivoted. A bar, lever, or other mechanical element, arranged to + turn on or about a point. + +Plastic. A substance in such a state that it may be kneaded or + worked. + +Planer. A large tool designed to cut or face off wood or metal. + +Porosity. The quality in all substances to have interstices, + or points of separation, between the molecules. + +Potential. The power. + +Properties. The qualities possessed by all elements. + +Projecting. The throwing forward. The sending out. + +Promulgated. Put forth; enunciated. + +Protractor. A mechanic's and draughtsman's tool by means of + which angles may be formed. + +Promote. To carry forward in a systematic way. + +Precision. Work done with care; observing correct measurements. + +Prony brake. A machine for determining horse power. + +Punch. A small tool to be struck by a hammer in order to + make an impression or indentation. + +Quadrant. One-fourth of a circle. + +Quadrant plate. A plate on which are placed lines and numbers + indicating degrees. + +Quadruplex. A term to designate that system of telegraphy in + which four messages are sent over a single wire at + the same time. + +Ratchet. A wheel having teeth at certain intervals to catch + the end of a pawl or finger. + +Ratchet brace. A tool to hold a drill, having a reversible ratchet + wheel. + +Rasp cut. A cut of a file which is rough, not smooth. + +Rake. The angle or inclination of the upper surface of the + cutting tool of a lathe. + +Reverse. To turn about; in the opposite direction. + +Reciprocating. To go back and forth. + +Revolve. To move in an orbit or circle, as a merry-go-round. + +Reciprocity. To give back in like measure. + +Reflection. The throwing back from a surface. + +Resonance. The quality of vibration which adds to the original + movement, and aids in perpetuating the sound. + +Refraction. The quality of light which causes it to bend in passing + through different substances. + +Reducing. Bringing it down to a smaller compass. + +Rectilinear. A straight line. + +Retort. A furnace of refractory material to take high heat. + +Reamer. A tool designed to enlarge or to smooth out holes. + +Regulation. To do things in an orderly way; a system which sets + forth certain requirements. + +Refractory. Difficult to work, and not easily fused. + +Recess. A hole, or a depression. + +Rocking. A lever which rotates only part way and then moves in + the opposite direction. + +Rotate. A spindle which turns round. Compare revolve. + +Rosin. Certain gums; particularly the sap of pine trees. + +Roughing. The taking off of the first coating with a tool. + +Saturated. A soluble substance which cannot be further dissolved + by a liquid. + +Scribe. To mark with a tool. + +Screw plate. A tool which has within it means for adjusting + different cutting tools. + +Section lining. The marks made diagonally across drawings to indicate + that the part is cut away. + +Shaper. A large tool for surfacing off material, cutting + grooves, and the like. + +Shrinkage. The term applied to metals when cast, as all will be + smaller when cold than when cast in the mold. + +Slide rest. The part of the lathe which holds the tool post. + +Sonorous. Having the quality of vibration. + +Slotted. Grooved, or channeled. + +Solvent. That which can be changed from a solid by liquids. + +Spelter. A combination of zinc and copper. A hard solder. + +Soldering. Uniting of two substances by a third, with heat. + +Spindle. A small shaft. + +Spur. The larger of two intermeshing gears. + +Socket. A depression or hole. + +Sprocket. Teeth in a wheel to receive a chain. + +Spiral. A form wound like the threads of a screw. + +Surface plate. A true surface made of metal, used as a means of + determining evenness of the article made. + +Sulphate. Any substance which is modified by sulphuric acid. + +Substitute. An element or substance used for another. + +Superposed. One placed above the other. + +Swage. Tool for the purpose of changing the form in a + material. + +Swivel. A point on which another turns. + +Surfacing. Taking off the outer coating or covering. + +Tap. A small drill. + +Tapering. An object with the sides out of parallel. + +Tangential. A line from the periphery of a circle which projects + out at an angle. + +Tension. The exertion of a force. + +Tenacity. The property of a material to hang together. + +Tempering. Putting metal in such condition that it will be not + only hard but tough as well. + +Technical. Pertaining to the strict forms and terms of an art. + +Texture. That of which the element or substance is composed. + +Threads. The ridges, spiral in form, which run around a bolt. + +Theoretically. The speculative form or belief in a subject. + +Tinned. The term applied to the coating on a soldering iron + with a fluxed metal. + +Tines. Small blades. + +Torsion. The force exerted around an object, like the action of + a crank on a shaft. + +Tommy. A lever to be inserted in a hole in a screw head for + turning a screw. + +Transmitting. Sending forth; to forward. + +Trammel. A tool for the purpose of drawing ellipses. + +Traction. Drawing; pulling power. + +Tripping. A motion applied to a finger, which holds a pivoted + arm, whereby the latter may be swung from its + locked position. + +Triangular. Having three sides and three angles. + +Transverse. Across; at right angles to the long direction. + +Undercut. A wall of a groove or recess which is sloping. + +Undulatory. A wave-like motion, applied generally to light and + electricity. + +Unit. A base for calculating from. + +Unison. Acting together; as one. + +Unsized. Generally applied to the natural condition of paper + or fabric which has no glue or other fixing substance + on it. + +Vaporising. To change from a liquid or solid to a gas. + +Variation. Changing into different conditions; unlike forms. + +Verge. The edge; usually applied to the shoulder of a watch + spindle, particularly to the escapement. + +Vertical. Up and down. The direction of a plumb line. + +Velocity. The speed of an article through space. + +Vitascope. An instrument for determining the rate of vibration of + different substances. + +Vibration. The movement to and fro of all elements, and by means + of which we are made sensitive of the different forces. + +Vocation. The business or the calling of a person. + +Warding. The act of cutting a projection or guard, such as is + usually found on the insides of locks, and the + correspondent detent in the key. + +Watt. In electricity the unit of the rate of working in a + circuit. It is the electro-motive force of one volt + and the current intensity of one ampere. + + + + +INDEX + +(Figures indicate the pages) + + +A + +Acetone, 165. + +Acid, 119, 120, 156, 168. + +Acid, Acetic, 165. + +Acid, Carbolic, 166. + +Acid, Hydrofluoric, 170. + +Acid, Muriatic, 119. + +Acid, Nitric, 168, 169, 171, 173. + +Acid, Oxalic, 172. + +Acid, Pyrogallic, 172. + +Acid, Sulphuric, 169. + +Acoustics, 87, 157. + +Adhesives, 162. + +Affinity, 83, 86. + +Agate, 82. + +Air, 84. + +Alcohol, 165, 166, 169, 170, 176, 183. + +Alloy, 81, 115, 116, 118, 119, 149, 175. + +Alum, 149, 166, 172. + +Aluminum, 38, 41, 42, 60, 82, 149, 164, 166, 169, 170, 174, 175, 176, + 184. + +Amalgams, 149. + +Amber, 170. + +Ambergris, 159. + +Ammonia, 166, 170. + +Ammonium Nitrate, 185. + +Ammonium Sulphate, 168, 171. + +Analysis, 93. + +Analyzed, 159. + +Angle cutting, 30. + +Angle plate, 10. + +Angles, 31, 39, 59, 72, 102, 103, 104, 107, 152. + +Aniline, 176. + +Annatto, 168, 170. + +Annealing, 112, 113, 114, 115. + +Annular, 67. + +Anvils, 14, 15, 16. + +Apothecaries, 180. + +Application for patent, 191. + +Arbor, 14. + +Arc, 146. + +Area, 148. + +Armature, 153. + +Arrow root, 150. + +Artisan, 112. + +Asbestos, 168. + +Asphalt, 14, 175. + +Assign, 191, 193. + +Assignment, 192. + +Atom, 157. + +Attraction, 86. + +Avoirdupois, 180. + +Axis, 106, 127. + +Axis, major, 105. + +Axis, minor, 105, 106. + + +B + +Ball, 75. + +Ball and Socket, 74. + +Balsam Peru, 168, 189, 173. + +Barium Chloride, 176. + +Bark, soap, 165. + +Barleycorn, 143. + +Barrel, 149. + +Base line, 102. + +B. T. U., 180, 181. + +Beeswax, 174. + +Bell metal, 164. + +Belt, 68. + +Belt, Lacing, 68, 69. + +Bench, 77, 104. + +Benzine, 169. + +Benzol, 173. + +Bevel, 69, 70, 125, 126. + +Bibb, 70. + +Bismuth, 118. + +Bisulphate of carbon, 185. + +Bisulphate of sodium, 172. + +Bitt, 28, 42. + +Bitts, machine, 38. + +Bitts, plain, 38. + +Bitts, round-nosed, 38. + +Bitts, setting, 39. + +Bitts, square, 38. + +Black, ivory, 171. + +Blade, hack-saw, 35, 36. + +Bloodstone, 173. + +Blue black, 173. + +Boiler, 150, 152. + +Boiler, compound, 161. + +Bolt, 75. + +Bolt, anchor, 7. + +Boracic acid, 168. + +Borax, 168, 176. + +Brass, 41, 43, 44, 168, 170, 174, 175, 176, 184. + +Bronze, 150, 164, 173, 176, 184. + +Bulk, 134. + + +C + +Calcium, 166. + +Calcium Chloride, 185. + +Calipers, 37, 45, 49, 66. + +Calls, 160. + +Camphor, 164, 166, 175. + +Canada balsam, 172. + +Capillary attraction, 86, 87. + +Carbolic acid, 166. + +Carbon, 113. + +Carbonate, 150. + +Carbonate of soda, 116, 172. + +Carbon paper, 171. + +Cardinal, 102. + +Carbolized, 169. + +Cast iron, 42, 64, 81, 169, 183. + +Caustic soda, 106, 150. + +Caveat, 190. + +Celluloid, 164. + +Cement, 162, 163. + +Centaire, 146. + +Center, dead, 78. + +Center line, 41. + +Centering, 111. + +Centers, 62. + +Centimeter, 146. + +Centrifugal, 85. + +Centripetal, 85. + +Ceresine, 174. + +Chalk, 165. + +Channel, 71. + +Charcoal, 113, 167, 185. + +Chemical, 83, 157, 180. + +Chisels, drifting, 32. + +Chisels, key-way, 32. + +Chisels, square, 53. + +Chlorate of potash, 167, 169, 170. + +Chloride of lime, 165. + +Chloride of platinum, 173. + +Chloride of tin, 119. + +Chloride of zinc, 163, 176. + +Chloral hydrate, 169. + +Chloroform, 163. + +Chromate of potash, 169, 170. + +Chuck, 54. + +Chuck, independent, 64. + +Chuck, universal, 64. + +Circle, 96, 106, 107, 111, 148, 169. + +Circuit, 153, 154. + +Circular pitch, 122, 124, 125. + +Circumference, 148. + +Citric, 165. + +Clamp, 77. + +Clay, 164, 185. + +Clearance, 30, 38, 40. + +Clef, 159. + +Clutches, 74. + +Coal, 139. + +Coherer, 154. + +Cohesion, 50, 83. + +Color, 92, 157, 161. + +Combination, 136, 156. + +Commutator, 155. + +Compass, 106. + +Compound, Welding, 117. + +Compression, 77, 84. + +Compressibility, 84. + +Concave, 92, 93. + +Concentric, 88. + +Conception, 191. + +Conductivity, 82. + +Conductor, 82, 88. + +Cone, 70. + +Conveyor, 91. + +Convex, 92, 96. + +Convolute, 78. + +Copal varnish, 163. + +Copper, 45, 60, 112, 118, 164, 170, 173, 174, 184. + +Corpuscular, 91. + +Corundum, 27. + +Crank, 70, 76, 78, 135. + +Cream of Tartar, 165, 174. + +Crown wheel, 70. + +Cryolite, 176. + +Cube, 97, 98, 107, 149. + +Current, 154, 158. + +Curve, 104. + +Cutter, side, 30. + +Cutting tool, 171. + +Cyanide of Potassium, 170. + +Cylinder, 39, 40, 66, 80, 90, 134, 135, 136. + + +D + +Decameter, 146, 106, 109, 183, 187. + +Decimeter, 146. + +Declaration of Interference, 190. + +Degree, 40, 101, 102, 103, 104. + +Deodorant, 166. + +Dessertspoon, 151. + +Detail, paper, 111. + +Develop, 157. + +Developer, 172. + +Dextrine, 169. + +Diameter, 52, 126, 140, 143, 144, 148, 149, 150. + +Diameter, inside, 122. + +Diameter, outside, 122. + +Diameter, pitch, 122. + +Diametral pitch, 123, 124. + +Diamond, 81, 149. + +Diaphragm, 90, 153, 154. + +Disinfectant, 163. + +Disks, 49, 50, 67, 71, 74, 75, 82, 91, 95, 96, 105. + +Disk shears, 90, 153, 154. + +Distilled, 144, 151. + +Diverge, 91. + +Divided, 192. + +Dividers, 45, 52, 62, 63. + +Dogs, 77. + +Dollar, 144. + +Drams, 180. + +Drawing, 95, 97, 101, 108, 109, 129, 191. + +Drill, 30, 31. + +Drilling Machine, 43. + +Driver, 73. + +Dry measure, 182. + +Ductility, 80, 81. + +Dynamite, 167. + +Dynamo, 155. + + +E + +Eccentric, 78. + +Echo, 89. + +Effervesce, 119. + +Elastic, 91. + +Elasticity, 87, 112. + +Electrical, 82, 153, 154, 155. + +Electric current, 182. + +Electric curves, 182. + +Electricity, 78, 84, 93. + +Electrolytic, 149. + +Electro-motive force, 154. + +Ellipse, 72, 104, 105, 106, 107. + +Emery, 27, 36, 150, 165, 166, 167. + +Emery cloth, 55. + +Emery wheel, 22. + +Energy, 140. + +Engine, 45, 78, 134. + +Equalization, 82. + +Escapement, 72. + +Ether, 91, 169. + +Expansion, 93. + +Explosions, 156, 167. + + +F + +Facet, 52. + +Fahrenheit, 148, 186. + +Feed, longitudinal, 66. + +Feed, transverse, 66. + +Ferric chloride, 166. + +Filament, 160. + +File, cross, 57. + +File, cutter, 56. + +File, do-able end, 57, 58. + +File, equalizing, 57. + +File, float cut, 57. + +File, half round, 56. + +File, holding, 59. + +File, middle, 57. + +File, movement, 59, 80. + +File, pinion, 56. + +File, rasp cut, 57. + +File, rat-tail, 56. + +File, rough, 57. + +File, round, 56. + +File, saw, 56. + +File, second cut, 57. + +File, shearing cut, 59. + +File, slitting, 57. + +File, smooth, 57. + +File, square, 56. + +File, triangular, 56. + +Files, 36, 48, 50, 52, 53, 56, 59, 60, 114, 167, 168. + +Files, Hexagon, 51, 52. + +Filing, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 61. + +Filter paper, 171. + +Fire clay, 164, 165. + +Fish oil, 171,176. + +Fire proof, 168, 171. + +Flexure, 79. + +Floor dressing, 168. + +Fluid, 165. + +Fluor spar, 116. + +Fluxes, 115, 116, 118, 176. + +Focal, 106, 107. + +Focus, foci, 105. + +Foot, 145. + +Foot lathe, 78. + +Foot pounds, 139, 140, 143, 181. + +Force, 156, 157. + +Forge work, 116. + +Forges, 164. + +Formic acid, 168. + +Formula, 162. + +Freezing mixtures, 185. + +Friction, 70, 171. + +Fuel, 134, 181. + +Fulcrum, 76, 128, 129. + +Fulminate, 167. + +Furlong, 181. + +Furniture, 164. + +Fusible, 116. + +Fusion, 115. + + +G + +Gage, 45, 46, 47, 148. + +Gage surface, 84, 87, 94. + +Gallon, 144. + +Gas stove, 166. + +Gear, 42, 69, 70, 74, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, 133, 171. + +Gear, bevel, 70. + +Gear, friction, 70. + +Gearing, 121. + +Gear, miter, 70, 123, 124, 125, 126. + +Gear, mutilated, 72. + +Gear, spur, 122. + +Gelatine, 162, 173. + +Geranium, 169. + +German silver, 82. + +Giant powder, 167. + +Glass, 84, 92, 112, 163, 169. + +Glauber salts, 164. + +Glazing, 72. + +Glue, 159, 162, 168. + +Glycerine, 115, 162, 165, 176. + +Gold, size, 173. + +Grain, 81. + +Grains, 180. + +Graphite, 171, 175. + +Gravity, 85. + +Grinder, 27. + +Grinder wheels, 36. + +Grindstones, 22, 36, 149. + +Groove, 71, 76. + +Gum, 163. + +Gum arabic, 163. + +Gum lac, 170. + +Guncotton, 188. + +Gunpowder, 167. + + +H + +Hack-saw, 34, 35, 36. + +Hack-saw blade, 35, 36. + +Hammer, 81, 115, 117. + +Handy tables, 178. + +Hardness, 81, 114, 115. + +Harmony, 154, 158, 169, 160. + +Head, 135. + +Heat, 93, 186. + +Hectare, 146. + +Hectometer, 146. + +Helical, 77. + +Helical, double, 77. + +Helix-volute, 77. + +Hexagon, 51, 52. + +Horizontal, 97, 102, 106. + +Horse power, 139, 143, 146, 148, 186, 187. + +Hours, H. P., 186, 187. + +Hours, kilowatt, 186, 187. + +Hub, 74. + +Hub, key-way, 125. + +Hydrochloric acid, 172. + +Hydrofluoric acid, 149. + +Hydrogen, 83. + + +I + +Inches, 181. + +Inclined plane, 123, 128. + +Indentation, 154. + +Indicator, speed, 140. + +Induction, 154. + +Inertia, 84. + +Injector, 152. + +Inks, 110. + +Inside diameter, 122. + +Instrument, 158, 159. + +Internal, 86, 102. + +International, 193. + +Invention, 152, 153, 161, 188, 189, 190, 192, 193, 194. + +Inventor, 157, 181, 190. + +Iron, 42, 63, 155, 162, 165, 169, 175, 184. + +Iron, wrought, 42, 82, 112. + +Isinglass, interference, 190. + +Isometric, 107. + +Ivory, 84. + +Ivory, black, 171. + + +J + +Japan wax, 174. + +Joint, ball and socket, 74. + +Joint, universal, 70. + +Joule, 174. + + +K + +Kerosene, 150, 165, 171. + +Key, 158. + +Key-way, 125. + +Kilometer, 146. + +Kilowatt, 186, 187. + +Kilowatt hour, 186, 187. + +Kinetic, 140. + + +L + +Lacquer, 170. + +Lampblack, 167, 175. + +Lapping, 166, 167. + +Lathe, 28, 39, 42, 45, 64, 65, 67, 104, 171. + +Lathe speed, 34. + +Lathe tool, 33, 39. + +Lavender, 168. + +Lead, 60, 118, 163, 164,175. + +Leather, 162, 163. + +Level, 87. + +Lever, 73, 75, 76, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 140, 153. + +Leverage, 143. + +Licenses, 189. + +Light, 100. + +Lime, 173. + +Linear measure, 181. + +Lines, 95, 99, 110. + +Lines, section, 84. + +Linseed, 162. + +Linseed oil, 149, 174,175. + +Liquid measure, 182. + +Liquids, 84. + +Litharge, 163. + +Long measure, 181. + +Lubricant, 171. + +Luminous, 91. + +Lycopodium, 169. + + +M + +Machine, 26. + +Magnesium, 166. + +Magnesium sulphate, 169. + +Magnet, 153. + +Magnetism, 93. + +Major axis, 105. + +Malleability, 81. + +Malleable, 112. + +Mandrel, 66, 76. + +Manganese, 163. + +Marble, 162. + +Mass, 85. + +Mastic, 169. + +Measure, 139, 140, 143, 151. + +Measure, liquid, 182. + +Measure, long, 181. + +Measurement, 145. + +Measure, paper, 182. + +Measure, solid, 82. + +Measure, square, 181. + +Membrane, 90. + +Mercuric chloride, 166. + +Mercury, 94, 114, 183. + +Meridian, 145. + +Metric, 144, 145, 146. + +Metrical, 145. + +Micron, 146. + +Microscope, 91. + +Millimeter, 146. + +Milling machine, 26. + +Minor, 164. + +Minor axis, 105, 106. + +Miter, 146. + +Miter gear, 123, 124, 125, 126. + +Molecular, 82, 117. + +Molecular forces, 82. + +Molecules, 83, 84, 146. + +Momentum, 83, 85. + +Motion, 84, 156. + +Motor, 136, 155. + + +N + +Neat's Foot oil, 168. + +Neroli, 168. + +Nickel, 164. + +Nitrate of copper, 174. + +Nitrate of potash, 167. + +Nitrate of silver, 174. + +Nitric acid, 162, 168, 169, 171, 173. + +Nitro-glycerine, 167, 185. + + +O + +Oath, 193. + +Octave, 159. + +Odophone, 159. + +Odor, 159. + +Oil, 83, 87, 167, 171. + +Oil eradicator, 166. + +Oleonaptha, 171. + +Oscillations, 90, 157. + +Ounce, 180. + +Outlines, 99. + +Oxalic acid, 172. + +Oxidation, 117. + +Oxide, 117, 163. + +Oxidizing, 116. + +Oxygen, 83, 119. + + +P + +Palm oil, 171. + +Paper, 168, 171. + +Paraffine, 168, 171. + +Parallel, 91, 100, 121. + +Paris blue, 172. + +Paste, 163, 173. + +Patents, 188, 189, 190, 192, 194. + +Pawl, 73, 76. + +Pendulum, 73. + +Parting tools, 28. + +Perimeter, 73. + +Periphery, 73. + +Permanganate of potash, 178. + +Perpendicular, 105. + +Perpetual motion, 128. + +Perspective, 97, 106, 107. + +Petroleum, 168. + +Phenomenon, 91, 153. + +Phonautograph, 90. + +Phonograph,-91, 154. + +Phosphorus, 149. + +Photographer, 157, 172. + +Piano, 158, 159. + +Pinion, 57, 74. + +Pitch, 121, 125, 156. + +Pitch, circle, 122, 124, 125. + +Pitch, diameter, 123, 124. + +Pitch, line, 123, 124, 127. + +Pitman, 70. + +Pivots, 70, 130. + +Planer, 26, 50, 51, 126. + +Plaster, 173. + +Plaster of Paris, 150, 174. + +Plate, 73. + +Plates, 50. + +Plating, 173. + +Platinum, 81. + +Plumbago, 173. + +Poles, 155. + +Polishes, 174. + +Position, 102. + +Potash, 116, 167. + +Potash, prussiate, 113. + +Potassium cyanide, 170. + +Potassium nitrate, 167. + +Pound, 145, 157, 180. + +Power, 128, 129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 140, 158, 159, 186. + +Power, horse, 139, 140. + +Precision tools, 50. + +Preliminary statement, 191. + +Pressure, 134, 135, 137, 148, 152. + +Prime mover, 134. + +Printing telegraph, 155. + +Prism, 92, 93. + +Protractor, 108, 109. + +Prussiate of potash, 113. + +Pulley, 68, 70, 73, 128, 133, 140, 149, 150. + +Pulsation, 153. + +Pumice, 83. + +Pumice stone, 110, 175. + +Punch, 62, 63. + +Punch, centering, 62. + +Punch cutter, 24. + +Putty, 175. + + +Q + +Quadrant, 102, 103. + +Quality, 157. + +Quarter, 180. + +Quartz, 182. + + +R + +Racks, 73, 74. + +Radius, 52. + +Rake, 29, 30, 38, 42, 43,45. + +Rainbow, 92. + +Ratchet, 77. + +Ratchet brace, 77. + +Reciprocity, 82. + +Reflected, 92. + +Reflecting, 89. + +Reflection, 88, 91. + +Refraction, 92. + +Resin, 176. + +Resistance, 79, 82, 83. + +Resonance, 89. + +Rim, 96. + +Ring, 96. + +Rods, 180. + +Rosemary, 166. + +Royalty, 193. + +Rubber, 84, 163. + +Rule, 53. + +Rule, key-seat, 53, 54. + +Rust preventive, 175. + + +S + +Saffro, 170. + +Sal ammoniac, 119, 162, 165, 176, 185. + +Salt, 165, 170, 183, 185. + +Sandarac, 169, 176. + +Saw, 26, 64, 76. + +Saw, wabble, 76. + +Scale, 100, 101. + +Science, 157. + +Scraper, 50, 51. + +Scribe, 47, 53. + +Scruples, 180. + +Sealing wax, 176. + +Section lining, 103, 104, 110. + +Sense, 159. + +Sesame oil, 176. + +Shade, 96. + +Shading, 96, 110. + +Shaft, 68, 69, 70, 73, 74, 75. + +Shaft coupling, 74. + +Shaper, 26, 50, 51, 53. + +Shellac, 163. + +Side cutters, 30. + +Sienna, 168. + +Signals, 87. + +Silicate, 168. + +Silver, 82, 118, 164, 165, 180, 183. + +Snow, 185. + +Soap, 165, 172. + +Soap spirits, 166. + +Soda, sulphate, 172. + +Sodium carbonate, 172. + +Sodium silicate, 168. + +Sodium sulphate, 172. + +Solder, 118, 175. + +Solder, hard, 118. + +Solder, soft, 118. + +Soldering, 116, 117, 119, 176. + +Solids, 84. + +Sonorous, 88. + +Sound, 87. + +Sounding-boards, 88. + +Spanish white, 168. + +Spectroscope, 90, 93, 161. + +Spectrum, 93. + +Speed, 43. + +Spelter, 118. + +Sphere, 97. + +Spiral, 78. + +Sponge, 83. + +Spring, 72, 79, 176. + +Square, 48, 61, 63. + +Square combination, 24, 77, 81. + +Starch, 162, 163, 164. + +Steel, 39, 40, 42, 44, 63, 79, 113, 165, 168, 169, 170, 184. + +Stethoscope, 90. + +Stove polish, 174, 175. + +Straight edge, 61. + +Stylus, 90. + +Sugar, 163. + +Sulphate of copper, 174. + +Sulphate of potash, 115. + +Sulphate of soda, 172. + +Sulphur, 167, 183. + +Sulphuric acid, 165, 169, 175. + +Surfacing, 49, 50, 63. + + +T + +Table of weights, 178. + +Talcum, 169. + +Tallow, 176. + +Tannaform, 169. + +Taps, 45. + +Taste, 160. + +Teeth, 72. + +Telegram, 158. + +Telescope, 91, 92. + +Temperature, 82, 88, 114, 116, 118, 119. + +Temperature table, 180. + +Tempering, 113, 114, 115,176. + +Tenacity, 79, 80. + +Thread, 74. + +Thymol, 166. + +Tin, 98, 118, 175, 176, 184. + +Ton, 180. + +Tongs, 75. + +Tongs, lazy, 75. + +Tool, 22, 28, 40, 41, 61, 64, 71, 108, 113, 175. + +Tool boring, 43. + +Tool cutting, 26, 29, 45, 64. + +Tool holder, 64. + +Tool hook, 28. + +Tool, hooked, 44. + +Tool knife, 28. + +Tool, parting, 28. + +Tool, roughing, 29. + +Tools, precision, 50. + +Torsion, 79. + +Toughness, 114, 115. + +Tracing cloth, 110. + +Tracing paper, 172. + +Traction, 79. + +Transmitting, 158. + +Transparent, 163. + +Transverse, 80. + +Treadle, 78. + +Triangular, 97, 98. + +Tripping driver, 78. + +Turmeric, 170. + +Turpentine, 162, 165, 172, 173, 174, 175. + +Turpentine, Venice, 176, 177. + + +U + +Ultramarine, 171. + +Undivided, 192. + +Undulatory, 91. + +Unguent, 114. + + +V + +Valve, 70. + +Vapor, 87. + +Varnish, 162, 170, 172, 175, 176. + +Vaseline, 165, 175. + +Velocity, 81, 87, 91. + +Vermilion, 177. + +Vertical, 97. + +Vibrate, 160, 161. + +Vibration, 87, 88, 90, 158. + +Vibratory, 91. + +Vinegar, 163, 170, 173. + +Violin, 159. + +Vise, 33. + +Vitascope, 90. + + +W + +Water, 165, 166, 168, 172, 183, 186, 187. + +Waterproof, 162, 163. + +Weight, 85. + +Weight of steel, 179. + +Weight, troy, 180. + +Welding, 115, 116, 117. + +Welding compound, 117. + +Wheel, 27, 72, 73, 85, 86. + +Whiting, 174. + +Workshop, 162. + +Wrench, 104. + + +Y + +Yokes, 70, 76. + + +Z + +Zinc, 118, 119, 164, 166, 175. + +Zinc chloride, 163. + + + + +THE BOYS' ELITE SERIES + +_12mo, cloth. Price 75c each._ + +Contains an attractive assortment of books for boys by standard and +favorite authors. Printed from large, clear type on a superior quality +of paper, bound in a superior quality of binders' cloth, ornamented with +illustrated original designs on covers stamped in colors from unique and +appropriate dies. Each book wrapped in attractive jacket. + +1. Cudjo's Cave Trowbridge +2. Green Mountain Boys +3. Life of Kit Carson Edward L. Ellis +4. Tom Westlake's Golden Luck Perry Newberry +5. Tony Keating's Surprises Mrs. G. R. Alden (Pansy) +6. Tour of the World in 80 Days Jules Verne + + +THE GIRLS' ELITE SERIES + +_12mo, cloth. Price 75c each._ + +Contains an assortment of attractive and desirable books for girls by +standard and favorite authors. The books are printed on a good quality +of paper in large clear type. Each title is complete and unabridged. +Bound in clothene, ornamented on the sides and back with attractive +illustrative designs and the title stamped on front and back. + +1. Bee and the Butterfly Lucy Foster Madison +2. Dixie School Girl Gabrielle E. Jackson +3. Girls of Mount Morris Amanda Douglas +4. Hope's Messenger Gabrielle E. Jackson +5. The Little Aunt Marion Ames Taggart +6. A Modern Cinderella Amanda Douglas + + +_For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 75c_ + + + + +THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS + +By J. S. ZERBE + + +Carpentry for Boys + +A book which treats, in a most practical and fascinating manner all +subjects pertaining to the "King of Trades"; showing the care and use of +tools; drawing; designing, and the laying out of work; the principles +involved in the building of various kinds of structures, and the +rudiments of architecture. It contains over two hundred and fifty +illustrations made especially for this work, and includes also a +complete glossary of the technical terms used in the art. The most +comprehensive volume on this subject ever published for boys. + + +Electricity for Boys + +The author has adopted the unique plan of setting forth the fundamental +principles in each phase of the science, and practically applying the +work in the successive stages. It shows how the knowledge has been +developed, and the reasons for the various phenomena, without using +technical words so as to bring it within the compass of every boy. It +has a complete glossary of terms, and is illustrated with two hundred +original drawings. + + +Practical Mechanics for Boys + +This book takes the beginner through a comprehensive series of practical +shop work, in which the uses of tools, and the structure and handling of +shop machinery are set forth; how they are utilized to perform the work, +and the manner in which all dimensional work is carried out. Every +subject is illustrated, and model building explained. It contains a +glossary which comprises a new system of cross references, a feature +that will prove a welcome departure in explaining subjects. Fully +illustrated. + +_12mo, cloth. Price $1.00 each._ + + +_For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of $1.00._ + + + + +The American Boy's Sports Series + +BY MARK OVERTON + +12 Mo Cloth. Illustrated. Price 60c Each. + + * * * * * + +These stories touch upon nearly every sport in which the active boy is +interested. Baseball, rowing, football, hockey, skating, ice-boating, +sailing, camping and fishing all serve to lend interest to an unusual +series of books. There are the following four titles: + +1. Jack Winters' Baseball Team; or, The + Mystery of the Diamond. + +2. Jack Winters' Campmates; or, Vacation + Days in the Woods. + +3. Jack Winters' Gridiron Chums; or, When + the Half-back Saved the Day. + +4. Jack Winters' Iceboat Wonder; or, Leading + the Hockey Team to Victory. + + * * * * * + +Phil Bradley + +Mountain Boy's Series + +BY SILAS R. BOONE + +12 Mo. Cloth. Illustrated. Price 60c Each + + * * * * * + +These books describe with interesting detail the experience of a party +of boys among the mountain pines. They teach the young reader how to +protect themselves against the elements, what to do and what to avoid, +and above all to become self-reliant and manly. There are five titles: + +1. Phil Bradley's Mountain Boys; or, The + Birch Bark Lodge. + +2. Phil Bradley at the Wheel; or, The Mountain + Boys' Mad Auto Dash. + +3. Phil Bradley's Shooting Box; or, The + Mountain Boys on Currituck Sound. + +4. Phil Bradley's Snow-shoe Trail; or, The + Mountain Boys in the Canadian Wilds. + +5. Phil Bradley's Winning Way. + + * * * * * + +For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 60c. + + + + +GIRLS' LIBERTY SERIES + +Contains an assortment of attractive and desirable books for girls by +standard and favorite authors. The books are printed on a good quality +of paper in large clear type. Each title is complete and unabridged. +Bound in clothene, ornamented on the sides and back with attractive +illustrative designs and the title stamped on front and back. + +_12mo, clothene. Price 50c each._ + + 1. Camp Fire Girls on a Long Hike, or, + Lost in the Great Northern Woods Stella M. Francis + + 2. Daddy's Girl Mrs. L. T. Meade + + 3. Ethel Hollister's First Summer as + a Camp Fire Girl Irene Elliott Benson + + 4. Ethel Hollister's Second Summer Irene Elliott Benson + + 5. Flat Iron for a Farthing Mrs. Ewing + + 6. Four Little Mischiefs Rose Mulholland + + 7. Girls and I Mrs. Molesworth + + 8. Girl from America Mrs. L. T. Meade + + 9. Grandmother Dear Mrs. Molesworth + +10. Irvington Stories Mary Mapes Dodge + +11. Little Lame Prince Mrs. Muloch + +12. Little Susie Stories Mrs. H. Prentiss + +13. Mrs. Over the Way Julianna Horatio Ewing + +14. Naughty Miss Bunny Rose Mulholland + +15. Sweet Girl Graduate Mrs. L. T. Meade + +16. School Queens Mrs. L. T. Meade + +17. Sue, A Little Heroine Mrs. L. T. Meade + +18. Wild Kitty Mrs. L. T. Meade + + * * * * * + +_For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 50c_ + + + + +THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS + +By ROGER T. FINLAY + +_12mo, cloth. Price 75c each, postpaid._ + +Thrilling adventures on land and sea of two boys and a man cast upon an +island in the South Seas without food or weapons; their experience in +fashioning clothing, tools and weapons, and in overcoming nature and +subduing and civilizing savage tribes; covers a wide range of subjects. + + 1. The Castaways + 2. Exploring the Island + 3. The Mysteries of the Caverns + 4. The Tribesmen + 5. The Capture and Pursuit + 6. The Conquest of the Savages + 7. Adventures on Strange Islands + 8. Treasures of the Islands + + +THE BOY GLOBE TROTTERS + +By ELBERT FISHER + +_12mo, cloth. Price 75c each, postpaid._ + +This is a series of form books relating the adventures of two boys who +made a trip around the world, working their way as they go. They meet +with various peoples having strange habits and customs, and their +adventures from a medium for the introduction of much instructive matter +relative to the character and industries of the cities and countries +through which they pass. A description is given of the native sports of +boys in each of the foreign countries through which they travel. The +books are illustrated by decorative head and end pieces for each +chapter, there being 36 original drawings in each book, all by the +author, and four striking halftones. + + 1. From New York to the Golden Crate + 2. From San Francisco to Japan + 3. From Tokio to Bombay + 4. From India to the War Zone + + * * * * * + +_For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 75c_ + + + + +BOYS' COPYRIGHTED BOOKS + +Printed from large, clear type on a superior quality of paper, +embellished with original illustrations by eminent artists, and bound in +a superior quality of book binders' cloth, ornamented with illustrated +covers, stamped in colors from unique and appropriate dies, each book +wrapped in a glazed paper wrapper printed in colors. + + +MOTOR BOAT BOYS SERIES + +By Louis Arundel + +1. The Motor Club's Cruise Down the Mississippi; or, The Dash + for Dixie. + +2. The Motor Club on the St. Lawrence River; or, Adventures + Among the Thousand Islands. + +3. The Motor Club on the Great Lakes; or, Exploring the Mystic + Isle of Mackinac. + +4. Motor Boat Boys Among the Florida Keys; or, The Struggle for + the Leadership. + +5. Motor Boat Boys Down the Coast; or, Through Storm and + Stress. + +6. Motor Boat Boys' River Chase. + +THE BIRD BOYS SERIES + +By John Luther Langworthy + +1. The Bird Boys; or, The Young Sky Pilots' First Air Voyage. + +2. The Bird Boys on the Wing; or, Aeroplane Chums in the Tropics. + +3. The Bird Boys Among the Clouds; or, Young Aviators in a + Wreck. + +4. Bird Boys' Flight; or, A Hydroplane Round-up. + +5. Bird Boys' Aeroplane Wonder; or, Young Aviators on a Cattle + Ranch. + +CANOE AND CAMPFIRE SERIES + +By St. George Rathborne + +1. Canoe Mates in Canada; or, Three Boys Afloat on the Saskatchewan. + +2. Young Fur Takers; or, Traps and Trails in the Wilderness. + +3. The House Boat Boys; or, Drifting Down to the Sunny South. + +4. Chums in Dixie; or, The Strange Cruise in the Motor Boat. + +5. Camp Mates in Michigan; or, With Pack and Paddle in the Pine + Woods. + +6. Rocky Mountain Boys; or, Camping in the Big Game Country. + * * * * * + +For sale by all booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 75c + + + + +BOYS' COPYRIGHTED BOOKS + +Printed from large, clear type on a superior quality of paper, +embellished with original illustrations by eminent artists, and bound in +a superior quality of book binders' cloth, ornamented with illustrated +covers, stamped in colors from unique and appropriate dies, each book +wrapped in a glazed paper wrapper printed in colors. + + +MOTOR BOAT BOYS SERIES + +By Louis Arundel + +1. The Motor Club's Cruise Down the Mississippi; or, The Dash + for Dixie. + +2. The Motor Club on the St. Lawrence River; or, Adventures + Among the Thousand Islands. + +3. The Motor Club on the Great Lakes; or, Exploring the Mystic + Isle of Mackinac. + +4. Motor Boat Boys Among the Florida Keys; or, The Struggle for + the Leadership. + +5. Motor Boat Boys Down the Coast; or, Through Storm and + Stress. + +6. Motor Boat Boys' River Chase. + +THE BIRD BOYS SERIES + +By John Luther Langworthy + +1. The Bird Boys; or, The Young Sky Pilots' First Air Voyage. + +2. The Bird Boys on the Wing; or, Aeroplane Chums in the Tropics. + +3. The Bird Boys Among the Clouds; or, Young Aviators in a + Wreck. + +4. Bird Boys' Flight; or, A Hydroplane Round-up. + +5. Bird Boys' Aeroplane Wonder; or, Young Aviators on a Cattle + Ranch. + +CANOE AND CAMPFIRE SERIES + +By St. George Rathborne + +1. Canoe Mates in Canada; or, Three Boys Afloat on the Saskatchewan. + +2. Young Fur Takers; or, Traps and Trails in the Wilderness. + +3. The House Boat Boys; or, Drifting Down to the Sunny South. + +4. Chums in Dixie; or, The Strange Cruise in the Motor Boat. + +5. Camp Mates in Michigan; or, With Pack and Paddle in the Pine + Woods. + +6. Rocky Mountain Boys; or, Camping in the Big Game Country. + + * * * * * + +For sale by all booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 75c + + + + +ALWAYS _ASK FOR THE_ DONOHUE + +Complete Editions and you will get the best for the least money + + +Henty Series + +_FOR BOYS_ + +G. A. Henty was the most prolific writer of boy's stories of the +nineteenth century. From two to five books a year came from his facile +pen. No Christmas holidays were complete without a new "Henty Book." +This new series comprises 45 titles. They are printed on an extra +quality of paper, from new plates and bound in the best quality of +cloth, stamped on back and side in inks from unique and attractive dies. +12 mo. cloth. Each book in a printed wrapper. + + 1 Among Malay Pirates + 2 Bonnie Prince Charlie + 3 Boy Knight, The + 4 Bravest of the Brave + 5 By England's Aid + 6 By Pike and Dyke + 7 By Right of Conquest + 8 By Sheer Pluck + 9 Captain Bayley's Heir + 10 Cat of Bubastes + 11 Col. Thorndyke's Secret + 12 Cornet of Horse, The + 13 Dragon and the Raven + 14 Facing Death + 15 Final Reckoning, A + 16 For Name and Fame + 17 For the Temple + 18 Friends, Though Divided + 19 Golden Canon + 20 In Freedom's Cause + 21 In the Reign of Terror + 22 In Times of Peril + 23 Jack Archer + 24 Lion of St. Mark + 25 Lion of the North + 26 Lost Heir, The + 27 Maori and Settler + 28 One of the 28th + 29 Orange and Green + 30 Out on the Pampas + 31 Queen's Cup, The + 32 Rujub, the Juggler + 33 St. George for England + 34 Sturdy and Strong + 35 Through the Fray + 36 True to the Old Flag + 37 Under Drake's Flag + 38 With Clive in India + 39 With Lee in Virginia + 40 With Wolfe in Canada + 41 Young Buglers, The + 42 Young Carthaginians + 43 Young Colonists, The + 44 Young Franc-Tireurs + 45 Young Midshipman + +All of above titles can be procured at the store where this book was +bought, or sent to any address for 75c, postage paid, by the publishers + + + + +ALWAYS _ASK FOR THE_ DONOHUE + +COMPLETE EDITIONS--THE BEST FOR LEAST MONEY + + +WOODCRAFT _for_ Boy Scouts and Others + +_By_ OWEN JONES _and_ MARCUS WOODMAN _With a Message to Boy Scouts by_ +SIR BADEN-POWELL, _Founder of the Boy Scouts' Movement_. + +One of the essential requirements of the Boy Scout training is a +KNOWLEDGE OF WOODCRAFT. This necessitates a book embracing all the +subjects and treating on all the topics that a thorough knowledge of +WOODCRAFT implies. + +This book thoroughly exhausts the subject. It imparts a comprehensive +knowledge of woods from fungus growth to the most stately monarch of the +forest; it treats of the habits and lairs of all the feathered and furry +inhabitants of the woods. Shows how to trail wild animals; how to +identify birds and beasts by their tracks, calls, etc. Tells how to +forecast the weather, and in fact; treats on every phase of nature with +which a Boy Scout or any woodman or lover of nature should be familiar. +The authorship guarantees it's authenticity and reliability. +Indispensable to "Boy Scouts" and others. Printed from large clear type +on superior paper. + +Embellished With Over 100 Thumb Nail Illustrations Taken From Life + +Bound in Cloth. Stamped with unique and appropriate designs in ink! + +Price, 75c Postpaid + +M. A. DONOHUE & CO. +701-727 S. DEARBORN ST. CHICAGO + + + ++------------------------------------------------------------------+ +| | +| Transcriber's Note: | +| | +| Every effort has been made to replicate this text as | +| faithfully as possible, including obsolete and variant | +| spellings and other inconsistencies. Obvious | +| spelling/typographical and punctuation errors have been | +| corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences | +| within the text and consultation of external sources. Minor | +| punctuation errors have been amended without note. | +| | +| Page 137: Incorrect pressure of 88 oz. for wind speed of 10 | +| mph changed to 8 oz. | +| | +| Page 146: Micron incorrectly printed as 1.25400, changed to | +| 1/24500. | +| | +| Page 178: Corrected table entry for 1-7/8, printed as 1/7-16. | +| | +| Alphabetic order errors in the glossary retained. | +| | ++------------------------------------------------------------------+ + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Practical Mechanics for Boys, by J. S. Zerbe + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS *** + +***** This file should be named 22298.txt or 22298.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/2/2/9/22298/ + +Produced by Joe Longo and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |