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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Practical Mechanics for Boys, by J. S. Zerbe
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Practical Mechanics for Boys
+
+Author: J. S. Zerbe
+
+Release Date: August 11, 2007 [EBook #22298]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Joe Longo and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS
+
+PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS
+
+
+
+
+THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS
+
+PRACTICAL MECHANICS
+FOR BOYS
+
+In language which every boy can understand
+and so arranged that he may readily carry
+out any work from the instructions given.
+
+WITH MANY ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+By J. S. ZERBE, M.E.
+
+_Author of_
+
+CARPENTRY FOR BOYS
+ELECTRICITY FOR BOYS
+
+
+M. A. DONOHUE & COMPANY
+
+CHICAGO :: NEW YORK
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY
+THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY
+
+Made in U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY                                                    Page 1
+
+I. ON TOOLS GENERALLY                                           Page 7
+
+ Varied Requirements. List of Tools. Swivel Vises. Parts of Lathe.
+ Chisels. Grinding Apparatus. Large Machines. Chucks. Bench Tools.
+ Selecting a Lathe. Combination Square. Micrometers. Protractors.
+ Utilizing Bevel Protractors. Truing Grindstones. Sets of Tools. The
+ Work Bench. The Proper Dimensions. How Arranged.
+
+II. HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS                             Page 26
+
+ Importance of the Cutting Tool. The Grinder. Correct Use of Grinder.
+ Lathe Bitts. Roughing Tools. The Clearance. The Cutting Angle. Drills.
+ Wrong Grinding. Chisels. Cold Chisels. System in Work. Wrong Use of
+ Tools.
+
+III. SETTING AND HOLDING TOOLS                                 Page 34
+
+ Lathe Speed. The Hack-saw. Hack-saw Frame. The Blade. Files.
+ Grindstones. Emery and Grinding Wheels. Carelessness in Holding Tools.
+ Calipers. Care in Use of Calipers. Machine Bitts. The Proper Angle for
+ Lathe Tools. Setting the Bitt. The Setting Angle. Bad Practice. Proper
+ Lathe Speeds. Boring Tools on Lathe. The Rake of the Drill. Laps. Using
+ the Lap. Surface Gages. Uses of the Surface Gage.
+
+IV. ON THE FIRST USE OF THE FILE                               Page 48
+
+ The First Test. Filing an Irregular Block. Filing a Bar Straight.
+ Filing Bar with Parallel Sides. Surfacing Off Disks. True Surfacing.
+ Precision Tools. Test of the Mechanic. Test Suggestions. Use of the
+ Dividers. Cutting a Key-way. Key-way Difficulties. Filing Metal Round.
+ Kinds of Files. Cotter-file. Square. Pinion. Half-round. Round.
+ Triangular. Equalizing. Cross. Slitting. Character of File Tooth.
+ Double Cut. Float-cut. Rasp Cut. Holding the File. Injuring Files.
+ Drawing Back the File.
+
+V. HOW TO COMMENCE WORK                                        Page 61
+
+ Familiarity with Tools. File Practice. Using the Dividers. Finding
+ Centers. Hack-saw Practice. Cutting Metal True. Lathe Work. First
+ Steps. Setting the Tool. Metals Used. The Four Important Things.
+ Turning Up a Cylinder. Turning Grooves. Disks. Lathe Speeds.
+
+VI. ILLUSTRATING SOME OF THE FUNDAMENTAL DEVICES               Page 68
+
+ Belt Lacing. Gears. Crown Wheel. Grooved Friction Gearing. A Valve
+ which Closes by the Water Pressure. Cone Pulleys. Universal Joint.
+ Trammel for Making Ellipses. Escapements. Simple Device to Prevent a
+ Wheel or Shaft from Turning Back. Racks and Pinions. Mutilated Gears.
+ Simple Shaft Coupling. Clutches. Ball and Socket Joints. Tripping
+ Devices. Anchor Bolt. Lazy Tongs. Disk Shears. Wabble Saw. Crank Motion
+ by a Slotted Yoke. Continuous Feed by Motion of a Lever. Crank Motion.
+ Ratchet Head. Bench Clamp. Helico-volute Spring. Double helico-volute.
+ Helical Spring. Single Volute Helix Spring. Flat Spiral, or Convolute.
+ Eccentric Rod and Strap. Anti-dead Center for Lathe.
+
+VII. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS                                   Page 79
+
+ Elasticity. Traction. Torsion. Flexure. Tenacity. The Most Tenacious
+ Metal. Ductility. Malleability. Hardness. Alloys. Resistance.
+ Persistence. Conductivity. Equalization. Reciprocity. Molecular Forces.
+ Attraction. Cohesion. Adhesion. Affinity. Porosity. Compressibility.
+ Elasticity. Inertia. Momentum. Weight. Centripetal Force. Centrifugal
+ Force. Capillary Attraction. The Sap of Trees. Sound. Acoustics. Sound
+ Mediums. Vibration. Velocity of Sound. Sound Reflections. Resonance.
+ Echos. Speaking Trumpet. The Stethoscope. The Vitascope. The
+ Phonautograph. The Phonograph. Light. The Corpuscular Theory.
+ Undulatory Theory. Luminous Bodies. Velocity of Light. Reflection.
+ Refraction. Colors. The Spectroscope. The Rainbow. Heat. Expansion.
+
+VIII. HOW DRAUGHTING BECOMES A VALUABLE AID                    Page 95
+
+ Lines in Drawing. Shading. Direction of Shade. Perspectives. The Most
+ Pronounced Lines. Direction of Light. Scale Drawings. Degree, and What
+ it Means. Memorizing Angles. Section Lining. Making Ellipses and
+ Irregular Curves. Focal Points. Isometric and Perspective. The
+ Protractor. Suggestions in Drawing. Holding the Pen. Inks. Tracing
+ Cloth. Detail Paper. How to Proceed. Indicating Material by Section
+ Lines.
+
+IX. TREATMENT AND USE OF METALS                               Page 112
+
+ Annealing. Toughness and Elasticity. The Process. Tempering. Tempering
+ Contrasted with Annealing. Materials Used. Gradual Tempering. Fluxing.
+ Uniting Metals. Alloying Method. Welding. Sweating. Welding Compounds.
+ Oxidation. Soldering. Soft Solder. Hard Solder. Spelter. Soldering
+ Acid. The Soldering Iron.
+
+X. ON GEARING, AND HOW ORDERED                                Page 121
+
+ Spur and Pinion. Measuring a Gear. Pitch. Diametral Pitch. Circular
+ Pitch. How to Order a Gear. Bevel and Miter Gears. Drawing Gears.
+ Sprocket Wheels.
+
+XI. MECHANICAL POWER                                          Page 128
+
+ The Lever. Wrong Inferences from Use of Lever. The Lever Principle.
+ Powers vs. Distance Traveled. Power vs. Loss of Time. Wrongly-Directed
+ Energy. The Lever and the Pulley. Sources of Power. Water Power.
+ Calculating Fuel Energy. The Pressure or Head. Fuels. Power from Winds.
+ Speed of Wind and Pressure. Varying Degrees of Pressure. Power from
+ Waves and Tides. A Profitable Field.
+
+XII. ON MEASURES                                              Page 139
+
+ Horse Power. Foot Pounds. Energy. How to Find Out the Power Developed.
+ The Test. Calculations. The Foot Measure. Weight. The Gallon. The
+ Metric System. Basis of Measurement. Metrical Table, Showing
+ Measurements in Feet and Inches.
+
+XIII. USEFUL INFORMATION FOR THE WORKSHOP                     Page 148
+
+ Finding the Circumference of a Circle. Diameter of a Circle. Area of a
+ Circle. Area of a Triangle. Surface of a Ball. Solidity of a Sphere.
+ Contents of a Cone. Capacity of a Pipe. Capacity of Tanks. To Toughen
+ Aluminum. Amalgams. Prevent Boiler Scaling. Diamond Test. Making Glue
+ Insoluble in Water. Taking Glaze Out of Grindstone. To Find Speeds of
+ Pulleys. To Find the Diameters Required. To Prevent Belts from
+ Slipping. Removing Boiler Scale. Gold Bronze. Cleaning Rusted Utensils.
+ To Prevent Plaster of Paris from Setting Quickly. The Measurement of
+ Liquids with Spoons.
+
+XIV. SIMPLICITY OF GREAT INVENTIONS AND OF NATURE'S MANIFESTATION
+                                                              Page 152
+
+ Invention Precedes Science. Simplicity in Inventions.
+ The Telegraph. Telephone. Transmitter. Phonograph.
+ Wireless Telegraphy. Printing Telegraph. Electric Motor.
+ Explosions. Vibrations in Nature. Qualities of
+ Sound. The Photographer's Plate. Quadruplex Telegraphy.
+ Electric Harmony. Odors. Odophone. A Bouquet
+ of Vibrations. Taste. Color.
+
+XV. WORKSHOP RECIPES AND FORMULAS                             Page 160
+
+ Adhesives for Various Uses. Belt Glue. Cements. Transparent Cement. U.
+ S. Government Gum. To Make Different Alloys. Bell-metal. Brass.
+ Bronzes. Boiler Compounds. Celluloid. Clay Mixture for Forges. Modeling
+ Clay. Fluids for Cleaning Clothes, Furniture, etc. Disinfectants.
+ Deodorants. Emery for Lapping Purposes. Explosives. Fulminates. Files,
+ and How to Keep Clean. Renewing Files. Fire-proof Materials or
+ Substances. Floor Dressings. Stains. Foot Powders. Frost Bites. Glass.
+ To Frost. How to Distinguish. Iron and Steel. To Soften Castings.
+ Lacquers. For Aluminum and Brass. Copper. Lubricants. Paper.
+ Photography. Plasters. Plating, Coloring Metals. Polishes. Putty. Rust
+ Preventives. Solders. Soldering Fluxes. Steel Tempering. Varnishes.
+ Sealing Wax.
+
+XVI. HANDY TABLES                                             Page 178
+
+ Table of Weights for Round and Square Steel. Table of Weight of Flat
+ Steel Bars. Avoirdupois Weight. Troy Weight. Apothecaries' Weight.
+ Linear Measure. Long Measure. Square Measure. Solid or Cubic Measure.
+ Dry Measure. Liquid Measure. Paper Measure. Table of Temperatures.
+ Strength of Various Metals. Freezing Mixtures. Ignition Temperatures.
+ Power and Heat Equivalents.
+
+XVII. INVENTIONS AND PATENTS, AND INFORMATION ABOUT THE
+      RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF INVENTORS AND WORKMEN,
+                                                              Page 188
+
+ The Machinist's Opportunities. What is an Inventor? Idea Not Invention.
+ What an Invention Must Have. Obligation of the Model Builder. Paying
+ for Developing Devices. Time for Filing an Application. Selling an
+ Unpatented Invention. Joint Inventors. Joint Owners Not Partners.
+ Partnerships in Patents. Form of Protection Issued by the Government.
+ Life of a Patent. Interference Proceedings. Concurrent Applications.
+ Granting Interference. Steps in Interference. First Sketches. First
+ Model. First Operative Machine. Preliminary Statements. Proving
+ Invention. What Patents Are Issued For. Owner's Rights. Divided and
+ Undivided Patents. Assignments. How Made. What an Invention Must Have.
+ Basis for Granting Patent in the United States. Reasons for Granting
+ Abroad. Original Grants of Patents. International Agreement.
+ Application for Patents. Course of Procedure. Costs. Filing a Matter of
+ Secrecy.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  FIG.                                                            PAGE
+   1. Bench vise                                                     8
+   2. Pipe grip for vise                                             9
+   3. Swivel vise                                                   10
+   4. Speed lathe                                                   11
+   5. Calipers                                                      12
+   6. Engine lathe                                                  13
+   7. Center gage                                                   14
+   8. Pocket screw and wire gage                                    15
+   9. Handy bench vise                                              16
+  10. Combination square                                            17
+  11. Uses of the combination square                                18
+  12. A quick adjusting micrometer                                  19
+  13. Universal bevel protractor                                    20
+  14. Uses of universal bevel protractor                            21
+  15. Grindstone truing device                                      22
+  16. Set of tools and case                                         23
+  17. The work bench                                                24
+  18. Hook tool                                                     28
+  19. Parting tool                                                  28
+  20. Knife tool                                                    28
+  21. Right-hand side tool                                          28
+  22. Internal tool                                                 28
+  23. Left-hand side tool                                           28
+  24. Tool for wrought iron                                         29
+  25. Tool for cast iron                                            29
+  26. End view of drill                                             31
+  27. Side view of drill                                            31
+  28. Hack-saw frame                                                35
+  29. Hack-saw blade                                                35
+  30. Plain hook tool                                               38
+  31. Plain straight tool                                           38
+  32. Proper angles for tools                                       39
+  33. Angles for tools                                              39
+  34. Angles for tools                                              39
+  35. Set of the bitt                                               40
+  36. Correct angle                                                 41
+  37. Wrong angle                                                   41
+  38. Too low                                                       42
+  39. Improper set                                                  42
+  40. Internal set                                                  43
+  41. Set for brass                                                 43
+  42. Surface gage                                                  44
+  43. Uses of surface gage                                          46
+  44. Rounded surface                                               49
+  45. Winding surface                                               49
+  46. Hexagon nut                                                   51
+  47. Laying off hexagon nut                                        51
+  48. Cutting key-way                                               52
+  49. Key-seat rule                                                 54
+  50. Filing metal round                                            54
+  51. Filing metal round                                            54
+  52. Making a round bearing                                        55
+  53. Making a round bearing                                        55
+  54. Cross section of file                                         56
+  55. Files                                                         58
+  56. Correct file movement                                         59
+  57. Incorrect file movement                                       60
+  58. Belt lacing                                                   69
+  59. Belt lacing                                                   69
+  60. Belt lacing                                                   69
+  61. Belt lacing                                                   69
+  62. Bevel gears                                                   71
+  63. Miter gears                                                   71
+  64. Crown wheel                                                   71
+  65. Grooved friction gears                                        71
+  66. Valve                                                         71
+  67. Cone pulleys                                                  71
+  68. Universal joint                                               71
+  69. Trammel                                                       73
+  70. Escapement                                                    73
+  71. Device for holding wheel                                      73
+  72. Rack and pinion                                               73
+  73. Mutilated gears                                               73
+  74. Shaft coupling                                                73
+  75. Clutches                                                      75
+  76. Ball and socket joints                                        75
+  77. Fastening ball                                                75
+  78. Tripping devices                                              75
+  79. Anchor bolt                                                   75
+  80. Lazy tongs                                                    75
+  81. Disc shears                                                   75
+  82. Wabble saw                                                    76
+  83. Continuous crank motion                                       76
+  84. Continues feed                                                76
+  85. Crank motion                                                  76
+  86. Ratchet head                                                  76
+  87. Bench clamp                                                   76
+  88. Helico-volute spring                                          77
+  89. Double helico-volute                                          77
+  90. Helical spring                                                77
+  91. Single volute-helix                                           77
+  92. Flat spiral or convolute                                      77
+  93. Eccentric rod or strap                                        77
+  94. Anti dead-centers for lathes                                  77
+  95. Plain circle                                                  95
+  96. Ring                                                          96
+  97. Raised surface                                                96
+  98. Sphere                                                        96
+  99. Depressed surface                                             96
+ 100. Concave                                                       97
+ 101. Forms of cubical outlines                                     98
+ 102. Forms of cubical outlines                                     98
+ 103. Forms of cubical outlines                                     98
+ 104. Forms of cubical outlines                                     98
+ 105. Shading edges                                                 99
+ 106. Shading edges                                                 99
+ 107. Illustrating heavy lines                                     100
+ 108. Illustrating heavy lines                                     100
+ 109. Lines on plain surfaces                                      101
+ 110. Lines on plain surfaces                                      101
+ 111. Illustrating degrees                                         102
+ 112. Section lining                                               103
+ 113. Drawing an ellipse                                           104
+ 114. Perspective at angles                                        106
+ 115. Perspective of cube                                          107
+ 116. Perspective of cube                                          107
+ 117. Perspective of cube                                          107
+ 118. Protractor                                                   108
+ 119. Using the protractor                                         109
+ 120. Section-lining metals                                        110
+ 121. Spur gears                                                   122
+ 122. Miter gear pitch                                             123
+ 123. Bevel gears                                                  124
+ 124. Laying of miter gears                                        125
+ 125. Sprocket wheel                                               128
+ 126. Simple lever                                                 129
+ 127. Lever action                                                 130
+ 128. The pulley                                                   132
+ 129. Change of direction                                          133
+ 130. Change of direction                                          133
+ 131. Steam pressure                                               135
+ 132. Water pressure                                               135
+ 133. Prony brake                                                  141
+ 134. Speed indicator                                              142
+
+
+
+
+PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+
+The American method of teaching the mechanical arts has some
+disadvantages, as compared with the apprentice system followed in
+England, and very largely on the continent.
+
+It is too often the case that here a boy or a young man begins work in a
+machine shop, not for the avowed purpose of learning the trade, but
+simply as a helper, with no other object in view than to get his weekly
+wages.
+
+Abroad, the plan is one which, for various reasons, could not be
+tolerated here. There he is bound for a certain term of years, and with
+the prime object of teaching him to become an artisan. More often than
+otherwise he pays for this privilege, and he knows it is incumbent on
+him "to make good" right from the start.
+
+He labors under the disadvantage, however, that he has a certain tenure,
+and in that course he is not pushed forward from one step to the next on
+account of any merit of his own. His advancement is fixed by the time he
+has put in at each part of the work, and thus no note is taken of his
+individuality.
+
+Here the boy rises step after step by virtue of his own qualifications,
+and we recognize that one boy has the capacity to learn faster than
+another. If he can learn in one year what it requires three in another
+to acquire, in order to do it as perfectly, it is an injury to the apt
+workman to be held back and deterred from making his way upwardly.
+
+It may be urged that the apprentice system instills thoroughness. This
+may be true; but it also does another thing: It makes the man a mere
+machine. The true workman is a thinker. He is ever on the alert to find
+easier, quicker and more efficient means for doing certain work.
+
+What is called "Efficiency" in labor methods, can never obtain in an
+apprenticeship system for this reason. In a certain operation, where
+twelve motions are required to do a certain thing, and a minute to
+perform the twelve operations, a simplified way, necessitating only
+eight motions, means a difference in saving one-third of the time. The
+nineteen hundred fewer particular movements in a day's work, being a
+less strain on the operator, both physically and mentally, to say
+nothing whatever of the advantages which the proprietor of the shop
+would gain.
+
+I make this a leading text in the presentation of this book; namely,
+that individual merit and stimulus is something of such extreme
+importance that it should be made the keynote for every boy who tries to
+become a mechanic.
+
+The machinist easily occupies a leading place in the multitude of trades
+and occupations. There is hardly an article of use but comes to the
+market through his hands. His labor is most diverse, and in his
+employment doing machine work he is called upon to do things which vary
+widely in their character.
+
+These require special knowledge, particular tools, and more frequently
+than otherwise, a high order of inventive ability to enable him to
+accomplish the task.
+
+The boy should be taught, at the outset, that certain things must be
+learned thoroughly, and that habits in a machine shop can be bad as well
+as good. When he once becomes accustomed to putting a tool back in its
+rightful place the moment he is through with it, he has taken a long
+step toward efficiency.
+
+When he grasps a tool and presents it to the work without turning it
+over several times, or has acquired the knack of picking up the right
+tool at the proper place, he is making strides in the direction of
+becoming a rapid and skilled workman.
+
+These, and many other things of like import, will require our attention
+throughout the various chapters.
+
+It is not the intention of the book to make every boy who reads and
+studies it, a machinist; nor have we any desire to present a lot of
+useful articles as samples of what to make. The object is to show the
+boy what are the requirements necessary to make him a machinist; how to
+hold, handle, sharpen and grind the various tools; the proper ones to
+use for each particular character of work; how the various machines are
+handled and cared for; the best materials to use; and suggest the
+numerous things which can be done in a shop which will pave the way for
+making his work pleasant as well as profitable.
+
+It also analyzes the manner in which the job is laid out; how to set the
+tools to get the most effective work; and explains what is meant by
+making a finished piece of workmanship. These things, properly acquired,
+each must determine in his own mind whether he is adapted to follow up
+the work.
+
+Over and above all, we shall try to give the boy some stimulus for his
+work. Unless he takes an interest in what he is doing, he will never
+become an artisan in the true sense of the word.
+
+Go through the book, and see whether, here and there, you do not get
+some glimpses of what it means to take a pleasure in doing each
+particular thing, and you will find in every instance that it is a
+satisfaction because you have learned to perform it with ease.
+
+I do not know of anything which has done as much to advance the arts and
+manufactures, during the last century, as the universal desire to
+improve the form, shape and structure of tools; and the effort to invent
+new ones. This finds its reflection everywhere in the production of new
+and improved products.
+
+In this particular I have been led to formulate a homely sentence which
+expresses the idea: Invention consists in doing an old thing a new way;
+or a new thing any way.
+
+THE AUTHOR.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+ON TOOLS GENERALLY
+
+
+Judging from the favorable comments of educators, on the general
+arrangement of the subject matter in the work on "Carpentry for Boys," I
+am disposed to follow that plan in this book in so far as it pertains to
+tools.
+
+In this field, as in "Carpentry," I do not find any guide which is
+adapted to teach the boy the fundamentals of mechanics. Writers usually
+overlook the fact, that as the boy knows nothing whatever about the
+subject, he could not be expected to know anything about tools.
+
+To describe them gives a start in the education, but it is far short of
+what is necessary for one in his condition. If he is told that the
+chisel or bit for a lathe has a diamond point, or is round-nosed, and
+must be ground at a certain angle, he naturally wants to know, as all
+boys do, _why_ it should be at that angle.
+
+So in the setting of the tools with relation to the work, the holding
+and manipulation of the file, of the drill for accurate boring, together
+with numerous little things, are all taken for granted, and the boy
+blunders along with the ultimate object in sight, without having the
+pathway cleared so he may readily reach the goal.
+
+VARIED REQUIREMENTS.--The machinist's trade is one which requires the
+most varied tools of all occupations, and they are by all odds the most
+expensive to be found in the entire list of vocations.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 1. Bench Vise._]
+
+This arises from the fact that he must work with the most stubborn of
+all materials. He finds resistance at every step in bringing forth a
+product.
+
+LIST OF TOOLS.--With a view of familiarizing the boy with this great
+variety the following list is compiled, from which we shall select the
+ones essential in the initial equipment of a small shop.
+
+VISES.--One small, good vise is infinitely preferable to two bad ones.
+For ordinary work a 3-inch jaw is preferable, and it should be firmly
+mounted on the bench. So many kinds are now made that it would be a
+costly thing to purchase one for each special use, therefore the boy
+will find it profitable to make some attachments for the ordinary vise.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 2. Pipe Grip for Vise._]
+
+SWIVEL VISES.--A swivel vise is always a good tool, the cost being not
+excessive over the ordinary kind. Then a pair of grips for holding pipe,
+or round material which is to be threaded, can readily be made.
+
+The drawing (Fig. 2) shows a serviceable pair of grips, made to fit the
+jaws of a vise, and will be acceptable in much of the work. Then, the
+vise should be provided with copper caps for the jaws to be used when
+making up articles which would otherwise be injured by the jaws.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 3. Swivel Vise._]
+
+Let us get a comprehensive view of the different kinds of tools
+necessary in a fully equipped shop.
+
+PARTS OF LATHE.--The first thing of importance is the lathe, and of
+these there is quite a variety, and among the accompaniments are the
+slide rest, mandrel, back gear, division plate, angle plate, cone plate
+and various chucks.
+
+There must also be change wheels, studs and quadrant plates, self-acting
+feed for surfacing and cross slide, and clamping nuts.
+
+Drilling machines, both hand and power, hand and ratchet braces and
+breast-drill stocks.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 4--Speed Lathe._]
+
+CHISELS.--Chisels of various kinds, for chipping and cross-cutting;
+round-nosed, centering, set punches, tommies and drifts.
+
+Back, tee and centering square; bevels, spirit level, inside and outside
+calipers, straight edges, rules and surface plates.
+
+Gages for boring, scribing blocks, steel and brass scribes, stocks and
+dies, screw-plates, taps for bolts, reamers.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 5. Calipers_]
+
+Files for various descriptions, countersinks, frame and hack saws.
+
+GRINDING APPARATUS.--Emery wheel, cloth and paper, paper, flour emery,
+polishing powders, laps and buffs, and polishing sticks.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 6. Engine Lathe._
+ _A. Lathe Bed_
+ _B. Rack Gear_
+ _C. Live Center_
+ _D. Dead Center_
+ _E. Dead Spindle_
+ _F. Face Plate_
+ _G. Feed Screw_
+ _H. Train of Gears_
+ _I. Head Stock_
+ _J. Mandrel_
+ _K. Cone Pulley_
+ _L. Angle Plate for Tool Holder_
+ _M. Tool Post_
+ _N. Tail Stock_
+ _O. Wheel for Slide Rest Mechanism_
+ _P. Locking Lever for Tail Stock._]
+
+Forge, anvils, tongs, swages, punches, bolt tools, hot and cold chisels,
+blow-pipe, soldering iron, hard and soft solders, borax, spirits of
+salts, oil, resin and spelter.
+
+To this may be added an endless variety of small bench tools,
+micrometers, protractors, arbors, collets, box tools and scrapers.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 7. Center Gage._]
+
+LARGE MACHINES.--The list would not be complete without the planer,
+shaper and milling machine, with their variety of chucks, clamps and
+other attachments, too numerous to mention.
+
+The foregoing show what a wonderful variety of articles are found in a
+well-equipped shop, all of which can be conveniently used; but to the
+boy who has only a small amount of money, a workable set is indicated as
+follows:
+
+A small lathe, with an 8-inch swing, can be obtained at a low cost,
+provided with a countershaft complete.
+
+CHUCKS.--With this should go a small chuck, and a face-plate for large
+work, unless a large chuck can also be acquired. This, with a dozen
+tools of various sizes, and also small bits for drilling purposes.
+
+The lathe will answer all purposes for drilling, but small drilling
+machines are now furnished at very low figures, and such a machine will
+take off a great deal of duty from the lathe.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 8. Pocket Screw and Wire Gage._]
+
+As the lathe is of prime importance, never use it for drilling, if you
+have a driller, as it always has enough work to do for tuning up work.
+
+BENCH TOOLS.--Of bench tools, a 3-inch vise, various files, center
+punch, two hammers, round and A-shaped peons, hack saw, compasses,
+inside and outside calipers, screw driver, cold chisels, metal square,
+level, straight edge, bevel square, reamers, small emery wheel and an
+oil stone, make a fairly good outfit to start with, and these can be
+added to from time to time.
+
+Everything in the machine shop centers about the lathe. It is the king
+of all tools. The shaper and planer may be most efficient for surfacing,
+and the milling machine for making grooves and gears, or for general
+cutting purposes, but the lathe possesses a range of work not possible
+with either of the other tools, and for that reason should be selected
+with great care.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 9. Handy Bench Vise._]
+
+SELECTING A LATHE.--The important things about a lathe are the spindle
+bearings and the ways for the tool-holder. The least play in either will
+ruin any work. Every other part may be defective, but with solidly
+built bearing-posts and bearings, your lathe will be effective.
+
+For this reason it will not pay to get a cheap tool. Better get a small,
+6-inch approved tool of this kind, than a larger cheap article. It may
+pay with other tools, but with a lathe never.
+
+Never do grinding on a lathe. The fine emery, or grinding material, is
+sure to reach the bearings; it matters not what care is exercised. There
+is only one remedy for this--overhauling.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 10.--Combination Square._]
+
+COMBINATION SQUARE.--A tool of this kind is most essential, however
+small. It can be used as a try-square, and has this advantage, that the
+head can be made to slide along the rule and be clamped at any point. It
+has a beveling and a leveling device, as well.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 11.--Uses of the Combination Square._]
+
+The combination square provides a means for doing a great variety of
+work, as it combines the qualities of a rule, square, miter, depth gage,
+height gage, level and center head.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 12.--A Quick Adjusting Micrometer._]
+
+The full page illustration (Fig. 11) shows some of the uses and the
+particular manner of holding the tool.
+
+MICROMETERS.--Tools of this description are made which will accurately
+measure work in dimensions of ten-thousandths of an inch up to an inch.
+
+The illustration (Fig. 12) shows an approved tool, and this is so
+constructed that it can instantly be changed and set by merely pressing
+the end of the plunger as shown.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 13.--A Universal Bevel Protractor._]
+
+PROTRACTORS.--As all angles are not obtainable by the square or bevel, a
+protractor is a most desirable addition to the stock of tools. As one
+side of the tool is flat it is convenient for laying on the paper when
+drafting, as well as for use on the work.
+
+The protractor has a graduated disk, and is adjustable so it can be
+disposed at any angle.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 14.--Universal Bevel Protractor, showing its
+uses._]
+
+All special tools of this kind are serviceable, and the boy should
+understand their uses, even though he is not able for the time being to
+acquire them. To learn how they are applied in daily use is an education
+in itself.
+
+UTILIZING BEVEL PROTRACTOR.--Examine the full-page illustration (Fig.
+14), and see how the bevel protractor is utilized to measure the angles
+of work, whether it is tapering heads or different kinds of nuts, or end
+and side surfacing, and it will teach an important lesson.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 15.--Grindstone Truing Device._]
+
+TRUING GRINDSTONES.--Devices for truing up grindstones are now made, and
+the illustration (Fig. 15) shows a very efficient machine for this
+purpose. It can be applied instantly to the face of the stone, and it
+works automatically, without interfering with the use of the stone.
+
+It is frequently the case that an emery wheel will become glazed, due to
+its extreme hardness. This is also caused, sometimes, by running it at
+too high a speed. If the glazing continues after the speed is reduced,
+it should be ground down an eighth of an inch or so. This will, usually,
+remedy the defect.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 16.--Set of Tools and Case._]
+
+SETS OF TOOLS.--A cheap and convenient set of precision tools is shown
+in Fig. 16, which is kept in a neat folding leather case. The set
+consists of a 6-inch combination square, complete center punch, 6-inch
+flexible steel rule center gage, 4-inch calipers, 4-inch outside caliper
+with solid nut, 4-inch inside caliper with solid nut, and a 4-inch
+divider with a solid nut.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 17. The Work Bench._]
+
+THE WORK BENCH.--This is the mechanic's fort. His capacity for work will
+depend on its arrangement. To the boy this is particularly interesting,
+and for his uses it should be made full three inches lower than the
+standard height.
+
+A good plan to judge of the proper height is to measure from the jaws of
+the vise. The top of the jaw should be on a level with the elbows. Grasp
+a file with both hands, and hold it as though in the act of filing
+across the work; then measure up from the floor to the elbows, when they
+are held in that position.
+
+THE PROPER DIMENSIONS.--This plan will give you a sure means of
+selecting a height that is best adapted for your work. The regulation
+bench is about 38 inches high, and assuming that the vise projects up
+about 4 inches more, would bring the top of the jaws about 42 to 44
+inches from the floor. It is safe to fix the height of the bench at not
+less than 34 inches.
+
+This should have a drawer, preferably near the right-hand end of the
+bench. The vise should be at the left side, and the bench in your front
+should be free of any fixed tools.
+
+HOW ARRANGED.--Have a rack above the bench at the rear, for the various
+tools when not in use, and the rear board of the bench should be
+elevated above the front planks several inches, on which the various
+tools can be put, other than those which are suspended on the rack
+above.
+
+The advantage of this is, that a bench will accumulate a quantity of
+material that the tools can hide in, and there is nothing more annoying
+than to hunt over a lot of trash to get what is needed. It is necessary
+to emphasize the necessity of always putting a tool back in its proper
+place, immediately after using.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS
+
+
+It is singular, that with the immense variety of tools set forth in the
+preceding chapter, how few, really, require the art of the workman to
+grind and sharpen. If we take the lathe, the drilling machine, as well
+as the shaper, planer, milling machine, and all power-driven tools, they
+are merely mechanism contrived to handle some small, and, apparently,
+inconsequential tool, which does the work on the material.
+
+IMPORTANCE OF THE CUTTING TOOL.--But it is this very fact that makes the
+preparation of that part of the mechanism so important. Here we have a
+lathe, weighing a thousand pounds, worth hundreds of dollars,
+concentrating its entire energies on a little bit, weighing eight
+ounces, and worth less than a dollar. It may thus readily be seen that
+it is the little bar of metal from which the small tool is made that
+needs our care and attention.
+
+This is particularly true of the expensive milling machines, where the
+little saw, if not in perfect order, and not properly set, will not only
+do improper work, but injure the machine itself. More lathes are ruined
+from using badly ground tools than from any other cause.
+
+In the whole line of tools which the machinist must take care of daily,
+there is nothing as important as the lathe cutting-tool, and the
+knowledge which goes with it to use the proper one.
+
+Let us simplify the inquiry by considering them under the following
+headings:
+
+1. The grinder.
+
+2. The grinding angle.
+
+THE GRINDER.--The first mistake the novice will make, is to use the tool
+on the grinder as though it were necessary to grind it down with a few
+turns of the wheel. Haste is not conducive to proper sharpening. As the
+wheel is of emery, corundum or other quickly cutting material, and is
+always run at a high rate of speed, a great heat is evolved, which is
+materially increased by pressure.
+
+Pressure is injurious not so much to the wheel as to the tool itself.
+The moment a tool becomes heated there is danger of destroying the
+temper, and the edge, being the thinnest, is the most violently
+affected. Hence it is desirable always to have a receptacle with water
+handy, into which the tool can be plunged, during the process of
+grinding down.
+
+CORRECT USE OF GRINDER.--Treat the wheel as though it is a friend, and
+not an enemy. Take advantage of its entire surface. Whenever you go into
+a machine shop, look at the emery wheel. If you find it worn in creases,
+and distorted in its circular outline, you can make up your mind that
+there is some one there who has poor tools, because it is simply out of
+the question to grind a tool correctly with such a wheel.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 18. Hook Tool._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 19. Parting Tool._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 20. Knife Tool._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 21. Right-hand Side Tool._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 22. Internal Tool._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 23. Left-hand Side Tool._]
+
+Coarse wheels are an abomination for tool work. Use the finest kinds
+devised for the purpose. They will keep in condition longer, are not so
+liable to wear unevenly, and will always finish off the edge better than
+the coarse variety.
+
+LATHE BITS.--All bits made for lathes are modifications of the foregoing
+types (Figs. 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23).
+
+As this chapter deals with the sharpening methods only, the reader is
+referred to the next chapter, which deals with the manner of setting
+and holding them to do the most effective work.
+
+When it is understood that a cutting tool in a lathe is simply a form of
+wedge which peels off a definite thickness of metal, the importance of
+proper grinding and correct position in the lathe can be appreciated.
+
+ROUGHING TOOLS.--The most useful is the roughing tool to take off the
+first cut. As this type of tool is also important, with some
+modifications, in finishing work, it is given the place of first
+consideration here.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 24. Tool for Wrought iron._ _Fig. 25. Tool for Cast
+iron._]
+
+Fig. 24 shows side and top views of a tool designed to rough off wrought
+iron, or a tough quality of steel. You will notice, that what is called
+the top rake (A) is very pronounced, and, as the point projects
+considerably above the body of the tool itself, it should, in practice,
+be set with its cutting point above the center.
+
+THE CLEARANCE.--Now, in grinding, the important point is the clearance
+line (B). As shown in this figure, it has an angle of 10 degrees, so
+that in placing the tool in the holder it is obvious it cannot be placed
+very high above the center, particularly when used on small work. The
+top rake is ground at an angle of 60 degrees from the vertical. The arc
+of the curved end depends on the kind of lathe and the size of the work.
+
+The tool (Fig. 25), with a straight cutting edge, is the proper one to
+rough off cast iron. Note that the top rake (C) is 70 degrees, and the
+clearance 15 degrees.
+
+THE CUTTING ANGLE.--Wrought iron, or mild steel, will form a ribbon when
+the tool wedges its way into the material. Cast iron, on the other hand,
+owing to its brittleness, will break off into small particles, hence the
+wedge surface can be put at a more obtuse angle to the work.
+
+In grinding side-cutters the clearance should be at a less angle than 10
+degrees, rather than more, and the top rake should also be less;
+otherwise the tendency will be to draw the tool into the work and swing
+the tool post around.
+
+DRILLS.--Holders for grinding twist drills are now furnished at very low
+prices, and instructions are usually sent with the machines, but a few
+words may not be amiss for the benefit of those who have not the means
+to purchase such a machine.
+
+Hand grinding is a difficult thing, for the reason that through
+carelessness, or inability, both sides of the drill are not ground at
+the same angle and pitch. As a result the cutting edge of one side will
+do more work than the other. If the heel angles differ, one side will
+draw into the work, and the other resist.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 26. End view._ _Fig. 27. Side view._]
+
+WRONG GRINDING.--When such is the case the hole becomes untrue. The
+sides of the bit will grind into the walls, or the bit will have a
+tendency to run to one side, and particularly if boring through metal
+which is uneven in its texture or grain.
+
+Figs. 26 and 27 show end and side views of a bit properly ground. If a
+bit has been broken off, first grind it off square at the end, and then
+grind down the angles, so that A is about 15 degrees, and be sure that
+the heel has sufficient clearance--that is, ground down deeper than the
+cutting point.
+
+CHISELS.--A machine shop should always have a plentiful supply of cold
+chisels, and a particular kind for each work, to be used for that
+purpose only. This may seem trivial to the boy, but it is really a most
+important matter.
+
+Notice the careless and incompetent workman. If chipping or cutting is
+required, he will grasp the first chisel at hand. It may have a curved
+end, or be a key-way chisel, or entirely unsuited as to size for the
+cutting required.
+
+The result is an injured tool, and unsatisfactory results. The rule
+holds good in this respect as with every other tool in the kit. _Use a
+tool for the purpose it was made for_, and for no other. Acquire that
+habit.
+
+COLD CHISELS.--A cold chisel should never be ground to a long, tapering
+point, like a wood chisel. The proper taper for a wood chisel is 15
+degrees, whereas a cold chisel should be 45 degrees. A drifting chisel
+may have a longer taper than one used for chipping.
+
+It is a good habit, particularly as there are so few tools which require
+grinding, to commence the day's work by grinding the chisels, and
+arranging them for business.
+
+SYSTEM IN WORK.--Then see to it that the drills are in good shape; and
+while you are about it, look over the lathe tools. You will find that it
+is better to do this work at one time, than to go to the emery wheel a
+dozen times a day while you are engaged on the job.
+
+Adopt a system in your work. Don't take things just as they come along,
+but form your plans in an orderly way, and you will always know how to
+take up and finish the work in the most profitable and satisfactory way.
+
+WRONG USE OF TOOLS.--Never use the vise as an anvil. Ordinary and proper
+use of this tool will insure it for a lifetime, aside from its natural
+wear. It may be said with safety that a vise will never break if used
+for the purpose for which it was intended. One blow of a hammer may ruin
+it.
+
+Furthermore, never use an auxiliary lever to screw up the jaws. If the
+lever which comes with it is not large enough to set the jaws, you may
+be sure that the vise is not large enough for your work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+SETTING AND HOLDING TOOLS
+
+
+Some simple directions in the holding and setting of tools may be of
+service to the novice. Practice has shown the most effective way of
+treating different materials, so that the tools will do the most
+efficient work.
+
+A tool ground in a certain way and set at a particular angle might do
+the work admirably on a piece of steel, but would not possibly work on
+aluminum or brass.
+
+LATHE SPEED.--If the lathe should run at the same speed on a piece of
+cast iron as with a brass casting, the result would not be very
+satisfactory, either with the tool or on the work itself.
+
+Some compositions of metal require a high speed, and some a hooked tool.
+These are things which each must determine as the articles come to the
+shop; but there are certain well-defined rules with respect to the
+ordinary metals that should be observed.
+
+THE HACK SAW.--Our first observation should be directed to the hand
+tools. The hack saw is one of the most difficult tools for the machinist
+to handle, for the following reasons:
+
+First, of the desire to force the blade through the work. The blade is a
+frail instrument, and when too great a pressure is exerted it bends, and
+as a result a breakage follows. To enable it to do the work properly, it
+must be made of the hardest steel. It is, in consequence, easily
+fractured.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 28.--Hack Saw Frame._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 29.--Hack Saw Blade._]
+
+Second. The novice will make short hacking cuts. This causes the teeth
+to stick, the saw bends, and a new blade is required. Take a long
+sweeping cut, using the entire length of the blade. Do not oscillate the
+blade as you push it through the work, but keep the tooth line
+horizontal from one end of the stroke to the other. The moment it begins
+to waver, the teeth will catch on the metal on the side nearest to you,
+and it will snap.
+
+Third. The handle is held too loosely. The handle must be firmly held
+with the right hand, and the other held by the fingers lightly, but in
+such a position that a steady downward pressure can be maintained. If
+loosely held, the saw is bound to sag from side to side during the
+stroke, and a short stroke accentuates the lateral movement. A long
+stroke avoids this.
+
+The hack saw is one of the tools which should be used with the utmost
+deliberation, combined with a rigid grasp of the handle.
+
+FILES.--For remarks on this tool see Chapter IV, which treats of the
+subject specially.
+
+GRINDSTONES, EMERY AND GRINDING WHEELS.--A good workman is always
+reflected by his grinding apparatus. This is true whether it has
+reference to a grindstone, emery, corundum wheel, or a plain oil stone.
+Nothing is more destructive of good tools than a grooved, uneven, or
+wabbly stone. It is only little less than a crime for a workman to hold
+a tool on a revolving stone at one spot.
+
+CARELESSNESS IN HOLDING TOOLS.--The boy must learn that such a habit
+actually prevents the proper grinding, not only of the tool he has on
+the stone, but also of the one which follows. While it is true that all
+artificially made grinders will wear unevenly, even when used with the
+utmost care, due to uneven texture of the materials in the stone,
+still, the careless use of the tool, while in the act of grinding, only
+aggravates the trouble.
+
+Another fault of the careless workman is, to press the bit against the
+stone too hard. This cuts the stone more than it wears off the tool, and
+it is entirely unnecessary. Furthermore, it heats up the tool, which
+should be avoided.
+
+CALIPERS.--A true workman, who endeavors to turn out accurate work, and
+preserve his tools, will never test the work with his calipers while the
+piece is turning in the lathe. A revolving cast iron disk will cut ruby,
+the hardest substance next to the diamond, so it is not the hardness of
+the material which resists wear, but the conditions under which it is
+used.
+
+CARE IN USE OF CALIPERS.--The calipers may be of the most hardened
+steel, and the work turned up of the softest brass, the latter, when
+revolving, will grind off the point of the tool, for the reason that the
+revolving piece constantly presents a new surface to the point of the
+calipers, and when tests are frequently made, it does not take long to
+change the caliper span so that it must be reset.
+
+As stated elsewhere, the whole energy of the lathe is concentrated on
+the bit or cutting tool, hence, in order to get the most effective work
+out of it requires care; first, in grinding; and, second, in setting.
+
+MACHINE BITS.--It does not always matter so much whether you use a
+square, pointed, or a round-nosed bit, provided it is properly ground
+and set in the tool holder. As a rule, the more brittle the metal the
+less the top rake or angle should be.
+
+In the chapter relating to the grinding of tools, references were made
+as to the most serviceable bits for the various metals. We are concerned
+here with the setting or holding of these articles.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 30. Plain Hook Tool_ _Fig. 31. Plain Straight
+Tool._]
+
+The two illustrations here given show a pair of plain bits, in which
+Fig. 30 represents a hook-shaped formation, and Fig. 31 a straight
+grind, without any top rake. The hooked bit would do for aluminum, or
+steel, but for cast iron the form shown in Fig. 31 would be most
+serviceable.
+
+Then the side bits, such as the round-nosed, Fig. 32 and the square end,
+Fig. 33, may be ground hooked, or with a top rake, or left flat.
+
+The too common mistake is to grind the lower or clearance side at too
+great an angle. Fig. 34 shows the correct angle, and the dotted line A
+illustrates the common tendency to grind the clearance.
+
+THE PROPER ANGLE FOR LATHE TOOLS.--Now there is a reason why the angle
+of from 10 to 15 should be maintained in the clearance. The point of the
+tool must have suitable support for the work it is required to do, so it
+will not chatter or yield in the slightest degree. A bit ground along
+the dotted line has a cutting edge which will spring down, and
+consequently break or produce a rough surface.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 32. Fig. 33. Fig. 34. Proper Angles for Tools_]
+
+Then, again, the angle of the clearance acts as a guide, or rather, a
+guard, to prevent the tool from going in too far, as will now be
+explained.
+
+SETTING THE BIT.--In order to understand the correct setting, examine
+the work A, in Fig. 35.
+
+A is a cylinder being turned up in the lathe, and B the cutting tool,
+which approaches it on a horizontal line, C, extending out from the
+center of the cylinder A. This setting is theoretically correct, and in
+practice has been found most advantageous.
+
+In this case let us assume that the clearance angle D is 15 degrees, as
+well as in the following figures.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 35. Set of the Bit_]
+
+Suppose we have a piece of tough steel, and the tool holder is raised so
+that the point of the tool is at the 15 degree line E, as shown in Fig.
+36, in which case the clearance line D is at right angles to the line E.
+The line E is 15 degrees above the center line C.
+
+THE SETTING ANGLE.--Now, it is obvious that if the tool should be raised
+higher than the line E it would run out of work, because the clearance
+surface of the tool would ride up over the surface cut by the edge of
+the tool.
+
+If, on the other hand, the tool should be placed lower, toward the line
+C, the tendency would be to draw in the tool toward the center of the
+work A.
+
+In Fig. 37 the tool has its point elevated, in which case it must be
+lowered so the point will touch the work nearer the center line C.
+
+The foregoing arrangement of the tools will be found to be effective
+where the material is soft and not too tough as with aluminum.
+
+BAD PRACTICE.--Figs. 38 and 39 show illustrations of bad practice which
+should never be resorted to. Fig. 38 shows the tool, held in a
+horizontal position, but with its point below the center line C. With
+any rough metal the tool could not possibly work, except to act as a
+scraper, and if it should be used in that position on cast iron, the
+tool itself would soon be useless.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 36. Correct Angle_ _Fig. 37. Wrong Angle_]
+
+Fig. 39 is still worse, and is of no value for any purpose except in
+polishing brass, where it would be serviceable. It would make a sorry
+looking job with aluminum. Brass requires a tool with very little top
+rake, and the point should be set near the center line C.
+
+LATHE SPEED.--It is often a question at what speeds to run the lathe for
+different work. If you know the speeds of your lathe at low and high
+gear, you must also consider the diameter of the work at the cutting
+point.
+
+The rule is to have the bit cut from 15 to 20 feet per minute for
+wrought iron; from 11 to 18 feet for steel; from 25 to 50 for brass; and
+from 40 to 50 for aluminum.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 38. Too Low_ _Fig. 39. Improper Set_]
+
+As a result, therefore, if, at low speed, a piece 10 inches in diameter,
+runs at the proper speed to cut at that distance from the center, it is
+obvious that a piece 5 inches in diameter should ran twice as fast. This
+is a matter which time and practice will enable you to judge with a fair
+degree of accuracy.
+
+Observe this as a maxim: "Slow speed, and quick feed."
+
+BORING TOOLS ON LATHE.--The lathe is a most useful tool for boring
+purposes, better for some work than the drilling machine itself. The
+work which can be done better on a lathe than on a drilling machine, may
+be classified as follows:
+
+1. When straight and true holes are required.
+
+2. In long work, where the lathe is used to turn up the article, and
+where the drilling can be done at the same time.
+
+3. Anything that can be chucked in a lathe.
+
+4. Where the work is long and cannot be fixed in a drilling machine. The
+long bed of the lathe gives room for holding such work.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 40. Internal Set_ _Fig. 41. Set for Brass_]
+
+THE RAKE OF THE DRILL.--A boring tool requires some knowledge in
+setting. It should have a greater top rake than for the outside work,
+and the cutting edge should also be keener, as a rule.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 42.--Surface Gage._]
+
+In this class of work the material bored must be understood, as well as
+in doing outside work.
+
+The hooked tool, Fig. 40, is shown to be considerably above the center
+line, and at that point it will do the most effective cutting on steel.
+If, on the other hand, brass is operated on there should be no top
+rake, as illustrated in Fig. 41, thus assuring a smooth job.
+
+LAPS.--This is a tool which is very useful, particularly for grinding
+and truing up the cylinders of internal combustion engines, as well as
+for all kinds of bores of refractory material which cannot be handled
+with the cutting tool of the lathe.
+
+It is made up of a mandrel or rod of copper, with lead cast about it,
+and then turned up true, so that it is but the merest trifle larger than
+the hole it is to true up.
+
+USING THE LAP.--The roller thus made is turned rapidly in a lathe, and
+the cylinder to be trued is brought up to it and the roller supplied
+freely with emery powder and oil. As rapidly as possible the cylinder is
+worked over on the roller, without forcing it, and also turned, so as to
+prevent even the weight from grinding it unduly on one side.
+
+More or less of the emery will embed itself in the lead, and thus act as
+an abrasive. The process is called "lapping."
+
+SURFACE GAGES.--Frequently, in laying out, it is necessary to scribe
+lines at a given distance from some part of the work; or, the conditions
+are such that a rule, a caliper, or dividers will not permit accurate
+measurement to be made.
+
+For such purposes, what is called a surface gage was devised. This is
+merely a heavy base, provided with a pivoted upright on which is
+mounted a scribe that is held by a clamp so it may be turned to any
+angle.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 43.--Showing uses of the Surface Gage._]
+
+SURFACE GAGE.--The clamp holding the scriber is vertically movable on
+the pivoted upright. By resting the base of the surface gage on the line
+to be measured from, and swinging one point of the scriber to the place
+where the work is to be done, accuracy is assured. One end of the
+scriber is bent, so it can be adapted to enter recesses, or such places
+as could not be reached by the straight end.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ON THE USE OF THE FILE
+
+
+The most necessary tool in a machine shop is a file. It is one of the
+neglected tools, because the ordinary boy, or workman, sees nothing in
+it but a strip or a bar with a lot of cross grooves and edges, and he
+concludes that the only thing necessary is to rub it across a piece of
+metal until he has worn it down sufficiently for the purpose.
+
+THE FIRST TEST.--The fact is, the file is so familiar a tool, that it
+breeds contempt, like many other things closely associated in life.
+
+Give the boy an irregular block of metal, and tell him to file it up
+square, and he will begin to realize that there is something in the
+handling of a file that never before occurred to him.
+
+He will find three things to astonish him:
+
+First: That of dimensions.
+
+Second: The difficulty of getting it square.
+
+Third: The character of the surface when he has finished it.
+
+FILING AN IRREGULAR BLOCK.--To file a block of an irregular character so
+that the dimensions are accurate, is a good test for an accomplished
+workman. The job is made doubly difficult if he is required to file it
+square at the same time. It will be found, invariably, that the sides
+will not be parallel, and by the time it is fully trued up the piece
+will be too small. See Figs. 44 and 45.
+
+Then, unless the utmost care is taken, the flat sides _will not_ be
+flat, but rounded.
+
+FILING A BAR STRAIGHT.--The next test is to get the boy to file a bar
+straight. He has no shaper or planer for the purpose, so that it must be
+done by hand. He will find himself lacking in two things: The edge of
+the bar will not be straight; nor will it be square with the side of the
+bar.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 44. Rounded Surface_ _Fig. 45. A Winding Face_]
+
+FILING BAR WITH PARALLEL SIDES.--Follow up this test by requiring him to
+file up a bar, first, with two exactly parallel sides, and absolutely
+straight, so it will pass smoothly between the legs of a pair of
+calipers, and then file the two other sides in like manner.
+
+SURFACING OFF DISKS.--When the foregoing are completed there is still
+another requirement which, though it appears simple, is the supreme
+test. Set him to work at surfacing off a pair of disks or plates, say
+one and a half inches in diameter, so that when they are finished they
+will fit against each other perfectly flat.
+
+A pair of such disks, if absolutely true, will hold together by the
+force of cohesion, even in a dry state, or they will, as it were, float
+against each other.
+
+TRUE SURFACING.--Prior to about 1850 the necessity of true surfacing was
+not so important or as well known as at the present time. About that
+period Sir J. Whitworth, an eminent English engineer and mechanic,
+called the attention of machinists to the great advantage arising from
+true surfaces and edges for all types of machinery, and he laid the
+foundation of the knowledge in accurating surfacing.
+
+PRECISION TOOLS.--Due to his energy many precision tools were made, all
+tending to this end, and as a result machines became better and more
+efficient in every way.
+
+It had this great advantage: It taught the workman of his day how to use
+the file and scraper, because both must be used conjunctively to make an
+absolutely flat plate.
+
+Contrary to general beliefs, shapers and planers do not make absolutely
+accurate surfaces. The test of this is to put together two plates so
+planed off. There is just enough unevenness to permit air to get between
+the plates. If they were perfectly true they would exclude all air, and
+it would be a difficult matter to draw them apart.
+
+TEST OF THE MECHANIC.--To make them perfectly flat, one plate has chalk
+rubbed over it, and the two plates are then rubbed together. This will
+quickly show where the high spots are, and the file and scraper are then
+used to cut away the metal.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 46. Fig. 47. Hexagon Nut_]
+
+In England the test of the mechanic used to be determined by his ability
+to file a piece of metal flat. It was regarded as the highest art. This
+is not the most desirable test at the present time, and it is recognized
+that a much severer test is to file a narrow piece exactly flat, and so
+that it will not have a trace of roundness, and be square from end to
+end.
+
+TEST SUGGESTIONS.--In a shop which does not have the advantage of a
+planer or shaper, there are so many articles which must be filed up,
+that it is interesting to know something of how the various articles are
+made with a file.
+
+To file a hexagon, or six-sided nut will be a good test with a file. To
+do this a little study in geometrical lines will save a vast amount of
+time. In beginning the work, measure the radius with a divider, and then
+step off and make six marks equidistant from each other on the round
+surface.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 48. Cutting Key-way_]
+
+USE OF THE DIVIDERS.--The distance between each of these points is equal
+to the radius, or half the diameter, of the round bar. See Fig. 46,
+which shows this. The marks should be scribed across the surface, as
+shown in Fig. 47, where the lines show the ends of the facets of the
+outside of the nut.
+
+Do not let the file obliterate the lines at the rough cutting, but
+leave enough material so you can make a good finish at the line.
+
+CUTTING A KEY-WAY.--Another job you may have frequent occasion to
+perform, is to cut a way for a key in a shaft and in a wheel hub.
+Naturally, this will be first roughed out with a cold chisel narrower
+than the key is to be, and also slightly shallower than the dimensions
+of the key.
+
+A flat file should be used for the purpose, first a heavy rough one, for
+the first cutting. The better way is to have the key so it can be
+frequently tried while the filing process is going on, so that to fit
+the key in this way is a comparatively easy task.
+
+KEY-WAY DIFFICULTIES.--But the trouble commences when the groove is
+filed for the depth. Invariably, the mistake will be made of filing the
+width first, so the key will fit in. As a result, in deepening the
+groove the file will contact with the walls, and you have a key-way too
+wide for the key.
+
+To avoid this, file the depth, or nearly so, and then with a fine file
+cut in the corners in the direction indicated by the dart, Fig. 48.
+
+A proper key is square in cross section. In such a case the depth of the
+key-way, at each side wall, is just half the width of the key-way.
+
+An excellent key-seat rule can be made by filing out two right-angled
+pieces, as shown in Fig. 49, which can be attached to the ordinary
+six-inch metal rule, and this will enable you to scribe the line
+accurately for the key-way on the shaft.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 49. Key-seat Rule_]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 50. Fig. 51. Filing Metal Round_]
+
+FILING METAL ROUND.--It is sometimes necessary to file a piece of metal
+round. This is a hard job, particularly where it is impossible to scribe
+the end of the piece. Suppose it is necessary to file up a bearing
+surface, or surfaces, intermediate the ends of a square bar.
+
+You have in that case four sides to start from, the opposite sides
+being parallel with each other, so that you will have two dimensions,
+and four equal sides, as shown in Fig. 50.
+
+The first step will be to file off accurately the four corners 1, 2, 3,
+4, so as to form eight equal sides or faces, as shown in Fig. 51. If you
+will now proceed to file down carefully the eight corners, so as to make
+sixteen sides, as in Fig. 52, the fourth set of corners filed down will
+make the filed part look like the illustration Fig. 53 with thirty-two
+faces.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 52. Fig. 53. Making a Bar Round_]
+
+This may be further filed down into sixty-four faces, and a few cuts of
+the finishing file will take off the little ridges which still remain.
+By using emery cloth, and wrapping it around the bearing portion, and
+changing it continually, while drawing it back and forth, will enable
+you to make a bearing which, by care, will caliper up in good shape.
+
+KINDS OF FILES.--Each file has five distinct properties; namely: the
+length, the contour, the form in cross section, the kind of teeth, and
+the fineness of the teeth.
+
+There are nine well-defined shapes for files. These may be enumerated as
+follows:
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 54. Cross Sections of Files._]
+
+No. 1. The cotter file. The small kind is called a verge or pivot file.
+
+No. 2. Square file, which may be tapering from end to end, or have
+parallel sides throughout.
+
+No. 3. Watch pinion file. This may have its sides parallel or tapering,
+to make a knife-shaped file.
+
+No. 4. Clock-pinion; which may be used for either nicking, piecing, or
+squaring-off purposes.
+
+No. 5. Round, with parallel sides for gulleting purposes, or rat-tail
+when it tapers.
+
+No. 6. Triangular, or three equally-sided body for saw filing.
+
+No. 7. Equalizing file. This is parallel when used for making
+clock-pinions or endless screws; or for slitting, entering, warding, or
+making barrel holes, when the body of the file tapers.
+
+No. 8. Cross, or double-round, half-file.
+
+No. 9. Slitting file; which has parallel sides only. A cant file.
+
+CHARACTER OF THE FILE TOOTH.--Files are distinguished principally by the
+character of the oblique, or cross grooves and ridges which do the
+cutting and abrading when the file is drawn across the surface.
+
+This is really more important than the shape, because the files, by
+their cuttings, are adapted for the various materials which they are to
+be used upon.
+
+The files are classified as _Double Cut_, of which there are the
+_rough_, _middle_, _bastard_, _second cut_, _smooth_, and _dead smooth_.
+
+The _Float Cut_, which is either _rough_, _bastard_ or _smooth_; and
+
+The _Rasp Cut_, either _rough_, _bastard_ or _smooth_.
+
+Several types are illustrated in Fig. 55, which show the characteristics
+of the various cuts.
+
+The rasps are used principally for soft material, such as wood or for
+hoofs, in horse shoeing, hence they need not be considered in connection
+with machine-shop work.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 55. Files._]
+
+HOLDING THE FILE.--The common mistake on the part of the beginner is to
+drag the file across the work at an angle. The body of the file should
+move across straight and not obliquely.
+
+Note this movement in Fig. 56 where the dash shows the correct movement
+of the file with relation to the work. Also observe that the file
+cutting ridges are not straight across the file, but at an angle to the
+direction of the dart.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 56. Correct File Movement_]
+
+INJURING FILES.--Now the frequent practice is to use the file as shown
+in Fig. 57, in which case it is moved across obliquely. The result is
+that the angle of the file cut is so disposed that the teeth of the file
+do not properly aid in the cutting, but in a measure retard the
+operation.
+
+File teeth are disposed at an angle for the purpose of giving them a
+shearing cut, which is the case when the file moves across the work on a
+line with its body.
+
+To use a file as shown in Fig. 57 injures the file without giving it an
+opportunity to cut as fast as it would when properly used.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 57. Incorrect File Movement_]
+
+DRAWING BACK THE FILE.--In drawing back a file it is always better to
+allow it to drag over the work than to raise it up. It is frequently the
+case that some of the material will lodge in the teeth, and the back
+lash will serve to clear out the grooves.
+
+This is particularly true in filing copper, aluminum, lead, and like
+metals, but it is well to observe this in all cases.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+HOW TO COMMENCE WORK
+
+
+The question is often asked: Where and how shall the novice commence
+work?
+
+When the shop is equipped, or partially so, sufficient, at least, to
+turn out simple jobs, the boy will find certain tools which are
+strangers to him. He must become acquainted with them and not only learn
+their uses, but how to use them to the best advantage.
+
+FAMILIARITY WITH TOOLS.--Familiarity with the appearance of tools, and
+seeing them in the hands of others will not be of any value. Nothing but
+the immediate contact with the tool will teach how to use it.
+
+FILE PRACTICE.--The file is a good tool to pick up first. Select a piece
+of metal, six or eight inches long, and follow the instructions laid
+down in the chapter relating to the use of the file.
+
+Practice with several kinds and with different varieties of material
+will soon give an inkling of the best kind to use with the metal you
+have. Use the straight edge and the square while the filing process is
+going on, and apply them frequently, to show you what speed you are
+making and how nearly true you are surfacing up the piece.
+
+USING THE DIVIDERS.--Then try your hand using the dividers, in
+connection with a centering punch. As an example, take two pieces of
+metal, each about a foot long, and set the dividers to make a short
+span, say an inch or so, and step off the length of one piece of metal,
+and punch the last mark. Then do likewise with the other piece of metal,
+and see how nearly alike the two measurements are by comparing them.
+
+You will find a variation in the lengths of the two measurements at the
+first trials, and very likely will not be able to make the two pieces
+register accurately after many trials, even when using the utmost care.
+
+Sooner or later you will learn that you have not stepped paths along the
+two bars which were exactly straight, and this will account for the
+variations. In order to be accurate a line should be drawn along each
+piece of metal, and the dividers should step off the marks on that line.
+
+FINDING CENTERS.--By way of further experiment, it might be well to find
+the exact center of the ends of a square bar, putting in the punch marks
+and then mounting it in the lathe centers to see how accurately this has
+been done.
+
+If either end is out of true the punch marks can be corrected by
+inclining the punch, so that when it is struck it will move over the
+point in the direction of its true center. This may be followed up by
+centering the end of a round bar so as to make it true. This will be
+found to be a more difficult job, unless you have a center head, a tool
+made for that purpose.
+
+It is good practice, however, to make trials of all this work, as it
+will enable you to judge of measurements. It can be done with the
+dividers by using care in scribing the centers.
+
+HACK-SAW PRACTICE.--Practice with the hack-saw should be indulged in
+frequently. Learn to make a straight cut through a bar. Try to do this
+without using a square to guide you. One of the tests of a good mechanic
+is ability to judge a straight cut.
+
+The following plan is suggested as a test for the eye. Use a bar of iron
+or steel one inch square, and make a cut an eighth of an inch deep
+across it; then turn it around a quarter, so as to expose the nest face,
+and continue the cut along the side, the same depth, and follow this up
+with the remaining two sides, and see how near the end of the first cut
+and the finish cut come together. The test will surprise you.
+
+CUTTING METALS TRUE.--When you saw off the end of such a bar for trial
+purposes, use a square, after the cut is made, and note how much it is
+out of true in both directions. It is a curious fact that most mechanics
+are disposed to saw or cut crooked in one direction, either to the right
+or to the left. In tests made it is found that this defect is persisted
+in.
+
+It is practice only which will remedy this, and it would be well for the
+boy to learn this for himself as early in his career as possible, and
+correct the tendency to veer in either direction.
+
+The test of sawing around a round bar is also commended. After a few
+trials you will be surprised to see how your judgment will improve in
+practice.
+
+LATHE WORK.--Learn the uses of the chuck. As you have, probably,
+economized as much as possible, a universal chuck is not available,
+hence the first experience will be with an independent chuck, where the
+three dogs move independently of each other. This will give you some
+work to learn how you can get the job true.
+
+Now, before attempting to cut the material, thoroughly learn all the
+parts of the feed mechanism, and how to reverse, as well as to cross
+feed. Learn the operation of the operative parts so that your hand will
+instinctively find them, while the eye is on the work.
+
+FIRST STEPS.--See to it that your tools are sharp, and at the first
+trials make light cuts. Practice the feeds by manually moving the tool
+holder, for surface cutting as well as for cross cutting.
+
+SETTING THE TOOL.--Set the cutting tool at various angles, and try the
+different tools, noting the peculiarities of each, at the different
+speeds. Do not, by any means, use refractory metals for your first
+attempt. Mild steel is a good test, and a light gray iron is admirable
+for practice lessons.
+
+METALS USED.--Brass is good for testing purposes, but the difficulty is
+that the tendency of the boy, at first, is to try to do the work too
+rapidly, and brass encourages this tendency. Feed slowly and regularly
+until you can make an even finish.
+
+Then chuck and re-chuck to familiarize yourself with every operative
+part of the lathe, and never try to force the cutting tool. If it has a
+tendency to run into the work, set it higher. If, on the other hand, you
+find, in feeding, that it is hard to move the tool post along, the tool
+is too high, and should be lowered.
+
+THE FOUR IMPORTANT THINGS.--Constant practice of this kind will soon
+enable you to feel instinctively when the tool is doing good work. While
+you are thus experimenting do not forget the speed. This will need your
+attention.
+
+Remember, you have several things to think about in commencing to run
+the lathe, all of which will take care of themselves when it becomes
+familiar to you. These may be enumerated as follows:
+
+First: The kind of tool best to use.
+
+Second: Its proper set, to do the best work.
+
+Third: The speed of the work in the lathe.
+
+Fourth: The feed, or the thickness of the cut into the material.
+
+TURNING UP A CYLINDER.--The first and most important work is to turn up
+a small cylinder to a calipered dimension. When it is roughed down ready
+for the finish cut, set the tool so it will take off a sufficient amount
+to prevent the caliper from spanning it, and this will enable you to
+finish it off with emery paper, or allow another small cut to be taken.
+
+TURNING GROOVES.--Then follow this up by turning in a variety of annular
+grooves of different depths and widths; and also V-shaped grooves, the
+latter to be performed by using both the longitudinal and transverse
+feeds. This will give you excellent practice in using both hands
+simultaneously.
+
+The next step would be to turn out a bore and fit a mandrel into it.
+This will give you the opportunity to use the caliper to good advantage,
+and will test your capacity to use them for inside as well as for
+outside work.
+
+DISCS.--A job that will also afford good exercise is to turn up a disc
+with a groove in its face, and then chuck and turn another disk with an
+annular rib on its face to fit into the groove. This requires delicacy
+of measurement with the inside as well as the outside calipers.
+
+The groove should be cut first, and the measurement taken from that, as
+it is less difficult to handle and set the tool for the rib than for the
+groove.
+
+LATHE SPEEDS.--Do not make the too common mistake of running the mandrel
+at high speeds in your initial tests. It is far better to use a slow
+speed, and take a heavy cut. This is good advice at all times, but it is
+particularly important with beginners.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+ILLUSTRATING SOME OF THE FUNDAMENTAL DEVICES
+
+
+There are numerous little devices and shop expedients which are
+desirable, and for which the boy will find uses as he progresses.
+
+We devote this chapter to hints of this kind, all of which are capable
+of being turned out or utilized at various stages.
+
+LACING BELTS.--To properly lace a belt is quite an art, as many who have
+tried it know. If a belt runs off the pulley it is attributable to one
+of three causes: either the pulleys are out of line or the shafts are
+not parallel or the belt is laced so it makes the belt longer at one
+margin than the other.
+
+In Fig. 58 the lacing should commence at the center hole (A) of one belt
+end and lace outwardly, terminating at the hole (B) in the center of the
+other belt end, as shown in Fig. 58.
+
+In Fig. 59 the lacing commences at A, and terminates at the hole (B) at
+the edge. This will be ample for all but the widest belts.
+
+Fig. 60 is adapted for a narrow belt. The lacing commences at one margin
+hole (A), and terminates at the other margin hole (Z).
+
+Fig. 61 shows the outside of the belt.
+
+Fig. 62. GEARS.--This is something every boy ought to know about. Fig.
+62 shows a pair of intermeshing bevel gears. This is the correct term
+for a pair when both are of the same diameter.
+
+[Illustration: _Inside Fig. 58. Belt Lacing_
+ _Outside Fig. 58. Belt Lacing_
+ _Fig. 59. Belt Lacing_
+ _Fig. 60. Belt Lacing_
+ _Fig. 61. Belt Lacing_]
+
+MITER GEARS.--In Fig. 63 we have a pair of miter gears, one being larger
+than the other. Remember this distinction.
+
+Fig. 64. CROWN WHEEL.--This is a simple manner of transmitting motion
+from one shaft to another, when the shafts are at right angles, or
+nearly so, without using bevel or miter gears.
+
+Fig. 65. GROOVED FRICTION GEARING.--Two grooved pulleys, which fit each
+other accurately, will transmit power without losing too much by
+friction. The deeper the grooves the greater is the loss by friction.
+
+Fig. 66. A VALVE WHICH CLOSES BY THE WATER PRESSURE.--The bibb has
+therein a movable valve on a horizontal stem, the valve being on the
+inside of the seat. The stem of the handle has at its lower end a crank
+bend, which engages with the outer end of the valve stem. When the
+handle is turned in either direction the valve is unseated. On releasing
+the handle the pressure of the water against the valve seats it.
+
+Fig. 67. CONE PULLEYS.--Two cone pulleys of equal size and taper provide
+a means whereby a change in speed can be transmitted from one shaft to
+another by merely moving the belt to and fro. The slightest change is
+available by this means.
+
+Fig. 68. UNIVERSAL JOINT.--A wheel, with four projecting pins, is placed
+between the U-shaped yokes on the ends of the approaching shafts. The
+pins serve as the pivots for the angles formed by the two shafts.
+
+Fig. 69. TRAMMEL FOR MAKING AN ELLIPSE.--This is a tool easily made,
+which will be of great service in the shop. In a disc (A), preferably
+made of brass, are two channels (B) at right angles to each other. The
+grooves are undercut, so that the blocks (C) will fit and slide in the
+grooves and be held therein by the dove-tailed formation. Each block is
+longer than the width of the groove, and has an outwardly projecting pin
+which passes through a bar (D). One pin (E) is movable along in a slot,
+but is adjustable at any point so that the shape of the ellipse may be
+varied. The end of the bar has a series of holes (G) for a pencil, so
+that the size of the ellipse may also be changed.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 62. Bevel Gears_
+ _Fig. 63. Miter Gears_
+ _Fig. 64. Crown Wheel_
+ _Fig. 65. Grooved Friction Gears_
+ _Fig. 66. Valve_
+ _Fig. 67. Cone Pulleys_
+ _Fig. 68. Universal Joint_]
+
+Fig. 70. ESCAPEMENTS.--Various forms of escapements may be made, but the
+object of all is the same. The device is designed to permit a wheel to
+move intermittingly or in a step by step movement, by the swinging
+motion of a pendulum. Another thing is accomplished by it. The teeth of
+the escapement are cut at such an angle that, as one of the teeth of the
+escapement is released from one tooth of the escapement wheel, the
+spring, or the weight of the clock, will cause one of the teeth of the
+escapement wheel to engage the other tooth of the escapement, and give
+the pendulum an impulse in the other direction. In the figure, A is the
+escapement, B the escapement wheels and _a_, _b_, the pallets, which
+are cut at suitable angles to actuate the pendulum.
+
+Fig. 71. SIMPLE DEVICE TO PREVENT A WHEEL OR SHAFT FROM TURNING
+BACK.--This is a substitute for a pawl and ratchet wheel. A is a drum or
+a hollow wheel and B a pulley on a shaft, and this pulley turns loosely
+with the drum (A). Four tangential slots (C) are cut into the perimeter
+of the pulley (B), and in each is a hardened steel roller (D). It
+matters not in what position the wheel (B) may be, at least two of the
+rollers will always be in contact with the inside of the drum (A), and
+thus cause the pulley and drum to turn together. On reversing the
+direction of the pulley the rollers are immediately freed from binding
+contact.
+
+Fig. 72. RACKS AND PINIONS.--The object of this form of mechanism is to
+provide a reciprocating, or back-and-forth motion, from a shaft which
+turns continually in one direction. A is the rack and B a mutilated
+gear. When the gear turns it moves the rack in one direction, because
+the teeth of the gear engage the lower rack teeth, and when the rack has
+moved to the end its teeth engage the teeth of the upper rack, thus
+reversing the movement of the rack.
+
+Fig. 73. MUTILATED GEARS.--These are made in so many forms, and adapted
+for such a variety of purposes, that we merely give a few samples to
+show what is meant by the term.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 69. Trammel_
+ _Fig. 70. Escapement_
+ _Fig. 71. Device for Holding Wheel_
+ _Fig. 72. Rack and Pinion_
+ _Fig. 73. Mutilated Gears_
+ _Fig. 74. Shaft Coupling_]
+
+Fig. 74. SIMPLE SHAFT COUPLING.--Prepare two similarly formed discs (A,
+B), which are provided with hubs so they may be keyed to the ends of the
+respective shafts. One disc has four or more projecting pins (C), and
+the other disc suitable holes (D) to receive the pins.
+
+Fig. 75. CLUTCHES.--This is a piece of mechanism which is required in so
+many kinds of machinery, that we show several of the most approved
+types.
+
+Fig. 76. BALL AND SOCKET JOINTS.--The most practical form of ball and
+socket joints is simply a head in which is a bowl-shaped cavity the
+depth of one-half of the ball. A plate with a central opening small
+enough to hold in the ball, and still large enough at the neck to
+permit the arm carrying the ball to swing a limited distance, is secured
+by threads, or by bolts, to the head. The first figure shows this.
+
+Fig. 77 illustrates a simple manner of tightening the ball so as to hold
+the standard in any desired position.
+
+Fig. 78. TRIPPING DEVICES.--These are usually in the form of hooks, so
+arranged that a slight pull on the tripping lever will cause the
+suspended articles to drop.
+
+Fig. 79. ANCHOR BOLT.--These are used in brick or cement walls. The bolt
+itself screws into a sleeve which is split, and draws a wedge nut up to
+the split end of the sleeve. As a result the split sleeve opens or
+spreads out and binds against the wall sufficiently to prevent the bolt
+from being withdrawn.
+
+Fig. 80. LAZY TONGS.--One of the simplest and most effective instruments
+for carrying ice, boxes or heavy objects, which are bulky or
+inconvenient to carry. It grasps the article firmly, and the heavier the
+weight the tighter is its grasp.
+
+Fig. 81. DISC SHEARS.--This is a useful tool either for cutting tin or
+paper, pasteboard and the like. It will cut by the act of drawing the
+material through it, but if power is applied to one or to both of the
+shafts the work is much facilitated, particularly in thick or hard
+material.
+
+[Illustration:
+ _Fig. 75. Clutches_
+ _Fig. 76. Ball and Socket Joints_
+ _Fig. 77. Fastening Ball_
+ _Fig. 78. Tripping Devices_
+ _Fig. 79. Anchor Bolt_
+ _Fig. 80. Lazy Tongs._
+ _Fig. 81. Disc Shears._]
+
+Fig. 82. WABBLE SAW.--This is a most simple and useful tool, as it will
+readily and quickly saw out a groove so that it is undercut. The saw is
+put on the mandrel at an angle, as will be seen, and should be run at a
+high rate of speed.
+
+Fig. 83. CRANK MOTION BY A SLOTTED YOKE.--This produces a straight
+back-and-forth movement from the circular motion of a wheel or crank. It
+entirely dispenses with a pitman rod, and it enables the machine, or the
+part of the machine operated, to be placed close to the crank.
+
+Fig. 84. CONTINUOUS FEED BY THE MOTION OF A LEVER.--The simple lever
+with a pawl on each side of the fulcrum is the most effective means to
+make a continuous feed by the simple movement of a lever. The form shown
+is capable of many modifications, and it can be easily adapted for any
+particular work desired.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 82. Wabble Saw_
+ _Fig. 83. Continuous Crank Motion_
+ _Fig. 84. Continuous Feed_
+ _Fig. 85. Crank Motion_
+ _Fig. 86. Ratchet Head_
+ _Fig. 87. Bench Clamp_]
+
+Fig. 85. CRANK MOTION.--By the structure shown, namely, a slotted lever
+(A), a quick return can be made with the lever. B indicates the fulcrum.
+
+Fig. 86. RATCHET HEAD.--This shows a well-known form for common ratchet.
+It has the advantage that the radially movable plugs (A) are
+tangentially disposed, and rest against walls (B) eccentrically
+disposed, and are, therefore, in such a position that they easily slide
+over the inclines.
+
+Fig. 87. BENCH CLAMP.--A pair of dogs (A, B), with the ends bent toward
+each other, and pivoted midway between the ends to the bench in such a
+position that the board (C), to be held between them, on striking the
+rear ends of the dogs, will force the forward ends together, and thus
+clamp it firmly for planing or other purposes.
+
+[Illustration:
+ _Fig. 88. Helico-Volute Spring_
+ _Fig. 89. Double Helico-Volute_
+ _Fig. 90. Helical Spring_
+ _Fig. 91. Single Volute Helix-Spring_
+ _Fig. 92. Flat Spiral or Convolute_
+ _Fig. 93. Eccentric Rod and Strap_
+ _Fig. 94. Anti-Dead Center for Foot-Lathes_]
+
+Fig. 88. HELICO-VOLUTE SPRING.--This is a form of spring for tension
+purposes. The enlarged cross-section of the coil in its middle portion,
+with the ends tapering down to the eyes, provides a means whereby the
+pull is transferred from the smaller to the larger portions, without
+producing a great breaking strain near the ends.
+
+Fig. 89. DOUBLE HELICO-VOLUTE.--This form, so far as the outlines are
+considered, is the opposite of Fig. 88. A compression spring of this
+kind has a very wide range of movement.
+
+Fig. 90. HELICAL SPRING.--This form of coil, uniform from end to end, is
+usually made of metal which is square in cross-section, and used where
+it is required for heavy purposes.
+
+Fig. 91. SINGLE VOLUTE HELIX-SPRING.--This is also used for compression,
+intended where tremendous weights or resistances are to be overcome, and
+when the range of movement is small.
+
+Fig. 92. FLAT SPIRAL, OR CONVOLUTE.--This is for small machines. It is
+the familiar form used in watches owing to its delicate structure, and
+it is admirably adapted to yield to the rocking motion of an arbor.
+
+Fig. 93. ECCENTRIC ROD AND STRAP.--A simple and convenient form of
+structure, intended to furnish a reciprocating motion where a crank is
+not available. An illustration of its use is shown on certain types of
+steam engine to operate the valves.
+
+Fig. 94. ANTI-DEAD CENTER FOR FOOT-LATHES.--A flat, spiral spring (A),
+with its coiled end attached to firm support (B), has its other end
+pivotally attached to the crank-pin (C), the tension of the spring being
+such that when the lathe stops the crack-pin will always be at one side
+of the dead-center, thus enabling the operator to start the machine by
+merely pressing the foot downwardly on the treadle (D).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
+
+
+A workman is able to select the right metals because he knows that each
+has some peculiar property which is best adapted for his particular use.
+These with their meaning will now be explained.
+
+ELASTICITY.--This exists in metals in three distinct ways: First, in the
+form of _traction_. Hang a weight on a wire and it will stretch a
+certain amount. When the weight is removed the wire shrinks back to its
+original length.
+
+Second: If the weight on the wire is rotated, so as to twist it, and the
+hand is taken from the weight, it will untwist itself, and go back to
+its original position. This is called _torsion_.
+
+Third: A piece of metal may be coiled up like a watch spring, or bent
+like a carriage spring, and it will yield when pressure is applied. This
+is called _flexure_.
+
+Certain kinds of steel have these qualities in a high degree.
+
+TENACITY.--This is a term used to express the resistance which the body
+opposes to the separation of its parts. It is determined by forming the
+metal into a wire, and hanging on weights, to find how much will be
+required to break it. If we have two wires, the first with a transverse
+area only one-quarter that of the second, and the first breaks at 25
+pounds, while the second breaks at 50 pounds, the tenacity of the first
+is twice as great as that of the second.
+
+To the boy who understands simple ratio in mathematics, the problem
+would be like this:
+
+25 × 4 : 50 × 1, or as 2 : 1.
+
+THE MOST TENACIOUS METAL.--Steel has the greatest tenacity of all
+metals, and lead the least. In proportion to weight, however, there are
+many substances which have this property in a higher degree. Cotton
+fibers will support millions of times their own weight.
+
+There is one peculiar thing, that tenacity varies with the form of the
+body. A solid cylindrical body has a greater strength than a square one
+of the same size; and a hollow cylinder more tenacity than a solid one.
+This principle is well known in the bones of animals, in the feathers of
+birds, and in the stems of many plants.
+
+In almost every metal tenacity diminishes as the temperature increases.
+
+DUCTILITY.--This is a property whereby a metal may be drawn out to form
+a wire. Some metals, like cast iron, have absolutely no ductility. The
+metal which possesses this property to the highest degree, is platinum.
+Wires of this metal have been drawn out so fine that over 30,000 of them
+laid side by side would measure only one inch across, and a mile of such
+wire would weigh only a grain, or one seven-thousandth of a pound.
+
+MALLEABILITY.--This is considered a modification of ductility. Any
+metal which can be beaten out, as with a hammer, or flattened into
+sheets with rollers, is considered malleable. Gold possesses this
+property to the highest degree. It has been beaten into leaves one
+three-hundred-thousandth of an inch thick.
+
+HARDNESS.--This is the resistance which bodies offer to being scratched
+by others. As an example, the diamond has the capacity to scratch all,
+but cannot be scratched by any other.
+
+ALLOYS.--Alloys, that is a combination of two or more metals, are harder
+than the pure metals, and for this reason jewelry, and coins, are
+usually alloyed.
+
+The resistance of a body to compression does not depend upon its
+hardness. Strike a diamond with a hammer and it flies to pieces, but
+wood does not. One is brittle and the other is tough.
+
+The machinist can utilize this property by understanding that velocity
+enables a soft material to cut a harder one. Thus, a wrought iron disc
+rotating rapidly, will cut such hard substances as agate or quartz.
+
+RESISTANCE.--All metals offer more or less resistance to the flow of an
+electric current. Silver offers the least resistance, and German silver
+the greatest. Temperature also affects the flow. It passes more easily
+over a cold than a warm conductor.
+
+PERSISTENCE.--All metals on receiving heat, will retain it for a certain
+length of time, and will finally cool down to the temperature of the
+surrounding atmosphere. Some, like aluminum, retain it for a long time;
+others, as iron, will give it off quickly.
+
+CONDUCTIVITY.--All metals will conduct heat and cold, as well as
+electricity. If one end of a metal bar is heated, the heat creeps along
+to the other end until it has the same temperature throughout. This is
+called _equalization_.
+
+If a heated bar is placed in contact with another, the effect is to
+increase the temperature of the cold bar and lower that of the warm bar.
+This is called _reciprocity_.
+
+MOLECULAR FORCES.--_Molecular_ attraction is a force which acts in such
+a way as to bring all the particles of a body together. It acts in
+three ways, dependent on the particular conditions which exist.
+
+First: _Cohesion_. This exists between molecules which are of the same
+kind, as for instance, iron. Cohesion of the particles is very strong in
+solids, much weaker in liquids, and scarcely exists at all between the
+particles in gases.
+
+Second: _Adhesion_ is that property which exists between the surfaces of
+bodies in contact. If two flat surfaces are pressed together, as for
+instance, two perfectly smooth and flat pieces of lead, they will
+adhere. If, for instance, oil should be put on the surfaces, before
+putting them together, they would adhere so firmly that it would be
+difficult to pull them apart.
+
+Third: _Affinity_. This is another peculiarity about materials. Thus,
+while cohesion binds together the molecules of water, it is chemical
+affinity which unites two elements, like hydrogen and oxygen, of which
+water is composed.
+
+POROSITY.--All matter has little hollows or spaces between the
+molecules. You know what this is in the case of a sponge, or pumice
+stone. Certain metals have the pores so small that it is difficult to
+see them except with a very powerful glass. Under great pressure water
+can be forced through the pores of metals, as has been done in the case
+of gold. Water also is porous, but the spaces between the molecules are
+very small.
+
+COMPRESSIBILITY.--It follows from the foregoing statement, that if there
+are little interstices between the molecules, the various bodies can be
+compressed together. This can be done in varying degrees with all
+solids, but liquids, generally, have little compressibility. Gases are
+readily reduced in volume by compression.
+
+ELASTICITY.--This is a property by virtue of which a body resumes its
+original form when compressed. India rubber, ivory and glass are
+examples of elasticity; whereas, lead and clay do not possess this
+property. Air is the most elastic of all substances.
+
+INERTIA.--This is a property of matter by virtue of which it cannot of
+itself change its state of motion or of rest.
+
+Newton's first law of motion is, in substance, that matter at rest will
+eternally remain at rest, and matter in motion will forever continue in
+motion, unless acted on by some external force.
+
+A rider is carried over the head of a horse when the latter suddenly
+stops. This illustrates the inertia of movement. A stone at rest will
+always remain in that condition unless moved by some force. That shows
+the inertia of rest.
+
+MOMENTUM.--This is the term to designate the quantity of motion in a
+body. This quantity varies and is dependent on the mass, together with
+the velocity. A fly wheel is a good example. It continues to move after
+the impelling force ceases; and a metal wheel has greater momentum than
+a wooden wheel at the same speed, owing to its greater mass.
+
+If, however, the wooden wheel is speeded up sufficiently it may have the
+same momentum as the metal one.
+
+WEIGHT.--All substances have what is called _weight_. This means that
+everything is attracted toward the earth by the force of gravity.
+Gravity, however, is different from weight. All substances attract each
+other; not only in the direction of the center of the earth, but
+laterally, as well.
+
+Weight, therefore, has reference to the pull of an object toward the
+earth; and gravity to that influence which all matter has for each other
+independently of the direction.
+
+CENTRIPETAL FORCE.--This attraction of the earth, which gives articles
+the property of weight, is termed centripetal force--that is, the
+drawing in of a body.
+
+CENTRIFUGAL FORCE.--The direct opposite of centripetal, is centrifugal
+force, which tends to throw outwardly. Dirt flying from a rapidly
+moving wheel illustrates this.
+
+CAPILLARY ATTRACTION.--There is a peculiar property in liquids, which
+deserves attention, and should be understood, and that is the name given
+to the tendency of liquids to rise in fine tubes.
+
+It is stated that water will always find its level. While this is true,
+we have an instance where, owing to the presence of a solid, made in a
+peculiar form, causes the liquid, within, to rise up far beyond the
+level of the water.
+
+This may be illustrated by three tubes of different internal diameters.
+The liquid rises up higher in the second than in the first, and still
+higher in the third than in the second. The smaller the tube the greater
+the height of the liquid.
+
+This is called _capillary attraction_, the word capillary meaning a
+hair. The phenomena is best observed when seen in tubes which are as
+fine as hairs. The liquid has an affinity for the metal, and creeps up
+the inside, and the distance it will thus move depends on the size of
+the tube.
+
+THE SAP OF TREES.--The sap of trees goes upwardly, not because the tree
+is alive, but due to this property in the contact of liquids with a
+solid. It is exactly on the same principle that if the end of a piece of
+blotting paper is immersed in water, the latter will creep up and
+spread over the entire surface of the sheet.
+
+In like manner, oil moves upwardly in a wick, and will keep on doing so,
+until the lighted wick is extinguished, when the flow ceases. When it is
+again lighted the oil again flows, as before.
+
+If it were not for this principle of capillary attraction, it would be
+difficult to form a bubble of air in a spirit level. You can readily see
+how the liquid at each end of the air bubble rounds it off, as though it
+tried to surround it.
+
+SOUND.--Sound is caused by vibration, and it would be impossible to
+convey it without an elastic medium of some kind.
+
+_Acoustics_ is a branch of physics which treats of sounds. It is
+distinguished from music which has reference to the particular kinds.
+
+_Sounds_ are distinguished from _noises_. The latter are discordant and
+abrupt vibrations, whereas the former are regular and continuous.
+
+SOUND MEDIUMS.--Gases, vapors, liquids and solids transmit vibrations,
+but liquids and solids propagate with greater velocity than gases.
+
+VIBRATION.--A vibration is the moving to and fro of the molecules in a
+body, and the greater their movement the more intense is the sound. The
+intensity of the sound is affected by the density of the atmosphere, and
+the movement of the winds also changes its power of transmission.
+
+Sound is also made more intense if a sonorous body is near its source.
+This is taken advantage of in musical instruments, where a
+sounding-board is used, as in the case of the piano, and in the violin,
+which has a thin shell as a body for holding the strings.
+
+Another curious thing is shown in the speaking tube, where the sound
+waves are confined, so that they are carried along in one line, and as
+they are not interfered with will transmit the vibrations to great
+distances.
+
+VELOCITY OF SOUND.--The temperature of the air has also an effect on the
+rate of transmission, but for general purposes a temperature of 62
+degrees has been taken as the standard. The movement is shown to be
+about 50 miles in 4 minutes, or at the rate of 1,120 feet per second.
+
+In water, however, the speed is four times greater; and in iron nearly
+fifteen times greater. Soft earth is a poor conductor, while rock and
+solid earth convey very readily. Placing the ear on a railway track will
+give the vibrations of a moving train miles before it can be heard
+through the air.
+
+SOUND REFLECTIONS.--Sound waves move outwardly from the object in the
+form of wave-like rings, but those concentric rings, as they are
+called, may be interrupted at various points by obstacles. When that is
+the case the sound is buffeted back, producing what is called echoes.
+
+RESONANCE.--Materials have a quality that produces a very useful result,
+called _resonance_, and it is one of the things that gives added effect
+to a speaker's voice in a hall, where there is a constant succession of
+echoes. A wall distant from the speaker about 55 feet, produces an
+almost instantaneous reflection of the sound, and at double that
+measurement the effect is still stronger. When the distance is too short
+for the reflecting sound to be heard, we have _resonance_. It enriches
+the sound of the voice, and gives a finer quality to musical
+instruments.
+
+ECHOES.--When sounds are heard after the originals are emitted they tend
+to confusion, and the quality of resonance is lost. There are places
+where echoes are repeated many times. In the chateau of Simonetta,
+Italy, a sound will be repeated thirty times.
+
+SPEAKING TRUMPET.--This instrument is an example of the use of
+reflection. It is merely a bell-shaped, or flaring body, the large end
+of which is directed to the audience. The voice talking into the small
+end is directed forwardly, and is reflected from the sides, and its
+resonance also enables the vibrations to carry farther than without the
+use of the solid part of the instrument.
+
+The ear trumpet is an illustration of a sound-collecting device, the
+waves being brought together by reflection.
+
+THE STETHOSCOPE.--This is an instrument used by physicians, and it is so
+delicate that the movements of the organs of the body can be heard with
+great distinctness. It merely collects the vibrations, and transmits
+them to the ears by the small tubes which are connected with the
+collecting bell.
+
+THE VITASCOPE.--Numerous instruments have been devised to determine
+the rate of vibration of different materials and structures, the most
+important being the _vitascope_, which has a revolvable cylinder,
+blackened with soot, and this being rotated at a certain speed, the
+stylus, which is attached to the vibrating body, in contact with the
+cylinder, will show the number per second, as well as the particular
+character of each oscillation.
+
+THE PHONAUTOGRAPH.--This instrument is used to register the vibration of
+wind instruments, as well as the human voice, and the particular forms
+of the vibrations are traced on a cylinder, the tracing stylus being
+attached to a thin vibrating membrane which is affected by the voice or
+instrument.
+
+THE PHONOGRAPH.--This instrument is the outgrowth of the stylus forms of
+the apparatus described, but in this case the stylus, or needle, is
+fixed to a metallic diaphragm, and its point makes an impression on
+suitable material placed on the outside of a revolvable cylinder or
+disc.
+
+Light.-Light is the agent which excites the sensation of vision in the
+eye. Various theories have been advanced by scientists to account for
+the phenomenon, and the two most noted views are the _corpuscular_,
+promulgated by Sir Isaac Newton, and the _undulatory_, enunciated by
+Huygens and Euler.
+
+The _corpuscular_ theory conceives that light is a substance of
+exceedingly light particles which are shot forth with immense velocity.
+The _undulatory_ theory, now generally accepted, maintains that light is
+carried by vibrations in ether. Ether is a subtle elastic medium which
+fills all space.
+
+_Luminous_ bodies are those like the sun, which emit light. Rays may
+_diverge_, that is, spread out; _converge_, or point toward each other;
+or they may be _parallel_ with each other.
+
+VELOCITY OF LIGHT.--Light moves at the rate of about 186,000 miles a
+second. As the sun is about 94,000,000 miles from the earth, it takes
+8-1/2 minutes for the light of the sun to reach us.
+
+REFLECTION.--One of the most important things connected with light is
+that of reflection. It is that quality which is utilized in telescopes,
+microscopes, mirrors, heliograph signaling and other like apparatus and
+uses. The underlying principle is, that a ray is reflected, or thrown
+back from a mirror at the same angle as that which produces the light.
+
+When the rays of the sun, which are, of course, parallel, strike a
+concave mirror, the reflecting rays are converged; and when the rays
+strike a convex mirror they diverge. In this way the principle is
+employed in reflecting telescopes.
+
+REFRACTION.--This is the peculiar action of light in passing through
+substances. If a ray passes through water at an angle to the surface the
+ray will bend downwardly in passing through, and then again pass on in a
+straight line. This will be noticed if a pencil is stood in a glass of
+water at an angle, when it will appear bent.
+
+Refraction is that which enables light to be divided up, or analyzed. In
+this way white light from the sun is shown to be composed of seven
+principal colors.
+
+COLORS.--If the light is passed through a prism, which is a triangularly
+shaped piece of glass, the rays on emerging will diverge from each
+other, and when they fall on a wall or screen the colors red, orange,
+yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet are shown.
+
+The reason for this is that the ray in passing through the prism has the
+different colors in it refract at different angles, the violet bending
+more than the red.
+
+THE SPECTROSCOPE.--The ability to make what is thus called a _spectrum_,
+brought forth one of the most wonderful instruments ever devised by man.
+If any metal, or material, is fused, or put in such a condition that a
+ray of light can be obtained from it, and this light is passed through a
+prism, it will be found that each substance has its own peculiar
+divisions and arrangements of colors.
+
+In this way substances are determined by what is called _spectrum
+analysis_, and it is by means of this instrument that the composition of
+the sun, and the planets and fixed stars are determined.
+
+THE RAINBOW.--The rainbow is one of the effects of refraction, as the
+light, striking the little globular particles of water suspended in the
+air, produces a breaking up of the white light into its component
+colors, and the sky serves as a background for viewing the analysis thus
+made.
+
+HEAT.--It is now conclusively proven, that heat, like light, magnetism
+and electricity, is merely a mode of motion.
+
+The _mechanical_ theory of heat may be shown by rubbing together several
+bodies. Heat expands all substances, except ice, and in expanding
+develops an enormous force.
+
+EXPANSION.--In like manner liquids expand with heat. The power of
+mercury in expanding may be understood when it is stated that a pressure
+of 10,000 pounds would be required to prevent the expansion of mercury,
+when heated simply 10 degrees.
+
+Gases also expand. While water, and the different solids, all have their
+particular units of expansion, it is not so with gases, as all have the
+same coefficient.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+HOW DRAUGHTING BECOMES A VALUABLE AID
+
+
+The ability to read drawings is a necessary part of the boy's education.
+To know how to use the tools, is still more important. In conveying an
+idea about a piece of mechanism, a sketch is given. Now, the sketch may
+be readable in itself, requiring no explanation, or it may be of such a
+nature that it will necessitate some written description.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 95. Plain Circle_]
+
+LINES IN DRAWING.--In drawing, lines have a definite meaning. A plain
+circular line, like Fig. 95, when drawn in that way, conveys three
+meanings: It may represent a rim, or a bent piece of wire; it may
+illustrate a disk; or, it may convey the idea of a ball.
+
+Suppose we develop them to express the three forms accurately. Fig. 96,
+by merely adding an interior line, shows that it is a rim. There can be
+no further doubt about that expression.
+
+Fig. 97 shows a single line, but it will now be noticed that the line is
+thickened at the lower right-hand side, and from this you can readily
+infer that it is a disk.
+
+SHADING.--Fig. 98, by having a few shaded lines on the right and lower
+side, makes it have the appearance of a globe or a convex surface.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 96. Ring_
+_Fig. 97. Raised Surface_
+_Fig. 98. Sphere_]
+
+Shading or thickening the lines also gives another expression to the
+same circular line.
+
+In Fig. 99, if the upper and left-hand side of the circle is heavily
+shaded, it shows that the area within the circle is depressed, instead
+of being raised.
+
+DIRECTION OF SHADE.--On the other hand, if the shading lines, as in Fig.
+100, are at the upper left-hand side, then the mind at once grasps the
+idea of a concave surface.
+
+The first thing, therefore, to keep in mind, is this fact: That in all
+mechanical drawing, the light is supposed to shine down from the upper
+left-hand corner and that, as a result, the lower vertical line, as well
+as the extreme right-hand vertical line, casts the shadows, and should,
+therefore, be made heavier than the upper horizontal, and the left-hand
+vertical lines.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 99. Depressed Surface_ _Fig. 100. Concave_]
+
+There are exceptions to this rule, which will be readily understood by
+following out the illustrations in the order given below.
+
+PERSPECTIVES.--The utility of the heavy lines will be more apparent when
+drawing square, rectangular, or triangular objects.
+
+Let us take Fig. 101, which appears to be the perspective of a cube.
+Notice that all lines are of the same thickness. When the sketch was
+first brought to me I thought it was a cube; but the explanation which
+followed, showed that the man who made the sketch had an entirely
+different meaning.
+
+He had intended to convey to my mind the idea of three pieces, A, B, C,
+of metal, of equal size, joined together so as to form a triangularly
+shaped pocket as shown in Fig. 101. The addition of the inner lines,
+like D, quickly dispelled the suggestion of the cube.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 101. Fig. 102. Fig. 103. Fig. 104.
+ Forms of Cubical Outlines_]
+
+"But," he remarked, "I want to use the thinnest metal, like sheets of
+tin; and you show them thick by adding the inner lines."
+
+Such being the case, if we did not want to show thickness as its
+structural form, we had to do it by making the lines themselves and the
+shading give that structural idea. This was done by using the single
+lines, as in Fig. 103, and by a slight shading of the pieces A, B, C.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 105. Fig. 106. Shading Edges_]
+
+THE MOST PRONOUNCED LINES.--If it had been a cube, or a solid block, the
+corners nearest the eye would have been most pronounced, as in Fig. 104,
+and the side next to the observer would have been darkest.
+
+This question of light and shadow is what expresses the surface
+formation of every drawing. Simple strokes form outlines of the object,
+but their thickness, and the shading, show the character enclosed by the
+LINES. DIRECTION OF LIGHT.--Now, as stated, the casting of the shadow
+downward from the upper left-hand corner makes the last line over which
+it passes the thickest, and in Figs. 105 and 106 they are not the
+extreme lines at the bottom and at the right side, because of the close
+parallel lines.
+
+In Figs. 109 and 110 the blades superposed on the other are very thin,
+and the result is the lines at the right side and bottom are made much
+heavier.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 107. Fig. 108. Illustrating Heavy Lines_]
+
+This is more fully shown in Figs. 107 and 108. Notice the marked
+difference between the two figures, both of which show the same set of
+pulleys, and the last figure, by merely having the lower and the
+right-hand lines of each pulley heavy, changes the character of the
+representation, and tells much more clearly what the draughtsman sought
+to convey.
+
+SCALE DRAWINGS.--All drawings are made to a scale where the article is
+large and cannot be indicated the exact size, using parts of an inch to
+represent inches; and parts of a foot to represent feet.
+
+In order to reduce a drawing where a foot is the unit, it is always best
+to use one-and-a-half inches, or twelve-eighths of an inch, as the
+basis. In this way each eighth of an inch represents an inch. If the
+drawing should be made larger, then use three inches, and in that way
+each inch would be one-quarter of an inch.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 109. Fig. 110. Lines on Plain Surfaces_]
+
+The drawing should then have marked, in some conspicuous place, the
+scale, like the following: "Scale, 1-1/2" = 1'"; or, "Scale 3" = 1'."
+
+DEGREE, AND WHAT IT MEANS.--A degree is not a measurement. The word is
+used to designate an interval, a position, or an angle. Every circle has
+360 degrees, and when a certain degree is mentioned, it means a certain
+angle from what is called a _base line_.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 111. Illustrating Degrees_]
+
+Look at Fig. 111. This has a vertical line A, and a horizontal line B.
+The circle is thus divided into four parts, and where these lines A, B,
+cross the circle are the cardinal points. Each of the four parts is
+called a quadrant, and each quadrant has 90 degrees.
+
+Any line, like C, which is halfway between A and B, is 45 degrees.
+Halfway between A and C, or between B and C, like the line D, is 22-1/2
+degrees.
+
+MEMORIZING ANGLES.--It is well to try and remember these lines by fixing
+the angles in the memory. A good plan is to divide any of the quadrants
+into thirds, as shown by the points E, F, and then remember that E is 30
+degrees from the horizontal line B, and that F is 60 degrees. Or, you
+might say that F is 30 degrees from the vertical line A, and E 60
+degrees from A. Either would be correct.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 112. Section Lining_]
+
+SECTION LINING.--In representing many parts of a machine, or article, it
+is necessary to show the parts cut off, which must be illustrated by
+what is called "section lining." Adjacent parts should have the section
+lines running at right angles to each other, and always at 45 degrees.
+
+Look at the outside and then the inside views of Fig. 112, and you will
+see how the contiguous parts have the angles at right angles, and
+clearly illustrate how every part of the wrench is made. Skill in
+depicting an article, for the purpose of constructing it from the
+drawing, will make the actual work on the bench and lathe an easy one.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 113. Drawing an Ellipse_]
+
+MAKING ELLIPSES AND IRREGULAR CURVES.--This is the hardest thing to do
+with drawing tools. A properly constructed elliptical figure is
+difficult, principally, because two different sized curves are
+required, and the pen runs from one curve into the other. If the two
+curves meet at the wrong place, you may be sure you will have a
+distorted ellipse.
+
+Follow the directions given in connection with Fig. 113, and it will
+give you a good idea of merging the two lines.
+
+First. Draw a horizontal line, A, which is in the direction of the major
+axis of the ellipse--that is, the longest distance across. The narrow
+part of the ellipse is called the minor axis.
+
+Second. Draw a perpendicular line, B, which we will call the center of
+the ellipse, where it crosses the line A. This point must not be
+confounded with the _focus_. In a circle the focus is the exact center
+of the ring, but there is no such thing in an ellipse. Instead, there
+are two focal points, called the _foci_, as you will see presently.
+
+Third. Step off two points or marking places, as we shall term them,
+equidistant from the line B, and marked C, C. These marks will then
+represent the diameter of the ellipse across its major axis.
+
+Fourth. We must now get the diameter of the minor axis, along the line
+B. This distance will depend on the perspective you have of the figure.
+If you look at a disk at an angle of about 30 degrees it will be half of
+the distance across the major axis.
+
+So you may understand this examine Fig. 114. The first sketch shows the
+eye looking directly at the disk 1. In the second sketch the disk is at
+30 degrees, and now the lines 2 2, from the eye, indicate that it is
+just half the width that it was when the lines 3 3 were projected. The
+marks D D, therefore, indicate the distance across the minor axis in
+Fig. 113.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 114. Perspection in Angles_]
+
+Fifth. We must now find the focal points of the ellipse. If the line A
+on each side of the cross line B is divided into four parts, the outer
+marks E may be used for the foci, and will be the places where the point
+of the compass, or bow pen, is to be placed.
+
+Sixth. Describe a circle F, so it passes through the mark C, and move
+the point of the compass to the center of the ellipse, at the star, and
+describe a circle line G, from the mark C to the line B. This will give
+a centering point H. Then draw a line I from H to E, and extend it
+through the circle F.
+
+Seventh. If the point of the compass is now put at H, and the pencil or
+pen on the circle line F, the curve J can be drawn, so the latter curve
+and the curve F will thus merge perfectly at the line I.
+
+THE FOCAL POINTS.--The focal points can be selected at any arbitrary
+point, between C and the line B, and the point H may be moved closer to
+or farther away from the line A, and you will succeed in making the
+ellipse correct, if you observe one thing, namely: The line I, which
+must always run from H to E, and intersects the circle F, is the
+starting or the ending point for the small curve F or the large circle
+J.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 115. Fig. 116. Fig. 117. Perspectives of Cubes_]
+
+ISOMETRIC AND PERSPECTIVE.--A figure may be drawn so as to show an
+isometric or a perspective view. Thus, a cube can be drawn so as to make
+an isometric figure, as in Fig. 115, where the three sides are equal to
+each other.
+
+Isometric means a method of drawing any object in such a manner that the
+height, length and breadth may be shown in the proportion they really
+bear to each other. Fig. 115 has the sides not only equal to each other,
+in appearance to the eye, but they have the same outlines and angles.
+
+Contrast this figure with Figs. 116 and 117. In Fig. 116 two of the
+sides are equal in angles and outline; and in Fig. 117 each side has a
+different outline, and different angles. Nevertheless, all the cubes
+are, in reality, of the same dimension.
+
+THE PROTRACTOR.--This is a most useful tool for the draughtsman. It
+enables the user to readily find any angle. Fig. 118 shows an approved
+form of the tool for this purpose.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 118. Protractor. Section Lining Metals_]
+
+SUGGESTIONS IN DRAWING.--As in the use of all other tools, so with the
+drawing instrument, it must be kept in proper order. If the points are
+too fine they will cut the paper; if too blunt the lines will be ragged.
+In whetting the points hold the pen at an angle of 12 degrees. Don't
+make too long an angle or slope, and every time you sharpen hold it at
+the same angle, so that it is ground back, and not at the point only.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 119. Using the Protractor._]
+
+HOLDING THE PEN.--The drawing pen should be held as nearly vertical as
+possible. Use the cleaning rag frequently. If the ink does not flow
+freely, after you have made a few strokes, as is frequently the case,
+gently press together the points. The least grit between the tines will
+cause an irregular flow.
+
+INKS.--As prepared liquid inks are now universally used, a few
+suggestions might be well concerning them. After half the bottle has
+been used, add a half teaspoonful of water, shake it well, and then
+strain it through a fine cotton cloth. This will remove all grit and
+lint that is sure to get into the bottle however carefully it may be
+corked.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 120. Section Lining Metals_]
+
+TRACING CLOTH.--It is preferable to use the dull side of the tracing
+cloth for the reasons that, as the cloth is rolled with the glossy side
+inside, the figure when drawn on the other side will be uppermost, and
+will thus lie flat; and on the other hand, the ink will take better on
+the dull side.
+
+If the ink does not flow freely, use chalk, fine pumice stone, or talc,
+and rub it in well with a clean cloth, and then wipe off well before
+beginning to trace.
+
+DETAIL PAPER.--The detail paper, on which the drawing is first made in
+pencil, should show the figure accurately, particularly the points where
+the bow pen are to be used, as well as the measurement points for the
+straight lines.
+
+HOW TO PROCEED.--Make the circles, curves, and irregular lines first,
+and then follow with the straight lines. Where the point of the circle
+pen must be used for a large number of lines, as, for instance, in
+shading, the smallest circles should be made first, and the largest
+circles last, because at every turn the centering hole becomes larger,
+and there is liability to make the circles more or less irregular. Such
+irregularity will not be so noticeable in the large curves as in the
+smaller ones.
+
+INDICATING MATERIAL BY THE SECTION LINES.--In section lining different
+materials can be indicated by the character of the lines, shown in Fig.
+120.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+TREATMENT AND USE OF METALS
+
+
+ANNEALING.--A very important part of the novice's education is a
+knowledge pertaining to the annealing of metals. Unlike the artisan in
+wood, who works the materials as he finds them, the machinist can, and,
+in fact, with many of the substances, must prepare them so they can be
+handled or cut by the tools.
+
+Annealing is one of the steps necessary with all cutting tools, and it
+is an absolute requirement with many metals for ordinary use, as well as
+for many other articles like glass. This is particularly true in the use
+of copper.
+
+TOUGHNESS AND ELASTICITY.--It means the putting of metals in such a
+condition that they will not only be less brittle, but also tougher and
+more elastic. Many substances, like glass, must be annealed before they
+can be put in condition for use, as this material when first turned out
+is so brittle that the slightest touch will shatter it, so that it must
+be toughened.
+
+Malleable or wrought iron, if subjected to pressure, becomes brittle,
+and it is necessary to anneal it. Otherwise, if used, for instance, for
+boiler plates, from the rolled sheets, it would stand but little
+pressure.
+
+The most immediate use the boy will have is the treatment of steel. He
+must learn the necessity of this process, and that of tempering, in all
+his cutting tools, and in the making of machinery where some parts are
+required to be constructed of very hard metal.
+
+THE PROCESS.--To anneal steel it must be heated to a bright cherry red
+and then gradually cooled down. For this purpose a bed of fine charcoal,
+or iron filings and lime, is prepared, in which the article is embedded,
+and permitted to remain until it is cold.
+
+There are many ways of doing the work, particularly in the use of
+substances which will the most readily give up their carbon to the tool.
+Yellow prussiate of potash is an excellent medium, and this is sprinkled
+over the cherry-heated article to be annealed. The process may be
+repeated several times.
+
+TEMPERING.--This is the reverse of annealing as understood in the art.
+The word itself does not mean to "harden," but to put into some
+intermediate state. For instance, "tempered clay" means a clay which has
+been softened so it can be readily worked.
+
+On the other hand, a tempered steel tool is put into a condition where
+it is hardened, but this hardness is also accompanied by another
+quality, namely, _toughness_. For this reason, the word _temper_, and
+not _hardness_, is referred to. A lathe tool, if merely hardened, would
+be useless for that purpose.
+
+TEMPERING CONTRASTED WITH ANNEALING.--It will be observed that in
+annealing three things are necessary: First, heating to a certain
+temperature; second, cooling slowly; third, the particular manner of
+cooling it.
+
+In tempering, on the other hand, three things are also necessary:
+
+First: The heating temperature should be a dull red, which is less than
+the annealing heat.
+
+Second: Instead of cooling slowly the article tempered is dipped into a
+liquid which suddenly chills it.
+
+Third: The materials used vary, but if the article is plunged into an
+unguent made of mercury and bacon fat, it will impart a high degree of
+toughness and elasticity.
+
+MATERIALS USED.--Various oils, fats and rosins are also used, and some
+acids in water are also valuable for this purpose. Care should be taken
+to have sufficient amount of liquid in the bath so as not to evaporate
+it or heat it up too much when it receives the heated body.
+
+Different parts of certain articles require varying degrees of hardness,
+like the tangs of files. The cutting body of the file must be extremely
+hard, and rather brittle than tough. If the tang should be of the same
+hardness it would readily break.
+
+_Gradual Tempering._--To prevent this, some substance like soap suds may
+be used to cool down the tang, so that toughness without hardness is
+imparted.
+
+The tempering, or hardening, like the annealing process, may be repeated
+several times in succession, and at each successive heating the article
+is put at a higher temperature.
+
+If any part of a body, as, for instance, a hammerhead, should require
+hardening, it may be plunged into the liquid for a short distance only,
+and this will harden the pole or peon while leaving the other part of
+the head soft, or annealed.
+
+Glycerine is a good tempering substance, and to this may be added a
+small amount of sulphate of potash.
+
+FLUXING.--The word _flux_ means to fuse or to melt, or to put into a
+liquid state. The office of a flux is to facilitate the fusion of
+metals. But fluxes do two things. They not only aid the conversion of
+the metal into a fluid state, but also serve as a means for facilitating
+the unity of several metals which make up the alloy, and aid in uniting
+the parts of metals to be joined in the welding of parts.
+
+UNITING METALS.--Metals are united in three ways, where heat is used:
+
+First: By heating two or more of them to such a high temperature that
+they melt and form a compound, or an alloy, as it is called.
+
+Second: By heating up the points to be joined, and then lapping the
+pieces and hammering the parts. This is called forge work or welding.
+
+Third: By not heating the adjacent parts and using an easily fusible
+metal, which is heated up and run between the two, by means of a
+soldering iron.
+
+The foreign material used in the first is called a flux; in the second
+it is termed a welding compound; and in the third it is known as a
+soldering acid, or soldering fluid.
+
+The boy is not so much interested in the first process, from the
+standpoint of actual work, but it is necessary that he should have some
+understanding of it.
+
+It may be said, as to fluxes, generally, that they are intended to
+promote the fusion of the liquefying metals, and the elements used are
+the alkalis, such as borax, tartar, limestone, or fluor spar.
+
+These substances act as reducing or oxidizing agents. The most important
+are carbonate of soda, potash, and cyanide of potassium. Limestone is
+used as the flux in iron-smelting.
+
+WELDING COMPOUNDS.--Elsewhere formulas are given of the compounds most
+desirable to use. It is obvious that the application of these substances
+on the heated surfaces, is not only to facilitate the heating, but to
+prepare the articles in such a manner that they will more readily adhere
+to each other.
+
+OXIDATION.--Oxidation is the thing to guard against in welding. The
+moment a piece of metal, heated to whiteness, is exposed, the air coats
+it with a film which is called an _oxide_. To remove this the welding
+compound is applied.
+
+The next office of the substance thus applied, is to serve as a medium
+for keeping the welding parts in a liquid condition as long as possible,
+and thus facilitate the unity of the joined elements.
+
+When the hammer beats the heated metals an additional increment of heat
+is imparted to the weld, due to the forcing together of the molecules of
+the iron, so that these two agencies, namely, the compound and the
+mechanical friction, act together to unite the particles of the metal.
+
+SOLDERING.--Here another principle is involved, namely, the use of an
+intermediate material between two parts which are to be united. The
+surfaces to be brought together must be thoroughly cleaned, using such
+agents as will prevent the formation of oxides.
+
+The parts to be united may be of the same, or of different materials,
+and it is in this particular that the workman must be able to make a
+choice of the solder most available, and whether hard or soft.
+
+SOFT SOLDER.--A soft solder is usually employed where lead, tin, or
+alloys of lead, tin and bismuth are to be soldered. These solders are
+all fusible at a low temperature, and they do not, as a result, have
+great strength.
+
+Bismuth is a metal which lowers the fusing point of any alloy of which
+it forms a part, while lead makes the solder less fusible.
+
+HARD SOLDER.--These are so distinguished because they require a
+temperature above the low red to fuse them. The metals which are alloyed
+for this purpose are copper, silver, brass, zinc and tin. Various alloys
+are thus made which require a high temperature to flux properly, and
+these are the ones to use in joining steel to steel, the parts to be
+united requiring an intense furnace heat.
+
+SPELTER.--The alloy used for this purpose is termed "spelter," and
+brass, zinc and tin are its usual components. The hard solders are used
+for uniting brass, bronze, copper, and iron.
+
+Whether soft or hard solder is used, it is obvious that it must melt at
+a lower temperature than the parts which are to be joined together.
+
+There is one peculiarity with respect to alloys: They melt at a lower
+temperature than either of the metals forming the alloys.
+
+SOLDERING ACID.--Before beginning the work of soldering, the parts must
+be cleaned by filing or sandpapering, and coated with an acid which
+neutralizes the oxygen of the air.
+
+This is usually muriatic acid, of which use, say, one quart and into
+this drop small pieces of zinc. This will effervesce during the time the
+acid is dissolving the zinc. When the boiling motion ceases, the liquid
+may be strained, or the dark pieces removed.
+
+The next step is to dissolve two ounces of sal ammoniac in a third of a
+pint of water, and in another vessel dissolve an ounce of chloride of
+tin.
+
+Then mix the three solutions, and this can be placed in a bottle, or
+earthen jar or vessel, and it will keep indefinitely.
+
+THE SOLDERING IRON.--A large iron is always better than a small one,
+particularly for the reason that it will retain its heat better. This
+should always be kept tinned, which can be done by heating and plunging
+it into the soldering solution, and the solder will then adhere to the
+iron and cover the point, so that when the actual soldering takes place
+the solder will not creep away from the tool.
+
+By a little care and attention to these details, the work of uniting
+metals will be a pleasure. It is so often the case, however, that the
+apparatus for doing this work is neglected in a shop; the acid is
+allowed to become dirty and full or foreign matter, and the different
+parts separated.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+ON GEARING AND HOW ORDERED
+
+
+The technical name for gears, the manner of measuring them, their pitch
+and like terms, are most confusing to the novice. As an aid to the
+understanding on this subject, the wheels are illustrated, showing the
+application of these terms.
+
+SPUR AND PINION.--When a gear is ordered a specification is necessary.
+The manufacturer will know what you mean if you use the proper terms,
+and you should learn the distinctions between spur and pinion, and why a
+bevel differs from a miter gear.
+
+If the gears on two parallel shafts mesh with each other, they both may
+be of the same diameter, or one may be larger than the other. In the
+latter case, the small one is the pinion, and the larger one the spur
+wheel.
+
+Some manufacturers use the word "gear" for "pinion," so that, in
+ordering, they call them _gear_ and _pinion_, in speaking of the large
+and small wheels.
+
+MEASURING A GEAR.--The first thing to specify would be the diameter. Now
+a spur gear, as well as a pinion, has three diameters; one measure
+across the outer extremities of the teeth; one measure across the wheel
+from the base of the teeth; and the distance across the wheel at a point
+midway between the base and end of the teeth.
+
+These three measurements are called, respectively, "outside diameter,"
+"inside diameter," and "pitch diameter." When the word _diameter_ is
+used, as applied to a gear wheel, it is always understood to mean the
+"pitch diameter."
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 121. Spur Gears_]
+
+PITCH.--This term is the most difficult to understand. When two gears of
+equal size mesh together, the pitch line, or the _pitch circle_, as it
+is also called, is exactly midway between the centers of the two
+wheels.
+
+Now the number of teeth in a gear is calculated on the pitch line, and
+this is called:
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 122. Miter Gear Pitch_]
+
+DIAMETRAL PITCH.--To illustrate: If a gear has 40 teeth, and the pitch
+diameter of the wheel is 4 inches, there are 10 teeth to each inch of
+the pitch diameter, and the gear is then 10 _diametral pitch_.
+
+CIRCULAR PITCH.--Now the term "circular pitch" grows out of the
+necessity of getting the measurement of the distance from the center of
+one tooth to the center of the next, and it is measured along the pitch
+line.
+
+Supposing you wanted to know the number of teeth in a gear where the
+pitch diameter and the diametral pitch are given. You would proceed as
+follows: Let the diameter of the pitch circle be 10 inches, and the
+diameter of the diametral pitch be 4 inches. Multiplying these together
+the product is 40, thus giving the number of teeth.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 123. Bevel Gears._]
+
+It will thus be seen that if you have an idea of the diametral pitch and
+circular pitch, you can pretty fairly judge of the size that the teeth
+will be, and thus enable you to determine about what kind of teeth you
+should order.
+
+HOW TO ORDER A GEAR.--In proceeding to order, therefore, you may give
+the pitch, or the diameter of the pitch circle, in which latter case the
+manufacturer of the gear will understand how to determine the number of
+the teeth. In case the intermeshing gears are of different diameters,
+state the number of teeth in the gear and also in the pinion, or
+indicate what the relative speed shall be.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 124. Miter Gears._]
+
+This should be followed by the diameter of the hole in the gear and also
+in the pinion; the backing of both gear and pinion; the width of the
+face; the diameter of the gear hub; diameter of the pinion hub; and,
+finally, whether the gears are to be fastened to the shafts by key-ways
+or set-screws.
+
+Fig. 122 shows a sample pair of miter gears, with the measurements to
+indicate how to make the drawings. Fig. 123 shows the bevel gears.
+
+BEVEL AND MITER GEARS.--When two intermeshing gears are on shafts which
+are at right angles to each other, they may be equal diametrically, or
+of different sizes. If both are of the same diameter, they are called
+bevel gears; if of different diameters, miter gears.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 125. Sprocket Wheel._]
+
+It is, in ordering gears of this character, that the novice finds it
+most difficult to know just what to do. In this case it is necessary to
+get the proper relation of speed between the two gears, and, for
+convenience, we shall, in the drawing, make the gears in the relation of
+2 to 1.
+
+DRAWING GEARS.--Draw two lines at right angles, Fig. 124, as 1 and 2,
+marking off the sizes of the two wheels at the points 3, 4. Then draw a
+vertical line (A) midway between the marks of the line 2, and this will
+be the center of the main pinion.
+
+Also draw a horizontal line (B) midway between the marks on the vertical
+line (1), and this will represent the center of the small gear. These
+two cross lines (A, B) constitute the intersecting axes of the two
+wheels, and a line (5), drawn from the mark (3 to 4), and another line
+(6), from the axes to the intersecting points of the lines (1, 2), will
+give the pitch line angles of the two wheels.
+
+SPROCKET WHEELS.--For sprocket wheels the pitch line passes centrally
+through the rollers (A) of the chain, as shown in Fig. 125, and the
+pitch of the chain is that distance between the centers of two adjacent
+rollers. In this case the cut of the teeth is determined by the chain.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+MECHANICAL POWERS
+
+
+THE LEVER.--The lever is the most wonderful mechanical element in the
+world. The expression, _lever_, is not employed in the sense of a stick
+or a bar which is used against a fulcrum to lift or push something with,
+but as the type of numerous devices which employ the same principle.
+
+Some of these devices are, the wedge, the screw, the pulley and the
+inclined plane. In some form or other, one or more of these are used in
+every piece of mechanism in the world.
+
+Because the lever enables the user to raise or move an object hundreds
+of times heavier than is possible without it, has led thousands of
+people to misunderstand its meaning, because it has the appearance, to
+the ignorant, of being able to manufacture power.
+
+WRONG INFERENCES FROM USE OF LEVER.--This lack of knowledge of first
+principles, has bred and is now breeding, so-called perpetual motion
+inventors (?) all over the civilized world. It is surprising how many
+men, to say nothing of boys, actually believe that power can be made
+without the expenditure of something which equalizes it.
+
+The boy should not be led astray in this particular, and I shall try to
+make the matter plain by using the simple lever to illustrate the fact
+that whenever power is exerted some form of energy is expended.
+
+In Fig. 126 is a lever (A), resting on a fulcrum (B), the fulcrum being
+so placed that the lever is four times longer on one side than on the
+other. A weight (C) of 4 pounds is placed on the short end, and a
+1-pound weight (D), called the _power_, on the short end. It will thus
+be seen that the lever is balanced by the two weights, or that the
+_weight_ and the _power_ are equal.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 126. Simple Lever_]
+
+THE LEVER PRINCIPLE.--Now, without stopping to inquire, the boy will
+say: "Certainly, I can understand that. As the lever is four times
+longer on one side of the fulcrum than on the other side, it requires
+only one-fourth of the weight to balance the four pounds. But suppose I
+push down the lever, at the point where the weight (D) is, then, for
+every pound I push down I can raise four pounds at C. In that case do I
+not produce four times the power?"
+
+I answer, yes. But while I produce that power I am losing something
+which is equal to the power gained. What is that?
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 127. Lever Action_]
+
+First: Look at Fig. 127; the distance traveled. The long end of the
+lever is at its highest point, which is A; and the short end of the
+lever is at its lowest point C. When the long end of the lever is pushed
+down, so it is at B, it moves four times farther than the short end
+moves upwardly, as the distance from C to D is just one-fourth that from
+A to B. The energy expended in moving four times the distance balances
+the power gained.
+
+POWER VS. DISTANCE TRAVELED.--From this the following law is deduced:
+That whatever is gained in power is lost in the distance traveled.
+
+Second: Using the same figure, supposing it was necessary to raise the
+short end of the lever, from C to D, in one second of time. In that case
+the hand pressing down the long end of the lever, would go from A to B
+in one second of time; or it would go four times as far as the short
+end, in the same time.
+
+POWER VS. LOSS IN TIME.--This means another law: That what is gained in
+power is lost in time.
+
+Distinguish clearly between these two motions. In the first case the
+long end of the lever is moved down from A to B in four seconds, and it
+had to travel four times the distance that the short end moves in going
+from C to D.
+
+In the second case the long end is moved down, from A to B, in one
+second of time, and it had to go that distance in one-fourth of the
+time, so that four times as much energy was expended in the same time to
+raise the short end from C to D.
+
+WRONGLY DIRECTED ENERGY.--More men have gone astray on the simple
+question of the power of the lever than on any other subject in
+mechanics. The writer has known instances where men knew the principles
+involved in the lever, who would still insist on trying to work out
+mechanical devices in which pulleys and gearing were involved, without
+seeming to understand that those mechanical devices are absolutely the
+same in principle.
+
+This will be made plain by a few illustrations. In Fig. 128, A is a
+pulley four times larger, diametrically, than B, and C is the pivot on
+which they turn. The pulleys are, of course, secured to each other. In
+this case we have the two weights, one of four pounds on the belt, which
+is on the small pulley (B), and a one-pound weight on the belt from the
+large pulley (A).
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 128. The Pulley_]
+
+THE LEVER AND THE PULLEY.--If we should substitute a lever (D) for the
+pulleys, the similarity to the lever (Fig. 127) would be apparent at
+once. The pivot (C) in this case would act the same as the pivot (C) in
+the lever illustration.
+
+In the same manner, and for like reasons, the wedge, the screw and the
+incline plane, are different structural applications of the principles
+set forth in the lever.
+
+Whenever two gears are connected together, the lever principle is used,
+whether they are the same in size, diametrically, or not. If they are
+the same size then no change in power results; but instead, thereof, a
+change takes place in the direction of the motion.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 129. Fig. 130. Change of Direction_]
+
+When one end of the lever (A) goes down, the other end goes up, as shown
+in Fig. 129; and in Fig. 130, when the shaft (C) of one wheel turns in
+one direction, the shaft of the other wheel turns in the opposite
+direction.
+
+It is plain that a gear, like a lever, may change direction as well as
+increase or decrease power. It is the thorough knowledge of these facts,
+and their application, which enables man to make the wonderful machinery
+we see on every hand.
+
+SOURCES OF POWER.--Power is derived from a variety of sources, but what
+are called the _prime movers_ are derived from heat, through the various
+fuels, from water, from the winds and from the tides and waves of the
+ocean. In the case of water the power depends on the head, or height, of
+the surface of the water above the discharging orifice.
+
+WATER POWER.--A column of water an inch square and 28 inches high gives
+a pressure at the base of one pound; and the pressure at the lower end
+is equal in all directions. If a tank of water 28 inches high has a
+single orifice in its bottom 1" x 1" in size, the pressure of water
+through that opening will be only one pound, and it will be one pound
+through every other orifice in the bottom of the same size.
+
+CALCULATING FUEL ENERGY.--Power from fuels depends upon the expansion of
+the materials consumed, or upon the fact that heat expands some element,
+like water, which in turn produces the power. One cubic inch of water,
+when converted into steam, has a volume equal to one cubic foot, or
+about 1,700 times increase in bulk.
+
+Advantage is taken of this in steam engine construction. If a cylinder
+has a piston in it with an area of 100 square inches, and a pipe one
+inch square supplies steam at 50 pounds pressure, the piston will have
+50 pounds pressure on every square inch of its surface, equal to 5,000
+pounds.
+
+THE PRESSURE OR HEAD.--In addition to that there will also be 50 pounds
+pressure on each square inch of the head, as well as on the sides of the
+cylinder.
+
+Fig. 131 shows a cylinder (A), a piston (B) and a steam inlet port (C),
+in which is indicated how the steam pressure acts equally in all
+directions. As, however, the piston is the only movable part, the force
+of the steam is directed to that part, and the motion is then
+transmitted to the crank, and to the shaft of the engine.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 131. Steam Pressure_]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 132. Water Pressure_]
+
+This same thing applies to water which, as stated, is dependent on its
+head. Fig. 132 represents a cylinder (D) with a vertically movable
+piston (E) and a standpipe (F). Assuming that the pipe (F) is of
+sufficient height to give a pressure of 50 pounds to the square inch,
+then the piston (E) and the sides and head of the cylinder (D) would
+have 50 pounds pressure on every square inch of surface.
+
+FUELS.--In the use of fuels, such as the volatile hydrocarbons, the
+direct expansive power of the fuel gases developed, is used to move the
+piston back and forth. Engines so driven are called _Internal Combustion
+Motors_.
+
+POWER FROM WINDS.--Another source of power is from the wind acting
+against wheels which have blades or vanes disposed at such angles that
+there is a direct conversion of a rectilinear force into circular
+motion.
+
+In this case power is derived from the force of the moving air and the
+calculation of energy developed is made by considering the pressure on
+each square foot of surface. The following table shows the force exerted
+at different speeds against a flat surface one foot square, held so that
+the wind strikes it squarely:
+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------
+-----------------+--------------++-------------------+--------------
+SPEED OF WIND    |   PRESSURE   || SPEED OF WIND     |   PRESSURE
+-----------------+--------------++-------------------+--------------
+5 Miles per hour |        2 oz. || 35 miles per hour |  6 lb. 2 oz.
+10 "        "    |        8  "  || 40   "       "    |  8  "
+15 "        "    |  1 lb. 2  "  || 45   "       "    | 10  "  2  "
+20 "        "    |  2  "        || 50   "       "    | 12  "  2  "
+25 "        "    |  3  "  2  "  || 55   "       "    | 15  "  2  "
+30 "        "    |  4  "  8  "  || 60   "       "    | 18  "
+-----------------+--------------++-------------------+--------------
+
+VARYING DEGREES OF PRESSURE.--It is curious to notice how the increase
+in speed changes the pressure against the blade. Thus, a wind blowing 20
+miles an hour shows 2 pounds pressure; whereas a wind twice that
+velocity, or 40 miles an hour, shows a pressure of 8 pounds, which is
+four times greater than at 20 miles.
+
+It differs, therefore, from the law with respect to water pressure,
+which is constant in relation to the height or the head--that is, for
+every 28 inches height of water a pound pressure is added.
+
+POWER FROM WAVES AND TIDES.--Many attempts have been made to harness the
+waves and the tide and some of them have been successful. This effort
+has been directed to the work of converting the oscillations of the
+waves into a rotary motion, and also to take advantage of the to-and-fro
+movement of the tidal flow. There is a great field in this direction for
+the ingenious boy.
+
+A PROFITABLE FIELD.--In no direction of human enterprise is there such
+a wide and profitable field for work, as in the generation of power. It
+is constantly growing in prominence, and calls for the exercise of the
+skill of the engineer and the ingenuity of the mechanic. Efficiency and
+economy are the two great watchwords, and this is what the world is
+striving for. Success will come to him who can contribute to it in the
+smallest degree.
+
+Capital is not looking for men who can cheapen the production of an
+article 50 per cent., but 1 per cent. The commercial world does not
+expect an article to be 100 per cent, better. Five per cent. would be an
+inducement for business.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+ON MEASURES
+
+
+HORSE-POWER.--When work is performed it is designated as horse-power,
+usually indicated by the letters H. P.; but the unit of work is called a
+_foot pound_.
+
+If one pound should be lifted 550 feet in one second, or 550 pounds one
+foot in the same time, it would be designated as one horse-power. For
+that reason it is called a foot pound. Instead of using the figure to
+indicate the power exerted during one minute of time, the time is taken
+for a minute, in all calculations, so that 550 multiplied by the number
+of seconds, 60, in a minute, equals 33,000 foot pounds.
+
+FOOT POUNDS.--The calculation of horse-power is in a large measure
+arbitrary. It was determined in this way: Experiments show that the heat
+expended in vaporizing 34 pounds of water per hour, develops a force
+equal to 33,000 foot pounds; and since it takes about 4 pounds of coal
+per hour to vaporize that amount of water, the heat developed by that
+quantity of coal develops the same force as that exercised by an average
+horse exerting his strength at ordinary work.
+
+All power is expressed in foot pounds. Suppose a cannon ball of
+sufficient weight and speed strikes an object. If the impact should
+indicate 33,000 pounds it would not mean that the force employed was one
+horse-power, but that many foot pounds.
+
+If there should be 60 impacts of 550 pounds each within a minute, it
+might be said that it would be equal to 1 horse-power, but the correct
+way to express it would be foot pounds.
+
+So in every calculation, where power is to be calculated, first find out
+how many foot pounds are developed, and then use the unit of measure,
+33,000, as the divisor to get the horse-power, if you wish to express it
+in that way.
+
+It must be understood, therefore, that horse-power is a simple unit of
+work, whereas a foot pound is a compound unit formed of a foot paired
+with the weight of a pound.
+
+ENERGY.--Now _work_ and _energy_ are two different things. Work is the
+overcoming of resistance of any kind, either by causing or changing
+motion, or maintaining it against the action of some other force.
+
+Energy, on the other hand, is the power of doing work. Falling water
+possesses energy; so does a stone poised on the edge of a cliff. In the
+case of water, it is called _kinetic_ energy; in the stone _potential_
+energy. A pound of pressure against the stone will cause the latter, in
+falling, to develop an enormous energy; so it will be seen that this
+property resides, or is within the thing itself. It will be well to
+remember these definitions.
+
+HOW TO FIND OUT THE POWER DEVELOPED.--The measure of power produced by
+an engine, or other source, is so interesting to boys that a sketch is
+given of a Prony Brake, which is the simplest form of the Dynamometer,
+as these measuring machines are called.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 133. Prony Brake_]
+
+In the drawing (A) is the shaft, with a pulley (A´), which turns in the
+direction of the arrow (B). C is a lever which may be of any length.
+This has a block (C´), which fits on the pulley, and below the shaft,
+and surrounding it, are blocks (D) held against the pulley by a chain
+(E), the ends of the chain being attached to bolts (F) which pass
+through the block (C´) and lever (C).
+
+Nuts (G) serve to draw the bolts upwardly and thus tighten the blocks
+against the shaft. The free end of the lever has stops (H) above and
+below, so as to limit its movement. Weights (I) are suspended from the
+end of the lever.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 134. Speed Indicator_]
+
+THE TEST.--The test is made as follows: The shaft is set in motion, and
+the nuts are tightened until its full power at the required speed is
+balanced by the weight put on the platform.
+
+The following calculation can then be made:
+
+For our present purpose we shall assume that the diameter of the pulley
+(A´) is 4 inches; the length of the lever (C), 3 feet; the speed of the
+shaft (A) and the pulley, 210 revolutions per minute; and the weight 600
+pounds.
+
+Now proceed as follows:
+
+(1) Multiply the diameter of the pulley (A´) (4 inches) by 3.1416, and
+this will give the circumference 12.5664 inches; or, 1.0472 feet.
+
+(2) Multiply this product (1.0472) by the revolutions per minute. 1.0472
+× 210 = 219.912. This equals the _speed_ of the periphery of the pulley.
+
+(3) The next step is to get the length of the lever (C) from the center
+of the shaft (A) to the point from which the weights are suspended, and
+divide this by one-half of the diameter of the pulley (A´). 36" ÷ 2" =
+18", or 1-1/2 feet. This is the _leverage_.
+
+(4) Then multiply the _weight_ in pounds by the _leverage_. 600 × 1-1/2
+= 900.
+
+(5) Next multiply this product (900) by the _speed_, 900 × 219.912 =
+197,920.8, which means _foot pounds_.
+
+(6) As each horse-power has 33,000 foot pounds, the last product should
+be divided by this figure, and we have 197,920.8 ÷ 33,000 = 5.99 H. P.
+
+THE FOOT MEASURE.--How long is a foot, and what is it determined by? It
+is an arbitrary measure. The human foot is the basis of the measurement.
+But what is the length of a man's foot? It varied in different countries
+from 9 to 21 inches.
+
+In England, in early days, it was defined as a measure of length
+consisting of 12 inches, or 36 barleycorns laid end to end. But
+barleycorns differ in length as well as the human foot, so the standard
+adopted is without any real foundation or reason.
+
+WEIGHT.--To determine weight, however, a scientific standard was
+adopted. A gallon contains 8.33 pounds avoirdupois weight of distilled
+water. This gallon is divided up in two ways; one by weight, and the
+other by measurement.
+
+Each gallon contains 231 cubic inches of distilled water. As it has four
+quarts, each quart has 57-3/4 cubic inches, and as each quart is
+comprised of two pints, each pint has nearly 29 cubic inches.
+
+THE GALLON.--The legal gallon in the United States is equal to a
+cylindrical measure 7 inches in diameter and 6 inches deep.
+
+Notwithstanding the weights and dimensions of solids and liquids are
+thus fixed by following a scientific standard, the divisions into
+scruples, grains, pennyweights and tons, as well as cutting them up into
+pints, quarts and other units, is done without any system, and for this
+reason the need of a uniform method has been long considered by every
+country.
+
+THE METRIC SYSTEM.--As early as 1528, Fernal, a French physician,
+suggested the metric system. Our own government recognized the value of
+this plan when it established the system of coinage.
+
+The principle lies in fixing a unit, such as a dollar, or a pound, or a
+foot, and then making all divisions, or addition, in multiples of ten.
+Thus, we have one mill; ten mills to make a dime; ten dimes to make a
+dollar, and so on.
+
+BASIS OF MEASUREMENT.--The question arose, what to use as the basis of
+measurement, and it was proposed to use the earth itself, as the
+measure. For this purpose the meridian line running around the earth at
+the latitude of Paris was selected.
+
+One-quarter of this measurement around the globe was found to be
+393,707,900 inches, and this was divided into 10,000,000 parts. Each
+part, therefore, was a little over 39.37 inches in length, and this was
+called a meter, which means _measure_.
+
+A decimeter is one-tenth of that, namely, 3.937 inches; and a decameter
+39.37, or ten times the meter, and so on.
+
+For convenience the metrical table is given, showing lengths in feet and
+inches, in which only three decimal points are used.
+
+Metrical Table, showing measurements in feet and inches:
+
+METRICAL TABLE, SHOWING MEASUREMENTS IN FEET
+AND INCHES
+
+------------------------------------------
+------------+--------------+--------------
+   Length   |    Inches    |    Feet
+------------+--------------+--------------
+Millimeter  |       0.039  |      0.003
+Centimeter  |       0.393  |      0.032
+Decimeter   |       3.937  |      0.328
+Meter       |      39.370  |      3.280
+Decameter   |     393.707  |     32.808
+Hectometer  |    3937.079  |    328.089
+Kilometer   |   39370.790  |   3280.899
+Myriameter  |  393707.900  |  32808.992
+------------+--------------+--------------
+
+METRIC SYSTEM, SHOWING THE EQUIVALENTS
+IN OUR MEASURES
+
+1 Myriameter            = 5.4 nautical miles, or 6.21 statute
+                            miles.
+
+1 Kilometer             = 0.621 statute mile, or nearly 5/8
+                            mile.
+
+1 Hectometer            = 109.4 yards.
+
+1 Decameter             = 0.497 chain, 1.988 rods.
+
+1 Meter                 = 39.37 inches, or nearly 3 ft. 3-3/8
+                            inches.
+
+1 Decimeter             = 3.937 inches.
+
+1 Centimeter            = 0.3937 inch.
+
+1 Millimeter            = 0.03937 inch.
+
+1 Micron                = 1/25400 inch.
+
+1 Hectare               = 2.471 acres.
+
+1 Arc                   = 119.6 square yards.
+
+1 Centaire, or square
+meter                   = 10.764 square feet.
+
+1 Decastere             = 13 cubic yards, or about 2-3/4
+                            cords.
+
+1 Stere, or cubic meter = 1.308 cubic yards, or 35.3 cubic
+                            feet.
+
+1 Decistere             = 3-1/2 cubic feet.
+
+1 Kiloliter             = 1 ton, 12 gal., 2 pints, 2 gills
+                            old wine measure.
+
+1 Hectoliter            = 22.01 Imperial gals., or 26.4
+                            U. S. gals.
+
+1 Decaliter             = 2 gallons, 1 pint, 2-2/5 gills, imperial
+                            measure, or 2 gals., 2
+                            qts., 1 pt., 1/2 gill, U. S.
+
+1 Liter                 = 1 pint, 3 gills, imperial, or 1 qt.,
+                            1/2 gill U. S. measure.
+
+1 Decileter             = 0.704 gill, imperial, or 0.845 gill
+                            U. S. measure.
+
+1 Millier               = 2,204.6 pounds avoirdupois.
+
+1 Metric quintal        = 2  hundredweight, less 3-1/2
+                            pounds, or 220 pounds, 7
+                            ounces.
+
+1 Kilogram              = 2  pounds, 3 ounces, 4-3/8
+                            drams avoirdupois.
+
+1 Hectogram             = 3 ounces, 8-3/8 drams avoirdupois.
+
+1 Decagram              = 154.32 grains Troy.
+
+1 Gram                  = 15.432 grains.
+
+1 Decigram              = 1.542 grain.
+
+1 Centigram             = 0.154 grain.
+
+1 Milligram             = 0.015 grain.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+USEFUL INFORMATION FOR THE WORKSHOP
+
+
+To find the circumference of a circle: Multiply the diameter by 3.1416.
+
+To find the diameter of a circle: Multiply the circle by .31831.
+
+To find the area of a circle: Multiply the square of the diameter by
+.7854.
+
+To find the area of a triangle: Multiply the base by one-half the
+perpendicular height.
+
+To find the surface of a ball: Multiply the square of the diameter by
+3.1416.
+
+To find the solidity of a sphere: Multiply the cube of the diameter by
+.5236.
+
+To find the cubic contents of a cone: Multiply the area of the base by
+one-third the altitude.
+
+Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times.
+
+To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water:
+Multiply the height of the column in feet by .434.
+
+Standard Horse-power: The evaporation of 30 pounds of water per hour
+from a feed water temperature of 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit into steam at
+70 pounds gauge pressure.
+
+To find the capacity of any tank in gallons: Square the diameter in
+inches, multiply by the length, and then by .0034.
+
+In making patterns for aluminum castings provision must be made for
+shrinkage to a greater extent than with any other metal or alloy.
+
+The toughness of aluminum can be increased by adding a small per cent.
+of phosphorus.
+
+All alloys of metals having mercury are called _amalgams_.
+
+A sheet of zinc suspended in the water of a boiler will produce an
+electrolytic action and prevent scaling to a considerable extent.
+
+Hydrofluoric acid will not affect a pure diamond, but will dissolve all
+imitations.
+
+A strong solution of alum put into glue will make it insoluble in water.
+
+A grindstone with one side harder than the other can have its flinty
+side softened by immersing that part in boiled linseed oil.
+
+One barrel contains 3-3/4 cubic feet.
+
+One cubic yard contains 7-1/4 barrels.
+
+To find the speed of a driven pulley of a given diameter: Multiply the
+diameter of the driving pulley by its speed or number of revolutions.
+Divide this by the diameter of the driven pulley. The result will be the
+number of revolutions of the driven pulley.
+
+To find the diameter of a driven pulley that shall make any given number
+of revolutions in the same time: Multiply the diameter of the driving
+pulley by its number of revolutions, and divide the product by the
+number of revolutions of the driven pulley.
+
+A piece of the well-known tar soap held against the inside of a belt
+while running will prevent it from slipping, and will not injure the
+belt.
+
+Boiler scale is composed of the carbonate or the sulphate of lime. To
+prevent the formation it is necessary to use some substance which will
+precipitate these elements in the water. The cheapest and most
+universally used for this purpose are soda ash and caustic soda.
+
+Gold bronze is merely a mixture of equal parts of oxide of tin and
+sulphur. To unite them they are heated for some time in an earthen
+retort.
+
+Rusted utensils may be cleaned of rust by applying either turpentine or
+kerosene oil, and allowing them to stand over night, when the excess may
+be wiped off. Clean afterwards with fine emery cloth.
+
+Plaster of paris is valuable for many purposes in a machine shop, but
+the disadvantage in handling it is, that it sets so quickly, and its use
+is, therefore, very much limited. To prevent quick setting mix a small
+amount of arrow root powder with the plaster before it is mixed, and
+this will keep it soft for some time, and also increase its hardness
+when it sets.
+
+For measuring purposes a tablespoon holds 1/2 ounce; a dessertspoon 1/4
+ounce; a teaspoon 1/8 ounce; a teacupful of sugar weighs 1/2 pound; two
+teacupsful of butter weigh 1 pound; 1-1/3 pints of powdered sugar weigh
+1 pound; one pint of distilled water weighs 1 pound.
+
+Ordinarily, 450 drops of liquid are equal to 1 ounce; this varies with
+different liquids, some being thicker in consistency than others, but
+for those of the consistency of water the measure given is fairly
+accurate.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE SIMPLICITY OF GREAT INVENTIONS, AND OF NATURE'S MANIFESTATIONS
+
+
+If there is anything in the realm of mechanics which excites the wonder
+and admiration of man, it is the knowledge that the greatest inventions
+are the simplest, and that the inventor must take advantage of one law
+in nature which is universal in its application, and that is vibration.
+
+There is a key to every secret in nature's great storehouse. It is not a
+complicated one, containing a multiplicity of wards and peculiar angles
+and recesses. It is the very simplicity in most of the problems which
+long served as a bar to discovery in many of the arts. So extremely
+simple have been some of the keys that many inventions resulted from
+accidents.
+
+INVENTION PRECEDES SCIENCE.--Occasionally inventions were brought about
+by persistency and energy, and ofttimes by theorizing; but science
+rarely ever aids invention. The latter usually precedes science. Thus,
+reasoning could not show how it might be possible for steam to force
+water into a boiler against its own pressure. But the injector does
+this.
+
+If, prior to 1876, it had been suggested that a sonorous vibration could
+be converted into an electrical pulsation, and transformed back again to
+a sonorous vibration, science would have proclaimed it impossible; but
+the telephone does it. Invention shows how things are done, and science
+afterwards explains the phenomena and formulates theories and laws which
+become serviceable to others in the arts.
+
+SIMPLICITY IN INVENTIONS.--But let us see how exceedingly simple are
+some of the great discoveries of man.
+
+THE TELEGRAPH.--The telegraph is nothing but a magnet at each end of a
+wire, with a lever for an armature, which opens and closes the circuit
+that passes through the magnets and armature, so that an impulse on the
+lever, or armature, at one end, by making and breaking the circuit, also
+makes and breaks the circuit at the other end.
+
+TELEPHONE.--The telephone has merely a disk close to but not touching
+the end of a magnet. The sonorous vibration of the voice oscillates the
+diaphragm, and as the diaphragm is in the magnetic field of the magnet,
+it varies the pressure, so called, causing the diaphragm at the other
+end of the wire to vibrate in unison and give out the same sound
+originally imparted to the other diaphragm.
+
+TRANSMITTER.--The transmitter is merely a sensitized instrument. It
+depends solely on the principle of light contact points in an electric
+circuit, whereby the vibrations of the voice are augmented.
+
+PHONOGRAPH.--The phonograph is not an electrical instrument. It has a
+diaphragm provided centrally with a blunt pin, or stylus. To make the
+record, some soft or plastic material, like wax, or tinfoil, is caused
+to move along so that the point of the stylus makes impressions in it,
+and the vibrations of the diaphragm cause the point to traverse a groove
+of greater or smaller indentations. When this groove is again presented
+to the stylus the diaphragm is vibrated and gives forth the sounds
+originally imparted to it when the indentations were made.
+
+WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.--Wireless telegraphy depends for its action on what
+is called induction. Through this property a current is made of a high
+electro-motive force, which means of a high voltage, and this disturbs
+the ether with such intensity that the waves are sent out in all
+directions to immense distances.
+
+The great discovery has been to find a mechanism sensitive enough to
+detect the induction waves. The instrument for this purpose is called a
+coherer, in which small particles cohere through the action of the
+electric waves, and are caused to fall apart mechanically, during the
+electrical impulses.
+
+PRINTING TELEGRAPH.--The printing telegraph requires the synchronous
+turning of two wheels. This means that two wheels at opposite ends of a
+wire must be made to turn at exactly the same rate of speed. Originally,
+this was tried by clock work, but without success commercially, for the
+reason that a pendulum does not beat with the same speed at the equator,
+as at different latitudes, nor at altitudes; and temperature also
+affects the rate. The solution was found by making the two wheels move
+by means of a timing fork, which vibrates with the same speed
+everywhere, and under all conditions.
+
+ELECTRIC MOTOR.--The direct current electric motor depends for its
+action on the principle that likes repel, and unlikes attract. The
+commutator so arranges the poles that at the proper points, in the
+revolution of the armature, the poles are always presented to each other
+in such a way that as they approach each other, they are opposites, and
+thus attract, and as they recede from each other they repel. A dynamo is
+exactly the same, except that the commutator reverses the operation and
+makes the poles alike as they approach each other, and unlike as they
+recede.
+
+Steel is simply iron, to which has been added a small per cent of
+carbon.
+
+Quinine is efficient in its natural state, but it has been made
+infinitely more effectual by the breaking up or changing of the
+molecules with acids. Sulphate of quinine is made by the use of
+sulphuric acid as a solvent.
+
+EXPLOSIONS.--Explosions depend on oxygen. While this element does not
+burn, a certain amount of it must be present to support combustion.
+Thus, the most inflammable gas or liquid will not burn or explode unless
+oxygenized. Explosives are made by using a sufficient amount, in a
+concentrated form, which is added to the fuel, so that when it is
+ignited there is a sufficient amount of oxygen present to support
+combustion, hence the rapid explosion which follows.
+
+VIBRATION IN NATURE.--The physical meaning of vibration is best
+illustrated by the movement of a pendulum. All agitation is vibration.
+All force manifests itself in this way.
+
+The painful brilliancy of the sun is produced by the rapid vibrations of
+the rays; the twinkle of the distant star, the waves of the ocean when
+ruffled by the winds; the shimmer of the moon on its crested surface;
+the brain in thinking; the mouth in talking; the beating of the heart;
+all, alike, obey the one grand and universal law of vibratory motion.
+
+QUALITIES OF SOUND.--Sound is nothing but a succession of vibrations of
+greater or less magnitude. Pitch is produced by the number of
+vibrations; intensity by their force; and quality by the character of
+the article vibrated.
+
+Since the great telephone controversy which took place some years ago
+there has been a wonderful development in the knowledge of acoustics, or
+sounds. It was shown that the slightest sound would immediately set into
+vibration every article of furniture in a room, and very sensitive
+instruments have been devised to register the force and quality.
+
+THE PHOTOGRAPHER'S PLATE.--It is known that the chemical action of an
+object on a photographer's plate is due to vibration; each represents a
+force of different intensity, hence the varying shades produced. Owing
+to the different rates of vibrations caused by the different colors, the
+difficulty has been to photograph them, but this has now been
+accomplished. Harmony, or "being in tune," as is the common expression,
+is as necessary in light, as in music.
+
+Some chemicals will bring out or "develop," the pictures; others will
+not. Colors are now photographed because invention and science have
+found the harmonizing chemicals.
+
+QUADRUPLEX TELEGRAPHY.--One of the most remarkable of all the wonders of
+our age is what is known as duplex and quadruplex telegraphy. Every atom
+and impulse in electricity is oscillation. The current which transmits
+a telegram is designated in the science as "vibratory."
+
+But how is it possible to transmit two or more messages over one wire at
+the same time? It is by bringing into play the harmony of sounds. One
+message is sent in one direction in the key of A; another message in the
+other direction in B; and so any number may be sent, because the
+electrical vibrations may be tuned, just like the strings of a violin.
+
+ELECTRIC HARMONY.--Every sound produces a corresponding vibration in
+surrounding objects. While each vibrates, or is capable of transmitting
+a sound given to it by its vibratory powers, it may not vibrate in
+harmony.
+
+When a certain key of a piano is struck every key has a certain
+vibration, and if we could separate it from the other sounds, it would
+reflect the same sound as the string struck, just the same as the walls
+of a room or the air itself would convey that sound.
+
+But as no two strings in the instrument vibrate the same number of times
+each second, the rapid movement of successive sounds of the keys do not
+interfere with each other. If, however, there are several pianos in a
+room, and all are tuned the same pitch, the striking of a key on one
+instrument will instantly set in vibration the corresponding strings in
+all the other instruments.
+
+This is one reason why a piano tested in a music wareroom has always a
+more beautiful and richer sound than when in a drawing-room or hall,
+since each string is vibrated by the other instrument.
+
+If a small piece of paper is balanced upon the strings of a violin,
+every key of the piano may be struck, except the one in tune, without
+affecting the paper; but the moment the same key is struck the vibration
+of the harmonizing pitch will unbalance the paper.
+
+The musical sound of C produces 528 vibrations per second; D 616, and so
+on. The octave above has double the number of vibrations of the lower
+note. It will thus be understood why discord in music is not pleasant to
+the ear, as the vibrations are not in the proper multiples.
+
+ODORS.--So with odors. The sense of smell is merely the force set in
+motion by the vibration of the elements. An instrument called the
+_odophone_ demonstrates that a scale or gamut exists in flowers; that
+sharp smells indicate high tones and heavy smells low tones. Over fifty
+odors have thus been analyzed.
+
+The treble clef, note E, 4th space, is orange; note D, 1st space below,
+violet; note F, 4th space above clef, ambergris. To make a proper
+bouquet, therefore the different odors must be harmonized, just the
+same as the notes of a musical chord are selected.
+
+A BOUQUET OF VIBRATIONS.--The odophone shows that santal, geranium,
+orange flower and camphor, make a bouquet in the key of C. It is easy to
+conceive that a beautiful bouquet means nothing more than an agreeable
+vibratory sensation of the olfactory nerves.
+
+TASTE.--So with the sense of taste. The tongue is covered with minute
+cells surrounded by nervous filaments which are set in motion whenever
+any substance is brought into contact with the surface. Tasting is
+merely the movement of these filaments, of greater or less rapidity.
+
+If an article is tasteless, it means that these filaments do not
+vibrate. These vibrations are of two kinds. They may move faster or
+slower, or they may move in a peculiar way. A sharp acute taste means
+that the vibrations are very rapid; a mild taste, slow vibrations.
+
+When a pleasant taste is detected, it is only because the filaments are
+set into an agreeable motion. The vibrations in the tongue may become so
+rapid that it will be painful, just as a shriek becomes piercing to the
+ear, or an intense light dazzling to the eye; all proceed from the same
+physical force acting on the brain.
+
+COLOR.--Color, that seemingly unexplainable force, becomes a simple
+thing when the principles of vibration are applied, and this has been
+fully explained by the spectroscope and its operation.
+
+When the boy once appreciates that this force, or this motion in nature
+is just as simple as the great inventions which have grown out of this
+manifestation, he will understand that a knowledge of these things will
+enable him to utilize the energy in a proper way.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+WORKSHOP RECIPES AND FORMULAS
+
+
+In a work of this kind, dealing with the various elements, the boy
+should have at hand recipes or formulas for everything which comes
+within the province of his experiments. The following are most carefully
+selected, the objects being to present those which are the more easily
+compounded.
+
+ADHESIVES FOR VARIOUS USES.--Waterproof glue. Use a good quality of
+glue, and dissolve it in warm water, then add one pound of linseed oil
+to eight pounds of the glue. Add three ounces of nitric acid.
+
+Leather or Card-board Glue. After dissolving good glue in water, to
+which a little turpentine has been added, mix it with a thick paste of
+starch, the proportion of starch to glue being about two to every part
+of glue used. The mixture is used cold.
+
+A fine Belt Glue. Dissolve 50 ounces of gelatine in water, and heat
+after pouring off the excess water. Then stir in five ounces of
+glycerine, ten ounces of turpentine, and five ounces of linseed oil
+varnish. If too thick add water to suit.
+
+For cementing Iron to Marble. Use 30 parts of Plaster of Paris, 10 parts
+of iron filings, and one half part of sal ammoniac. These are mixed up
+with vinegar to make a fluid paste.
+
+To cement Glass to Iron. Use 3 ounces of boiled linseed oil and 1 part
+of copal varnish, and into this put 2 ounces of litharge and 1 ounce of
+white lead and thoroughly mingle so as to make a smooth paste.
+
+Water-proof Cement. Boiled linseed oil, 6 ounces; copal, 6 ounces;
+litharge, 2 ounces; and white lead, 16 ounces. To be thoroughly
+incorporated.
+
+To unite rubber or leather to hard substances. One ounce of pulverized
+gum shellac dissolved in 9-1/2 ounces of strong ammonia, will make an
+elastic cement. Must be kept tightly corked.
+
+For uniting iron to iron. Use equal parts of boiled oil, white lead,
+pipe clay and black oxide of manganese, and form it into a paste.
+
+Transparent Cement. Unite 1 ounce of india rubber, 67 ounces of
+chloroform, and 40 ounces of mastic. This is to be kept together for a
+week, and stirred at times, when it will be ready for use.
+
+To Attach Cloth to Metal. Water 100 parts, sugar 10 parts, starch 20
+parts, and zinc chloride 1 part. This must be first stirred and made
+free of lumps, and then heated until it thickens.
+
+United States Government Gum. Dissolve 1 part of gum arabic in water and
+add 4 parts of sugar and 1 part of starch. This is then boiled for a
+few minutes, and thinned down as required.
+
+TO MAKE DIFFERENT ALLOYS.--Silver-aluminum. Silver one-fourth part, and
+aluminum three-fourth parts.
+
+Bell-metal. Copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts. Or, copper, 72 parts; tin,
+26 parts; zinc, 2 parts. Or, copper 2; 1 of tin.
+
+Brass. Copper, 66 parts; zinc, 32 parts; tin, 1 part; lead, 1 part.
+
+Bronzes. Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 30 parts; tin, 5 parts. Or, copper, 85
+parts; zinc, 10 parts; tin, 3 parts; lead, 2 parts.
+
+German Silver. 52 parts of copper; 26 parts zinc; 22 parts nickel.
+
+For Coating Mirrors. Tin, 70 parts; mercury, 30 parts.
+
+BOILER COMPOUNDS.--To prevent scaling. Use common washing soda, or
+Glauber salts.
+
+TO DISSOLVE CELLULOID.--Use 50 parts of alcohol and 5 parts of camphor
+for every 5 parts of celluloid. When the celluloid is put into the
+solution it will dissolve it.
+
+To Soften Celluloid. This may be done by simply heating, so it will
+bend, and by putting it in steam, it can be worked like dough.
+
+CLAY MIXTURE FOR FORGES.--Mix dry 20 parts of fire clay, 20 parts
+cast-iron turnings, one part of common salt, and 1/2 part sal ammoniac,
+and then add water while stirring, so as to form a mortar of the proper
+consistency. The mixture will become very hard when heat is applied.
+
+A Modeling Clay. This is made by mixing the clay with glycerine and
+afterwards adding vaseline. If too much vaseline is added it becomes too
+soft.
+
+FLUIDS FOR CLEANING CLOTHES, FURNITURE, ETC.--For Delicate Fabrics. Make
+strong decoction of soap bark, and put into alcohol.
+
+Non-inflammable Cleaner. Equal parts of acetone, ammonia and diluted
+alcohol.
+
+Taking dried paint from clothing. Shake up 2 parts of ammonia water with
+1 part of spirits of turpentine.
+
+Cleaning Furniture, etc. Unite 2.4 parts of wax; 9.4 parts of oil of
+turpentine; 42 parts acetic acid; 42 parts citric acid; 42 parts white
+soap. This must be well mingled before using.
+
+Removing Rust from Iron or Steel. Rub the surface with oil of tartar.
+Or, apply turpentine or kerosene, and after allowing to stand over
+night, clean with emery cloth.
+
+For Removing Ink Stains from Silver. Use a paste made of chloride of
+lime and water.
+
+To clean Silver-Plated Ware. Make a mixture of cream of tartar, 2 parts;
+levigated chalk, 2 parts; and alum, 1 part. Grind up the alum and mix
+thoroughly.
+
+Cleaning a Gas Stove. Make a solution of 9 parts of caustic soda and 150
+parts of water, and put the separate parts of the stove in the solution
+for an hour or two. The parts will come out looking like new.
+
+Cleaning Aluminum. A few drops of sulphuric acid in water will restore
+the luster to aluminum ware.
+
+Oil Eradicator. Soap spirits, 100 parts; ammonia solution, 25; acetic
+ether, 15 parts.
+
+DISINFECTANTS.--Camphor, 1 ounce; carbolic acid (75 per cent.), 12
+ounces; aqua ammonia, 10 drachms; soft salt water, 8 drachms.
+
+Water-Closet Deodorant. Ferric chloride, 4 parts; zinc chloride, 5
+parts; aluminum chloride, 4 parts; calcium chloride, 5 parts; magnesium
+chloride, 3 parts; and water sufficient to make 90 parts. When all is
+dissolved add to each gallon 10 grains of thymol and a quarter-ounce of
+rosemary that had been previously dissolved in six quarts of alcohol.
+
+Odorless Disinfectants. Mercuric chloride, 1 part; cupric sulphate, 10
+parts; zinc sulphate, 50 parts; sodium chloride, 65 parts; water to make
+1,000 parts.
+
+Emery for Lapping Purposes. Fill a pint bottle with machine oil and
+emery flour, in the proportion of 7 parts oil and 1 part emery. Allow it
+to stand for twenty minutes, after shaking up well, then pour off half
+the contents, without disturbing the settlings, and the part so poured
+off contains only the finest of the emery particles, and is the only
+part which should be used on the lapping roller.
+
+EXPLOSIVES.--Common Gunpowder. Potassium nitrate, 75 parts; charcoal, 15
+parts; sulphur, 10 parts.
+
+Dynamite. 75 per cent. nitro-glycerine; 25 per cent. infusorial earth.
+
+Giant Powder. 36 per cent. nitro-glycerine; 48 per cent. nitrate of
+potash; 8 per cent. of sulphur; 8 per cent. charcoal.
+
+Fulminate. Chlorate of potassia, 6 parts; pure lampblack, 4 parts;
+sulphur, 1 part. A blow will cause it to explode.
+
+FILES.--How to Keep Clean. Olive oil is the proper substance to rub over
+files, as this will prevent the creases from filling up while in use,
+and preserve the file for a longer time, and also enable it to do better
+cutting.
+
+To Renew Old Files. Use a potash bath for boiling them in, and
+afterwards brush them well so as to get the creases clean. Then stretch
+a cotton cloth between two supports, and after plunging the file into
+nitric acid, use the stretched cloth to wipe off the acid. The object is
+to remove the acid from the ridges of the file, so the acid will only
+eat out or etch the deep portions between the ridges, and not affect the
+edges or teeth.
+
+FIRE PROOF MATERIALS OR SUBSTANCES.--For Wood. For the kind where it is
+desired to apply with a brush, use 100 parts sodium silicate; 50 parts
+of Spanish white, and 100 parts of glue. It must be applied hot.
+
+Another good preparation is made as follows: Sodium silicate, 350 parts;
+asbestos, powdered, 350 parts; and boiling water 1,000 parts.
+
+For Coating Steel, etc. Silica, 50 parts; plastic fire clay, 10 parts;
+ball clay, 3 parts. To be thoroughly mixed.
+
+For Paper. Ammonium sulphate, 8 parts; boracic acid, 3 parts; borax, 2
+parts; water, 100 parts. This is applied in a liquid state to the paper
+surface.
+
+FLOOR DRESSINGS.--Oil Stain. Neats' foot oil, 1 part; cottonseed oil, 1
+part; petroleum oil, 1 part. This may be colored with anything desired,
+like burnt sienna, annatto, or other coloring material.
+
+Ballroom Powder. Hard paraffine, 1 pound; powdered boric acid, 7 pounds;
+oil of lavender, 1 drachm; oil of neroli, 20 minims.
+
+FOOT POWDERS.--For Perspiring Feet. Balsam Peru, 15 minims; formic
+acid, 1 drachm; chloral hydrate, 1 drachm; alcohol to make 3 ounces.
+
+For Easing Feet. Tannaform, 1 drachm; talcum, 2 drachms; lycopodium, 30
+grains.
+
+Frost Bites. Carbolized water, 4 drachms; nitric acid, 1 drop; oil of
+geranium, 1 drop.
+
+GLASS.--To cut glass, hold it under water, and use a pair of shears.
+
+To make a hole through glass, place a circle of moist earth on the
+glass, and form a hole in this the diameter wanted for the hole, and in
+this hole pour molten lead, and the part touched by the lead will fall
+out.
+
+To Frost Glass. Cover it with a mixture of 6 ounces of magnesium
+sulphate, 2 ounces of dextrine, and 20 ounces of water. This produces a
+fine effect.
+
+To imitate ground glass, use a composition of sandarac, 2-1/2 ounces;
+mastic, 1/2 ounce; ether, 24 ounces; and benzine, 16 ounces.
+
+IRON AND STEEL.--How to distinguish them. Wash the metal and put it into
+a solution of bichromate of potash to which has been added a small
+amount of sulphuric acid. In a minute or so take out the metal, wash and
+wipe it. Soft steel and cast iron will have the appearance of an
+ash-gray tint; tempered steels will be black; and puddled or refined
+irons will be nearly white and have a metallic reflection.
+
+To Harden Iron or Steel. If wrought iron, put in the charge 20 parts, by
+weight, of common salt, 2 parts of potassium cyanide, .3 part of
+potassium bichromate, .15 part of broken glass.
+
+To harden cast iron, there should be added to the charge the following:
+To 60 parts of water, add 2-1/2 parts of vinegar, 3 parts of common
+salt, and .25 part of hydrochloric acid.
+
+To soften castings: Heat them to a high temperature and cover them with
+fine coal dust and allow to cool gradually.
+
+LACQUERS.--For Aluminum. Dissolve 100 parts of gum lac in 300 parts of
+ammonia and heat for an hour moderately in a water bath. The aluminum
+must be well cleaned before applying. Heat the aluminum plate
+afterwards.
+
+For Brass. Make a compound as follows; Annatto, 1/4 ounce; saffro, 1/4
+ounce; turmeric, 1 ounce; seed lac, 3 ounces; and alcohol, 1 pint. Allow
+the mixture to stand for three days, then strain in the vessel which
+contains the seed lac, and allow to stand until all is dissolved.
+
+For Copper. Heat fine, thickly liquid amber varnish so it can be readily
+applied to the copper, and this is allowed to dry. Then heat the coated
+object until it commences to smoke and turn brown.
+
+LUBRICANTS.--Heavy machinery oils. Use paraffine, 8 pounds; palm oil, 20
+pounds; and oleonaptha, 12 pounds. Dissolve the paraffine in the
+oleonaptha at a temperature of 160 degrees and then stir in the palm oil
+a little at a time.
+
+For Cutting Tools. Heat six gallons of water and put in three and a half
+pounds of soft soap and a half gallon of clean refuse oil. It should be
+well mixed.
+
+For high-speed bearings. Use flaky graphite and kerosene oil. Apply this
+as soon as there is any indication of heating in the bearings.
+
+For lathe centers, one part of graphite and four parts of tallow
+thoroughly mixed and applied will be very serviceable.
+
+For Wooden Gears. Use tallow, 30 parts; palm oil; 20 parts; fish oil, 10
+parts; and graphite, 20 parts.
+
+PAPER.--FIRE PROOF PAPER.--Make the following solution: Ammonium
+sulphate, 8 parts; boracic acid, 3 parts; water, 100 parts. Mix at a
+temperature of 120 degrees. Paper coated with this will resist heat.
+
+Filter Paper. Dip the paper into nitric acid of 1.433 specific gravity,
+and subsequently wash and dry it. This makes a fine filtering body.
+
+Carbon Paper. A variety of substances may be used, such as fine soot or
+ivory black, ultramarine or Paris blue. Mix either with fine grain
+soap, so it is of a uniform consistency and then apply to the paper with
+a stiff brush, rubbing it in until it is evenly spread over the surface.
+
+Tracing Paper. Take unsized paper and apply a coat of varnish made of
+equal parts of Canada balsam and oil of turpentine. To increase the
+transparency give another coat. The sheets must be well dried before
+using.
+
+PHOTOGRAPHY.--Developers.
+
+1. Pure water, 30 ounces; sulphite soda, 5 ounces; carbonate soda, 2-1/2
+ounces.
+
+2. Pure water, 24 ounces; oxalic acid, 15 grains; pyrogallic acid, 1
+ounce.
+
+To develop use of solution 1, 1 ounce; solution 2, 1/2 ounce; and water,
+3 ounces.
+
+Stock solutions for developing: Make solution No. 1 as follows: water,
+32 ounces; tolidol, I ounce; sodium sulphate, 1-1/2 ounces.
+
+Solution No. 2: Water, 32 ounces; sodium sulphate.
+
+Solution No. 3: Water, 32 ounces; sodium carbonate, from 4 to 6 ounces.
+
+Fixing bath. Add two ounces of S. P. C. clarifier (acid bisulphate of
+sodium) solution to one quart of hypo solution 1 in 5.
+
+Clearing solution. Saturated solution of alum, 20 ounces; and
+hydrochloric acid, 1 ounce. Varnish. Brush over the negative a solution
+of equal parts of benzol and Japanese gold size.
+
+PLASTERS.--Court Plaster. Use good quality silk, and on this spread a
+solution of isinglass warmed. Dry and repeat several times, then apply
+several coats of balsam of Peru. Or,
+
+On muslin or silk properly stretched, apply a thin coating of smooth
+strained flour paste, and when dry several coats of colorless gelatine
+are added. The gelatine is applied warm, and cooled before the fabric is
+taken off.
+
+PLATING.--Bronze coating. For antiques, use vinegar, 1,000 parts; by
+weight, powdered bloodstone, 125 parts; plumbago, 25 parts. Apply with
+brush.
+
+For brass where a copper surface is desired, make a rouge with a little
+chloride of platinum and water, and apply with a brush.
+
+For gas fixtures. Use a bronze paint and mix with it five times its
+volume of spirit of turpentine, and to this mixture add dried slaked
+lime, about 40 grains to the pint. Agitate well and decant the clear
+liquid.
+
+COLORING METALS.--Brilliant black for iron. Selenious acid, 6 parts;
+cupric sulphate, 10 parts; water 1,000 parts; nitric acid, 5 parts.
+
+Blue-black. Selenious acid, 10 parts; nitric acid, 5 parts; cupric
+sulphate; water, 1,000 parts. The colors will be varied dependent on
+the time the objects are immersed in the solution.
+
+Brass may be colored brown by using an acid solution of nitrate of
+silver and bismuth; or a light bronze by an acid solution of nitrate of
+silver and copper; or black by a solution of nitrate of copper.
+
+To copper plate aluminum, take 30 parts of sulphate of copper; 30 parts
+of cream of tartar; 25 parts of soda; and 1,000 parts of water. The
+article to be coated is merely dipped into the solution.
+
+POLISHERS.--Floor Polish. Permanganate of potash in boiling water,
+applied to the floor hot, will produce a stain, the color being
+dependent on the number of coats. The floor may them be polished with
+beeswax and turpentine.
+
+For Furniture. Make a paste of equal parts of plaster of paris, whiting,
+pumice stone and litharge, mixed with Japan dryer, boiled linseed oil
+and turpentine. This may be colored to suit. This will fill the cracks
+of the wood. Afterwards rub over the entire surface of the wood with a
+mixture of 1 part Japan, 2 of linseed oil, and three parts of
+turpentine, also colored, and after this has been allowed to slightly
+harden, rub it off, and within a day or two it will have hardened
+sufficiently so that the surface can be polished.
+
+Stove Polish. Ceresine, 12 parts; Japan wax, 10 parts; turpentine oil,
+100 parts; lampblack, 12 parts; graphite, 10 parts. Melt the ceresine
+and wax together, and cool off partly, and then add and stir in the
+graphite and lampblack which were previously mixed up with the
+turpentine.
+
+PUTTY.--Black Putty. Whiting and antimony sulphide, and soluble glass.
+This can be polished finely after hardening.
+
+Common Putty. Whiting and linseed oil mixed up to form a dough.
+
+RUST PREVENTIVE.--For Machinery. Dissolve an ounce of camphor in one
+pound of melted lard. Mix with this enough fine black lead to give it an
+iron color. After it has been on for a day, rub off with a cloth.
+
+For tools, yellow vaseline is the best substance.
+
+For zinc, clean the plate by immersing in water that has a small amount
+of sulphuric acid in it. Then wash clean and coat with asphalt varnish.
+
+SOLDERS.--For aluminum. Use 5 parts of tin and 1 part of aluminum as the
+alloy, and solder with the iron or a blow pipe.
+
+Yellow hard solder. Brass, 3-1/2 parts; and zinc, 1 part.
+
+For easily fusing, make an alloy of equal parts of brass and zinc.
+
+For a white hard solder use brass, 12 parts; zinc, 1 part; and tin, 2
+parts.
+
+SOLDERING FLUXES.--For soft soldering, use a solution of chloride of
+zinc and sal ammoniac. Powdered rosin is also used.
+
+For hard soldering, borax is used most frequently.
+
+A mixture of equal parts of cryolite and barium chloride is very good in
+soldering bronze or aluminum alloys.
+
+Other hard solders are alloyed as follows: brass, 4 parts; and zinc, 5
+parts. Also brass, 7 parts; and zinc, 2 parts.
+
+Steel Tempering-.-Heat the steel red hot and then plunge it into sealing
+wax.
+
+For tempering small steel springs, they may be plunged into a fish oil
+which has a small amount of rosin and tallow.
+
+VARNISHES.--Black Varnish. Shellac, 5 parts; borax, 2 parts; glycerine,
+2 parts; aniline black, 6 parts; water, 45 parts. Dissolve the shellac
+in hot water and add the other ingredients at a temperature of 200
+degrees.
+
+A good can varnish is made by dissolving 15 parts of shellac, and adding
+thereto 2 parts of Venice turpentine, 8 parts of sandarac, and 75 parts
+of spirits.
+
+A varnish for tin and other small metal boxes is made of 75 parts
+alcohol, which dissolves 15 parts of shellac, and 3 parts of turpentine.
+
+SEALING WAX.--For modeling purposes. White wax, 20 parts; turpentine, 5
+parts; sesame oil, 2 parts; vermilion, 2 parts.
+
+Ordinary Sealing. 4 pounds of shellac, 1 pound Venice turpentine, add 3
+pounds of vermilion. Unite by heat.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+HANDY TABLES
+
+
+TABLE OF WEIGHTS FOR ROUND AND SQUARE STEEL.
+
+The Estimate is on the basis of Lineal Feet. 1 cu. ft. of Steel--490
+lbs.
+
+==========+===================+==========+===================
+          |                   |          |
+          | Weight in Pounds  |          | Weight in Pounds
+ Sizes in |                   | Sizes in |
+  Inches  +---------+---------+  Inches  +---------+---------
+          |  Round  | Square  |          |  Round  | Square
+----------+---------+---------+----------+---------+---------
+   1/16   |   .110  |   .013  |  1-1/16  |  3.014  |  3.400
+   1/8    |   .042  |   .053  |  1-1/8   |  3.379  |  3.838
+   3/16   |   .094  |   .119  |  1-3/16  |  3.766  |  4.303
+   1/4    |   .167  |   .212  |  1-1/4   |  4.173  |  4.795
+   5/16   |   .261  |   .333  |  1-5/16  |  4.600  |  5.312
+   3/8    |   .375  |   .478  |  1-3/8   |  5.049  |  5.857
+   7/16   |   .511  |   .651  |  1-7/16  |  5.518  |  6.428
+   1/2    |   .667  |   .850  |  1-1/2   |  6.008  |  7.650
+   9/16   |   .845  |  1.026  |  1-9/16  |  6.520  |  7.650
+   5/8    |  1.043  |  1.328  |  1-5/8   |  7.051  |  8.301
+  11/16   |  1.262  |  1.608  |  1-11/16 |  7.604  |  8.978
+   3/4    |  1.502  |  1.913  |  1-3/4   |  8.178  | 10.41
+  13/16   |  1.773  |  2.245  |  1-13/16 |  8.773  | 11.17
+   7/8    |  2.044  |  2.603  |  1-7/8   |  9.388  | 11.95
+  15/16   |  2.347  |  2.989  |  1-15/16 | 10.02   | 12.76
+    1     |  2.670  |  3.400  |  2       | 10.68   | 13.60
+----------+---------+---------+----------+---------+---------
+
+WEIGHT OF FLAT STEEL BARS.
+
+=========+=============================================================
+Thickness|
+   in    |                             Width
+ Inches  |
+---------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+------+------
+   1/16  |  .212|  .265|  .32 |  .372|  .425|  .477|  .53|  .588|  .63
+   1/8   |  .425|  .53 |  .64 |  .745|  .85 |  .955| 1.06| 1.17 | 1.27
+   3/16  |  .638|  .797|  .957| 1.11 | 1.28 | 1.44 | 1.59| 1.75 | 1.91
+   1/4   |  .85 | 1.06 | 1.28 | 1.49 | 1.70 | 1.91 | 2.12| 2.34 | 2.55
+   5/16  | 1.06 | 1.33 | 1.59 | 1.86 | 2.12 | 2.39 | 2.65| 2.92 | 3.19
+   3/8   | 1.28 | 1.59 | 1.92 | 2.23 | 2.55 | 2.87 | 3.19| 3.51 | 3.83
+   7/16  | 1.49 | 1.85 | 2.23 | 2.60 | 2.98 | 3.35 | 3.72| 4.09 | 4.46
+   1/2   | 1.70 | 2.12 | 2.55 | 2.98 | 3.40 | 3.83 | 4.25| 4.67 | 5.10
+   9/16  | 1.92 | 2.39 | 2.87 | 3.35 | 3.83 | 4.30 | 4.78| 5.26 | 5.74
+   5/8   | 2.12 | 2.65 | 3.19 | 3.72 | 4.25 | 4.78 | 5.31| 5.84 | 6.38
+  11/16  | 2.34 | 2.92 | 3.51 | 4.09 | 4.67 | 5.26 | 5.84| 6.43 | 7.02
+   3/4   | 2.55 | 3.19 | 3.83 | 4.47 | 5.10 | 5.75 | 6.38| 7.02 | 7.65
+  13/16  | 2.76 | 3.45 | 4.14 | 4.48 | 5.53 | 6.21 | 6.90| 7.60 | 8.29
+   7/8   | 2.98 | 3.72 | 4.47 | 5.20 | 5.95 | 6.69 | 7.44| 8.18 | 8.93
+  15/16  | 3.19 | 3.99 | 4.78 | 5.58 | 6.38 | 7.18 | 7.97| 8.77 | 9.57
+    1    | 3.40 | 4.25 | 5.10 | 5.95 | 6.80 | 7.65 | 8.50| 9.35 |10.20
+---------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+------+------
+
+AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT.
+
+For Merchandise of all kinds.
+
+   16 Drams (dr.) make            1 Ounce (oz.)
+   16 Ounces make                 1 Pound (pd.)
+   25 Pounds make                 1 Quarter (qr.)
+    4 Quarters, or 100 lbs., make 1 Hundredweight (cwt.)
+   20 Hundredweights make         1 Ton (T.)
+2,240 Pounds make                 1 Long ton (L. T.)
+
+
+TROY WEIGHT.
+
+For Gold, Silver, and Precious Metals.
+
+24 Grains (gr.) make    1 Pennyweight (pwt.)
+20 Pennyweights make    1 Ounce (oz.)
+12 Ounces make          1 Pound (pd.)
+
+
+APOTHECARIES WEIGHT.
+
+For Drugs, Medicals and Chemicals.
+
+20 Grains (gr.) make     1 Scruple (sc.)
+ 3 Scruples make         1 Dram (dr.)
+ 8 Drams make            1 Ounce (oz.)
+12 Ounces make           1 Pound (pd.)
+
+LINEAR MEASURE.
+
+For Surveyors' Use.
+
+12 Inches make         1 Foot
+3 Feet make            1 Yard
+5-1/2 Yards make       1 Rod
+40 Rods make           1 Furlong
+8 Furlongs             1 Mile
+
+
+LONG MEASURE.
+
+12 Inches make      1 Foot
+3 Feet make         1 Yard
+6 Feet make         1 Fathom
+5-1/2 Yards make    1 Rod or pole
+40 Poles make       1 Furlong
+8 Furlongs make     1 Mile
+3 Miles make        1 League
+69-1/2 Miles make   1 Degree
+
+
+SQUARE MEASURE.
+
+144 square inches make      1 square foot
+9 square feet make          1 square yard
+30-1/2 square yards make    1 square pole
+40 square poles make        1 square rod
+4 square rods make          1 acre
+640 square acres make       1 acre mile
+
+SOLID OR CUBIC MEASURE.
+
+1,728 Cubic inches make     1 Cubic foot
+27 Cubic feet make          1 Cubic yard
+128 Cubic feet make         1 Cord of wood
+24-3/4 Cubic feet make      1 Perch of stone
+
+
+DRY MEASURE.
+
+2 Pints make        1 Quart (qt.)
+8 Quarts make       1 peck (pk.)
+4 Pecks make        1 Bushel (bu.)
+36 Bushels make     1 Chaldron (ch.)
+
+
+LIQUID MEASURE.
+
+4 Gills (g.) make            1 Pint (pt.)
+2 Pints make                 1 Quart (qt.)
+4 Quarts make                1 Gallon (gal.)
+31-1/2 Gallons make          1 Barrel (bbl.)
+2 Bbls., or 63 gals., make.   1 Hogshead (hhd.)
+
+
+PAPER MEASURE.
+
+24 Sheets (sh.) make   1 Quire (qu.)
+20 Quires make         1 Ream (r.)
+10 Reams make          1 Bale (ba.) or bundle.
+
+TABLE OF TEMPERATURES.
+
+Greatest artificial cold   220   degrees below Fahr.
+    "    natural      "     73.7    "      "      "
+Mercury freezes             39      "      "      "
+Mixture of snow and salt     4      "      "      "
+Greatest density of water at 39.2   "    above    "
+Blood Heat                   97.9   "      "      "
+Alcohol boils               172.4   "      "      "
+Water boils                 212     "      "      "
+Mercury boils               662     "      "      "
+Sulphur boils               824     "      "      "
+Silver melts              1,749     "      "      "
+Cast iron melts           2,786     "      "      "
+
+
+STRENGTH OF VARIOUS METALS.
+
+The tests are made by using a cubic inch of the metal and compressing
+it, and by trying to draw apart a square inch of metal. Indicated in
+pounds.
+
+========================+=========+=============
+                        | Tension | Compression
+------------------------+---------+-------------
+Aluminum                |  15,000 |   12,000
+Brass, cast             |  24,000 |   30,000
+Bronze, gun metal       |  32,000 |   20,000
+  "     manganese       |  60,000 |  120,000
+  "      phosphor       |  50,000 |   ......
+Copper, cast            |  24,000 |   40,000
+  "     wire annealed.  |  36,000 |   ......
+  "       " unannealed  |  60,000 |   ......
+Iron, cast              |  15,000 |   ......
+  "     "  annealed     |  60,000 |   80,000
+  "     "  unannealed   |  80,000 |   ......
+  "   wrought           |  48,000 |   46,000
+Lead, cast              |   2,000 |   ......
+Steel castings          |  70,000 |   70,000
+  "   plow              | 270,000 |   ......
+  "   structural        |  60,000 |   60,000
+  "   wire annealed     |  80,000 |   ......
+  "   crucible          | 180,000 |   ......
+Tin                     |   3,800 |    6,000
+------------------------+---------+-------------
+
+FREEZING MIXTURES
+
+===============================================+=======================
+                                               |Temperature Changes
+                                               |in Degrees Fahrenheit
+                                               +---------+------------
+          Mixtures                             | From    |   To
+-----------------------------------------------+---------+------------
+Common salt, 1 part; snow, 3 parts             |   32    | zero .0
+Common salt, 1 part; snow 1 part               |   32    |     -.4
+Calcium chloride, 3 parts; snow 1 part         |   32    |     -27
+Calcium chloride, 2 parts; snow 1 part         |   32    |     -44
+Sal ammoniac, 5 parts; salt-peter 5 parts;     |         |
+  water 16 parts.                              |   50    |     -10
+Sal ammoniac, 1 part; salt-peter 1 part;       |         |
+  water 1 part                                 |   46    |     -11
+Ammonium nitrate, 1 part; water 1 part         |   50    |      -3
+Potassium hydrate, 4 parts; snow 3 parts       |   32    |     -35
+-----------------------------------------------+---------+------------
+
+IGNITION TEMPERATURES.
+
+Phosphorus                 120 degrees Fahrenheit
+Bi-sulphide of carbon      300    "        "
+Gun-cotton                 430    "        "
+Nitro-glycerine            490    "        "
+Phosphorus, amorphous      500    "        "
+Rifle powder               550    "        "
+Charcoal                   660    "        "
+Dry pine wood              800    "        "
+Oak                        900    "        "
+
+POWER AND HEAT EQUIVALENTS.
+
+In studying matters pertaining to power and heat, certain terms are
+used, such as horsepower, horsepower-hours, watts, watt-hours, kilowatt,
+kilowatt-hours, foot-pounds, joule, and B. T. U. (British Thermal Unit).
+
+The following tables give a comprehensive idea of the values of the
+different terms:
+
+1 Horsepower-hour = 0.746 kilowatt-hour = 1,980,000 foot-pounds
+                    of water evaporated at 212 degrees Fahrenheit,
+                    raised from 62 degrees to 212 degrees.
+
+1 Kilowatt-hour   = 1,000 watt-hours = 1.34 horse-power-hours
+                    = 2,653,200 foot-pounds = 3,600,000 joules
+                    = 3,420 B. T. U. = 3.54 pounds of water evaporated
+                    at 212 degrees = 22.8 pounds of water raised from
+                    62 to 212 degrees.
+
+1 Horsepower      = 746 watts = 0.746 kilowatts.= 33,000 foot-pounds
+                    per second = 2,550 B. T. U. per min. = 0.71
+                    B. T. U. per second = 2.64 pounds of water
+                    evaporated per hour at 212 degrees.
+
+1 Kilowatt        = 1,000 watts = 1.34 horsepower = 2,653,200
+                    foot-pounds per hour = 44,220 foot-pounds per
+                    min. = 737 foot-pounds per second = 3,420
+                    B. T. U. per hour = 57 B. T. U. per min. = 0.95
+                    B. T. U. per second = 3.54 pounds of water
+                    evaporated per hour at 212.
+
+1 Watt            = 1 joule per second = 0.00134 horse-power = 0.001
+                    kilowatt = 342 B. T. U. per hour = 44.22
+                    foot-pounds per min. = 0.74 foot-pounds per second
+                    = 0.0035 pounds of water evaporated per hour at
+                    212 degrees.
+
+1 B. T. U. (British Thermal Unit) = 1,052 watt-seconds = 778
+                    foot-pounds = 0.252 calorie = 0.000292
+                    kilowatt-hours = 0.000391 horsepower-hour
+                    = 0.00104 pounds of water evaporated at 212
+                    degrees.
+
+1 Foot-pound      = 1.36 joule = 0.000000377 kilowatt-hour =
+                    0.00129 B. T. U. = 0.0000005 horsepower-hour.
+
+1 Joule           = 1 watt-second = 0.000000278 kilowatt-hour =
+                    0.00095 B. T. U. = 0.74 foot-pounds.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+INVENTIONS AND PATENTS, AND INFORMATION ABOUT THE RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF
+INVENTORS AND WORKMEN
+
+
+There is no trade or occupation which calls forth the inventive faculty
+to a greater degree than the machinist's. Whether it be in the direction
+of making some new tool, needed in some special work, or in devising a
+particular movement, or mechanical expedient, the machinist must be
+prepared to meet the issues and decide on the best structural
+arrangement.
+
+Opportunities also come daily to the workers in machine shops to a
+greater extent than other artisans, because inventors in every line
+bring inventions to them to be built and experimentally tested.
+
+A knowledge of the rights and duties of inventors, and of the men who
+build the models, is very desirable; and for your convenience we append
+the following information:
+
+The inventor of a device is he who has conceived an idea and has put it
+into some concrete form.
+
+A mere idea is not an invention.
+
+The article so conceived and constructed, must be both _new_ and
+_useful_. There must be some utility. It may be simply a toy, or
+something to amuse.
+
+If A has an idea, and he employs and pays B to work out the device, and
+put it into practical shape, A is the inventor, although B may have
+materially modified, or even wholly changed it. B is simply the agent or
+tool to bring it to perfection, and his pay for doing the work is his
+compensation.
+
+An inventor has two years' time within which he may apply for a patent,
+after he has completed his device and begun the sale of it. If he sells
+the article for more than two years before applying for a patent, this
+will bar a grant.
+
+Two or more inventors may apply for a patent, provided each has
+contributed something toward bringing it to its perfected state. Each
+cannot apply separately. The patent issued will be owned by them
+jointly.
+
+Joint owners of a patent are not partners, unless they have signed
+partnership papers respecting the patent. Because they are partners in
+some other enterprise, disconnected from the patent, that does not
+constitute them partners in the patent. They are merely joint owners.
+
+If they have no special agreement with respect to the patent each can
+grant licenses to manufacture, independently of the others, without
+being compelled to account to the others, and each has a right to sell
+his interest without asking permission of the others.
+
+An _inventor_ is one who has devised an invention. A _patentee_ is one
+who owns a patent, or an interest in one, be he the inventor or not.
+
+The United States government does not grant Caveats. The only protection
+offered is by way of patent.
+
+A patent runs for a period of seventeen years, and may be renewed by act
+of Congress only, for a further term of seven years.
+
+An interference is a proceeding in the Patent Office to determine who is
+the first inventor of a device. The following is a brief statement of
+the course followed:
+
+When two or more applicants have applications pending, which, in the
+opinion of the Examiner, appear to be similar, the Office may declare an
+interference.
+
+If an applicant has an application pending, and the Examiner rejects it
+on reference to a patent already issued, the applicant may demand an
+interference, and the Office will then grant a hearing to determine
+which of the two is entitled to the patent.
+
+The first step, after the declaration of interference, is to request
+that each applicant file a preliminary statement, under oath, in which
+he must set forth the following:
+
+First: The date of conception of the invention.
+
+Second: Date of the first reduction to writing, or the preparation of
+drawings.
+
+Third: Date of making of the first model or device.
+
+Fourth: When a complete machine was first produced.
+
+These statements are filed in the Patent Office, and opened on the same
+day, and times are then set for the respective parties to take
+testimony.
+
+If one of the parties was the first to conceive and reduce to practice,
+as well as the first to file his application, he will be adjudged to be
+the first inventor, without necessitating the taking of testimony.
+
+If, on the other hand, one was the first to conceive, and the other the
+first to file, then testimony will be required to determine the question
+of invention.
+
+The granting of a patent is not conclusive that the patentee was, in
+reality, the first inventor. The law is that the patent must issue to
+the _first_ inventor, and if it can be proven that another party was the
+first, a new patent will issue to the one who thus establishes his
+right. The Commissioner of Patents has no right to take away the patent
+first issued. Only the Courts are competent to do this.
+
+A patent is granted for the right to _make_, to _use_ and to _vend_.
+
+An owner of a patent cannot sell the right only to make, or to sell, or
+to use. Such a document would be a simple license, only, for that
+particular purpose.
+
+A patent may be sold giving a divided, or an undivided right.
+
+A divided right is where a State, or any other particular territorial
+right is granted. An undivided right is a quarter, or a half, or some
+other portion in the patent itself.
+
+If an inventor assigns his invention, and states in the granting clause
+that he conveys "all his right and title in and to the invention," or
+words to that effect, he conveys all his rights throughout the world.
+
+If the conveyance says, "all rights and title in and throughout the
+United States," he thereby reserves all other countries.
+
+If a patent is issued, and the number and date of the patent are given,
+the assignment conveys the patent for the United States only, unless
+foreign countries are specifically mentioned.
+
+To convey an invention or patent, some definite number or filing date
+must be given in the document, with sufficient clearness and certainty
+to show the intent of the assignor.
+
+An invention does not depend on quantity, but on quality. It is that
+which produces a new and a useful _result_.
+
+In the United States patents are granted for the purpose of promoting
+the useful arts and sciences.
+
+In England, and in many other foreign countries, patents are granted,
+not on account of any merit on the part of the inventor, but as a favor
+of the crown, or sovereign.
+
+Originally patents were granted by the crown for the exclusive privilege
+in dealing in any commodity, and for this right a royal fee was exacted.
+>From this fact the term _royalty_ originated.
+
+An international agreement is now in force among nearly all countries,
+which respects the filing of an application in any country, for a period
+of one year in the other countries.
+
+In making an application for a patent, a petition is required, a
+specification showing its object, use, and particular construction,
+followed by a claim, or claims, and accompanied by a drawing, if the
+invention will permit of it, (which must be made in black, with India
+ink), and an oath.
+
+The oath requires the following assertions: That the applicant is the
+first and original inventor of the device, and that he does not know
+and does not believe the same was ever known or used before his
+invention or more than two years before his application.
+
+He must also further allege that the invention was not patented or
+described in any printed publication here or abroad, and not
+manufactured more than two years prior to the application, and that he
+has not made an application, nor authorized any one to do so more than
+two years prior to his application.
+
+The first Government fee is $15, payable at the time of filing, and the
+second and final fee is $20, payable at the time the patent is ordered
+to issue.
+
+The filing of an application for patent is a secret act, and the Patent
+Office will not give any information to others concerning it, prior to
+the issue of the patent.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY OF WORDS
+
+USED IN TEXT OF THIS VOLUME
+
+
+Abrupt.          Suddenly; coming without warning.
+
+Abrasive.        A material which wears away.
+
+Actuate.         Influenced, as by sudden motive; incited to action.
+
+Accumulate.      To bring together; to amass; to collect.
+
+Acoustics.       The branch of physics which treats of sound.
+
+Adhesion.        To hold together; a molecular force by means of
+                 which particles stick together.
+
+Affinity.        Any natural drawing together; the property or force
+                 in chemicals to move toward each other.
+
+Aggravate.       To incite; to make worse or more burdensome.
+
+Alloy.           A combination of two or more metals.
+
+Altitude.        Height; a vertical distance above any point.
+
+Alkali.          Any substance which will neutralize an acid, as lime,
+                 magnesia, and the like.
+
+Amalgam.         Any compound of metal which has mercury as one
+                 of the elements.
+
+Amiss.           Wrong, fault, misdeed.
+
+Annealing.       A process of gradually heating and cooling metals,
+                 whereby hardness and toughness are brought about.
+
+Angle plate.     A metal structure which has two bodies, or limbs,
+                 at right angles to each other.
+
+Analysis.        The separating of substances into their elementary
+                 forms.
+
+Anchor bolt.     A structure intended to be placed in a hole in a wall,
+                 and held there by a brew which expands a part
+                 of the structure.
+
+Apprentice.      One who is learning a trade or occupation.
+
+Artificial.      That which resembles the original; made in imitation
+                 of.
+
+Arbor.           A shaft, spindle, mandrel, or axle.
+
+Armature.        A metallic body within the magnetic field of a magnet.
+
+Arbitrary.       Stubborn determination. Doing a thing without regard
+                 to consequences.
+
+Artisan.         One skilled in any mechanical art.
+
+Attributable.    That which belongs to or is associated with.
+
+Automatically.   Operating by its own structure, or without outside
+                 aid.
+
+Augmented.       Added to; to increase.
+
+Auxiliary.       To aid; giving or furnishing aid.
+
+Avoirdupois.     The system of weights, of which the unit is sixteen
+                 ounces.
+
+Back-saw.        A saw which has a rib at its upper margin.
+
+Barleycorn.      A grain of barley.
+
+Bastard.         A coarse-grained file.
+
+B. T. U.         British Thermal Unit.
+
+Back-gear.       That gear on a lathe for changing the feed.
+
+Bevel.           Not in a right line; slanting; oblique.
+
+Bibb.            A form of water faucet.
+
+Bit, or bitt.    A form of tool for cutting purposes on a lathe, planer,
+                 shaper, or drilling machine.
+
+Borax.           A white crystalline compound, of a sweetish taste.
+                 Chemically it is sodium biborate.
+
+Buffs.           Usually a wheel covered with leather or cloth, and
+                 having emery dust on it, for fine polishing purposes.
+
+Buffeted.        Thrown back.
+
+Bronze.          An alloy of copper and tin.
+
+Calcium.         Lime.
+
+Cant.            A form of lever.
+
+Carbonate.       A salt of carbonic acid.
+
+Caustic.         Capable of corroding or eating away.
+
+Capillary.       That quality of a liquid which causes it to move
+                 upwardly or along a solid with which it is in contact.
+
+Caliper.         An instrument for spanning inside and outside
+                 dimensions.
+
+Centripetal.     The force which tends to draw inwardly, or to the
+                 center.
+
+Centrifugal.     The outwardly-moving force from a body.
+
+Centering.       To form a point equidistant from a circular line.
+
+Chloride.        A compound of chlorine with one or more positive
+                 elements, such as, for instance, salt.
+
+Circular pitch.  The measurement around a gear taken at a point
+                 midway between the base and end of the teeth.
+
+Circumference.   The outside of a circular body.
+
+Clef.            A character placed on a staff of music to determine
+                 the pitch.
+
+Clutch.          A mechanical element for attaching one part to another.
+
+Chuck, Independent. A disk of metal to be attached to the live spindle
+                 of a lathe, and which has on its face a set of dogs
+                 which move radially independently of each other.
+
+Chuck, Universal. A disk to be attached as above, provided with dogs
+                 which are connected so they move radially in unison
+                 with each other.
+
+Classified.      Arranged in order, in such a manner that each of a
+                 kind is placed under a suitable heading.
+
+Clearance.       To provide a space behind the cutting edge of a tool
+                 which will not touch the work being cut.
+
+Consistency.     Harmonious; not contradictory.
+
+Coherer.         That instrument in a wireless telegraphy apparatus
+                 which detects the electrical impulses.
+
+Commutator.      The cylindrical structure on the end of an armature,
+                 which is designed to change the polarity of the
+                 current.
+
+Concentrated.    Brought together at one point.
+
+Coinage.         The system of making money from metals.
+
+Compound.        The unity of two or more elements.
+
+Constant.        Being insistent and consistent; also a term to be
+                 used in a problem which never varies.
+
+Conversion.      The change from one state to another.
+
+Cone.            A body larger at one end than at another; usually
+                 applied to a form which is cylindrical in shape
+                 but tapering, from end to end.
+
+Compression.     The bringing together of particles, or molecules.
+
+Convolute.       A spiral form of winding, like a watch spring.
+
+Coiled.          A form of winding, like a string wound around a
+                 bobbin.
+
+Conductivity.    Applied generally to the quality of material which
+                 will carry a current of electricity; also a quality
+                 of a material to convey heat.
+
+Cohesion.        The force by which the molecules of the same kind
+                 are held together.
+
+Concentric.      A line which is equidistant at all points from a
+                 center.
+
+Confined.        Held within certain bounds.
+
+Corpuscular.     Molecular or atomic form.
+
+Converge.        To come together from all points.
+
+Concave.         A surface which is depressed or sunken.
+
+Convex.          A surface which is raised, or projects beyond the
+                 surface of the edges.
+
+Component.       One of the elements in a problem or in a compound.
+
+Coefficient.     A number indicating the degree or quality possessed
+                 by a substance. An invariable unit.
+
+Cube.            A body having six equal sides.
+
+Cross-section.   A term used to designate that line which is at right
+                 angles to the line running from the view point.
+
+Cross slide.     The metal plate on a lathe which holds the tool post,
+                 and which is controlled, usually, by a screw.
+
+Contiguous.      Close to; near at hand.
+
+Countersink.     The depression around a bore.
+
+Collet.          A collar, clutch or clamping piece, which has jaws
+                 to hold a bar or rod.
+
+Countershaft.    A shaft which has thereon pulleys or gears to connect
+                 operatively with the gears or pulleys on a
+                 machine, and change the speed.
+
+Conducive.       Tending to; promotive of a result.
+
+Corundum.        An extremely hard aluminum oxide used for polishing.
+
+Cold chisel.     A term applied to an extremely hard chisel used for
+                 cutting and chipping metal.
+
+Combustion.      The action or operation of burning.
+
+Conjunctively.   Acting together.
+
+Comparatively.   Similitude or resemblance, one with another.
+
+Cotter.          A key to prevent a wheel turning on its shaft.
+
+Dead center.     A term used to designate the inoperative point of
+                 the crank.
+
+Depicting.       Showing; setting forth.
+
+Deodorant.       A substance which will decompose odors.
+
+Developer.       A chemical which will bring out the picture in making
+                 the film or plate in photography.
+
+Decimeter.       The length of one-tenth of a meter in the metric
+                 system.
+
+Decameter.       The length of ten meters in the metric system.
+
+Defective.       Not perfect; wrong in some particular.
+
+Diaphragm.       A plate, such as used in a telephone system, to receive
+                 and transmit vibrations.
+
+Dissolving.      To change from a solid to a liquid condition.
+
+Division plate.  A perforated plate in a gear-cutting machine, to aid
+                 in dividing the teeth of a wheel.
+
+Dispelled.       To drive away or scatter.
+
+Disinfectant.    A material which will destroy harmful germs.
+
+Diametral pitch. The number of teeth in a gear as calculated on the
+                 pitch line.
+
+Dimension.       Measurement; size.
+
+Ductility.       That property of metal which permits it to be drawn
+                 out, or worked.
+
+Dividers.        An instrument, like a compass, for stepping off
+                 measurements, or making circles.
+
+Diverge.         Spreading out from a common point.
+
+Drift.           A cutting tool for smoothing a hole in a piece of
+                 metal.
+
+Duplex.          Two; double.
+
+Dynamite.        An explosive composed of an absorbent, like earth,
+                 combined with nitro-glycerine.
+
+Dynamometer.     An instrument for measuring power developed.
+
+Eccentric.       Out of center.
+
+Echoes.          The reflection of sound.
+
+Effervesce.      The action due to the unity of two opposite chemicals.
+
+Efficiency.      The term applied to the quality of effectiveness.
+
+Ellipse.         A form which is oblong, or having a shape, more or
+                 less, like the longitudinal section of an egg.
+
+Electrolytic.    The action of a current of water passing through a
+                 liquid, and decomposing it, and carrying elements
+                 from one electrode to the other.
+
+Elasticity.      The quality in certain substances to be drawn out
+                 of their normal shape, and by virtue of which they
+                 will resume their original form when released.
+
+Embedded.        To be placed within a body or substance.
+
+Emerge.          To come out of.
+
+Emphasize.       To lay particular stress upon.
+
+Emery.           A hard substance, usually some of the finely divided
+                 precious stones, and used for polishing and grinding
+                 purposes.
+
+Enormous.        A large amount; great in size.
+
+Enunciated.      Proclaimed; given out.
+
+Equalization.    To put on an even basis; to make the same
+                 comparatively.
+
+Eradicator.      To take out; to cause to disappear.
+
+Escapement.      A piece of mechanism devised for the purpose of giving
+                 a uniform rate of speed to the movement of
+                 wheels.
+
+Essential.       The important feature; the principal thing.
+
+Expansion.       To enlarge; growing greater.
+
+Equidistant.     The same distance from a certain point.
+
+Evolved.         Brought out of; the result of certain considerations.
+
+Facet.           A face.
+
+Facilitated.     Made easy.
+
+Flux.            Any substance which will aid in uniting material under
+                 heat. The act of uniting.
+
+Fluid.           Any substance in which the particles freely interchange
+                 positions.
+
+Flour emery.     Emery which is finely ground.
+
+Flexible.        The quality of any material which will permit bending.
+
+Float cut.       The term when applied to a tool where the cut is an
+                 easy one.
+
+Flexure.         The springing yield in a substance.
+
+Foot pound.      A unit, usually determined by the number of pounds
+                 raised one foot in one second of time. 550 pounds
+                 raised one foot in one second of time, means so
+                 many foot pounds.
+
+Formulate.       To arrange; to put in order from a certain
+                 consideration of things.
+
+Focus.           The center of a circle.
+
+Foci.            One of the points of an ellipse.
+
+Formation.       The structure of a machine or of a compound.
+
+Fractured.       Broken.
+
+Fundamental.     Basis; the first form; the original structure.
+
+Fulcrum.         The resting place for a lever.
+
+Fusion.          Melting. The change of a metal from a solid to a liquid
+                 state by heat.
+
+Fusible.         That which is capable of being melted.
+
+Fulminate.       A substance that will ignite or explode by heat or
+                 friction.
+
+Gamut.           The scale of sound or light, or vibrations of any kind.
+
+Gear.            A toothed wheel of any kind.
+
+Gelatine.        A tasteless transparent substance obtained from animal
+                 tissues.
+
+Globular.        Having the form of a globe or ball.
+
+Glazed.          Having a glossary appearance.
+
+Graphite.        A metallic, iron-black variety of carbon.
+
+Graduated.       To arrange in steps; a regular order or series.
+
+Grinder.         Any mechanism which abrades or wears down a substance.
+
+Gullet.          The curved notches or grooves between projecting parts
+                 of mechanism.
+
+Harmonizing.     To make the various parts act together in unison.
+
+H. P.            The symbol for horse power.
+
+Helico.          A form resembling that of the threads of a screw.
+
+Hexagon.         Six-sided.
+
+Heliograph.      The system of signaling by using flashlights.
+
+Horizontal.      Things level with the surface of the earth; like the
+                 surface of water.
+
+Hydrogen.        The lightest of all the elements. A tasteless,
+                 colorless substance.
+
+Import.          To bear, or convey as a meaning.
+
+Impulse.         The application of an impelling force.
+
+Impact.          A collision; striking against.
+
+Invariably.      Constant; without failing.
+
+Inertia.         The quality of all materials to remain at rest, or to
+                 continue in motion, unless acted on by some external
+                 force.
+
+Intersect.       To divide at a certain point. The crossing point of one
+                 line over another.
+
+Interval.        A space; a distance between.
+
+Intensity.       Strained or exerted to a high degree.
+
+Interstices.     The spaces between the molecules or atoms in a
+                 substance.
+
+Intermediate.    Between.
+
+Intermeshing.    The locking together of gear wheels.
+
+Internal.        That which is within.
+
+Inability.       Unable to perform or do.
+
+Initial.         The first; at the start.
+
+Increment.       One of the parts which go to make up the whole.
+
+Inference.       Drawing a conclusion from a certain state of things.
+
+Insoluble.       A substance which cannot be liquefied by a liquid.
+
+Indentations.    Recesses, or cut-out parts or places.
+
+Induction.       The movement of electricity through the air from
+                 one conductor to another.
+
+Inflammable.     That which will burn.
+
+Inclining.       At an angle; sloping.
+
+Inconsequential. Not of much importance.
+
+Isometric.       That view of a figure which will give the relation
+                 of all the parts in their proper proportions.
+
+Jaw.             The grasping part of a vise, or other tool.
+
+Joule.           The practical unit of electrical energy.
+
+Key-way.         A groove in a shaft and in the hub of a wheel, to
+                 receive therein a locking key.
+
+Kilowatt.        A unit of electrical power; one thousand watts.
+
+Kinetic.         Consisting of motion.
+
+Lacing.          The attaching of the ends of a belt to each other.
+
+Lap.             A tool, usually of copper or lead, on which flour emery
+                 is spread, with oil, and used to grind out the interior
+                 of cylinders.
+
+Lapping.         The act of using a lap to grind out cylinders.
+
+Lacquer.         A varnish for either wood or metal.
+
+Lazy-tongs.      A form of tool, by means of which a long range of
+                 movement is attainable, and great grasp of power.
+
+Levigated.       Reduced to a fine powder.
+
+Litharge.        A form of lead used in paints for drying purposes.
+
+Longitudinal.    Lengthwise.
+
+Luminous.        That which has the capacity to light up.
+
+Magnet.          A bar of iron or steel that has electricity in it
+                 capable of attracting certain metals.
+
+Manipulation.    Capable of being handled.
+
+Mandrel.         The revolving part of a lathe; a rod or bar which
+                 turns and carries mechanical elements thereon.
+
+Manually.        Operated by hand.
+
+Margin.          An edge.
+
+Malleability.    Softness. The state of being formed by hammering.
+
+Magnetism.       A quality of certain metals to receive and hold a
+                 charge of electricity.
+
+Major axis.      The measurement across the longest part of an ellipse.
+
+Minor axis.      The distance across the narrowest part of an ellipse.
+
+Meridian.        The time when the sun crosses the middle of the
+                 heavens; midday.
+
+Metric.          Measure; a system which takes the unit of its
+                 measurement from the circumference of the earth.
+
+Micrometer.      A tool for measuring small spaces or intervals.
+
+Milling machine. A large tool for the purpose of cutting gears and
+                 grooves or surfaces.
+
+Miter.           A meeting surface between two right-angled pieces.
+
+Momentum.        That quality of matter which is the combined energy
+                 of mass and speed.
+
+Molecular.       Any substance that is made up of any particles; the
+                 component elements in any substance.
+
+Modifications.   Changes; improved arrangements.
+
+Multiplicity.    Many; numerous; a large quantity.
+
+Mutilated.       As applied to a gear, one in which certain teeth are
+                 removed.
+
+Nautical.        Marine; applied to shipping, and the like.
+
+Neutralizes.     Any substance, like a chemical, which, when added
+                 to another chemical, will change them both.
+
+Nitro-glycerine. An explosive made from glycerine and nitrogen.
+
+Oblique.         At an angle; inclined.
+
+Obliterate.      To wipe out.
+
+Obvious.         That which can be seen; easily observed.
+
+Obtuse.          A blunt angle; not noticeable.
+
+Odophone.        An instrument for determining and testing odors.
+
+Olfactory.       The nerves of the sense of smell.
+
+Orifice.         An opening; a hole.
+
+Oscillation.     A movement to and fro, like a pendulum.
+
+Oxygen.          The most universal gas, colorless and tasteless; is
+                 called the acid-maker of the universe and unites
+                 with all known substances, producing an acid, an
+                 alkali, or a neutral compound.
+
+Oxidizing.       To impart to any substance the elements of oxygen.
+
+Oxide.           Any substance which has oxygen added to it.
+
+Pallet.          A part of a tooth or finger which acts on the teeth
+                 of a wheel.
+
+Parallel.        Lines or sides at equal distance from each other from
+                 end to end.
+
+Paraffine.       A light-colored substance, produced from refined
+                 petroleum.
+
+Perimeter.       The outer margin of a wheel; the bounding line of any
+                 figure of two dimensions.
+
+Periphery.       The outer side of a wheel.
+
+Peen.            The nailing end of a hammer.
+
+Persistence.     That quality of all matter to continue on in its
+                 present condition.
+
+Perpendicular.   A line drawn at right angles to another.
+
+Perpetual.       Without end.
+
+Perspective.     A view of an object which takes in all parts at one
+                 side.
+
+Physically.      Pertaining to the body.
+
+Phonautograph.   An apparatus for recording sound.
+
+Phonograph.      An apparatus for taking and sending forth sound
+                 vibration.
+
+Phenomena.       Any occurrence in nature out of the ordinary.
+
+Pitman.          The rod or bar which connects the piston and crank.
+
+Pivot.           A point or bar on which anything turns.
+
+Pinion.          A small toothed wheel.
+
+Pitch.           The number of vibrations. The term used to give the
+                 number of teeth in a wheel.
+
+Pitch diameter.  The point from which the measurements are made in
+                 determining the pitch.
+
+Pivoted.         A bar, lever, or other mechanical element, arranged to
+                 turn on or about a point.
+
+Plastic.         A substance in such a state that it may be kneaded or
+                 worked.
+
+Planer.          A large tool designed to cut or face off wood or metal.
+
+Porosity.        The quality in all substances to have interstices,
+                 or points of separation, between the molecules.
+
+Potential.       The power.
+
+Properties.      The qualities possessed by all elements.
+
+Projecting.      The throwing forward. The sending out.
+
+Promulgated.     Put forth; enunciated.
+
+Protractor.      A mechanic's and draughtsman's tool by means of
+                 which angles may be formed.
+
+Promote.         To carry forward in a systematic way.
+
+Precision.       Work done with care; observing correct measurements.
+
+Prony brake.     A machine for determining horse power.
+
+Punch.           A small tool to be struck by a hammer in order to
+                 make an impression or indentation.
+
+Quadrant.        One-fourth of a circle.
+
+Quadrant plate.  A plate on which are placed lines and numbers
+                 indicating degrees.
+
+Quadruplex.      A term to designate that system of telegraphy in
+                 which four messages are sent over a single wire at
+                 the same time.
+
+Ratchet.         A wheel having teeth at certain intervals to catch
+                 the end of a pawl or finger.
+
+Ratchet brace.   A tool to hold a drill, having a reversible ratchet
+                 wheel.
+
+Rasp cut.        A cut of a file which is rough, not smooth.
+
+Rake.            The angle or inclination of the upper surface of the
+                 cutting tool of a lathe.
+
+Reverse.         To turn about; in the opposite direction.
+
+Reciprocating.   To go back and forth.
+
+Revolve.         To move in an orbit or circle, as a merry-go-round.
+
+Reciprocity.     To give back in like measure.
+
+Reflection.      The throwing back from a surface.
+
+Resonance.       The quality of vibration which adds to the original
+                 movement, and aids in perpetuating the sound.
+
+Refraction.      The quality of light which causes it to bend in passing
+                 through different substances.
+
+Reducing.        Bringing it down to a smaller compass.
+
+Rectilinear.     A straight line.
+
+Retort.          A furnace of refractory material to take high heat.
+
+Reamer.          A tool designed to enlarge or to smooth out holes.
+
+Regulation.      To do things in an orderly way; a system which sets
+                 forth certain requirements.
+
+Refractory.      Difficult to work, and not easily fused.
+
+Recess.          A hole, or a depression.
+
+Rocking.         A lever which rotates only part way and then moves in
+                 the opposite direction.
+
+Rotate.          A spindle which turns round. Compare revolve.
+
+Rosin.           Certain gums; particularly the sap of pine trees.
+
+Roughing.        The taking off of the first coating with a tool.
+
+Saturated.       A soluble substance which cannot be further dissolved
+                 by a liquid.
+
+Scribe.          To mark with a tool.
+
+Screw plate.     A tool which has within it means for adjusting
+                 different cutting tools.
+
+Section lining.  The marks made diagonally across drawings to indicate
+                 that the part is cut away.
+
+Shaper.          A large tool for surfacing off material, cutting
+                 grooves, and the like.
+
+Shrinkage.       The term applied to metals when cast, as all will be
+                 smaller when cold than when cast in the mold.
+
+Slide rest.      The part of the lathe which holds the tool post.
+
+Sonorous.        Having the quality of vibration.
+
+Slotted.         Grooved, or channeled.
+
+Solvent.         That which can be changed from a solid by liquids.
+
+Spelter.         A combination of zinc and copper. A hard solder.
+
+Soldering.       Uniting of two substances by a third, with heat.
+
+Spindle.         A small shaft.
+
+Spur.            The larger of two intermeshing gears.
+
+Socket.          A depression or hole.
+
+Sprocket.        Teeth in a wheel to receive a chain.
+
+Spiral.          A form wound like the threads of a screw.
+
+Surface plate.   A true surface made of metal, used as a means of
+                 determining evenness of the article made.
+
+Sulphate.        Any substance which is modified by sulphuric acid.
+
+Substitute.      An element or substance used for another.
+
+Superposed.      One placed above the other.
+
+Swage.           Tool for the purpose of changing the form in a
+                 material.
+
+Swivel.          A point on which another turns.
+
+Surfacing.       Taking off the outer coating or covering.
+
+Tap.             A small drill.
+
+Tapering.        An object with the sides out of parallel.
+
+Tangential.      A line from the periphery of a circle which projects
+                 out at an angle.
+
+Tension.         The exertion of a force.
+
+Tenacity.        The property of a material to hang together.
+
+Tempering.       Putting metal in such condition that it will be not
+                 only hard but tough as well.
+
+Technical.       Pertaining to the strict forms and terms of an art.
+
+Texture.         That of which the element or substance is composed.
+
+Threads.         The ridges, spiral in form, which run around a bolt.
+
+Theoretically.   The speculative form or belief in a subject.
+
+Tinned.          The term applied to the coating on a soldering iron
+                 with a fluxed metal.
+
+Tines.           Small blades.
+
+Torsion.         The force exerted around an object, like the action of
+                 a crank on a shaft.
+
+Tommy.           A lever to be inserted in a hole in a screw head for
+                 turning a screw.
+
+Transmitting.    Sending forth; to forward.
+
+Trammel.         A tool for the purpose of drawing ellipses.
+
+Traction.        Drawing; pulling power.
+
+Tripping.        A motion applied to a finger, which holds a pivoted
+                 arm, whereby the latter may be swung from its
+                 locked position.
+
+Triangular.      Having three sides and three angles.
+
+Transverse.      Across; at right angles to the long direction.
+
+Undercut.        A wall of a groove or recess which is sloping.
+
+Undulatory.      A wave-like motion, applied generally to light and
+                 electricity.
+
+Unit.            A base for calculating from.
+
+Unison.          Acting together; as one.
+
+Unsized.         Generally applied to the natural condition of paper
+                 or fabric which has no glue or other fixing substance
+                 on it.
+
+Vaporising.      To change from a liquid or solid to a gas.
+
+Variation.       Changing into different conditions; unlike forms.
+
+Verge.           The edge; usually applied to the shoulder of a watch
+                 spindle, particularly to the escapement.
+
+Vertical.        Up and down. The direction of a plumb line.
+
+Velocity.        The speed of an article through space.
+
+Vitascope.       An instrument for determining the rate of vibration of
+                 different substances.
+
+Vibration.       The movement to and fro of all elements, and by means
+                 of which we are made sensitive of the different forces.
+
+Vocation.        The business or the calling of a person.
+
+Warding.         The act of cutting a projection or guard, such as is
+                 usually found on the insides of locks, and the
+                 correspondent detent in the key.
+
+Watt.            In electricity the unit of the rate of working in a
+                 circuit.  It is the electro-motive force of one volt
+                 and the current intensity of one ampere.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+(Figures indicate the pages)
+
+
+A
+
+Acetone, 165.
+
+Acid, 119, 120, 156, 168.
+
+Acid, Acetic, 165.
+
+Acid, Carbolic, 166.
+
+Acid, Hydrofluoric, 170.
+
+Acid, Muriatic, 119.
+
+Acid, Nitric, 168, 169, 171, 173.
+
+Acid, Oxalic, 172.
+
+Acid, Pyrogallic, 172.
+
+Acid, Sulphuric, 169.
+
+Acoustics, 87, 157.
+
+Adhesives, 162.
+
+Affinity, 83, 86.
+
+Agate, 82.
+
+Air, 84.
+
+Alcohol, 165, 166, 169, 170, 176, 183.
+
+Alloy, 81, 115, 116, 118, 119, 149, 175.
+
+Alum, 149, 166, 172.
+
+Aluminum, 38, 41, 42, 60, 82, 149, 164, 166, 169, 170, 174, 175, 176,
+          184.
+
+Amalgams, 149.
+
+Amber, 170.
+
+Ambergris, 159.
+
+Ammonia, 166, 170.
+
+Ammonium Nitrate, 185.
+
+Ammonium Sulphate, 168, 171.
+
+Analysis, 93.
+
+Analyzed, 159.
+
+Angle cutting, 30.
+
+Angle plate, 10.
+
+Angles, 31, 39, 59, 72, 102, 103, 104, 107, 152.
+
+Aniline, 176.
+
+Annatto, 168, 170.
+
+Annealing, 112, 113, 114, 115.
+
+Annular, 67.
+
+Anvils, 14, 15, 16.
+
+Apothecaries, 180.
+
+Application for patent, 191.
+
+Arbor, 14.
+
+Arc, 146.
+
+Area, 148.
+
+Armature, 153.
+
+Arrow root, 150.
+
+Artisan, 112.
+
+Asbestos, 168.
+
+Asphalt, 14, 175.
+
+Assign, 191, 193.
+
+Assignment, 192.
+
+Atom, 157.
+
+Attraction, 86.
+
+Avoirdupois, 180.
+
+Axis, 106, 127.
+
+Axis, major, 105.
+
+Axis, minor, 105, 106.
+
+
+B
+
+Ball, 75.
+
+Ball and Socket, 74.
+
+Balsam Peru, 168, 189, 173.
+
+Barium Chloride, 176.
+
+Bark, soap, 165.
+
+Barleycorn, 143.
+
+Barrel, 149.
+
+Base line, 102.
+
+B. T. U., 180, 181.
+
+Beeswax, 174.
+
+Bell metal, 164.
+
+Belt, 68.
+
+Belt, Lacing, 68, 69.
+
+Bench, 77, 104.
+
+Benzine, 169.
+
+Benzol, 173.
+
+Bevel, 69, 70, 125, 126.
+
+Bibb, 70.
+
+Bismuth, 118.
+
+Bisulphate of carbon, 185.
+
+Bisulphate of sodium, 172.
+
+Bitt, 28, 42.
+
+Bitts, machine, 38.
+
+Bitts, plain, 38.
+
+Bitts, round-nosed, 38.
+
+Bitts, setting, 39.
+
+Bitts, square, 38.
+
+Black, ivory, 171.
+
+Blade, hack-saw, 35, 36.
+
+Bloodstone, 173.
+
+Blue black, 173.
+
+Boiler, 150, 152.
+
+Boiler, compound, 161.
+
+Bolt, 75.
+
+Bolt, anchor, 7.
+
+Boracic acid, 168.
+
+Borax, 168, 176.
+
+Brass, 41, 43, 44, 168, 170, 174, 175, 176, 184.
+
+Bronze, 150, 164, 173, 176, 184.
+
+Bulk, 134.
+
+
+C
+
+Calcium, 166.
+
+Calcium Chloride, 185.
+
+Calipers, 37, 45, 49, 66.
+
+Calls, 160.
+
+Camphor, 164, 166, 175.
+
+Canada balsam, 172.
+
+Capillary attraction, 86, 87.
+
+Carbolic acid, 166.
+
+Carbon, 113.
+
+Carbonate, 150.
+
+Carbonate of soda, 116, 172.
+
+Carbon paper, 171.
+
+Cardinal, 102.
+
+Carbolized, 169.
+
+Cast iron, 42, 64, 81, 169, 183.
+
+Caustic soda, 106, 150.
+
+Caveat, 190.
+
+Celluloid, 164.
+
+Cement, 162, 163.
+
+Centaire, 146.
+
+Center, dead, 78.
+
+Center line, 41.
+
+Centering, 111.
+
+Centers, 62.
+
+Centimeter, 146.
+
+Centrifugal, 85.
+
+Centripetal, 85.
+
+Ceresine, 174.
+
+Chalk, 165.
+
+Channel, 71.
+
+Charcoal, 113, 167, 185.
+
+Chemical, 83, 157, 180.
+
+Chisels, drifting, 32.
+
+Chisels, key-way, 32.
+
+Chisels, square, 53.
+
+Chlorate of potash, 167, 169, 170.
+
+Chloride of lime, 165.
+
+Chloride of platinum, 173.
+
+Chloride of tin, 119.
+
+Chloride of zinc, 163, 176.
+
+Chloral hydrate, 169.
+
+Chloroform, 163.
+
+Chromate of potash, 169, 170.
+
+Chuck, 54.
+
+Chuck, independent, 64.
+
+Chuck, universal, 64.
+
+Circle, 96, 106, 107, 111, 148, 169.
+
+Circuit, 153, 154.
+
+Circular pitch, 122, 124, 125.
+
+Circumference, 148.
+
+Citric, 165.
+
+Clamp, 77.
+
+Clay, 164, 185.
+
+Clearance, 30, 38, 40.
+
+Clef, 159.
+
+Clutches, 74.
+
+Coal, 139.
+
+Coherer, 154.
+
+Cohesion, 50, 83.
+
+Color, 92, 157, 161.
+
+Combination, 136, 156.
+
+Commutator, 155.
+
+Compass, 106.
+
+Compound, Welding, 117.
+
+Compression, 77, 84.
+
+Compressibility, 84.
+
+Concave, 92, 93.
+
+Concentric, 88.
+
+Conception, 191.
+
+Conductivity, 82.
+
+Conductor, 82, 88.
+
+Cone, 70.
+
+Conveyor, 91.
+
+Convex, 92, 96.
+
+Convolute, 78.
+
+Copal varnish, 163.
+
+Copper, 45, 60, 112, 118, 164, 170, 173, 174, 184.
+
+Corpuscular, 91.
+
+Corundum, 27.
+
+Crank, 70, 76, 78, 135.
+
+Cream of Tartar, 165, 174.
+
+Crown wheel, 70.
+
+Cryolite, 176.
+
+Cube, 97, 98, 107, 149.
+
+Current, 154, 158.
+
+Curve, 104.
+
+Cutter, side, 30.
+
+Cutting tool, 171.
+
+Cyanide of Potassium, 170.
+
+Cylinder, 39, 40, 66, 80, 90, 134, 135, 136.
+
+
+D
+
+Decameter, 146, 106, 109, 183, 187.
+
+Decimeter, 146.
+
+Declaration of Interference, 190.
+
+Degree, 40, 101, 102, 103, 104.
+
+Deodorant, 166.
+
+Dessertspoon, 151.
+
+Detail, paper, 111.
+
+Develop, 157.
+
+Developer, 172.
+
+Dextrine, 169.
+
+Diameter, 52, 126, 140, 143, 144, 148, 149, 150.
+
+Diameter, inside, 122.
+
+Diameter, outside, 122.
+
+Diameter, pitch, 122.
+
+Diametral pitch, 123, 124.
+
+Diamond, 81, 149.
+
+Diaphragm, 90, 153, 154.
+
+Disinfectant, 163.
+
+Disks, 49, 50, 67, 71, 74, 75, 82, 91, 95, 96, 105.
+
+Disk shears, 90, 153, 154.
+
+Distilled, 144, 151.
+
+Diverge, 91.
+
+Divided, 192.
+
+Dividers, 45, 52, 62, 63.
+
+Dogs, 77.
+
+Dollar, 144.
+
+Drams, 180.
+
+Drawing, 95, 97, 101, 108, 109, 129, 191.
+
+Drill, 30, 31.
+
+Drilling Machine, 43.
+
+Driver, 73.
+
+Dry measure, 182.
+
+Ductility, 80, 81.
+
+Dynamite, 167.
+
+Dynamo, 155.
+
+
+E
+
+Eccentric, 78.
+
+Echo, 89.
+
+Effervesce, 119.
+
+Elastic, 91.
+
+Elasticity, 87, 112.
+
+Electrical, 82, 153, 154, 155.
+
+Electric current, 182.
+
+Electric curves, 182.
+
+Electricity, 78, 84, 93.
+
+Electrolytic, 149.
+
+Electro-motive force, 154.
+
+Ellipse, 72, 104, 105, 106, 107.
+
+Emery, 27, 36, 150, 165, 166, 167.
+
+Emery cloth, 55.
+
+Emery wheel, 22.
+
+Energy, 140.
+
+Engine, 45, 78, 134.
+
+Equalization, 82.
+
+Escapement, 72.
+
+Ether, 91, 169.
+
+Expansion, 93.
+
+Explosions, 156, 167.
+
+
+F
+
+Facet, 52.
+
+Fahrenheit, 148, 186.
+
+Feed, longitudinal, 66.
+
+Feed, transverse, 66.
+
+Ferric chloride, 166.
+
+Filament, 160.
+
+File, cross, 57.
+
+File, cutter, 56.
+
+File, do-able end, 57, 58.
+
+File, equalizing, 57.
+
+File, float cut, 57.
+
+File, half round, 56.
+
+File, holding, 59.
+
+File, middle, 57.
+
+File, movement, 59, 80.
+
+File, pinion, 56.
+
+File, rasp cut, 57.
+
+File, rat-tail, 56.
+
+File, rough, 57.
+
+File, round, 56.
+
+File, saw, 56.
+
+File, second cut, 57.
+
+File, shearing cut, 59.
+
+File, slitting, 57.
+
+File, smooth, 57.
+
+File, square, 56.
+
+File, triangular, 56.
+
+Files, 36, 48, 50, 52, 53, 56, 59, 60, 114, 167, 168.
+
+Files, Hexagon, 51, 52.
+
+Filing, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 61.
+
+Filter paper, 171.
+
+Fire clay, 164, 165.
+
+Fish oil, 171,176.
+
+Fire proof, 168, 171.
+
+Flexure, 79.
+
+Floor dressing, 168.
+
+Fluid, 165.
+
+Fluor spar, 116.
+
+Fluxes, 115, 116, 118, 176.
+
+Focal, 106, 107.
+
+Focus, foci, 105.
+
+Foot, 145.
+
+Foot lathe, 78.
+
+Foot pounds, 139, 140, 143, 181.
+
+Force, 156, 157.
+
+Forge work, 116.
+
+Forges, 164.
+
+Formic acid, 168.
+
+Formula, 162.
+
+Freezing mixtures, 185.
+
+Friction, 70, 171.
+
+Fuel, 134, 181.
+
+Fulcrum, 76, 128, 129.
+
+Fulminate, 167.
+
+Furlong, 181.
+
+Furniture, 164.
+
+Fusible, 116.
+
+Fusion, 115.
+
+
+G
+
+Gage, 45, 46, 47, 148.
+
+Gage surface, 84, 87, 94.
+
+Gallon, 144.
+
+Gas stove, 166.
+
+Gear, 42, 69, 70, 74, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, 133, 171.
+
+Gear, bevel, 70.
+
+Gear, friction, 70.
+
+Gearing, 121.
+
+Gear, miter, 70, 123, 124, 125, 126.
+
+Gear, mutilated, 72.
+
+Gear, spur, 122.
+
+Gelatine, 162, 173.
+
+Geranium, 169.
+
+German silver, 82.
+
+Giant powder, 167.
+
+Glass, 84, 92, 112, 163, 169.
+
+Glauber salts, 164.
+
+Glazing, 72.
+
+Glue, 159, 162, 168.
+
+Glycerine, 115, 162, 165, 176.
+
+Gold, size, 173.
+
+Grain, 81.
+
+Grains, 180.
+
+Graphite, 171, 175.
+
+Gravity, 85.
+
+Grinder, 27.
+
+Grinder wheels, 36.
+
+Grindstones, 22, 36, 149.
+
+Groove, 71, 76.
+
+Gum, 163.
+
+Gum arabic, 163.
+
+Gum lac, 170.
+
+Guncotton, 188.
+
+Gunpowder, 167.
+
+
+H
+
+Hack-saw, 34, 35, 36.
+
+Hack-saw blade, 35, 36.
+
+Hammer, 81, 115, 117.
+
+Handy tables, 178.
+
+Hardness, 81, 114, 115.
+
+Harmony, 154, 158, 169, 160.
+
+Head, 135.
+
+Heat, 93, 186.
+
+Hectare, 146.
+
+Hectometer, 146.
+
+Helical, 77.
+
+Helical, double, 77.
+
+Helix-volute, 77.
+
+Hexagon, 51, 52.
+
+Horizontal, 97, 102, 106.
+
+Horse power, 139, 143, 146, 148, 186, 187.
+
+Hours, H. P., 186, 187.
+
+Hours, kilowatt, 186, 187.
+
+Hub, 74.
+
+Hub, key-way, 125.
+
+Hydrochloric acid, 172.
+
+Hydrofluoric acid, 149.
+
+Hydrogen, 83.
+
+
+I
+
+Inches, 181.
+
+Inclined plane, 123, 128.
+
+Indentation, 154.
+
+Indicator, speed, 140.
+
+Induction, 154.
+
+Inertia, 84.
+
+Injector, 152.
+
+Inks, 110.
+
+Inside diameter, 122.
+
+Instrument, 158, 159.
+
+Internal, 86, 102.
+
+International, 193.
+
+Invention, 152, 153, 161, 188, 189, 190, 192, 193, 194.
+
+Inventor, 157, 181, 190.
+
+Iron, 42, 63, 155, 162, 165, 169, 175, 184.
+
+Iron, wrought, 42, 82, 112.
+
+Isinglass, interference, 190.
+
+Isometric, 107.
+
+Ivory, 84.
+
+Ivory, black, 171.
+
+
+J
+
+Japan wax, 174.
+
+Joint, ball and socket, 74.
+
+Joint, universal, 70.
+
+Joule, 174.
+
+
+K
+
+Kerosene, 150, 165, 171.
+
+Key, 158.
+
+Key-way, 125.
+
+Kilometer, 146.
+
+Kilowatt, 186, 187.
+
+Kilowatt hour, 186, 187.
+
+Kinetic, 140.
+
+
+L
+
+Lacquer, 170.
+
+Lampblack, 167, 175.
+
+Lapping, 166, 167.
+
+Lathe, 28, 39, 42, 45, 64, 65, 67, 104, 171.
+
+Lathe speed, 34.
+
+Lathe tool, 33, 39.
+
+Lavender, 168.
+
+Lead, 60, 118, 163, 164,175.
+
+Leather, 162, 163.
+
+Level, 87.
+
+Lever, 73, 75, 76, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 140, 153.
+
+Leverage, 143.
+
+Licenses, 189.
+
+Light, 100.
+
+Lime, 173.
+
+Linear measure, 181.
+
+Lines, 95, 99, 110.
+
+Lines, section, 84.
+
+Linseed, 162.
+
+Linseed oil, 149, 174,175.
+
+Liquid measure, 182.
+
+Liquids, 84.
+
+Litharge, 163.
+
+Long measure, 181.
+
+Lubricant, 171.
+
+Luminous, 91.
+
+Lycopodium, 169.
+
+
+M
+
+Machine, 26.
+
+Magnesium, 166.
+
+Magnesium sulphate, 169.
+
+Magnet, 153.
+
+Magnetism, 93.
+
+Major axis, 105.
+
+Malleability, 81.
+
+Malleable, 112.
+
+Mandrel, 66, 76.
+
+Manganese, 163.
+
+Marble, 162.
+
+Mass, 85.
+
+Mastic, 169.
+
+Measure, 139, 140, 143, 151.
+
+Measure, liquid, 182.
+
+Measure, long, 181.
+
+Measurement, 145.
+
+Measure, paper, 182.
+
+Measure, solid, 82.
+
+Measure, square, 181.
+
+Membrane, 90.
+
+Mercuric chloride, 166.
+
+Mercury, 94, 114, 183.
+
+Meridian, 145.
+
+Metric, 144, 145, 146.
+
+Metrical, 145.
+
+Micron, 146.
+
+Microscope, 91.
+
+Millimeter, 146.
+
+Milling machine, 26.
+
+Minor, 164.
+
+Minor axis, 105, 106.
+
+Miter, 146.
+
+Miter gear, 123, 124, 125, 126.
+
+Molecular, 82, 117.
+
+Molecular forces, 82.
+
+Molecules, 83, 84, 146.
+
+Momentum, 83, 85.
+
+Motion, 84, 156.
+
+Motor, 136, 155.
+
+
+N
+
+Neat's Foot oil, 168.
+
+Neroli, 168.
+
+Nickel, 164.
+
+Nitrate of copper, 174.
+
+Nitrate of potash, 167.
+
+Nitrate of silver, 174.
+
+Nitric acid, 162, 168, 169, 171, 173.
+
+Nitro-glycerine, 167, 185.
+
+
+O
+
+Oath, 193.
+
+Octave, 159.
+
+Odophone, 159.
+
+Odor, 159.
+
+Oil, 83, 87, 167, 171.
+
+Oil eradicator, 166.
+
+Oleonaptha, 171.
+
+Oscillations, 90, 157.
+
+Ounce, 180.
+
+Outlines, 99.
+
+Oxalic acid, 172.
+
+Oxidation, 117.
+
+Oxide, 117, 163.
+
+Oxidizing, 116.
+
+Oxygen, 83, 119.
+
+
+P
+
+Palm oil, 171.
+
+Paper, 168, 171.
+
+Paraffine, 168, 171.
+
+Parallel, 91, 100, 121.
+
+Paris blue, 172.
+
+Paste, 163, 173.
+
+Patents, 188, 189, 190, 192, 194.
+
+Pawl, 73, 76.
+
+Pendulum, 73.
+
+Parting tools, 28.
+
+Perimeter, 73.
+
+Periphery, 73.
+
+Permanganate of potash, 178.
+
+Perpendicular, 105.
+
+Perpetual motion, 128.
+
+Perspective, 97, 106, 107.
+
+Petroleum, 168.
+
+Phenomenon, 91, 153.
+
+Phonautograph, 90.
+
+Phonograph,-91, 154.
+
+Phosphorus, 149.
+
+Photographer, 157, 172.
+
+Piano, 158, 159.
+
+Pinion, 57, 74.
+
+Pitch, 121, 125, 156.
+
+Pitch, circle, 122, 124, 125.
+
+Pitch, diameter, 123, 124.
+
+Pitch, line, 123, 124, 127.
+
+Pitman, 70.
+
+Pivots, 70, 130.
+
+Planer, 26, 50, 51, 126.
+
+Plaster, 173.
+
+Plaster of Paris, 150, 174.
+
+Plate, 73.
+
+Plates, 50.
+
+Plating, 173.
+
+Platinum, 81.
+
+Plumbago, 173.
+
+Poles, 155.
+
+Polishes, 174.
+
+Position, 102.
+
+Potash, 116, 167.
+
+Potash, prussiate, 113.
+
+Potassium cyanide, 170.
+
+Potassium nitrate, 167.
+
+Pound, 145, 157, 180.
+
+Power, 128, 129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 140, 158, 159, 186.
+
+Power, horse, 139, 140.
+
+Precision tools, 50.
+
+Preliminary statement, 191.
+
+Pressure, 134, 135, 137, 148, 152.
+
+Prime mover, 134.
+
+Printing telegraph, 155.
+
+Prism, 92, 93.
+
+Protractor, 108, 109.
+
+Prussiate of potash, 113.
+
+Pulley, 68, 70, 73, 128, 133, 140, 149, 150.
+
+Pulsation, 153.
+
+Pumice, 83.
+
+Pumice stone, 110, 175.
+
+Punch, 62, 63.
+
+Punch, centering, 62.
+
+Punch cutter, 24.
+
+Putty, 175.
+
+
+Q
+
+Quadrant, 102, 103.
+
+Quality, 157.
+
+Quarter, 180.
+
+Quartz, 182.
+
+
+R
+
+Racks, 73, 74.
+
+Radius, 52.
+
+Rake, 29, 30, 38, 42, 43,45.
+
+Rainbow, 92.
+
+Ratchet, 77.
+
+Ratchet brace, 77.
+
+Reciprocity, 82.
+
+Reflected, 92.
+
+Reflecting, 89.
+
+Reflection, 88, 91.
+
+Refraction, 92.
+
+Resin, 176.
+
+Resistance, 79, 82, 83.
+
+Resonance, 89.
+
+Rim, 96.
+
+Ring, 96.
+
+Rods, 180.
+
+Rosemary, 166.
+
+Royalty, 193.
+
+Rubber, 84, 163.
+
+Rule, 53.
+
+Rule, key-seat, 53, 54.
+
+Rust preventive, 175.
+
+
+S
+
+Saffro, 170.
+
+Sal ammoniac, 119, 162, 165, 176, 185.
+
+Salt, 165, 170, 183, 185.
+
+Sandarac, 169, 176.
+
+Saw, 26, 64, 76.
+
+Saw, wabble, 76.
+
+Scale, 100, 101.
+
+Science, 157.
+
+Scraper, 50, 51.
+
+Scribe, 47, 53.
+
+Scruples, 180.
+
+Sealing wax, 176.
+
+Section lining, 103, 104, 110.
+
+Sense, 159.
+
+Sesame oil, 176.
+
+Shade, 96.
+
+Shading, 96, 110.
+
+Shaft, 68, 69, 70, 73, 74, 75.
+
+Shaft coupling, 74.
+
+Shaper, 26, 50, 51, 53.
+
+Shellac, 163.
+
+Side cutters, 30.
+
+Sienna, 168.
+
+Signals, 87.
+
+Silicate, 168.
+
+Silver, 82, 118, 164, 165, 180, 183.
+
+Snow, 185.
+
+Soap, 165, 172.
+
+Soap spirits, 166.
+
+Soda, sulphate, 172.
+
+Sodium carbonate, 172.
+
+Sodium silicate, 168.
+
+Sodium sulphate, 172.
+
+Solder, 118, 175.
+
+Solder, hard, 118.
+
+Solder, soft, 118.
+
+Soldering, 116, 117, 119, 176.
+
+Solids, 84.
+
+Sonorous, 88.
+
+Sound, 87.
+
+Sounding-boards, 88.
+
+Spanish white, 168.
+
+Spectroscope, 90, 93, 161.
+
+Spectrum, 93.
+
+Speed, 43.
+
+Spelter, 118.
+
+Sphere, 97.
+
+Spiral, 78.
+
+Sponge, 83.
+
+Spring, 72, 79, 176.
+
+Square, 48, 61, 63.
+
+Square combination, 24, 77, 81.
+
+Starch, 162, 163, 164.
+
+Steel, 39, 40, 42, 44, 63, 79, 113, 165, 168, 169, 170, 184.
+
+Stethoscope, 90.
+
+Stove polish, 174, 175.
+
+Straight edge, 61.
+
+Stylus, 90.
+
+Sugar, 163.
+
+Sulphate of copper, 174.
+
+Sulphate of potash, 115.
+
+Sulphate of soda, 172.
+
+Sulphur, 167, 183.
+
+Sulphuric acid, 165, 169, 175.
+
+Surfacing, 49, 50, 63.
+
+
+T
+
+Table of weights, 178.
+
+Talcum, 169.
+
+Tallow, 176.
+
+Tannaform, 169.
+
+Taps, 45.
+
+Taste, 160.
+
+Teeth, 72.
+
+Telegram, 158.
+
+Telescope, 91, 92.
+
+Temperature, 82, 88, 114, 116, 118, 119.
+
+Temperature table, 180.
+
+Tempering, 113, 114, 115,176.
+
+Tenacity, 79, 80.
+
+Thread, 74.
+
+Thymol, 166.
+
+Tin, 98, 118, 175, 176, 184.
+
+Ton, 180.
+
+Tongs, 75.
+
+Tongs, lazy, 75.
+
+Tool, 22, 28, 40, 41, 61, 64, 71, 108, 113, 175.
+
+Tool boring, 43.
+
+Tool cutting, 26, 29, 45, 64.
+
+Tool holder, 64.
+
+Tool hook, 28.
+
+Tool, hooked, 44.
+
+Tool knife, 28.
+
+Tool, parting, 28.
+
+Tool, roughing, 29.
+
+Tools, precision, 50.
+
+Torsion, 79.
+
+Toughness, 114, 115.
+
+Tracing cloth, 110.
+
+Tracing paper, 172.
+
+Traction, 79.
+
+Transmitting, 158.
+
+Transparent, 163.
+
+Transverse, 80.
+
+Treadle, 78.
+
+Triangular, 97, 98.
+
+Tripping driver, 78.
+
+Turmeric, 170.
+
+Turpentine, 162, 165, 172, 173, 174, 175.
+
+Turpentine, Venice, 176, 177.
+
+
+U
+
+Ultramarine, 171.
+
+Undivided, 192.
+
+Undulatory, 91.
+
+Unguent, 114.
+
+
+V
+
+Valve, 70.
+
+Vapor, 87.
+
+Varnish, 162, 170, 172, 175, 176.
+
+Vaseline, 165, 175.
+
+Velocity, 81, 87, 91.
+
+Vermilion, 177.
+
+Vertical, 97.
+
+Vibrate, 160, 161.
+
+Vibration, 87, 88, 90, 158.
+
+Vibratory, 91.
+
+Vinegar, 163, 170, 173.
+
+Violin, 159.
+
+Vise, 33.
+
+Vitascope, 90.
+
+
+W
+
+Water, 165, 166, 168, 172, 183, 186, 187.
+
+Waterproof, 162, 163.
+
+Weight, 85.
+
+Weight of steel, 179.
+
+Weight, troy, 180.
+
+Welding, 115, 116, 117.
+
+Welding compound, 117.
+
+Wheel, 27, 72, 73, 85, 86.
+
+Whiting, 174.
+
+Workshop, 162.
+
+Wrench, 104.
+
+
+Y
+
+Yokes, 70, 76.
+
+
+Z
+
+Zinc, 118, 119, 164, 166, 175.
+
+Zinc chloride, 163.
+
+
+
+
+THE BOYS' ELITE SERIES
+
+_12mo, cloth. Price 75c each._
+
+Contains an attractive assortment of books for boys by standard and
+favorite authors. Printed from large, clear type on a superior quality
+of paper, bound in a superior quality of binders' cloth, ornamented with
+illustrated original designs on covers stamped in colors from unique and
+appropriate dies. Each book wrapped in attractive jacket.
+
+1. Cudjo's Cave                              Trowbridge
+2. Green Mountain Boys
+3. Life of Kit Carson                   Edward L. Ellis
+4. Tom Westlake's Golden Luck            Perry Newberry
+5. Tony Keating's Surprises    Mrs. G. R. Alden (Pansy)
+6. Tour of the World in 80 Days             Jules Verne
+
+
+THE GIRLS' ELITE SERIES
+
+_12mo, cloth. Price 75c each._
+
+Contains an assortment of attractive and desirable books for girls by
+standard and favorite authors. The books are printed on a good quality
+of paper in large clear type. Each title is complete and unabridged.
+Bound in clothene, ornamented on the sides and back with attractive
+illustrative designs and the title stamped on front and back.
+
+1. Bee and the Butterfly     Lucy Foster Madison
+2. Dixie School Girl        Gabrielle E. Jackson
+3. Girls of Mount Morris          Amanda Douglas
+4. Hope's Messenger         Gabrielle E. Jackson
+5. The Little Aunt           Marion Ames Taggart
+6. A Modern Cinderella            Amanda Douglas
+
+
+_For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 75c_
+
+
+
+
+THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS
+
+By J. S. ZERBE
+
+
+Carpentry for Boys
+
+A book which treats, in a most practical and fascinating manner all
+subjects pertaining to the "King of Trades"; showing the care and use of
+tools; drawing; designing, and the laying out of work; the principles
+involved in the building of various kinds of structures, and the
+rudiments of architecture. It contains over two hundred and fifty
+illustrations made especially for this work, and includes also a
+complete glossary of the technical terms used in the art. The most
+comprehensive volume on this subject ever published for boys.
+
+
+Electricity for Boys
+
+The author has adopted the unique plan of setting forth the fundamental
+principles in each phase of the science, and practically applying the
+work in the successive stages. It shows how the knowledge has been
+developed, and the reasons for the various phenomena, without using
+technical words so as to bring it within the compass of every boy. It
+has a complete glossary of terms, and is illustrated with two hundred
+original drawings.
+
+
+Practical Mechanics for Boys
+
+This book takes the beginner through a comprehensive series of practical
+shop work, in which the uses of tools, and the structure and handling of
+shop machinery are set forth; how they are utilized to perform the work,
+and the manner in which all dimensional work is carried out. Every
+subject is illustrated, and model building explained. It contains a
+glossary which comprises a new system of cross references, a feature
+that will prove a welcome departure in explaining subjects. Fully
+illustrated.
+
+_12mo, cloth. Price $1.00 each._
+
+
+_For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of $1.00._
+
+
+
+
+The American Boy's Sports Series
+
+BY MARK OVERTON
+
+12 Mo Cloth. Illustrated. Price 60c Each.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+These stories touch upon nearly every sport in which the active boy is
+interested. Baseball, rowing, football, hockey, skating, ice-boating,
+sailing, camping and fishing all serve to lend interest to an unusual
+series of books. There are the following four titles:
+
+1. Jack Winters' Baseball Team; or, The
+   Mystery of the Diamond.
+
+2. Jack Winters' Campmates; or, Vacation
+   Days in the Woods.
+
+3. Jack Winters' Gridiron Chums; or, When
+   the Half-back Saved the Day.
+
+4. Jack Winters' Iceboat Wonder; or, Leading
+   the Hockey Team to Victory.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Phil Bradley
+
+Mountain Boy's Series
+
+BY SILAS R. BOONE
+
+12 Mo. Cloth. Illustrated. Price 60c Each
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+These books describe with interesting detail the experience of a party
+of boys among the mountain pines. They teach the young reader how to
+protect themselves against the elements, what to do and what to avoid,
+and above all to become self-reliant and manly. There are five titles:
+
+1. Phil Bradley's Mountain Boys; or, The
+   Birch Bark Lodge.
+
+2. Phil Bradley at the Wheel; or, The Mountain
+   Boys' Mad Auto Dash.
+
+3. Phil Bradley's Shooting Box; or, The
+   Mountain Boys on Currituck Sound.
+
+4. Phil Bradley's Snow-shoe Trail; or, The
+   Mountain Boys in the Canadian Wilds.
+
+5. Phil Bradley's Winning Way.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 60c.
+
+
+
+
+GIRLS' LIBERTY SERIES
+
+Contains an assortment of attractive and desirable books for girls by
+standard and favorite authors. The books are printed on a good quality
+of paper in large clear type. Each title is complete and unabridged.
+Bound in clothene, ornamented on the sides and back with attractive
+illustrative designs and the title stamped on front and back.
+
+_12mo, clothene. Price 50c each._
+
+ 1. Camp Fire Girls on a Long Hike, or,
+    Lost in the Great Northern Woods     Stella M. Francis
+
+ 2. Daddy's Girl                          Mrs. L. T. Meade
+
+ 3. Ethel Hollister's First Summer as
+    a Camp Fire Girl                  Irene Elliott Benson
+
+ 4. Ethel Hollister's Second Summer   Irene Elliott Benson
+
+ 5. Flat Iron for a Farthing                    Mrs. Ewing
+
+ 6. Four Little Mischiefs                  Rose Mulholland
+
+ 7. Girls and I                            Mrs. Molesworth
+
+ 8. Girl from America                     Mrs. L. T. Meade
+
+ 9. Grandmother Dear                       Mrs. Molesworth
+
+10. Irvington Stories                     Mary Mapes Dodge
+
+11. Little Lame Prince                         Mrs. Muloch
+
+12. Little Susie Stories                  Mrs. H. Prentiss
+
+13. Mrs. Over the Way               Julianna Horatio Ewing
+
+14. Naughty Miss Bunny                     Rose Mulholland
+
+15. Sweet Girl Graduate                   Mrs. L. T. Meade
+
+16. School Queens                         Mrs. L. T. Meade
+
+17. Sue, A Little Heroine                 Mrs. L. T. Meade
+
+18. Wild Kitty                            Mrs. L. T. Meade
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 50c_
+
+
+
+
+THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS
+
+By ROGER T. FINLAY
+
+_12mo, cloth. Price 75c each, postpaid._
+
+Thrilling adventures on land and sea of two boys and a man cast upon an
+island in the South Seas without food or weapons; their experience in
+fashioning clothing, tools and weapons, and in overcoming nature and
+subduing and civilizing savage tribes; covers a wide range of subjects.
+
+ 1. The Castaways
+ 2. Exploring the Island
+ 3. The Mysteries of the Caverns
+ 4. The Tribesmen
+ 5. The Capture and Pursuit
+ 6. The Conquest of the Savages
+ 7. Adventures on Strange Islands
+ 8. Treasures of the Islands
+
+
+THE BOY GLOBE TROTTERS
+
+By ELBERT FISHER
+
+_12mo, cloth. Price 75c each, postpaid._
+
+This is a series of form books relating the adventures of two boys who
+made a trip around the world, working their way as they go. They meet
+with various peoples having strange habits and customs, and their
+adventures from a medium for the introduction of much instructive matter
+relative to the character and industries of the cities and countries
+through which they pass. A description is given of the native sports of
+boys in each of the foreign countries through which they travel. The
+books are illustrated by decorative head and end pieces for each
+chapter, there being 36 original drawings in each book, all by the
+author, and four striking halftones.
+
+ 1. From New York to the Golden Crate
+ 2. From San Francisco to Japan
+ 3. From Tokio to Bombay
+ 4. From India to the War Zone
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 75c_
+
+
+
+
+BOYS' COPYRIGHTED BOOKS
+
+Printed from large, clear type on a superior quality of paper,
+embellished with original illustrations by eminent artists, and bound in
+a superior quality of book binders' cloth, ornamented with illustrated
+covers, stamped in colors from unique and appropriate dies, each book
+wrapped in a glazed paper wrapper printed in colors.
+
+
+MOTOR BOAT BOYS SERIES
+
+By Louis Arundel
+
+1. The Motor Club's Cruise Down the Mississippi; or, The Dash
+   for Dixie.
+
+2. The Motor Club on the St. Lawrence River; or, Adventures
+   Among the Thousand Islands.
+
+3. The Motor Club on the Great Lakes; or, Exploring the Mystic
+   Isle of Mackinac.
+
+4. Motor Boat Boys Among the Florida Keys; or, The Struggle for
+   the Leadership.
+
+5. Motor Boat Boys Down the Coast; or, Through Storm and
+   Stress.
+
+6. Motor Boat Boys' River Chase.
+
+THE BIRD BOYS SERIES
+
+By John Luther Langworthy
+
+1. The Bird Boys; or, The Young Sky Pilots' First Air Voyage.
+
+2. The Bird Boys on the Wing; or, Aeroplane Chums in the Tropics.
+
+3. The Bird Boys Among the Clouds; or, Young Aviators in a
+   Wreck.
+
+4. Bird Boys' Flight; or, A Hydroplane Round-up.
+
+5. Bird Boys' Aeroplane Wonder; or, Young Aviators on a Cattle
+   Ranch.
+
+CANOE AND CAMPFIRE SERIES
+
+By St. George Rathborne
+
+1. Canoe Mates in Canada; or, Three Boys Afloat on the Saskatchewan.
+
+2. Young Fur Takers; or, Traps and Trails in the Wilderness.
+
+3. The House Boat Boys; or, Drifting Down to the Sunny South.
+
+4. Chums in Dixie; or, The Strange Cruise in the Motor Boat.
+
+5. Camp Mates in Michigan; or, With Pack and Paddle in the Pine
+   Woods.
+
+6. Rocky Mountain Boys; or, Camping in the Big Game Country.
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For sale by all booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 75c
+
+
+
+
+BOYS' COPYRIGHTED BOOKS
+
+Printed from large, clear type on a superior quality of paper,
+embellished with original illustrations by eminent artists, and bound in
+a superior quality of book binders' cloth, ornamented with illustrated
+covers, stamped in colors from unique and appropriate dies, each book
+wrapped in a glazed paper wrapper printed in colors.
+
+
+MOTOR BOAT BOYS SERIES
+
+By Louis Arundel
+
+1. The Motor Club's Cruise Down the Mississippi; or, The Dash
+   for Dixie.
+
+2. The Motor Club on the St. Lawrence River; or, Adventures
+   Among the Thousand Islands.
+
+3. The Motor Club on the Great Lakes; or, Exploring the Mystic
+   Isle of Mackinac.
+
+4. Motor Boat Boys Among the Florida Keys; or, The Struggle for
+   the Leadership.
+
+5. Motor Boat Boys Down the Coast; or, Through Storm and
+   Stress.
+
+6. Motor Boat Boys' River Chase.
+
+THE BIRD BOYS SERIES
+
+By John Luther Langworthy
+
+1. The Bird Boys; or, The Young Sky Pilots' First Air Voyage.
+
+2. The Bird Boys on the Wing; or, Aeroplane Chums in the Tropics.
+
+3. The Bird Boys Among the Clouds; or, Young Aviators in a
+   Wreck.
+
+4. Bird Boys' Flight; or, A Hydroplane Round-up.
+
+5. Bird Boys' Aeroplane Wonder; or, Young Aviators on a Cattle
+   Ranch.
+
+CANOE AND CAMPFIRE SERIES
+
+By St. George Rathborne
+
+1. Canoe Mates in Canada; or, Three Boys Afloat on the Saskatchewan.
+
+2. Young Fur Takers; or, Traps and Trails in the Wilderness.
+
+3. The House Boat Boys; or, Drifting Down to the Sunny South.
+
+4. Chums in Dixie; or, The Strange Cruise in the Motor Boat.
+
+5. Camp Mates in Michigan; or, With Pack and Paddle in the Pine
+   Woods.
+
+6. Rocky Mountain Boys; or, Camping in the Big Game Country.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For sale by all booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 75c
+
+
+
+
+ALWAYS _ASK FOR THE_ DONOHUE
+
+Complete Editions and you will get the best for the least money
+
+
+Henty Series
+
+_FOR BOYS_
+
+G. A. Henty was the most prolific writer of boy's stories of the
+nineteenth century. From two to five books a year came from his facile
+pen. No Christmas holidays were complete without a new "Henty Book."
+This new series comprises 45 titles. They are printed on an extra
+quality of paper, from new plates and bound in the best quality of
+cloth, stamped on back and side in inks from unique and attractive dies.
+12 mo. cloth. Each book in a printed wrapper.
+
+  1 Among Malay Pirates
+  2 Bonnie Prince Charlie
+  3 Boy Knight, The
+  4 Bravest of the Brave
+  5 By England's Aid
+  6 By Pike and Dyke
+  7 By Right of Conquest
+  8 By Sheer Pluck
+  9 Captain Bayley's Heir
+ 10 Cat of Bubastes
+ 11 Col. Thorndyke's Secret
+ 12 Cornet of Horse, The
+ 13 Dragon and the Raven
+ 14 Facing Death
+ 15 Final Reckoning, A
+ 16 For Name and Fame
+ 17 For the Temple
+ 18 Friends, Though Divided
+ 19 Golden Canon
+ 20 In Freedom's Cause
+ 21 In the Reign of Terror
+ 22 In Times of Peril
+ 23 Jack Archer
+ 24 Lion of St. Mark
+ 25 Lion of the North
+ 26 Lost Heir, The
+ 27 Maori and Settler
+ 28 One of the 28th
+ 29 Orange and Green
+ 30 Out on the Pampas
+ 31 Queen's Cup, The
+ 32 Rujub, the Juggler
+ 33 St. George for England
+ 34 Sturdy and Strong
+ 35 Through the Fray
+ 36 True to the Old Flag
+ 37 Under Drake's Flag
+ 38 With Clive in India
+ 39 With Lee in Virginia
+ 40 With Wolfe in Canada
+ 41 Young Buglers, The
+ 42 Young Carthaginians
+ 43 Young Colonists, The
+ 44 Young Franc-Tireurs
+ 45 Young Midshipman
+
+All of above titles can be procured at the store where this book was
+bought, or sent to any address for 75c, postage paid, by the publishers
+
+
+
+
+ALWAYS _ASK FOR THE_ DONOHUE
+
+COMPLETE EDITIONS--THE BEST FOR LEAST MONEY
+
+
+WOODCRAFT _for_ Boy Scouts and Others
+
+_By_ OWEN JONES _and_ MARCUS WOODMAN _With a Message to Boy Scouts by_
+SIR BADEN-POWELL, _Founder of the Boy Scouts' Movement_.
+
+One of the essential requirements of the Boy Scout training is a
+KNOWLEDGE OF WOODCRAFT. This necessitates a book embracing all the
+subjects and treating on all the topics that a thorough knowledge of
+WOODCRAFT implies.
+
+This book thoroughly exhausts the subject. It imparts a comprehensive
+knowledge of woods from fungus growth to the most stately monarch of the
+forest; it treats of the habits and lairs of all the feathered and furry
+inhabitants of the woods. Shows how to trail wild animals; how to
+identify birds and beasts by their tracks, calls, etc. Tells how to
+forecast the weather, and in fact; treats on every phase of nature with
+which a Boy Scout or any woodman or lover of nature should be familiar.
+The authorship guarantees it's authenticity and reliability.
+Indispensable to "Boy Scouts" and others. Printed from large clear type
+on superior paper.
+
+Embellished With Over 100 Thumb Nail Illustrations Taken From Life
+
+Bound in Cloth. Stamped with unique and appropriate designs in ink!
+
+Price, 75c Postpaid
+
+M. A. DONOHUE & CO.
+701-727 S. DEARBORN ST.  CHICAGO
+
+
+
++------------------------------------------------------------------+
+|                                                                  |
+| Transcriber's Note:                                              |
+|                                                                  |
+| Every effort has been made to replicate this text as             |
+| faithfully as possible, including obsolete and variant           |
+| spellings and other inconsistencies. Obvious                     |
+| spelling/typographical and punctuation errors have been          |
+| corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences        |
+| within the text and consultation of external sources. Minor      |
+| punctuation errors have been amended without note.               |
+|                                                                  |
+| Page 137: Incorrect pressure of 88 oz. for wind speed of 10      |
+| mph changed to 8 oz.                                             |
+|                                                                  |
+| Page 146: Micron incorrectly printed as 1.25400, changed to      |
+| 1/24500.                                                         |
+|                                                                  |
+| Page 178: Corrected table entry for 1-7/8, printed as 1/7-16.    |
+|                                                                  |
+| Alphabetic order errors in the glossary retained.                |
+|                                                                  |
++------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Practical Mechanics for Boys, by J. S. Zerbe
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 22298-8.txt or 22298-8.zip *****
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Practical Mechanics for Boys, by J. S. Zerbe
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Practical Mechanics for Boys
+
+Author: J. S. Zerbe
+
+Release Date: August 11, 2007 [EBook #22298]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Joe Longo and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" width="500" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Cover and Spine">
+<tr><td>
+<div class="floatl" style="width: 157px;">
+<img src="images/spine.jpg" width="157" height="718" alt="Spine" title="Spine" />
+</div>
+</td>
+<td>
+<div class="floatr" style="width: 488px;">
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="488" height="718" alt="Cover" title="Cover" />
+</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<h1 class="smcap">The "How-to-do-it" Books</h1>
+
+<hr class="minor" />
+
+<h1>PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS</h1>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table width="450" style="page-break-before: always;" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Title page" border="1">
+  <col style="width:80%;" />
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+<br /><br />
+<p class="titleblock" style="margin-top: 2px; font-weight: 600;
+ margin-bottom: .5em; font-variant: small-caps; word-spacing: 0.4em; font-size: 145%;">THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS</p>
+<p class="titleblock" style="font-size: 180%; margin-top: 2px; font-weight: 600; margin-bottom: 1em;">
+PRACTICAL MECHANICS<br />FOR BOYS</p>
+
+<table width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" border="0" summary="na">
+<tr>
+<td align="left">
+<p>In language which every boy can understand
+and so arranged that he may readily carry
+out any work from the instructions given.
+</p>
+<p class="titleblock" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 90%;">
+WITH MANY ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="titleblock" style="margin-top: 0em; font-size: 120%;">By J. S. ZERBE, M.E.</p>
+
+<p class="titleblock" style="margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 0em; font-size: 90%;"><i>Author of</i></p>
+
+<p class="titleblock" style="margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 80%;">
+CARPENTRY FOR BOYS&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ELECTRICITY FOR BOYS
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 85px;">
+<img src="images/illus-pr-mk.png" width="85" height="93"
+alt="Printer's Mark: D with Lamp" title="Printer's Mark: D with Lamp" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="titleblock" style="margin-top: 2.5em; font-size: 115%; margin-bottom: 0em;">M. A. DONOHUE &amp; COMPANY</p>
+<p class="titleblock" style="margin-top: 0px; font-size: 90%; margin-bottom: 2em;">
+CHICAGO&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+::
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+NEW YORK</p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center" style="margin-top: 2em;" >
+<span class="smcap" style="font-size: 90%;">Copyright, 1914, by</span>
+<br /><span style="font-size: 90%;">THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY</span>
+</p>
+<p class="center" style="margin-top: 8em;" >
+<span style="font-size: 100%;">Made in U. S. A.</span>
+</p>
+
+<hr class="sorta" />
+
+<h3><a name="toc" id="toc"></a>CONTENTS</h3>
+
+<table border="0" width="76%" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+  <col style="width:5%;" /><col style="width:80%;" /><col style="width:15%;"/>
+<tbody valign="top">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="chap" colspan="2"><a href="#Intro">Introductory</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#Intro">Page 1</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="chap" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="pr"></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">I.</td>
+      <td class="chap"><a href="#I">On Tools Generally</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#I">Page 7</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="abstract" colspan="3"><p>Varied Requirements. List of Tools.
+        Swivel Vises. Parts of Lathe. Chisels. Grinding Apparatus. Large
+        Machines. Chucks. Bench Tools. Selecting a Lathe. Combination Square.
+        Micrometers. Protractors. Utilizing Bevel Protractors. Truing
+        Grindstones. Sets of Tools. The Work Bench. The Proper Dimensions.
+        How Arranged.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">II.</td>
+      <td class="chap"><a href="#II">How to Grind and Sharpen Tools</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#II">Page 26</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="abstract" colspan="3"><p>Importance of the Cutting Tool. The
+        Grinder. Correct Use of Grinder. Lathe Bitts. Roughing Tools. The
+        Clearance. The Cutting Angle. Drills. Wrong Grinding. Chisels. Cold
+        Chisels. System in Work. Wrong Use of Tools.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">III.</td>
+      <td class="chap"><a href="#III">Setting and Holding Tools</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#III">Page 34</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="abstract" colspan="3"><p>Lathe Speed. The Hack-saw. Hack-saw
+        Frame. The Blade. Files. Grindstones. Emery and Grinding Wheels.
+        Carelessness in Holding Tools. Calipers. Care in Use of Calipers.
+        Machine Bitts. The Proper Angle for Lathe Tools. Setting the Bitt.
+        The Setting Angle. Bad Practice. Proper Lathe Speeds. Boring Tools on
+        Lathe. The Rake of the Drill. Laps. Using the Lap. Surface Gages.
+        Uses of the Surface Gage.</p>
+        <span class="ralign"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">p. ii</a></span></span>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">IV.</td>
+      <td class="chap"><a href="#IV">On the First Use of the File</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#IV">Page 48</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="abstract" colspan="3"><p>The First Test. Filing an Irregular
+        Block. Filing a Bar Straight. Filing Bar with Parallel Sides.
+        Surfacing Off Disks. True Surfacing. Precision Tools. Test of the
+        Mechanic. Test Suggestions. Use of the Dividers. Cutting a Key-way.
+        Key-way Difficulties. Filing Metal Round. Kinds of Files.
+        Cotter-file. Square. Pinion. Half-round. Round. Triangular.
+        Equalizing. Cross. Slitting. Character of File Tooth. Double Cut.
+        Float-cut. Rasp Cut. Holding the File. Injuring Files. Drawing Back
+        the File.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">V.</td>
+      <td class="chap"><a href="#V">How to Commence Work</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#V">Page 61</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="abstract" colspan="3"><p>Familiarity with Tools. File
+        Practice. Using the Dividers. Finding Centers. Hack-saw Practice.
+        Cutting Metal True. Lathe Work. First Steps. Setting the Tool. Metals
+        Used. The Four Important Things. Turning Up a Cylinder. Turning
+        Grooves. Disks. Lathe Speeds.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">VI.</td>
+      <td class="chap"><a href="#VI">Illustrating Some of the Fundamental
+        Devices</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#VI">Page 68</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="abstract" colspan="3"><p>Belt Lacing. Gears. Crown Wheel.
+        Grooved Friction Gearing. A Valve which Closes by the Water Pressure.
+        Cone Pulleys. Universal Joint. Trammel for Making Ellipses.
+        Escapements. Simple Device to Prevent a Wheel or Shaft from Turning
+        Back. Racks and Pinions. Mutilated Gears. Simple Shaft Coupling.
+        Clutches. Ball and Socket Joints. Tripping Devices. Anchor Bolt. Lazy
+        Tongs. Disk Shears. Wabble Saw. Crank Motion by a Slotted Yoke.
+        Continuous Feed by Motion of a Lever. Crank Motion. Ratchet
+        Head.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">p. iii</a></span>
+        Bench Clamp. Helico-volute Spring. Double
+        helico-volute. Helical Spring. Single Volute Helix Spring. Flat
+        Spiral, or Convolute. Eccentric Rod and Strap. Anti-dead Center for
+        Lathe.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">VII.</td>
+      <td class="chap"><a href="#VII">Properties of Materials</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#VII">Page 79</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="abstract" colspan="3"><p>Elasticity. Traction. Torsion.
+        Flexure. Tenacity. The Most Tenacious Metal. Ductility. Malleability.
+        Hardness. Alloys. Resistance. Persistence. Conductivity.
+        Equalization. Reciprocity. Molecular Forces. Attraction. Cohesion.
+        Adhesion. Affinity. Porosity. Compressibility. Elasticity. Inertia.
+        Momentum. Weight. Centripetal Force. Centrifugal Force. Capillary
+        Attraction. The Sap of Trees. Sound. Acoustics. Sound Mediums.
+        Vibration. Velocity of Sound. Sound Reflections. Resonance. Echos.
+        Speaking Trumpet. The Stethoscope. The Vitascope. The Phonautograph.
+        The Phonograph. Light. The Corpuscular Theory. Undulatory Theory.
+        Luminous Bodies. Velocity of Light. Reflection. Refraction. Colors.
+        The Spectroscope. The Rainbow. Heat. Expansion.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">VIII.</td>
+      <td class="chap"><a href="#VIII">How Draughting Becomes a Valuable
+        Aid</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#VIII">Page 95</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="abstract" colspan="3"><p>Lines in Drawing. Shading.
+        Direction of Shade. Perspectives. The Most Pronounced Lines.
+        Direction of Light. Scale Drawings. Degree, and What it Means.
+        Memorizing Angles. Section Lining. Making Ellipses and Irregular
+        Curves. Focal Points. Isometric and Perspective. The Protractor.
+        Suggestions in Drawing. Holding the Pen. Inks. Tracing Cloth. Detail
+        Paper. How to Proceed. Indicating Material by Section Lines.<span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">p. iv</a></span></p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">IX.</td>
+      <td class="chap"><a href="#IX">Treatment and Use of Metals</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#IX">Page 112</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="abstract" colspan="3"><p>Annealing. Toughness and
+        Elasticity. The Process. Tempering. Tempering Contrasted with
+        Annealing. Materials Used. Gradual Tempering. Fluxing. Uniting
+        Metals. Alloying Method. Welding. Sweating. Welding Compounds.
+        Oxidation. Soldering. Soft Solder. Hard Solder. Spelter. Soldering
+        Acid. The Soldering Iron.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">X.</td>
+      <td class="chap"><a href="#X">On Gearing, and How Ordered</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#X">Page 121</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="abstract" colspan="3"><p>Spur and Pinion. Measuring a Gear.
+        Pitch. Diametral Pitch. Circular Pitch. How to Order a Gear. Bevel
+        and Miter Gears. Drawing Gears. Sprocket Wheels.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">XI.</td>
+      <td class="chap"><a href="#XI">Mechanical Power</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#XI">Page 128</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="abstract" colspan="3"><p>The Lever. Wrong Inferences from
+        Use of Lever. The Lever Principle. Powers vs. Distance Traveled.
+        Power vs. Loss of Time. Wrongly-Directed Energy. The Lever and the
+        Pulley. Sources of Power. Water Power. Calculating Fuel Energy. The
+        Pressure or Head. Fuels. Power from Winds. Speed of Wind and
+        Pressure. Varying Degrees of Pressure. Power from Waves and Tides. A
+        Profitable Field.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">XII.</td>
+      <td class="chap"><a href="#XII">On Measures</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#XII">Page 139</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="abstract" colspan="3"><p>Horse Power. Foot Pounds. Energy.
+        How to Find Out the Power Developed. The Test. Calculations. The Foot
+        Measure. Weight. The Gallon. The Metric System. Basis of Measurement.
+        Metrical Table, Showing Measurements in Feet and Inches.<span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">p. v</a></span></p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">XIII.</td>
+      <td class="chap"><a href="#XIII">Useful Information for the
+      Workshop</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#XIII">Page 148</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="abstract" colspan="3"><p>Finding the Circumference of a
+        Circle. Diameter of a Circle. Area of a Circle. Area of a Triangle.
+        Surface of a Ball. Solidity of a Sphere. Contents of a Cone. Capacity
+        of a Pipe. Capacity of Tanks. To Toughen Aluminum. Amalgams. Prevent
+        Boiler Scaling. Diamond Test. Making Glue Insoluble in Water. Taking
+        Glaze Out of Grindstone. To Find Speeds of Pulleys. To Find the
+        Diameters Required. To Prevent Belts from Slipping. Removing Boiler
+        Scale. Gold Bronze. Cleaning Rusted Utensils. To Prevent Plaster of
+        Paris from Setting Quickly. The Measurement of Liquids with Spoons.
+        </p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">XIV.</td>
+      <td class="chap"><a href="#XIV">Simplicity of Great Inventions and of
+        Nature's Manifestation</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#XIV">Page 152</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="abstract" colspan="3"><p>Invention Precedes Science.
+        Simplicity in Inventions. The Telegraph. Telephone. Transmitter.
+        Phonograph. Wireless Telegraphy. Printing Telegraph. Electric Motor.
+        Explosions. Vibrations in Nature. Qualities of Sound. The
+        Photographer's Plate. Quadruplex Telegraphy. Electric Harmony. Odors.
+        Odophone. A Bouquet of Vibrations. Taste. Color.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">XV.</td>
+      <td class="chap"><a href="#XV">Workshop Recipes and Formulas</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#XV">Page 160</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="abstract" colspan="3"><p>Adhesives for Various Uses. Belt
+        Glue. Cements. Transparent Cement. U. S. Government Gum. To Make
+        Different Alloys. Bell-metal. Brass. Bronzes. Boiler Compounds.
+        Celluloid. Clay Mixture for Forges. Modeling Clay. Fluids for
+        Cleaning Clothes, Furniture, etc. Disinfectants. Deodorants. Emery
+        for Lapping Purposes. Explosives. Fulminates. Files, and How to<span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">p. vi</a></span> Keep
+        Clean. Renewing Files. Fire-proof Materials or Substances. Floor
+        Dressings. Stains. Foot Powders. Frost Bites. Glass. To Frost. How to
+        Distinguish. Iron and Steel. To Soften Castings. Lacquers. For
+        Aluminum and Brass. Copper. Lubricants. Paper. Photography. Plasters.
+        Plating, Coloring Metals. Polishes. Putty. Rust Preventives. Solders.
+        Soldering Fluxes. Steel Tempering. Varnishes. Sealing Wax.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">XVI.</td>
+      <td class="chap"><a href="#XVI">Handy Tables</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#XVI">Page 178</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="abstract" colspan="3"><p>Table of Weights for Round and
+        Square Steel. Table of Weight of Flat Steel Bars. Avoirdupois Weight.
+        Troy Weight. Apothecaries' Weight. Linear Measure. Long Measure.
+        Square Measure. Solid or Cubic Measure. Dry Measure. Liquid Measure.
+        Paper Measure. Table of Temperatures. Strength of Various Metals.
+        Freezing Mixtures. Ignition Temperatures. Power and Heat Equivalents.
+        </p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">XVII.</td>
+      <td class="chap"><a href="#XVII">Inventions and Patents, and
+        Information About the Rights and Duties of Inventors and
+      Workmen</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#XVII">Page 188</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="abstract" colspan="3"><p>The Machinist's Opportunities. What
+        is an Inventor? Idea Not Invention. What an Invention Must Have.
+        Obligation of the Model Builder. Paying for Developing Devices. Time
+        for Filing an Application. Selling an Unpatented Invention. Joint
+        Inventors. Joint Owners Not Partners. Partnerships in Patents. Form
+        of Protection Issued by the Government. Life of a Patent.
+        Interference Proceedings. Concurrent Applications. Granting
+        Interference. Steps in Interference. First Sketches. First Model.
+        First Operative Machine.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii"
+        id="Page_vii">p. vii</a></span> Preliminary Statements. Proving
+        Invention. What Patents Are Issued For. Owner's Rights. Divided and
+        Undivided Patents. Assignments. How Made. What an Invention Must
+        Have. Basis for Granting Patent in the United States. Reasons for
+        Granting Abroad. Original Grants of Patents. International Agreement.
+        Application for Patents. Course of Procedure. Costs. Filing a Matter
+        of Secrecy.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="chap" colspan="2"><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_WORDS">Glossary of Words</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_WORDS">Page 195</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="chap" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="pr"></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="chap" colspan="2"><a href="#INDEX">Index</a></td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#INDEX">Page 213</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="chap" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="pr"></td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="sorta" />
+<h3><a name="toi" id="toi"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h3>
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">p. ix</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" width="76%" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Illustrations">
+  <col style="width:10%;" /><col style="width:75%;" /><col style="width:15%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right" style="font-size: small;">FIG.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="pr" style="font-size: small;">PAGE</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">1.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Bench vise</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig1">8</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">2.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Pipe grip for vise</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig2">9</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">3.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Swivel vise</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig3">10</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">4.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Speed lathe</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig4">11</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">5.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Calipers</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig5">12</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">6.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Engine lathe</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig6">13</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">7.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Center gage</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig7">14</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">8.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Pocket screw and wire gage</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig8">15</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">9.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Handy bench vise</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig9">16</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">10.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Combination square</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig10">17</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">11.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Uses of the combination square</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig11">18</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">12.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">A quick adjusting micrometer</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig12">19</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">13.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Universal bevel protractor</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig13">20</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">14.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Uses of universal bevel protractor</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig14">21</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">15.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Grindstone truing device</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig15">22</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">16.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Set of tools and case</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig16">23</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">17.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">The work bench</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig17">24</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">18.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Hook tool</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig18-23">28</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">19.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Parting tool</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig18-23">28</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">20.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Knife tool</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig18-23">28</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">21.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Right-hand side tool</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig18-23">28</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">22.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Internal tool</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig18-23">28</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">23.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Left-hand side tool</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig18-23">28</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">24.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Tool for wrought iron</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig24">29</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">25.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Tool for cast iron</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig25">29</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">26.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">End view of drill</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig26">31</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">27.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Side view of drill</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig26">31</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">28.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Hack-saw frame</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig28-29">35</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">29.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Hack-saw blade</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig28-29">35</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">30.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Plain hook tool</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig30">38</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">31.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Plain straight tool</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig31">38</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">32.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Proper angles for tools</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig32-34">39</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">33.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Angles for tools</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig32-34">39</a>
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">p. x</a></span></p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">34.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Angles for tools</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig32-34">39</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">35.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Set of the bitt</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig35">40</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">36.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Correct angle</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig36">41</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">37.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Wrong angle</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig37">41</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">38.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Too low</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig38">42</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">39.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Improper set</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig39">42</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">40.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Internal set</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig40">43</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">41.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Set for brass</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig41">43</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">42.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Surface gage</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig42">44</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">43.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Uses of surface gage</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig43">46</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">44.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Rounded surface</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig44">49</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">45.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Winding surface</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig45">49</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">46.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Hexagon nut</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig46">51</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">47.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Laying off hexagon nut</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig47">51</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">48.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Cutting key-way</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig48">52</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">49.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Key-seat rule</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig49">54</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">50.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Filing metal round</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig50">54</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">51.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Filing metal round</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig51">54</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">52.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Making a round bearing</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig52">55</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">53.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Making a round bearing</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig53">55</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">54.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Cross section of file</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig54">56</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">55.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Files</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig55">58</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">56.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Correct file movement</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig56">59</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">57.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Incorrect file movement</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig57">60</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">58.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Belt lacing</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig58">69</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">59.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Belt lacing</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig58">69</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">60.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Belt lacing</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig58">69</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">61.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Belt lacing</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig58">69</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">62.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Bevel gears</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig62">71</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">63.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Miter gears</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig62">71</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">64.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Crown wheel</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig62">71</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">65.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Grooved friction gears</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig62">71</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">66.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Valve</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig62">71</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">67.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Cone pulleys</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig62">71</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">68.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Universal joint</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig62">71</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">69.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Trammel</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig69">73</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">70.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Escapement</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig69">73</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">71.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Device for holding wheel</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig69">73</a>
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">p. xi</a></span></p></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">72.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Rack and pinion</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig69">73</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">73.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Mutilated gears</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig69">73</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">74.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Shaft coupling</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig69">73</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">75.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Clutches</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig75">75</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">76.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Ball and socket joints</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig75">75</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">77.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Fastening ball</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig75">75</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">78.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Tripping devices</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig75">75</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">79.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Anchor bolt</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig75">75</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">80.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Lazy tongs</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig75">75</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">81.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Disc shears</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig75">75</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">82.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Wabble saw</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig82">76</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">83.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Continuous crank motion</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig82">76</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">84.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Continues feed</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig82">76</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">85.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Crank motion</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig82">76</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">86.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Ratchet head</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig82">76</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">87.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Bench clamp</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig82">76</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">88.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Helico-volute spring</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig88">77</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">89.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Double helico-volute</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig88">77</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">90.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Helical spring</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig88">77</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">91.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Single volute-helix</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig88">77</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">92.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Flat spiral or convolute</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig88">77</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">93.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Eccentric rod or strap</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig88">77</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">94.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Anti dead-centers for lathes</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig88">77</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">95.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Plain circle</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig95">95</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">96.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Ring</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig96">96</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">97.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Raised surface</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig96">96</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">98.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Sphere</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig96">96</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">99.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Depressed surface</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig96">96</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">100.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Concave</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig96">97</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">101.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Forms of cubical outlines</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig101">98</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">102.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Forms of cubical outlines</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig101">98</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">103.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Forms of cubical outlines</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig101">98</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">104.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Forms of cubical outlines</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig101">98</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">105.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Shading edges</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig105">99</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">106.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Shading edges</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig106">99</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">107.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Illustrating heavy lines</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig107">100</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">108.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Illustrating heavy lines</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig108">100</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">109.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Lines on plain surfaces</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig109">101</a>
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">p. xii</a></span></p></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">110.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Lines on plain surfaces</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig110">101</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">111.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Illustrating degrees</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig111">102</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">112.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Section lining</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig112">103</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">113.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Drawing an ellipse</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig113">104</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">114.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Perspective at angles</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig114">106</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">115.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Perspective of cube</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig115">107</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">116.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Perspective of cube</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig115">107</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">117.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Perspective of cube</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig115">107</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">118.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Protractor</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig118">108</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">119.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Using the protractor</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig119">109</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">120.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Section-lining metals</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig120">110</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">121.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Spur gears</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig121">122</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">122.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Miter gear pitch</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig122">123</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">123.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Bevel gears</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig123">124</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">124.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Laying of miter gears</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig124">125</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">125.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Sprocket wheel</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig125">128</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">126.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Simple lever</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig126">129</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">127.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Lever action</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig127">130</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">128.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">The pulley</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig128">132</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">129.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Change of direction</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig129">133</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">130.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Change of direction</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig130">133</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">131.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Steam pressure</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig131">135</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">132.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Water pressure</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig132">135</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">133.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Prony brake</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig133">141</a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td align="right">134.</td>
+      <td class="imgr">Speed indicator</td>
+      <td class="pr"><a href="#fig134">142</a></td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">p. 1</a></span></p>
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<h2><a name="PRACTICAL_MECHANICS_FOR_BOYS"
+id="PRACTICAL_MECHANICS_FOR_BOYS"></a>PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS</h2>
+
+<h2><a name="Intro" id="Intro"></a>INTRODUCTORY<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<p>The American method of teaching the mechanical arts has some
+disadvantages, as compared with the apprentice system followed in England,
+and very largely on the continent.</p>
+
+<p>It is too often the case that here a boy or a young man begins work in a
+machine shop, not for the avowed purpose of learning the trade, but simply as
+a helper, with no other object in view than to get his weekly wages.</p>
+
+<p>Abroad, the plan is one which, for various reasons, could not be tolerated
+here. There he is bound for a certain term of years, and with the prime
+object of teaching him to become an artisan. More often than otherwise he
+pays for this privilege, and he knows it is incumbent on him "to make good"
+right from the start.</p>
+
+<p>He labors under the disadvantage, however, that he has a certain tenure,
+and in that course he is not pushed forward from one step to the next on
+account of any merit of his own. His advancement is fixed by the time he has
+put in at each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">p.
+2</a></span> part of the work, and thus no note is taken of his
+individuality.</p>
+
+<p>Here the boy rises step after step by virtue of his own qualifications,
+and we recognize that one boy has the capacity to learn faster than another.
+If he can learn in one year what it requires three in another to acquire, in
+order to do it as perfectly, it is an injury to the apt workman to be held
+back and deterred from making his way upwardly.</p>
+
+<p>It may be urged that the apprentice system instills thoroughness. This may
+be true; but it also does another thing: It makes the man a mere machine. The
+true workman is a thinker. He is ever on the alert to find easier, quicker
+and more efficient means for doing certain work.</p>
+
+<p>What is called "Efficiency" in labor methods, can never obtain in an
+apprenticeship system for this reason. In a certain operation, where twelve
+motions are required to do a certain thing, and a minute to perform the
+twelve operations, a simplified way, necessitating only eight motions, means
+a difference in saving one-third of the time. The nineteen hundred fewer
+particular movements in a day's work, being a less strain on the operator,
+both physically and mentally, to say nothing whatever of the advantages which
+the proprietor of the shop would gain.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">p. 3</a></span></p>
+
+<p>I make this a leading text in the presentation of this book; namely, that
+individual merit and stimulus is something of such extreme importance that it
+should be made the keynote for every boy who tries to become a mechanic.</p>
+
+<p>The machinist easily occupies a leading place in the multitude of trades
+and occupations. There is hardly an article of use but comes to the market
+through his hands. His labor is most diverse, and in his employment doing
+machine work he is called upon to do things which vary widely in their
+character.</p>
+
+<p>These require special knowledge, particular tools, and more frequently
+than otherwise, a high order of inventive ability to enable him to accomplish
+the task.</p>
+
+<p>The boy should be taught, at the outset, that certain things must be
+learned thoroughly, and that habits in a machine shop can be bad as well as
+good. When he once becomes accustomed to putting a tool back in its rightful
+place the moment he is through with it, he has taken a long step toward
+efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>When he grasps a tool and presents it to the work without turning it over
+several times, or has acquired the knack of picking up the right tool at the
+proper place, he is making strides in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4"
+id="Page_4">p. 4</a></span> the direction of becoming a rapid and skilled
+workman.</p>
+
+<p>These, and many other things of like import, will require our attention
+throughout the various chapters.</p>
+
+<p>It is not the intention of the book to make every boy who reads and
+studies it, a machinist; nor have we any desire to present a lot of useful
+articles as samples of what to make. The object is to show the boy what are
+the requirements necessary to make him a machinist; how to hold, handle,
+sharpen and grind the various tools; the proper ones to use for each
+particular character of work; how the various machines are handled and cared
+for; the best materials to use; and suggest the numerous things which can be
+done in a shop which will pave the way for making his work pleasant as well
+as profitable.</p>
+
+<p>It also analyzes the manner in which the job is laid out; how to set the
+tools to get the most effective work; and explains what is meant by making a
+finished piece of workmanship. These things, properly acquired, each must
+determine in his own mind whether he is adapted to follow up the work.</p>
+
+<p>Over and above all, we shall try to give the boy some stimulus for his
+work. Unless he takes an interest in what he is doing, he will<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">p. 5</a></span> never become an
+artisan in the true sense of the word.</p>
+
+<p>Go through the book, and see whether, here and there, you do not get some
+glimpses of what it means to take a pleasure in doing each particular thing,
+and you will find in every instance that it is a satisfaction because you
+have learned to perform it with ease.</p>
+
+<p>I do not know of anything which has done as much to advance the arts and
+manufactures, during the last century, as the universal desire to improve the
+form, shape and structure of tools; and the effort to invent new ones. This
+finds its reflection everywhere in the production of new and improved
+products.</p>
+
+<p>In this particular I have been led to formulate a homely sentence which
+expresses the idea: Invention consists in doing an old thing a new way; or a
+new thing any way.</p>
+<p><span style="margin-left: 65%;"><span class="smcap">The Author.</span></span></p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">p. 7</a></span></div>
+
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>CHAPTER I<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>ON TOOLS GENERALLY</h3>
+
+<p>Judging from the favorable comments of educators, on the general
+arrangement of the subject matter in the work on "Carpentry for Boys," I am
+disposed to follow that plan in this book in so far as it pertains to
+tools.</p>
+
+<p>In this field, as in "Carpentry," I do not find any guide which is adapted
+to teach the boy the fundamentals of mechanics. Writers usually overlook the
+fact, that as the boy knows nothing whatever about the subject, he could not
+be expected to know anything about tools.</p>
+
+<p>To describe them gives a start in the education, but it is far short of
+what is necessary for one in his condition. If he is told that the chisel or
+bit for a lathe has a diamond point, or is round-nosed, and must be ground at
+a certain angle, he naturally wants to know, as all boys do, <i>why</i> it
+should be at that angle.</p>
+
+<p>So in the setting of the tools with relation to the work, the holding and
+manipulation of the file, of the drill for accurate boring, together with
+numerous little things, are all taken for granted, and the boy blunders along
+with the ultimate ob<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">p.
+8</a></span>ject in sight, without having the pathway cleared so he may
+readily reach the goal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Varied Requirements.</span>&mdash;The machinist's
+trade is one which requires the most varied tools of all occupations, and
+they are by all odds the most expensive to be found in the entire list of
+vocations.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 353px;">
+<a id="fig1" name="fig1"></a><a href="#Page_8"><img
+src="images/illus-fig1.png" width="353" height="301"
+alt="Fig. 1. Bench Vise." title="Fig. 1. Bench Vise." /></a> <span
+class="italcaption">Fig. 1. <span class="u">Bench</span> <span
+class="u">Vise</span>.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This arises from the fact that he must work with the most stubborn of all
+materials. He finds resistance at every step in bringing forth a product.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">List of Tools.</span>&mdash;With a view of
+familiarizing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">p.
+9</a></span> the boy with this great variety the following list is compiled,
+from which we shall select the ones essential in the initial equipment of a
+small shop.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vises.</span>&mdash;One small, good vise is infinitely
+preferable to two bad ones. For ordinary work a 3-inch jaw is preferable, and
+it should be firmly mounted on the bench. So many kinds are now made that it
+would be a costly thing to purchase one for each special use, therefore the
+boy will find it profitable to make some attachments for the ordinary
+vise.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 343px;">
+<a id="fig2" name="fig2"></a><a href="#Page_9"><img
+src="images/illus-fig2.png" width="343" height="184"
+alt="Fig. 2. Pipe Grip for Vise." title="Fig. 2. Pipe Grip for Vise." /></a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 2. <span class="u">Pipe</span> <span
+class="u">Grip</span> <span class="u">for</span> <span
+class="u">Vise</span>.</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Swivel Vises</span>.&mdash;A swivel vise is always a
+good tool, the cost being not excessive over the ordinary kind. Then a pair
+of grips for holding pipe, or round material which is to be threaded, can
+readily be made.</p>
+
+<p>The drawing (<a href="#fig2">Fig. 2</a>) shows a serviceable pair of grips, made to fit the
+jaws of a vise, and will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10"
+id="Page_10">p. 10</a></span> be acceptable in much of the work. Then, the
+vise should be provided with copper caps for the jaws to be used when making
+up articles which would otherwise be injured by the jaws.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 351px;">
+<a id="fig3" name="fig3"></a><a href="#Page_10"><img
+src="images/illus-fig3.png" width="351" height="331"
+alt="Fig. 3. Swivel Vise." title="Fig. 3. Swivel Vise." /></a> <span
+class="italcaption">Fig. 3. <span class="u">Swivel</span> <span
+class="u">Vise</span>.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p>Let us get a comprehensive view of the different kinds of tools necessary
+in a fully equipped shop.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Parts of Lathe.</span>&mdash;The first thing of
+importance is the lathe, and of these there is quite a variety, and among the
+accompaniments are the slide rest, mandrel, back gear, division plate, angle
+plate, cone plate and various chucks</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">p. 11</a></span></div>
+
+<p>There must also be change wheels, studs and quadrant plates, self-acting
+feed for surfacing and cross slide, and clamping nuts.</p>
+
+<p>Drilling machines, both hand and power, hand and ratchet braces and
+breast-drill stocks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 349px;">
+<a id="fig4" name="fig4"></a><a href="#Page_11"><img
+src="images/illus-fig4.png" width="349" height="314"
+alt="Fig. 4&mdash;Speed Lathe." title="Fig. 4&mdash;Speed Lathe." /></a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 4.&mdash;Speed Lathe.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chisels.</span>&mdash;Chisels of various kinds, for
+chipping and cross-cutting; round-nosed, centering, set punches, tommies and
+drifts.</p>
+
+<p>Back, tee and centering square; bevels, spirit level, inside and outside
+calipers, straight edges, rules and surface plates</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">p. 12</a></span></div>
+
+<p>Gages for boring, scribing blocks, steel and brass scribes, stocks and
+dies, screw-plates, taps for bolts, reamers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 344px;">
+<a id="fig5" name="fig5"></a><a href="#Page_12"><img
+src="images/illus-fig5.png" width="344" height="361" alt="Fig. 5. Calipers"
+title="Fig. 5. Calipers" /></a> <span class="italcaption">Fig. 5. <span
+class="u">Calipers</span></span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p>Files for various descriptions, countersinks, frame and hack saws.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grinding Apparatus.</span>&mdash;Emery wheel, cloth
+and paper, paper, flour emery, polishing powders, laps and buffs, and
+polishing sticks</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">p. 13</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 591px;">
+<a id="fig6" name="fig6"></a><a href="#Page_13"><img
+src="images/illus-fig6.png" width="591" height="370"
+alt="Fig. 6. Engine Lathe." title="Fig. 6. Engine Lathe." /></a> <span
+class="italcaption">Fig. 6. <span class="u">Engine</span> <span
+class="u">Lathe</span>.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">p. 14</a></span></div>
+
+<p>Forge, anvils, tongs, swages, punches, bolt tools, hot and cold chisels,
+blow-pipe, soldering iron, hard and soft solders, borax, spirits of salts,
+oil, resin and spelter.</p>
+
+<p>To this may be added an endless variety of small bench tools, micrometers,
+protractors, arbors, collets, box tools and scrapers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 335px;">
+<a id="fig7" name="fig7"></a><a href="#Page_14"><img
+src="images/illus-fig7.png" width="335" height="125"
+alt="Fig. 7. Center Gage." title="Fig. 7. Center Gage." /></a> <span
+class="italcaption">Fig. 7. Center Gage.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Large Machines</span>.&mdash;The list would not be
+complete without the planer, shaper and milling machine, with their variety
+of chucks, clamps and other attachments, too numerous to mention.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing show what a wonderful variety of articles are found in a
+well-equipped shop, all of which can be conveniently used; but to the boy who
+has only a small amount of money, a workable set is indicated as follows:</p>
+
+<p>A small lathe, with an 8-inch swing, can be obtained at a low cost,
+provided with a countershaft complete.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chucks</span>.&mdash;With this should go a small
+chuck,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">p. 15</a></span>
+and a face-plate for large work, unless a large chuck can also be acquired.
+This, with a dozen tools of various sizes, and also small bits for drilling
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The lathe will answer all purposes for drilling, but small drilling
+machines are now furnished at very low figures, and such a machine will take
+off a great deal of duty from the lathe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 339px;">
+<a id="fig8" name="fig8"></a><a href="#Page_15"><img
+src="images/illus-fig8.png" width="339" height="124"
+alt="Fig. 8. Pocket Screw and Wire Gage."
+title="Fig. 8. Pocket Screw and Wire Gage." /></a> <span
+class="italcaption">Fig. 8. Pocket Screw and Wire Gage.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p>As the lathe is of prime importance, never use it for drilling, if you
+have a driller, as it always has enough work to do for tuning up work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bench Tools</span>.&mdash;Of bench tools, a 3-inch
+vise, various files, center punch, two hammers, round and A-shaped peons,
+hack saw, compasses, inside and outside calipers, screw driver, cold chisels,
+metal square, level, straight edge, bevel square, reamers, small emery wheel
+and an oil stone, make a fairly good outfit to start with, and these can be
+added to from time to time.</p>
+
+<p>Everything in the machine shop centers about<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_16" id="Page_16">p. 16</a></span> the lathe. It is the king of all
+tools. The shaper and planer may be most efficient for surfacing, and the
+milling machine for making grooves and gears, or for general cutting
+purposes, but the lathe possesses a range of work not possible with either of
+the other tools, and for that reason should be selected with great care.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 346px;">
+<a id="fig9" name="fig9"></a><a href="#Page_16"><img
+src="images/illus-fig9.png" width="346" height="320"
+alt="Fig. 9. Handy Bench Vise." title="Fig. 9. Handy Bench Vise." /></a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 9. <span class="u">Handy</span> <span
+class="u">Bench</span> <span class="u">Vise</span>.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Selecting a Lathe.</span>&mdash;The important things
+about a lathe are the spindle bearings and the ways for the tool-holder. The
+least play in either will ruin any work. Every other part may be<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">p. 17</a></span> defective,
+but with solidly built bearing-posts and bearings, your lathe will be
+effective.</p>
+
+<p>For this reason it will not pay to get a cheap tool. Better get a small,
+6-inch approved tool of this kind, than a larger cheap article. It may pay
+with other tools, but with a lathe never.</p>
+
+<p>Never do grinding on a lathe. The fine emery, or grinding material, is
+sure to reach the bearings; it matters not what care is exercised. There is
+only one remedy for this&mdash;overhauling.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 340px;">
+<a id="fig10" name="fig10"></a><a href="#Page_17"><img
+src="images/illus-fig10.png" width="340" height="180"
+alt="Fig. 10.&mdash;Combination Square."
+title="Fig. 10.&mdash;Combination Square." /></a> <span
+class="italcaption">Fig. 10.&mdash;Combination Square.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Combination Square.</span>&mdash;A tool of this kind
+is most essential, however small. It can be used as a try-square, and has
+this advantage, that the head can be made to slide along the rule and be
+clamped at any point. It has a beveling and a leveling device, as well.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;">
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">p. 18</a></span> <a
+id="fig11" name="fig11"></a><a href="#Page_18"><img
+src="images/illus-fig11.png" width="372" height="527"
+alt="Fig. 11.&mdash;Uses of the Combination Square."
+title="Fig. 11.&mdash;Uses of the Combination Square." /></a> <span
+class="italcaption">Fig. 11.&mdash;Uses of the Combination Square.</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The combination square provides a means for<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_19" id="Page_19">p. 19</a></span> doing a great variety of work,
+as it combines the qualities of a rule, square, miter, depth gage, height
+gage, level and center head.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<a id="fig12" name="fig12"></a><a href="#Page_19"><img
+src="images/illus-fig12.png" width="361" height="358"
+alt="Fig. 12.&mdash;A Quick Adjusting Micrometer."
+title="Fig. 12.&mdash;A Quick Adjusting Micrometer." /></a> <span
+class="italcaption">Fig. 12.&mdash;A Quick Adjusting Micrometer.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p>The full page illustration (<a href="#fig11">Fig. 11</a>) shows some of the uses and the
+particular manner of holding the tool.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Micrometers.</span>&mdash;Tools of this description
+are made which will accurately measure work in di<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_20" id="Page_20">p. 20</a></span>mensions of ten-thousandths of an
+inch up to an inch.</p>
+
+<p>The illustration (<a href="#fig12">Fig. 12</a>) shows an approved tool, and this is so
+constructed that it can instantly be changed and set by merely pressing the
+end of the plunger as shown.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 340px;">
+<a id="fig13" name="fig13"></a><a href="#Page_20"><img
+src="images/illus-fig13.png" width="340" height="238"
+alt="Fig. 13.&mdash;A Universal Bevel Protractor."
+title="Fig. 13.&mdash;A Universal Bevel Protractor." /></a> <span
+class="italcaption">Fig. 13.&mdash;A Universal Bevel Protractor.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Protractors.</span>&mdash;As all angles are not
+obtainable by the square or bevel, a protractor is a most desirable addition
+to the stock of tools. As one side of the tool is flat it is convenient for
+laying on the paper when drafting, as well as for use on the work.</p>
+
+<p>The protractor has a graduated disk, and is adjustable so it can be
+disposed at any angle.</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">p. 21</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 355px;">
+<a id="fig14" name="fig14"></a><a href="#Page_21"><img
+src="images/illus-fig14.png" width="355" height="517"
+alt="Fig. 14.&mdash;Universal Bevel Protractor, showing its uses."
+title="Fig. 14.&mdash;Universal Bevel Protractor, showing its uses" /></a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 14.&mdash;Universal Bevel Protractor,<br />showing
+its uses.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">p. 22</a></span></div>
+
+<p>All special tools of this kind are serviceable, and the boy should
+understand their uses, even though he is not able for the time being to
+acquire them. To learn how they are applied in daily use is an education in
+itself.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Utilizing Bevel Protractor</span>.&mdash;Examine the
+full-page illustration (<a href="#fig14">Fig. 14</a>), and see how the bevel protractor is
+utilized to measure the angles of work, whether it is tapering heads or
+different kinds of nuts, or end and side surfacing, and it will teach an
+important lesson.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 346px;">
+<a id="fig15" name="fig15"></a><a href="#Page_22"><img
+src="images/illus-fig15.png" width="346" height="219"
+alt="Fig. 15.&mdash;Grindstone Truing Device."
+title="Fig. 15.&mdash;Grindstone Truing Device." /></a> <span
+class="italcaption">Fig. 15.&mdash;Grindstone Truing Device.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Truing Grindstones</span>.&mdash;Devices for truing up
+grindstones are now made, and the illustration (<a href="#fig15">Fig. 15</a>) shows a very
+efficient machine for this purpose. It can be applied instantly to the
+face<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">p. 23</a></span> of
+the stone, and it works automatically, without interfering with the use of
+the stone.</p>
+
+<p>It is frequently the case that an emery wheel will become glazed, due to
+its extreme hardness. This is also caused, sometimes, by running it at too
+high a speed. If the glazing continues after the speed is reduced, it should
+be ground down an eighth of an inch or so. This will, usually, remedy the
+defect.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 349px;">
+<a id="fig16" name="fig16"></a><a href="#Page_23"><img
+src="images/illus-fig16.png" width="349" height="304"
+alt="Fig. 16.&mdash;Set of Tools and Case."
+title="Fig. 16.&mdash;Set of Tools and Case." /></a> <span
+class="italcaption">Fig. 16.&mdash;Set of Tools and Case.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sets of Tools</span>.&mdash;A cheap and convenient set
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">p. 24</a></span>
+precision tools is shown in <a href="#fig16">Fig. 16</a>, which is kept in a neat folding leather
+case. The set consists of a 6-inch combination square, complete center punch,
+6-inch flexible steel rule center gage, 4-inch calipers, 4-inch outside
+caliper with solid nut, 4-inch inside caliper with solid nut, and a 4-inch
+divider with a solid nut.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 346px;">
+<a id="fig17" name="fig17"></a><a href="#Page_24"><img
+src="images/illus-fig17.png" width="346" height="225"
+alt="Fig. 17. The Work Bench." title="Fig. 17. The Work Bench." /></a> <span
+class="italcaption">Fig. 17. <span class="u">The</span> <span
+class="u">Work</span> <span class="u">Bench</span>.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Work Bench.</span>&mdash;This is the mechanic's
+fort. His capacity for work will depend on its arrangement. To the boy this
+is particularly interesting, and for his uses it should be made full three
+inches lower than the standard height.</p>
+
+<p>A good plan to judge of the proper height is to measure from the jaws of
+the vise. The top of the jaw should be on a level with the elbows. Grasp a
+file with both hands, and hold it as though<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_25" id="Page_25">p. 25</a></span> in the act of filing across the
+work; then measure up from the floor to the elbows, when they are held in
+that position.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Proper Dimensions.</span>&mdash;This plan will
+give you a sure means of selecting a height that is best adapted for your
+work. The regulation bench is about 38 inches high, and assuming that the
+vise projects up about 4 inches more, would bring the top of the jaws about
+42 to 44 inches from the floor. It is safe to fix the height of the bench at
+not less than 34 inches.</p>
+
+<p>This should have a drawer, preferably near the right-hand end of the
+bench. The vise should be at the left side, and the bench in your front
+should be free of any fixed tools.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">How Arranged.</span>&mdash;Have a rack above the bench
+at the rear, for the various tools when not in use, and the rear board of the
+bench should be elevated above the front planks several inches, on which the
+various tools can be put, other than those which are suspended on the rack
+above.</p>
+
+<p>The advantage of this is, that a bench will accumulate a quantity of
+material that the tools can hide in, and there is nothing more annoying than
+to hunt over a lot of trash to get what is needed. It is necessary to
+emphasize the necessity of always putting a tool back in its proper place,
+immediately after using</p>
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">p.
+26</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>CHAPTER II<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS</h3>
+
+<p>It is singular, that with the immense variety of tools set forth in the
+preceding chapter, how few, really, require the art of the workman to grind
+and sharpen. If we take the lathe, the drilling machine, as well as the
+shaper, planer, milling machine, and all power-driven tools, they are merely
+mechanism contrived to handle some small, and, apparently, inconsequential
+tool, which does the work on the material.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Importance of the Cutting Tool</span>.&mdash;But it is
+this very fact that makes the preparation of that part of the mechanism so
+important. Here we have a lathe, weighing a thousand pounds, worth hundreds
+of dollars, concentrating its entire energies on a little bit, weighing eight
+ounces, and worth less than a dollar. It may thus readily be seen that it is
+the little bar of metal from which the small tool is made that needs our care
+and attention.</p>
+
+<p>This is particularly true of the expensive milling machines, where the
+little saw, if not in perfect order, and not properly set, will not only do
+improper work, but injure the machine itself.<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_27" id="Page_27">p. 27</a></span> More lathes are ruined from
+using badly ground tools than from any other cause.</p>
+
+<p>In the whole line of tools which the machinist must take care of daily,
+there is nothing as important as the lathe cutting-tool, and the knowledge
+which goes with it to use the proper one.</p>
+
+<p>Let us simplify the inquiry by considering them under the following
+headings:</p>
+
+<p>1. The grinder.</p>
+
+<p>2. The grinding angle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Grinder</span>.&mdash;The first mistake the novice
+will make, is to use the tool on the grinder as though it were necessary to
+grind it down with a few turns of the wheel. Haste is not conducive to proper
+sharpening. As the wheel is of emery, corundum or other quickly cutting
+material, and is always run at a high rate of speed, a great heat is evolved,
+which is materially increased by pressure.</p>
+
+<p>Pressure is injurious not so much to the wheel as to the tool itself. The
+moment a tool becomes heated there is danger of destroying the temper, and
+the edge, being the thinnest, is the most violently affected. Hence it is
+desirable always to have a receptacle with water handy, into which the tool
+can be plunged, during the process of grinding down.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Correct Use of Grinder</span>.&mdash;Treat the wheel
+as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">p. 28</a></span>
+though it is a friend, and not an enemy. Take advantage of its entire
+surface. Whenever you go into a machine shop, look at the emery wheel. If you
+find it worn in creases, and distorted in its circular outline, you can make
+up your mind that there is some one there who has poor tools, because it is
+simply out of the question to grind a tool correctly with such a wheel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 343px;">
+<a id="fig18-23" name="fig18-23"></a><a href="#Page_28"><img
+src="images/illus-fig18-23.png" width="343" height="187"
+alt="Fig. 18-23 Hook, Parting, Knife, Right-hand, Internal, Left-hand side Tools."
+title="Fig. 18-23 Hook, Parting, Knife, Right-hand, Internal, Left-hand side Tools."
+/></a> <span class="italcaption">Fig. 18-23. <span
+class="u">Tools</span>.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p>Coarse wheels are an abomination for tool work. Use the finest kinds
+devised for the purpose. They will keep in condition longer, are not so
+liable to wear unevenly, and will always finish off the edge better than the
+coarse variety.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lathe Bits</span>.&mdash;All bits made for lathes are
+modifications of the foregoing types (<a href="#fig18-23">Figs. 18-23, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23</a>).</p>
+
+<p>As this chapter deals with the sharpening methods only, the reader is
+referred to the next chap<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29"
+id="Page_29">p. 29</a></span>ter, which deals with the manner of setting and
+holding them to do the most effective work.</p>
+
+<p>When it is understood that a cutting tool in a lathe is simply a form of
+wedge which peels off a definite thickness of metal, the importance of proper
+grinding and correct position in the lathe can be appreciated.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Roughing Tools.</span>&mdash;The most useful is the
+roughing tool to take off the first cut. As this type of tool is also
+important, with some modifications, in finishing work, it is given the place
+of first consideration here.</p>
+
+<table border="0" width="390" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="24-25">
+  <tbody valign="top">
+    <tr>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig24" name="fig24"></a><a href="#Page_29"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig24.png" width="173" height="148"
+        alt="Fig. 24. Tool for Wrought Iron."
+        title="Fig. 24. Tool for Wrought Iron." /></a> </td>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig25" name="fig25"></a><a href="#Page_29"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig25.png" width="170" height="148"
+        alt="Fig. 25. Tool for Cast Iron."
+        title="Fig. 25. Tool for Cast Iron." /></a> </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 24. <span class="u">Tool</span>
+        <span class="u">for</span> <span class="u">Wrought</span> <span
+        class="u">Iron</span>.</span></td>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 25. <span class="u">Tool</span>
+        <span class="u">for</span> <span class="u">Cast</span> <span
+        class="u">Iron</span>.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p><a href="#fig24">Fig. 24</a> shows side and top views of a tool designed to rough off wrought
+iron, or a tough quality of steel. You will notice, that what is called the
+top rake (A) is very pronounced, and, as the point projects considerably
+above the body of the tool itself, it should, in practice, be set with its
+cutting point above the center.</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">p. 30</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Clearance.</span>&mdash;Now, in grinding, the
+important point is the clearance line (B). As shown in this figure, it has an
+angle of 10 degrees, so that in placing the tool in the holder it is obvious
+it cannot be placed very high above the center, particularly when used on
+small work. The top rake is ground at an angle of 60 degrees from the
+vertical. The arc of the curved end depends on the kind of lathe and the size
+of the work.</p>
+
+<p>The tool (<a href="#fig25">Fig. 25</a>), with a straight cutting edge, is the proper one to
+rough off cast iron. Note that the top rake (C) is 70 degrees, and the
+clearance 15 degrees.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Cutting Angle.</span>&mdash;Wrought iron, or mild
+steel, will form a ribbon when the tool wedges its way into the material.
+Cast iron, on the other hand, owing to its brittleness, will break off into
+small particles, hence the wedge surface can be put at a more obtuse angle to
+the work.</p>
+
+<p>In grinding side-cutters the clearance should be at a less angle than 10
+degrees, rather than more, and the top rake should also be less; otherwise
+the tendency will be to draw the tool into the work and swing the tool post
+around.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Drills.</span>&mdash;Holders for grinding twist drills
+are now furnished at very low prices, and instructions are usually sent with
+the machines, but a few words may not be amiss for the benefit of those<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">p. 31</a></span> who have not
+the means to purchase such a machine.</p>
+
+<p>Hand grinding is a difficult thing, for the reason that through
+carelessness, or inability, both sides of the drill are not ground at the
+same angle and pitch. As a result the cutting edge of one side will do more
+work than the other. If the heel angles differ, one side will draw into the
+work, and the other resist.</p>
+
+<table border="0" width="390" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="26-27">
+  <tbody valign="top">
+    <tr>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig26" name="fig26"></a><a href="#Page_31"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig26.png" width="163" height="126"
+        alt="Fig. 26. End view." title="Fig. 26. End view." /></a> </td>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig27" name="fig27"></a><a href="#Page_31"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig27.png" width="163" height="126"
+        alt="Fig. 27. Side view." title="Fig. 27. Side view." /></a> </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 26. <span class="u">End</span> <span
+        class="u">view</span>.</span></td>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 27. <span class="u">Side</span>
+        <span class="u">view</span>.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wrong Grinding.</span>&mdash;When such is the case the
+hole becomes untrue. The sides of the bit will grind into the walls, or the
+bit will have a tendency to run to one side, and particularly if boring
+through metal which is uneven in its texture or grain.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig26">Figs. 26</a> and <a href="#fig27">27</a> show end and side views of a bit properly ground. If a bit
+has been broken off, first grind it off square at the end, and then grind
+down the angles, so that A is about 15 degrees, and be sure that the heel has
+sufficient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">p.
+32</a></span> clearance&mdash;that is, ground down deeper than the cutting
+point.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chisels.</span>&mdash;A machine shop should always
+have a plentiful supply of cold chisels, and a particular kind for each work,
+to be used for that purpose only. This may seem trivial to the boy, but it is
+really a most important matter.</p>
+
+<p>Notice the careless and incompetent workman. If chipping or cutting is
+required, he will grasp the first chisel at hand. It may have a curved end,
+or be a key-way chisel, or entirely unsuited as to size for the cutting
+required.</p>
+
+<p>The result is an injured tool, and unsatisfactory results. The rule holds
+good in this respect as with every other tool in the kit. <i>Use a tool for
+the purpose it was made for</i>, and for no other. Acquire that habit.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cold Chisels.</span>&mdash;A cold chisel should never
+be ground to a long, tapering point, like a wood chisel. The proper taper for
+a wood chisel is 15 degrees, whereas a cold chisel should be 45 degrees. A
+drifting chisel may have a longer taper than one used for chipping.</p>
+
+<p>It is a good habit, particularly as there are so few tools which require
+grinding, to commence the day's work by grinding the chisels, and arranging
+them for business.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">System in Work.</span>&mdash;Then see to it that the
+drills<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">p. 33</a></span>
+are in good shape; and while you are about it, look over the lathe tools. You
+will find that it is better to do this work at one time, than to go to the
+emery wheel a dozen times a day while you are engaged on the job.</p>
+
+<p>Adopt a system in your work. Don't take things just as they come along,
+but form your plans in an orderly way, and you will always know how to take
+up and finish the work in the most profitable and satisfactory way.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wrong Use of Tools.</span>&mdash;Never use the vise as
+an anvil. Ordinary and proper use of this tool will insure it for a lifetime,
+aside from its natural wear. It may be said with safety that a vise will
+never break if used for the purpose for which it was intended. One blow of a
+hammer may ruin it.</p>
+
+<p>Furthermore, never use an auxiliary lever to screw up the jaws. If the
+lever which comes with it is not large enough to set the jaws, you may be
+sure that the vise is not large enough for your work</p>
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">p.
+34</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>CHAPTER III<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>SETTING AND HOLDING TOOLS</h3>
+
+<p>Some simple directions in the holding and setting of tools may be of
+service to the novice. Practice has shown the most effective way of treating
+different materials, so that the tools will do the most efficient work.</p>
+
+<p>A tool ground in a certain way and set at a particular angle might do the
+work admirably on a piece of steel, but would not possibly work on aluminum
+or brass.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lathe Speed.</span>&mdash;If the lathe should run at
+the same speed on a piece of cast iron as with a brass casting, the result
+would not be very satisfactory, either with the tool or on the work
+itself.</p>
+
+<p>Some compositions of metal require a high speed, and some a hooked tool.
+These are things which each must determine as the articles come to the shop;
+but there are certain well-defined rules with respect to the ordinary metals
+that should be observed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Hack Saw.</span>&mdash;Our first observation
+should be directed to the hand tools. The hack saw is one of the most
+difficult tools for the machinist to handle, for the following reasons:<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">p. 35</a></span></p>
+
+<p>First, of the desire to force the blade through the work. The blade is a
+frail instrument, and when too great a pressure is exerted it bends, and as a
+result a breakage follows. To enable it to do the work properly, it must be
+made of the hardest steel. It is, in consequence, easily fractured.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 367px;">
+<a id="fig28-29" name="fig28-29"></a><a href="#Page_35"><img
+src="images/illus-fig28-29.png" width="367" height="210"
+alt="Fig. 28.&mdash;Hack Saw Frame. Fig. 29.&mdash;Hack Saw Blade."
+title="Fig. 28.&mdash;Hack Saw Frame. Fig. 29.&mdash;Hack Saw Blade." /></a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 28.&mdash;Hack Saw Frame.<br />Fig. 29.&mdash;Hack
+Saw Blade.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p>Second. The novice will make short hacking cuts. This causes the teeth to
+stick, the saw bends, and a new blade is required. Take a long sweeping cut,
+using the entire length of the blade. Do not oscillate the blade as you push
+it through the work, but keep the tooth line horizontal from one end of the
+stroke to the other. The moment it begins to waver, the teeth will catch on
+the metal on the side nearest to you, and it will snap</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">p. 36</a></span></div>
+
+<p>Third. The handle is held too loosely. The handle must be firmly held with
+the right hand, and the other held by the fingers lightly, but in such a
+position that a steady downward pressure can be maintained. If loosely held,
+the saw is bound to sag from side to side during the stroke, and a short
+stroke accentuates the lateral movement. A long stroke avoids this.</p>
+
+<p>The hack saw is one of the tools which should be used with the utmost
+deliberation, combined with a rigid grasp of the handle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Files.</span>&mdash;For remarks on this tool see
+<a href="#IV">Chapter IV</a>, which treats of the subject specially.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grindstones, Emery and Grinding Wheels.</span>&mdash;A
+good workman is always reflected by his grinding apparatus. This is true
+whether it has reference to a grindstone, emery, corundum wheel, or a plain
+oil stone. Nothing is more destructive of good tools than a grooved, uneven,
+or wabbly stone. It is only little less than a crime for a workman to hold a
+tool on a revolving stone at one spot.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Carelessness in Holding Tools.</span>&mdash;The boy
+must learn that such a habit actually prevents the proper grinding, not only
+of the tool he has on the stone, but also of the one which follows. While it
+is true that all artificially made grinders will wear unevenly, even when
+used with the utmost care, due to uneven texture of the materials in the
+stone, still,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">p.
+37</a></span> the careless use of the tool, while in the act of grinding,
+only aggravates the trouble.</p>
+
+<p>Another fault of the careless workman is, to press the bit against the
+stone too hard. This cuts the stone more than it wears off the tool, and it
+is entirely unnecessary. Furthermore, it heats up the tool, which should be
+avoided.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Calipers.</span>&mdash;A true workman, who endeavors
+to turn out accurate work, and preserve his tools, will never test the work
+with his calipers while the piece is turning in the lathe. A revolving cast
+iron disk will cut ruby, the hardest substance next to the diamond, so it is
+not the hardness of the material which resists wear, but the conditions under
+which it is used.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Care in Use of Calipers.</span>&mdash;The calipers may
+be of the most hardened steel, and the work turned up of the softest brass,
+the latter, when revolving, will grind off the point of the tool, for the
+reason that the revolving piece constantly presents a new surface to the
+point of the calipers, and when tests are frequently made, it does not take
+long to change the caliper span so that it must be reset.</p>
+
+<p>As stated elsewhere, the whole energy of the lathe is concentrated on the
+bit or cutting tool, hence, in order to get the most effective work out of it
+requires care; first, in grinding; and, second, in setting</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">p. 38</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Machine Bits.</span>&mdash;It does not always matter
+so much whether you use a square, pointed, or a round-nosed bit, provided it
+is properly ground and set in the tool holder. As a rule, the more brittle
+the metal the less the top rake or angle should be.</p>
+
+<p>In the chapter relating to the grinding of tools, references were made as
+to the most serviceable bits for the various metals. We are concerned here
+with the setting or holding of these articles.</p>
+
+<table border="0" width="390" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="30-31">
+  <tbody valign="top">
+    <tr>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig30" name="fig30"></a><a href="#Page_38"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig30.png" width="179" height="115"
+        alt="Fig. 30. Plain Hook Tool" title="Fig. 30. Plain Hook Tool" /></a></td>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig31" name="fig31"></a><a href="#Page_38"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig31.png" width="179" height="115"
+        alt="Fig. 31. Plain Straight Tool" title="Fig. 31. Plain Straight Tool" /></a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 30. Plain Hook Tool</span></td>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 31. Plain Straight Tool</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>The two illustrations here given show a pair of plain bits, in which
+<a href="#fig30">Fig. 30</a> represents a hook-shaped formation, and
+<a href="#fig31">Fig. 31</a> a straight grind, without
+any top rake. The hooked bit would do for aluminum, or steel, but for cast
+iron the form shown in <a href="#fig31">Fig. 31</a> would be most serviceable.</p>
+
+<p>Then the side bits, such as the round-nosed, <a href="#fig32-34">Fig. 32</a> and the square end,
+<a href="#fig32-34">Fig. 33</a>, may be ground hooked, or with a top rake, or left flat.</p>
+
+<p>The too common mistake is to grind the lower or clearance side at too
+great an angle. <a href="#fig32-34">Fig. 34</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39"
+id="Page_39">p. 39</a></span> shows the correct angle, and the dotted line A
+illustrates the common tendency to grind the clearance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Proper Angle for Lathe Tools.</span>&mdash;Now
+there is a reason why the angle of from 10 to 15 should be maintained in the
+clearance. The point of the tool must have suitable support for the work it
+is required to do, so it will not chatter or yield in the slightest degree. A
+bit ground along the dotted line has a cutting edge which will spring down,
+and consequently break or produce a rough surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 347px;">
+<a id="fig32-34" name="fig32-34"></a><a href="#Page_39"><img
+src="images/illus-fig32-34.png" width="347" height="146"
+alt="Figs. 32, 33, 34. Proper Angles for Tools"
+title="Figs. 32, 33, 34. Proper Angles for Tools" /></a> <span
+class="italcaption">Figs. 32, 33, 34.<br />
+Proper Angles for Tools</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p>Then, again, the angle of the clearance acts as a guide, or rather, a
+guard, to prevent the tool from going in too far, as will now be
+explained.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Setting the Bit.</span>&mdash;In order to understand
+the correct setting, examine the work A, in <a href="#fig35">Fig. 35.</a></p>
+
+<p>A is a cylinder being turned up in the lathe, and B the cutting tool,
+which approaches it on a hori<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40"
+id="Page_40">p. 40</a></span>zontal line, C, extending out from the center of
+the cylinder A. This setting is theoretically correct, and in practice has
+been found most advantageous.</p>
+
+<p>In this case let us assume that the clearance angle D is 15 degrees, as
+well as in the following figures.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 339px;">
+<a id="fig35" name="fig35"></a><a href="#Page_40"><img
+src="images/illus-fig35.png" width="339" height="122"
+alt="Fig. 35. Set of the Bit" title="Fig. 35. Set of the Bit" /></a> <span
+class="italcaption">Fig. 35. Set of the Bit</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p>Suppose we have a piece of tough steel, and the tool holder is raised so
+that the point of the tool is at the 15 degree line E, as shown in <a href="#fig36">Fig. 36</a>,
+in which case the clearance line D is at right angles to the line E. The line
+E is 15 degrees above the center line C.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Setting Angle.</span>&mdash;Now, it is obvious
+that if the tool should be raised higher than the line E it would run out of
+work, because the clearance surface of the tool would ride up over the
+surface cut by the edge of the tool.</p>
+
+<p>If, on the other hand, the tool should be placed lower, toward the line C,
+the tendency would be to draw in the tool toward the center of the work A</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">p. 41</a></span></div>
+
+<p>In <a href="#fig37">Fig. 37</a> the tool has its point elevated, in which case it must be
+lowered so the point will touch the work nearer the center line C.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing arrangement of the tools will be found to be effective where
+the material is soft and not too tough as with aluminum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bad Practice.</span>&mdash;Figs. 38 and 39 show
+illustrations of bad practice which should never be resorted to. <a href="#fig38">Fig. 38</a>
+shows the tool, held in a horizontal position, but with its point below the
+center line C. With any rough metal the tool could not possibly work, except
+to act as a scraper, and if it should be used in that position on cast iron,
+the tool itself would soon be useless.</p>
+
+<table border="0" width="390" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="36-37">
+  <tbody valign="top">
+    <tr>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig36" name="fig36"></a><a href="#Page_41"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig36.png" width="159" height="146"
+        alt="Fig. 36. Correct Angle" title="Fig. 30. Plain Hook Tool" /></a></td>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig37" name="fig37"></a><a href="#Page_41"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig37.png" width="189" height="145"
+        alt="Fig. 37. Wrong Angle" title="Fig. 37. Wrong Angle" /></a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 36. Correct Angle</span></td>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 37. Wrong Angle</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p><a href="#fig39">Fig. 39</a> is still worse, and is of no value for any purpose except in
+polishing brass, where it would be serviceable. It would make a sorry looking
+job with aluminum. Brass requires a tool with very<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_42" id="Page_42">p. 42</a></span> little top rake, and the point
+should be set near the center line C.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lathe Speed.</span>&mdash;It is often a question at
+what speeds to run the lathe for different work. If you know the speeds of
+your lathe at low and high gear, you must also consider the diameter of the
+work at the cutting point.</p>
+
+<p>The rule is to have the bit cut from 15 to 20 feet per minute for wrought
+iron; from 11 to 18 feet for steel; from 25 to 50 for brass; and from 40 to
+50 for aluminum.</p>
+
+<table border="0" width="390" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="38-39">
+  <tbody valign="top">
+    <tr>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig38" name="fig38"></a><a href="#Page_42"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig38.png" width="163" height="145"
+        alt="Fig. 38. Too Low" title="Fig. 38. Too Low" /></a></td>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig39" name="fig39"></a><a href="#Page_42"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig39.png" width="176" height="145"
+        alt="Fig. 39. Improper Set" title="Fig. 39. Improper Set" /></a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 38. Too Low</span></td>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 39. Improper Set</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>As a result, therefore, if, at low speed, a piece 10 inches in diameter,
+runs at the proper speed to cut at that distance from the center, it is
+obvious that a piece 5 inches in diameter should ran twice as fast. This is a
+matter which time and practice will enable you to judge with a fair degree of
+accuracy</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">p. 43</a></span></div>
+
+<p>Observe this as a maxim: "Slow speed, and quick feed."</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Boring Tools on Lathe.</span>&mdash;The lathe is a
+most useful tool for boring purposes, better for some work than the drilling
+machine itself. The work which can be done better on a lathe than on a
+drilling machine, may be classified as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. When straight and true holes are required.</p>
+
+<p>2. In long work, where the lathe is used to turn up the article, and where
+the drilling can be done at the same time.</p>
+
+<p>3. Anything that can be chucked in a lathe.</p>
+
+<p>4. Where the work is long and cannot be fixed in a drilling machine. The
+long bed of the lathe gives room for holding such work.</p>
+
+<table border="0" width="390" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="40-41">
+  <tbody valign="top">
+    <tr>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig40" name="fig40"></a><a href="#Page_43"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig40.png" width="158" height="146"
+        alt="Fig. 40. Internal Set" title="Fig. 40. Internal Set" /></a></td>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig41" name="fig41"></a><a href="#Page_43"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig41.png" width="133" height="146"
+        alt="Fig. 41. Set for Brass" title="Fig. 41. Set for Brass" /></a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 40. Internal Set</span></td>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 41. Set for Brass</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Rake of the Drill.</span>&mdash;A boring tool
+requires some knowledge in setting. It should have a greater top rake than
+for the outside work, and the cutting edge should also be keener, as a
+rule</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">p. 44</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 355px;">
+<a id="fig42" name="fig42"></a><a href="#Page_44"><img
+src="images/illus-fig42.png" width="355" height="402"
+alt="Fig. 42.&mdash;Surface Gage." title="Fig. 42.&mdash;Surface Gage." />
+</a> <span class="italcaption">Fig. 42.&mdash;Surface Gage.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p>In this class of work the material bored must be understood, as well as in
+doing outside work.</p>
+
+<p>The hooked tool, <a href="#fig40">Fig. 40</a>, is shown to be considerably above the center
+line, and at that point it will do the most effective cutting on steel. If,
+on the other hand, brass is operated on there should be no<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">p. 45</a></span> top rake, as
+illustrated in <a href="#fig41">Fig. 41</a>, thus assuring a smooth job.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Laps.</span>&mdash;This is a tool which is very
+useful, particularly for grinding and truing up the cylinders of internal
+combustion engines, as well as for all kinds of bores of refractory material
+which cannot be handled with the cutting tool of the lathe.</p>
+
+<p>It is made up of a mandrel or rod of copper, with lead cast about it, and
+then turned up true, so that it is but the merest trifle larger than the hole
+it is to true up.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Using the Lap.</span>&mdash;The roller thus made is
+turned rapidly in a lathe, and the cylinder to be trued is brought up to it
+and the roller supplied freely with emery powder and oil. As rapidly as
+possible the cylinder is worked over on the roller, without forcing it, and
+also turned, so as to prevent even the weight from grinding it unduly on one
+side.</p>
+
+<p>More or less of the emery will embed itself in the lead, and thus act as
+an abrasive. The process is called "lapping."</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Surface Gages.</span>&mdash;Frequently, in laying out,
+it is necessary to scribe lines at a given distance from some part of the
+work; or, the conditions are such that a rule, a caliper, or dividers will
+not permit accurate measurement to be made.</p>
+
+<p>For such purposes, what is called a surface gage was devised. This is
+merely a heavy base, provided <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46"
+id="Page_46">p. 46</a></span> with a pivoted upright on which is mounted a
+scribe that is held by a clamp so it may be turned to any angle.</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">p. 47</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;">
+<a id="fig43" name="fig43"></a><a href="#Page_47"><img
+src="images/illus-fig43.png" width="380" height="529"
+alt="Fig. 43.&mdash;Showing uses of the Surface Gage."
+title="Fig. 43.&mdash;Showing uses of the Surface Gage." /></a> <span
+class="italcaption">Fig. 43.&mdash;Showing uses of the Surface Gage.</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Surface Gage.</span>&mdash;The clamp holding the
+scriber is vertically movable on the pivoted upright. By resting the base of
+the surface gage on the line to be measured from, and swinging one point of
+the scriber to the place where the work is to be done, accuracy is assured.
+One end of the scriber is bent, so it can be adapted to enter recesses, or
+such places as could not be reached by the straight end</p>
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">p.
+48</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>CHAPTER IV<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE USE OF THE FILE</h3>
+
+<p>The most necessary tool in a machine shop is a file. It is one of the
+neglected tools, because the ordinary boy, or workman, sees nothing in it but
+a strip or a bar with a lot of cross grooves and edges, and he concludes that
+the only thing necessary is to rub it across a piece of metal until he has
+worn it down sufficiently for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The First Test.</span>&mdash;The fact is, the file is
+so familiar a tool, that it breeds contempt, like many other things closely
+associated in life.</p>
+
+<p>Give the boy an irregular block of metal, and tell him to file it up
+square, and he will begin to realize that there is something in the handling
+of a file that never before occurred to him.</p>
+
+<p>He will find three things to astonish him:</p>
+
+<p>First: That of dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>Second: The difficulty of getting it square.</p>
+
+<p>Third: The character of the surface when he has finished it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Filing an Irregular Block.</span>&mdash;To file a
+block of an irregular character so that the dimensions are accurate, is a
+good test for an accomplished workman. The job is made doubly difficult if he
+is required to file it square at the same time. It will<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">p. 49</a></span> be found,
+invariably, that the sides will not be parallel, and by the time it is fully
+trued up the piece will be too small. See <a href="#fig44">Figs. 44</a> and  <a href="#fig45">45</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Then, unless the utmost care is taken, the flat sides <i>will not</i> be
+flat, but rounded.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Filing a Bar Straight.</span>&mdash;The next test is
+to get the boy to file a bar straight. He has no shaper or planer for the
+purpose, so that it must be done by hand. He will find himself lacking in two
+things: The edge of the bar will not be straight; nor will it be square with
+the side of the bar.</p>
+
+<table border="0" width="390" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="44-45">
+  <tbody valign="top">
+    <tr>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig44" name="fig44"></a><a href="#Page_49"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig44.png" width="169" height="79"
+        alt="Fig. 44. Rounded Surface" title="Fig. 44. Rounded Surface" /></a></td>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig45" name="fig45"></a><a href="#Page_49"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig45.png" width="169" height="79"
+        alt="Fig. 37. Wrong Angle" title="Fig. 45. A Winding Face" /></a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 44. Rounded Surface</span></td>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 45. A Winding Face</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Filing Bar with Parallel Sides.</span>&mdash;Follow up
+this test by requiring him to file up a bar, first, with two exactly parallel
+sides, and absolutely straight, so it will pass smoothly between the legs of
+a pair of calipers, and then file the two other sides in like manner.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Surfacing off Disks.</span>&mdash;When the foregoing
+are completed there is still another requirement which, though it appears
+simple, is the supreme test. Set him to work at surfacing off a pair of disks
+or plates, say one and a half inches in diameter, so<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_50" id="Page_50">p. 50</a></span> that when they are finished they
+will fit against each other perfectly flat.</p>
+
+<p>A pair of such disks, if absolutely true, will hold together by the force
+of cohesion, even in a dry state, or they will, as it were, float against
+each other.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">True Surfacing.</span>&mdash;Prior to about 1850 the
+necessity of true surfacing was not so important or as well known as at the
+present time. About that period Sir J. Whitworth, an eminent English engineer
+and mechanic, called the attention of machinists to the great advantage
+arising from true surfaces and edges for all types of machinery, and he laid
+the foundation of the knowledge in accurating surfacing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Precision Tools.</span>&mdash;Due to his energy many
+precision tools were made, all tending to this end, and as a result machines
+became better and more efficient in every way.</p>
+
+<p>It had this great advantage: It taught the workman of his day how to use
+the file and scraper, because both must be used conjunctively to make an
+absolutely flat plate.</p>
+
+<p>Contrary to general beliefs, shapers and planers do not make absolutely
+accurate surfaces. The test of this is to put together two plates so planed
+off. There is just enough unevenness to permit air to get between the plates.
+If they were perfectly true<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51"
+id="Page_51">p. 51</a></span> they would exclude all air, and it would be a
+difficult matter to draw them apart.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Test of the Mechanic.</span>&mdash;To make them
+perfectly flat, one plate has chalk rubbed over it, and the two plates are
+then rubbed together. This will quickly show where the high spots are, and
+the file and scraper are then used to cut away the metal.</p>
+
+<table border="0" width="390" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="46-47">
+  <tbody valign="top">
+    <tr>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig46" name="fig46"></a><a href="#Page_51"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig46.png" width="178" height="165"
+        alt="Fig. 46. Hexagon Nut" title="Fig. 46. Hexagon Nut" /></a></td>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig47" name="fig47"></a><a href="#Page_51"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig47.png" width="178" height="165"
+        alt="Fig. 47. Hexagon Nut" title="Fig. 47. Hexagon Nut" /></a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 46. Hexagon Nut</span></td>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 47. Hexagon Nut</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>In England the test of the mechanic used to be determined by his ability
+to file a piece of metal flat. It was regarded as the highest art. This is
+not the most desirable test at the present time, and it is recognized that a
+much severer test is to file a narrow piece exactly flat, and so that it will
+not have a trace of roundness, and be square from end to end.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Test Suggestions.</span>&mdash;In a shop which does
+not have the advantage of a planer or shaper, there<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_52" id="Page_52">p. 52</a></span> are so many articles which must
+be filed up, that it is interesting to know something of how the various
+articles are made with a file.</p>
+
+<p>To file a hexagon, or six-sided nut will be a good test with a file. To do
+this a little study in geometrical lines will save a vast amount of time. In
+beginning the work, measure the radius with a divider, and then step off and
+make six marks equidistant from each other on the round surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 355px;">
+<a id="fig48" name="fig48"></a><a href="#Page_52"><img
+src="images/illus-fig48.png" width="355" height="169"
+alt="Fig. 48. Cutting Key-way" title="Fig. 48. Cutting Key-way" /></a> <span
+class="italcaption">Fig. 48. Cutting Key-way</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Use of the Dividers.</span>&mdash;The distance between
+each of these points is equal to the radius, or half the diameter, of the
+round bar. See <a href="#fig46">Fig. 46</a>, which shows this. The marks should be scribed across
+the surface, as shown in <a href="#fig47">Fig. 47</a>, where the lines show the ends of the facets
+of the outside of the nut.</p>
+
+<p>Do not let the file obliterate the lines at the rough<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">p. 53</a></span> cutting, but
+leave enough material so you can make a good finish at the line.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cutting a Key-way.</span>&mdash;Another job you may
+have frequent occasion to perform, is to cut a way for a key in a shaft and
+in a wheel hub. Naturally, this will be first roughed out with a cold chisel
+narrower than the key is to be, and also slightly shallower than the
+dimensions of the key.</p>
+
+<p>A flat file should be used for the purpose, first a heavy rough one, for
+the first cutting. The better way is to have the key so it can be frequently
+tried while the filing process is going on, so that to fit the key in this
+way is a comparatively easy task.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Key-way Difficulties</span>.&mdash;But the trouble
+commences when the groove is filed for the depth. Invariably, the mistake
+will be made of filing the width first, so the key will fit in. As a result,
+in deepening the groove the file will contact with the walls, and you have a
+key-way too wide for the key.</p>
+
+<p>To avoid this, file the depth, or nearly so, and then with a fine file cut
+in the corners in the direction indicated by the dart, <a href="#fig48">Fig. 48</a>.</p>
+
+<p>A proper key is square in cross section. In such a case the depth of the
+key-way, at each side wall, is just half the width of the key-way.</p>
+
+<p>An excellent key-seat rule can be made by filing<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_54" id="Page_54">p. 54</a></span> out two right-angled pieces, as
+shown in <a href="#fig49">Fig. 49</a>, which can be attached to the ordinary six-inch metal rule,
+and this will enable you to scribe the line accurately for the key-way on the
+shaft.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 348px;">
+<a id="fig49" name="fig49"></a><a href="#Page_54"><img
+src="images/illus-fig49.png" width="348" height="87"
+alt="Fig. 49. Key-seat Rule"
+title="Fig. 49. Key-seat Rule" /></a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 49. Key-seat</span></div>
+
+<table border="0" width="390" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="46-47">
+  <tbody valign="top">
+    <tr>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig50" name="fig50"></a><a href="#Page_54"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig50.png" width="177" height="191"
+        alt="Fig. 50. Filing Metal Round" title="Fig. 50. Filing Metal Round" /></a></td>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig51" name="fig51"></a><a href="#Page_54"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig51.png" width="177" height="191"
+        alt="Fig. 51. Filing Metal Round" title="Fig. 51. Filing Metal Round" /></a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 50.</span></td>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 51.</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td colspan="2" class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Filing Metal Round</span></td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Filing Metal Round</span>.&mdash;It is sometimes
+necessary to file a piece of metal round. This is a hard job, particularly
+where it is impossible to scribe the end of the piece. Suppose it is
+necessary to file up a bearing surface, or surfaces, intermediate the ends of
+a square bar.</p>
+
+<p>You have in that case four sides to start from,<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_55" id="Page_55">p. 55</a></span> the opposite sides being
+parallel with each other, so that you will have two dimensions, and four
+equal sides, as shown in <a href="#fig50">Fig. 50</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The first step will be to file off accurately the four corners 1, 2, 3, 4,
+so as to form eight equal sides or faces, as shown in <a href="#fig51">Fig. 51</a>. If you will
+now proceed to file down carefully the eight corners, so as to make sixteen
+sides, as in <a href="#fig52">Fig. 52</a>, the fourth set of corners filed down will make the
+filed part look like the illustration <a href="#fig53">Fig. 53</a> with thirty-two faces.</p>
+
+<table border="0" width="390" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"
+summary="52-53">
+  <tbody valign="top">
+    <tr>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig52" name="fig52"></a><a href="#Page_54"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig52.png" width="175" height="181"
+        alt="Fig. 52. Making a Bar Round" title="Fig. 52. Making a Bar Round" /></a></td>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig53" name="fig53"></a><a href="#Page_54"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig53.png" width="175" height="181"
+        alt="Fig. 53. Making a Bar Round" title="Fig. 53. Making a Bar Round" /></a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 52.</span></td>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 53.</span></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td colspan="2" class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Making a Bar Round</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>This may be further filed down into sixty-four faces, and a few cuts of
+the finishing file will take off the little ridges which still remain. By
+using emery cloth, and wrapping it around the bearing portion, and changing
+it continually, while drawing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56"
+id="Page_56">p. 56</a></span> it back and forth, will enable you to make a
+bearing which, by care, will caliper up in good shape.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Kinds of Files.</span>&mdash;Each file has five
+distinct properties; namely: the length, the contour, the form in cross
+section, the kind of teeth, and the fineness of the teeth.</p>
+
+<p>There are nine well-defined shapes for files. These may be enumerated as
+follows:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 347px;">
+<a id="fig54" name="fig54"></a><a href="#Page_56"><img
+src="images/illus-fig54.png" width="347" height="106"
+alt="Fig. 54. Cross Sections of Files."
+title="Fig. 54. Cross Sections of Files." /></a> <span
+class="italcaption">Fig. 54. <span class="u">Cross</span> <span
+class="u">Sections</span> <span class="u">of</span> <span
+class="u">Files</span>.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p>No. 1. The cotter file. The small kind is called a verge or pivot file.</p>
+
+<p>No. 2. Square file, which may be tapering from end to end, or have
+parallel sides throughout.</p>
+
+<p>No. 3. Watch pinion file. This may have its sides parallel or tapering, to
+make a knife-shaped file.</p>
+
+<p>No. 4. Clock-pinion; which may be used for either nicking, piecing, or
+squaring-off purposes.</p>
+
+<p>No. 5. Round, with parallel sides for gulleting purposes, or rat-tail when
+it tapers.</p>
+
+<p>No. 6. Triangular, or three equally-sided body for saw filing.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">p. 57</a></span></p>
+
+<p>No. 7. Equalizing file. This is parallel when used for making
+clock-pinions or endless screws; or for slitting, entering, warding, or
+making barrel holes, when the body of the file tapers.</p>
+
+<p>No. 8. Cross, or double-round, half-file.</p>
+
+<p>No. 9. Slitting file; which has parallel sides only. A cant file.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Character of the File Tooth.</span>&mdash;Files are
+distinguished principally by the character of the oblique, or cross grooves
+and ridges which do the cutting and abrading when the file is drawn across
+the surface.</p>
+
+<p>This is really more important than the shape, because the files, by their
+cuttings, are adapted for the various materials which they are to be used
+upon.</p>
+
+<p>The files are classified as <i>Double Cut</i>, of which there are the
+<i>rough</i>, <i>middle</i>, <i>bastard</i>, <i>second cut</i>,
+<i>smooth</i>, and <i>dead smooth</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Float Cut</i>, which is either <i>rough</i>, <i>bastard</i> or
+<i>smooth</i>; and</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Rasp Cut</i>, either <i>rough</i>, <i>bastard</i> or
+<i>smooth</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Several types are illustrated in <a href="#fig55">Fig. 55</a>, which show the characteristics
+of the various cuts.</p>
+
+<p>The rasps are used principally for soft material, such as wood or for
+hoofs, in horse shoeing, hence they need not be considered in connection with
+machine-shop work</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">p. 58</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 349px;">
+<a id="fig55" name="fig55"></a><a href="#Page_58"><img
+src="images/illus-fig55.png" width="349" height="556" alt="Fig. 55. Files."
+title="Fig. 55. Files." /></a> <span class="italcaption">Fig. 55.
+Files.</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">p. 59</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Holding the File.</span>&mdash;The common mistake on
+the part of the beginner is to drag the file across the work at an angle. The
+body of the file should move across straight and not obliquely.</p>
+
+<p>Note this movement in <a href="#fig56">Fig. 56</a> where the dash shows the correct movement of
+the file with relation to the work. Also observe that the file cutting ridges
+are not straight across the file, but at an angle to the direction of the
+dart.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 339px;">
+<a id="fig56" name="fig56"></a><a href="#Page_59"><img
+src="images/illus-fig56.png" width="339" height="200"
+alt="Fig. 56. Correct File Movement" title="Fig. 56. Correct File Movement"
+/></a> <span class="italcaption">Fig. 56. Correct File Movement</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Injuring Files.</span>&mdash;Now the frequent practice
+is to use the file as shown in <a href="#fig57">Fig. 57</a>, in which case it is moved across
+obliquely. The result is that the angle of the file cut is so disposed that
+the teeth of the file do not properly aid in the cutting, but in a measure
+retard the operation.</p>
+
+<p>File teeth are disposed at an angle for the pur<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_60" id="Page_60">p. 60</a></span>pose of giving them a shearing
+cut, which is the case when the file moves across the work on a line with its
+body.</p>
+
+<p>To use a file as shown in <a href="#fig57">Fig. 57</a> injures the file without giving it an
+opportunity to cut as fast as it would when properly used.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 337px;">
+<a id="fig57" name="fig57"></a><a href="#Page_60"><img
+src="images/illus-fig57.png" width="337" height="113"
+alt="Fig. 57. Incorrect File Movement"
+title="Fig. 57. Incorrect File Movement" /></a> <span
+class="italcaption">Fig. 57. Incorrect File Movement</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Drawing Back the File.</span>&mdash;In drawing back a
+file it is always better to allow it to drag over the work than to raise it
+up. It is frequently the case that some of the material will lodge in the
+teeth, and the back lash will serve to clear out the grooves.</p>
+
+<p>This is particularly true in filing copper, aluminum, lead, and like
+metals, but it is well to observe this in all cases</p>
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">p.
+61</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="V" id="V"></a>CHAPTER V<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>HOW TO COMMENCE WORK</h3>
+
+<p>The question is often asked: Where and how shall the novice commence
+work?</p>
+
+<p>When the shop is equipped, or partially so, sufficient, at least, to turn
+out simple jobs, the boy will find certain tools which are strangers to him.
+He must become acquainted with them and not only learn their uses, but how to
+use them to the best advantage.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Familiarity with Tools.</span>&mdash;Familiarity with
+the appearance of tools, and seeing them in the hands of others will not be
+of any value. Nothing but the immediate contact with the tool will teach how
+to use it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">File Practice.</span>&mdash;The file is a good tool to
+pick up first. Select a piece of metal, six or eight inches long, and follow
+the instructions laid down in the chapter relating to the use of the file.</p>
+
+<p>Practice with several kinds and with different varieties of material will
+soon give an inkling of the best kind to use with the metal you have. Use the
+straight edge and the square while the filing process is going on, and apply
+them frequently,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">p.
+62</a></span> to show you what speed you are making and how nearly true you
+are surfacing up the piece.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Using the Dividers.</span>&mdash;Then try your hand
+using the dividers, in connection with a centering punch. As an example, take
+two pieces of metal, each about a foot long, and set the dividers to make a
+short span, say an inch or so, and step off the length of one piece of metal,
+and punch the last mark. Then do likewise with the other piece of metal, and
+see how nearly alike the two measurements are by comparing them.</p>
+
+<p>You will find a variation in the lengths of the two measurements at the
+first trials, and very likely will not be able to make the two pieces
+register accurately after many trials, even when using the utmost care.</p>
+
+<p>Sooner or later you will learn that you have not stepped paths along the
+two bars which were exactly straight, and this will account for the
+variations. In order to be accurate a line should be drawn along each piece
+of metal, and the dividers should step off the marks on that line.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Finding Centers.</span>&mdash;By way of further
+experiment, it might be well to find the exact center of the ends of a square
+bar, putting in the punch marks and then mounting it in the lathe centers to
+see how accurately this has been done.</p>
+
+<p>If either end is out of true the punch marks can<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_63" id="Page_63">p. 63</a></span> be corrected by inclining the
+punch, so that when it is struck it will move over the point in the direction
+of its true center. This may be followed up by centering the end of a round
+bar so as to make it true. This will be found to be a more difficult job,
+unless you have a center head, a tool made for that purpose.</p>
+
+<p>It is good practice, however, to make trials of all this work, as it will
+enable you to judge of measurements. It can be done with the dividers by
+using care in scribing the centers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hack-Saw Practice.</span>&mdash;Practice with the
+hack-saw should be indulged in frequently. Learn to make a straight cut
+through a bar. Try to do this without using a square to guide you. One of the
+tests of a good mechanic is ability to judge a straight cut.</p>
+
+<p>The following plan is suggested as a test for the eye. Use a bar of iron
+or steel one inch square, and make a cut an eighth of an inch deep across it;
+then turn it around a quarter, so as to expose the nest face, and continue
+the cut along the side, the same depth, and follow this up with the remaining
+two sides, and see how near the end of the first cut and the finish cut come
+together. The test will surprise you.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cutting Metals True.</span>&mdash;When you saw off the
+end of such a bar for trial purposes, use a square,<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_64" id="Page_64">p. 64</a></span> after the cut is made, and note
+how much it is out of true in both directions. It is a curious fact that most
+mechanics are disposed to saw or cut crooked in one direction, either to the
+right or to the left. In tests made it is found that this defect is persisted
+in.</p>
+
+<p>It is practice only which will remedy this, and it would be well for the
+boy to learn this for himself as early in his career as possible, and correct
+the tendency to veer in either direction.</p>
+
+<p>The test of sawing around a round bar is also commended. After a few
+trials you will be surprised to see how your judgment will improve in
+practice.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lathe Work.</span>&mdash;Learn the uses of the chuck.
+As you have, probably, economized as much as possible, a universal chuck is
+not available, hence the first experience will be with an independent chuck,
+where the three dogs move independently of each other. This will give you
+some work to learn how you can get the job true.</p>
+
+<p>Now, before attempting to cut the material, thoroughly learn all the parts
+of the feed mechanism, and how to reverse, as well as to cross feed. Learn
+the operation of the operative parts so that your hand will instinctively
+find them, while the eye is on the work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">First Steps.</span>&mdash;See to it that your tools
+are sharp,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">p.
+65</a></span> and at the first trials make light cuts. Practice the feeds by
+manually moving the tool holder, for surface cutting as well as for cross
+cutting.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Setting the Tool.</span>&mdash;Set the cutting tool at
+various angles, and try the different tools, noting the peculiarities of
+each, at the different speeds. Do not, by any means, use refractory metals
+for your first attempt. Mild steel is a good test, and a light gray iron is
+admirable for practice lessons.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Metals Used.</span>&mdash;Brass is good for testing
+purposes, but the difficulty is that the tendency of the boy, at first, is to
+try to do the work too rapidly, and brass encourages this tendency. Feed
+slowly and regularly until you can make an even finish.</p>
+
+<p>Then chuck and re-chuck to familiarize yourself with every operative part
+of the lathe, and never try to force the cutting tool. If it has a tendency
+to run into the work, set it higher. If, on the other hand, you find, in
+feeding, that it is hard to move the tool post along, the tool is too high,
+and should be lowered.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Four Important Things.</span>&mdash;Constant
+practice of this kind will soon enable you to feel instinctively when the
+tool is doing good work. While you are thus experimenting do not forget the
+speed. This will need your attention.</p>
+
+<p>Remember, you have several things to think about in commencing to run the
+lathe, all of which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">p.
+66</a></span> will take care of themselves when it becomes familiar to you.
+These may be enumerated as follows:</p>
+
+<p>First: The kind of tool best to use.</p>
+
+<p>Second: Its proper set, to do the best work.</p>
+
+<p>Third: The speed of the work in the lathe.</p>
+
+<p>Fourth: The feed, or the thickness of the cut into the material.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Turning up a Cylinder.</span>&mdash;The first and most
+important work is to turn up a small cylinder to a calipered dimension. When
+it is roughed down ready for the finish cut, set the tool so it will take off
+a sufficient amount to prevent the caliper from spanning it, and this will
+enable you to finish it off with emery paper, or allow another small cut to
+be taken.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Turning Grooves.</span>&mdash;Then follow this up by
+turning in a variety of annular grooves of different depths and widths; and
+also V-shaped grooves, the latter to be performed by using both the
+longitudinal and transverse feeds. This will give you excellent practice in
+using both hands simultaneously.</p>
+
+<p>The next step would be to turn out a bore and fit a mandrel into it. This
+will give you the opportunity to use the caliper to good advantage, and will
+test your capacity to use them for inside as well as for outside work</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">p. 67</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Discs.</span>&mdash;A job that will also afford good
+exercise is to turn up a disc with a groove in its face, and then chuck and
+turn another disk with an annular rib on its face to fit into the groove.
+This requires delicacy of measurement with the inside as well as the outside
+calipers.</p>
+
+<p>The groove should be cut first, and the measurement taken from that, as it
+is less difficult to handle and set the tool for the rib than for the
+groove.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lathe Speeds.</span>&mdash;Do not make the too common
+mistake of running the mandrel at high speeds in your initial tests. It is
+far better to use a slow speed, and take a heavy cut. This is good advice at
+all times, but it is particularly important with beginners</p>
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">p.
+68</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>CHAPTER VI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>ILLUSTRATING SOME OF THE FUNDAMENTAL DEVICES</h3>
+
+<p>There are numerous little devices and shop expedients which are desirable,
+and for which the boy will find uses as he progresses.</p>
+
+<p>We devote this chapter to hints of this kind, all of which are capable of
+being turned out or utilized at various stages.</p>
+
+<div class="sideimage">
+
+<div class="floatr" style="width: 135px;">
+<!-- <span class="italcaption">Figs. 58.-61. Belt Lacing</span> -->
+<a name="fig58" id="fig58"></a> <a href="#Page_68"><img
+src="images/illus-fig58-61.png" width="135" height="399"
+alt="Figs. 58.-61. Belt Lacing" title="Figs. 58.-61. Belt Lacing" /></a>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lacing Belts.</span>&mdash;To properly lace a belt is
+quite an art, as many who have tried it know. If a belt runs off the pulley
+it is attributable to one of three causes: either the pulleys are out of line
+or the shafts are not parallel or the belt is laced so it makes the belt
+longer at one margin than the other.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#fig58">Fig. 58</a> the lacing should commence at the center hole (A) of one belt
+end and lace outwardly, terminating at the hole (B) in the center of the
+other belt end, as shown in <a href="#fig58">Fig. 58</a>.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#fig58">Fig. 59</a> the lacing commences at A, and terminates at the hole (B) at
+the edge. This will be ample for all but the widest belts.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig58">Fig. 60</a> is adapted for a narrow belt. The lacing commences at one margin
+hole (A), and terminates at the other margin hole (Z)</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">p. 69</a></span></div>
+
+<p><a href="#fig58">Fig. 61</a> shows the outside of the belt.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sideimage">
+
+<div class="floatl" style="width: 140px;">
+<!-- <span class="italcaption">Fig. 62. Bevel Gears
+Fig. 63. Miter Gears
+Fig. 64. Crown Wheel
+Fig. 65. Grooved Friction Gears
+Fig. 66. Valve
+Fig. 67. Cone Pulleys
+Fig. 68. Universal Joint</span> -->
+<a id="fig62" name="fig62"></a><a href="#Page_69"><img
+src="images/illus-fig62-68.png" width="140" height="538"
+alt="Fig. 62. Bevel Gears Fig. 63. Miter Gears Fig. 64. Crown Wheel Fig. 65. Grooved Friction Gears Fig. 66. Valve Fig. 67. Cone Pulleys Fig. 68. Universal Joint"
+title="Fig. 62. Bevel Gears Fig. 63. Miter Gears Fig. 64. Crown Wheel Fig. 65. Grooved Friction Gears Fig. 66. Valve Fig. 67. Cone Pulleys Fig. 68. Universal Joint"
+/></a>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p><a href="#fig62">Fig. 62</a>. <span class="smcap">Gears.</span>&mdash;This is something every
+boy ought to know about. <a href="#fig62">Fig. 62</a> shows a pair of intermeshing bevel gears.
+This is the correct term for a pair when both are of the same diameter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Miter Gears.</span>&mdash;In <a href="#fig62">Fig. 63</a> we have a pair of
+miter gears, one being larger than the other. Remember this distinction.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig62">Fig. 64</a>. <span class="smcap">Crown Wheel.</span>&mdash;This is a simple
+manner of transmitting motion from one shaft to another, when the shafts are
+at right angles, or nearly so, without using bevel or miter gears.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig62">Fig. 65</a>. <span class="smcap">Grooved Friction Gearing.</span>&mdash;Two
+grooved pulleys, which fit each other accurately, will transmit power without
+losing too much by friction. The deeper the grooves the greater is the loss
+by friction.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig62">Fig. 66</a>. <span class="smcap">A Valve Which Closes by the Water
+Pressure.</span>&mdash;The bibb has therein a movable valve on a horizontal
+stem, the valve being on the inside<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70"
+id="Page_70">p. 70</a></span> of the seat. The stem of the handle has at its
+lower end a crank bend, which engages with the outer end of the valve stem.
+When the handle is turned in either direction the valve is unseated. On
+releasing the handle the pressure of the water against the valve seats it.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig62">Fig. 67</a>. <span class="smcap">Cone Pulleys.</span>&mdash;Two cone pulleys
+of equal size and taper provide a means whereby a change in speed can be
+transmitted from one shaft to another by merely moving the belt to and fro.
+The slightest change is available by this means.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig62">Fig. 68</a>. <span class="smcap">Universal Joint.</span>&mdash;A wheel, with
+four projecting pins, is placed between the U-shaped yokes on the ends of the
+approaching shafts. The pins serve as the pivots for the angles formed by the
+two shafts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sideimage">
+
+<div class="floatr" style="width: 143px;">
+<a id="fig69" name="fig69"></a><a href="#Page_71"><img
+src="images/illus-fig69-74.png" width="143" height="543"
+alt="Fig. 69. Trammel Fig. 70. Escapement Fig. 71. Device for Holding Wheel Fig. 72. Rack and Pinion Fig. 73. Mutilated Gears Fig. 74. Shaft Coupling"
+title="Fig. 69. Trammel Fig. 70. Escapement Fig. 71. Device for Holding Wheel Fig. 72. Rack and Pinion Fig. 73. Mutilated Gears Fig. 74. Shaft Coupling"
+/> </a> <!-- <span class="italcaption">Fig. 69.&mdash;Fig. 74. More Gears</span> -->
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p><a href="#fig69">Fig. 69</a>. <span class="smcap">Trammel for Making an
+Ellipse.</span>&mdash;This is a tool easily made, which will be of great
+service in the shop. In a disc (A), preferably made of brass, are two
+channels (B) at right angles to each other. The grooves are undercut, so that
+the blocks (C) will fit and slide in the grooves and be held therein by the
+dove-tailed formation. Each block is longer than the width of the groove, and
+has an outwardly projecting pin which passes through a bar (D). One pin (E)
+is movable along in a slot, but is adjustable at any point so that the shape
+of the ellipse may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">p.
+71</a></span> varied. The end of the bar has a series of holes (G) for a
+pencil, so that the size of the ellipse may also be changed.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig69">Fig. 70</a>. <span class="smcap">Escapements.</span>&mdash;Various forms of
+escapements may be made, but the object of all is the same. The device is
+designed to permit a wheel to move intermittingly or in a step by step
+movement, by the swinging motion of a pendulum. Another thing is accomplished
+by it. The teeth of the escapement are cut at such an angle that, as one of
+the teeth of the escapement is released from one tooth of the escapement
+wheel, the spring, or the weight of the clock, will cause one of the teeth of
+the escapement wheel to engage the other tooth of the escapement, and give
+the pendulum an impulse in the other direction. In the figure, A is the
+escapement, B the escapement wheels and <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, the<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">p. 72</a></span> pallets,
+which are cut at suitable angles to actuate the pendulum.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig69">Fig. 71</a>. <span class="smcap">Simple Device to Prevent a Wheel or Shaft
+prom Turning Back.</span>&mdash;This is a substitute for a pawl and ratchet
+wheel. A is a drum or a hollow wheel and B a pulley on a shaft, and this
+pulley turns loosely with the drum (A). Four tangential slots (C) are cut
+into the perimeter of the pulley (B), and in each is a hardened steel roller
+(D). It matters not in what position the wheel (B) may be, at least two of
+the rollers will always be in contact with the inside of the drum (A), and
+thus cause the pulley and drum to turn together. On reversing the direction
+of the pulley the rollers are immediately freed from binding contact.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig69">Fig. 72</a>. <span class="smcap">Racks and Pinions.</span>&mdash;The object of
+this form of mechanism is to provide a reciprocating, or back-and-forth
+motion, from a shaft which turns continually in one direction. A is the rack
+and B a mutilated gear. When the gear turns it moves the rack in one
+direction, because the teeth of the gear engage the lower rack teeth, and
+when the rack has moved to the end its teeth engage the teeth of the upper
+rack, thus reversing the movement of the rack.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig69">Fig. 73</a>. <span class="smcap">Mutilated Gears.</span>&mdash;These are made
+in so many forms, and adapted for such a<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_73" id="Page_73">p. 73</a></span> variety of purposes, that we
+merely give a few samples to show what is meant by the term.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig69">Fig. 74</a>. <span class="smcap">Simple Shaft Coupling.</span>&mdash;Prepare
+two similarly formed discs (A, B), which are provided with hubs so they may
+be keyed to the ends of the respective shafts. One disc has four or more
+projecting pins (C), and the other disc suitable holes (D) to receive the
+pins.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sideimage">
+
+<div class="floatl" style="width: 139px;">
+<a id="fig75" name="fig75"></a><a href="#Page_74"><img
+src="images/illus-fig75-81.png" width="139" height="543"
+alt="Fig. 75. Clutches Fig. 76. Ball and Socket Joints Fig. 77. Fastening Ball Fig. 78. Tripping Devices Fig. 79. Anchor Bolt Fig. 80. Lazy Tongs. Fig. 81. Disc Shears."
+title="Fig. 75. Clutches Fig. 76. Ball and Socket Joints Fig. 77. Fastening Ball Fig. 78. Tripping Devices Fig. 79. Anchor Bolt Fig. 80. Lazy Tongs. Fig. 81. Disc Shears."
+/> </a> <!-- <span class="caption">Fig. 75. Clutches Fig. 76. Ball and Socket
+Joints Fig. 77. Fastening Ball Fig. 78. Tripping Devices
+Fig. 79. Anchor Bolt Fig. 80. Lazy Tongs. Fig. 81. Disc
+Shears.</span> -->
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p><a href="#fig75">Fig. 75</a>. <span class="smcap">Clutches.</span>&mdash;This is a piece of
+mechanism which is required in so many kinds of machinery, that we show
+several of the most approved types.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig75">Fig. 76</a>. <span class="smcap">Ball and Socket Joints.</span>&mdash;The most
+practical form of ball and socket joints is simply a head in which is a
+bowl-shaped cavity the depth of one-half of the ball. A plate with a central
+opening small enough to hold in the ball, and<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_74" id="Page_74">p. 74</a></span> still large enough at the neck
+to permit the arm carrying the ball to swing a limited distance, is secured
+by threads, or by bolts, to the head. The first figure shows this.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig75">Fig. 77</a> illustrates a simple manner of tightening the ball so as to hold
+the standard in any desired position.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig75">Fig. 78</a>. <span class="smcap">Tripping Devices.</span>&mdash;These are
+usually in the form of hooks, so arranged that a slight pull on the tripping
+lever will cause the suspended articles to drop.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig75">Fig. 79</a>. <span class="smcap">Anchor Bolt.</span>&mdash;These are used in
+brick or cement walls. The bolt itself screws into a sleeve which is split,
+and draws a wedge nut up to the split end of the sleeve. As a result the
+split sleeve opens or spreads out and binds against the wall sufficiently to
+prevent the bolt from being withdrawn.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig75">Fig. 80</a>. <span class="smcap">Lazy Tongs.</span>&mdash;One of the simplest
+and most effective instruments for carrying ice, boxes or heavy objects,
+which are bulky or inconvenient to carry. It grasps the article firmly, and
+the heavier the weight the tighter is its grasp.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig75">Fig. 81</a>. <span class="smcap">Disc Shears.</span>&mdash;This is a useful
+tool either for cutting tin or paper, pasteboard and the like. It will cut by
+the act of drawing the material through it, but if power is applied to one or
+to both of the shafts the work is much facilitated,<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_75" id="Page_75">p. 75</a></span> particularly in thick or hard
+material.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sideimage">
+
+<div class="floatr" style="width: 132px;">
+<a id="fig82" name="fig82"></a><a href="#Page_74"><img
+src="images/illus-fig82-87.png" width="132" height="544"
+alt="Fig. 82. Wabble Saw Fig. 83. Continuous Crank Motion Fig. 84. Continuous Feed Fig. 85. Crank Motion Fig. 86. Ratchet Head Fig. 87. Bench Clamp"
+title="Fig. 82. Wabble Saw Fig. 83. Continuous Crank Motion Fig. 84. Continuous Feed Fig. 85. Crank Motion Fig. 86. Ratchet Head Fig. 87. Bench Clamp"
+/> </a><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p><a href="#fig82">Fig. 82</a>. <span class="smcap">Wabble Saw.</span>&mdash;This is a most
+simple and useful tool, as it will readily and quickly saw out a groove so
+that it is undercut. The saw is put on the mandrel at an angle, as will be
+seen, and should be run at a high rate of speed.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig82">Fig. 83</a>. <span class="smcap">Crank Motion by a Slotted
+Yoke.</span>&mdash;This produces a straight back-and-forth movement from the
+circular motion of a wheel or crank. It entirely dispenses with a pitman rod,
+and it enables the machine, or the part of the machine operated, to be placed
+close to the crank.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig82">Fig. 84</a>. <span class="smcap">Continuous Feed by the Motion of a
+Lever.</span>&mdash;The simple lever with a pawl on each side of the fulcrum
+is the most effective means to make a continuous feed by the simple movement
+of a lever. The form shown is capable of<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_76" id="Page_76">p. 76</a></span> many modifications, and it can
+be easily adapted for any particular work desired.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig82">Fig. 85</a>. <span class="smcap">Crank Motion.</span>&mdash;By the structure
+shown, namely, a slotted lever (A), a quick return can be made with the
+lever. B indicates the fulcrum.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig82">Fig. 86</a>. <span class="smcap">Ratchet Head.</span>&mdash;This shows a
+well-known form for common ratchet. It has the advantage that the radially
+movable plugs (A) are tangentially disposed, and rest against walls (B)
+eccentrically disposed, and are, therefore, in such a position that they
+easily slide over the inclines.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig82">Fig. 87</a>. <span class="smcap">Bench Clamp.</span>&mdash;A pair of dogs (A,
+B), with the ends bent toward each other, and pivoted midway between the ends
+to the bench in such a position that the board (C), to be held between them,
+on striking the rear ends of the dogs, will force the forward ends together,
+and thus clamp<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">p.
+77</a></span> it firmly for planing or other purposes.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sideimage">
+
+<div class="floatl" style="width: 132px;">
+<a id="fig88" name="fig88"></a><a href="#Page_78"><img
+src="images/illus-fig88-94.png" width="132" height="539"
+alt="Fig. 88. Helico-Volute Spring Fig. 89. Double Helico-Volute Fig. 90. Helical Spring Fig. 91. Single Volute Helix-Spring Fig. 92. Flat Spiral or Convolute Fig. 93. Eccentric Rod and Strap Fig. 94. Anti-Dead Center for Foot-Lathes"
+title="Fig. 88. Helico-Volute Spring Fig. 89. Double Helico-Volute Fig. 90. Helical Spring Fig. 91. Single Volute Helix-Spring Fig. 92. Flat Spiral or Convolute Fig. 93. Eccentric Rod and Strap Fig. 94. Anti-Dead Center for Foot-Lathes"
+/> </a><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p><a href="#fig88">Fig. 88</a>. <span class="smcap">Helico-Volute Spring.</span>&mdash;This is a
+form of spring for tension purposes. The enlarged cross-section of the coil
+in its middle portion, with the ends tapering down to the eyes, provides a
+means whereby the pull is transferred from the smaller to the larger
+portions, without producing a great breaking strain near the ends.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig88">Fig. 89</a>. <span class="smcap">Double Helico-Volute.</span>&mdash;This form,
+so far as the outlines are considered, is the opposite of <a href="#fig88">Fig. 88</a>. A
+compression spring of this kind has a very wide range of movement.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig88">Fig. 90</a>. <span class="smcap">Helical Spring.</span>&mdash;This form of
+coil, uniform from end to end, is usually made of metal which is square in
+cross-section, and used where it is required for heavy purposes</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">p. 78</a></span></div>
+
+<p><a href="#fig88">Fig. 91</a>. <span class="smcap">Single Volute Helix-Spring.</span>&mdash;This
+is also used for compression, intended where tremendous weights or
+resistances are to be overcome, and when the range of movement is small.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig88">Fig. 92</a>. <span class="smcap">Flat Spiral, or Convolute.</span>&mdash;This
+is for small machines. It is the familiar form used in watches owing to its
+delicate structure, and it is admirably adapted to yield to the rocking
+motion of an arbor.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig88">Fig. 93</a>. <span class="smcap">Eccentric Rod and Strap.</span>&mdash;A
+simple and convenient form of structure, intended to furnish a reciprocating
+motion where a crank is not available. An illustration of its use is shown on
+certain types of steam engine to operate the valves.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig88">Fig. 94</a>. <span class="smcap">Anti-Dead Center for
+Foot-Lathes.</span>&mdash;A flat, spiral spring (A), with its coiled end
+attached to firm support (B), has its other end pivotally attached to the
+crank-pin (C), the tension of the spring being such that when the lathe stops
+the crack-pin will always be at one side of the dead-center, thus enabling
+the operator to start the machine by merely pressing the foot downwardly on
+the treadle (D)</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">p.
+79</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>CHAPTER VII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS</h3>
+
+<p>A workman is able to select the right metals because he knows that each
+has some peculiar property which is best adapted for his particular use.
+These with their meaning will now be explained.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Elasticity.</span>&mdash;This exists in metals in
+three distinct ways: First, in the form of <i>traction</i>. Hang a weight on
+a wire and it will stretch a certain amount. When the weight is removed the
+wire shrinks back to its original length.</p>
+
+<p>Second: If the weight on the wire is rotated, so as to twist it, and the
+hand is taken from the weight, it will untwist itself, and go back to its
+original position. This is called <i>torsion</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Third: A piece of metal may be coiled up like a watch spring, or bent like
+a carriage spring, and it will yield when pressure is applied. This is called
+<i>flexure</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Certain kinds of steel have these qualities in a high degree.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tenacity.</span>&mdash;This is a term used to express
+the resistance which the body opposes to the separation of its parts. It is
+determined by forming<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">p.
+80</a></span> the metal into a wire, and hanging on weights, to find how much
+will be required to break it. If we have two wires, the first with a
+transverse area only one-quarter that of the second, and the first breaks at
+25 pounds, while the second breaks at 50 pounds, the tenacity of the first is
+twice as great as that of the second.</p>
+
+<p>To the boy who understands simple ratio in mathematics, the problem would
+be like this:</p>
+
+<p>25 × 4 : 50 × 1, or as 2 : 1.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Most Tenacious Metal.</span>&mdash;Steel has the
+greatest tenacity of all metals, and lead the least. In proportion to weight,
+however, there are many substances which have this property in a higher
+degree. Cotton fibers will support millions of times their own weight.</p>
+
+<p>There is one peculiar thing, that tenacity varies with the form of the
+body. A solid cylindrical body has a greater strength than a square one of
+the same size; and a hollow cylinder more tenacity than a solid one. This
+principle is well known in the bones of animals, in the feathers of birds,
+and in the stems of many plants.</p>
+
+<p>In almost every metal tenacity diminishes as the temperature increases.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ductility.</span>&mdash;This is a property whereby a
+metal may be drawn out to form a wire. Some metals,<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_81" id="Page_81">p. 81</a></span> like cast iron, have absolutely
+no ductility. The metal which possesses this property to the highest degree,
+is platinum. Wires of this metal have been drawn out so fine that over 30,000
+of them laid side by side would measure only one inch across, and a mile of
+such wire would weigh only a grain, or one seven-thousandth of a pound.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Malleability.</span>&mdash;This is considered a
+modification of ductility. Any metal which can be beaten out, as with a
+hammer, or flattened into sheets with rollers, is considered malleable. Gold
+possesses this property to the highest degree. It has been beaten into leaves
+one three-hundred-thousandth of an inch thick.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hardness.</span>&mdash;This is the resistance which
+bodies offer to being scratched by others. As an example, the diamond has the
+capacity to scratch all, but cannot be scratched by any other.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alloys.</span>&mdash;Alloys, that is a combination of
+two or more metals, are harder than the pure metals, and for this reason
+jewelry, and coins, are usually alloyed.</p>
+
+<p>The resistance of a body to compression does not depend upon its hardness.
+Strike a diamond with a hammer and it flies to pieces, but wood does not. One
+is brittle and the other is tough.</p>
+
+<p>The machinist can utilize this property by understanding that velocity
+enables a soft material<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82"
+id="Page_82">p. 82</a></span> to cut a harder one. Thus, a wrought iron disc
+rotating rapidly, will cut such hard substances as agate or quartz.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Resistance.</span>&mdash;All metals offer more or less
+resistance to the flow of an electric current. Silver offers the least
+resistance, and German silver the greatest. Temperature also affects the
+flow. It passes more easily over a cold than a warm conductor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Persistence.</span>&mdash;All metals on receiving
+heat, will retain it for a certain length of time, and will finally cool down
+to the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. Some, like aluminum, retain
+it for a long time; others, as iron, will give it off quickly.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Conductivity.</span>&mdash;All metals will conduct
+heat and cold, as well as electricity. If one end of a metal bar is heated,
+the heat creeps along to the other end until it has the same temperature
+throughout. This is called <i>equalization</i>.</p>
+
+<p>If a heated bar is placed in contact with another, the effect is to
+increase the temperature of the cold bar and lower that of the warm bar. This
+is called <i>reciprocity</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Molecular Forces.</span>&mdash;<i>Molecular</i>
+attraction is a force which acts in such a way as to bring all the particles
+of a body together. It acts in three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83"
+id="Page_83">p. 83</a></span> ways, dependent on the particular conditions
+which exist.</p>
+
+<p>First: <i>Cohesion</i>. This exists between molecules which are of the
+same kind, as for instance, iron. Cohesion of the particles is very strong in
+solids, much weaker in liquids, and scarcely exists at all between the
+particles in gases.</p>
+
+<p>Second: <i>Adhesion</i> is that property which exists between the surfaces
+of bodies in contact. If two flat surfaces are pressed together, as for
+instance, two perfectly smooth and flat pieces of lead, they will adhere. If,
+for instance, oil should be put on the surfaces, before putting them
+together, they would adhere so firmly that it would be difficult to pull them
+apart.</p>
+
+<p>Third: <i>Affinity</i>. This is another peculiarity about materials. Thus,
+while cohesion binds together the molecules of water, it is chemical affinity
+which unites two elements, like hydrogen and oxygen, of which water is
+composed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Porosity.</span>&mdash;All matter has little hollows
+or spaces between the molecules. You know what this is in the case of a
+sponge, or pumice stone. Certain metals have the pores so small that it is
+difficult to see them except with a very powerful glass. Under great pressure
+water can be forced through the pores of metals, as has been done in<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">p. 84</a></span> the case of
+gold. Water also is porous, but the spaces between the molecules are very
+small.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Compressibility.</span>&mdash;It follows from the
+foregoing statement, that if there are little interstices between the
+molecules, the various bodies can be compressed together. This can be done in
+varying degrees with all solids, but liquids, generally, have little
+compressibility. Gases are readily reduced in volume by compression.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Elasticity.</span>&mdash;This is a property by virtue
+of which a body resumes its original form when compressed. India rubber,
+ivory and glass are examples of elasticity; whereas, lead and clay do not
+possess this property. Air is the most elastic of all substances.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Inertia.</span>&mdash;This is a property of matter by
+virtue of which it cannot of itself change its state of motion or of rest.</p>
+
+<p>Newton's first law of motion is, in substance, that matter at rest will
+eternally remain at rest, and matter in motion will forever continue in
+motion, unless acted on by some external force.</p>
+
+<p>A rider is carried over the head of a horse when the latter suddenly
+stops. This illustrates the inertia of movement. A stone at rest will always
+remain in that condition unless moved by some force. That shows the inertia
+of rest.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Momentum.</span>&mdash;This is the term to designate
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">p. 85</a></span>
+quantity of motion in a body. This quantity varies and is dependent on the
+mass, together with the velocity. A fly wheel is a good example. It continues
+to move after the impelling force ceases; and a metal wheel has greater
+momentum than a wooden wheel at the same speed, owing to its greater mass.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, the wooden wheel is speeded up sufficiently it may have the
+same momentum as the metal one.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Weight.</span>&mdash;All substances have what is
+called <i>weight</i>. This means that everything is attracted toward the
+earth by the force of gravity. Gravity, however, is different from weight.
+All substances attract each other; not only in the direction of the center of
+the earth, but laterally, as well.</p>
+
+<p>Weight, therefore, has reference to the pull of an object toward the
+earth; and gravity to that influence which all matter has for each other
+independently of the direction.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Centripetal Force.</span>&mdash;This attraction of the
+earth, which gives articles the property of weight, is termed centripetal
+force&mdash;that is, the drawing in of a body.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Centrifugal Force.</span>&mdash;The direct opposite of
+centripetal, is centrifugal force, which tends to<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_86" id="Page_86">p. 86</a></span> throw outwardly. Dirt flying
+from a rapidly moving wheel illustrates this.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Capillary Attraction.</span>&mdash;There is a peculiar
+property in liquids, which deserves attention, and should be understood, and
+that is the name given to the tendency of liquids to rise in fine tubes.</p>
+
+<p>It is stated that water will always find its level. While this is true, we
+have an instance where, owing to the presence of a solid, made in a peculiar
+form, causes the liquid, within, to rise up far beyond the level of the
+water.</p>
+
+<p>This may be illustrated by three tubes of different internal diameters.
+The liquid rises up higher in the second than in the first, and still higher
+in the third than in the second. The smaller the tube the greater the height
+of the liquid.</p>
+
+<p>This is called <i>capillary attraction</i>, the word capillary meaning a
+hair. The phenomena is best observed when seen in tubes which are as fine as
+hairs. The liquid has an affinity for the metal, and creeps up the inside,
+and the distance it will thus move depends on the size of the tube.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Sap of Trees.</span>&mdash;The sap of trees goes
+upwardly, not because the tree is alive, but due to this property in the
+contact of liquids with a solid. It is exactly on the same principle that if
+the end of a piece of blotting paper is immersed<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_87" id="Page_87">p. 87</a></span> in water, the latter will creep
+up and spread over the entire surface of the sheet.</p>
+
+<p>In like manner, oil moves upwardly in a wick, and will keep on doing so,
+until the lighted wick is extinguished, when the flow ceases. When it is
+again lighted the oil again flows, as before.</p>
+
+<p>If it were not for this principle of capillary attraction, it would be
+difficult to form a bubble of air in a spirit level. You can readily see how
+the liquid at each end of the air bubble rounds it off, as though it tried to
+surround it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sound.</span>&mdash;Sound is caused by vibration, and
+it would be impossible to convey it without an elastic medium of some
+kind.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acoustics</i> is a branch of physics which treats of sounds. It is
+distinguished from music which has reference to the particular kinds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sounds</i> are distinguished from <i>noises</i>. The latter are
+discordant and abrupt vibrations, whereas the former are regular and
+continuous.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sound Mediums.</span>&mdash;- Gases, vapors, liquids
+and solids transmit vibrations, but liquids and solids propagate with greater
+velocity than gases.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vibration.</span>&mdash;A vibration is the moving to
+and fro of the molecules in a body, and the greater their movement the more
+intense is the sound. The intensity of the sound is affected by the density
+of the atmosphere, and the movement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88"
+id="Page_88">p. 88</a></span> of the winds also changes its power of
+transmission.</p>
+
+<p>Sound is also made more intense if a sonorous body is near its source.
+This is taken advantage of in musical instruments, where a sounding-board is
+used, as in the case of the piano, and in the violin, which has a thin shell
+as a body for holding the strings.</p>
+
+<p>Another curious thing is shown in the speaking tube, where the sound waves
+are confined, so that they are carried along in one line, and as they are not
+interfered with will transmit the vibrations to great distances.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Velocity of Sound.</span>&mdash;The temperature of the
+air has also an effect on the rate of transmission, but for general purposes
+a temperature of 62 degrees has been taken as the standard. The movement is
+shown to be about 50 miles in 4 minutes, or at the rate of 1,120 feet per
+second.</p>
+
+<p>In water, however, the speed is four times greater; and in iron nearly
+fifteen times greater. Soft earth is a poor conductor, while rock and solid
+earth convey very readily. Placing the ear on a railway track will give the
+vibrations of a moving train miles before it can be heard through the air.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sound Reflections.</span>&mdash;Sound waves move
+outwardly from the object in the form of wave-like<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_89" id="Page_89">p. 89</a></span> rings, but those concentric
+rings, as they are called, may be interrupted at various points by obstacles.
+When that is the case the sound is buffeted back, producing what is called
+echoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Resonance.</span>&mdash;Materials have a quality that
+produces a very useful result, called <i>resonance</i>, and it is one of the
+things that gives added effect to a speaker's voice in a hall, where there is
+a constant succession of echoes. A wall distant from the speaker about 55
+feet, produces an almost instantaneous reflection of the sound, and at double
+that measurement the effect is still stronger. When the distance is too short
+for the reflecting sound to be heard, we have <i>resonance</i>. It enriches
+the sound of the voice, and gives a finer quality to musical instruments.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Echoes.</span>&mdash;When sounds are heard after the
+originals are emitted they tend to confusion, and the quality of resonance is
+lost. There are places where echoes are repeated many times. In the chateau
+of Simonetta, Italy, a sound will be repeated thirty times.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Speaking Trumpet.</span>&mdash;This instrument is an
+example of the use of reflection. It is merely a bell-shaped, or flaring
+body, the large end of which is directed to the audience. The voice talking
+into the small end is directed forwardly, and is reflected from the sides,
+and its resonance also enables the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90"
+id="Page_90">p. 90</a></span> vibrations to carry farther than without the
+use of the solid part of the instrument.</p>
+
+<p>The ear trumpet is an illustration of a sound-collecting device, the waves
+being brought together by reflection.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Stethoscope.</span>&mdash;This is an instrument
+used by physicians, and it is so delicate that the movements of the organs of
+the body can be heard with great distinctness. It merely collects the
+vibrations, and transmits them to the ears by the small tubes which are
+connected with the collecting bell.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Vitascope.</span>&mdash;- Numerous instruments
+have been devised to determine the rate of vibration of different materials
+and structures, the most important being the <i>vitascope</i>, which has a
+revolvable cylinder, blackened with soot, and this being rotated at a certain
+speed, the stylus, which is attached to the vibrating body, in contact with
+the cylinder, will show the number per second, as well as the particular
+character of each oscillation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Phonautograph.</span>&mdash;This instrument is
+used to register the vibration of wind instruments, as well as the human
+voice, and the particular forms of the vibrations are traced on a cylinder,
+the tracing stylus being attached to a thin vibrating membrane which is
+affected by the voice or instrument.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Phonograph.</span>&mdash;This instrument is the
+outgrowth of the stylus forms of the apparatus de<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_91" id="Page_91">p. 91</a></span>scribed, but in this case the
+stylus, or needle, is fixed to a metallic diaphragm, and its point makes an
+impression on suitable material placed on the outside of a revolvable
+cylinder or disc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Light.</span>-Light is the agent which excites the
+sensation of vision in the eye. Various theories have been advanced by
+scientists to account for the phenomenon, and the two most noted views are
+the <i>corpuscular</i>, promulgated by Sir Isaac Newton, and the
+<i>undulatory</i>, enunciated by Huygens and Euler.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>corpuscular</i> theory conceives that light is a substance of
+exceedingly light particles which are shot forth with immense velocity. The
+<i>undulatory</i> theory, now generally accepted, maintains that light is
+carried by vibrations in ether. Ether is a subtle elastic medium which fills
+all space.</p>
+
+<p><i>Luminous</i> bodies are those like the sun, which emit light. Rays may
+<i>diverge</i>, that is, spread out; <i>converge</i>, or point toward each
+other; or they may be <i>parallel</i> with each other.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Velocity of Light.</span>&mdash;Light moves at the
+rate of about 186,000 miles a second. As the sun is about 94,000,000 miles
+from the earth, it takes 8&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span> minutes for the light of the sun to reach us.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Reflection.</span>&mdash;One of the most important
+things connected with light is that of reflection. It is that quality which
+is utilized in telescopes, micro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92"
+id="Page_92">p. 92</a></span>scopes, mirrors, heliograph signaling and other
+like apparatus and uses. The underlying principle is, that a ray is
+reflected, or thrown back from a mirror at the same angle as that which
+produces the light.</p>
+
+<p>When the rays of the sun, which are, of course, parallel, strike a concave
+mirror, the reflecting rays are converged; and when the rays strike a convex
+mirror they diverge. In this way the principle is employed in reflecting
+telescopes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Refraction.</span>&mdash;This is the peculiar action
+of light in passing through substances. If a ray passes through water at an
+angle to the surface the ray will bend downwardly in passing through, and
+then again pass on in a straight line. This will be noticed if a pencil is
+stood in a glass of water at an angle, when it will appear bent.</p>
+
+<p>Refraction is that which enables light to be divided up, or analyzed. In
+this way white light from the sun is shown to be composed of seven principal
+colors.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Colors.</span>&mdash;If the light is passed through a
+prism, which is a triangularly shaped piece of glass, the rays on emerging
+will diverge from each other, and when they fall on a wall or screen the
+colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet are shown</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">p. 93</a></span></div>
+
+<p>The reason for this is that the ray in passing through the prism has the
+different colors in it refract at different angles, the violet bending more
+than the red.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Spectroscope.</span>&mdash;The ability to make
+what is thus called a <i>spectrum</i>, brought forth one of the most
+wonderful instruments ever devised by man. If any metal, or material, is
+fused, or put in such a condition that a ray of light can be obtained from
+it, and this light is passed through a prism, it will be found that each
+substance has its own peculiar divisions and arrangements of colors.</p>
+
+<p>In this way substances are determined by what is called <i>spectrum
+analysis</i>, and it is by means of this instrument that the composition of
+the sun, and the planets and fixed stars are determined.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Rainbow.</span>&mdash;The rainbow is one of the
+effects of refraction, as the light, striking the little globular particles
+of water suspended in the air, produces a breaking up of the white light into
+its component colors, and the sky serves as a background for viewing the
+analysis thus made.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heat.</span>&mdash;It is now conclusively proven, that
+heat, like light, magnetism and electricity, is merely a mode of motion.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>mechanical</i> theory of heat may be shown by rubbing together
+several bodies. Heat expands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94"
+id="Page_94">p. 94</a></span> all substances, except ice, and in expanding
+develops an enormous force.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Expansion.</span>&mdash;In like manner liquids expand
+with heat. The power of mercury in expanding may be understood when it is
+stated that a pressure of 10,000 pounds would be required to prevent the
+expansion of mercury, when heated simply 10 degrees.</p>
+
+<p>Gases also expand. While water, and the different solids, all have their
+particular units of expansion, it is not so with gases, as all have the same
+coefficient</p>
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">p.
+95</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>HOW DRAUGHTING BECOMES A VALUABLE AID</h3>
+
+<p>The ability to read drawings is a necessary part of the boy's education.
+To know how to use the tools, is still more important. In conveying an idea
+about a piece of mechanism, a sketch is given. Now, the sketch may be
+readable in itself, requiring no explanation, or it may be of such a nature
+that it will necessitate some written description.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<a id="fig95" name="fig95"></a><a href="#Page_95"><img
+src="images/illus-fig95.png" width="350" height="113"
+alt="Fig. 95. Plain Circle" title="Fig. 95. Plain Circle" /> </a> <span
+class="italcaption">Fig. 95. Plain Circle</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lines in Drawing.</span>&mdash;- In drawing, lines
+have a definite meaning. A plain circular line, like <a href="#fig95">Fig. 95</a>, when drawn in
+that way, conveys three meanings: It may represent a rim, or a bent piece of
+wire; it may illustrate a disk; or, it may convey the idea of a ball.</p>
+
+<p>Suppose we develop them to express the three forms accurately. <a href="#fig96">Fig. 96</a>, by
+merely adding an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">p.
+96</a></span> interior line, shows that it is a rim. There can be no further
+doubt about that expression.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig96">Fig. 97</a> shows a single line, but it will now be noticed that the line is
+thickened at the lower right-hand side, and from this you can readily infer
+that it is a disk.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shading.</span>&mdash;Fig. 98, by having a few shaded
+lines on the right and lower side, makes it have the appearance of a globe or
+a convex surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 342px;">
+<a id="fig96" name="fig96"></a><a href="#Page_96"><img
+src="images/illus-fig96-98.png" width="342" height="128"
+alt="Figs. 96-98. Ring - Raised Surface - Sphere"
+title="Figs. 96-98. Ring - Raised Surface - Sphere" /> </a> <span
+class="italcaption">Figs. 96-98.<br />Ring - Raised Surface - Sphere</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Shading or thickening the lines also gives another expression to the same
+circular line.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#fig99">Fig. 99</a>, if the upper and left-hand side of the circle is heavily
+shaded, it shows that the area within the circle is depressed, instead of
+being raised.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Direction of Shade.</span>&mdash;On the other hand, if
+the shading lines, as in <a href="#fig99">Fig. 100</a>, are at the upper left-hand side, then the
+mind at once grasps the idea of a concave surface.</p>
+
+<p>The first thing, therefore, to keep in mind, is this<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">p. 97</a></span> fact: That in
+all mechanical drawing, the light is supposed to shine down from the upper
+left-hand corner and that, as a result, the lower vertical line, as well as
+the extreme right-hand vertical line, casts the shadows, and should,
+therefore, be made heavier than the upper horizontal, and the left-hand
+vertical lines.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 342px;">
+<a id="fig99" name="fig99"></a><a href="#Page_97"><img
+src="images/illus-fig99-100.png" width="342" height="148"
+alt="Fig. 99. Depressed Surface  Fig. 100. Concave"
+title="Fig. 99. Depressed Surface  Fig. 100. Concave" /> </a> <span
+class="italcaption">Figs. 99-100.<br />Depressed Surface - Concave</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are exceptions to this rule, which will be readily understood by
+following out the illustrations in the order given below.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Perspectives.</span>&mdash;The utility of the heavy
+lines will be more apparent when drawing square, rectangular, or triangular
+objects.</p>
+
+<p>Let us take <a href="#fig101">Fig. 101</a>, which appears to be the perspective of a cube.
+Notice that all lines are of the same thickness. When the sketch was first
+brought to me I thought it was a cube; but the explanation which followed,
+showed that the man who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98"
+id="Page_98">p. 98</a></span> made the sketch had an entirely different
+meaning.</p>
+
+<p>He had intended to convey to my mind the idea of three pieces, A, B, C, of
+metal, of equal size, joined together so as to form a triangularly shaped
+pocket as shown in <a href="#fig101">Fig. 101</a>. The addition of the inner lines, like D, quickly
+dispelled the suggestion of the cube.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 335px;">
+<a id="fig101" name="fig101"></a><a href="#Page_98"><img
+src="images/illus-fig101-104.png" width="335" height="257"
+alt="Figs. 101-104. Forms of Cubical Outlines"
+title="Figs. 101-104. Forms of Cubical Outlines" /> </a> <span
+class="italcaption">Figs. 101-104. Forms of Cubical Outlines</span><span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></div>
+
+<p>"But," he remarked, "I want to use the thinnest metal, like sheets of tin;
+and you show them thick by adding the inner lines."</p>
+
+<p>Such being the case, if we did not want to show<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_99" id="Page_99">p. 99</a></span> thickness as its structural
+form, we had to do it by making the lines themselves and the shading give
+that structural idea. This was done by using the single lines, as in <a href="#fig101">Fig. 103</a>,
+and by a slight shading of the pieces A, B, C.</p>
+
+<table border="0" width="390" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="105-106">
+  <tbody valign="top">
+    <tr>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig105" name="fig105"></a><a href="#Page_99"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig105.png" width="159" height="207"
+        alt="Fig. 105. Shading Edges" title="Fig. 105. Shading Edges" /></a></td>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig106" name="fig106"></a><a href="#Page_99"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig106.png" width="167" height="207"
+        alt="Fig. 106. Shading Edges" title="Fig. 106. Shading Edges" /></a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 105.</span></td>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 106.</span></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td colspan="2" class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Shading Edges</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Most Pronounced Lines.</span>&mdash;If it had been
+a cube, or a solid block, the corners nearest the eye would have been most
+pronounced, as in <a href="#fig101">Fig. 104</a>, and the side next to the observer would have been
+darkest.</p>
+
+<p>This question of light and shadow is what expresses the surface formation
+of every drawing. Simple strokes form outlines of the object, but their
+thickness, and the shading, show the character enclosed by the lines.<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">p. 100</a></span> <span
+class="smcap">Direction of Light.</span>&mdash;Now, as stated, the casting of
+the shadow downward from the upper left-hand corner makes the last line over
+which it passes the thickest, and in <a href="#fig105">Figs. 105</a> and  <a href="#fig106">106</a> they are not the
+extreme lines at the bottom and at the right side, because of the close
+parallel lines.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#fig109">Figs. 109</a> and  <a href="#fig110">110</a> the blades superposed on the other are very thin, and
+the result is the lines at the right side and bottom are made much
+heavier.</p>
+
+<table border="0" width="390" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="107-108">
+  <tbody valign="top">
+    <tr>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig107" name="fig107"></a><a href="#Page_100"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig107.png" width="171" height="145"
+        alt="Fig. 107. Illustrating Heavy Lines" title="Fig. 107. Illustrating Heavy Lines" /></a></td>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig108" name="fig108"></a><a href="#Page_100"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig108.png" width="165" height="145"
+        alt="Fig. 108. Illustrating Heavy Lines" title="Fig. 108. Illustrating Heavy Lines" /></a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 107.</span></td>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 108.</span></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td colspan="2" class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Illustrating Heavy Lines</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>This is more fully shown in <a href="#fig107">Figs. 107</a> and <a href="#fig108">108</a>. Notice the marked
+difference between the two figures, both of which show the same set of
+pulleys, and the last figure, by merely having the lower and the right-hand
+lines of each pulley heavy, changes the character of the representation, and
+tells much more clearly what the draughtsman sought to convey.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Scale Drawings.</span>&mdash;All drawings are made to
+a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">p. 101</a></span>
+scale where the article is large and cannot be indicated the exact size,
+using parts of an inch to represent inches; and parts of a foot to represent
+feet.</p>
+
+<p>In order to reduce a drawing where a foot is the unit, it is always best
+to use one-and-a-half inches, or twelve-eighths of an inch, as the basis. In
+this way each eighth of an inch represents an inch. If the drawing should be
+made larger, then use three inches, and in that way each inch would be
+one-quarter of an inch.</p>
+
+<table border="0" width="390" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="109-110">
+  <tbody valign="top">
+    <tr>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig109" name="fig109"></a><a href="#Page_101"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig109.png" width="198" height="202"
+        alt="Fig. 109. Illustrating Heavy Lines" title="Fig. 109. Illustrating Heavy Lines" /></a></td>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig110" name="fig110"></a><a href="#Page_101"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig110.png" width="178" height="217"
+        alt="Fig. 110. Illustrating Heavy Lines" title="Fig. 110. Illustrating Heavy Lines" /></a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 109.</span></td>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 110.</span></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td colspan="2" class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Illustrating Heavy Lines</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>The drawing should then have marked, in some conspicuous place, the scale,
+like the following: "Scale, 1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span>" = 1'"; or, "Scale 3" = 1'."</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Degree, and What it Means.</span>&mdash;A degree is
+not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">p. 102</a></span> a
+measurement. The word is used to designate an interval, a position, or an
+angle. Every circle has 360 degrees, and when a certain degree is mentioned,
+it means a certain angle from what is called a <i>base line</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 339px;">
+<a id="fig111" name="fig111"></a><a href="#Page_102">
+<img src="images/illus-fig111.png" width="339" height="242"
+alt="Fig. 111. Illustrating Degrees" title="Fig. 111. Illustrating Degrees" />
+</a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 111. Illustrating Degrees</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Look at <a href="#fig111">Fig. 111</a>. This has a vertical line A, and a horizontal line B. The
+circle is thus divided into four parts, and where these lines A, B, cross the
+circle are the cardinal points. Each of the four parts is called a quadrant,
+and each quadrant has 90 degrees.</p>
+
+<p>Any line, like C, which is halfway between A and B, is 45 degrees. Halfway
+between A and C,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">p.
+103</a></span> or between B and C, like the line D, is 22&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span> degrees.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Memorizing Angles.</span>&mdash;It is well to try and
+remember these lines by fixing the angles in the memory. A good plan is to
+divide any of the quadrants into thirds, as shown by the points E, F, and
+then remember that E is 30 degrees from the horizontal line B, and that F is
+60 degrees. Or, you might say that F is 30 degrees from the vertical line A,
+and E 60 degrees from A. Either would be correct.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 349px;">
+<a id="fig112" name="fig112"></a><a href="#Page_103">
+<img src="images/illus-fig112.png" width="349" height="209" alt="Fig. 112. Section Lining" title="Fig. 112. Section Lining" />
+</a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 112. Section Lining</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section Lining.</span>&mdash;In representing many
+parts of a machine, or article, it is necessary to show the parts cut off,
+which must be illustrated by what is called "section lining." Adjacent parts
+should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">p.
+104</a></span> have the section lines running at right angles to each other,
+and always at 45 degrees.</p>
+
+<p>Look at the outside and then the inside views of <a href="#fig112">Fig. 112</a>, and you will
+see how the contiguous parts have the angles at right angles, and clearly
+illustrate how every part of the wrench is made. Skill in depicting an
+article, for the purpose of constructing it from the drawing, will make the
+actual work on the bench and lathe an easy one.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 343px;">
+<a id="fig113" name="fig113"></a><a href="#Page_104">
+<img src="images/illus-fig113.png" width="343" height="277" alt="Fig. 113. Drawing an Ellipse" title="Fig. 113. Drawing an Ellipse" />
+</a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 113. Drawing an Ellipse</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Making Ellipses and Irregular
+Curves.</span>&mdash;This is the hardest thing to do with drawing tools. A
+properly constructed elliptical figure is difficult,<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_105" id="Page_105">p. 105</a></span> principally, because two
+different sized curves are required, and the pen runs from one curve into the
+other. If the two curves meet at the wrong place, you may be sure you will
+have a distorted ellipse.</p>
+
+<p>Follow the directions given in connection with <a href="#fig113">Fig. 113</a>, and it will give
+you a good idea of merging the two lines.</p>
+
+<p>First. Draw a horizontal line, A, which is in the direction of the major
+axis of the ellipse&mdash;that is, the longest distance across. The narrow
+part of the ellipse is called the minor axis.</p>
+
+<p>Second. Draw a perpendicular line, B, which we will call the center of the
+ellipse, where it crosses the line A. This point must not be confounded with
+the <i>focus</i>. In a circle the focus is the exact center of the ring, but
+there is no such thing in an ellipse. Instead, there are two focal points,
+called the <i>foci</i>, as you will see presently.</p>
+
+<p>Third. Step off two points or marking places, as we shall term them,
+equidistant from the line B, and marked C, C. These marks will then represent
+the diameter of the ellipse across its major axis.</p>
+
+<p>Fourth. We must now get the diameter of the minor axis, along the line B.
+This distance will depend on the perspective you have of the figure. If you
+look at a disk at an angle of about 30 degrees it will be half of the
+distance across the major axis</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">p.
+106</a></span></div>
+
+<p>So you may understand this examine <a href="#fig114">Fig. 114</a>. The first sketch shows the
+eye looking directly at the disk 1. In the second sketch the disk is at 30
+degrees, and now the lines 2 2, from the eye, indicate that it is just half
+the width that it was when the lines 3 3 were projected. The marks D D,
+therefore, indicate the distance across the minor axis in <a href="#fig113">Fig. 113</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 347px;">
+<a id="fig114" name="fig114"></a><a href="#Page_106">
+<img src="images/illus-fig114.png" width="347" height="102" alt="Fig. 114. Perspection in Angles" title="Fig. 114. Perspection in Angles" />
+</a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 114. Perspection in Angles</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fifth. We must now find the focal points of the ellipse. If the line A on
+each side of the cross line B is divided into four parts, the outer marks E
+may be used for the foci, and will be the places where the point of the
+compass, or bow pen, is to be placed.</p>
+
+<p>Sixth. Describe a circle F, so it passes through the mark C, and move the
+point of the compass to the center of the ellipse, at the star, and describe
+a circle line G, from the mark C to the line B. This will give a centering
+point H. Then draw a line I from H to E, and extend it through the circle
+F.</p>
+
+<p>Seventh. If the point of the compass is now put<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_107" id="Page_107">p. 107</a></span> at H, and the pencil or pen
+on the circle line F, the curve J can be drawn, so the latter curve and the
+curve F will thus merge perfectly at the line I.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Focal Points.</span>&mdash;The focal points can be
+selected at any arbitrary point, between C and the line B, and the point H
+may be moved closer to or farther away from the line A, and you will succeed
+in making the ellipse correct, if you observe one thing, namely: The line I,
+which must always run from H to E, and intersects the circle F, is the
+starting or the ending point for the small curve F or the large circle J.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 343px;">
+<a id="fig115" name="fig115"></a><a href="#Page_107">
+<img src="images/illus-fig115-117.png" width="343" height="126" alt="Figs. 115-117. Perspectives of Cubes"
+title="Figs. 115-117. Perspectives of Cubes" />
+</a>
+<span class="italcaption">Figs. 115-117. Perspectives of Cubes</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Isometric and Perspective.</span>&mdash;A figure may
+be drawn so as to show an isometric or a perspective view. Thus, a cube can
+be drawn so as to make an isometric figure, as in <a href="#fig115">Fig. 115</a>, where the three
+sides are equal to each other.</p>
+
+<p>Isometric means a method of drawing any object in such a manner that the
+height, length and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">p.
+108</a></span> breadth may be shown in the proportion they really bear to
+each other. <a href="#fig115">Fig. 115</a> has the sides not only equal to each other, in
+appearance to the eye, but they have the same outlines and angles.</p>
+
+<p>Contrast this figure with <a href="#fig115">Figs. 116</a> and <a href="#fig115">117</a>.
+In <a href="#fig115">Fig. 116</a> two of the sides
+are equal in angles and outline; and in <a href="#fig115">Fig. 117</a> each side has a different
+outline, and different angles. Nevertheless, all the cubes are, in reality,
+of the same dimension.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Protractor.</span>&mdash;This is a most useful
+tool for the draughtsman. It enables the user to readily find any angle. <a href="#fig118">Fig. 118</a>
+shows an approved form of the tool for this purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 353px;">
+<a id="fig118" name="fig118"></a><a href="#Page_108">
+<img src="images/illus-fig118.png" width="353" height="230" alt="Fig. 118. Protractor. Section Lining Metals" title="Fig. 118. Protractor. Section Lining Metals" />
+</a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 118. <span class="u">Protractor</span>.<br /> Section Lining Metals</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Suggestions in Drawing.</span>&mdash;As in the use of
+all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">p. 109</a></span>
+other tools, so with the drawing instrument, it must be kept in proper order.
+If the points are too fine they will cut the paper; if too blunt the lines
+will be ragged. In whetting the points hold the pen at an angle of 12
+degrees. Don't make too long an angle or slope, and every time you sharpen
+hold it at the same angle, so that it is ground back, and not at the point
+only.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 345px;">
+<a id="fig119" name="fig119"></a><a href="#Page_109">
+<img src="images/illus-fig119.png" width="345" height="224"
+alt="Fig. 119. Using the Protractor." title="Fig. 119. Using the Protractor." />
+</a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 119. <span class="u">Using</span> <span class="u">the</span> <span class="u">Protractor</span>.</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Holding the Pen.</span>&mdash;The drawing pen should
+be held as nearly vertical as possible. Use the cleaning rag frequently. If
+the ink does not flow freely, after you have made a few strokes, as is
+frequently the case, gently press together the points. The least grit between
+the tines will cause an irregular flow</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">p.
+110</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Inks.</span>&mdash;As prepared liquid inks are now
+universally used, a few suggestions might be well concerning them. After half
+the bottle has been used, add a half teaspoonful of water, shake it well, and
+then strain it through a fine cotton cloth. This will remove all grit and
+lint that is sure to get into the bottle however carefully it may be
+corked.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 344px;">
+<a id="fig120" name="fig120"></a><a href="#Page_110">
+<img src="images/illus-fig120.png" width="344" height="167" alt="Fig. 120. Section Lining Metals" title="Fig. 120. Section Lining Metals" />
+</a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 120. Section Lining Metals</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tracing Cloth.</span>&mdash;It is preferable to use
+the dull side of the tracing cloth for the reasons that, as the cloth is
+rolled with the glossy side inside, the figure when drawn on the other side
+will be uppermost, and will thus lie flat; and on the other hand, the ink
+will take better on the dull side.</p>
+
+<p>If the ink does not flow freely, use chalk, fine pumice stone, or talc,
+and rub it in well with a clean cloth, and then wipe off well before
+beginning to trace</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">p.
+111</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Detail Paper.</span>&mdash;The detail paper, on which
+the drawing is first made in pencil, should show the figure accurately,
+particularly the points where the bow pen are to be used, as well as the
+measurement points for the straight lines.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">How to Proceed.</span>&mdash;Make the circles, curves,
+and irregular lines first, and then follow with the straight lines. Where the
+point of the circle pen must be used for a large number of lines, as, for
+instance, in shading, the smallest circles should be made first, and the
+largest circles last, because at every turn the centering hole becomes
+larger, and there is liability to make the circles more or less irregular.
+Such irregularity will not be so noticeable in the large curves as in the
+smaller ones.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Indicating Material by the Section
+Lines.</span>&mdash;In section lining different materials can be indicated by
+the character of the lines, shown in <a href="#fig120">Fig. 120</a>.</p>
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">p.
+112</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>CHAPTER IX<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>TREATMENT AND USE OF METALS</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Annealing.</span>&mdash;A very important part of the
+novice's education is a knowledge pertaining to the annealing of metals.
+Unlike the artisan in wood, who works the materials as he finds them, the
+machinist can, and, in fact, with many of the substances, must prepare them
+so they can be handled or cut by the tools.</p>
+
+<p>Annealing is one of the steps necessary with all cutting tools, and it is
+an absolute requirement with many metals for ordinary use, as well as for
+many other articles like glass. This is particularly true in the use of
+copper.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Toughness and Elasticity.</span>&mdash;It means the
+putting of metals in such a condition that they will not only be less
+brittle, but also tougher and more elastic. Many substances, like glass, must
+be annealed before they can be put in condition for use, as this material
+when first turned out is so brittle that the slightest touch will shatter it,
+so that it must be toughened.</p>
+
+<p>Malleable or wrought iron, if subjected to pressure, becomes brittle, and
+it is necessary to anneal it. Otherwise, if used, for instance, for
+boiler<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">p.
+113</a></span> plates, from the rolled sheets, it would stand but little
+pressure.</p>
+
+<p>The most immediate use the boy will have is the treatment of steel. He
+must learn the necessity of this process, and that of tempering, in all his
+cutting tools, and in the making of machinery where some parts are required
+to be constructed of very hard metal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Process.</span>&mdash;To anneal steel it must be
+heated to a bright cherry red and then gradually cooled down. For this
+purpose a bed of fine charcoal, or iron filings and lime, is prepared, in
+which the article is embedded, and permitted to remain until it is cold.</p>
+
+<p>There are many ways of doing the work, particularly in the use of
+substances which will the most readily give up their carbon to the tool.
+Yellow prussiate of potash is an excellent medium, and this is sprinkled over
+the cherry-heated article to be annealed. The process may be repeated several
+times.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tempering.</span>&mdash;This is the reverse of
+annealing as understood in the art. The word itself does not mean to
+"harden," but to put into some intermediate state. For instance, "tempered
+clay" means a clay which has been softened so it can be readily worked.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, a tempered steel tool is put into a condition where it
+is hardened, but this hard<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114"
+id="Page_114">p. 114</a></span>ness is also accompanied by another quality,
+namely, <i>toughness</i>. For this reason, the word <i>temper</i>, and not
+<i>hardness</i>, is referred to. A lathe tool, if merely hardened, would be
+useless for that purpose.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tempering Contrasted with Annealing.</span>&mdash;It
+will be observed that in annealing three things are necessary: First, heating
+to a certain temperature; second, cooling slowly; third, the particular
+manner of cooling it.</p>
+
+<p>In tempering, on the other hand, three things are also necessary:</p>
+
+<p>First: The heating temperature should be a dull red, which is less than
+the annealing heat.</p>
+
+<p>Second: Instead of cooling slowly the article tempered is dipped into a
+liquid which suddenly chills it.</p>
+
+<p>Third: The materials used vary, but if the article is plunged into an
+unguent made of mercury and bacon fat, it will impart a high degree of
+toughness and elasticity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Materials Used.</span>&mdash;Various oils, fats and
+rosins are also used, and some acids in water are also valuable for this
+purpose. Care should be taken to have sufficient amount of liquid in the bath
+so as not to evaporate it or heat it up too much when it receives the heated
+body.</p>
+
+<p>Different parts of certain articles require varying degrees of hardness,
+like the tangs of files. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115"
+id="Page_115">p. 115</a></span> cutting body of the file must be extremely
+hard, and rather brittle than tough. If the tang should be of the same
+hardness it would readily break.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gradual Tempering.</i>&mdash;To prevent this, some substance like soap
+suds may be used to cool down the tang, so that toughness without hardness is
+imparted.</p>
+
+<p>The tempering, or hardening, like the annealing process, may be repeated
+several times in succession, and at each successive heating the article is
+put at a higher temperature.</p>
+
+<p>If any part of a body, as, for instance, a hammerhead, should require
+hardening, it may be plunged into the liquid for a short distance only, and
+this will harden the pole or peon while leaving the other part of the head
+soft, or annealed.</p>
+
+<p>Glycerine is a good tempering substance, and to this may be added a small
+amount of sulphate of potash.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fluxing.</span>&mdash;The word <i>flux</i> means to
+fuse or to melt, or to put into a liquid state. The office of a flux is to
+facilitate the fusion of metals. But fluxes do two things. They not only aid
+the conversion of the metal into a fluid state, but also serve as a means for
+facilitating the unity of several metals which make up the alloy, and aid in
+uniting the parts of metals to be joined in the welding of parts</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">p.
+116</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Uniting Metals.</span>&mdash;Metals are united in
+three ways, where heat is used:</p>
+
+<p>First: By heating two or more of them to such a high temperature that they
+melt and form a compound, or an alloy, as it is called.</p>
+
+<p>Second: By heating up the points to be joined, and then lapping the pieces
+and hammering the parts. This is called forge work or welding.</p>
+
+<p>Third: By not heating the adjacent parts and using an easily fusible
+metal, which is heated up and run between the two, by means of a soldering
+iron.</p>
+
+<p>The foreign material used in the first is called a flux; in the second it
+is termed a welding compound; and in the third it is known as a soldering
+acid, or soldering fluid.</p>
+
+<p>The boy is not so much interested in the first process, from the
+standpoint of actual work, but it is necessary that he should have some
+understanding of it.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said, as to fluxes, generally, that they are intended to promote
+the fusion of the liquefying metals, and the elements used are the alkalis,
+such as borax, tartar, limestone, or fluor spar.</p>
+
+<p>These substances act as reducing or oxidizing agents. The most important
+are carbonate of soda, potash, and cyanide of potassium. Limestone is used as
+the flux in iron-smelting</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">p.
+117</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Welding Compounds</span>.&mdash;Elsewhere formulas are
+given of the compounds most desirable to use. It is obvious that the
+application of these substances on the heated surfaces, is not only to
+facilitate the heating, but to prepare the articles in such a manner that
+they will more readily adhere to each other.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oxidation</span>.&mdash;Oxidation is the thing to
+guard against in welding. The moment a piece of metal, heated to whiteness,
+is exposed, the air coats it with a film which is called an <i>oxide</i>. To
+remove this the welding compound is applied.</p>
+
+<p>The next office of the substance thus applied, is to serve as a medium for
+keeping the welding parts in a liquid condition as long as possible, and thus
+facilitate the unity of the joined elements.</p>
+
+<p>When the hammer beats the heated metals an additional increment of heat is
+imparted to the weld, due to the forcing together of the molecules of the
+iron, so that these two agencies, namely, the compound and the mechanical
+friction, act together to unite the particles of the metal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Soldering</span>.&mdash;Here another principle is
+involved, namely, the use of an intermediate material between two parts which
+are to be united. The surfaces to be brought together must be thoroughly
+cleaned, using such agents as will prevent the formation of oxides.</p>
+
+<p>The parts to be united may be of the same, or of<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_118" id="Page_118">p. 118</a></span> different materials, and it
+is in this particular that the workman must be able to make a choice of the
+solder most available, and whether hard or soft.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Soft Solder</span>.&mdash;A soft solder is usually
+employed where lead, tin, or alloys of lead, tin and bismuth are to be
+soldered. These solders are all fusible at a low temperature, and they do
+not, as a result, have great strength.</p>
+
+<p>Bismuth is a metal which lowers the fusing point of any alloy of which it
+forms a part, while lead makes the solder less fusible.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hard Solder</span>.&mdash;These are so distinguished
+because they require a temperature above the low red to fuse them. The metals
+which are alloyed for this purpose are copper, silver, brass, zinc and tin.
+Various alloys are thus made which require a high temperature to flux
+properly, and these are the ones to use in joining steel to steel, the parts
+to be united requiring an intense furnace heat.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Spelter</span>.&mdash;The alloy used for this purpose
+is termed "spelter," and brass, zinc and tin are its usual components. The
+hard solders are used for uniting brass, bronze, copper, and iron.</p>
+
+<p>Whether soft or hard solder is used, it is obvious that it must melt at a
+lower temperature than the parts which are to be joined together.</p>
+
+<p>There is one peculiarity with respect to alloys:<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_119" id="Page_119">p. 119</a></span> They melt at a lower
+temperature than either of the metals forming the alloys.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Soldering Acid</span>.&mdash;Before beginning the work
+of soldering, the parts must be cleaned by filing or sandpapering, and coated
+with an acid which neutralizes the oxygen of the air.</p>
+
+<p>This is usually muriatic acid, of which use, say, one quart and into this
+drop small pieces of zinc. This will effervesce during the time the acid is
+dissolving the zinc. When the boiling motion ceases, the liquid may be
+strained, or the dark pieces removed.</p>
+
+<p>The next step is to dissolve two ounces of sal ammoniac in a third of a
+pint of water, and in another vessel dissolve an ounce of chloride of tin.</p>
+
+<p>Then mix the three solutions, and this can be placed in a bottle, or
+earthen jar or vessel, and it will keep indefinitely.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Soldering Iron</span>.&mdash;A large iron is
+always better than a small one, particularly for the reason that it will
+retain its heat better. This should always be kept tinned, which can be done
+by heating and plunging it into the soldering solution, and the solder will
+then adhere to the iron and cover the point, so that when the actual
+soldering takes place the solder will not creep away from the tool.</p>
+
+<p>By a little care and attention to these details, the work of uniting
+metals will be a pleasure. It is so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120"
+id="Page_120">p. 120</a></span> often the case, however, that the apparatus
+for doing this work is neglected in a shop; the acid is allowed to become
+dirty and full or foreign matter, and the different parts separated</p>
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">p.
+121</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="X" id="X"></a>CHAPTER X<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>ON GEARING AND HOW ORDERED</h3>
+
+<p>The technical name for gears, the manner of measuring them, their pitch
+and like terms, are most confusing to the novice. As an aid to the
+understanding on this subject, the wheels are illustrated, showing the
+application of these terms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Spur and Pinion</span>.&mdash;When a gear is ordered a
+specification is necessary. The manufacturer will know what you mean if you
+use the proper terms, and you should learn the distinctions between spur and
+pinion, and why a bevel differs from a miter gear.</p>
+
+<p>If the gears on two parallel shafts mesh with each other, they both may be
+of the same diameter, or one may be larger than the other. In the latter
+case, the small one is the pinion, and the larger one the spur wheel.</p>
+
+<p>Some manufacturers use the word "gear" for "pinion," so that, in ordering,
+they call them <i>gear</i> and <i>pinion</i>, in speaking of the large and
+small wheels.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Measuring a Gear</span>.&mdash;The first thing to
+specify would be the diameter. Now a spur gear, as well as a pinion, has
+three diameters; one measure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122"
+id="Page_122">p. 122</a></span> across the outer extremities of the teeth;
+one measure across the wheel from the base of the teeth; and the distance
+across the wheel at a point midway between the base and end of the teeth.</p>
+
+<p>These three measurements are called, respectively, "outside diameter,"
+"inside diameter," and "pitch diameter." When the word <i>diameter</i> is
+used, as applied to a gear wheel, it is always understood to mean the "pitch
+diameter."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 341px;">
+<a id="fig121" name="fig121"></a><a href="#Page_122">
+<img src="images/illus-fig121.png" width="341" height="271" alt="Fig. 121. Spur Gears" title="Fig. 121. Spur Gears" />
+</a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 121. Spur Gears</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pitch</span>.&mdash;This term is the most difficult to
+understand. When two gears of equal size mesh together, the pitch line, or
+the <i>pitch circle</i>, as it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123"
+id="Page_123">p. 123</a></span> also called, is exactly midway between the
+centers of the two wheels.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 346px;">
+<a id="fig122" name="fig122"></a><a href="#Page_123">
+<img src="images/illus-fig122.png" width="346" height="295" alt="Fig. 122. Miter Gear Pitch" title="Fig. 122. Miter Gear Pitch" />
+</a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 122. Miter Gear Pitch</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now the number of teeth in a gear is calculated on the pitch line, and
+this is called:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Diametral Pitch</span>.&mdash;To illustrate: If a gear
+has 40 teeth, and the pitch diameter of the wheel is 4 inches, there are 10
+teeth to each inch of the pitch diameter, and the gear is then 10
+<i>diametral pitch</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Circular Pitch</span>.&mdash;Now the term "circular
+pitch" grows out of the necessity of getting the measurement of the distance
+from the center of one tooth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124"
+id="Page_124">p. 124</a></span> to the center of the next, and it is measured
+along the pitch line.</p>
+
+<p>Supposing you wanted to know the number of teeth in a gear where the pitch
+diameter and the diametral pitch are given. You would proceed as follows: Let
+the diameter of the pitch circle be 10 inches, and the diameter of the
+diametral pitch be 4 inches. Multiplying these together the product is 40,
+thus giving the number of teeth.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 344px;">
+<a id="fig123" name="fig123"></a><a href="#Page_124">
+<img src="images/illus-fig123.png" width="344" height="251" alt="Fig. 123. Bevel Gears." title="Fig. 123. Bevel Gears." />
+</a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 123. <span class="u">Bevel</span> <span class="u">Gears</span>.</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It will thus be seen that if you have an idea of the diametral pitch and
+circular pitch, you can pretty fairly judge of the size that the teeth will
+be, and thus enable you to determine about what kind of teeth you should
+order</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">p.
+125</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">How to Order a Gear</span>.&mdash;In proceeding to
+order, therefore, you may give the pitch, or the diameter of the pitch
+circle, in which latter case the manufacturer of the gear will understand how
+to determine the number of the teeth. In case the intermeshing gears are of
+different diameters, state the number of teeth in the gear and also in the
+pinion, or indicate what the relative speed shall be.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 346px;">
+<a id="fig124" name="fig124"></a><a href="#Page_125">
+<img src="images/illus-fig124.png" width="346" height="210" alt="Fig. 124. Miter Gears." title="Fig. 124. Miter Gears." />
+</a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 124. <span class="u">Miter</span> <span class="u">Gears</span>.</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This should be followed by the diameter of the hole in the gear and also
+in the pinion; the backing of both gear and pinion; the width of the face;
+the diameter of the gear hub; diameter of the pinion hub; and, finally,
+whether the gears are to be fastened to the shafts by key-ways or
+set-screws.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig122">Fig. 122</a> shows a sample pair of miter gears,<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_126" id="Page_126">p. 126</a></span> with the measurements to
+indicate how to make the drawings. <a href="#fig123">Fig. 123</a> shows the bevel gears.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bevel and Miter Gears</span>.&mdash;When two
+intermeshing gears are on shafts which are at right angles to each other,
+they may be equal diametrically, or of different sizes. If both are of the
+same diameter, they are called bevel gears; if of different diameters, miter
+gears.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 347px;">
+<a id="fig125" name="fig125"></a><a href="#Page_126">
+<img src="images/illus-fig125.png" width="347" height="213" alt="Fig. 125. Sprocket Wheel." title="Fig. 125. Sprocket Wheel." />
+</a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 125. <span class="u">Sprocket</span> <span class="u">Wheel</span>.</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is, in ordering gears of this character, that the novice finds it most
+difficult to know just what to do. In this case it is necessary to get the
+proper relation of speed between the two gears, and, for convenience, we
+shall, in the drawing, make the gears in the relation of 2 to 1.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Drawing Gears</span>.&mdash;Draw two lines at right
+angles,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">p.
+127</a></span> <a href="#fig124">Fig. 124</a>, as 1 and 2, marking off the sizes of the two wheels
+at the points 3, 4. Then draw a vertical line (A) midway between the marks of
+the line 2, and this will be the center of the main pinion.</p>
+
+<p>Also draw a horizontal line (B) midway between the marks on the vertical
+line (1), and this will represent the center of the small gear. These two
+cross lines (A, B) constitute the intersecting axes of the two wheels, and a
+line (5), drawn from the mark (3 to 4), and another line (6), from the axes
+to the intersecting points of the lines (1, 2), will give the pitch line
+angles of the two wheels.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sprocket Wheels.</span>&mdash;For sprocket wheels the
+pitch line passes centrally through the rollers (A) of the chain, as shown in
+<a href="#fig125">Fig. 125</a>, and the pitch of the chain is that distance between the centers of
+two adjacent rollers. In this case the cut of the teeth is determined by the
+chain</p>
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">p.
+128</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="XI" id="XI"></a>CHAPTER XI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>MECHANICAL POWERS</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Lever.</span>&mdash;The lever is the most
+wonderful mechanical element in the world. The expression, <i>lever</i>, is
+not employed in the sense of a stick or a bar which is used against a fulcrum
+to lift or push something with, but as the type of numerous devices which
+employ the same principle.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these devices are, the wedge, the screw, the pulley and the
+inclined plane. In some form or other, one or more of these are used in every
+piece of mechanism in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Because the lever enables the user to raise or move an object hundreds of
+times heavier than is possible without it, has led thousands of people to
+misunderstand its meaning, because it has the appearance, to the ignorant, of
+being able to manufacture power.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wrong Inferences from Use of Lever.</span>&mdash;This
+lack of knowledge of first principles, has bred and is now breeding,
+so-called perpetual motion inventors (?) all over the civilized world. It is
+surprising how many men, to say nothing of boys, actually believe that power
+can be made without the expenditure of something which equalizes it</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">p.
+129</a></span></div>
+
+<p>The boy should not be led astray in this particular, and I shall try to
+make the matter plain by using the simple lever to illustrate the fact that
+whenever power is exerted some form of energy is expended.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#fig126">Fig. 126</a> is a lever (A), resting on a fulcrum (B), the fulcrum being so
+placed that the lever is four times longer on one side than on the other. A
+weight (C) of 4 pounds is placed on the short end, and a 1-pound weight (D),
+called the <i>power</i>, on the short end. It will thus be seen that the
+lever is balanced by the two weights, or that the <i>weight</i> and the
+<i>power</i> are equal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 363px;">
+<a id="fig126" name="fig126"></a><a href="#Page_129">
+<img src="images/illus-fig126.png" width="363" height="106" alt="Fig. 126. Simple Lever" title="Fig. 126. Simple Lever" />
+</a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 126. Simple Lever</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Lever Principle.</span>&mdash;Now, without
+stopping to inquire, the boy will say: "Certainly, I can understand that. As
+the lever is four times longer on one side of the fulcrum than on the other
+side, it requires only one-fourth of the weight to balance the four pounds.
+But suppose I push down the lever, at the point where the weight (D) is,<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">p. 130</a></span> then, for
+every pound I push down I can raise four pounds at C. In that case do I not
+produce four times the power?"</p>
+
+<p>I answer, yes. But while I produce that power I am losing something which
+is equal to the power gained. What is that?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 341px;">
+<a id="fig127" name="fig127"></a><a href="#Page_130">
+<img src="images/illus-fig127.png" width="341" height="137" alt="Fig. 127. Lever Action" title="Fig. 127. Lever Action" />
+</a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 127. Lever Action</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>First: Look at <a href="#fig127">Fig. 127</a>; the distance traveled. The long end of the lever
+is at its highest point, which is A; and the short end of the lever is at its
+lowest point C. When the long end of the lever is pushed down, so it is at B,
+it moves four times farther than the short end moves upwardly, as the
+distance from C to D is just one-fourth that from A to B. The energy expended
+in moving four times the distance balances the power gained.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Power vs. Distance Traveled.</span>&mdash;From this
+the following law is deduced: That whatever is gained in power is lost in the
+distance traveled</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">p.
+131</a></span></div>
+
+<p>Second: Using the same figure, supposing it was necessary to raise the
+short end of the lever, from C to D, in one second of time. In that case the
+hand pressing down the long end of the lever, would go from A to B in one
+second of time; or it would go four times as far as the short end, in the
+same time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Power vs. Loss in Time.</span>&mdash;This means
+another law: That what is gained in power is lost in time.</p>
+
+<p>Distinguish clearly between these two motions. In the first case the long
+end of the lever is moved down from A to B in four seconds, and it had to
+travel four times the distance that the short end moves in going from C to
+D.</p>
+
+<p>In the second case the long end is moved down, from A to B, in one second
+of time, and it had to go that distance in one-fourth of the time, so that
+four times as much energy was expended in the same time to raise the short
+end from C to D.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wrongly Directed Energy.</span>&mdash;More men have
+gone astray on the simple question of the power of the lever than on any
+other subject in mechanics. The writer has known instances where men knew the
+principles involved in the lever, who would still insist on trying to work
+out mechanical devices in which pulleys and gearing were involved, without
+seeming to understand that those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132"
+id="Page_132">p. 132</a></span> mechanical devices are absolutely the same in
+principle.</p>
+
+<p>This will be made plain by a few illustrations. In <a href="#fig128">Fig. 128</a>, A is a pulley
+four times larger, diametrically, than B, and C is the pivot on which they
+turn. The pulleys are, of course, secured to each other. In this case we have
+the two weights, one of four pounds on the belt, which is on the small pulley
+(B), and a one-pound weight on the belt from the large pulley (A).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 344px;">
+<a id="fig128" name="fig128"></a><a href="#Page_132">
+<img src="images/illus-fig128.png" width="344" height="189" alt="Fig. 128. The Pulley" title="Fig. 128. The Pulley" />
+</a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 128. The Pulley</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Lever and the Pulley.</span>&mdash;If we should
+substitute a lever (D) for the pulleys, the similarity to the lever (<a href="#fig127">Fig. 127</a>)
+would be apparent at once. The pivot (C) in this case would act the same
+as the pivot (C) in the lever illustration.</p>
+
+<p>In the same manner, and for like reasons, the<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_133" id="Page_133">p. 133</a></span> wedge, the screw and the
+incline plane, are different structural applications of the principles set
+forth in the lever.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever two gears are connected together, the lever principle is used,
+whether they are the same in size, diametrically, or not. If they are the
+same size then no change in power results; but instead, thereof, a change
+takes place in the direction of the motion.</p>
+
+<table border="0" width="390" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="129-130">
+  <tbody valign="top">
+    <tr>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig129" name="fig129"></a><a href="#Page_133"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig129.png" width="173" height="102"
+        alt="Fig. 129. Change of Direction" title="Fig. 129. Change of Direction" /></a></td>
+      <td align="center"><a id="fig130" name="fig130"></a><a href="#Page_133"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig130.png" width="173" height="102"
+        alt="Fig. 130. Change of Direction" title="Fig. 130. Change of Direction" /></a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 129.</span></td>
+      <td class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Fig. 130.</span></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td colspan="2" class="tdnwc"><span class="italcaption">Change of Direction</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>When one end of the lever (A) goes down, the other end goes up, as shown
+in <a href="#fig129">Fig. 129</a>; and in <a href="#fig130">Fig. 130</a>, when the shaft (C) of one wheel turns in one
+direction, the shaft of the other wheel turns in the opposite direction.</p>
+
+<p>It is plain that a gear, like a lever, may change direction as well as
+increase or decrease power. It is the thorough knowledge of these facts, and
+their application, which enables man to make the wonderful machinery we see
+on every hand.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sources of Power.</span>&mdash;Power is derived from
+a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">p. 134</a></span>
+variety of sources, but what are called the <i>prime movers</i> are derived
+from heat, through the various fuels, from water, from the winds and from the
+tides and waves of the ocean. In the case of water the power depends on the
+head, or height, of the surface of the water above the discharging
+orifice.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Water Power.</span>&mdash;A column of water an inch
+square and 28 inches high gives a pressure at the base of one pound; and the
+pressure at the lower end is equal in all directions. If a tank of water 28
+inches high has a single orifice in its bottom 1" x 1" in size, the pressure
+of water through that opening will be only one pound, and it will be one
+pound through every other orifice in the bottom of the same size.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Calculating Fuel Energy.</span>&mdash;Power from fuels
+depends upon the expansion of the materials consumed, or upon the fact that
+heat expands some element, like water, which in turn produces the power. One
+cubic inch of water, when converted into steam, has a volume equal to one
+cubic foot, or about 1,700 times increase in bulk.</p>
+
+<p>Advantage is taken of this in steam engine construction. If a cylinder has
+a piston in it with an area of 100 square inches, and a pipe one inch square
+supplies steam at 50 pounds pressure, the piston will have 50 pounds pressure
+on every square inch of its surface, equal to 5,000 pounds</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">p.
+135</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Pressure or Head.</span>&mdash;In addition to that
+there will also be 50 pounds pressure on each square inch of the head, as
+well as on the sides of the cylinder.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig131">Fig. 131</a> shows a cylinder (A), a piston (B) and a steam inlet port (C), in
+which is indicated how the steam pressure acts equally in all directions. As,
+however, the piston is the only movable part, the force of the steam is
+directed to that part, and the motion is then transmitted to the crank, and
+to the shaft of the engine.</p>
+
+<table border="0" width="360" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="131-132">
+  <tbody valign="top">
+    <tr>
+      <td><a id="fig131" name="fig131"></a><a href="#Page_135"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig131.png" width="188" height="202"
+        alt="Fig. 131. Steam Pressure" title="Fig. 131. Steam Pressure"
+      /></a></td>
+      <td><a id="fig132" name="fig132"></a><a href="#Page_135"><img
+        src="images/illus-fig132.png" width="162" height="235"
+        alt="Fig. 132. Water Pressure" title="Fig. 132. Water Pressure"
+      /></a></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td><span class="italcaption">Fig. 131. Steam Pressure</span></td>
+      <td><span class="italcaption">Fig. 132. Water Pressure</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>This same thing applies to water which, as stated, is dependent on its
+head. <a href="#fig132">Fig. 132</a> repre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">p.
+136</a></span>sents a cylinder (D) with a vertically movable piston (E) and a
+standpipe (F). Assuming that the pipe (F) is of sufficient height to give a
+pressure of 50 pounds to the square inch, then the piston (E) and the sides
+and head of the cylinder (D) would have 50 pounds pressure on every square
+inch of surface.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fuels.</span>&mdash;In the use of fuels, such as the
+volatile hydrocarbons, the direct expansive power of the fuel gases
+developed, is used to move the piston back and forth. Engines so driven are
+called <i>Internal Combustion Motors</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Power from Winds.</span>&mdash;Another source of power
+is from the wind acting against wheels which have blades or vanes disposed at
+such angles that there is a direct conversion of a rectilinear force into
+circular motion.</p>
+
+<p>In this case power is derived from the force of the moving air and the
+calculation of energy developed is made by considering the pressure on each
+square foot of surface. The following table shows the force exerted at
+different speeds against a flat surface one foot square, held so that the
+wind strikes it squarely:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">p. 137</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="460" summary="Air Pressure"
+style="border-top: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
+  <col style="width:30%;" /><col style="width:20%;" /><col style="width:30%;"/><col style="width:20%;"/>
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tcbnw1hr" colspan="4">SPEED OF WIND</td>
+  <td class="tcbnw1hr" colspan="4">PRESSURE</td>
+  <td class="tcbnw1hr" colspan="4" style="border-left: 1px solid black;">SPEED OF WIND</td>
+  <td class="tcbnwtbh" colspan="4">PRESSURE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tc1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tl0em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tc1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbl1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tc1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tl0em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tc1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tc1em">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">5</td><td class="tc1em">Miles</td><td class="tr0em">per</td><td class="tl0em">hour</td>
+<td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tc1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tr0em">2</td><td class="trbr1em">oz.</td>
+<td class="trbl1em">35</td><td class="tc1em">miles</td><td class="tr0em">per</td><td class="tl0em">hour</td>
+<td class="tr0em">6</td><td class="tc1em">lb.</td><td class="tr0em">2</td><td class="tc1em">oz.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">10</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tl0em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tc1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tr0em">88</td><td class="trbr1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="trbl1em">40</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tl0em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tr0em">8</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tc1em">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">15</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tl0em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tr0em">1</td><td class="tc1em">lb.</td><td class="tr0em">2</td><td class="trbr1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="trbl1em">45</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tl0em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tr0em">10</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td><td class="tr0em">2</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">20</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tl0em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tr0em">2</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="trbr1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="trbl1em">50</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tl0em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tr0em">12</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td><td class="tr0em">2</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">25</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tl0em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tr0em">3</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td><td class="tr0em">2</td><td class="trbr1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="trbl1em">55</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tl0em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tr0em">15</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td><td class="tr0em">2</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">30</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tl0em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tr0em">4</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td><td class="tr0em">8</td><td class="trbr1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="trbl1em">60</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tl0em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tr0em">18</td><td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tc1em">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tc1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tl0em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tc1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbl1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tc1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tl0em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tc1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tc1em">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Varying Degrees of Pressure.</span>&mdash;It is
+curious to notice how the increase in speed changes the pressure against the
+blade. Thus, a wind blowing 20 miles an hour shows 2 pounds pressure; whereas
+a wind twice that velocity, or 40 miles an hour, shows a pressure of 8
+pounds, which is four times greater than at 20 miles.</p>
+
+<p>It differs, therefore, from the law with respect to water pressure, which
+is constant in relation to the height or the head&mdash;that is, for every 28
+inches height of water a pound pressure is added.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Power from Waves and Tides.</span>&mdash;Many attempts
+have been made to harness the waves and the tide and some of them have been
+successful. This effort has been directed to the work of converting the
+oscillations of the waves into a rotary motion, and also to take advantage of
+the to-and-fro movement of the tidal flow. There is a great field in this
+direction for the ingenious boy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Profitable Field.</span>&mdash;In no direction of
+human<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">p. 138</a></span>
+enterprise is there such a wide and profitable field for work, as in the
+generation of power. It is constantly growing in prominence, and calls for
+the exercise of the skill of the engineer and the ingenuity of the mechanic.
+Efficiency and economy are the two great watchwords, and this is what the
+world is striving for. Success will come to him who can contribute to it in
+the smallest degree.</p>
+
+<p>Capital is not looking for men who can cheapen the production of an
+article 50 per cent., but 1 per cent. The commercial world does not expect an
+article to be 100 per cent, better. Five per cent. would be an inducement for
+business</p>
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">p.
+139</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="XII" id="XII"></a>CHAPTER XII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>ON MEASURES</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Horse-power.</span>&mdash;When work is performed it is
+designated as horse-power, usually indicated by the letters H. P.; but the
+unit of work is called a <i>foot pound</i>.</p>
+
+<p>If one pound should be lifted 550 feet in one second, or 550 pounds one
+foot in the same time, it would be designated as one horse-power. For that
+reason it is called a foot pound. Instead of using the figure to indicate the
+power exerted during one minute of time, the time is taken for a minute, in
+all calculations, so that 550 multiplied by the number of seconds, 60, in a
+minute, equals 33,000 foot pounds.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Foot Pounds.</span>&mdash;The calculation of
+horse-power is in a large measure arbitrary. It was determined in this way:
+Experiments show that the heat expended in vaporizing 34 pounds of water per
+hour, develops a force equal to 33,000 foot pounds; and since it takes about
+4 pounds of coal per hour to vaporize that amount of water, the heat
+developed by that quantity of coal develops the same force as that exercised
+by an average horse exerting his strength at ordinary work</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">p.
+140</a></span></div>
+
+<p>All power is expressed in foot pounds. Suppose a cannon ball of sufficient
+weight and speed strikes an object. If the impact should indicate 33,000
+pounds it would not mean that the force employed was one horse-power, but
+that many foot pounds.</p>
+
+<p>If there should be 60 impacts of 550 pounds each within a minute, it might
+be said that it would be equal to 1 horse-power, but the correct way to
+express it would be foot pounds.</p>
+
+<p>So in every calculation, where power is to be calculated, first find out
+how many foot pounds are developed, and then use the unit of measure, 33,000,
+as the divisor to get the horse-power, if you wish to express it in that
+way.</p>
+
+<p>It must be understood, therefore, that horse-power is a simple unit of
+work, whereas a foot pound is a compound unit formed of a foot paired with
+the weight of a pound.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Energy.</span>&mdash;Now <i>work</i> and <i>energy</i>
+are two different things. Work is the overcoming of resistance of any kind,
+either by causing or changing motion, or maintaining it against the action of
+some other force.</p>
+
+<p>Energy, on the other hand, is the power of doing work. Falling water
+possesses energy; so does a stone poised on the edge of a cliff. In the case
+of water, it is called <i>kinetic</i> energy; in the stone<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">p. 141</a></span>
+<i>potential</i> energy. A pound of pressure against the stone will cause the
+latter, in falling, to develop an enormous energy; so it will be seen that
+this property resides, or is within the thing itself. It will be well to
+remember these definitions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">How to Find Out the Power Developed.</span>&mdash;The
+measure of power produced by an engine, or other source, is so interesting to
+boys that a sketch is given of a Prony Brake, which is the simplest form of
+the Dynamometer, as these measuring machines are called.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 348px;">
+<a id="fig133" name="fig133"></a><a href="#Page_141">
+<img src="images/illus-fig133.png" width="348" height="143" alt="Fig. 133. Prony Brake" title="Fig. 133. Prony Brake" />
+</a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 133. Prony Brake</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the drawing (A) is the shaft, with a pulley (A´), which turns in the
+direction of the arrow (B). C is a lever which may be of any length. This has
+a block (C´), which fits on the pulley, and below the shaft, and surrounding
+it, are blocks (D) held against the pulley by a chain (E), the ends of the
+chain being attached to bolts (F) which pass through the block (C´) and lever
+(C)</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">p.
+142</a></span></div>
+
+<p>Nuts (G) serve to draw the bolts upwardly and thus tighten the blocks
+against the shaft. The free end of the lever has stops (H) above and below,
+so as to limit its movement. Weights (I) are suspended from the end of the
+lever.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 356px;">
+<a id="fig134" name="fig134"></a><a href="#Page_142">
+<img src="images/illus-fig134.png" width="356" height="160" alt="Fig. 134. Speed Indicator" title="Fig. 134. Speed Indicator" />
+</a>
+<span class="italcaption">Fig. 134. Speed Indicator</span>
+<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Test.</span>&mdash;The test is made as follows:
+The shaft is set in motion, and the nuts are tightened until its full power
+at the required speed is balanced by the weight put on the platform.</p>
+
+<p>The following calculation can then be made:</p>
+
+<p>For our present purpose we shall assume that the diameter of the pulley
+(A´) is 4 inches; the length of the lever (C), 3 feet; the speed of the shaft
+(A) and the pulley, 210 revolutions per minute; and the weight 600 pounds.</p>
+
+<p>Now proceed as follows:</p>
+
+<p>(1) Multiply the diameter of the pulley (A´)<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_143" id="Page_143">p. 143</a></span> (4 inches) by 3.1416, and
+this will give the circumference 12.5664 inches; or, 1.0472 feet.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Multiply this product (1.0472) by the revolutions per minute. 1.0472 ×
+210 = 219.912. This equals the <i>speed</i> of the periphery of the
+pulley.</p>
+
+<p>(3) The next step is to get the length of the lever (C) from the center of
+the shaft (A) to the point from which the weights are suspended, and divide
+this by one-half of the diameter of the pulley (A´). 36" ÷ 2" = 18", or 1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span>
+feet. This is the <i>leverage</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(4) Then multiply the <i>weight</i> in pounds by the <i>leverage</i>. 600
+× 1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span> = 900.</p>
+
+<p>(5) Next multiply this product (900) by the <i>speed</i>, 900 × 219.912 =
+197,920.8, which means <i>foot pounds</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(6) As each horse-power has 33,000 foot pounds, the last product should be
+divided by this figure, and we have 197,920.8 ÷ 33,000 = 5.99 H. P.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Foot Measure.</span>&mdash;How long is a foot, and
+what is it determined by? It is an arbitrary measure. The human foot is the
+basis of the measurement. But what is the length of a man's foot? It varied
+in different countries from 9 to 21 inches.</p>
+
+<p>In England, in early days, it was defined as a measure of length
+consisting of 12 inches, or 36 barleycorns laid end to end. But barleycorns
+differ in length as well as the human foot, so the<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_144" id="Page_144">p. 144</a></span> standard adopted is without
+any real foundation or reason.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Weight.</span>&mdash;To determine weight, however, a
+scientific standard was adopted. A gallon contains 8.33 pounds avoirdupois
+weight of distilled water. This gallon is divided up in two ways; one by
+weight, and the other by measurement.</p>
+
+<p>Each gallon contains 231 cubic inches of distilled water. As it has four
+quarts, each quart has 57&nbsp;<span class="ftf">3/4</span> cubic inches, and as each quart is comprised of
+two pints, each pint has nearly 29 cubic inches.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Gallon.</span>&mdash;The legal gallon in the
+United States is equal to a cylindrical measure 7 inches in diameter and 6
+inches deep.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the weights and dimensions of solids and liquids are thus
+fixed by following a scientific standard, the divisions into scruples,
+grains, pennyweights and tons, as well as cutting them up into pints, quarts
+and other units, is done without any system, and for this reason the need of
+a uniform method has been long considered by every country.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Metric System.</span>&mdash;As early as 1528,
+Fernal, a French physician, suggested the metric system. Our own government
+recognized the value of this plan when it established the system of
+coinage.</p>
+
+<p>The principle lies in fixing a unit, such as a dol<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_145" id="Page_145">p. 145</a></span>lar, or a pound, or a foot,
+and then making all divisions, or addition, in multiples of ten. Thus, we
+have one mill; ten mills to make a dime; ten dimes to make a dollar, and so
+on.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Basis of Measurement.</span>&mdash;The question arose,
+what to use as the basis of measurement, and it was proposed to use the earth
+itself, as the measure. For this purpose the meridian line running around the
+earth at the latitude of Paris was selected.</p>
+
+<p>One-quarter of this measurement around the globe was found to be
+393,707,900 inches, and this was divided into 10,000,000 parts. Each part,
+therefore, was a little over 39.37 inches in length, and this was called a
+meter, which means <i>measure</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A decimeter is one-tenth of that, namely, 3.937 inches; and a decameter
+39.37, or ten times the meter, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>For convenience the metrical table is given, showing lengths in feet and
+inches, in which only three decimal points are used.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Metrical Table</span>, showing measurements in feet
+and inches:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">p. 146</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>METRICAL TABLE, SHOWING MEASUREMENTS IN FEET<br />
+AND INCHES</h4>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary="Metrical"
+style="border-top: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
+  <col style="width:35%;" /><col style="width:30%;" /><col style="width:35%;"/>
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tcbnw1hr">Length </td>
+  <td class="tcbnw1hr">Inches</td>
+  <td class="tcbnwtbh">Feet</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr0em">Millimeter</td><td class="trbr1em">0.039</td><td class="tr1-1em">0.003</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr0em">Centimeter</td><td class="trbr1em">0.393</td><td class="tr1-1em">0.032</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr0em">Decimeter</td><td class="trbr1em">3.937</td><td class="tr1-1em">0.328</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr0em">Meter</td><td class="trbr1em">39.370</td><td class="tr1-1em">3.280</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr0em">Decameter</td><td class="trbr1em">393.707</td><td class="tr1-1em">32.808</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr0em">Hectometer</td><td class="trbr1em">3937.079</td><td class="tr1-1em">328.089</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr0em">Kilometer</td><td class="trbr1em">39370.790</td><td class="tr1-1em">3280.899</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr0em">Myriameter</td><td class="trbr1em">393707.900</td><td class="tr1-1em">32808.992</td></tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<h4><br />METRIC SYSTEM, SHOWING THE EQUIVALENTS<br />
+IN OUR MEASURES</h4>
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Metric Equivalents">
+  <col style="width:35%;" /><col style="width:65%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tl1em">1 Myriameter</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg">= 5.4 nautical miles, or 6.21 statute miles.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tl1em">1 Kilometer</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg">= 0.621 statute mile, or nearly <span class="ftf">5/8</span> mile.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Hectometer</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 109.4 yards.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Decameter</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 0.497 chain, 1.988 rods.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Meter</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 39.37 inches, or nearly 3 ft. 3&nbsp;<span class="ftf">3/8</span> inches.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Decimeter</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 3.937 inches.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Centimeter</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 0.3937 inch.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Millimeter</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 0.03937 inch.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Micron</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= <span class="ftf">1/25400</span> inch.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Hectare</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 2.471 acres.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Arc</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 119.6 square yards.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Centaire, or square meter</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 10.764 square feet.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">p. 147</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Decastere</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 13 cubic yards, or about 2&nbsp;<span class="ftf">3/4</span> cords.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Stere, or cubic meter</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 1.308 cubic yards, or 35.3 cubic feet.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Decistere</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 3&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span> cubic feet.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Kiloliter</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 1 ton, 12 gal., 2 pints, 2 gills old wine measure.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Hectoliter</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 22.01 Imperial gals., or 26.4 U. S. gals.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Decaliter</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 2 gallons, 1 pint, 2&nbsp;<span class="ftf">2/5</span> gills, imperial measure, or 2 gals., 2 qts., 1 pt., <span class="ftf">1/2</span> gill, U. S.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Liter</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 1 pint, 3 gills, imperial, or 1 qt., <span class="ftf">1/2</span> gill U. S. measure.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Decileter</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 0.704 gill, imperial, or 0.845 gill U. S. measure.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Millier</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 2,204.6 pounds avoirdupois.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Metric quintal</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 2 hundredweight, less 3&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span> pounds, or 220 pounds, 7 ounces.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Kilogram</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 2 pounds, 3 ounces, 4&nbsp;<span class="ftf">3/8</span> drams avoirdupois.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Hectogram</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 3 ounces, 8&nbsp;<span class="ftf">3/8</span> drams avoirdupois.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Decagram</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 154.32 grains Troy.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Gram</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 15.432 grains.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Decigram</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 1.542 grain.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Centigram</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 0.154 grain.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tl1em">1 Milligram</td>
+ <td class="tl1emhg">= 0.015 grain.</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chapter" />
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">p. 148</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="XIII" id="XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>USEFUL INFORMATION FOR THE WORKSHOP</h3>
+
+<p>To find the circumference of a circle: Multiply the diameter by 3.1416.</p>
+
+<p>To find the diameter of a circle: Multiply the circle by .31831.</p>
+
+<p>To find the area of a circle: Multiply the square of the diameter by
+.7854.</p>
+
+<p>To find the area of a triangle: Multiply the base by one-half the
+perpendicular height.</p>
+
+<p>To find the surface of a ball: Multiply the square of the diameter by
+3.1416.</p>
+
+<p>To find the solidity of a sphere: Multiply the cube of the diameter by
+.5236.</p>
+
+<p>To find the cubic contents of a cone: Multiply the area of the base by
+one-third the altitude.</p>
+
+<p>Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times.</p>
+
+<p>To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water:
+Multiply the height of the column in feet by .434.</p>
+
+<p>Standard Horse-power: The evaporation of 30 pounds of water per hour from
+a feed water temperature of 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit into steam at 70 pounds
+gauge pressure</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">p.
+149</a></span></div>
+
+<p>To find the capacity of any tank in gallons: Square the diameter in
+inches, multiply by the length, and then by .0034.</p>
+
+<p>In making patterns for aluminum castings provision must be made for
+shrinkage to a greater extent than with any other metal or alloy.</p>
+
+<p>The toughness of aluminum can be increased by adding a small per cent. of
+phosphorus.</p>
+
+<p>All alloys of metals having mercury are called <i>amalgams</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A sheet of zinc suspended in the water of a boiler will produce an
+electrolytic action and prevent scaling to a considerable extent.</p>
+
+<p>Hydrofluoric acid will not affect a pure diamond, but will dissolve all
+imitations.</p>
+
+<p>A strong solution of alum put into glue will make it insoluble in
+water.</p>
+
+<p>A grindstone with one side harder than the other can have its flinty side
+softened by immersing that part in boiled linseed oil.</p>
+
+<p>One barrel contains 3&nbsp;<span class="ftf">3/4</span> cubic feet.</p>
+
+<p>One cubic yard contains 7 barrels.</p>
+
+<p>To find the speed of a driven pulley of a given diameter: Multiply the
+diameter of the driving pulley by its speed or number of revolutions. Divide
+this by the diameter of the driven pulley. The result will be the number of
+revolutions of the driven pulley</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">p.
+150</a></span></div>
+
+<p>To find the diameter of a driven pulley that shall make any given number
+of revolutions in the same time: Multiply the diameter of the driving pulley
+by its number of revolutions, and divide the product by the number of
+revolutions of the driven pulley.</p>
+
+<p>A piece of the well-known tar soap held against the inside of a belt while
+running will prevent it from slipping, and will not injure the belt.</p>
+
+<p>Boiler scale is composed of the carbonate or the sulphate of lime. To
+prevent the formation it is necessary to use some substance which will
+precipitate these elements in the water. The cheapest and most universally
+used for this purpose are soda ash and caustic soda.</p>
+
+<p>Gold bronze is merely a mixture of equal parts of oxide of tin and
+sulphur. To unite them they are heated for some time in an earthen retort.</p>
+
+<p>Rusted utensils may be cleaned of rust by applying either turpentine or
+kerosene oil, and allowing them to stand over night, when the excess may be
+wiped off. Clean afterwards with fine emery cloth.</p>
+
+<p>Plaster of paris is valuable for many purposes in a machine shop, but the
+disadvantage in handling it is, that it sets so quickly, and its use is,
+therefore, very much limited. To prevent quick setting mix a small amount of
+arrow root powder with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151"
+id="Page_151">p. 151</a></span> the plaster before it is mixed, and this will
+keep it soft for some time, and also increase its hardness when it sets.</p>
+
+<p>For measuring purposes a tablespoon holds <span class="ftf">1/2</span> ounce; a dessertspoon <span class="ftf">1/4</span> ounce;
+a teaspoon <span class="ftf">1/8</span> ounce; a teacupful of sugar weighs <span class="ftf">1/2</span> pound; two teacupsful of
+butter weigh 1 pound; 1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/3</span> pints of powdered sugar weigh 1 pound; one pint
+of distilled water weighs 1 pound.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinarily, 450 drops of liquid are equal to 1 ounce; this varies with
+different liquids, some being thicker in consistency than others, but for
+those of the consistency of water the measure given is fairly accurate</p>
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">p.
+152</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="XIV" id="XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>THE SIMPLICITY OF GREAT INVENTIONS, AND OF<br />
+NATURE'S MANIFESTATIONS</h3>
+
+<p>If there is anything in the realm of mechanics which excites the wonder
+and admiration of man, it is the knowledge that the greatest inventions are
+the simplest, and that the inventor must take advantage of one law in nature
+which is universal in its application, and that is vibration.</p>
+
+<p>There is a key to every secret in nature's great storehouse. It is not a
+complicated one, containing a multiplicity of wards and peculiar angles and
+recesses. It is the very simplicity in most of the problems which long served
+as a bar to discovery in many of the arts. So extremely simple have been some
+of the keys that many inventions resulted from accidents.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Invention Precedes Science.</span>&mdash;Occasionally
+inventions were brought about by persistency and energy, and ofttimes by
+theorizing; but science rarely ever aids invention. The latter usually
+precedes science. Thus, reasoning could not show how it might be possible for
+steam to force water into a boiler against its own pressure. But the injector
+does this</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">p. 153</a></span></div>
+
+<p>If, prior to 1876, it had been suggested that a sonorous vibration could
+be converted into an electrical pulsation, and transformed back again to a
+sonorous vibration, science would have proclaimed it impossible; but the
+telephone does it. Invention shows how things are done, and science
+afterwards explains the phenomena and formulates theories and laws which
+become serviceable to others in the arts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Simplicity in Inventions.</span>&mdash;But let us see
+how exceedingly simple are some of the great discoveries of man.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Telegraph.</span>&mdash;The telegraph is nothing
+but a magnet at each end of a wire, with a lever for an armature, which opens
+and closes the circuit that passes through the magnets and armature, so that
+an impulse on the lever, or armature, at one end, by making and breaking the
+circuit, also makes and breaks the circuit at the other end.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Telephone.</span>&mdash;The telephone has merely a
+disk close to but not touching the end of a magnet. The sonorous vibration of
+the voice oscillates the diaphragm, and as the diaphragm is in the magnetic
+field of the magnet, it varies the pressure, so called, causing the diaphragm
+at the other end of the wire to vibrate in unison and give out the same sound
+originally imparted to the other diaphragm.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Transmitter.</span>&mdash;The transmitter is merely a
+sen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">p.
+154</a></span>sitized instrument. It depends solely on the principle of light
+contact points in an electric circuit, whereby the vibrations of the voice
+are augmented.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Phonograph.</span>&mdash;The phonograph is not an
+electrical instrument. It has a diaphragm provided centrally with a blunt
+pin, or stylus. To make the record, some soft or plastic material, like wax,
+or tinfoil, is caused to move along so that the point of the stylus makes
+impressions in it, and the vibrations of the diaphragm cause the point to
+traverse a groove of greater or smaller indentations. When this groove is
+again presented to the stylus the diaphragm is vibrated and gives forth the
+sounds originally imparted to it when the indentations were made.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wireless Telegraphy.</span>&mdash;Wireless telegraphy
+depends for its action on what is called induction. Through this property a
+current is made of a high electro-motive force, which means of a high
+voltage, and this disturbs the ether with such intensity that the waves are
+sent out in all directions to immense distances.</p>
+
+<p>The great discovery has been to find a mechanism sensitive enough to
+detect the induction waves. The instrument for this purpose is called a
+coherer, in which small particles cohere through the action of the electric
+waves, and are caused to fall apart mechanically, during the electrical
+impulses</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">p.
+155</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Printing Telegraph.</span>&mdash;The printing
+telegraph requires the synchronous turning of two wheels. This means that two
+wheels at opposite ends of a wire must be made to turn at exactly the same
+rate of speed. Originally, this was tried by clock work, but without success
+commercially, for the reason that a pendulum does not beat with the same
+speed at the equator, as at different latitudes, nor at altitudes; and
+temperature also affects the rate. The solution was found by making the two
+wheels move by means of a timing fork, which vibrates with the same speed
+everywhere, and under all conditions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Electric Motor.</span>&mdash;The direct current
+electric motor depends for its action on the principle that likes repel, and
+unlikes attract. The commutator so arranges the poles that at the proper
+points, in the revolution of the armature, the poles are always presented to
+each other in such a way that as they approach each other, they are
+opposites, and thus attract, and as they recede from each other they repel. A
+dynamo is exactly the same, except that the commutator reverses the operation
+and makes the poles alike as they approach each other, and unlike as they
+recede.</p>
+
+<p>Steel is simply iron, to which has been added a small per cent of
+carbon.</p>
+
+<p>Quinine is efficient in its natural state, but it has<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">p. 156</a></span> been made
+infinitely more effectual by the breaking up or changing of the molecules
+with acids. Sulphate of quinine is made by the use of sulphuric acid as a
+solvent.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Explosions.</span>&mdash;Explosions depend on oxygen.
+While this element does not burn, a certain amount of it must be present to
+support combustion. Thus, the most inflammable gas or liquid will not burn or
+explode unless oxygenized. Explosives are made by using a sufficient amount,
+in a concentrated form, which is added to the fuel, so that when it is
+ignited there is a sufficient amount of oxygen present to support combustion,
+hence the rapid explosion which follows.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vibration in Nature.</span>&mdash;The physical meaning
+of vibration is best illustrated by the movement of a pendulum. All agitation
+is vibration. All force manifests itself in this way.</p>
+
+<p>The painful brilliancy of the sun is produced by the rapid vibrations of
+the rays; the twinkle of the distant star, the waves of the ocean when
+ruffled by the winds; the shimmer of the moon on its crested surface; the
+brain in thinking; the mouth in talking; the beating of the heart; all,
+alike, obey the one grand and universal law of vibratory motion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Qualities of Sound.</span>&mdash;Sound is nothing but
+a succession of vibrations of greater or less magnitude. Pitch is produced by
+the number of vibra<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">p.
+157</a></span>tions; intensity by their force; and quality by the character
+of the article vibrated.</p>
+
+<p>Since the great telephone controversy which took place some years ago
+there has been a wonderful development in the knowledge of acoustics, or
+sounds. It was shown that the slightest sound would immediately set into
+vibration every article of furniture in a room, and very sensitive
+instruments have been devised to register the force and quality.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Photographer's Plate.</span>&mdash;It is known
+that the chemical action of an object on a photographer's plate is due to
+vibration; each represents a force of different intensity, hence the varying
+shades produced. Owing to the different rates of vibrations caused by the
+different colors, the difficulty has been to photograph them, but this has
+now been accomplished. Harmony, or "being in tune," as is the common
+expression, is as necessary in light, as in music.</p>
+
+<p>Some chemicals will bring out or "develop," the pictures; others will not.
+Colors are now photographed because invention and science have found the
+harmonizing chemicals.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Quadruplex Telegraphy.</span>&mdash;One of the most
+remarkable of all the wonders of our age is what is known as duplex and
+quadruplex telegraphy. Every atom and impulse in electricity is
+oscillation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">p.
+158</a></span> The current which transmits a telegram is designated in the
+science as "vibratory."</p>
+
+<p>But how is it possible to transmit two or more messages over one wire at
+the same time? It is by bringing into play the harmony of sounds. One message
+is sent in one direction in the key of A; another message in the other
+direction in B; and so any number may be sent, because the electrical
+vibrations may be tuned, just like the strings of a violin.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Electric Harmony.</span>&mdash;Every sound produces a
+corresponding vibration in surrounding objects. While each vibrates, or is
+capable of transmitting a sound given to it by its vibratory powers, it may
+not vibrate in harmony.</p>
+
+<p>When a certain key of a piano is struck every key has a certain vibration,
+and if we could separate it from the other sounds, it would reflect the same
+sound as the string struck, just the same as the walls of a room or the air
+itself would convey that sound.</p>
+
+<p>But as no two strings in the instrument vibrate the same number of times
+each second, the rapid movement of successive sounds of the keys do not
+interfere with each other. If, however, there are several pianos in a room,
+and all are tuned the same pitch, the striking of a key on one instrument
+will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">p. 159</a></span>
+instantly set in vibration the corresponding strings in all the other
+instruments.</p>
+
+<p>This is one reason why a piano tested in a music wareroom has always a
+more beautiful and richer sound than when in a drawing-room or hall, since
+each string is vibrated by the other instrument.</p>
+
+<p>If a small piece of paper is balanced upon the strings of a violin, every
+key of the piano may be struck, except the one in tune, without affecting the
+paper; but the moment the same key is struck the vibration of the harmonizing
+pitch will unbalance the paper.</p>
+
+<p>The musical sound of C produces 528 vibrations per second; D 616, and so
+on. The octave above has double the number of vibrations of the lower note.
+It will thus be understood why discord in music is not pleasant to the ear,
+as the vibrations are not in the proper multiples.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Odors.</span>&mdash;So with odors. The sense of smell
+is merely the force set in motion by the vibration of the elements. An
+instrument called the <i>odophone</i> demonstrates that a scale or gamut
+exists in flowers; that sharp smells indicate high tones and heavy smells low
+tones. Over fifty odors have thus been analyzed.</p>
+
+<p>The treble clef, note E, 4th space, is orange; note D, 1st space below,
+violet; note F, 4th space above clef, ambergris. To make a proper bouquet,
+there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">p.
+160</a></span>fore the different odors must be harmonized, just the same as
+the notes of a musical chord are selected.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Bouquet of Vibrations.</span>&mdash;The odophone
+shows that santal, geranium, orange flower and camphor, make a bouquet in the
+key of C. It is easy to conceive that a beautiful bouquet means nothing more
+than an agreeable vibratory sensation of the olfactory nerves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Taste.</span>&mdash;So with the sense of taste. The
+tongue is covered with minute cells surrounded by nervous filaments which are
+set in motion whenever any substance is brought into contact with the
+surface. Tasting is merely the movement of these filaments, of greater or
+less rapidity.</p>
+
+<p>If an article is tasteless, it means that these filaments do not vibrate.
+These vibrations are of two kinds. They may move faster or slower, or they
+may move in a peculiar way. A sharp acute taste means that the vibrations are
+very rapid; a mild taste, slow vibrations.</p>
+
+<p>When a pleasant taste is detected, it is only because the filaments are
+set into an agreeable motion. The vibrations in the tongue may become so
+rapid that it will be painful, just as a shriek becomes piercing to the ear,
+or an intense light dazzling to the eye; all proceed from the same physical
+force acting on the brain</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">p.
+161</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Color.</span>&mdash;Color, that seemingly
+unexplainable force, becomes a simple thing when the principles of vibration
+are applied, and this has been fully explained by the spectroscope and its
+operation.</p>
+
+<p>When the boy once appreciates that this force, or this motion in nature is
+just as simple as the great inventions which have grown out of this
+manifestation, he will understand that a knowledge of these things will
+enable him to utilize the energy in a proper way</p>
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">p.
+162</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="XV" id="XV"></a>CHAPTER XV<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>WORKSHOP RECIPES AND FORMULAS</h3>
+
+<p>In a work of this kind, dealing with the various elements, the boy should
+have at hand recipes or formulas for everything which comes within the
+province of his experiments. The following are most carefully selected, the
+objects being to present those which are the more easily compounded.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Adhesives for Various Uses.</span>&mdash;Waterproof
+glue. Use a good quality of glue, and dissolve it in warm water, then add one
+pound of linseed oil to eight pounds of the glue. Add three ounces of nitric
+acid.</p>
+
+<p>Leather or Card-board Glue. After dissolving good glue in water, to which
+a little turpentine has been added, mix it with a thick paste of starch, the
+proportion of starch to glue being about two to every part of glue used. The
+mixture is used cold.</p>
+
+<p>A fine Belt Glue. Dissolve 50 ounces of gelatine in water, and heat after
+pouring off the excess water. Then stir in five ounces of glycerine, ten
+ounces of turpentine, and five ounces of linseed oil varnish. If too thick
+add water to suit.</p>
+
+<p>For cementing Iron to Marble. Use 30 parts of Plaster of Paris, 10 parts
+of iron filings, and one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163"
+id="Page_163">p. 163</a></span> half part of sal ammoniac. These are mixed up
+with vinegar to make a fluid paste.</p>
+
+<p>To cement Glass to Iron. Use 3 ounces of boiled linseed oil and 1 part of
+copal varnish, and into this put 2 ounces of litharge and 1 ounce of white
+lead and thoroughly mingle so as to make a smooth paste.</p>
+
+<p>Water-proof Cement. Boiled linseed oil, 6 ounces; copal, 6 ounces;
+litharge, 2 ounces; and white lead, 16 ounces. To be thoroughly
+incorporated.</p>
+
+<p>To unite rubber or leather to hard substances. One ounce of pulverized gum
+shellac dissolved in 9&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span> ounces of strong ammonia, will make an elastic
+cement. Must be kept tightly corked.</p>
+
+<p>For uniting iron to iron. Use equal parts of boiled oil, white lead, pipe
+clay and black oxide of manganese, and form it into a paste.</p>
+
+<p>Transparent Cement. Unite 1 ounce of india rubber, 67 ounces of
+chloroform, and 40 ounces of mastic. This is to be kept together for a week,
+and stirred at times, when it will be ready for use.</p>
+
+<p>To Attach Cloth to Metal. Water 100 parts, sugar 10 parts, starch 20
+parts, and zinc chloride 1 part. This must be first stirred and made free of
+lumps, and then heated until it thickens.</p>
+
+<p>United States Government Gum. Dissolve 1 part of gum arabic in water and
+add 4 parts of sugar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">p.
+164</a></span> and 1 part of starch. This is then boiled for a few minutes,
+and thinned down as required.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">To Make Different
+Alloys.</span>&mdash;Silver-aluminum. Silver one-fourth part, and aluminum
+three-fourth parts.</p>
+
+<p>Bell-metal. Copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts. Or, copper, 72 parts; tin, 26
+parts; zinc, 2 parts. Or, copper 2; 1 of tin.</p>
+
+<p>Brass. Copper, 66 parts; zinc, 32 parts; tin, 1 part; lead, 1 part.</p>
+
+<p>Bronzes. Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 30 parts; tin, 5 parts. Or, copper, 85
+parts; zinc, 10 parts; tin, 3 parts; lead, 2 parts.</p>
+
+<p>German Silver. 52 parts of copper; 26 parts zinc; 22 parts nickel.</p>
+
+<p>For Coating Mirrors. Tin, 70 parts; mercury, 30 parts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Boiler Compounds.</span>&mdash;To prevent scaling. Use
+common washing soda, or Glauber salts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">To Dissolve Celluloid.</span>&mdash;Use 50 parts of
+alcohol and 5 parts of camphor for every 5 parts of celluloid. When the
+celluloid is put into the solution it will dissolve it.</p>
+
+<p>To Soften Celluloid. This may be done by simply heating, so it will bend,
+and by putting it in steam, it can be worked like dough.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Clay Mixture for Forges.</span>&mdash;Mix dry 20 parts
+of fire clay, 20 parts cast-iron turnings, one part<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_165" id="Page_165">p. 165</a></span> of common salt, and <span class="ftf">1/2</span> part
+sal ammoniac, and then add water while stirring, so as to form a mortar of
+the proper consistency. The mixture will become very hard when heat is
+applied.</p>
+
+<p>A Modeling Clay. This is made by mixing the clay with glycerine and
+afterwards adding vaseline. If too much vaseline is added it becomes too
+soft.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fluids for Cleaning Clothes, Furniture</span>,
+Etc.&mdash;For Delicate Fabrics. Make strong decoction of soap bark, and put
+into alcohol.</p>
+
+<p>Non-inflammable Cleaner. Equal parts of acetone, ammonia and diluted
+alcohol.</p>
+
+<p>Taking dried paint from clothing. Shake up 2 parts of ammonia water with 1
+part of spirits of turpentine.</p>
+
+<p>Cleaning Furniture, etc. Unite 2.4 parts of wax; 9.4 parts of oil of
+turpentine; 42 parts acetic acid; 42 parts citric acid; 42 parts white soap.
+This must be well mingled before using.</p>
+
+<p>Removing Rust from Iron or Steel. Rub the surface with oil of tartar. Or,
+apply turpentine or kerosene, and after allowing to stand over night, clean
+with emery cloth.</p>
+
+<p>For Removing Ink Stains from Silver. Use a paste made of chloride of lime
+and water.</p>
+
+<p>To clean Silver-Plated Ware. Make a mixture of cream of tartar, 2 parts;
+levigated chalk, 2<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">p.
+166</a></span> parts; and alum, 1 part. Grind up the alum and mix
+thoroughly.</p>
+
+<p>Cleaning a Gas Stove. Make a solution of 9 parts of caustic soda and 150
+parts of water, and put the separate parts of the stove in the solution for
+an hour or two. The parts will come out looking like new.</p>
+
+<p>Cleaning Aluminum. A few drops of sulphuric acid in water will restore the
+luster to aluminum ware.</p>
+
+<p>Oil Eradicator. Soap spirits, 100 parts; ammonia solution, 25; acetic
+ether, 15 parts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Disinfectants.</span>&mdash;Camphor, 1 ounce; carbolic
+acid (75 per cent.), 12 ounces; aqua ammonia, 10 drachms; soft salt water, 8
+drachms.</p>
+
+<p>Water-Closet Deodorant. Ferric chloride, 4 parts; zinc chloride, 5 parts;
+aluminum chloride, 4 parts; calcium chloride, 5 parts; magnesium chloride, 3
+parts; and water sufficient to make 90 parts. When all is dissolved add to
+each gallon 10 grains of thymol and a quarter-ounce of rosemary that had been
+previously dissolved in six quarts of alcohol.</p>
+
+<p>Odorless Disinfectants. Mercuric chloride, 1 part; cupric sulphate, 10
+parts; zinc sulphate, 50 parts; sodium chloride, 65 parts; water to make
+1,000 parts.</p>
+
+<p>Emery for Lapping Purposes. Fill a pint bottle<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_167" id="Page_167">p. 167</a></span> with machine oil and emery
+flour, in the proportion of 7 parts oil and 1 part emery. Allow it to stand
+for twenty minutes, after shaking up well, then pour off half the contents,
+without disturbing the settlings, and the part so poured off contains only
+the finest of the emery particles, and is the only part which should be used
+on the lapping roller.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Explosives.</span>&mdash;Common Gunpowder. Potassium
+nitrate, 75 parts; charcoal, 15 parts; sulphur, 10 parts.</p>
+
+<p>Dynamite. 75 per cent. nitro-glycerine; 25 per cent. infusorial earth.</p>
+
+<p>Giant Powder. 36 per cent. nitro-glycerine; 48 per cent. nitrate of
+potash; 8 per cent. of sulphur; 8 per cent. charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>Fulminate. Chlorate of potassia, 6 parts; pure lampblack, 4 parts;
+sulphur, 1 part. A blow will cause it to explode.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Files.</span>&mdash;How to Keep Clean. Olive oil is
+the proper substance to rub over files, as this will prevent the creases from
+filling up while in use, and preserve the file for a longer time, and also
+enable it to do better cutting.</p>
+
+<p>To Renew Old Files. Use a potash bath for boiling them in, and afterwards
+brush them well so as to get the creases clean. Then stretch a cotton cloth
+between two supports, and after plunging the<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_168" id="Page_168">p. 168</a></span> file into nitric acid, use
+the stretched cloth to wipe off the acid. The object is to remove the acid
+from the ridges of the file, so the acid will only eat out or etch the deep
+portions between the ridges, and not affect the edges or teeth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fire Proof Materials or Substances.</span>&mdash;For
+Wood. For the kind where it is desired to apply with a brush, use 100 parts
+sodium silicate; 50 parts of Spanish white, and 100 parts of glue. It must be
+applied hot.</p>
+
+<p>Another good preparation is made as follows: Sodium silicate, 350 parts;
+asbestos, powdered, 350 parts; and boiling water 1,000 parts.</p>
+
+<p>For Coating Steel, etc. Silica, 50 parts; plastic fire clay, 10 parts;
+ball clay, 3 parts. To be thoroughly mixed.</p>
+
+<p>For Paper. Ammonium sulphate, 8 parts; boracic acid, 3 parts; borax, 2
+parts; water, 100 parts. This is applied in a liquid state to the paper
+surface.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Floor Dressings.</span>&mdash;Oil Stain. Neats' foot
+oil, 1 part; cottonseed oil, 1 part; petroleum oil, 1 part. This may be
+colored with anything desired, like burnt sienna, annatto, or other coloring
+material.</p>
+
+<p>Ballroom Powder. Hard paraffine, 1 pound; powdered boric acid, 7 pounds;
+oil of lavender, 1 drachm; oil of neroli, 20 minims.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Foot Powders.</span>&mdash;For Perspiring Feet.
+Balsam<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">p.
+169</a></span> Peru, 15 minims; formic acid, 1 drachm; chloral hydrate, 1
+drachm; alcohol to make 3 ounces.</p>
+
+<p>For Easing Feet. Tannaform, 1 drachm; talcum, 2 drachms; lycopodium, 30
+grains.</p>
+
+<p>Frost Bites. Carbolized water, 4 drachms; nitric acid, 1 drop; oil of
+geranium, 1 drop.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Glass.</span>&mdash;To cut glass, hold it under water,
+and use a pair of shears.</p>
+
+<p>To make a hole through glass, place a circle of moist earth on the glass,
+and form a hole in this the diameter wanted for the hole, and in this hole
+pour molten lead, and the part touched by the lead will fall out.</p>
+
+<p>To Frost Glass. Cover it with a mixture of 6 ounces of magnesium sulphate,
+2 ounces of dextrine, and 20 ounces of water. This produces a fine effect.</p>
+
+<p>To imitate ground glass, use a composition of sandarac, 2&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span> ounces; mastic,
+<span class="ftf">1/2</span> ounce; ether, 24 ounces; and benzine, 16 ounces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Iron and Steel.</span>&mdash;How to distinguish them.
+Wash the metal and put it into a solution of bichromate of potash to which
+has been added a small amount of sulphuric acid. In a minute or so take out
+the metal, wash and wipe it. Soft steel and cast iron will have the
+appearance of an ash-gray tint; tempered steels will be black; and pud<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">p. 170</a></span>dled or
+refined irons will be nearly white and have a metallic reflection.</p>
+
+<p>To Harden Iron or Steel. If wrought iron, put in the charge 20 parts, by
+weight, of common salt, 2 parts of potassium cyanide, .3 part of potassium
+bichromate, .15 part of broken glass.</p>
+
+<p>To harden cast iron, there should be added to the charge the following: To
+60 parts of water, add 2&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span> parts of vinegar, 3 parts of common salt, and .25
+part of hydrochloric acid.</p>
+
+<p>To soften castings: Heat them to a high temperature and cover them with
+fine coal dust and allow to cool gradually.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lacquers.</span>&mdash;For Aluminum. Dissolve 100
+parts of gum lac in 300 parts of ammonia and heat for an hour moderately in a
+water bath. The aluminum must be well cleaned before applying. Heat the
+aluminum plate afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>For Brass. Make a compound as follows; Annatto, &nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/4</span> ounce; saffro, <span class="ftf">1/4</span> ounce;
+turmeric, 1 ounce; seed lac, 3 ounces; and alcohol, 1 pint. Allow the mixture
+to stand for three days, then strain in the vessel which contains the seed
+lac, and allow to stand until all is dissolved.</p>
+
+<p>For Copper. Heat fine, thickly liquid amber varnish so it can be readily
+applied to the copper, and this is allowed to dry. Then heat the coated
+object until it commences to smoke and turn brown</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">p.
+171</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lubricants.</span>&mdash;Heavy machinery oils. Use
+paraffine, 8 pounds; palm oil, 20 pounds; and oleonaptha, 12 pounds. Dissolve
+the paraffine in the oleonaptha at a temperature of 160 degrees and then stir
+in the palm oil a little at a time.</p>
+
+<p>For Cutting Tools. Heat six gallons of water and put in three and a half
+pounds of soft soap and a half gallon of clean refuse oil. It should be well
+mixed.</p>
+
+<p>For high-speed bearings. Use flaky graphite and kerosene oil. Apply this
+as soon as there is any indication of heating in the bearings.</p>
+
+<p>For lathe centers, one part of graphite and four parts of tallow
+thoroughly mixed and applied will be very serviceable.</p>
+
+<p>For Wooden Gears. Use tallow, 30 parts; palm oil; 20 parts; fish oil, 10
+parts; and graphite, 20 parts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Paper.</span>&mdash;Fire Proof Paper.&mdash;Make the
+following solution: Ammonium sulphate, 8 parts; boracic acid, 3 parts; water,
+100 parts. Mix at a temperature of 120 degrees. Paper coated with this will
+resist heat.</p>
+
+<p>Filter Paper. Dip the paper into nitric acid of 1.433 specific gravity,
+and subsequently wash and dry it. This makes a fine filtering body.</p>
+
+<p>Carbon Paper. A variety of substances may be used, such as fine soot or
+ivory black, ultramarine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172"
+id="Page_172">p. 172</a></span> or Paris blue. Mix either with fine grain
+soap, so it is of a uniform consistency and then apply to the paper with a
+stiff brush, rubbing it in until it is evenly spread over the surface.</p>
+
+<p>Tracing Paper. Take unsized paper and apply a coat of varnish made of
+equal parts of Canada balsam and oil of turpentine. To increase the
+transparency give another coat. The sheets must be well dried before
+using.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Photography.</span>&mdash;Developers.</p>
+
+<p>1. Pure water, 30 ounces; sulphite soda, 5 ounces; carbonate soda, 2&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span>
+ounces.</p>
+
+<p>2. Pure water, 24 ounces; oxalic acid, 15 grains; pyrogallic acid, 1
+ounce.</p>
+
+<p>To develop use of solution 1, 1 ounce; solution 2, <span class="ftf">1/2</span> ounce; and water, 3
+ounces.</p>
+
+<p>Stock solutions for developing: Make solution No. 1 as follows: water, 32
+ounces; tolidol, I ounce; sodium sulphate, 1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span> ounces.</p>
+
+<p>Solution No. 2: Water, 32 ounces; sodium sulphate.</p>
+
+<p>Solution No. 3: Water, 32 ounces; sodium carbonate, from 4 to 6 ounces.</p>
+
+<p>Fixing bath. Add two ounces of S. P. C. clarifier (acid bisulphate of
+sodium) solution to one quart of hypo solution 1 in 5.</p>
+
+<p>Clearing solution. Saturated solution of alum, 20 ounces; and hydrochloric
+acid, 1 ounce.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">p.
+173</a></span> Varnish. Brush over the negative a solution of equal parts of
+benzol and Japanese gold size.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plasters.</span>&mdash;Court Plaster. Use good quality
+silk, and on this spread a solution of isinglass warmed. Dry and repeat
+several times, then apply several coats of balsam of Peru. Or,</p>
+
+<p>On muslin or silk properly stretched, apply a thin coating of smooth
+strained flour paste, and when dry several coats of colorless gelatine are
+added. The gelatine is applied warm, and cooled before the fabric is taken
+off.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plating.</span>&mdash;Bronze coating. For antiques,
+use vinegar, 1,000 parts; by weight, powdered bloodstone, 125 parts;
+plumbago, 25 parts. Apply with brush.</p>
+
+<p>For brass where a copper surface is desired, make a rouge with a little
+chloride of platinum and water, and apply with a brush.</p>
+
+<p>For gas fixtures. Use a bronze paint and mix with it five times its volume
+of spirit of turpentine, and to this mixture add dried slaked lime, about 40
+grains to the pint. Agitate well and decant the clear liquid.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Coloring Metals.</span>&mdash;Brilliant black for
+iron. Selenious acid, 6 parts; cupric sulphate, 10 parts; water 1,000 parts;
+nitric acid, 5 parts.</p>
+
+<p>Blue-black. Selenious acid, 10 parts; nitric acid, 5 parts; cupric
+sulphate; water, 1,000 parts. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174"
+id="Page_174">p. 174</a></span> colors will be varied dependent on the time
+the objects are immersed in the solution.</p>
+
+<p>Brass may be colored brown by using an acid solution of nitrate of silver
+and bismuth; or a light bronze by an acid solution of nitrate of silver and
+copper; or black by a solution of nitrate of copper.</p>
+
+<p>To copper plate aluminum, take 30 parts of sulphate of copper; 30 parts of
+cream of tartar; 25 parts of soda; and 1,000 parts of water. The article to
+be coated is merely dipped into the solution.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Polishers.</span>&mdash;Floor Polish. Permanganate of
+potash in boiling water, applied to the floor hot, will produce a stain, the
+color being dependent on the number of coats. The floor may them be polished
+with beeswax and turpentine.</p>
+
+<p>For Furniture. Make a paste of equal parts of plaster of paris, whiting,
+pumice stone and litharge, mixed with Japan dryer, boiled linseed oil and
+turpentine. This may be colored to suit. This will fill the cracks of the
+wood. Afterwards rub over the entire surface of the wood with a mixture of 1
+part Japan, 2 of linseed oil, and three parts of turpentine, also colored,
+and after this has been allowed to slightly harden, rub it off, and within a
+day or two it will have hardened sufficiently so that the surface can be
+polished.</p>
+
+<p>Stove Polish. Ceresine, 12 parts; Japan wax,<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_175" id="Page_175">p. 175</a></span> 10 parts; turpentine oil, 100
+parts; lampblack, 12 parts; graphite, 10 parts. Melt the ceresine and wax
+together, and cool off partly, and then add and stir in the graphite and
+lampblack which were previously mixed up with the turpentine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Putty.</span>&mdash;Black Putty. Whiting and antimony
+sulphide, and soluble glass. This can be polished finely after hardening.</p>
+
+<p>Common Putty. Whiting and linseed oil mixed up to form a dough.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rust Preventive.</span>&mdash;For Machinery. Dissolve
+an ounce of camphor in one pound of melted lard. Mix with this enough fine
+black lead to give it an iron color. After it has been on for a day, rub off
+with a cloth.</p>
+
+<p>For tools, yellow vaseline is the best substance.</p>
+
+<p>For zinc, clean the plate by immersing in water that has a small amount of
+sulphuric acid in it. Then wash clean and coat with asphalt varnish.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Solders.</span>&mdash;For aluminum. Use 5 parts of tin
+and 1 part of aluminum as the alloy, and solder with the iron or a blow
+pipe.</p>
+
+<p>Yellow hard solder. Brass, 3&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span> parts; and zinc, 1 part.</p>
+
+<p>For easily fusing, make an alloy of equal parts of brass and zinc.</p>
+
+<p>For a white hard solder use brass, 12 parts; zinc, 1 part; and tin, 2
+parts.</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">p. 176</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Soldering Fluxes.</span>&mdash;For soft soldering, use a
+solution of chloride of zinc and sal ammoniac. Powdered rosin is also
+used.</p>
+
+<p>For hard soldering, borax is used most frequently.</p>
+
+<p>A mixture of equal parts of cryolite and barium chloride is very good in
+soldering bronze or aluminum alloys.</p>
+
+<p>Other hard solders are alloyed as follows: brass, 4 parts; and zinc, 5
+parts. Also brass, 7 parts; and zinc, 2 parts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Steel Tempering</span>-.-Heat the steel red hot and
+then plunge it into sealing wax.</p>
+
+<p>For tempering small steel springs, they may be plunged into a fish oil
+which has a small amount of rosin and tallow.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Varnishes.</span>&mdash;Black Varnish. Shellac, 5
+parts; borax, 2 parts; glycerine, 2 parts; aniline black, 6 parts; water, 45
+parts. Dissolve the shellac in hot water and add the other ingredients at a
+temperature of 200 degrees.</p>
+
+<p>A good can varnish is made by dissolving 15 parts of shellac, and adding
+thereto 2 parts of Venice turpentine, 8 parts of sandarac, and 75 parts of
+spirits.</p>
+
+<p>A varnish for tin and other small metal boxes is made of 75 parts alcohol,
+which dissolves 15 parts of shellac, and 3 parts of turpentine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sealing Wax.</span>&mdash;For modeling purposes. White
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">p. 177</a></span>
+wax, 20 parts; turpentine, 5 parts; sesame oil, 2 parts; vermilion, 2 parts.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinary Sealing. 4 pounds of shellac, 1 pound Venice turpentine, add 3
+pounds of vermilion. Unite by heat.</p>
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">p.
+178</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="XVI" id="XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>HANDY TABLES</h3>
+
+<h4>TABLE OF WEIGHTS FOR ROUND AND SQUARE STEEL.</h4>
+
+<div class='center'>
+
+<p class="center">The Estimate is on the basis of Lineal Feet. 1 cu. ft. of Steel&mdash;490 lbs.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="500" summary="Steel Weights"
+style="border-top: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
+  <col style="width:20%;" /><col style="width:30%;" /><col style="width:20%;" /><col style="width:30%;" />
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="tcbnw1hr" style="font-size: 100%;" rowspan="2">Sizes in<br />Inches</td>
+  <td class="tcbnw1trl" style="font-size: 100%;" colspan="2">Weight in Pounds</td>
+  <td class="tcbnw1hr" style="font-size: 100%;" rowspan="2">Sizes in<br />Inches</td>
+  <td class="tcbnw1tl" style="font-size: 100%;" colspan="2">Weight in Pounds</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tcbnw1hr" style="font-size: 100%;">Round</td>
+  <td class="tcbnw1hr" style="font-size: 100%;">Square</td>
+  <td class="tcbnw1hr" style="font-size: 100%;">Round</td>
+  <td class="tcbnwtbh" style="font-size: 100%;">Square</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;</td><td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;</td><td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tr1-1em">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">1/16</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.110</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.013</td>
+<td class="tlbr10em">1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/16</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.014</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">3.400</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">1/8</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.042</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.053</td>
+<td class="tlbr10em">1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/8</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.379</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">3.838</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">3/16</span></td><td class="trbr1em">.094</td><td class="trbr1em">.119</td><td class="tlbr10em">1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">3/16</span></td><td class="trbr1em">3.766</td><td class="tr1-1em">4.303</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">1/4</span></td><td class="trbr1em">.167</td><td class="trbr1em">.212</td><td class="tlbr10em">1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/4</span></td><td class="trbr1em">4.173</td><td class="tr1-1em">4.795</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">5/16</span></td><td class="trbr1em">.261</td><td class="trbr1em">.333</td><td class="tlbr10em">1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">5/16</span></td><td class="trbr1em">4.600</td><td class="tr1-1em">5.312</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">3/8</span></td><td class="trbr1em">.375</td><td class="trbr1em">.478</td><td class="tlbr10em">1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">3/8</span></td><td class="trbr1em">5.049</td><td class="tr1-1em">5.857</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">7/16</span></td><td class="trbr1em">.511</td><td class="trbr1em">.651</td><td class="tlbr10em">1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">7/16</span></td><td class="trbr1em">5.518</td><td class="tr1-1em">6.428</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">1/2</span></td><td class="trbr1em">.667</td><td class="trbr1em">.850</td><td class="tlbr10em">1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span></td><td class="trbr1em">6.008</td><td class="tr1-1em">7.650</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">9/16</span></td><td class="trbr1em">.845</td><td class="trbr1em">1.026</td><td class="tlbr10em">1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">9/16</span></td><td class="trbr1em">6.520</td><td class="tr1-1em">7.650</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">5/8</span></td><td class="trbr1em">1.043</td><td class="trbr1em">1.328</td><td class="tlbr10em">1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">5/8</span></td><td class="trbr1em">7.051</td><td class="tr1-1em">8.301</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">11/16</span></td><td class="trbr1em">1.262</td><td class="trbr1em">1.608</td><td class="tlbr10em">1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">11/16</span></td><td class="trbr1em">7.604</td><td class="tr1-1em">8.978</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">3/4</span></td><td class="trbr1em">1.502</td><td class="trbr1em">1.913</td><td class="tlbr10em">1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">3/4</span></td><td class="trbr1em">8.178</td><td class="tr1-1em">10.410</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">13/16</span></td><td class="trbr1em">1.773</td><td class="trbr1em">2.245</td><td class="tlbr10em">1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">13/16</span></td><td class="trbr1em">8.773</td><td class="tr1-1em">11.170</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">7/8</span></td><td class="trbr1em">2.044</td><td class="trbr1em">2.603</td><td class="tlbr10em">1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">7/8</span></td><td class="trbr1em">9.388</td><td class="tr1-1em">11.950</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">15/16</span></td><td class="trbr1em">2.347</td><td class="trbr1em">2.989</td><td class="tlbr10em">1&nbsp;<span class="ftf">15/16</span></td><td class="trbr1em">10.020</td><td class="tr1-1em">12.760</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">1</td><td class="trbr1em">2.670</td><td class="trbr1em">3.400</td><td class="tlbr10em">2</td><td class="trbr1em">10.680</td><td class="tr1-1em">13.600</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;</td><td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;</td><td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tr1-1em">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">p. 179</a></span></div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+
+<h4>WEIGHT OF FLAT STEEL BARS.</h4>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="500" summary="Steel Bar Weights"
+style="border-top: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tcbnw1hr"  style="font-size: 110%;">Thickness<br />in<br />Inches</td>
+  <td colspan="9" class="tcbnw1tl" style="font-size: 110%; border-bottom: 1px solid black;">Width</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">1/16</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.212</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.265</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.32</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.372</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.425</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.477</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.53</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.588</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">.63</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">1/8</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.425</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.53</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.64</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.745</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.85</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.955</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.06</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.17</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">1.27</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">3/16</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.638</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.797</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.957</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.11</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.28</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.44</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.59</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.75</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">1.91</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">1/4</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">.85</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.06</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.28</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.49</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.70</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.91</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.12</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.34</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">2.55</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">5/16</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.06</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.33</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.59</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.86</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.12</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.39</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.65</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.92</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">3.19</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">3/8</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.28</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.59</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.92</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.23</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.55</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.87</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.19</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.51</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">3.83</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">7/16</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.49</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.85</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.23</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.60</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.98</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.35</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.72</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">4.09</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">4.46</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">1/2</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.70</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.12</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.55</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.98</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.40</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.83</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">4.25</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">4.67</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">5.10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">9/16</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">1.92</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.39</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.87</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.35</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.83</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">4.30</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">4.78</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">5.26</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">5.74</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">5/8</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.12</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.65</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.19</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.72</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">4.25</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">4.78</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">5.31</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">5.84</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">6.38</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">11/16</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.34</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.92</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.51</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">4.09</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">4.67</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">5.26</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">5.84</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">6.43</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">7.02</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">3/4</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.55</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.19</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.83</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">4.47</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">5.10</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">5.75</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">6.38</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">7.02</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">7.65</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">13/16</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.76</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.45</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">4.14</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">4.48</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">5.53</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">6.21</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">6.90</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">7.60</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">8.29</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">7/8</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2.98</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.72</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">4.47</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">5.20</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">5.95</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">6.69</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">7.44</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">8.18</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">8.93</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em"><span class="ftf">15/16</span></td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.19</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.99</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">4.78</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">5.58</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">6.38</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">7.18</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">7.97</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">8.77</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">9.57</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">1</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3.40</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">4.25</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">5.10</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">5.95</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">6.80</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">7.65</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">8.50</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">9.35</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">10.20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="nomarg"> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">p. 180</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT.</h4>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<p class='center'>For Merchandise of all kinds.</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Avoirdupois Weight">
+  <col style="width:10%;" /> <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:40%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">16</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Drams (dr.) make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Ounce (oz.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">16</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Ounces make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Pound (pd.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">25</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Pounds make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Quarter (qr.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">4</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Quarters, or 100 lbs., make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Hundredweight (cwt.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">20</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Hundredweights make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Ton (T.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">2,240</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Pounds make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg"> 1 Long ton (L. T.)</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<h4>TROY WEIGHT.</h4>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<p class='center'>For Gold, Silver, and Precious Metals.</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Troy Weight">
+  <col style="width:10%;" /> <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:40%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">24</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Grains (gr.) make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Pennyweight (pwt.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">20</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Pennyweights make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Ounce (oz.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">12</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Ounces make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Pound (pd.)</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4>APOTHECARIES WEIGHT.</h4>
+<div class='center'>
+<p class='center'>For Drugs, Medicals and Chemicals.</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Apothecaries Weight">
+  <col style="width:10%;" /> <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:40%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">20</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Grains (gr.) make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Scruple (sc.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">3</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Scruples make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Dram (dr.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">8</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Drams make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Pound (pd.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">12</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Ounces make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Pound (pd.)</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">p. 181</a></span></div>
+
+<h4>LINEAR MEASURE.</h4>
+<div class='center'>
+<p class='center'>For Surveyors' Use.</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Linear Measure">
+  <col style="width:10%;" /> <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:40%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">12</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Inches make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Foot</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">3</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Feet make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Yard</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="tr1em">5&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span></td>
+<td class="tl0em">Yards make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Rod</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">40</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Rods make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Furlong</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">8</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Furlongs make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Mile</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<h4>LONG MEASURE.</h4>
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Long Measure">
+  <col style="width:10%;" /> <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:40%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">12</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Inches make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Foot</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">3</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Feet make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Yard</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">6</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Feet make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Fathom</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">5&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span></td>
+<td class="tl0em">Yards make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Rod or pole</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">40</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Poles make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Furlong</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">8</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Furlongs make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Mile</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">3</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Miles make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 League</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">69&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span></td>
+<td class="tl0em">Leagues make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Degree</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<h4>SQUARE MEASURE.</h4>
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Square Measure">
+  <col style="width:10%;" /> <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:40%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">144</td>
+<td class="tl0em">square inches make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 square foot</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">9</td>
+<td class="tl0em">square feet make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 square yard</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">30&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span></td>
+<td class="tl0em">square yards make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 square pole</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">40</td>
+<td class="tl0em">square poles make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 square rod</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">4</td>
+<td class="tl0em">square rods make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 acre</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">640</td>
+<td class="tl0em">square acres make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 acre mile</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">9</td>
+<td class="tl0em">square feet make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 square yard</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">p. 182</a></span></div>
+
+<h4>SOLID OR CUBIC MEASURE.</h4>
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Solid Or Cubic Measure">
+  <col style="width:10%;" /> <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:40%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">1,728</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Cubic inches make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Cubic foot</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">27</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Cubic feet make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Cubic yard</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">128</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Cubic feet make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Cord of wood</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">24&nbsp;<span class="ftf">3/4</span></td>
+<td class="tl0em">Cubic feet make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Perch of stone</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<h4>DRY MEASURE.</h4>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Dry Measure">
+  <col style="width:10%;" /> <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:40%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">2</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Pints make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Quart (qt.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">8</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Quarts make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 peck (pk.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">4</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Pecks make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Bushel (bu.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">36</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Bushels make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Chaldron (ch.)</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<h4>LIQUID MEASURE.</h4>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Liquid Measure">
+  <col style="width:10%;" /> <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:40%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">4</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Gills (g.) make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Pint (pt.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">4</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Quarts make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Gallon (gal.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">31&nbsp;<span class="ftf">1/2</span></td>
+<td class="tl0em">Gallons make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Barrel (bbl.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">2</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Bbls., or 63 gals., make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Hogshead (hhd.)</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<h4>PAPER MEASURE.</h4>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Paper Measure">
+  <col style="width:10%;" /> <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:40%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">24</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Sheets (sh.) make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Quire (qu.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">20</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Quires make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Ream (r.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tr1em">10</td>
+<td class="tl0em">Reams make</td>
+<td class="tl1emhg">1 Bale (ba.) or bundle.</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">p. 183</a></span></div>
+
+<h4>TABLE OF TEMPERATURES.</h4>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Table Of Temperatures">
+  <col style="width:44%;" /> <col style="width:16%;" /><col style="width:16%;" /><col style="width:16%;" /><col style="width:16%;" />
+<tbody valign="bottom">
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Greatest artificial cold</td>
+<td class="tr1em">220&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">degrees</td>
+<td class="tc1em">below</td>
+<td class="tc1em">Fahr.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8220;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;natural&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8220;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tr1em">39&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Mercury freezes</td>
+<td class="tr1em">73.7&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Mixture of snow and salt</td>
+<td class="tr1em">4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Greatest density of water at</td>
+<td class="tr1em">39.2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">above</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Blood Heat</td>
+<td class="tr1em">97.9&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Alcohol boils</td>
+<td class="tr1em">172.4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Water boils</td>
+<td class="tr1em">212&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Mercury boils</td>
+<td class="tr1em">662&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Sulphur boils</td>
+<td class="tr1em">824&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Silver melts</td>
+<td class="tr1em">1,749&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Cast iron melts</td>
+<td class="tr1em">2,786&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<h4>STRENGTH OF VARIOUS METALS.</h4>
+
+<p>The tests are made by using a cubic inch of the metal and compressing it,
+and by trying to draw apart a square inch of metal. Indicated in pounds</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">p. 184</a></span></div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="460" summary="Strength of Various Metals"
+style="border-top: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
+  <col style="width:40%;" /><col style="width:30%;" /><col style="width:30%;"/>
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tcbnw1hr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tcbnw1hr">Tension</td>
+  <td class="tcbnwtbh">Compression</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">Aluminum</td><td class="trbr1em">15,000</td><td class="tr1-1em">12,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">Brass, cast</td><td class="trbr1em">24,000</td><td class="tr1-1em">30,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">Bronze, gun metal</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">32,000</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">20,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8220;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;manganese</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">60,000</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">120,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8220;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;phosphor</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">50,000</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">. . . . . .</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">Copper, cast</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">24,000</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">40,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8220;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;wire annealed</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">36,000</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">. . . . . .</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8220;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;unannealed</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">60,000</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">. . . . . .</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">Iron, cast</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">15,000</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">. . . . . .</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8220;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8220;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;annealed</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">60,000</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">80,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8220;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8220;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;unannealed</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">80,000</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">. . . . . .</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8220;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;wrought</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">48,000</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">46,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">Lead, cast</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">2,000</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">. . . . . .</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">Steel castings</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">70,000</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">70,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8220;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;plow</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">270,000</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">. . . . . .</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8220;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;structural</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">60,000</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">60,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8220;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;wire annealed</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">80,000</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">. . . . . .</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8220;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;crucible</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">180,000</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">. . . . . .</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">Tin</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">3,800</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">6,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr10em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="trbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">p. 185</a></span></div>
+
+<h4>FREEZING MIXTURES</h4>
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="460" summary="Freezing MixtureS"
+style="border-top: 1px solid black; border-bottom: 1px solid black;">
+  <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:30%;" /><col style="width:20%;" />
+<tbody valign="bottom">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tcbnw1hr" style="font-size: 100%; font-variant: small-caps;" rowspan="2">Mixtures</td>
+  <td class="tcbnw1tl" style="font-size: 100%;" colspan="2">Temperature Changes in<br />Degrees Fahrenheit</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tcbnw1hl" style="border-left: none; font-size: 100%;">From</td>
+  <td class="tcbnw1hl" style="font-size: 100%;">To</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr1emhg">&nbsp;</td><td class="tcbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr1emhg">Common salt, 1 part; snow, 3 parts</td><td class="tcbr1em">32</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">zero .0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr1emhg">Common salt, 1 part; snow 1 part</td><td class="tcbr1em">32</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">- .4</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr1emhg">Calcium chloride, 3 parts; snow 1 part</td><td class="tcbr1em">32</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">-27</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr1emhg">Calcium chloride, 2 parts; snow 1 part</td><td class="tcbr1em">32</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">-44</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr1emhg">Sal ammoniac, 5 parts; salt-peter 5 parts; water 16 parts</td><td class="tcbr1em">50</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">-10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr1emhg">Sal ammoniac, 1 parts; salt-peter 1 part; water 1 part</td><td class="tcbr1em">46</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">-11</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr1emhg">Ammonium nitrate, 1 part; water 1 part</td><td class="tcbr1em">50</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">- 3</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr1emhg">Potassium hydrate, 4 parts; snow 3 parts</td><td class="tcbr1em">32</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">-35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tlbr1emhg">&nbsp;</td><td class="tcbr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tr1-1em">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<h4>IGNITION TEMPERATURES.</h4>
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Ignition Temperatures">
+  <col style="width:38%;" /> <col style="width:12%;" /><col style="width:25%;" /><col style="width:25%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Phosphorus</td>
+<td class="tr1em">120</td>
+<td class="tc1em">degrees</td>
+<td class="tc1em">Fahrenheit</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Bi-sulphide of carbon</td>
+<td class="tr1em">300</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Gun-cotton</td>
+<td class="tr1em">430</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Nitro-glycerine</td>
+<td class="tr1em">490</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Phosphorus, amorphous</td>
+<td class="tr1em">500</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Rifle powder</td>
+<td class="tr1em">550</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Charcoal</td>
+<td class="tr1em">660</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Dry pine wood</td>
+<td class="tr1em">800</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl1em">Oak</td>
+<td class="tr1em">900</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+<td class="tc1em">&#8220;</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">p. 186</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>POWER AND HEAT EQUIVALENTS.</h4>
+
+<p>In studying matters pertaining to power and heat, certain terms are used,
+such as horsepower, horsepower-hours, watts, watt-hours, kilowatt,
+kilowatt-hours, foot-pounds, joule, and B. T. U. (British Thermal Unit).</p>
+
+<p>The following tables give a comprehensive idea of the values of the
+different terms:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Power and Heat Equivalents">
+  <col style="width:35%;" /><col style="width:65%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tl1em">1 Horsepower-hour</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg">= 0.746 kilowatt-hour = 1,980,000 foot-pounds of water evaporated at
+212 degrees Fahrenheit, raised from 62 degrees to 212 degrees.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tl1em">1 Kilowatt-hour</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg">= 1,000 watt-hours = 1.34 horse-power-hours
+= 2,653,200 foot-pounds = 3,600,000 joules = 3,420 B. T. U. = 3.54 pounds of water
+evaporated at 212 degrees = 22.8 pounds of water raised from 62 to 212 degrees.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tl1em">1 Horsepower</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg">= 746 watts = 0.746 kilowatts.= 33,000 foot-pounds
+per second = 2,550 B. T. U. per min. = 0.71 B. T. U. per second = 2.64 pounds of
+water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tl1em">1 Kilowatt</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg">= 1,000 watts = 1.34 horsepower = 2,653,200 foot-pounds per hour = 44,220 foot-pounds
+per min. = 737 foot-pounds per second = 3,420 B. T. U. per hour = 57 B. T. U. per min. =
+0.95 B. T. U. per second = 3.54 pounds of water
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">p. 187</a></span>
+evaporated per hour at 212.
+</td>
+</tr><tr>
+  <td class="tl1em">1 Watt</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg">= 1 joule per second = 0.00134 horse-power = 0.001 kilowatt = 342 B. T. U. per hour =
+44.22 foot-pounds per min. = 0.74 foot-pounds per second = 0.0035 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tl1em">1 B. T. U. (British Thermal Unit)</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg">= 1,052 watt-seconds = 778
+foot-pounds = 0.252 calorie = 0.000292 kilowatt-hours = 0.000391 horsepower-hour = 0.00104 pounds of water evaporated at 212
+degrees.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tl1em">1 Foot-pound</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg">= 1.36 joule = 0.000000377 kilowatt-hour = 0.00129 B. T. U. = 0.0000005 horsepower-hour.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tl1em">1 Joule</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg">= 1 watt-second = 0.000000278 kilowatt-hour = 0.00095 B. T. U. = 0.74 foot-pounds.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">p.
+188</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="XVII" id="XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>INVENTIONS AND PATENTS, AND INFORMATION ABOUT<br />
+THE RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF INVENTORS<br />
+AND WORKMEN</h3>
+
+<p>There is no trade or occupation which calls forth the inventive faculty to
+a greater degree than the machinist's. Whether it be in the direction of
+making some new tool, needed in some special work, or in devising a
+particular movement, or mechanical expedient, the machinist must be prepared
+to meet the issues and decide on the best structural arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>Opportunities also come daily to the workers in machine shops to a greater
+extent than other artisans, because inventors in every line bring inventions
+to them to be built and experimentally tested.</p>
+
+<p>A knowledge of the rights and duties of inventors, and of the men who
+build the models, is very desirable; and for your convenience we append the
+following information:</p>
+
+<p>The inventor of a device is he who has conceived an idea and has put it
+into some concrete form.</p>
+
+<p>A mere idea is not an invention.</p>
+
+<p>The article so conceived and constructed, must<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_189" id="Page_189">p. 189</a></span> be both <i>new</i> and
+<i>useful</i>. There must be some utility. It may be simply a toy, or
+something to amuse.</p>
+
+<p>If A has an idea, and he employs and pays B to work out the device, and
+put it into practical shape, A is the inventor, although B may have
+materially modified, or even wholly changed it. B is simply the agent or tool
+to bring it to perfection, and his pay for doing the work is his
+compensation.</p>
+
+<p>An inventor has two years' time within which he may apply for a patent,
+after he has completed his device and begun the sale of it. If he sells the
+article for more than two years before applying for a patent, this will bar a
+grant.</p>
+
+<p>Two or more inventors may apply for a patent, provided each has
+contributed something toward bringing it to its perfected state. Each cannot
+apply separately. The patent issued will be owned by them jointly.</p>
+
+<p>Joint owners of a patent are not partners, unless they have signed
+partnership papers respecting the patent. Because they are partners in some
+other enterprise, disconnected from the patent, that does not constitute them
+partners in the patent. They are merely joint owners.</p>
+
+<p>If they have no special agreement with respect to the patent each can
+grant licenses to manufac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190"
+id="Page_190">p. 190</a></span>ture, independently of the others, without
+being compelled to account to the others, and each has a right to sell his
+interest without asking permission of the others.</p>
+
+<p>An <i>inventor</i> is one who has devised an invention. A <i>patentee</i>
+is one who owns a patent, or an interest in one, be he the inventor or
+not.</p>
+
+<p>The United States government does not grant Caveats. The only protection
+offered is by way of patent.</p>
+
+<p>A patent runs for a period of seventeen years, and may be renewed by act
+of Congress only, for a further term of seven years.</p>
+
+<p>An interference is a proceeding in the Patent Office to determine who is
+the first inventor of a device. The following is a brief statement of the
+course followed:</p>
+
+<p>When two or more applicants have applications pending, which, in the
+opinion of the Examiner, appear to be similar, the Office may declare an
+interference.</p>
+
+<p>If an applicant has an application pending, and the Examiner rejects it on
+reference to a patent already issued, the applicant may demand an
+interference, and the Office will then grant a hearing to determine which of
+the two is entitled to the patent.</p>
+
+<p>The first step, after the declaration of interfer<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_191" id="Page_191">p. 191</a></span>ence, is to request that each
+applicant file a preliminary statement, under oath, in which he must set
+forth the following:</p>
+
+<p>First: The date of conception of the invention.</p>
+
+<p>Second: Date of the first reduction to writing, or the preparation of
+drawings.</p>
+
+<p>Third: Date of making of the first model or device.</p>
+
+<p>Fourth: When a complete machine was first produced.</p>
+
+<p>These statements are filed in the Patent Office, and opened on the same
+day, and times are then set for the respective parties to take testimony.</p>
+
+<p>If one of the parties was the first to conceive and reduce to practice, as
+well as the first to file his application, he will be adjudged to be the
+first inventor, without necessitating the taking of testimony.</p>
+
+<p>If, on the other hand, one was the first to conceive, and the other the
+first to file, then testimony will be required to determine the question of
+invention.</p>
+
+<p>The granting of a patent is not conclusive that the patentee was, in
+reality, the first inventor. The law is that the patent must issue to the
+<i>first</i> inventor, and if it can be proven that another party was the
+first, a new patent will issue to the one who thus establishes his right. The
+Commis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">p.
+192</a></span>sioner of Patents has no right to take away the patent first
+issued. Only the Courts are competent to do this.</p>
+
+<p>A patent is granted for the right to <i>make</i>, to <i>use</i> and to
+<i>vend</i>.</p>
+
+<p>An owner of a patent cannot sell the right only to make, or to sell, or to
+use. Such a document would be a simple license, only, for that particular
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p>A patent may be sold giving a divided, or an undivided right.</p>
+
+<p>A divided right is where a State, or any other particular territorial
+right is granted. An undivided right is a quarter, or a half, or some other
+portion in the patent itself.</p>
+
+<p>If an inventor assigns his invention, and states in the granting clause
+that he conveys "all his right and title in and to the invention," or words
+to that effect, he conveys all his rights throughout the world.</p>
+
+<p>If the conveyance says, "all rights and title in and throughout the United
+States," he thereby reserves all other countries.</p>
+
+<p>If a patent is issued, and the number and date of the patent are given,
+the assignment conveys the patent for the United States only, unless foreign
+countries are specifically mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>To convey an invention or patent, some definite<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_193" id="Page_193">p. 193</a></span> number or filing date must be
+given in the document, with sufficient clearness and certainty to show the
+intent of the assignor.</p>
+
+<p>An invention does not depend on quantity, but on quality. It is that which
+produces a new and a useful <i>result</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States patents are granted for the purpose of promoting the
+useful arts and sciences.</p>
+
+<p>In England, and in many other foreign countries, patents are granted, not
+on account of any merit on the part of the inventor, but as a favor of the
+crown, or sovereign.</p>
+
+<p>Originally patents were granted by the crown for the exclusive privilege
+in dealing in any commodity, and for this right a royal fee was exacted. From
+this fact the term <i>royalty</i> originated.</p>
+
+<p>An international agreement is now in force among nearly all countries,
+which respects the filing of an application in any country, for a period of
+one year in the other countries.</p>
+
+<p>In making an application for a patent, a petition is required, a
+specification showing its object, use, and particular construction, followed
+by a claim, or claims, and accompanied by a drawing, if the invention will
+permit of it, (which must be made in black, with India ink), and an oath.</p>
+
+<p>The oath requires the following assertions: That the applicant is the
+first and original inventor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194"
+id="Page_194">p. 194</a></span> of the device, and that he does not know and
+does not believe the same was ever known or used before his invention or more
+than two years before his application.</p>
+
+<p>He must also further allege that the invention was not patented or
+described in any printed publication here or abroad, and not manufactured
+more than two years prior to the application, and that he has not made an
+application, nor authorized any one to do so more than two years prior to his
+application.</p>
+
+<p>The first Government fee is $15, payable at the time of filing, and the
+second and final fee is $20, payable at the time the patent is ordered to
+issue.</p>
+
+<p>The filing of an application for patent is a secret act, and the Patent
+Office will not give any information to others concerning it, prior to the
+issue of the patent</p>
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">p.
+195</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="GLOSSARY_OF_WORDS" id="GLOSSARY_OF_WORDS"></a>GLOSSARY OF
+WORDS<br />
+USED IN TEXT OF THIS VOLUME<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<div class="index">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="76%" cellspacing="0" summary="Glossary">
+<col style="width:15%;" />
+<col style="width:85%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr><td align='left'>Abrupt.</td><td align='left'>Suddenly; coming without warning.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Abrasive.</td><td align='left'>A material which wears away.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Actuate.</td><td align='left'>Influenced, as by sudden motive; incited to action.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Accumulate.</td><td align='left'>To bring together; to amass; to collect.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Acoustics.</td><td align='left'>The branch of physics which treats of sound.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Adhesion.</td><td align='left'>To hold together; a molecular force by means of which particles stick together.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Affinity.</td><td align='left'>Any natural drawing together; the property or force in chemicals to move toward each other.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Aggravate.</td><td align='left'>To incite; to make worse or more burdensome.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Alloy.</td><td align='left'>A combination of two or more metals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Altitude.</td><td align='left'>Height; a vertical distance above any point.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Alkali.</td><td align='left'>Any substance which will neutralize an acid, as lime, magnesia, and the like.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Amalgam.</td><td align='left'>Any compound of metal which has mercury as one of the elements.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Amiss.</td><td align='left'>Wrong, fault, misdeed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Annealing.</td><td align='left'>A process of gradually heating and cooling metals, whereby hardness and toughness are brought about.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Angle plate.</td><td align='left'>A metal structure which has two bodies, or limbs, at right angles to each other.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Analysis.</td><td align='left'>The separating of substances into their elementary forms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Anchor bolt.</td><td align='left'>A structure intended to be placed in a hole in a wall, and held there by a brew which expands a part of the structure.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">p.
+196</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Apprentice.</td><td align='left'>One who is learning a trade or occupation.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Artificial.</td><td align='left'>That which resembles the original; made in imitation of.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Arbor.</td><td align='left'>A shaft, spindle, mandrel, or axle.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Armature.</td><td align='left'>A metallic body within the magnetic field of a magnet.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Arbitrary.</td><td align='left'>Stubborn determination. Doing a thing without regard to consequences.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Artisan.</td><td align='left'>One skilled in any mechanical art.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Attributable.</td><td align='left'>That which belongs to or is associated with.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Automatically.</td><td align='left'>Operating by its own structure, or without outside aid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Augmented.</td><td align='left'>Added to; to increase.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Auxiliary.</td><td align='left'>To aid; giving or furnishing aid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Avoirdupois.</td><td align='left'>The system of weights, of which the unit is sixteen ounces.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Back-saw.</td><td align='left'>A saw which has a rib at its upper margin.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Barleycorn.</td><td align='left'>A grain of barley.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bastard.</td><td align='left'>A coarse-grained file.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>B. T. U.</td><td align='left'>British Thermal Unit.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Back-gear.</td><td align='left'>That gear on a lathe for changing the feed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bevel.</td><td align='left'>Not in a right line; slanting; oblique.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bibb.</td><td align='left'>A form of water faucet.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bit, or bitt.</td><td align='left'>A form of tool for cutting purposes on a lathe, planer, shaper, or drilling machine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Borax.</td><td align='left'>A white crystalline compound, of a sweetish taste. Chemically it is sodium biborate.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Buffs.</td><td align='left'>Usually a wheel covered with leather or cloth, and having emery dust on it, for fine polishing purposes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Buffeted.</td><td align='left'>Thrown back.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bronze.</td><td align='left'>An alloy of copper and tin.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Calcium.</td><td align='left'>Lime.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cant.</td><td align='left'>A form of lever.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">p. 197</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Carbonate.</td><td align='left'>A salt of carbonic acid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Caustic.</td><td align='left'>Capable of corroding or eating away.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Capillary.</td><td align='left'>That quality of a liquid which causes it to move upwardly or along a solid with which it is in contact.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Caliper.</td><td align='left'>An instrument for spanning inside and outside dimensions.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Centripetal.</td><td align='left'>The force which tends to draw inwardly, or to the center.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Centrifugal.</td><td align='left'>The outwardly-moving force from a body.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Centering.</td><td align='left'>To form a point equidistant from a circular line.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Chloride.</td><td align='left'>A compound of chlorine with one or more positive elements, such as, for instance, salt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Circular pitch.</td><td align='left'>The measurement around a gear taken at a point midway between the base and end of the teeth.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Circumference.</td><td align='left'>The outside of a circular body.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Clef.</td><td align='left'>A character placed on a staff of music to determine the pitch.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Clutch.</td><td align='left'>A mechanical element for attaching one part to another.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Chuck, Independent.</td><td align='left'>A disk of metal to be attached to the live spindle of a lathe, and which has on its face a set of dogs which move radially independently of each other.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Chuck, Universal.</td><td align='left'>A disk to be attached as above, provided with dogs which are connected so they move radially in unison with each other.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Classified.</td><td align='left'>Arranged in order, in such a manner that each of a kind is placed under a suitable heading.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Clearance.</td><td align='left'>To provide a space behind the cutting edge of a tool which will not touch the work being cut.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Consistency.</td><td align='left'>Harmonious; not contradictory.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Coherer.</td><td align='left'>That instrument in a wireless telegraphy apparatus which detects the electrical impulses.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">p. 198</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Commutator.</td><td align='left'>The cylindrical structure on the end of an armature, which is designed to change the polarity of the current.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Concentrated.</td><td align='left'>Brought together at one point.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Coinage.</td><td align='left'>The system of making money from metals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Compound.</td><td align='left'>The unity of two or more elements.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Constant.</td><td align='left'>Being insistent and consistent; also a term to be used in a problem which never varies.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Conversion.</td><td align='left'>The change from one state to another.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cone.</td><td align='left'>A body larger at one end than at another; usually applied to a form which is cylindrical in shape but tapering, from end to end.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Compression.</td><td align='left'>The bringing together of particles, or molecules.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Convolute.</td><td align='left'>A spiral form of winding, like a watch spring.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Coiled.</td><td align='left'>A form of winding, like a string wound around a bobbin.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Conductivity.</td><td align='left'>Applied generally to the quality of material which will carry a current of electricity; also a quality of a material to convey heat.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cohesion.</td><td align='left'>The force by which the molecules of the same kind are held together.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Concentric.</td><td align='left'>A line which is equidistant at all points from a center.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Confined.</td><td align='left'>Held within certain bounds.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Corpuscular.</td><td align='left'>Molecular or atomic form.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Converge.</td><td align='left'>To come together from all points.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Concave.</td><td align='left'>A surface which is depressed or sunken.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Convex.</td><td align='left'>A surface which is raised, or projects beyond the surface of the edges.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Component.</td><td align='left'>One of the elements in a problem or in a compound.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Coefficient.</td><td align='left'>A number indicating the degree or quality possessed by a substance. An invariable unit.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cube.</td><td align='left'>A body having six equal sides.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">p. 199</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cross-section.</td><td align='left'>A term used to designate that line which is at right angles to the line running from the view point.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cross slide.</td><td align='left'>The metal plate on a lathe which holds the tool post, and which is controlled, usually, by a screw.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Contiguous.</td><td align='left'>Close to; near at hand.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Countersink.</td><td align='left'>The depression around a bore.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Collet.</td><td align='left'>A collar, clutch or clamping piece, which has jaws to hold a bar or rod.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Countershaft.</td><td align='left'>A shaft which has thereon pulleys or gears to connect operatively with the gears or pulleys on a machine, and change the speed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Conducive.</td><td align='left'>Tending to; promotive of a result.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Corundum.</td><td align='left'>An extremely hard aluminum oxide used for polishing.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cold chisel.</td><td align='left'>A term applied to an extremely hard chisel used for cutting and chipping metal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Combustion.</td><td align='left'>The action or operation of burning.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Conjunctively.</td><td align='left'>Acting together.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Comparatively.</td><td align='left'>Similitude or resemblance, one with another.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cotter.</td><td align='left'>A key to prevent a wheel turning on its shaft.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dead center.</td><td align='left'>A term used to designate the inoperative point of the crank.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Depicting.</td><td align='left'>Showing; setting forth.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Deodorant.</td><td align='left'>A substance which will decompose odors.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Developer.</td><td align='left'>A chemical which will bring out the picture in making the film or plate in photography.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Decimeter.</td><td align='left'>The length of one-tenth of a meter in the metric system.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Decameter.</td><td align='left'>The length of ten meters in the metric system.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Defective.</td><td align='left'>Not perfect; wrong in some particular.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Diaphragm.</td><td align='left'>A plate, such as used in a telephone system, to receive and transmit vibrations.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">p.
+200</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dissolving.</td><td align='left'>To change from a solid to a liquid condition.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Division plate.</td><td align='left'>A perforated plate in a gear-cutting machine, to aid in dividing the teeth of a wheel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dispelled.</td><td align='left'>To drive away or scatter.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Disinfectant.</td><td align='left'>A material which will destroy harmful germs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Diametral pitch.</td><td align='left'>The number of teeth in a gear as calculated on the pitch line.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dimension.</td><td align='left'>Measurement; size.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ductility.</td><td align='left'>That property of metal which permits it to be drawn out, or worked.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dividers.</td><td align='left'>An instrument, like a compass, for stepping off measurements, or making circles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Diverge.</td><td align='left'>Spreading out from a common point.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Drift.</td><td align='left'>A cutting tool for smoothing a hole in a piece of metal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Duplex.</td><td align='left'>Two; double.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dynamite.</td><td align='left'>An explosive composed of an absorbent, like earth, combined with nitro-glycerine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dynamometer.</td><td align='left'>An instrument for measuring power developed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Eccentric.</td><td align='left'>Out of center.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Echoes.</td><td align='left'>The reflection of sound.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Effervesce.</td><td align='left'>The action due to the unity of two opposite chemicals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Efficiency.</td><td align='left'>The term applied to the quality of effectiveness.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ellipse.</td><td align='left'>A form which is oblong, or having a shape, more or less, like the longitudinal section of an egg.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Electrolytic.</td><td align='left'>The action of a current of water passing through a liquid, and decomposing it, and carrying elements from one electrode to the other.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Elasticity.</td><td align='left'>The quality in certain substances to be drawn out of their normal shape, and by virtue of which they will resume their original form when released.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">p.
+201</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Embedded.</td><td align='left'>To be placed within a body or substance.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Emerge.</td><td align='left'>To come out of.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Emphasize.</td><td align='left'>To lay particular stress upon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Emery.</td><td align='left'>A hard substance, usually some of the finely divided precious stones, and used for polishing and grinding purposes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Enormous.</td><td align='left'>A large amount; great in size.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Enunciated.</td><td align='left'>Proclaimed; given out.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Equalization.</td><td align='left'>To put on an even basis; to make the same comparatively.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Eradicator.</td><td align='left'>To take out; to cause to disappear.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Escapement.</td><td align='left'>A piece of mechanism devised for the purpose of giving a uniform rate of speed to the movement of wheels.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Essential.</td><td align='left'>The important feature; the principal thing.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Expansion.</td><td align='left'>To enlarge; growing greater.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Equidistant.</td><td align='left'>The same distance from a certain point.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Evolved.</td><td align='left'>Brought out of; the result of certain considerations.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Facet.</td><td align='left'>A face.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Facilitated.</td><td align='left'>Made easy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Flux.</td><td align='left'>Any substance which will aid in uniting material under heat. The act of uniting.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fluid.</td><td align='left'>Any substance in which the particles freely interchange positions.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Flour emery.</td><td align='left'>Emery which is finely ground.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Flexible.</td><td align='left'>The quality of any material which will permit bending.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Float cut.</td><td align='left'>The term when applied to a tool where the cut is an easy one.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Flexure.</td><td align='left'>The springing yield in a substance.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Foot pound.</td><td align='left'>A unit, usually determined by the number of pounds raised one foot in one second of time. 550 pounds raised one foot in one second of time, means so many foot pounds.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">p.
+202</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Formulate.</td><td align='left'>To arrange; to put in order from a certain consideration of things.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Focus.</td><td align='left'>The center of a circle.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Foci.</td><td align='left'>One of the points of an ellipse.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Formation.</td><td align='left'>The structure of a machine or of a compound.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fractured.</td><td align='left'>Broken.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fundamental.</td><td align='left'>Basis; the first form; the original structure.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fulcrum.</td><td align='left'>The resting place for a lever.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fusion.</td><td align='left'>Melting. The change of a metal from a solid to a liquid state by heat.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fusible.</td><td align='left'>That which is capable of being melted.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fulminate.</td><td align='left'>A substance that will ignite or explode by heat or friction.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gamut.</td><td align='left'>The scale of sound or light, or vibrations of any kind.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gear.</td><td align='left'>A toothed wheel of any kind.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gelatine.</td><td align='left'>A tasteless transparent substance obtained from animal tissues.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Globular.</td><td align='left'>Having the form of a globe or ball.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Glazed.</td><td align='left'>Having a glossary appearance.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Graphite.</td><td align='left'>A metallic, iron-black variety of carbon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Graduated.</td><td align='left'>To arrange in steps; a regular order or series.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Grinder.</td><td align='left'>Any mechanism which abrades or wears down a substance.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gullet.</td><td align='left'>The curved notches or grooves between projecting parts of mechanism.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Harmonizing.</td><td align='left'>To make the various parts act together in unison.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>H. P.</td><td align='left'>The symbol for horse power.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Helico.</td><td align='left'>A form resembling that of the threads of a screw.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Hexagon.</td><td align='left'>Six-sided.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Heliograph.</td><td align='left'>The system of signaling by using flashlights.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Horizontal.</td><td align='left'>Things level with the surface of the earth; like the surface of water.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Hydrogen.</td><td align='left'>The lightest of all the elements. A tasteless, colorless substance.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">p.
+203</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Import.</td><td align='left'>To bear, or convey as a meaning.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Impulse.</td><td align='left'>The application of an impelling force.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Impact.</td><td align='left'>A collision; striking against.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Invariably.</td><td align='left'>Constant; without failing.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Inertia.</td><td align='left'>The quality of all materials to remain at rest, or to continue in motion, unless acted on by some external force.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Intersect.</td><td align='left'>To divide at a certain point. The crossing point of one line over another.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Interval.</td><td align='left'>A space; a distance between.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Intensity.</td><td align='left'>Strained or exerted to a high degree.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Interstices.</td><td align='left'>The spaces between the molecules or atoms in a substance.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Intermediate.</td><td align='left'>Between.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Intermeshing.</td><td align='left'>The locking together of gear wheels.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Internal.</td><td align='left'>That which is within.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Inability.</td><td align='left'>Unable to perform or do.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Initial.</td><td align='left'>The first; at the start.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Increment.</td><td align='left'>One of the parts which go to make up the whole.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Inference.</td><td align='left'>Drawing a conclusion from a certain state of things.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Insoluble.</td><td align='left'>A substance which cannot be liquefied by a liquid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Indentations.</td><td align='left'>Recesses, or cut-out parts or places.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Induction.</td><td align='left'>The movement of electricity through the air from one conductor to another.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Inflammable.</td><td align='left'>That which will burn.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Inclining.</td><td align='left'>At an angle; sloping.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Inconsequential.</td><td align='left'>Not of much importance.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Isometric.</td><td align='left'>That view of a figure which will give the relation of all the parts in their proper proportions.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Jaw.</td><td align='left'>The grasping part of a vise, or other tool.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Joule.</td><td align='left'>The practical unit of electrical energy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Key-way.</td><td align='left'>A groove in a shaft and in the hub of a wheel, to receive therein a locking key.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">p. 204</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Kilowatt.</td><td align='left'>A unit of electrical power; one thousand watts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Kinetic.</td><td align='left'>Consisting of motion.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lacing.</td><td align='left'>The attaching of the ends of a belt to each other.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lap.</td><td align='left'>A tool, usually of copper or lead, on which flour emery is spread, with oil, and used to grind out the interior of cylinders.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lapping.</td><td align='left'>The act of using a lap to grind out cylinders.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lacquer.</td><td align='left'>A varnish for either wood or metal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lazy-tongs.</td><td align='left'>A form of tool, by means of which a long range of movement is attainable, and great grasp of power.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Levigated.</td><td align='left'>Reduced to a fine powder.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Litharge.</td><td align='left'>A form of lead used in paints for drying purposes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Longitudinal.</td><td align='left'>Lengthwise.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Luminous.</td><td align='left'>That which has the capacity to light up.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Magnet.</td><td align='left'>A bar of iron or steel that has electricity in it capable of attracting certain metals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Manipulation.</td><td align='left'>Capable of being handled.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mandrel.</td><td align='left'>The revolving part of a lathe; a rod or bar which turns and carries mechanical elements thereon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Manually.</td><td align='left'>Operated by hand.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Margin.</td><td align='left'>An edge.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Malleability.</td><td align='left'>Softness. The state of being formed by hammering.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Magnetism.</td><td align='left'>A quality of certain metals to receive and hold a charge of electricity.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Major axis.</td><td align='left'>The measurement across the longest part of an ellipse.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Minor axis.</td><td align='left'>The distance across the narrowest part of an ellipse.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Meridian.</td><td align='left'>The time when the sun crosses the middle of the heavens; midday.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Metric.</td><td align='left'>Measure; a system which takes the unit of its measurement from the circumference of the earth.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Micrometer.</td><td align='left'>A tool for measuring small spaces or intervals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Milling machine.</td><td align='left'>A large tool for the purpose of cutting gears and grooves or surfaces.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Miter.</td><td align='left'>A meeting surface between two right-angled pieces.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">p. 205</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Momentum.</td><td align='left'>That quality of matter which is the combined energy of mass and speed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Molecular.</td><td align='left'>Any substance that is made up of any particles; the component elements in any substance.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Modifications.</td><td align='left'>Changes; improved arrangements.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Multiplicity.</td><td align='left'>Many; numerous; a large quantity.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mutilated.</td><td align='left'>As applied to a gear, one in which certain teeth are removed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Nautical.</td><td align='left'>Marine; applied to shipping, and the like.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Neutralizes.</td><td align='left'>Any substance, like a chemical, which, when added to another chemical, will change them both.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Nitro-glycerine.</td><td align='left'>An explosive made from glycerine and nitrogen.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oblique.</td><td align='left'>At an angle; inclined.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Obliterate.</td><td align='left'>To wipe out.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Obvious.</td><td align='left'>That which can be seen; easily observed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Obtuse.</td><td align='left'>A blunt angle; not noticeable.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Odophone.</td><td align='left'>An instrument for determining and testing odors.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Olfactory.</td><td align='left'>The nerves of the sense of smell.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Orifice.</td><td align='left'>An opening; a hole.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oscillation.</td><td align='left'>A movement to and fro, like a pendulum.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oxygen.</td><td align='left'>The most universal gas, colorless and tasteless; is called the acid-maker of the universe and unites with all known substances, producing an acid, an alkali, or a neutral compound.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oxidizing.</td><td align='left'>To impart to any substance the elements of oxygen.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oxide.</td><td align='left'>Any substance which has oxygen added to it.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pallet.</td><td align='left'>A part of a tooth or finger which acts on the teeth of a wheel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Parallel.</td><td align='left'>Lines or sides at equal distance from each other from end to end.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">p. 206</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Paraffine.</td><td align='left'>A light-colored substance, produced from refined petroleum.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Perimeter.</td><td align='left'>The outer margin of a wheel; the bounding line of any figure of two dimensions.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Periphery.</td><td align='left'>The outer side of a wheel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Peen.</td><td align='left'>The nailing end of a hammer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Persistence.</td><td align='left'>That quality of all matter to continue on in its present condition.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Perpendicular.</td><td align='left'>A line drawn at right angles to another.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Perpetual.</td><td align='left'>Without end.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Perspective.</td><td align='left'>A view of an object which takes in all parts at one side.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Physically.</td><td align='left'>Pertaining to the body.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Phonautograph.</td><td align='left'>An apparatus for recording sound.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Phonograph.</td><td align='left'>An apparatus for taking and sending forth sound vibration.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Phenomena.</td><td align='left'>Any occurrence in nature out of the ordinary.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pitman.</td><td align='left'>The rod or bar which connects the piston and crank.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pivot.</td><td align='left'>A point or bar on which anything turns.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pinion.</td><td align='left'>A small toothed wheel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pitch.</td><td align='left'>The number of vibrations. The term used to give the number of teeth in a wheel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pitch diameter.</td><td align='left'>The point from which the measurements are made in determining the pitch.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pivoted.</td><td align='left'>A bar, lever, or other mechanical element, arranged to turn on or about a point.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Plastic.</td><td align='left'>A substance in such a state that it may be kneaded or worked.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Planer.</td><td align='left'>A large tool designed to cut or face off wood or metal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Porosity.</td><td align='left'>The quality in all substances to have interstices, or points of separation, between the molecules.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Potential.</td><td align='left'>The power.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Properties.</td><td align='left'>The qualities possessed by all elements.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Projecting.</td><td align='left'>The throwing forward. The sending out.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">p. 207</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Promulgated.</td><td align='left'>Put forth; enunciated.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Protractor.</td><td align='left'>A mechanic's and draughtsman's tool by means of which angles may be formed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Promote.</td><td align='left'>To carry forward in a systematic way.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Precision.</td><td align='left'>Work done with care; observing correct measurements.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Prony brake.</td><td align='left'>A machine for determining horse power.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Punch.</td><td align='left'>A small tool to be struck by a hammer in order to make an impression or indentation.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Quadrant.</td><td align='left'>One-fourth of a circle.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Quadrant plate.</td><td align='left'>A plate on which are placed lines and numbers indicating degrees.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Quadruplex.</td><td align='left'>A term to designate that system of telegraphy in which four messages are sent over a single wire at the same time.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ratchet.</td><td align='left'>A wheel having teeth at certain intervals to catch the end of a pawl or finger.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ratchet brace.</td><td align='left'>A tool to hold a drill, having a reversible ratchet wheel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Rasp cut.</td><td align='left'>A cut of a file which is rough, not smooth.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Rake.</td><td align='left'>The angle or inclination of the upper surface of the cutting tool of a lathe.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Reverse.</td><td align='left'>To turn about; in the opposite direction.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Reciprocating.</td><td align='left'>To go back and forth.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Revolve.</td><td align='left'>To move in an orbit or circle, as a merry-go-round.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Reciprocity.</td><td align='left'>To give back in like measure.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Reflection.</td><td align='left'>The throwing back from a surface.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Resonance.</td><td align='left'>The quality of vibration which adds to the original movement, and aids in perpetuating the sound.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Refraction.</td><td align='left'>The quality of light which causes it to bend in passing through different substances.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Reducing.</td><td align='left'>Bringing it down to a smaller compass.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Rectilinear.</td><td align='left'>A straight line.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">p. 208</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Retort.</td><td align='left'>A furnace of refractory material to take high heat.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Reamer.</td><td align='left'>A tool designed to enlarge or to smooth out holes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Regulation.</td><td align='left'>To do things in an orderly way; a system which sets forth certain requirements.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Refractory.</td><td align='left'>Difficult to work, and not easily fused.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Recess.</td><td align='left'>A hole, or a depression.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Rocking.</td><td align='left'>A lever which rotates only part way and then moves in the opposite direction.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Rotate.</td><td align='left'>A spindle which turns round. Compare revolve.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Rosin.</td><td align='left'>Certain gums; particularly the sap of pine trees.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Roughing.</td><td align='left'>The taking off of the first coating with a tool.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Saturated.</td><td align='left'>A soluble substance which cannot be further dissolved by a liquid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Scribe.</td><td align='left'>To mark with a tool.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Screw plate.</td><td align='left'>A tool which has within it means for adjusting different cutting tools.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Section lining.</td><td align='left'>The marks made diagonally across drawings to indicate that the part is cut away.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Shaper.</td><td align='left'>A large tool for surfacing off material, cutting grooves, and the like.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Shrinkage.</td><td align='left'>The term applied to metals when cast, as all will be smaller when cold than when cast in the mold.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Slide rest.</td><td align='left'>The part of the lathe which holds the tool post.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sonorous.</td><td align='left'>Having the quality of vibration.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Slotted.</td><td align='left'>Grooved, or channeled.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Solvent.</td><td align='left'>That which can be changed from a solid by liquids.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Spelter.</td><td align='left'>A combination of zinc and copper. A hard solder.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Soldering.</td><td align='left'>Uniting of two substances by a third, with heat.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Spindle.</td><td align='left'>A small shaft.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Spur.</td><td align='left'>The larger of two intermeshing gears.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Socket.</td><td align='left'>A depression or hole.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sprocket.</td><td align='left'>Teeth in a wheel to receive a chain.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">p. 209</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Spiral.</td><td align='left'>A form wound like the threads of a screw.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Surface plate.</td><td align='left'>A true surface made of metal, used as a means of determining evenness of the article made.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sulphate.</td><td align='left'>Any substance which is modified by sulphuric acid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Substitute.</td><td align='left'>An element or substance used for another.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Superposed.</td><td align='left'>One placed above the other.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Swage.</td><td align='left'>Tool for the purpose of changing the form in a material.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Swivel.</td><td align='left'>A point on which another turns.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Surfacing.</td><td align='left'>Taking off the outer coating or covering.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tap.</td><td align='left'>A small drill.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tapering.</td><td align='left'>An object with the sides out of parallel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tangential.</td><td align='left'>A line from the periphery of a circle which projects out at an angle.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tension.</td><td align='left'>The exertion of a force.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tenacity.</td><td align='left'>The property of a material to hang together.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tempering.</td><td align='left'>Putting metal in such condition that it will be not only hard but tough as well.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Technical.</td><td align='left'>Pertaining to the strict forms and terms of an art.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Texture.</td><td align='left'>That of which the element or substance is composed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Threads.</td><td align='left'>The ridges, spiral in form, which run around a bolt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Theoretically.</td><td align='left'>The speculative form or belief in a subject.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tinned.</td><td align='left'>The term applied to the coating on a soldering iron with a fluxed metal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tines.</td><td align='left'>Small blades.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">p. 210</a></span>
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Torsion.</td><td align='left'>The force exerted around an object, like the action of a crank on a shaft.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tommy.</td><td align='left'>A lever to be inserted in a hole in a screw head for turning a screw.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Transmitting.</td><td align='left'>Sending forth; to forward.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Trammel.</td><td align='left'>A tool for the purpose of drawing ellipses.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Traction.</td><td align='left'>Drawing; pulling power.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tripping.</td><td align='left'>A motion applied to a finger, which holds a pivoted arm, whereby the latter may be swung from its locked position.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Triangular.</td><td align='left'>Having three sides and three angles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Transverse.</td><td align='left'>Across; at right angles to the long direction.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Undercut.</td><td align='left'>A wall of a groove or recess which is sloping.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Undulatory.</td><td align='left'>A wave-like motion, applied generally to light and electricity.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Unit.</td><td align='left'>A base for calculating from.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Unison.</td><td align='left'>Acting together; as one.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Unsized.</td><td align='left'>Generally applied to the natural condition of paper or fabric which has no glue or other fixing substance on it.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Vaporising.</td><td align='left'>To change from a liquid or solid to a gas.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Variation.</td><td align='left'>Changing into different conditions; unlike forms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Verge.</td><td align='left'>The edge; usually applied to the shoulder of a watch spindle, particularly to the escapement.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Vertical.</td><td align='left'>Up and down. The direction of a plumb line.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Velocity.</td><td align='left'>The speed of an article through space.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Vitascope.</td><td align='left'>An instrument for determining the rate of vibration of different substances.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Vibration.</td><td align='left'>The movement to and fro of all elements, and by means of which we are made sensitive of the different forces.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Vocation.</td><td align='left'>The business or the calling of a person.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">p. 211</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Warding.</td><td align='left'>The act of cutting a projection or guard, such as is usually found on the insides of locks, and the correspondent detent in the key.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Watt.</td><td align='left'>In electricity the unit of the rate of working in a circuit.  It is the electro-motive force of one volt and the current intensity of one ampere.</td></tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<p class="chapter"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">p. 213</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>(Figures indicate the pages)</h3>
+
+<div class="index">
+
+<table border="0" width="76%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="A">
+  <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:50%;" />
+  <tbody valign="bottom">
+<tr><td>
+<h4><a id="IX_A" name="IX_A"></a>A</h4>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Acetone, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+<li>Acid, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Acid, Acetic, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+<li>Acid, Carbolic, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+<li>Acid, Hydrofluoric, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li>Acid, Muriatic, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+<li>Acid, Nitric, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Acid, Oxalic, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Acid, Pyrogallic, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Acid, Sulphuric, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Acoustics, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li>Adhesives, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+<li>Affinity, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+<li>Agate, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+<li>Air, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+<li>Alcohol, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li>Alloy, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Alum, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Aluminum, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li>Amalgams, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li>Amber, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li>Ambergris, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li>Ammonia, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li>Ammonium Nitrate, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</td>
+<td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Ammonium Sulphate, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Analysis, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+<li>Analyzed, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li>Angle cutting, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+<li>Angle plate, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+<li>Angles, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li>Aniline, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Annatto, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li>Annealing, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+<li>Annular, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+<li>Anvils, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+<li>Apothecaries, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>Application for patent, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+<li>Arbor, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+<li>Arc, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Area, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+<li>Armature, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+<li>Arrow root, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+<li>Artisan, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+<li>Asbestos, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Asphalt, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Assign, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li>Assignment, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+<li>Atom, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li>Attraction, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+<li>Avoirdupois, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>Axis, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+<li>Axis, major, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+<li>Axis, minor, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">p. 214</a></span></div>
+
+<table border="0" width="76%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="B-C">
+  <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:50%;" />
+  <tbody valign="bottom">
+<tr><td>
+<h4><a id="IX_B" name="IX_B"></a>B</h4>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Ball, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li>Ball and Socket, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Balsam Peru, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Barium Chloride, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Bark, soap, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+<li>Barleycorn, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+<li>Barrel, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li>Base line, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+<li>B. T. U., <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+<li>Beeswax, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li>Bell metal, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li>Belt, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li>Belt, Lacing, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li>Bench, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+<li>Benzine, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Benzol, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Bevel, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+<li>Bibb, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Bismuth, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+<li>Bisulphate of carbon, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li>Bisulphate of sodium, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Bitt, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+<li>Bitts, machine, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+<li>Bitts, plain, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+<li>Bitts, round-nosed, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+<li>Bitts, setting, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li>Bitts, square, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+<li>Black, ivory, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Blade, hack-saw, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+<li>Bloodstone, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Blue black, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Boiler, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li>Boiler, compound, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</td><td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Bolt, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li>Bolt, anchor, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+<li>Boracic acid, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Borax, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Brass, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li>Bronze, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li>Bulk, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<h4><a id="IX_C" name="IX_C"></a>C</h4>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Calcium, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+<li>Calcium Chloride, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li>Calipers, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+<li>Calls, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+<li>Camphor, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Canada balsam, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Capillary attraction, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+<li>Carbolic acid, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+<li>Carbon, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+<li>Carbonate, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+<li>Carbonate of soda, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Carbon paper, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Cardinal, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+<li>Carbolized, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Cast iron, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li>Caustic soda, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+<li>Caveat, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+<li>Celluloid, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li>Cement, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Centaire, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Center, dead, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li>Center line, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+<li>Centering, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">p. 215</a></span></div>
+<table border="0" width="76%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="C">
+  <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:50%;" />
+  <tbody valign="bottom">
+<tr><td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Centers, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+<li>Centimeter, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Centrifugal, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+<li>Centripetal, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+<li>Ceresine, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li>Chalk, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+<li>Channel, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+<li>Charcoal, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li>Chemical, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>Chisels, drifting, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li>Chisels, key-way, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li>Chisels, square, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+<li>Chlorate of potash, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li>Chloride of lime, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+<li>Chloride of platinum, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Chloride of tin, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+<li>Chloride of zinc, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Chloral hydrate, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Chloroform, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Chromate of potash, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li>Chuck, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+<li>Chuck, independent, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+<li>Chuck, universal, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+<li>Circle, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Circuit, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+<li>Circular pitch, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+<li>Circumference, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+<li>Citric, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+<li>Clamp, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+<li>Clay, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li>Clearance, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li>Clef, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</td><td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Clutches, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Coal, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+<li>Coherer, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+<li>Cohesion, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li>Color, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+<li>Combination, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li>Commutator, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+<li>Compass, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+<li>Compound, Welding, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+<li>Compression, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+<li>Compressibility, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+<li>Concave, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+<li>Concentric, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+<li>Conception, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+<li>Conductivity, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+<li>Conductor, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+<li>Cone, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Conveyor, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+<li>Convex, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+<li>Convolute, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li>Copal varnish, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Copper, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li>Corpuscular, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+<li>Corundum, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+<li>Crank, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+<li>Cream of Tartar, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li>Crown wheel, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Cryolite, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Cube, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li>Current, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+<li>Curve, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+<li>Cutter, side, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+<li>Cutting tool, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">p. 216</a></span></div>
+
+<table border="0" width="76%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="C-D-E">
+  <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:50%;" />
+  <tbody valign="bottom">
+<tr><td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Cyanide of Potassium, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li>Cylinder, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<h4><a id="IX_D" name="IX_D"></a>D</h4>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Decameter, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+<li>Decimeter, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Declaration of Interference, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+<li>Degree, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+<li>Deodorant, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+<li>Dessertspoon, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Detail, paper, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+<li>Develop, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li>Developer, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Dextrine, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Diameter, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+<li>Diameter, inside, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Diameter, outside, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Diameter, pitch, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Diametral pitch, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li>Diamond, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li>Diaphragm, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+<li>Disinfectant, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Disks, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+<li>Disk shears, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+<li>Distilled, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Diverge, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+<li>Divided, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+<li>Dividers, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+<li>Dogs, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</td><td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Dollar, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+<li>Drams, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>Drawing, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+<li>Drill, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+<li>Drilling Machine, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li>Driver, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+<li>Dry measure, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+<li>Ductility, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+<li>Dynamite, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+<li>Dynamo, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<h4><a id="IX_E" name="IX_E"></a>E</h4>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Eccentric, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li>Echo, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+<li>Effervesce, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+<li>Elastic, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+<li>Elasticity, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+<li>Electrical, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+<li>Electric current, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+<li>Electric curves, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+<li>Electricity, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+<li>Electrolytic, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li>Electro-motive force, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+<li>Ellipse, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li>Emery, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+<li>Emery cloth, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+<li>Emery wheel, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+<li>Energy, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+<li>Engine, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+<li>Equalization, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+<li>Escapement, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+<li>Ether, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">p. 217</a></span></div>
+
+<table border="0" width="76%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="E-F-G">
+  <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:50%;" />
+  <tbody valign="bottom">
+<tr><td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Expansion, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+<li>Explosions, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<h4><a id="IX_F" name="IX_F"></a>F</h4>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Facet, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li>Fahrenheit, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+<li>Feed, longitudinal, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+<li>Feed, transverse, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+<li>Ferric chloride, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+<li>Filament, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+<li>File, cross, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>File, cutter, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+<li>File, do-able end, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+<li>File, equalizing, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>File, float cut, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>File, half round, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+<li>File, holding, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+<li>File, middle, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>File, movement, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+<li>File, pinion, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+<li>File, rasp cut, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>File, rat-tail, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+<li>File, rough, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>File, round, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+<li>File, saw, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+<li>File, second cut, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>File, shearing cut, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+<li>File, slitting, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>File, smooth, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>File, square, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+<li>File, triangular, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+<li>Files, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Files, Hexagon, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li>Filing, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</td>
+<td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Filter paper, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Fire clay, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+<li>Fish oil, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>,176.</li>
+<li>Fire proof, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Flexure, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+<li>Floor dressing, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Fluid, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+<li>Fluor spar, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+<li>Fluxes, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Focal, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li>Focus, foci, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+<li>Foot, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+<li>Foot lathe, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li>Foot pounds, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+<li>Force, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li>Forge work, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+<li>Forges, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li>Formic acid, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Formula, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+<li>Freezing mixtures, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li>Friction, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Fuel, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+<li>Fulcrum, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li>Fulminate, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+<li>Furlong, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+<li>Furniture, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li>Fusible, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+<li>Fusion, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<h4><a id="IX_G" name="IX_G"></a>G</h4>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Gage, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+<li>Gage surface, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+<li>Gallon, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+<li>Gas stove, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">p. 218</a></span></div>
+
+<table border="0" width="76%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="G-I">
+  <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:50%;" />
+  <tbody valign="bottom">
+<tr><td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Gear, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Gear, bevel, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Gear, friction, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Gearing, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+<li>Gear, miter, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+<li>Gear, mutilated, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+<li>Gear, spur, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Gelatine, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Geranium, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>German silver, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+<li>Giant powder, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+<li>Glass, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Glauber salts, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li>Glazing, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+<li>Glue, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Glycerine, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Gold, size, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Grain, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+<li>Grains, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>Graphite, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Gravity, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+<li>Grinder, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+<li>Grinder wheels, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+<li>Grindstones, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li>Groove, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+<li>Gum, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Gum arabic, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Gum lac, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li>Guncotton, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+<li>Gunpowder, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<h4><a id="IX_H" name="IX_H"></a>H</h4>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Hack-saw, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+<li>Hack-saw blade, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</td><td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Hammer, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+<li>Handy tables, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+<li>Hardness, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+<li>Harmony, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+<li>Head, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+<li>Heat, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+<li>Hectare, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Hectometer, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Helical, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+<li>Helical, double, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+<li>Helix-volute, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+<li>Hexagon, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li>Horizontal, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+<li>Horse power, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+<li>Hours, H. P., <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+<li>Hours, kilowatt, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+<li>Hub, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Hub, key-way, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+<li>Hydrochloric acid, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Hydrofluoric acid, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li>Hydrogen, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><a id="IX_I" name="IX_I"></a>I</h4>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Inches, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+<li>Inclined plane, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+<li>Indentation, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+<li>Indicator, speed, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+<li>Induction, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+<li>Inertia, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+<li>Injector, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li>Inks, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+<li>Inside diameter, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Instrument, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li>Internal, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">p. 219</a></span></div>
+
+<table border="0" width="76%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="I-J-K-L-M">
+  <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:50%;" />
+  <tbody valign="bottom">
+<tr><td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>International, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li>Invention, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li>Inventor, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+<li>Iron, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li>Iron, wrought, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+<li>Isinglass, interference, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+<li>Isometric, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li>Ivory, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+<li>Ivory, black, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><a id="IX_J" name="IX_J"></a>J</h4>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Japan wax, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li>Joint, ball and socket, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Joint, universal, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Joule, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><a id="IX_K" name="IX_K"></a>K</h4>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Kerosene, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Key, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+<li>Key-way, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+<li>Kilometer, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Kilowatt, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+<li>Kilowatt hour, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+<li>Kinetic, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><a id="IX_L" name="IX_L"></a>L</h4>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Lacquer, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li>Lampblack, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Lapping, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+<li>Lathe, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Lathe speed, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+<li>Lathe tool, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li>Lavender, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</td><td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Lead, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,175.</li>
+<li>Leather, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Level, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+<li>Lever, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+<li>Leverage, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+<li>Licenses, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li>Light, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+<li>Lime, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Linear measure, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+<li>Lines, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+<li>Lines, section, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+<li>Linseed, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+<li>Linseed oil, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>,175.</li>
+<li>Liquid measure, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+<li>Liquids, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+<li>Litharge, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Long measure, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+<li>Lubricant, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Luminous, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+<li>Lycopodium, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><a id="IX_M" name="IX_M"></a>M</h4>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Machine, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+<li>Magnesium, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+<li>Magnesium sulphate, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Magnet, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+<li>Magnetism, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+<li>Major axis, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+<li>Malleability, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+<li>Malleable, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+<li>Mandrel, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+<li>Manganese, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Marble, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+<li>Mass, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">p. 220</a></span></div>
+
+<table border="0" width="76%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="M-N-O-P">
+  <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:50%;" />
+  <tbody valign="bottom">
+<tr><td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Mastic, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Measure, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Measure, liquid, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+<li>Measure, long, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+<li>Measurement, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+<li>Measure, paper, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+<li>Measure, solid, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+<li>Measure, square, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+<li>Membrane, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+<li>Mercuric chloride, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+<li>Mercury, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li>Meridian, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+<li>Metric, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Metrical, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+<li>Micron, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Microscope, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+<li>Millimeter, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Milling machine, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+<li>Minor, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li>Minor axis, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+<li>Miter, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Miter gear, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+<li>Molecular, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+<li>Molecular forces, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+<li>Molecules, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Momentum, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+<li>Motion, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li>Motor, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<h4><a id="IX_N" name="IX_N"></a>N</h4>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Neat's Foot oil, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Neroli, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Nickel, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li>Nitrate of copper, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</td><td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Nitrate of potash, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+<li>Nitrate of silver, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li>Nitric acid, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Nitro-glycerine, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><a id="IX_O" name="IX_O"></a>O</h4>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Oath, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li>Octave, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li>Odophone, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li>Odor, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li>Oil, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Oil eradicator, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+<li>Oleonaptha, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Oscillations, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li>Ounce, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>Outlines, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+<li>Oxalic acid, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Oxidation, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+<li>Oxide, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Oxidizing, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+<li>Oxygen, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><a id="IX_P" name="IX_P"></a>P</h4>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Palm oil, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Paper, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Paraffine, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Parallel, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+<li>Paris blue, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Paste, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Patents, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+<li>Pawl, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+<li>Pendulum, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+<li>Parting tools, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+<li>Perimeter, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">p. 221</a></span></div>
+<table border="0" width="76%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="P-Q-R">
+  <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:50%;" />
+  <tbody valign="bottom">
+<tr><td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Periphery, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+<li>Permanganate of potash, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+<li>Perpendicular, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+<li>Perpetual motion, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+<li>Perspective, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li>Petroleum, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Phenomenon, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+<li>Phonautograph, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+<li>Phonograph,-91, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+<li>Phosphorus, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li>Photographer, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Piano, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li>Pinion, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Pitch, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li>Pitch, circle, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+<li>Pitch, diameter, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li>Pitch, line, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+<li>Pitman, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Pivots, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+<li>Planer, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+<li>Plaster, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Plaster of Paris, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li>Plate, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+<li>Plates, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Plating, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Platinum, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+<li>Plumbago, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Poles, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+<li>Polishes, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li>Position, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+<li>Potash, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+<li>Potash, prussiate, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+<li>Potassium cyanide, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li>Potassium nitrate, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</td><td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Pound, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>Power, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+<li>Power, horse, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+<li>Precision tools, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Preliminary statement, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+<li>Pressure, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li>Prime mover, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+<li>Printing telegraph, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+<li>Prism, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+<li>Protractor, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+<li>Prussiate of potash, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+<li>Pulley, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+<li>Pulsation, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+<li>Pumice, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li>Pumice stone, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Punch, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+<li>Punch, centering, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+<li>Punch cutter, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+<li>Putty, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><a id="IX_Q" name="IX_Q"></a>Q</h4>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Quadrant, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+<li>Quality, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li>Quarter, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>Quartz, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><a id="IX_R" name="IX_R"></a>R</h4>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Racks, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Radius, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li>Rake, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>,45.</li>
+<li>Rainbow, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+<li>Ratchet, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+
+</ul>
+</td></tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">p. 222</a></span></div>
+<table border="0" width="76%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="R-S">
+  <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:50%;" />
+  <tbody valign="bottom">
+<tr><td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Ratchet brace, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+<li>Reciprocity, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+<li>Reflected, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+<li>Reflecting, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+<li>Reflection, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+<li>Refraction, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+<li>Resin, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Resistance, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li>Resonance, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+<li>Rim, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+<li>Ring, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+<li>Rods, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>Rosemary, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+<li>Royalty, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li>Rubber, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Rule, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+<li>Rule, key-seat, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+<li>Rust preventive, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><a id="IX_S" name="IX_S"></a>S</h4>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Saffro, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li>Sal ammoniac, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li>Salt, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li>Sandarac, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Saw, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+<li>Saw, wabble, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+<li>Scale, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+<li>Science, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li>Scraper, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+<li>Scribe, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+<li>Scruples, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>Sealing wax, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Section lining, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+</ul>
+</td><td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Sense, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li>Sesame oil, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Shade, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+<li>Shading, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+<li>Shaft, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li>Shaft coupling, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Shaper, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+<li>Shellac, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Side cutters, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+<li>Sienna, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Signals, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+<li>Silicate, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Silver, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li>Snow, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li>Soap, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Soap spirits, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+<li>Soda, sulphate, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Sodium carbonate, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Sodium silicate, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Sodium sulphate, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Solder, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Solder, hard, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+<li>Solder, soft, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+<li>Soldering, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Solids, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+<li>Sonorous, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+<li>Sound, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+<li>Sounding-boards, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+<li>Spanish white, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Spectroscope, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+<li>Spectrum, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+<li>Speed, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li>Spelter, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+</ul>
+</td></tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">p. 223</a></span></div>
+<table border="0" width="76%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="S-T">
+  <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:50%;" />
+  <tbody valign="bottom">
+<tr><td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Sphere, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+<li>Spiral, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li>Sponge, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li>Spring, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Square, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+<li>Square combination, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+<li>Starch, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li>Steel, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li>Stethoscope, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+<li>Stove polish, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Straight edge, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+<li>Stylus, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+<li>Sugar, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Sulphate of copper, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li>Sulphate of potash, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+<li>Sulphate of soda, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Sulphur, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li>Sulphuric acid, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Surfacing, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><a id="IX_T" name="IX_T"></a>T</h4>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Table of weights, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+<li>Talcum, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Tallow, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Tannaform, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Taps, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+<li>Taste, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+<li>Teeth, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+<li>Telegram, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+<li>Telescope, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+<li>Temperature, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+<li>Temperature table, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+</ul>
+</td><td>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Tempering, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>,176.</li>
+<li>Tenacity, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+<li>Thread, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Thymol, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+<li>Tin, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li>Ton, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>Tongs, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li>Tongs, lazy, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li>Tool, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Tool boring, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li>Tool cutting, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+<li>Tool holder, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+<li>Tool hook, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+<li>Tool, hooked, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+<li>Tool knife, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+<li>Tool, parting, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+<li>Tool, roughing, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+<li>Tools, precision, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Torsion, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+<li>Toughness, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+<li>Tracing cloth, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+<li>Tracing paper, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Traction, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+<li>Transmitting, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+<li>Transparent, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Transverse, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+<li>Treadle, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li>Triangular, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+<li>Tripping driver, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li>Turmeric, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li>Turpentine, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Turpentine, Venice, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+</ul>
+</td></tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">p. 224</a></span></div>
+<table border="0" width="76%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="U-Z">
+  <col style="width:50%;" /><col style="width:50%;" />
+  <tbody valign="bottom">
+<tr><td>
+<h4><a id="IX_U" name="IX_U"></a>U</h4>
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Undivided, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+<li>Undulatory, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+<li>Unguent, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><a id="IX_V" name="IX_V"></a>V</h4>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Valve, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Vapor, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+<li>Varnish, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Vaseline, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Velocity, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+<li>Vermilion, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+<li>Vertical, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+<li>Vibrate, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+<li>Vibration, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+<li>Vibratory, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+<li>Vinegar, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Violin, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li>Vise, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+<li>Vitascope, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</td><td>
+<h4><a id="IX_W" name="IX_W"></a>W</h4>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Water, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+<li>Waterproof, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Weight, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+<li>Weight of steel, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+<li>Weight, troy, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>Welding, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+<li>Welding compound, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+<li>Wheel, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+<li>Whiting, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li>Workshop, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+<li>Wrench, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><a id="IX_Y" name="IX_Y"></a>Y</h4>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Yokes, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><a id="IX_Z" name="IX_Z"></a>Z</h4>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Zinc, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Zinc chloride, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+</td></tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+</div> <!-- index -->
+
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<h2>THE BOYS' ELITE SERIES</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><i>12mo, cloth. Price 75c each.</i></p>
+
+<p>Contains an attractive assortment of books for boys by standard and
+favorite authors. Printed from large, clear type on a superior quality of
+paper, bound in a superior quality of binders' cloth, ornamented with
+illustrated original designs on covers stamped in colors from unique and
+appropriate dies. Each book wrapped in attractive jacket.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Boys Series">
+  <col style="width:10%;" /><col style="width:45%;" /><col style="width:45%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">1.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Cudjo's Cave</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Cudjo's Trowbridge</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">2.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Green Mountain Boys</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">3.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Life of Kit Carson</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Edward L. Ellis</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">4.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Tom Westlake's Golden Luck</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Perry Newberry</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">5.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Tony Keating's Surprises</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Mrs. G. R. Alden (Pansy)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">6.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Tour of the World in 80 Days</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Jules Verne</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table></div>
+
+<h2>THE GIRLS' ELITE SERIES</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><i>12mo, cloth. Price 75c each.</i></p>
+
+<p>Contains an assortment of attractive and desirable books for girls by
+standard and favorite authors. The books are printed on a good quality of
+paper in large clear type. Each title is complete and unabridged. Bound in
+clothene, ornamented on the sides and back with attractive illustrative
+designs and the title stamped on front and back.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Girls Series">
+  <col style="width:10%;" /><col style="width:45%;" /><col style="width:45%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">1.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Bee and the Butterfly</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Lucy Foster Madison</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">2.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Dixie School Girl</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Gabrielle E. Jackson</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">3.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Girls of Mount Morris</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Amanda Douglas</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">4.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Hope's Messenger</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Gabrielle E. Jackson</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">5.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">The Little Aunt</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Marion Ames Taggart</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">6.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">A Modern Cinderella</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Amanda Douglas</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center"><i>For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 75c</i></p>
+
+<hr class="chapter" />
+<h2>THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS</h2>
+<hr class="minor" />
+<h3><span class="smcap">Carpentry for Boys</span></h3>
+
+<p>A book which treats, in a most practical and fascinating manner
+all subjects pertaining to the "King of Trades"; showing the care
+and use of tools; drawing; designing, and the laying out of work;
+the principles involved in the building of various kinds of structures,
+and the rudiments of architecture. It contains over two
+hundred and fifty illustrations made especially for this work, and
+includes also a complete glossary of the technical terms used in the
+art. The most comprehensive volume on this subject ever published
+for boys.</p>
+<hr class="minor" />
+<h3><span class="smcap">Electricity for Boys</span></h3>
+
+<p>The author has adopted the unique plan of setting forth the fundamental
+principles in each phase of the science, and practically
+applying the work in the successive stages. It shows how the
+knowledge has been developed, and the reasons for the various
+phenomena, without using technical words so as to bring it within
+the compass of every boy. It has a complete glossary of terms, and
+is illustrated with two hundred original drawings.</p>
+<hr class="minor" />
+<h3><span class="smcap"><a href="#toc">Practical Mechanics for Boys</a></span></h3>
+
+<p>This book takes the beginner through a comprehensive series of
+practical shop work, in which the uses of tools, and the structure
+and handling of shop machinery are set forth; how they are utilized
+to perform the work, and the manner in which all dimensional work
+is carried out. Every subject is illustrated, and model building
+explained. It contains a glossary which comprises a new system of
+cross references, a feature that will prove a welcome departure in
+explaining subjects. Fully illustrated.</p>
+<hr class="minor" />
+
+<p class="center"><i>12mo, cloth. Price $1.00 each.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of $1.00.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<h2>The American Boy's<br />Sports Series</h2>
+
+<h4>BY MARK OVERTON</h4>
+
+<p class="center">12 Mo Cloth. Illustrated. Price 60c Each.</p>
+<hr class="minor" />
+
+<p>These stories touch upon nearly every sport in which the active boy is
+interested. Baseball, rowing, football, hockey, skating, ice-boating,
+sailing, camping and fishing all serve to lend interest to an unusual series
+of books. There are the following four titles:</p>
+<div class='center' style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" >
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Sports Series">
+  <col style="width:10%;" /><col style="width:45%;" /><col style="width:45%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr1-1em">1.</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg">Jack Winters' Baseball Team; or, The Mystery of the Diamond.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr1-1em">2.</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg">Jack Winters' Campmates; or, Vacation Days in the Woods.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr1-1em">3.</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg">Jack Winters' Gridiron Chums; or, When the Half-back Saved the Day.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr1-1em">4.</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg">Jack Winters' Iceboat Wonder; or, Leading the Hockey Team to Victory.</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<h2>Phil Bradley</h2>
+
+<h2>Mountain Boy's Series</h2>
+
+<h4>BY SILAS R. BOONE</h4>
+
+<p class="center">12 Mo. Cloth. Illustrated. Price 60c Each</p>
+<hr class="minor" />
+
+<p>These books describe with interesting detail the experience of a party of
+boys among the mountain pines. They teach the young reader how to protect
+themselves against the elements, what to do and what to avoid, and above all
+to become self-reliant and manly. There are five titles:</p>
+
+<div class='center' style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;" >
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Mountain Boys Series">
+  <col style="width:10%;" /><col style="width:45%;" /><col style="width:45%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr1-1em">1.</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg">Phil Bradley's Mountain Boys; or, The Birch Bark Lodge.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr1-1em">2.</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg">Phil Bradley at the Wheel; or, The Mountain Boys' Mad Auto Dash.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr1-1em">3.</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg">Phil Bradley's Shooting Box; or, The Mountain Boys on Currituck Sound.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr1-1em">4.</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg">Phil Bradley's Snow-shoe Trail; or, The Mountain Boys in the Canadian Wilds.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr1-1em">5.</td>
+  <td class="tl1emhg"> Phil Bradley's Winning Way.</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<h2>GIRLS' LIBERTY SERIES</h2>
+
+<p>Contains an assortment of attractive and desirable books for girls by
+standard and favorite authors. The books are printed on a good quality of
+paper in large clear type. Each title is complete and unabridged. Bound in
+clothene, ornamented on the sides and back with attractive illustrative
+designs and the title stamped on front and back.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>12mo, clothene. Price 50c each.</i></p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Liberty Series">
+  <col style="width:10%;" /><col style="width:60%;" /><col style="width:30%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">1.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Camp Fire Girls on a Long Hike, or, Lost in the Great Northern Woods</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Stella M. Francis</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">2.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Daddy's Girl</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Mrs. L. T. Meade</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">3.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Ethel Hollister's First Summer as a Camp Fire Girl</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Irene Elliott Benson</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">4.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Ethel Hollister's Second Summer </td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Irene Elliott Benson</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">5.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Flat Iron for a Farthing</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Mrs. Ewing</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">6.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Four Little Mischiefs</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Rose Mulholland</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">7.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Girls and I</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Mrs. Molesworth</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">8.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Girl from America</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Mrs. L. T. Meade</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">9.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Grandmother Dear</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Mrs. Molesworth</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">10.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Irvington Stories</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Mary Mapes Dodge</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">11.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Little Lame Prince</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Mrs. Muloch</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">12.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Little Susie Stories</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Mrs. H. Prentiss</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">13.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Mrs. Over the Way</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Julianna Horatio Ewing</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">14.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Naughty Miss Bunny</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Rose Mulholland</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">15.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Sweet Girl Graduate</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Mrs. L. T. Meade</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">16.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">School Queens</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Mrs. L. T. Meade</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">17.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Sue, A Little Heroine</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Mrs. L. T. Meade</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">18.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">Wild Kitty</td>
+  <td class="tr1em">Mrs. L. T. Meade</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center"><i>For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 50c</i></p>
+
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<h2>THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS</h2>
+
+<h4>By ROGER T. FINLAY</h4>
+
+<p class="center"><i>12mo, cloth. Price 75c each, postpaid.</i></p>
+
+<p>Thrilling adventures on land and sea of two boys and a man cast upon an
+island in the South Seas without food or weapons; their experience in
+fashioning clothing, tools and weapons, and in overcoming nature and subduing
+and civilizing savage tribes; covers a wide range of subjects.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Wonder Island" style="font-weight: bold;">
+  <col style="width:5%;" /><col style="width:45%;" /> <col style="width:5%;" /><col style="width:45%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">1.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">The Castaways</td>
+  <td class="tr0em">5.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">The Capture and Pursuit</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">2.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em"> Exploring the Island</td>
+  <td class="tr0em">6.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">The Conquest of the Savages</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">3.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">The Mysteries of the Caverns</td>
+  <td class="tr0em">7.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">The Adventures on Strange Islands</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tr0em">4.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">The Tribesmen</td>
+  <td class="tr0em">8.</td>
+  <td class="tl1em">The Treasures of the Islands</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table></div>
+
+<h2>THE BOY GLOBE TROTTERS</h2>
+
+<h4>By ELBERT FISHER</h4>
+
+<p class="center"><i>12mo, cloth. Price 75c each, postpaid.</i></p>
+
+<p>This is a series of form books relating the adventures of two boys who
+made a trip around the world, working their way as they go. They meet with
+various peoples having strange habits and customs, and their adventures from
+a medium for the introduction of much instructive matter relative to the
+character and industries of the cities and countries through which they pass.
+A description is given of the native sports of boys in each of the foreign
+countries through which they travel. The books are illustrated by decorative
+head and end pieces for each chapter, there being 36 original drawings in
+each book, all by the author, and four striking halftones.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Globe Trotters" style="font-weight: bold;">
+<tr><td>
+<p>1. From New York to the Golden Crate<br />
+2. From San Francisco to Japan<br />
+3. From Tokio to Bombay<br />
+4. From India to the War Zone</p>
+</td></tr></table>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><i>For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 75c</i></p>
+
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<h2>BOYS' COPYRIGHTED BOOKS</h2>
+
+<p>Printed from large, clear type on a superior quality of paper, embellished
+with original illustrations by eminent artists, and bound in a superior
+quality of book binders' cloth, ornamented with illustrated covers, stamped
+in colors from unique and appropriate dies, each book wrapped in a glazed
+paper wrapper printed in colors.</p>
+
+<p class="center">MOTOR BOAT BOYS SERIES<br />By Louis Arundel</p>
+
+<p class="tl1emhg"><b>1. The Motor Club's Cruise Down the Mississippi; or, The Dash for
+Dixie.</b></p>
+
+<p class="tl1emhg"><b>2. The Motor Club on the St. Lawrence River; or, Adventures Among the
+Thousand Islands.</b></p>
+
+<p class="tl1emhg"><b>3. The Motor Club on the Great Lakes; or, Exploring the Mystic Isle of
+Mackinac.</b></p>
+
+<p class="tl1emhg"><b>4. Motor Boat Boys Among the Florida Keys; or, The Struggle for the
+Leadership.</b></p>
+
+<p class="tl1emhg"><b>5. Motor Boat Boys Down the Coast; or, Through Storm and Stress.</b></p>
+
+<p class="tl1emhg"><b>6. Motor Boat Boys' River Chase.</b></p>
+
+<p class="center">THE BIRD BOYS SERIES<br />By John Luther Langworthy</p>
+
+<p class="tl1emhg"><b>1. The Bird Boys; or, The Young Sky Pilots' First Air Voyage.</b></p>
+
+<p class="tl1emhg"><b>2. The Bird Boys on the Wing; or, Aeroplane Chums in the
+Tropics.</b></p>
+
+<p class="tl1emhg"><b>3. The Bird Boys Among the Clouds; or, Young Aviators in a
+Wreck.</b></p>
+
+<p class="tl1emhg"><b>4. Bird Boys' Flight; or, A Hydroplane Round-up.</b></p>
+
+<p class="tl1emhg"><b>5. Bird Boys' Aeroplane Wonder; or, Young Aviators on a Cattle
+Ranch.</b></p>
+
+<p class="center">CANOE AND CAMPFIRE SERIES<br />By St. George Rathborne</p>
+
+<p class="tl1emhg"><b>1. Canoe Mates in Canada; or, Three Boys Afloat on the
+Saskatchewan.</b></p>
+
+<p class="tl1emhg"><b>2. Young Fur Takers; or, Traps and Trails in the Wilderness.</b></p>
+
+<p class="tl1emhg"><b>3. The House Boat Boys; or, Drifting Down to the Sunny South.</b></p>
+
+<p class="tl1emhg"><b>4. Chums in Dixie; or, The Strange Cruise in the Motor Boat.</b></p>
+
+<p class="tl1emhg"><b>5. Camp Mates in Michigan; or, With Pack and Paddle in the Pine
+Woods.</b></p>
+
+<p class="tl1emhg"><b>6. Rocky Mountain Boys; or, Camping in the Big Game Country.</b></p>
+
+<p>For sale by all booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 75c</p>
+
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="3" summary="Henty Ad">
+<tr>
+<td style="border: 1px solid black;">
+<h3 style="margin-bottom: 0em;">ALWAYS <i>ASK FOR THE</i> DONOHUE</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center; font-size: small; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;">Complete Editions and you will get the best for the least money</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border: 1px solid black;">
+<p style="text-align: center; font-size: xx-large; font-weight: bold;">Henty Series</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;"><i>FOR BOYS</i></p>
+
+<p>G. A. Henty was the most prolific writer of boy's stories of the
+nineteenth century. From two to five books a year came from his facile pen.
+No Christmas holidays were complete without a new "Henty Book." This new
+series comprises 45 titles. They are printed on an extra quality of paper,
+from new plates and bound in the best quality of cloth, stamped on back and
+side in inks from unique and attractive dies. 12 mo. cloth. Each book in a
+printed wrapper.</p>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Henty" style="font-weight: bold;font-size: small; ">
+  <col style="width:5%;" /><col style="width:45%;" /> <col style="width:5%;" /><col style="width:45%;" />
+<tbody valign="top">
+<tr><td class="tr0em">1</td><td class="tl1em">Among Malay Pirates</td> <td class="tr0em">24</td><td class="tl1em">Lion of St. Mark</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">2</td><td class="tl1em">Bonnie Prince Charlie</td> <td class="tr0em">26</td><td class="tl1em">Lost Heir, The</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">3</td><td class="tl1em">Boy Knight, The</td> <td class="tr0em">25</td><td class="tl1em">Lion of the North</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">4</td><td class="tl1em">Bravest of the Brave</td> <td class="tr0em">27</td><td class="tl1em">Maori and Settler</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">5</td><td class="tl1em">By England's Aid</td> <td class="tr0em">28</td><td class="tl1em">One of the 28th</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">6</td><td class="tl1em">By Pike and Dyke</td> <td class="tr0em">29</td><td class="tl1em">Orange and Green</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">7</td><td class="tl1em">By Right of Conquest</td> <td class="tr0em">30</td><td class="tl1em">Out on the Pampas</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">8</td><td class="tl1em">By Sheer Pluck</td> <td class="tr0em">31</td><td class="tl1em">Queen's Cup, The</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">9</td><td class="tl1em">Captain Bayley's Heir</td> <td class="tr0em">32</td><td class="tl1em">Rujub, the Juggler</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">10</td><td class="tl1em">Cat of Bubastes</td> <td class="tr0em">33</td><td class="tl1em">St. George for England</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">11</td><td class="tl1em">Col. Thorndyke's Secret</td> <td class="tr0em">34</td><td class="tl1em">Sturdy and Strong</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">12</td><td class="tl1em">Cornet of Horse, The</td> <td class="tr0em">35</td><td class="tl1em">Through the Fray</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">13</td><td class="tl1em">Dragon and the Raven</td> <td class="tr0em">36</td><td class="tl1em">True to the Old Flag</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">14</td><td class="tl1em">Facing Death</td> <td class="tr0em">37</td><td class="tl1em">Under Drake's Flag</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">15</td><td class="tl1em">Final Reckoning, A</td> <td class="tr0em">38</td><td class="tl1em">With Clive in India</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">16</td><td class="tl1em">For Name and Fame</td> <td class="tr0em">39</td><td class="tl1em">With Lee in Virginia</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">17</td><td class="tl1em">For the Temple</td> <td class="tr0em">40</td><td class="tl1em">With Wolfe in Canada</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">18</td><td class="tl1em">Friends, Though Divided</td> <td class="tr0em">41</td><td class="tl1em">Young Buglers, The</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">19</td><td class="tl1em">Golden Canon</td> <td class="tr0em">42</td><td class="tl1em">Young Carthaginians</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">20</td><td class="tl1em">In Freedom's Cause</td> <td class="tr0em">43</td><td class="tl1em">Young Colonists, The</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">21</td><td class="tl1em">In the Reign of Terror</td> <td class="tr0em">44</td><td class="tl1em">Young Franc-Tireurs</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">22</td><td class="tl1em">In Times of Peril</td> <td class="tr0em">45</td><td class="tl1em">Young Midshipman</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tr0em">23</td><td class="tl1em">Jack Archer</td> <td class="tr0em">&nbsp;</td><td class="tl1em">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>All of above titles can be procured at the store where this book was
+bought, or sent to any address for 75c, postage paid, by the publishers</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chapter" />
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="3" summary="Woodcraft Ad">
+<tr>
+<td style="border: 1px solid black;">
+<h3 style="margin-bottom: 0em;">ALWAYS <i>ASK FOR THE</i> DONOHUE</h3>
+<p class="center" style="margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;">COMPLETE EDITIONS&mdash;THE BEST FOR LEAST MONEY</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="border: 1px solid black;">
+<p style="text-align: center; font-size: xx-large; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0em;">WOODCRAFT</p>
+<p style="text-align: center; font-size:  x-large; font-weight: bold;"><i>for</i> Boy Scouts and Others</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>By</i> <b>OWEN JONES</b> <i>and</i> <b>MARCUS WOODMAN</b>
+<i>With a Message to Boy Scouts by</i> <b>SIR BADEN-POWELL</b>, <i>Founder of the Boy
+Scouts' Movement</i>.</p>
+
+<p>One of the essential requirements of the Boy Scout training is a
+<b>Knowledge of Woodcraft</b>. This necessitates a book embracing all the
+subjects and treating on all the topics that a thorough knowledge of
+<b>Woodcraft</b> implies.</p>
+
+<p>This book thoroughly exhausts the subject. It imparts a comprehensive
+knowledge of woods from fungus growth to the most stately monarch of the
+forest; it treats of the habits and lairs of all the feathered and furry
+inhabitants of the woods. Shows how to trail wild animals; how to identify
+birds and beasts by their tracks, calls, etc. Tells how to forecast the
+weather, and in fact; treats on every phase of nature with which a Boy Scout
+or any woodman or lover of nature should be familiar. The authorship
+guarantees it's authenticity and reliability. Indispensable to "Boy Scouts"
+and others. Printed from large clear type on superior paper.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center; font-size:  x-large; font-weight: bold;">Embellished With Over 100 Thumb Nail<br />Illustrations Taken From
+Life</p>
+
+<p class="center">Bound in Cloth. Stamped with unique and appropriate designs in ink!</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center; font-size:  x-large; font-weight: bold;">Price, <span style="font-size: xx-large;">75c</span> Postpaid</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center; font-size:  x-large; font-weight: bold;">M. A. DONOHUE &amp; CO.</p>
+
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0" summary="M. A. Donohue and Cl.">
+<tr><td style="text-align: left; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">701-727 S. Dearborn St.</td>
+<td style="text-align: right; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">CHICAGO</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tr">
+<p class="center" style="font-weight: bold;">Transcriber's Note:</p>
+
+<p>Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible, including obsolete and variant spellings and other inconsistencies.
+Obvious spelling/typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external
+sources. Minor punctuation errors have been amended without note.</p>
+
+<p>Page 137: Incorrect pressure of 88 oz. for wind speed of 10 mph changed to 8 oz.</p>
+
+<p>Page 146: Micron incorrectly printed as 1.25400, changed to 1/24500.</p>
+
+<p>Page 178: Corrected table entry for 1-7/8, printed as 1/7-16.</p>
+
+<p>Alphabetic order errors in the glossary retained.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Practical Mechanics for Boys, by J. S. Zerbe
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 22298-h.htm or 22298-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
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@@ -0,0 +1,7957 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Practical Mechanics for Boys, by J. S. Zerbe
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Practical Mechanics for Boys
+
+Author: J. S. Zerbe
+
+Release Date: August 11, 2007 [EBook #22298]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Joe Longo and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS
+
+PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS
+
+
+
+
+THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS
+
+PRACTICAL MECHANICS
+FOR BOYS
+
+In language which every boy can understand
+and so arranged that he may readily carry
+out any work from the instructions given.
+
+WITH MANY ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+By J. S. ZERBE, M.E.
+
+_Author of_
+
+CARPENTRY FOR BOYS
+ELECTRICITY FOR BOYS
+
+
+M. A. DONOHUE & COMPANY
+
+CHICAGO :: NEW YORK
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY
+THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY
+
+Made in U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY                                                    Page 1
+
+I. ON TOOLS GENERALLY                                           Page 7
+
+ Varied Requirements. List of Tools. Swivel Vises. Parts of Lathe.
+ Chisels. Grinding Apparatus. Large Machines. Chucks. Bench Tools.
+ Selecting a Lathe. Combination Square. Micrometers. Protractors.
+ Utilizing Bevel Protractors. Truing Grindstones. Sets of Tools. The
+ Work Bench. The Proper Dimensions. How Arranged.
+
+II. HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS                             Page 26
+
+ Importance of the Cutting Tool. The Grinder. Correct Use of Grinder.
+ Lathe Bitts. Roughing Tools. The Clearance. The Cutting Angle. Drills.
+ Wrong Grinding. Chisels. Cold Chisels. System in Work. Wrong Use of
+ Tools.
+
+III. SETTING AND HOLDING TOOLS                                 Page 34
+
+ Lathe Speed. The Hack-saw. Hack-saw Frame. The Blade. Files.
+ Grindstones. Emery and Grinding Wheels. Carelessness in Holding Tools.
+ Calipers. Care in Use of Calipers. Machine Bitts. The Proper Angle for
+ Lathe Tools. Setting the Bitt. The Setting Angle. Bad Practice. Proper
+ Lathe Speeds. Boring Tools on Lathe. The Rake of the Drill. Laps. Using
+ the Lap. Surface Gages. Uses of the Surface Gage.
+
+IV. ON THE FIRST USE OF THE FILE                               Page 48
+
+ The First Test. Filing an Irregular Block. Filing a Bar Straight.
+ Filing Bar with Parallel Sides. Surfacing Off Disks. True Surfacing.
+ Precision Tools. Test of the Mechanic. Test Suggestions. Use of the
+ Dividers. Cutting a Key-way. Key-way Difficulties. Filing Metal Round.
+ Kinds of Files. Cotter-file. Square. Pinion. Half-round. Round.
+ Triangular. Equalizing. Cross. Slitting. Character of File Tooth.
+ Double Cut. Float-cut. Rasp Cut. Holding the File. Injuring Files.
+ Drawing Back the File.
+
+V. HOW TO COMMENCE WORK                                        Page 61
+
+ Familiarity with Tools. File Practice. Using the Dividers. Finding
+ Centers. Hack-saw Practice. Cutting Metal True. Lathe Work. First
+ Steps. Setting the Tool. Metals Used. The Four Important Things.
+ Turning Up a Cylinder. Turning Grooves. Disks. Lathe Speeds.
+
+VI. ILLUSTRATING SOME OF THE FUNDAMENTAL DEVICES               Page 68
+
+ Belt Lacing. Gears. Crown Wheel. Grooved Friction Gearing. A Valve
+ which Closes by the Water Pressure. Cone Pulleys. Universal Joint.
+ Trammel for Making Ellipses. Escapements. Simple Device to Prevent a
+ Wheel or Shaft from Turning Back. Racks and Pinions. Mutilated Gears.
+ Simple Shaft Coupling. Clutches. Ball and Socket Joints. Tripping
+ Devices. Anchor Bolt. Lazy Tongs. Disk Shears. Wabble Saw. Crank Motion
+ by a Slotted Yoke. Continuous Feed by Motion of a Lever. Crank Motion.
+ Ratchet Head. Bench Clamp. Helico-volute Spring. Double helico-volute.
+ Helical Spring. Single Volute Helix Spring. Flat Spiral, or Convolute.
+ Eccentric Rod and Strap. Anti-dead Center for Lathe.
+
+VII. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS                                   Page 79
+
+ Elasticity. Traction. Torsion. Flexure. Tenacity. The Most Tenacious
+ Metal. Ductility. Malleability. Hardness. Alloys. Resistance.
+ Persistence. Conductivity. Equalization. Reciprocity. Molecular Forces.
+ Attraction. Cohesion. Adhesion. Affinity. Porosity. Compressibility.
+ Elasticity. Inertia. Momentum. Weight. Centripetal Force. Centrifugal
+ Force. Capillary Attraction. The Sap of Trees. Sound. Acoustics. Sound
+ Mediums. Vibration. Velocity of Sound. Sound Reflections. Resonance.
+ Echos. Speaking Trumpet. The Stethoscope. The Vitascope. The
+ Phonautograph. The Phonograph. Light. The Corpuscular Theory.
+ Undulatory Theory. Luminous Bodies. Velocity of Light. Reflection.
+ Refraction. Colors. The Spectroscope. The Rainbow. Heat. Expansion.
+
+VIII. HOW DRAUGHTING BECOMES A VALUABLE AID                    Page 95
+
+ Lines in Drawing. Shading. Direction of Shade. Perspectives. The Most
+ Pronounced Lines. Direction of Light. Scale Drawings. Degree, and What
+ it Means. Memorizing Angles. Section Lining. Making Ellipses and
+ Irregular Curves. Focal Points. Isometric and Perspective. The
+ Protractor. Suggestions in Drawing. Holding the Pen. Inks. Tracing
+ Cloth. Detail Paper. How to Proceed. Indicating Material by Section
+ Lines.
+
+IX. TREATMENT AND USE OF METALS                               Page 112
+
+ Annealing. Toughness and Elasticity. The Process. Tempering. Tempering
+ Contrasted with Annealing. Materials Used. Gradual Tempering. Fluxing.
+ Uniting Metals. Alloying Method. Welding. Sweating. Welding Compounds.
+ Oxidation. Soldering. Soft Solder. Hard Solder. Spelter. Soldering
+ Acid. The Soldering Iron.
+
+X. ON GEARING, AND HOW ORDERED                                Page 121
+
+ Spur and Pinion. Measuring a Gear. Pitch. Diametral Pitch. Circular
+ Pitch. How to Order a Gear. Bevel and Miter Gears. Drawing Gears.
+ Sprocket Wheels.
+
+XI. MECHANICAL POWER                                          Page 128
+
+ The Lever. Wrong Inferences from Use of Lever. The Lever Principle.
+ Powers vs. Distance Traveled. Power vs. Loss of Time. Wrongly-Directed
+ Energy. The Lever and the Pulley. Sources of Power. Water Power.
+ Calculating Fuel Energy. The Pressure or Head. Fuels. Power from Winds.
+ Speed of Wind and Pressure. Varying Degrees of Pressure. Power from
+ Waves and Tides. A Profitable Field.
+
+XII. ON MEASURES                                              Page 139
+
+ Horse Power. Foot Pounds. Energy. How to Find Out the Power Developed.
+ The Test. Calculations. The Foot Measure. Weight. The Gallon. The
+ Metric System. Basis of Measurement. Metrical Table, Showing
+ Measurements in Feet and Inches.
+
+XIII. USEFUL INFORMATION FOR THE WORKSHOP                     Page 148
+
+ Finding the Circumference of a Circle. Diameter of a Circle. Area of a
+ Circle. Area of a Triangle. Surface of a Ball. Solidity of a Sphere.
+ Contents of a Cone. Capacity of a Pipe. Capacity of Tanks. To Toughen
+ Aluminum. Amalgams. Prevent Boiler Scaling. Diamond Test. Making Glue
+ Insoluble in Water. Taking Glaze Out of Grindstone. To Find Speeds of
+ Pulleys. To Find the Diameters Required. To Prevent Belts from
+ Slipping. Removing Boiler Scale. Gold Bronze. Cleaning Rusted Utensils.
+ To Prevent Plaster of Paris from Setting Quickly. The Measurement of
+ Liquids with Spoons.
+
+XIV. SIMPLICITY OF GREAT INVENTIONS AND OF NATURE'S MANIFESTATION
+                                                              Page 152
+
+ Invention Precedes Science. Simplicity in Inventions.
+ The Telegraph. Telephone. Transmitter. Phonograph.
+ Wireless Telegraphy. Printing Telegraph. Electric Motor.
+ Explosions. Vibrations in Nature. Qualities of
+ Sound. The Photographer's Plate. Quadruplex Telegraphy.
+ Electric Harmony. Odors. Odophone. A Bouquet
+ of Vibrations. Taste. Color.
+
+XV. WORKSHOP RECIPES AND FORMULAS                             Page 160
+
+ Adhesives for Various Uses. Belt Glue. Cements. Transparent Cement. U.
+ S. Government Gum. To Make Different Alloys. Bell-metal. Brass.
+ Bronzes. Boiler Compounds. Celluloid. Clay Mixture for Forges. Modeling
+ Clay. Fluids for Cleaning Clothes, Furniture, etc. Disinfectants.
+ Deodorants. Emery for Lapping Purposes. Explosives. Fulminates. Files,
+ and How to Keep Clean. Renewing Files. Fire-proof Materials or
+ Substances. Floor Dressings. Stains. Foot Powders. Frost Bites. Glass.
+ To Frost. How to Distinguish. Iron and Steel. To Soften Castings.
+ Lacquers. For Aluminum and Brass. Copper. Lubricants. Paper.
+ Photography. Plasters. Plating, Coloring Metals. Polishes. Putty. Rust
+ Preventives. Solders. Soldering Fluxes. Steel Tempering. Varnishes.
+ Sealing Wax.
+
+XVI. HANDY TABLES                                             Page 178
+
+ Table of Weights for Round and Square Steel. Table of Weight of Flat
+ Steel Bars. Avoirdupois Weight. Troy Weight. Apothecaries' Weight.
+ Linear Measure. Long Measure. Square Measure. Solid or Cubic Measure.
+ Dry Measure. Liquid Measure. Paper Measure. Table of Temperatures.
+ Strength of Various Metals. Freezing Mixtures. Ignition Temperatures.
+ Power and Heat Equivalents.
+
+XVII. INVENTIONS AND PATENTS, AND INFORMATION ABOUT THE
+      RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF INVENTORS AND WORKMEN,
+                                                              Page 188
+
+ The Machinist's Opportunities. What is an Inventor? Idea Not Invention.
+ What an Invention Must Have. Obligation of the Model Builder. Paying
+ for Developing Devices. Time for Filing an Application. Selling an
+ Unpatented Invention. Joint Inventors. Joint Owners Not Partners.
+ Partnerships in Patents. Form of Protection Issued by the Government.
+ Life of a Patent. Interference Proceedings. Concurrent Applications.
+ Granting Interference. Steps in Interference. First Sketches. First
+ Model. First Operative Machine. Preliminary Statements. Proving
+ Invention. What Patents Are Issued For. Owner's Rights. Divided and
+ Undivided Patents. Assignments. How Made. What an Invention Must Have.
+ Basis for Granting Patent in the United States. Reasons for Granting
+ Abroad. Original Grants of Patents. International Agreement.
+ Application for Patents. Course of Procedure. Costs. Filing a Matter of
+ Secrecy.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  FIG.                                                            PAGE
+   1. Bench vise                                                     8
+   2. Pipe grip for vise                                             9
+   3. Swivel vise                                                   10
+   4. Speed lathe                                                   11
+   5. Calipers                                                      12
+   6. Engine lathe                                                  13
+   7. Center gage                                                   14
+   8. Pocket screw and wire gage                                    15
+   9. Handy bench vise                                              16
+  10. Combination square                                            17
+  11. Uses of the combination square                                18
+  12. A quick adjusting micrometer                                  19
+  13. Universal bevel protractor                                    20
+  14. Uses of universal bevel protractor                            21
+  15. Grindstone truing device                                      22
+  16. Set of tools and case                                         23
+  17. The work bench                                                24
+  18. Hook tool                                                     28
+  19. Parting tool                                                  28
+  20. Knife tool                                                    28
+  21. Right-hand side tool                                          28
+  22. Internal tool                                                 28
+  23. Left-hand side tool                                           28
+  24. Tool for wrought iron                                         29
+  25. Tool for cast iron                                            29
+  26. End view of drill                                             31
+  27. Side view of drill                                            31
+  28. Hack-saw frame                                                35
+  29. Hack-saw blade                                                35
+  30. Plain hook tool                                               38
+  31. Plain straight tool                                           38
+  32. Proper angles for tools                                       39
+  33. Angles for tools                                              39
+  34. Angles for tools                                              39
+  35. Set of the bitt                                               40
+  36. Correct angle                                                 41
+  37. Wrong angle                                                   41
+  38. Too low                                                       42
+  39. Improper set                                                  42
+  40. Internal set                                                  43
+  41. Set for brass                                                 43
+  42. Surface gage                                                  44
+  43. Uses of surface gage                                          46
+  44. Rounded surface                                               49
+  45. Winding surface                                               49
+  46. Hexagon nut                                                   51
+  47. Laying off hexagon nut                                        51
+  48. Cutting key-way                                               52
+  49. Key-seat rule                                                 54
+  50. Filing metal round                                            54
+  51. Filing metal round                                            54
+  52. Making a round bearing                                        55
+  53. Making a round bearing                                        55
+  54. Cross section of file                                         56
+  55. Files                                                         58
+  56. Correct file movement                                         59
+  57. Incorrect file movement                                       60
+  58. Belt lacing                                                   69
+  59. Belt lacing                                                   69
+  60. Belt lacing                                                   69
+  61. Belt lacing                                                   69
+  62. Bevel gears                                                   71
+  63. Miter gears                                                   71
+  64. Crown wheel                                                   71
+  65. Grooved friction gears                                        71
+  66. Valve                                                         71
+  67. Cone pulleys                                                  71
+  68. Universal joint                                               71
+  69. Trammel                                                       73
+  70. Escapement                                                    73
+  71. Device for holding wheel                                      73
+  72. Rack and pinion                                               73
+  73. Mutilated gears                                               73
+  74. Shaft coupling                                                73
+  75. Clutches                                                      75
+  76. Ball and socket joints                                        75
+  77. Fastening ball                                                75
+  78. Tripping devices                                              75
+  79. Anchor bolt                                                   75
+  80. Lazy tongs                                                    75
+  81. Disc shears                                                   75
+  82. Wabble saw                                                    76
+  83. Continuous crank motion                                       76
+  84. Continues feed                                                76
+  85. Crank motion                                                  76
+  86. Ratchet head                                                  76
+  87. Bench clamp                                                   76
+  88. Helico-volute spring                                          77
+  89. Double helico-volute                                          77
+  90. Helical spring                                                77
+  91. Single volute-helix                                           77
+  92. Flat spiral or convolute                                      77
+  93. Eccentric rod or strap                                        77
+  94. Anti dead-centers for lathes                                  77
+  95. Plain circle                                                  95
+  96. Ring                                                          96
+  97. Raised surface                                                96
+  98. Sphere                                                        96
+  99. Depressed surface                                             96
+ 100. Concave                                                       97
+ 101. Forms of cubical outlines                                     98
+ 102. Forms of cubical outlines                                     98
+ 103. Forms of cubical outlines                                     98
+ 104. Forms of cubical outlines                                     98
+ 105. Shading edges                                                 99
+ 106. Shading edges                                                 99
+ 107. Illustrating heavy lines                                     100
+ 108. Illustrating heavy lines                                     100
+ 109. Lines on plain surfaces                                      101
+ 110. Lines on plain surfaces                                      101
+ 111. Illustrating degrees                                         102
+ 112. Section lining                                               103
+ 113. Drawing an ellipse                                           104
+ 114. Perspective at angles                                        106
+ 115. Perspective of cube                                          107
+ 116. Perspective of cube                                          107
+ 117. Perspective of cube                                          107
+ 118. Protractor                                                   108
+ 119. Using the protractor                                         109
+ 120. Section-lining metals                                        110
+ 121. Spur gears                                                   122
+ 122. Miter gear pitch                                             123
+ 123. Bevel gears                                                  124
+ 124. Laying of miter gears                                        125
+ 125. Sprocket wheel                                               128
+ 126. Simple lever                                                 129
+ 127. Lever action                                                 130
+ 128. The pulley                                                   132
+ 129. Change of direction                                          133
+ 130. Change of direction                                          133
+ 131. Steam pressure                                               135
+ 132. Water pressure                                               135
+ 133. Prony brake                                                  141
+ 134. Speed indicator                                              142
+
+
+
+
+PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+
+The American method of teaching the mechanical arts has some
+disadvantages, as compared with the apprentice system followed in
+England, and very largely on the continent.
+
+It is too often the case that here a boy or a young man begins work in a
+machine shop, not for the avowed purpose of learning the trade, but
+simply as a helper, with no other object in view than to get his weekly
+wages.
+
+Abroad, the plan is one which, for various reasons, could not be
+tolerated here. There he is bound for a certain term of years, and with
+the prime object of teaching him to become an artisan. More often than
+otherwise he pays for this privilege, and he knows it is incumbent on
+him "to make good" right from the start.
+
+He labors under the disadvantage, however, that he has a certain tenure,
+and in that course he is not pushed forward from one step to the next on
+account of any merit of his own. His advancement is fixed by the time he
+has put in at each part of the work, and thus no note is taken of his
+individuality.
+
+Here the boy rises step after step by virtue of his own qualifications,
+and we recognize that one boy has the capacity to learn faster than
+another. If he can learn in one year what it requires three in another
+to acquire, in order to do it as perfectly, it is an injury to the apt
+workman to be held back and deterred from making his way upwardly.
+
+It may be urged that the apprentice system instills thoroughness. This
+may be true; but it also does another thing: It makes the man a mere
+machine. The true workman is a thinker. He is ever on the alert to find
+easier, quicker and more efficient means for doing certain work.
+
+What is called "Efficiency" in labor methods, can never obtain in an
+apprenticeship system for this reason. In a certain operation, where
+twelve motions are required to do a certain thing, and a minute to
+perform the twelve operations, a simplified way, necessitating only
+eight motions, means a difference in saving one-third of the time. The
+nineteen hundred fewer particular movements in a day's work, being a
+less strain on the operator, both physically and mentally, to say
+nothing whatever of the advantages which the proprietor of the shop
+would gain.
+
+I make this a leading text in the presentation of this book; namely,
+that individual merit and stimulus is something of such extreme
+importance that it should be made the keynote for every boy who tries to
+become a mechanic.
+
+The machinist easily occupies a leading place in the multitude of trades
+and occupations. There is hardly an article of use but comes to the
+market through his hands. His labor is most diverse, and in his
+employment doing machine work he is called upon to do things which vary
+widely in their character.
+
+These require special knowledge, particular tools, and more frequently
+than otherwise, a high order of inventive ability to enable him to
+accomplish the task.
+
+The boy should be taught, at the outset, that certain things must be
+learned thoroughly, and that habits in a machine shop can be bad as well
+as good. When he once becomes accustomed to putting a tool back in its
+rightful place the moment he is through with it, he has taken a long
+step toward efficiency.
+
+When he grasps a tool and presents it to the work without turning it
+over several times, or has acquired the knack of picking up the right
+tool at the proper place, he is making strides in the direction of
+becoming a rapid and skilled workman.
+
+These, and many other things of like import, will require our attention
+throughout the various chapters.
+
+It is not the intention of the book to make every boy who reads and
+studies it, a machinist; nor have we any desire to present a lot of
+useful articles as samples of what to make. The object is to show the
+boy what are the requirements necessary to make him a machinist; how to
+hold, handle, sharpen and grind the various tools; the proper ones to
+use for each particular character of work; how the various machines are
+handled and cared for; the best materials to use; and suggest the
+numerous things which can be done in a shop which will pave the way for
+making his work pleasant as well as profitable.
+
+It also analyzes the manner in which the job is laid out; how to set the
+tools to get the most effective work; and explains what is meant by
+making a finished piece of workmanship. These things, properly acquired,
+each must determine in his own mind whether he is adapted to follow up
+the work.
+
+Over and above all, we shall try to give the boy some stimulus for his
+work. Unless he takes an interest in what he is doing, he will never
+become an artisan in the true sense of the word.
+
+Go through the book, and see whether, here and there, you do not get
+some glimpses of what it means to take a pleasure in doing each
+particular thing, and you will find in every instance that it is a
+satisfaction because you have learned to perform it with ease.
+
+I do not know of anything which has done as much to advance the arts and
+manufactures, during the last century, as the universal desire to
+improve the form, shape and structure of tools; and the effort to invent
+new ones. This finds its reflection everywhere in the production of new
+and improved products.
+
+In this particular I have been led to formulate a homely sentence which
+expresses the idea: Invention consists in doing an old thing a new way;
+or a new thing any way.
+
+THE AUTHOR.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+ON TOOLS GENERALLY
+
+
+Judging from the favorable comments of educators, on the general
+arrangement of the subject matter in the work on "Carpentry for Boys," I
+am disposed to follow that plan in this book in so far as it pertains to
+tools.
+
+In this field, as in "Carpentry," I do not find any guide which is
+adapted to teach the boy the fundamentals of mechanics. Writers usually
+overlook the fact, that as the boy knows nothing whatever about the
+subject, he could not be expected to know anything about tools.
+
+To describe them gives a start in the education, but it is far short of
+what is necessary for one in his condition. If he is told that the
+chisel or bit for a lathe has a diamond point, or is round-nosed, and
+must be ground at a certain angle, he naturally wants to know, as all
+boys do, _why_ it should be at that angle.
+
+So in the setting of the tools with relation to the work, the holding
+and manipulation of the file, of the drill for accurate boring, together
+with numerous little things, are all taken for granted, and the boy
+blunders along with the ultimate object in sight, without having the
+pathway cleared so he may readily reach the goal.
+
+VARIED REQUIREMENTS.--The machinist's trade is one which requires the
+most varied tools of all occupations, and they are by all odds the most
+expensive to be found in the entire list of vocations.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 1. Bench Vise._]
+
+This arises from the fact that he must work with the most stubborn of
+all materials. He finds resistance at every step in bringing forth a
+product.
+
+LIST OF TOOLS.--With a view of familiarizing the boy with this great
+variety the following list is compiled, from which we shall select the
+ones essential in the initial equipment of a small shop.
+
+VISES.--One small, good vise is infinitely preferable to two bad ones.
+For ordinary work a 3-inch jaw is preferable, and it should be firmly
+mounted on the bench. So many kinds are now made that it would be a
+costly thing to purchase one for each special use, therefore the boy
+will find it profitable to make some attachments for the ordinary vise.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 2. Pipe Grip for Vise._]
+
+SWIVEL VISES.--A swivel vise is always a good tool, the cost being not
+excessive over the ordinary kind. Then a pair of grips for holding pipe,
+or round material which is to be threaded, can readily be made.
+
+The drawing (Fig. 2) shows a serviceable pair of grips, made to fit the
+jaws of a vise, and will be acceptable in much of the work. Then, the
+vise should be provided with copper caps for the jaws to be used when
+making up articles which would otherwise be injured by the jaws.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 3. Swivel Vise._]
+
+Let us get a comprehensive view of the different kinds of tools
+necessary in a fully equipped shop.
+
+PARTS OF LATHE.--The first thing of importance is the lathe, and of
+these there is quite a variety, and among the accompaniments are the
+slide rest, mandrel, back gear, division plate, angle plate, cone plate
+and various chucks.
+
+There must also be change wheels, studs and quadrant plates, self-acting
+feed for surfacing and cross slide, and clamping nuts.
+
+Drilling machines, both hand and power, hand and ratchet braces and
+breast-drill stocks.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 4--Speed Lathe._]
+
+CHISELS.--Chisels of various kinds, for chipping and cross-cutting;
+round-nosed, centering, set punches, tommies and drifts.
+
+Back, tee and centering square; bevels, spirit level, inside and outside
+calipers, straight edges, rules and surface plates.
+
+Gages for boring, scribing blocks, steel and brass scribes, stocks and
+dies, screw-plates, taps for bolts, reamers.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 5. Calipers_]
+
+Files for various descriptions, countersinks, frame and hack saws.
+
+GRINDING APPARATUS.--Emery wheel, cloth and paper, paper, flour emery,
+polishing powders, laps and buffs, and polishing sticks.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 6. Engine Lathe._
+ _A. Lathe Bed_
+ _B. Rack Gear_
+ _C. Live Center_
+ _D. Dead Center_
+ _E. Dead Spindle_
+ _F. Face Plate_
+ _G. Feed Screw_
+ _H. Train of Gears_
+ _I. Head Stock_
+ _J. Mandrel_
+ _K. Cone Pulley_
+ _L. Angle Plate for Tool Holder_
+ _M. Tool Post_
+ _N. Tail Stock_
+ _O. Wheel for Slide Rest Mechanism_
+ _P. Locking Lever for Tail Stock._]
+
+Forge, anvils, tongs, swages, punches, bolt tools, hot and cold chisels,
+blow-pipe, soldering iron, hard and soft solders, borax, spirits of
+salts, oil, resin and spelter.
+
+To this may be added an endless variety of small bench tools,
+micrometers, protractors, arbors, collets, box tools and scrapers.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 7. Center Gage._]
+
+LARGE MACHINES.--The list would not be complete without the planer,
+shaper and milling machine, with their variety of chucks, clamps and
+other attachments, too numerous to mention.
+
+The foregoing show what a wonderful variety of articles are found in a
+well-equipped shop, all of which can be conveniently used; but to the
+boy who has only a small amount of money, a workable set is indicated as
+follows:
+
+A small lathe, with an 8-inch swing, can be obtained at a low cost,
+provided with a countershaft complete.
+
+CHUCKS.--With this should go a small chuck, and a face-plate for large
+work, unless a large chuck can also be acquired. This, with a dozen
+tools of various sizes, and also small bits for drilling purposes.
+
+The lathe will answer all purposes for drilling, but small drilling
+machines are now furnished at very low figures, and such a machine will
+take off a great deal of duty from the lathe.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 8. Pocket Screw and Wire Gage._]
+
+As the lathe is of prime importance, never use it for drilling, if you
+have a driller, as it always has enough work to do for tuning up work.
+
+BENCH TOOLS.--Of bench tools, a 3-inch vise, various files, center
+punch, two hammers, round and A-shaped peons, hack saw, compasses,
+inside and outside calipers, screw driver, cold chisels, metal square,
+level, straight edge, bevel square, reamers, small emery wheel and an
+oil stone, make a fairly good outfit to start with, and these can be
+added to from time to time.
+
+Everything in the machine shop centers about the lathe. It is the king
+of all tools. The shaper and planer may be most efficient for surfacing,
+and the milling machine for making grooves and gears, or for general
+cutting purposes, but the lathe possesses a range of work not possible
+with either of the other tools, and for that reason should be selected
+with great care.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 9. Handy Bench Vise._]
+
+SELECTING A LATHE.--The important things about a lathe are the spindle
+bearings and the ways for the tool-holder. The least play in either will
+ruin any work. Every other part may be defective, but with solidly
+built bearing-posts and bearings, your lathe will be effective.
+
+For this reason it will not pay to get a cheap tool. Better get a small,
+6-inch approved tool of this kind, than a larger cheap article. It may
+pay with other tools, but with a lathe never.
+
+Never do grinding on a lathe. The fine emery, or grinding material, is
+sure to reach the bearings; it matters not what care is exercised. There
+is only one remedy for this--overhauling.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 10.--Combination Square._]
+
+COMBINATION SQUARE.--A tool of this kind is most essential, however
+small. It can be used as a try-square, and has this advantage, that the
+head can be made to slide along the rule and be clamped at any point. It
+has a beveling and a leveling device, as well.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 11.--Uses of the Combination Square._]
+
+The combination square provides a means for doing a great variety of
+work, as it combines the qualities of a rule, square, miter, depth gage,
+height gage, level and center head.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 12.--A Quick Adjusting Micrometer._]
+
+The full page illustration (Fig. 11) shows some of the uses and the
+particular manner of holding the tool.
+
+MICROMETERS.--Tools of this description are made which will accurately
+measure work in dimensions of ten-thousandths of an inch up to an inch.
+
+The illustration (Fig. 12) shows an approved tool, and this is so
+constructed that it can instantly be changed and set by merely pressing
+the end of the plunger as shown.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 13.--A Universal Bevel Protractor._]
+
+PROTRACTORS.--As all angles are not obtainable by the square or bevel, a
+protractor is a most desirable addition to the stock of tools. As one
+side of the tool is flat it is convenient for laying on the paper when
+drafting, as well as for use on the work.
+
+The protractor has a graduated disk, and is adjustable so it can be
+disposed at any angle.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 14.--Universal Bevel Protractor, showing its
+uses._]
+
+All special tools of this kind are serviceable, and the boy should
+understand their uses, even though he is not able for the time being to
+acquire them. To learn how they are applied in daily use is an education
+in itself.
+
+UTILIZING BEVEL PROTRACTOR.--Examine the full-page illustration (Fig.
+14), and see how the bevel protractor is utilized to measure the angles
+of work, whether it is tapering heads or different kinds of nuts, or end
+and side surfacing, and it will teach an important lesson.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 15.--Grindstone Truing Device._]
+
+TRUING GRINDSTONES.--Devices for truing up grindstones are now made, and
+the illustration (Fig. 15) shows a very efficient machine for this
+purpose. It can be applied instantly to the face of the stone, and it
+works automatically, without interfering with the use of the stone.
+
+It is frequently the case that an emery wheel will become glazed, due to
+its extreme hardness. This is also caused, sometimes, by running it at
+too high a speed. If the glazing continues after the speed is reduced,
+it should be ground down an eighth of an inch or so. This will, usually,
+remedy the defect.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 16.--Set of Tools and Case._]
+
+SETS OF TOOLS.--A cheap and convenient set of precision tools is shown
+in Fig. 16, which is kept in a neat folding leather case. The set
+consists of a 6-inch combination square, complete center punch, 6-inch
+flexible steel rule center gage, 4-inch calipers, 4-inch outside caliper
+with solid nut, 4-inch inside caliper with solid nut, and a 4-inch
+divider with a solid nut.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 17. The Work Bench._]
+
+THE WORK BENCH.--This is the mechanic's fort. His capacity for work will
+depend on its arrangement. To the boy this is particularly interesting,
+and for his uses it should be made full three inches lower than the
+standard height.
+
+A good plan to judge of the proper height is to measure from the jaws of
+the vise. The top of the jaw should be on a level with the elbows. Grasp
+a file with both hands, and hold it as though in the act of filing
+across the work; then measure up from the floor to the elbows, when they
+are held in that position.
+
+THE PROPER DIMENSIONS.--This plan will give you a sure means of
+selecting a height that is best adapted for your work. The regulation
+bench is about 38 inches high, and assuming that the vise projects up
+about 4 inches more, would bring the top of the jaws about 42 to 44
+inches from the floor. It is safe to fix the height of the bench at not
+less than 34 inches.
+
+This should have a drawer, preferably near the right-hand end of the
+bench. The vise should be at the left side, and the bench in your front
+should be free of any fixed tools.
+
+HOW ARRANGED.--Have a rack above the bench at the rear, for the various
+tools when not in use, and the rear board of the bench should be
+elevated above the front planks several inches, on which the various
+tools can be put, other than those which are suspended on the rack
+above.
+
+The advantage of this is, that a bench will accumulate a quantity of
+material that the tools can hide in, and there is nothing more annoying
+than to hunt over a lot of trash to get what is needed. It is necessary
+to emphasize the necessity of always putting a tool back in its proper
+place, immediately after using.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS
+
+
+It is singular, that with the immense variety of tools set forth in the
+preceding chapter, how few, really, require the art of the workman to
+grind and sharpen. If we take the lathe, the drilling machine, as well
+as the shaper, planer, milling machine, and all power-driven tools, they
+are merely mechanism contrived to handle some small, and, apparently,
+inconsequential tool, which does the work on the material.
+
+IMPORTANCE OF THE CUTTING TOOL.--But it is this very fact that makes the
+preparation of that part of the mechanism so important. Here we have a
+lathe, weighing a thousand pounds, worth hundreds of dollars,
+concentrating its entire energies on a little bit, weighing eight
+ounces, and worth less than a dollar. It may thus readily be seen that
+it is the little bar of metal from which the small tool is made that
+needs our care and attention.
+
+This is particularly true of the expensive milling machines, where the
+little saw, if not in perfect order, and not properly set, will not only
+do improper work, but injure the machine itself. More lathes are ruined
+from using badly ground tools than from any other cause.
+
+In the whole line of tools which the machinist must take care of daily,
+there is nothing as important as the lathe cutting-tool, and the
+knowledge which goes with it to use the proper one.
+
+Let us simplify the inquiry by considering them under the following
+headings:
+
+1. The grinder.
+
+2. The grinding angle.
+
+THE GRINDER.--The first mistake the novice will make, is to use the tool
+on the grinder as though it were necessary to grind it down with a few
+turns of the wheel. Haste is not conducive to proper sharpening. As the
+wheel is of emery, corundum or other quickly cutting material, and is
+always run at a high rate of speed, a great heat is evolved, which is
+materially increased by pressure.
+
+Pressure is injurious not so much to the wheel as to the tool itself.
+The moment a tool becomes heated there is danger of destroying the
+temper, and the edge, being the thinnest, is the most violently
+affected. Hence it is desirable always to have a receptacle with water
+handy, into which the tool can be plunged, during the process of
+grinding down.
+
+CORRECT USE OF GRINDER.--Treat the wheel as though it is a friend, and
+not an enemy. Take advantage of its entire surface. Whenever you go into
+a machine shop, look at the emery wheel. If you find it worn in creases,
+and distorted in its circular outline, you can make up your mind that
+there is some one there who has poor tools, because it is simply out of
+the question to grind a tool correctly with such a wheel.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 18. Hook Tool._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 19. Parting Tool._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 20. Knife Tool._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 21. Right-hand Side Tool._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 22. Internal Tool._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 23. Left-hand Side Tool._]
+
+Coarse wheels are an abomination for tool work. Use the finest kinds
+devised for the purpose. They will keep in condition longer, are not so
+liable to wear unevenly, and will always finish off the edge better than
+the coarse variety.
+
+LATHE BITS.--All bits made for lathes are modifications of the foregoing
+types (Figs. 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23).
+
+As this chapter deals with the sharpening methods only, the reader is
+referred to the next chapter, which deals with the manner of setting
+and holding them to do the most effective work.
+
+When it is understood that a cutting tool in a lathe is simply a form of
+wedge which peels off a definite thickness of metal, the importance of
+proper grinding and correct position in the lathe can be appreciated.
+
+ROUGHING TOOLS.--The most useful is the roughing tool to take off the
+first cut. As this type of tool is also important, with some
+modifications, in finishing work, it is given the place of first
+consideration here.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 24. Tool for Wrought iron._ _Fig. 25. Tool for Cast
+iron._]
+
+Fig. 24 shows side and top views of a tool designed to rough off wrought
+iron, or a tough quality of steel. You will notice, that what is called
+the top rake (A) is very pronounced, and, as the point projects
+considerably above the body of the tool itself, it should, in practice,
+be set with its cutting point above the center.
+
+THE CLEARANCE.--Now, in grinding, the important point is the clearance
+line (B). As shown in this figure, it has an angle of 10 degrees, so
+that in placing the tool in the holder it is obvious it cannot be placed
+very high above the center, particularly when used on small work. The
+top rake is ground at an angle of 60 degrees from the vertical. The arc
+of the curved end depends on the kind of lathe and the size of the work.
+
+The tool (Fig. 25), with a straight cutting edge, is the proper one to
+rough off cast iron. Note that the top rake (C) is 70 degrees, and the
+clearance 15 degrees.
+
+THE CUTTING ANGLE.--Wrought iron, or mild steel, will form a ribbon when
+the tool wedges its way into the material. Cast iron, on the other hand,
+owing to its brittleness, will break off into small particles, hence the
+wedge surface can be put at a more obtuse angle to the work.
+
+In grinding side-cutters the clearance should be at a less angle than 10
+degrees, rather than more, and the top rake should also be less;
+otherwise the tendency will be to draw the tool into the work and swing
+the tool post around.
+
+DRILLS.--Holders for grinding twist drills are now furnished at very low
+prices, and instructions are usually sent with the machines, but a few
+words may not be amiss for the benefit of those who have not the means
+to purchase such a machine.
+
+Hand grinding is a difficult thing, for the reason that through
+carelessness, or inability, both sides of the drill are not ground at
+the same angle and pitch. As a result the cutting edge of one side will
+do more work than the other. If the heel angles differ, one side will
+draw into the work, and the other resist.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 26. End view._ _Fig. 27. Side view._]
+
+WRONG GRINDING.--When such is the case the hole becomes untrue. The
+sides of the bit will grind into the walls, or the bit will have a
+tendency to run to one side, and particularly if boring through metal
+which is uneven in its texture or grain.
+
+Figs. 26 and 27 show end and side views of a bit properly ground. If a
+bit has been broken off, first grind it off square at the end, and then
+grind down the angles, so that A is about 15 degrees, and be sure that
+the heel has sufficient clearance--that is, ground down deeper than the
+cutting point.
+
+CHISELS.--A machine shop should always have a plentiful supply of cold
+chisels, and a particular kind for each work, to be used for that
+purpose only. This may seem trivial to the boy, but it is really a most
+important matter.
+
+Notice the careless and incompetent workman. If chipping or cutting is
+required, he will grasp the first chisel at hand. It may have a curved
+end, or be a key-way chisel, or entirely unsuited as to size for the
+cutting required.
+
+The result is an injured tool, and unsatisfactory results. The rule
+holds good in this respect as with every other tool in the kit. _Use a
+tool for the purpose it was made for_, and for no other. Acquire that
+habit.
+
+COLD CHISELS.--A cold chisel should never be ground to a long, tapering
+point, like a wood chisel. The proper taper for a wood chisel is 15
+degrees, whereas a cold chisel should be 45 degrees. A drifting chisel
+may have a longer taper than one used for chipping.
+
+It is a good habit, particularly as there are so few tools which require
+grinding, to commence the day's work by grinding the chisels, and
+arranging them for business.
+
+SYSTEM IN WORK.--Then see to it that the drills are in good shape; and
+while you are about it, look over the lathe tools. You will find that it
+is better to do this work at one time, than to go to the emery wheel a
+dozen times a day while you are engaged on the job.
+
+Adopt a system in your work. Don't take things just as they come along,
+but form your plans in an orderly way, and you will always know how to
+take up and finish the work in the most profitable and satisfactory way.
+
+WRONG USE OF TOOLS.--Never use the vise as an anvil. Ordinary and proper
+use of this tool will insure it for a lifetime, aside from its natural
+wear. It may be said with safety that a vise will never break if used
+for the purpose for which it was intended. One blow of a hammer may ruin
+it.
+
+Furthermore, never use an auxiliary lever to screw up the jaws. If the
+lever which comes with it is not large enough to set the jaws, you may
+be sure that the vise is not large enough for your work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+SETTING AND HOLDING TOOLS
+
+
+Some simple directions in the holding and setting of tools may be of
+service to the novice. Practice has shown the most effective way of
+treating different materials, so that the tools will do the most
+efficient work.
+
+A tool ground in a certain way and set at a particular angle might do
+the work admirably on a piece of steel, but would not possibly work on
+aluminum or brass.
+
+LATHE SPEED.--If the lathe should run at the same speed on a piece of
+cast iron as with a brass casting, the result would not be very
+satisfactory, either with the tool or on the work itself.
+
+Some compositions of metal require a high speed, and some a hooked tool.
+These are things which each must determine as the articles come to the
+shop; but there are certain well-defined rules with respect to the
+ordinary metals that should be observed.
+
+THE HACK SAW.--Our first observation should be directed to the hand
+tools. The hack saw is one of the most difficult tools for the machinist
+to handle, for the following reasons:
+
+First, of the desire to force the blade through the work. The blade is a
+frail instrument, and when too great a pressure is exerted it bends, and
+as a result a breakage follows. To enable it to do the work properly, it
+must be made of the hardest steel. It is, in consequence, easily
+fractured.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 28.--Hack Saw Frame._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 29.--Hack Saw Blade._]
+
+Second. The novice will make short hacking cuts. This causes the teeth
+to stick, the saw bends, and a new blade is required. Take a long
+sweeping cut, using the entire length of the blade. Do not oscillate the
+blade as you push it through the work, but keep the tooth line
+horizontal from one end of the stroke to the other. The moment it begins
+to waver, the teeth will catch on the metal on the side nearest to you,
+and it will snap.
+
+Third. The handle is held too loosely. The handle must be firmly held
+with the right hand, and the other held by the fingers lightly, but in
+such a position that a steady downward pressure can be maintained. If
+loosely held, the saw is bound to sag from side to side during the
+stroke, and a short stroke accentuates the lateral movement. A long
+stroke avoids this.
+
+The hack saw is one of the tools which should be used with the utmost
+deliberation, combined with a rigid grasp of the handle.
+
+FILES.--For remarks on this tool see Chapter IV, which treats of the
+subject specially.
+
+GRINDSTONES, EMERY AND GRINDING WHEELS.--A good workman is always
+reflected by his grinding apparatus. This is true whether it has
+reference to a grindstone, emery, corundum wheel, or a plain oil stone.
+Nothing is more destructive of good tools than a grooved, uneven, or
+wabbly stone. It is only little less than a crime for a workman to hold
+a tool on a revolving stone at one spot.
+
+CARELESSNESS IN HOLDING TOOLS.--The boy must learn that such a habit
+actually prevents the proper grinding, not only of the tool he has on
+the stone, but also of the one which follows. While it is true that all
+artificially made grinders will wear unevenly, even when used with the
+utmost care, due to uneven texture of the materials in the stone,
+still, the careless use of the tool, while in the act of grinding, only
+aggravates the trouble.
+
+Another fault of the careless workman is, to press the bit against the
+stone too hard. This cuts the stone more than it wears off the tool, and
+it is entirely unnecessary. Furthermore, it heats up the tool, which
+should be avoided.
+
+CALIPERS.--A true workman, who endeavors to turn out accurate work, and
+preserve his tools, will never test the work with his calipers while the
+piece is turning in the lathe. A revolving cast iron disk will cut ruby,
+the hardest substance next to the diamond, so it is not the hardness of
+the material which resists wear, but the conditions under which it is
+used.
+
+CARE IN USE OF CALIPERS.--The calipers may be of the most hardened
+steel, and the work turned up of the softest brass, the latter, when
+revolving, will grind off the point of the tool, for the reason that the
+revolving piece constantly presents a new surface to the point of the
+calipers, and when tests are frequently made, it does not take long to
+change the caliper span so that it must be reset.
+
+As stated elsewhere, the whole energy of the lathe is concentrated on
+the bit or cutting tool, hence, in order to get the most effective work
+out of it requires care; first, in grinding; and, second, in setting.
+
+MACHINE BITS.--It does not always matter so much whether you use a
+square, pointed, or a round-nosed bit, provided it is properly ground
+and set in the tool holder. As a rule, the more brittle the metal the
+less the top rake or angle should be.
+
+In the chapter relating to the grinding of tools, references were made
+as to the most serviceable bits for the various metals. We are concerned
+here with the setting or holding of these articles.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 30. Plain Hook Tool_ _Fig. 31. Plain Straight
+Tool._]
+
+The two illustrations here given show a pair of plain bits, in which
+Fig. 30 represents a hook-shaped formation, and Fig. 31 a straight
+grind, without any top rake. The hooked bit would do for aluminum, or
+steel, but for cast iron the form shown in Fig. 31 would be most
+serviceable.
+
+Then the side bits, such as the round-nosed, Fig. 32 and the square end,
+Fig. 33, may be ground hooked, or with a top rake, or left flat.
+
+The too common mistake is to grind the lower or clearance side at too
+great an angle. Fig. 34 shows the correct angle, and the dotted line A
+illustrates the common tendency to grind the clearance.
+
+THE PROPER ANGLE FOR LATHE TOOLS.--Now there is a reason why the angle
+of from 10 to 15 should be maintained in the clearance. The point of the
+tool must have suitable support for the work it is required to do, so it
+will not chatter or yield in the slightest degree. A bit ground along
+the dotted line has a cutting edge which will spring down, and
+consequently break or produce a rough surface.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 32. Fig. 33. Fig. 34. Proper Angles for Tools_]
+
+Then, again, the angle of the clearance acts as a guide, or rather, a
+guard, to prevent the tool from going in too far, as will now be
+explained.
+
+SETTING THE BIT.--In order to understand the correct setting, examine
+the work A, in Fig. 35.
+
+A is a cylinder being turned up in the lathe, and B the cutting tool,
+which approaches it on a horizontal line, C, extending out from the
+center of the cylinder A. This setting is theoretically correct, and in
+practice has been found most advantageous.
+
+In this case let us assume that the clearance angle D is 15 degrees, as
+well as in the following figures.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 35. Set of the Bit_]
+
+Suppose we have a piece of tough steel, and the tool holder is raised so
+that the point of the tool is at the 15 degree line E, as shown in Fig.
+36, in which case the clearance line D is at right angles to the line E.
+The line E is 15 degrees above the center line C.
+
+THE SETTING ANGLE.--Now, it is obvious that if the tool should be raised
+higher than the line E it would run out of work, because the clearance
+surface of the tool would ride up over the surface cut by the edge of
+the tool.
+
+If, on the other hand, the tool should be placed lower, toward the line
+C, the tendency would be to draw in the tool toward the center of the
+work A.
+
+In Fig. 37 the tool has its point elevated, in which case it must be
+lowered so the point will touch the work nearer the center line C.
+
+The foregoing arrangement of the tools will be found to be effective
+where the material is soft and not too tough as with aluminum.
+
+BAD PRACTICE.--Figs. 38 and 39 show illustrations of bad practice which
+should never be resorted to. Fig. 38 shows the tool, held in a
+horizontal position, but with its point below the center line C. With
+any rough metal the tool could not possibly work, except to act as a
+scraper, and if it should be used in that position on cast iron, the
+tool itself would soon be useless.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 36. Correct Angle_ _Fig. 37. Wrong Angle_]
+
+Fig. 39 is still worse, and is of no value for any purpose except in
+polishing brass, where it would be serviceable. It would make a sorry
+looking job with aluminum. Brass requires a tool with very little top
+rake, and the point should be set near the center line C.
+
+LATHE SPEED.--It is often a question at what speeds to run the lathe for
+different work. If you know the speeds of your lathe at low and high
+gear, you must also consider the diameter of the work at the cutting
+point.
+
+The rule is to have the bit cut from 15 to 20 feet per minute for
+wrought iron; from 11 to 18 feet for steel; from 25 to 50 for brass; and
+from 40 to 50 for aluminum.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 38. Too Low_ _Fig. 39. Improper Set_]
+
+As a result, therefore, if, at low speed, a piece 10 inches in diameter,
+runs at the proper speed to cut at that distance from the center, it is
+obvious that a piece 5 inches in diameter should ran twice as fast. This
+is a matter which time and practice will enable you to judge with a fair
+degree of accuracy.
+
+Observe this as a maxim: "Slow speed, and quick feed."
+
+BORING TOOLS ON LATHE.--The lathe is a most useful tool for boring
+purposes, better for some work than the drilling machine itself. The
+work which can be done better on a lathe than on a drilling machine, may
+be classified as follows:
+
+1. When straight and true holes are required.
+
+2. In long work, where the lathe is used to turn up the article, and
+where the drilling can be done at the same time.
+
+3. Anything that can be chucked in a lathe.
+
+4. Where the work is long and cannot be fixed in a drilling machine. The
+long bed of the lathe gives room for holding such work.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 40. Internal Set_ _Fig. 41. Set for Brass_]
+
+THE RAKE OF THE DRILL.--A boring tool requires some knowledge in
+setting. It should have a greater top rake than for the outside work,
+and the cutting edge should also be keener, as a rule.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 42.--Surface Gage._]
+
+In this class of work the material bored must be understood, as well as
+in doing outside work.
+
+The hooked tool, Fig. 40, is shown to be considerably above the center
+line, and at that point it will do the most effective cutting on steel.
+If, on the other hand, brass is operated on there should be no top
+rake, as illustrated in Fig. 41, thus assuring a smooth job.
+
+LAPS.--This is a tool which is very useful, particularly for grinding
+and truing up the cylinders of internal combustion engines, as well as
+for all kinds of bores of refractory material which cannot be handled
+with the cutting tool of the lathe.
+
+It is made up of a mandrel or rod of copper, with lead cast about it,
+and then turned up true, so that it is but the merest trifle larger than
+the hole it is to true up.
+
+USING THE LAP.--The roller thus made is turned rapidly in a lathe, and
+the cylinder to be trued is brought up to it and the roller supplied
+freely with emery powder and oil. As rapidly as possible the cylinder is
+worked over on the roller, without forcing it, and also turned, so as to
+prevent even the weight from grinding it unduly on one side.
+
+More or less of the emery will embed itself in the lead, and thus act as
+an abrasive. The process is called "lapping."
+
+SURFACE GAGES.--Frequently, in laying out, it is necessary to scribe
+lines at a given distance from some part of the work; or, the conditions
+are such that a rule, a caliper, or dividers will not permit accurate
+measurement to be made.
+
+For such purposes, what is called a surface gage was devised. This is
+merely a heavy base, provided with a pivoted upright on which is
+mounted a scribe that is held by a clamp so it may be turned to any
+angle.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 43.--Showing uses of the Surface Gage._]
+
+SURFACE GAGE.--The clamp holding the scriber is vertically movable on
+the pivoted upright. By resting the base of the surface gage on the line
+to be measured from, and swinging one point of the scriber to the place
+where the work is to be done, accuracy is assured. One end of the
+scriber is bent, so it can be adapted to enter recesses, or such places
+as could not be reached by the straight end.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ON THE USE OF THE FILE
+
+
+The most necessary tool in a machine shop is a file. It is one of the
+neglected tools, because the ordinary boy, or workman, sees nothing in
+it but a strip or a bar with a lot of cross grooves and edges, and he
+concludes that the only thing necessary is to rub it across a piece of
+metal until he has worn it down sufficiently for the purpose.
+
+THE FIRST TEST.--The fact is, the file is so familiar a tool, that it
+breeds contempt, like many other things closely associated in life.
+
+Give the boy an irregular block of metal, and tell him to file it up
+square, and he will begin to realize that there is something in the
+handling of a file that never before occurred to him.
+
+He will find three things to astonish him:
+
+First: That of dimensions.
+
+Second: The difficulty of getting it square.
+
+Third: The character of the surface when he has finished it.
+
+FILING AN IRREGULAR BLOCK.--To file a block of an irregular character so
+that the dimensions are accurate, is a good test for an accomplished
+workman. The job is made doubly difficult if he is required to file it
+square at the same time. It will be found, invariably, that the sides
+will not be parallel, and by the time it is fully trued up the piece
+will be too small. See Figs. 44 and 45.
+
+Then, unless the utmost care is taken, the flat sides _will not_ be
+flat, but rounded.
+
+FILING A BAR STRAIGHT.--The next test is to get the boy to file a bar
+straight. He has no shaper or planer for the purpose, so that it must be
+done by hand. He will find himself lacking in two things: The edge of
+the bar will not be straight; nor will it be square with the side of the
+bar.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 44. Rounded Surface_ _Fig. 45. A Winding Face_]
+
+FILING BAR WITH PARALLEL SIDES.--Follow up this test by requiring him to
+file up a bar, first, with two exactly parallel sides, and absolutely
+straight, so it will pass smoothly between the legs of a pair of
+calipers, and then file the two other sides in like manner.
+
+SURFACING OFF DISKS.--When the foregoing are completed there is still
+another requirement which, though it appears simple, is the supreme
+test. Set him to work at surfacing off a pair of disks or plates, say
+one and a half inches in diameter, so that when they are finished they
+will fit against each other perfectly flat.
+
+A pair of such disks, if absolutely true, will hold together by the
+force of cohesion, even in a dry state, or they will, as it were, float
+against each other.
+
+TRUE SURFACING.--Prior to about 1850 the necessity of true surfacing was
+not so important or as well known as at the present time. About that
+period Sir J. Whitworth, an eminent English engineer and mechanic,
+called the attention of machinists to the great advantage arising from
+true surfaces and edges for all types of machinery, and he laid the
+foundation of the knowledge in accurating surfacing.
+
+PRECISION TOOLS.--Due to his energy many precision tools were made, all
+tending to this end, and as a result machines became better and more
+efficient in every way.
+
+It had this great advantage: It taught the workman of his day how to use
+the file and scraper, because both must be used conjunctively to make an
+absolutely flat plate.
+
+Contrary to general beliefs, shapers and planers do not make absolutely
+accurate surfaces. The test of this is to put together two plates so
+planed off. There is just enough unevenness to permit air to get between
+the plates. If they were perfectly true they would exclude all air, and
+it would be a difficult matter to draw them apart.
+
+TEST OF THE MECHANIC.--To make them perfectly flat, one plate has chalk
+rubbed over it, and the two plates are then rubbed together. This will
+quickly show where the high spots are, and the file and scraper are then
+used to cut away the metal.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 46. Fig. 47. Hexagon Nut_]
+
+In England the test of the mechanic used to be determined by his ability
+to file a piece of metal flat. It was regarded as the highest art. This
+is not the most desirable test at the present time, and it is recognized
+that a much severer test is to file a narrow piece exactly flat, and so
+that it will not have a trace of roundness, and be square from end to
+end.
+
+TEST SUGGESTIONS.--In a shop which does not have the advantage of a
+planer or shaper, there are so many articles which must be filed up,
+that it is interesting to know something of how the various articles are
+made with a file.
+
+To file a hexagon, or six-sided nut will be a good test with a file. To
+do this a little study in geometrical lines will save a vast amount of
+time. In beginning the work, measure the radius with a divider, and then
+step off and make six marks equidistant from each other on the round
+surface.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 48. Cutting Key-way_]
+
+USE OF THE DIVIDERS.--The distance between each of these points is equal
+to the radius, or half the diameter, of the round bar. See Fig. 46,
+which shows this. The marks should be scribed across the surface, as
+shown in Fig. 47, where the lines show the ends of the facets of the
+outside of the nut.
+
+Do not let the file obliterate the lines at the rough cutting, but
+leave enough material so you can make a good finish at the line.
+
+CUTTING A KEY-WAY.--Another job you may have frequent occasion to
+perform, is to cut a way for a key in a shaft and in a wheel hub.
+Naturally, this will be first roughed out with a cold chisel narrower
+than the key is to be, and also slightly shallower than the dimensions
+of the key.
+
+A flat file should be used for the purpose, first a heavy rough one, for
+the first cutting. The better way is to have the key so it can be
+frequently tried while the filing process is going on, so that to fit
+the key in this way is a comparatively easy task.
+
+KEY-WAY DIFFICULTIES.--But the trouble commences when the groove is
+filed for the depth. Invariably, the mistake will be made of filing the
+width first, so the key will fit in. As a result, in deepening the
+groove the file will contact with the walls, and you have a key-way too
+wide for the key.
+
+To avoid this, file the depth, or nearly so, and then with a fine file
+cut in the corners in the direction indicated by the dart, Fig. 48.
+
+A proper key is square in cross section. In such a case the depth of the
+key-way, at each side wall, is just half the width of the key-way.
+
+An excellent key-seat rule can be made by filing out two right-angled
+pieces, as shown in Fig. 49, which can be attached to the ordinary
+six-inch metal rule, and this will enable you to scribe the line
+accurately for the key-way on the shaft.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 49. Key-seat Rule_]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 50. Fig. 51. Filing Metal Round_]
+
+FILING METAL ROUND.--It is sometimes necessary to file a piece of metal
+round. This is a hard job, particularly where it is impossible to scribe
+the end of the piece. Suppose it is necessary to file up a bearing
+surface, or surfaces, intermediate the ends of a square bar.
+
+You have in that case four sides to start from, the opposite sides
+being parallel with each other, so that you will have two dimensions,
+and four equal sides, as shown in Fig. 50.
+
+The first step will be to file off accurately the four corners 1, 2, 3,
+4, so as to form eight equal sides or faces, as shown in Fig. 51. If you
+will now proceed to file down carefully the eight corners, so as to make
+sixteen sides, as in Fig. 52, the fourth set of corners filed down will
+make the filed part look like the illustration Fig. 53 with thirty-two
+faces.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 52. Fig. 53. Making a Bar Round_]
+
+This may be further filed down into sixty-four faces, and a few cuts of
+the finishing file will take off the little ridges which still remain.
+By using emery cloth, and wrapping it around the bearing portion, and
+changing it continually, while drawing it back and forth, will enable
+you to make a bearing which, by care, will caliper up in good shape.
+
+KINDS OF FILES.--Each file has five distinct properties; namely: the
+length, the contour, the form in cross section, the kind of teeth, and
+the fineness of the teeth.
+
+There are nine well-defined shapes for files. These may be enumerated as
+follows:
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 54. Cross Sections of Files._]
+
+No. 1. The cotter file. The small kind is called a verge or pivot file.
+
+No. 2. Square file, which may be tapering from end to end, or have
+parallel sides throughout.
+
+No. 3. Watch pinion file. This may have its sides parallel or tapering,
+to make a knife-shaped file.
+
+No. 4. Clock-pinion; which may be used for either nicking, piecing, or
+squaring-off purposes.
+
+No. 5. Round, with parallel sides for gulleting purposes, or rat-tail
+when it tapers.
+
+No. 6. Triangular, or three equally-sided body for saw filing.
+
+No. 7. Equalizing file. This is parallel when used for making
+clock-pinions or endless screws; or for slitting, entering, warding, or
+making barrel holes, when the body of the file tapers.
+
+No. 8. Cross, or double-round, half-file.
+
+No. 9. Slitting file; which has parallel sides only. A cant file.
+
+CHARACTER OF THE FILE TOOTH.--Files are distinguished principally by the
+character of the oblique, or cross grooves and ridges which do the
+cutting and abrading when the file is drawn across the surface.
+
+This is really more important than the shape, because the files, by
+their cuttings, are adapted for the various materials which they are to
+be used upon.
+
+The files are classified as _Double Cut_, of which there are the
+_rough_, _middle_, _bastard_, _second cut_, _smooth_, and _dead smooth_.
+
+The _Float Cut_, which is either _rough_, _bastard_ or _smooth_; and
+
+The _Rasp Cut_, either _rough_, _bastard_ or _smooth_.
+
+Several types are illustrated in Fig. 55, which show the characteristics
+of the various cuts.
+
+The rasps are used principally for soft material, such as wood or for
+hoofs, in horse shoeing, hence they need not be considered in connection
+with machine-shop work.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 55. Files._]
+
+HOLDING THE FILE.--The common mistake on the part of the beginner is to
+drag the file across the work at an angle. The body of the file should
+move across straight and not obliquely.
+
+Note this movement in Fig. 56 where the dash shows the correct movement
+of the file with relation to the work. Also observe that the file
+cutting ridges are not straight across the file, but at an angle to the
+direction of the dart.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 56. Correct File Movement_]
+
+INJURING FILES.--Now the frequent practice is to use the file as shown
+in Fig. 57, in which case it is moved across obliquely. The result is
+that the angle of the file cut is so disposed that the teeth of the file
+do not properly aid in the cutting, but in a measure retard the
+operation.
+
+File teeth are disposed at an angle for the purpose of giving them a
+shearing cut, which is the case when the file moves across the work on a
+line with its body.
+
+To use a file as shown in Fig. 57 injures the file without giving it an
+opportunity to cut as fast as it would when properly used.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 57. Incorrect File Movement_]
+
+DRAWING BACK THE FILE.--In drawing back a file it is always better to
+allow it to drag over the work than to raise it up. It is frequently the
+case that some of the material will lodge in the teeth, and the back
+lash will serve to clear out the grooves.
+
+This is particularly true in filing copper, aluminum, lead, and like
+metals, but it is well to observe this in all cases.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+HOW TO COMMENCE WORK
+
+
+The question is often asked: Where and how shall the novice commence
+work?
+
+When the shop is equipped, or partially so, sufficient, at least, to
+turn out simple jobs, the boy will find certain tools which are
+strangers to him. He must become acquainted with them and not only learn
+their uses, but how to use them to the best advantage.
+
+FAMILIARITY WITH TOOLS.--Familiarity with the appearance of tools, and
+seeing them in the hands of others will not be of any value. Nothing but
+the immediate contact with the tool will teach how to use it.
+
+FILE PRACTICE.--The file is a good tool to pick up first. Select a piece
+of metal, six or eight inches long, and follow the instructions laid
+down in the chapter relating to the use of the file.
+
+Practice with several kinds and with different varieties of material
+will soon give an inkling of the best kind to use with the metal you
+have. Use the straight edge and the square while the filing process is
+going on, and apply them frequently, to show you what speed you are
+making and how nearly true you are surfacing up the piece.
+
+USING THE DIVIDERS.--Then try your hand using the dividers, in
+connection with a centering punch. As an example, take two pieces of
+metal, each about a foot long, and set the dividers to make a short
+span, say an inch or so, and step off the length of one piece of metal,
+and punch the last mark. Then do likewise with the other piece of metal,
+and see how nearly alike the two measurements are by comparing them.
+
+You will find a variation in the lengths of the two measurements at the
+first trials, and very likely will not be able to make the two pieces
+register accurately after many trials, even when using the utmost care.
+
+Sooner or later you will learn that you have not stepped paths along the
+two bars which were exactly straight, and this will account for the
+variations. In order to be accurate a line should be drawn along each
+piece of metal, and the dividers should step off the marks on that line.
+
+FINDING CENTERS.--By way of further experiment, it might be well to find
+the exact center of the ends of a square bar, putting in the punch marks
+and then mounting it in the lathe centers to see how accurately this has
+been done.
+
+If either end is out of true the punch marks can be corrected by
+inclining the punch, so that when it is struck it will move over the
+point in the direction of its true center. This may be followed up by
+centering the end of a round bar so as to make it true. This will be
+found to be a more difficult job, unless you have a center head, a tool
+made for that purpose.
+
+It is good practice, however, to make trials of all this work, as it
+will enable you to judge of measurements. It can be done with the
+dividers by using care in scribing the centers.
+
+HACK-SAW PRACTICE.--Practice with the hack-saw should be indulged in
+frequently. Learn to make a straight cut through a bar. Try to do this
+without using a square to guide you. One of the tests of a good mechanic
+is ability to judge a straight cut.
+
+The following plan is suggested as a test for the eye. Use a bar of iron
+or steel one inch square, and make a cut an eighth of an inch deep
+across it; then turn it around a quarter, so as to expose the nest face,
+and continue the cut along the side, the same depth, and follow this up
+with the remaining two sides, and see how near the end of the first cut
+and the finish cut come together. The test will surprise you.
+
+CUTTING METALS TRUE.--When you saw off the end of such a bar for trial
+purposes, use a square, after the cut is made, and note how much it is
+out of true in both directions. It is a curious fact that most mechanics
+are disposed to saw or cut crooked in one direction, either to the right
+or to the left. In tests made it is found that this defect is persisted
+in.
+
+It is practice only which will remedy this, and it would be well for the
+boy to learn this for himself as early in his career as possible, and
+correct the tendency to veer in either direction.
+
+The test of sawing around a round bar is also commended. After a few
+trials you will be surprised to see how your judgment will improve in
+practice.
+
+LATHE WORK.--Learn the uses of the chuck. As you have, probably,
+economized as much as possible, a universal chuck is not available,
+hence the first experience will be with an independent chuck, where the
+three dogs move independently of each other. This will give you some
+work to learn how you can get the job true.
+
+Now, before attempting to cut the material, thoroughly learn all the
+parts of the feed mechanism, and how to reverse, as well as to cross
+feed. Learn the operation of the operative parts so that your hand will
+instinctively find them, while the eye is on the work.
+
+FIRST STEPS.--See to it that your tools are sharp, and at the first
+trials make light cuts. Practice the feeds by manually moving the tool
+holder, for surface cutting as well as for cross cutting.
+
+SETTING THE TOOL.--Set the cutting tool at various angles, and try the
+different tools, noting the peculiarities of each, at the different
+speeds. Do not, by any means, use refractory metals for your first
+attempt. Mild steel is a good test, and a light gray iron is admirable
+for practice lessons.
+
+METALS USED.--Brass is good for testing purposes, but the difficulty is
+that the tendency of the boy, at first, is to try to do the work too
+rapidly, and brass encourages this tendency. Feed slowly and regularly
+until you can make an even finish.
+
+Then chuck and re-chuck to familiarize yourself with every operative
+part of the lathe, and never try to force the cutting tool. If it has a
+tendency to run into the work, set it higher. If, on the other hand, you
+find, in feeding, that it is hard to move the tool post along, the tool
+is too high, and should be lowered.
+
+THE FOUR IMPORTANT THINGS.--Constant practice of this kind will soon
+enable you to feel instinctively when the tool is doing good work. While
+you are thus experimenting do not forget the speed. This will need your
+attention.
+
+Remember, you have several things to think about in commencing to run
+the lathe, all of which will take care of themselves when it becomes
+familiar to you. These may be enumerated as follows:
+
+First: The kind of tool best to use.
+
+Second: Its proper set, to do the best work.
+
+Third: The speed of the work in the lathe.
+
+Fourth: The feed, or the thickness of the cut into the material.
+
+TURNING UP A CYLINDER.--The first and most important work is to turn up
+a small cylinder to a calipered dimension. When it is roughed down ready
+for the finish cut, set the tool so it will take off a sufficient amount
+to prevent the caliper from spanning it, and this will enable you to
+finish it off with emery paper, or allow another small cut to be taken.
+
+TURNING GROOVES.--Then follow this up by turning in a variety of annular
+grooves of different depths and widths; and also V-shaped grooves, the
+latter to be performed by using both the longitudinal and transverse
+feeds. This will give you excellent practice in using both hands
+simultaneously.
+
+The next step would be to turn out a bore and fit a mandrel into it.
+This will give you the opportunity to use the caliper to good advantage,
+and will test your capacity to use them for inside as well as for
+outside work.
+
+DISCS.--A job that will also afford good exercise is to turn up a disc
+with a groove in its face, and then chuck and turn another disk with an
+annular rib on its face to fit into the groove. This requires delicacy
+of measurement with the inside as well as the outside calipers.
+
+The groove should be cut first, and the measurement taken from that, as
+it is less difficult to handle and set the tool for the rib than for the
+groove.
+
+LATHE SPEEDS.--Do not make the too common mistake of running the mandrel
+at high speeds in your initial tests. It is far better to use a slow
+speed, and take a heavy cut. This is good advice at all times, but it is
+particularly important with beginners.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+ILLUSTRATING SOME OF THE FUNDAMENTAL DEVICES
+
+
+There are numerous little devices and shop expedients which are
+desirable, and for which the boy will find uses as he progresses.
+
+We devote this chapter to hints of this kind, all of which are capable
+of being turned out or utilized at various stages.
+
+LACING BELTS.--To properly lace a belt is quite an art, as many who have
+tried it know. If a belt runs off the pulley it is attributable to one
+of three causes: either the pulleys are out of line or the shafts are
+not parallel or the belt is laced so it makes the belt longer at one
+margin than the other.
+
+In Fig. 58 the lacing should commence at the center hole (A) of one belt
+end and lace outwardly, terminating at the hole (B) in the center of the
+other belt end, as shown in Fig. 58.
+
+In Fig. 59 the lacing commences at A, and terminates at the hole (B) at
+the edge. This will be ample for all but the widest belts.
+
+Fig. 60 is adapted for a narrow belt. The lacing commences at one margin
+hole (A), and terminates at the other margin hole (Z).
+
+Fig. 61 shows the outside of the belt.
+
+Fig. 62. GEARS.--This is something every boy ought to know about. Fig.
+62 shows a pair of intermeshing bevel gears. This is the correct term
+for a pair when both are of the same diameter.
+
+[Illustration: _Inside Fig. 58. Belt Lacing_
+ _Outside Fig. 58. Belt Lacing_
+ _Fig. 59. Belt Lacing_
+ _Fig. 60. Belt Lacing_
+ _Fig. 61. Belt Lacing_]
+
+MITER GEARS.--In Fig. 63 we have a pair of miter gears, one being larger
+than the other. Remember this distinction.
+
+Fig. 64. CROWN WHEEL.--This is a simple manner of transmitting motion
+from one shaft to another, when the shafts are at right angles, or
+nearly so, without using bevel or miter gears.
+
+Fig. 65. GROOVED FRICTION GEARING.--Two grooved pulleys, which fit each
+other accurately, will transmit power without losing too much by
+friction. The deeper the grooves the greater is the loss by friction.
+
+Fig. 66. A VALVE WHICH CLOSES BY THE WATER PRESSURE.--The bibb has
+therein a movable valve on a horizontal stem, the valve being on the
+inside of the seat. The stem of the handle has at its lower end a crank
+bend, which engages with the outer end of the valve stem. When the
+handle is turned in either direction the valve is unseated. On releasing
+the handle the pressure of the water against the valve seats it.
+
+Fig. 67. CONE PULLEYS.--Two cone pulleys of equal size and taper provide
+a means whereby a change in speed can be transmitted from one shaft to
+another by merely moving the belt to and fro. The slightest change is
+available by this means.
+
+Fig. 68. UNIVERSAL JOINT.--A wheel, with four projecting pins, is placed
+between the U-shaped yokes on the ends of the approaching shafts. The
+pins serve as the pivots for the angles formed by the two shafts.
+
+Fig. 69. TRAMMEL FOR MAKING AN ELLIPSE.--This is a tool easily made,
+which will be of great service in the shop. In a disc (A), preferably
+made of brass, are two channels (B) at right angles to each other. The
+grooves are undercut, so that the blocks (C) will fit and slide in the
+grooves and be held therein by the dove-tailed formation. Each block is
+longer than the width of the groove, and has an outwardly projecting pin
+which passes through a bar (D). One pin (E) is movable along in a slot,
+but is adjustable at any point so that the shape of the ellipse may be
+varied. The end of the bar has a series of holes (G) for a pencil, so
+that the size of the ellipse may also be changed.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 62. Bevel Gears_
+ _Fig. 63. Miter Gears_
+ _Fig. 64. Crown Wheel_
+ _Fig. 65. Grooved Friction Gears_
+ _Fig. 66. Valve_
+ _Fig. 67. Cone Pulleys_
+ _Fig. 68. Universal Joint_]
+
+Fig. 70. ESCAPEMENTS.--Various forms of escapements may be made, but the
+object of all is the same. The device is designed to permit a wheel to
+move intermittingly or in a step by step movement, by the swinging
+motion of a pendulum. Another thing is accomplished by it. The teeth of
+the escapement are cut at such an angle that, as one of the teeth of the
+escapement is released from one tooth of the escapement wheel, the
+spring, or the weight of the clock, will cause one of the teeth of the
+escapement wheel to engage the other tooth of the escapement, and give
+the pendulum an impulse in the other direction. In the figure, A is the
+escapement, B the escapement wheels and _a_, _b_, the pallets, which
+are cut at suitable angles to actuate the pendulum.
+
+Fig. 71. SIMPLE DEVICE TO PREVENT A WHEEL OR SHAFT FROM TURNING
+BACK.--This is a substitute for a pawl and ratchet wheel. A is a drum or
+a hollow wheel and B a pulley on a shaft, and this pulley turns loosely
+with the drum (A). Four tangential slots (C) are cut into the perimeter
+of the pulley (B), and in each is a hardened steel roller (D). It
+matters not in what position the wheel (B) may be, at least two of the
+rollers will always be in contact with the inside of the drum (A), and
+thus cause the pulley and drum to turn together. On reversing the
+direction of the pulley the rollers are immediately freed from binding
+contact.
+
+Fig. 72. RACKS AND PINIONS.--The object of this form of mechanism is to
+provide a reciprocating, or back-and-forth motion, from a shaft which
+turns continually in one direction. A is the rack and B a mutilated
+gear. When the gear turns it moves the rack in one direction, because
+the teeth of the gear engage the lower rack teeth, and when the rack has
+moved to the end its teeth engage the teeth of the upper rack, thus
+reversing the movement of the rack.
+
+Fig. 73. MUTILATED GEARS.--These are made in so many forms, and adapted
+for such a variety of purposes, that we merely give a few samples to
+show what is meant by the term.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 69. Trammel_
+ _Fig. 70. Escapement_
+ _Fig. 71. Device for Holding Wheel_
+ _Fig. 72. Rack and Pinion_
+ _Fig. 73. Mutilated Gears_
+ _Fig. 74. Shaft Coupling_]
+
+Fig. 74. SIMPLE SHAFT COUPLING.--Prepare two similarly formed discs (A,
+B), which are provided with hubs so they may be keyed to the ends of the
+respective shafts. One disc has four or more projecting pins (C), and
+the other disc suitable holes (D) to receive the pins.
+
+Fig. 75. CLUTCHES.--This is a piece of mechanism which is required in so
+many kinds of machinery, that we show several of the most approved
+types.
+
+Fig. 76. BALL AND SOCKET JOINTS.--The most practical form of ball and
+socket joints is simply a head in which is a bowl-shaped cavity the
+depth of one-half of the ball. A plate with a central opening small
+enough to hold in the ball, and still large enough at the neck to
+permit the arm carrying the ball to swing a limited distance, is secured
+by threads, or by bolts, to the head. The first figure shows this.
+
+Fig. 77 illustrates a simple manner of tightening the ball so as to hold
+the standard in any desired position.
+
+Fig. 78. TRIPPING DEVICES.--These are usually in the form of hooks, so
+arranged that a slight pull on the tripping lever will cause the
+suspended articles to drop.
+
+Fig. 79. ANCHOR BOLT.--These are used in brick or cement walls. The bolt
+itself screws into a sleeve which is split, and draws a wedge nut up to
+the split end of the sleeve. As a result the split sleeve opens or
+spreads out and binds against the wall sufficiently to prevent the bolt
+from being withdrawn.
+
+Fig. 80. LAZY TONGS.--One of the simplest and most effective instruments
+for carrying ice, boxes or heavy objects, which are bulky or
+inconvenient to carry. It grasps the article firmly, and the heavier the
+weight the tighter is its grasp.
+
+Fig. 81. DISC SHEARS.--This is a useful tool either for cutting tin or
+paper, pasteboard and the like. It will cut by the act of drawing the
+material through it, but if power is applied to one or to both of the
+shafts the work is much facilitated, particularly in thick or hard
+material.
+
+[Illustration:
+ _Fig. 75. Clutches_
+ _Fig. 76. Ball and Socket Joints_
+ _Fig. 77. Fastening Ball_
+ _Fig. 78. Tripping Devices_
+ _Fig. 79. Anchor Bolt_
+ _Fig. 80. Lazy Tongs._
+ _Fig. 81. Disc Shears._]
+
+Fig. 82. WABBLE SAW.--This is a most simple and useful tool, as it will
+readily and quickly saw out a groove so that it is undercut. The saw is
+put on the mandrel at an angle, as will be seen, and should be run at a
+high rate of speed.
+
+Fig. 83. CRANK MOTION BY A SLOTTED YOKE.--This produces a straight
+back-and-forth movement from the circular motion of a wheel or crank. It
+entirely dispenses with a pitman rod, and it enables the machine, or the
+part of the machine operated, to be placed close to the crank.
+
+Fig. 84. CONTINUOUS FEED BY THE MOTION OF A LEVER.--The simple lever
+with a pawl on each side of the fulcrum is the most effective means to
+make a continuous feed by the simple movement of a lever. The form shown
+is capable of many modifications, and it can be easily adapted for any
+particular work desired.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 82. Wabble Saw_
+ _Fig. 83. Continuous Crank Motion_
+ _Fig. 84. Continuous Feed_
+ _Fig. 85. Crank Motion_
+ _Fig. 86. Ratchet Head_
+ _Fig. 87. Bench Clamp_]
+
+Fig. 85. CRANK MOTION.--By the structure shown, namely, a slotted lever
+(A), a quick return can be made with the lever. B indicates the fulcrum.
+
+Fig. 86. RATCHET HEAD.--This shows a well-known form for common ratchet.
+It has the advantage that the radially movable plugs (A) are
+tangentially disposed, and rest against walls (B) eccentrically
+disposed, and are, therefore, in such a position that they easily slide
+over the inclines.
+
+Fig. 87. BENCH CLAMP.--A pair of dogs (A, B), with the ends bent toward
+each other, and pivoted midway between the ends to the bench in such a
+position that the board (C), to be held between them, on striking the
+rear ends of the dogs, will force the forward ends together, and thus
+clamp it firmly for planing or other purposes.
+
+[Illustration:
+ _Fig. 88. Helico-Volute Spring_
+ _Fig. 89. Double Helico-Volute_
+ _Fig. 90. Helical Spring_
+ _Fig. 91. Single Volute Helix-Spring_
+ _Fig. 92. Flat Spiral or Convolute_
+ _Fig. 93. Eccentric Rod and Strap_
+ _Fig. 94. Anti-Dead Center for Foot-Lathes_]
+
+Fig. 88. HELICO-VOLUTE SPRING.--This is a form of spring for tension
+purposes. The enlarged cross-section of the coil in its middle portion,
+with the ends tapering down to the eyes, provides a means whereby the
+pull is transferred from the smaller to the larger portions, without
+producing a great breaking strain near the ends.
+
+Fig. 89. DOUBLE HELICO-VOLUTE.--This form, so far as the outlines are
+considered, is the opposite of Fig. 88. A compression spring of this
+kind has a very wide range of movement.
+
+Fig. 90. HELICAL SPRING.--This form of coil, uniform from end to end, is
+usually made of metal which is square in cross-section, and used where
+it is required for heavy purposes.
+
+Fig. 91. SINGLE VOLUTE HELIX-SPRING.--This is also used for compression,
+intended where tremendous weights or resistances are to be overcome, and
+when the range of movement is small.
+
+Fig. 92. FLAT SPIRAL, OR CONVOLUTE.--This is for small machines. It is
+the familiar form used in watches owing to its delicate structure, and
+it is admirably adapted to yield to the rocking motion of an arbor.
+
+Fig. 93. ECCENTRIC ROD AND STRAP.--A simple and convenient form of
+structure, intended to furnish a reciprocating motion where a crank is
+not available. An illustration of its use is shown on certain types of
+steam engine to operate the valves.
+
+Fig. 94. ANTI-DEAD CENTER FOR FOOT-LATHES.--A flat, spiral spring (A),
+with its coiled end attached to firm support (B), has its other end
+pivotally attached to the crank-pin (C), the tension of the spring being
+such that when the lathe stops the crack-pin will always be at one side
+of the dead-center, thus enabling the operator to start the machine by
+merely pressing the foot downwardly on the treadle (D).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
+
+
+A workman is able to select the right metals because he knows that each
+has some peculiar property which is best adapted for his particular use.
+These with their meaning will now be explained.
+
+ELASTICITY.--This exists in metals in three distinct ways: First, in the
+form of _traction_. Hang a weight on a wire and it will stretch a
+certain amount. When the weight is removed the wire shrinks back to its
+original length.
+
+Second: If the weight on the wire is rotated, so as to twist it, and the
+hand is taken from the weight, it will untwist itself, and go back to
+its original position. This is called _torsion_.
+
+Third: A piece of metal may be coiled up like a watch spring, or bent
+like a carriage spring, and it will yield when pressure is applied. This
+is called _flexure_.
+
+Certain kinds of steel have these qualities in a high degree.
+
+TENACITY.--This is a term used to express the resistance which the body
+opposes to the separation of its parts. It is determined by forming the
+metal into a wire, and hanging on weights, to find how much will be
+required to break it. If we have two wires, the first with a transverse
+area only one-quarter that of the second, and the first breaks at 25
+pounds, while the second breaks at 50 pounds, the tenacity of the first
+is twice as great as that of the second.
+
+To the boy who understands simple ratio in mathematics, the problem
+would be like this:
+
+25 x 4 : 50 x 1, or as 2 : 1.
+
+THE MOST TENACIOUS METAL.--Steel has the greatest tenacity of all
+metals, and lead the least. In proportion to weight, however, there are
+many substances which have this property in a higher degree. Cotton
+fibers will support millions of times their own weight.
+
+There is one peculiar thing, that tenacity varies with the form of the
+body. A solid cylindrical body has a greater strength than a square one
+of the same size; and a hollow cylinder more tenacity than a solid one.
+This principle is well known in the bones of animals, in the feathers of
+birds, and in the stems of many plants.
+
+In almost every metal tenacity diminishes as the temperature increases.
+
+DUCTILITY.--This is a property whereby a metal may be drawn out to form
+a wire. Some metals, like cast iron, have absolutely no ductility. The
+metal which possesses this property to the highest degree, is platinum.
+Wires of this metal have been drawn out so fine that over 30,000 of them
+laid side by side would measure only one inch across, and a mile of such
+wire would weigh only a grain, or one seven-thousandth of a pound.
+
+MALLEABILITY.--This is considered a modification of ductility. Any
+metal which can be beaten out, as with a hammer, or flattened into
+sheets with rollers, is considered malleable. Gold possesses this
+property to the highest degree. It has been beaten into leaves one
+three-hundred-thousandth of an inch thick.
+
+HARDNESS.--This is the resistance which bodies offer to being scratched
+by others. As an example, the diamond has the capacity to scratch all,
+but cannot be scratched by any other.
+
+ALLOYS.--Alloys, that is a combination of two or more metals, are harder
+than the pure metals, and for this reason jewelry, and coins, are
+usually alloyed.
+
+The resistance of a body to compression does not depend upon its
+hardness. Strike a diamond with a hammer and it flies to pieces, but
+wood does not. One is brittle and the other is tough.
+
+The machinist can utilize this property by understanding that velocity
+enables a soft material to cut a harder one. Thus, a wrought iron disc
+rotating rapidly, will cut such hard substances as agate or quartz.
+
+RESISTANCE.--All metals offer more or less resistance to the flow of an
+electric current. Silver offers the least resistance, and German silver
+the greatest. Temperature also affects the flow. It passes more easily
+over a cold than a warm conductor.
+
+PERSISTENCE.--All metals on receiving heat, will retain it for a certain
+length of time, and will finally cool down to the temperature of the
+surrounding atmosphere. Some, like aluminum, retain it for a long time;
+others, as iron, will give it off quickly.
+
+CONDUCTIVITY.--All metals will conduct heat and cold, as well as
+electricity. If one end of a metal bar is heated, the heat creeps along
+to the other end until it has the same temperature throughout. This is
+called _equalization_.
+
+If a heated bar is placed in contact with another, the effect is to
+increase the temperature of the cold bar and lower that of the warm bar.
+This is called _reciprocity_.
+
+MOLECULAR FORCES.--_Molecular_ attraction is a force which acts in such
+a way as to bring all the particles of a body together. It acts in
+three ways, dependent on the particular conditions which exist.
+
+First: _Cohesion_. This exists between molecules which are of the same
+kind, as for instance, iron. Cohesion of the particles is very strong in
+solids, much weaker in liquids, and scarcely exists at all between the
+particles in gases.
+
+Second: _Adhesion_ is that property which exists between the surfaces of
+bodies in contact. If two flat surfaces are pressed together, as for
+instance, two perfectly smooth and flat pieces of lead, they will
+adhere. If, for instance, oil should be put on the surfaces, before
+putting them together, they would adhere so firmly that it would be
+difficult to pull them apart.
+
+Third: _Affinity_. This is another peculiarity about materials. Thus,
+while cohesion binds together the molecules of water, it is chemical
+affinity which unites two elements, like hydrogen and oxygen, of which
+water is composed.
+
+POROSITY.--All matter has little hollows or spaces between the
+molecules. You know what this is in the case of a sponge, or pumice
+stone. Certain metals have the pores so small that it is difficult to
+see them except with a very powerful glass. Under great pressure water
+can be forced through the pores of metals, as has been done in the case
+of gold. Water also is porous, but the spaces between the molecules are
+very small.
+
+COMPRESSIBILITY.--It follows from the foregoing statement, that if there
+are little interstices between the molecules, the various bodies can be
+compressed together. This can be done in varying degrees with all
+solids, but liquids, generally, have little compressibility. Gases are
+readily reduced in volume by compression.
+
+ELASTICITY.--This is a property by virtue of which a body resumes its
+original form when compressed. India rubber, ivory and glass are
+examples of elasticity; whereas, lead and clay do not possess this
+property. Air is the most elastic of all substances.
+
+INERTIA.--This is a property of matter by virtue of which it cannot of
+itself change its state of motion or of rest.
+
+Newton's first law of motion is, in substance, that matter at rest will
+eternally remain at rest, and matter in motion will forever continue in
+motion, unless acted on by some external force.
+
+A rider is carried over the head of a horse when the latter suddenly
+stops. This illustrates the inertia of movement. A stone at rest will
+always remain in that condition unless moved by some force. That shows
+the inertia of rest.
+
+MOMENTUM.--This is the term to designate the quantity of motion in a
+body. This quantity varies and is dependent on the mass, together with
+the velocity. A fly wheel is a good example. It continues to move after
+the impelling force ceases; and a metal wheel has greater momentum than
+a wooden wheel at the same speed, owing to its greater mass.
+
+If, however, the wooden wheel is speeded up sufficiently it may have the
+same momentum as the metal one.
+
+WEIGHT.--All substances have what is called _weight_. This means that
+everything is attracted toward the earth by the force of gravity.
+Gravity, however, is different from weight. All substances attract each
+other; not only in the direction of the center of the earth, but
+laterally, as well.
+
+Weight, therefore, has reference to the pull of an object toward the
+earth; and gravity to that influence which all matter has for each other
+independently of the direction.
+
+CENTRIPETAL FORCE.--This attraction of the earth, which gives articles
+the property of weight, is termed centripetal force--that is, the
+drawing in of a body.
+
+CENTRIFUGAL FORCE.--The direct opposite of centripetal, is centrifugal
+force, which tends to throw outwardly. Dirt flying from a rapidly
+moving wheel illustrates this.
+
+CAPILLARY ATTRACTION.--There is a peculiar property in liquids, which
+deserves attention, and should be understood, and that is the name given
+to the tendency of liquids to rise in fine tubes.
+
+It is stated that water will always find its level. While this is true,
+we have an instance where, owing to the presence of a solid, made in a
+peculiar form, causes the liquid, within, to rise up far beyond the
+level of the water.
+
+This may be illustrated by three tubes of different internal diameters.
+The liquid rises up higher in the second than in the first, and still
+higher in the third than in the second. The smaller the tube the greater
+the height of the liquid.
+
+This is called _capillary attraction_, the word capillary meaning a
+hair. The phenomena is best observed when seen in tubes which are as
+fine as hairs. The liquid has an affinity for the metal, and creeps up
+the inside, and the distance it will thus move depends on the size of
+the tube.
+
+THE SAP OF TREES.--The sap of trees goes upwardly, not because the tree
+is alive, but due to this property in the contact of liquids with a
+solid. It is exactly on the same principle that if the end of a piece of
+blotting paper is immersed in water, the latter will creep up and
+spread over the entire surface of the sheet.
+
+In like manner, oil moves upwardly in a wick, and will keep on doing so,
+until the lighted wick is extinguished, when the flow ceases. When it is
+again lighted the oil again flows, as before.
+
+If it were not for this principle of capillary attraction, it would be
+difficult to form a bubble of air in a spirit level. You can readily see
+how the liquid at each end of the air bubble rounds it off, as though it
+tried to surround it.
+
+SOUND.--Sound is caused by vibration, and it would be impossible to
+convey it without an elastic medium of some kind.
+
+_Acoustics_ is a branch of physics which treats of sounds. It is
+distinguished from music which has reference to the particular kinds.
+
+_Sounds_ are distinguished from _noises_. The latter are discordant and
+abrupt vibrations, whereas the former are regular and continuous.
+
+SOUND MEDIUMS.--Gases, vapors, liquids and solids transmit vibrations,
+but liquids and solids propagate with greater velocity than gases.
+
+VIBRATION.--A vibration is the moving to and fro of the molecules in a
+body, and the greater their movement the more intense is the sound. The
+intensity of the sound is affected by the density of the atmosphere, and
+the movement of the winds also changes its power of transmission.
+
+Sound is also made more intense if a sonorous body is near its source.
+This is taken advantage of in musical instruments, where a
+sounding-board is used, as in the case of the piano, and in the violin,
+which has a thin shell as a body for holding the strings.
+
+Another curious thing is shown in the speaking tube, where the sound
+waves are confined, so that they are carried along in one line, and as
+they are not interfered with will transmit the vibrations to great
+distances.
+
+VELOCITY OF SOUND.--The temperature of the air has also an effect on the
+rate of transmission, but for general purposes a temperature of 62
+degrees has been taken as the standard. The movement is shown to be
+about 50 miles in 4 minutes, or at the rate of 1,120 feet per second.
+
+In water, however, the speed is four times greater; and in iron nearly
+fifteen times greater. Soft earth is a poor conductor, while rock and
+solid earth convey very readily. Placing the ear on a railway track will
+give the vibrations of a moving train miles before it can be heard
+through the air.
+
+SOUND REFLECTIONS.--Sound waves move outwardly from the object in the
+form of wave-like rings, but those concentric rings, as they are
+called, may be interrupted at various points by obstacles. When that is
+the case the sound is buffeted back, producing what is called echoes.
+
+RESONANCE.--Materials have a quality that produces a very useful result,
+called _resonance_, and it is one of the things that gives added effect
+to a speaker's voice in a hall, where there is a constant succession of
+echoes. A wall distant from the speaker about 55 feet, produces an
+almost instantaneous reflection of the sound, and at double that
+measurement the effect is still stronger. When the distance is too short
+for the reflecting sound to be heard, we have _resonance_. It enriches
+the sound of the voice, and gives a finer quality to musical
+instruments.
+
+ECHOES.--When sounds are heard after the originals are emitted they tend
+to confusion, and the quality of resonance is lost. There are places
+where echoes are repeated many times. In the chateau of Simonetta,
+Italy, a sound will be repeated thirty times.
+
+SPEAKING TRUMPET.--This instrument is an example of the use of
+reflection. It is merely a bell-shaped, or flaring body, the large end
+of which is directed to the audience. The voice talking into the small
+end is directed forwardly, and is reflected from the sides, and its
+resonance also enables the vibrations to carry farther than without the
+use of the solid part of the instrument.
+
+The ear trumpet is an illustration of a sound-collecting device, the
+waves being brought together by reflection.
+
+THE STETHOSCOPE.--This is an instrument used by physicians, and it is so
+delicate that the movements of the organs of the body can be heard with
+great distinctness. It merely collects the vibrations, and transmits
+them to the ears by the small tubes which are connected with the
+collecting bell.
+
+THE VITASCOPE.--Numerous instruments have been devised to determine
+the rate of vibration of different materials and structures, the most
+important being the _vitascope_, which has a revolvable cylinder,
+blackened with soot, and this being rotated at a certain speed, the
+stylus, which is attached to the vibrating body, in contact with the
+cylinder, will show the number per second, as well as the particular
+character of each oscillation.
+
+THE PHONAUTOGRAPH.--This instrument is used to register the vibration of
+wind instruments, as well as the human voice, and the particular forms
+of the vibrations are traced on a cylinder, the tracing stylus being
+attached to a thin vibrating membrane which is affected by the voice or
+instrument.
+
+THE PHONOGRAPH.--This instrument is the outgrowth of the stylus forms of
+the apparatus described, but in this case the stylus, or needle, is
+fixed to a metallic diaphragm, and its point makes an impression on
+suitable material placed on the outside of a revolvable cylinder or
+disc.
+
+Light.-Light is the agent which excites the sensation of vision in the
+eye. Various theories have been advanced by scientists to account for
+the phenomenon, and the two most noted views are the _corpuscular_,
+promulgated by Sir Isaac Newton, and the _undulatory_, enunciated by
+Huygens and Euler.
+
+The _corpuscular_ theory conceives that light is a substance of
+exceedingly light particles which are shot forth with immense velocity.
+The _undulatory_ theory, now generally accepted, maintains that light is
+carried by vibrations in ether. Ether is a subtle elastic medium which
+fills all space.
+
+_Luminous_ bodies are those like the sun, which emit light. Rays may
+_diverge_, that is, spread out; _converge_, or point toward each other;
+or they may be _parallel_ with each other.
+
+VELOCITY OF LIGHT.--Light moves at the rate of about 186,000 miles a
+second. As the sun is about 94,000,000 miles from the earth, it takes
+8-1/2 minutes for the light of the sun to reach us.
+
+REFLECTION.--One of the most important things connected with light is
+that of reflection. It is that quality which is utilized in telescopes,
+microscopes, mirrors, heliograph signaling and other like apparatus and
+uses. The underlying principle is, that a ray is reflected, or thrown
+back from a mirror at the same angle as that which produces the light.
+
+When the rays of the sun, which are, of course, parallel, strike a
+concave mirror, the reflecting rays are converged; and when the rays
+strike a convex mirror they diverge. In this way the principle is
+employed in reflecting telescopes.
+
+REFRACTION.--This is the peculiar action of light in passing through
+substances. If a ray passes through water at an angle to the surface the
+ray will bend downwardly in passing through, and then again pass on in a
+straight line. This will be noticed if a pencil is stood in a glass of
+water at an angle, when it will appear bent.
+
+Refraction is that which enables light to be divided up, or analyzed. In
+this way white light from the sun is shown to be composed of seven
+principal colors.
+
+COLORS.--If the light is passed through a prism, which is a triangularly
+shaped piece of glass, the rays on emerging will diverge from each
+other, and when they fall on a wall or screen the colors red, orange,
+yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet are shown.
+
+The reason for this is that the ray in passing through the prism has the
+different colors in it refract at different angles, the violet bending
+more than the red.
+
+THE SPECTROSCOPE.--The ability to make what is thus called a _spectrum_,
+brought forth one of the most wonderful instruments ever devised by man.
+If any metal, or material, is fused, or put in such a condition that a
+ray of light can be obtained from it, and this light is passed through a
+prism, it will be found that each substance has its own peculiar
+divisions and arrangements of colors.
+
+In this way substances are determined by what is called _spectrum
+analysis_, and it is by means of this instrument that the composition of
+the sun, and the planets and fixed stars are determined.
+
+THE RAINBOW.--The rainbow is one of the effects of refraction, as the
+light, striking the little globular particles of water suspended in the
+air, produces a breaking up of the white light into its component
+colors, and the sky serves as a background for viewing the analysis thus
+made.
+
+HEAT.--It is now conclusively proven, that heat, like light, magnetism
+and electricity, is merely a mode of motion.
+
+The _mechanical_ theory of heat may be shown by rubbing together several
+bodies. Heat expands all substances, except ice, and in expanding
+develops an enormous force.
+
+EXPANSION.--In like manner liquids expand with heat. The power of
+mercury in expanding may be understood when it is stated that a pressure
+of 10,000 pounds would be required to prevent the expansion of mercury,
+when heated simply 10 degrees.
+
+Gases also expand. While water, and the different solids, all have their
+particular units of expansion, it is not so with gases, as all have the
+same coefficient.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+HOW DRAUGHTING BECOMES A VALUABLE AID
+
+
+The ability to read drawings is a necessary part of the boy's education.
+To know how to use the tools, is still more important. In conveying an
+idea about a piece of mechanism, a sketch is given. Now, the sketch may
+be readable in itself, requiring no explanation, or it may be of such a
+nature that it will necessitate some written description.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 95. Plain Circle_]
+
+LINES IN DRAWING.--In drawing, lines have a definite meaning. A plain
+circular line, like Fig. 95, when drawn in that way, conveys three
+meanings: It may represent a rim, or a bent piece of wire; it may
+illustrate a disk; or, it may convey the idea of a ball.
+
+Suppose we develop them to express the three forms accurately. Fig. 96,
+by merely adding an interior line, shows that it is a rim. There can be
+no further doubt about that expression.
+
+Fig. 97 shows a single line, but it will now be noticed that the line is
+thickened at the lower right-hand side, and from this you can readily
+infer that it is a disk.
+
+SHADING.--Fig. 98, by having a few shaded lines on the right and lower
+side, makes it have the appearance of a globe or a convex surface.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 96. Ring_
+_Fig. 97. Raised Surface_
+_Fig. 98. Sphere_]
+
+Shading or thickening the lines also gives another expression to the
+same circular line.
+
+In Fig. 99, if the upper and left-hand side of the circle is heavily
+shaded, it shows that the area within the circle is depressed, instead
+of being raised.
+
+DIRECTION OF SHADE.--On the other hand, if the shading lines, as in Fig.
+100, are at the upper left-hand side, then the mind at once grasps the
+idea of a concave surface.
+
+The first thing, therefore, to keep in mind, is this fact: That in all
+mechanical drawing, the light is supposed to shine down from the upper
+left-hand corner and that, as a result, the lower vertical line, as well
+as the extreme right-hand vertical line, casts the shadows, and should,
+therefore, be made heavier than the upper horizontal, and the left-hand
+vertical lines.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 99. Depressed Surface_ _Fig. 100. Concave_]
+
+There are exceptions to this rule, which will be readily understood by
+following out the illustrations in the order given below.
+
+PERSPECTIVES.--The utility of the heavy lines will be more apparent when
+drawing square, rectangular, or triangular objects.
+
+Let us take Fig. 101, which appears to be the perspective of a cube.
+Notice that all lines are of the same thickness. When the sketch was
+first brought to me I thought it was a cube; but the explanation which
+followed, showed that the man who made the sketch had an entirely
+different meaning.
+
+He had intended to convey to my mind the idea of three pieces, A, B, C,
+of metal, of equal size, joined together so as to form a triangularly
+shaped pocket as shown in Fig. 101. The addition of the inner lines,
+like D, quickly dispelled the suggestion of the cube.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 101. Fig. 102. Fig. 103. Fig. 104.
+ Forms of Cubical Outlines_]
+
+"But," he remarked, "I want to use the thinnest metal, like sheets of
+tin; and you show them thick by adding the inner lines."
+
+Such being the case, if we did not want to show thickness as its
+structural form, we had to do it by making the lines themselves and the
+shading give that structural idea. This was done by using the single
+lines, as in Fig. 103, and by a slight shading of the pieces A, B, C.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 105. Fig. 106. Shading Edges_]
+
+THE MOST PRONOUNCED LINES.--If it had been a cube, or a solid block, the
+corners nearest the eye would have been most pronounced, as in Fig. 104,
+and the side next to the observer would have been darkest.
+
+This question of light and shadow is what expresses the surface
+formation of every drawing. Simple strokes form outlines of the object,
+but their thickness, and the shading, show the character enclosed by the
+LINES. DIRECTION OF LIGHT.--Now, as stated, the casting of the shadow
+downward from the upper left-hand corner makes the last line over which
+it passes the thickest, and in Figs. 105 and 106 they are not the
+extreme lines at the bottom and at the right side, because of the close
+parallel lines.
+
+In Figs. 109 and 110 the blades superposed on the other are very thin,
+and the result is the lines at the right side and bottom are made much
+heavier.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 107. Fig. 108. Illustrating Heavy Lines_]
+
+This is more fully shown in Figs. 107 and 108. Notice the marked
+difference between the two figures, both of which show the same set of
+pulleys, and the last figure, by merely having the lower and the
+right-hand lines of each pulley heavy, changes the character of the
+representation, and tells much more clearly what the draughtsman sought
+to convey.
+
+SCALE DRAWINGS.--All drawings are made to a scale where the article is
+large and cannot be indicated the exact size, using parts of an inch to
+represent inches; and parts of a foot to represent feet.
+
+In order to reduce a drawing where a foot is the unit, it is always best
+to use one-and-a-half inches, or twelve-eighths of an inch, as the
+basis. In this way each eighth of an inch represents an inch. If the
+drawing should be made larger, then use three inches, and in that way
+each inch would be one-quarter of an inch.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 109. Fig. 110. Lines on Plain Surfaces_]
+
+The drawing should then have marked, in some conspicuous place, the
+scale, like the following: "Scale, 1-1/2" = 1'"; or, "Scale 3" = 1'."
+
+DEGREE, AND WHAT IT MEANS.--A degree is not a measurement. The word is
+used to designate an interval, a position, or an angle. Every circle has
+360 degrees, and when a certain degree is mentioned, it means a certain
+angle from what is called a _base line_.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 111. Illustrating Degrees_]
+
+Look at Fig. 111. This has a vertical line A, and a horizontal line B.
+The circle is thus divided into four parts, and where these lines A, B,
+cross the circle are the cardinal points. Each of the four parts is
+called a quadrant, and each quadrant has 90 degrees.
+
+Any line, like C, which is halfway between A and B, is 45 degrees.
+Halfway between A and C, or between B and C, like the line D, is 22-1/2
+degrees.
+
+MEMORIZING ANGLES.--It is well to try and remember these lines by fixing
+the angles in the memory. A good plan is to divide any of the quadrants
+into thirds, as shown by the points E, F, and then remember that E is 30
+degrees from the horizontal line B, and that F is 60 degrees. Or, you
+might say that F is 30 degrees from the vertical line A, and E 60
+degrees from A. Either would be correct.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 112. Section Lining_]
+
+SECTION LINING.--In representing many parts of a machine, or article, it
+is necessary to show the parts cut off, which must be illustrated by
+what is called "section lining." Adjacent parts should have the section
+lines running at right angles to each other, and always at 45 degrees.
+
+Look at the outside and then the inside views of Fig. 112, and you will
+see how the contiguous parts have the angles at right angles, and
+clearly illustrate how every part of the wrench is made. Skill in
+depicting an article, for the purpose of constructing it from the
+drawing, will make the actual work on the bench and lathe an easy one.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 113. Drawing an Ellipse_]
+
+MAKING ELLIPSES AND IRREGULAR CURVES.--This is the hardest thing to do
+with drawing tools. A properly constructed elliptical figure is
+difficult, principally, because two different sized curves are
+required, and the pen runs from one curve into the other. If the two
+curves meet at the wrong place, you may be sure you will have a
+distorted ellipse.
+
+Follow the directions given in connection with Fig. 113, and it will
+give you a good idea of merging the two lines.
+
+First. Draw a horizontal line, A, which is in the direction of the major
+axis of the ellipse--that is, the longest distance across. The narrow
+part of the ellipse is called the minor axis.
+
+Second. Draw a perpendicular line, B, which we will call the center of
+the ellipse, where it crosses the line A. This point must not be
+confounded with the _focus_. In a circle the focus is the exact center
+of the ring, but there is no such thing in an ellipse. Instead, there
+are two focal points, called the _foci_, as you will see presently.
+
+Third. Step off two points or marking places, as we shall term them,
+equidistant from the line B, and marked C, C. These marks will then
+represent the diameter of the ellipse across its major axis.
+
+Fourth. We must now get the diameter of the minor axis, along the line
+B. This distance will depend on the perspective you have of the figure.
+If you look at a disk at an angle of about 30 degrees it will be half of
+the distance across the major axis.
+
+So you may understand this examine Fig. 114. The first sketch shows the
+eye looking directly at the disk 1. In the second sketch the disk is at
+30 degrees, and now the lines 2 2, from the eye, indicate that it is
+just half the width that it was when the lines 3 3 were projected. The
+marks D D, therefore, indicate the distance across the minor axis in
+Fig. 113.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 114. Perspection in Angles_]
+
+Fifth. We must now find the focal points of the ellipse. If the line A
+on each side of the cross line B is divided into four parts, the outer
+marks E may be used for the foci, and will be the places where the point
+of the compass, or bow pen, is to be placed.
+
+Sixth. Describe a circle F, so it passes through the mark C, and move
+the point of the compass to the center of the ellipse, at the star, and
+describe a circle line G, from the mark C to the line B. This will give
+a centering point H. Then draw a line I from H to E, and extend it
+through the circle F.
+
+Seventh. If the point of the compass is now put at H, and the pencil or
+pen on the circle line F, the curve J can be drawn, so the latter curve
+and the curve F will thus merge perfectly at the line I.
+
+THE FOCAL POINTS.--The focal points can be selected at any arbitrary
+point, between C and the line B, and the point H may be moved closer to
+or farther away from the line A, and you will succeed in making the
+ellipse correct, if you observe one thing, namely: The line I, which
+must always run from H to E, and intersects the circle F, is the
+starting or the ending point for the small curve F or the large circle
+J.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 115. Fig. 116. Fig. 117. Perspectives of Cubes_]
+
+ISOMETRIC AND PERSPECTIVE.--A figure may be drawn so as to show an
+isometric or a perspective view. Thus, a cube can be drawn so as to make
+an isometric figure, as in Fig. 115, where the three sides are equal to
+each other.
+
+Isometric means a method of drawing any object in such a manner that the
+height, length and breadth may be shown in the proportion they really
+bear to each other. Fig. 115 has the sides not only equal to each other,
+in appearance to the eye, but they have the same outlines and angles.
+
+Contrast this figure with Figs. 116 and 117. In Fig. 116 two of the
+sides are equal in angles and outline; and in Fig. 117 each side has a
+different outline, and different angles. Nevertheless, all the cubes
+are, in reality, of the same dimension.
+
+THE PROTRACTOR.--This is a most useful tool for the draughtsman. It
+enables the user to readily find any angle. Fig. 118 shows an approved
+form of the tool for this purpose.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 118. Protractor. Section Lining Metals_]
+
+SUGGESTIONS IN DRAWING.--As in the use of all other tools, so with the
+drawing instrument, it must be kept in proper order. If the points are
+too fine they will cut the paper; if too blunt the lines will be ragged.
+In whetting the points hold the pen at an angle of 12 degrees. Don't
+make too long an angle or slope, and every time you sharpen hold it at
+the same angle, so that it is ground back, and not at the point only.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 119. Using the Protractor._]
+
+HOLDING THE PEN.--The drawing pen should be held as nearly vertical as
+possible. Use the cleaning rag frequently. If the ink does not flow
+freely, after you have made a few strokes, as is frequently the case,
+gently press together the points. The least grit between the tines will
+cause an irregular flow.
+
+INKS.--As prepared liquid inks are now universally used, a few
+suggestions might be well concerning them. After half the bottle has
+been used, add a half teaspoonful of water, shake it well, and then
+strain it through a fine cotton cloth. This will remove all grit and
+lint that is sure to get into the bottle however carefully it may be
+corked.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 120. Section Lining Metals_]
+
+TRACING CLOTH.--It is preferable to use the dull side of the tracing
+cloth for the reasons that, as the cloth is rolled with the glossy side
+inside, the figure when drawn on the other side will be uppermost, and
+will thus lie flat; and on the other hand, the ink will take better on
+the dull side.
+
+If the ink does not flow freely, use chalk, fine pumice stone, or talc,
+and rub it in well with a clean cloth, and then wipe off well before
+beginning to trace.
+
+DETAIL PAPER.--The detail paper, on which the drawing is first made in
+pencil, should show the figure accurately, particularly the points where
+the bow pen are to be used, as well as the measurement points for the
+straight lines.
+
+HOW TO PROCEED.--Make the circles, curves, and irregular lines first,
+and then follow with the straight lines. Where the point of the circle
+pen must be used for a large number of lines, as, for instance, in
+shading, the smallest circles should be made first, and the largest
+circles last, because at every turn the centering hole becomes larger,
+and there is liability to make the circles more or less irregular. Such
+irregularity will not be so noticeable in the large curves as in the
+smaller ones.
+
+INDICATING MATERIAL BY THE SECTION LINES.--In section lining different
+materials can be indicated by the character of the lines, shown in Fig.
+120.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+TREATMENT AND USE OF METALS
+
+
+ANNEALING.--A very important part of the novice's education is a
+knowledge pertaining to the annealing of metals. Unlike the artisan in
+wood, who works the materials as he finds them, the machinist can, and,
+in fact, with many of the substances, must prepare them so they can be
+handled or cut by the tools.
+
+Annealing is one of the steps necessary with all cutting tools, and it
+is an absolute requirement with many metals for ordinary use, as well as
+for many other articles like glass. This is particularly true in the use
+of copper.
+
+TOUGHNESS AND ELASTICITY.--It means the putting of metals in such a
+condition that they will not only be less brittle, but also tougher and
+more elastic. Many substances, like glass, must be annealed before they
+can be put in condition for use, as this material when first turned out
+is so brittle that the slightest touch will shatter it, so that it must
+be toughened.
+
+Malleable or wrought iron, if subjected to pressure, becomes brittle,
+and it is necessary to anneal it. Otherwise, if used, for instance, for
+boiler plates, from the rolled sheets, it would stand but little
+pressure.
+
+The most immediate use the boy will have is the treatment of steel. He
+must learn the necessity of this process, and that of tempering, in all
+his cutting tools, and in the making of machinery where some parts are
+required to be constructed of very hard metal.
+
+THE PROCESS.--To anneal steel it must be heated to a bright cherry red
+and then gradually cooled down. For this purpose a bed of fine charcoal,
+or iron filings and lime, is prepared, in which the article is embedded,
+and permitted to remain until it is cold.
+
+There are many ways of doing the work, particularly in the use of
+substances which will the most readily give up their carbon to the tool.
+Yellow prussiate of potash is an excellent medium, and this is sprinkled
+over the cherry-heated article to be annealed. The process may be
+repeated several times.
+
+TEMPERING.--This is the reverse of annealing as understood in the art.
+The word itself does not mean to "harden," but to put into some
+intermediate state. For instance, "tempered clay" means a clay which has
+been softened so it can be readily worked.
+
+On the other hand, a tempered steel tool is put into a condition where
+it is hardened, but this hardness is also accompanied by another
+quality, namely, _toughness_. For this reason, the word _temper_, and
+not _hardness_, is referred to. A lathe tool, if merely hardened, would
+be useless for that purpose.
+
+TEMPERING CONTRASTED WITH ANNEALING.--It will be observed that in
+annealing three things are necessary: First, heating to a certain
+temperature; second, cooling slowly; third, the particular manner of
+cooling it.
+
+In tempering, on the other hand, three things are also necessary:
+
+First: The heating temperature should be a dull red, which is less than
+the annealing heat.
+
+Second: Instead of cooling slowly the article tempered is dipped into a
+liquid which suddenly chills it.
+
+Third: The materials used vary, but if the article is plunged into an
+unguent made of mercury and bacon fat, it will impart a high degree of
+toughness and elasticity.
+
+MATERIALS USED.--Various oils, fats and rosins are also used, and some
+acids in water are also valuable for this purpose. Care should be taken
+to have sufficient amount of liquid in the bath so as not to evaporate
+it or heat it up too much when it receives the heated body.
+
+Different parts of certain articles require varying degrees of hardness,
+like the tangs of files. The cutting body of the file must be extremely
+hard, and rather brittle than tough. If the tang should be of the same
+hardness it would readily break.
+
+_Gradual Tempering._--To prevent this, some substance like soap suds may
+be used to cool down the tang, so that toughness without hardness is
+imparted.
+
+The tempering, or hardening, like the annealing process, may be repeated
+several times in succession, and at each successive heating the article
+is put at a higher temperature.
+
+If any part of a body, as, for instance, a hammerhead, should require
+hardening, it may be plunged into the liquid for a short distance only,
+and this will harden the pole or peon while leaving the other part of
+the head soft, or annealed.
+
+Glycerine is a good tempering substance, and to this may be added a
+small amount of sulphate of potash.
+
+FLUXING.--The word _flux_ means to fuse or to melt, or to put into a
+liquid state. The office of a flux is to facilitate the fusion of
+metals. But fluxes do two things. They not only aid the conversion of
+the metal into a fluid state, but also serve as a means for facilitating
+the unity of several metals which make up the alloy, and aid in uniting
+the parts of metals to be joined in the welding of parts.
+
+UNITING METALS.--Metals are united in three ways, where heat is used:
+
+First: By heating two or more of them to such a high temperature that
+they melt and form a compound, or an alloy, as it is called.
+
+Second: By heating up the points to be joined, and then lapping the
+pieces and hammering the parts. This is called forge work or welding.
+
+Third: By not heating the adjacent parts and using an easily fusible
+metal, which is heated up and run between the two, by means of a
+soldering iron.
+
+The foreign material used in the first is called a flux; in the second
+it is termed a welding compound; and in the third it is known as a
+soldering acid, or soldering fluid.
+
+The boy is not so much interested in the first process, from the
+standpoint of actual work, but it is necessary that he should have some
+understanding of it.
+
+It may be said, as to fluxes, generally, that they are intended to
+promote the fusion of the liquefying metals, and the elements used are
+the alkalis, such as borax, tartar, limestone, or fluor spar.
+
+These substances act as reducing or oxidizing agents. The most important
+are carbonate of soda, potash, and cyanide of potassium. Limestone is
+used as the flux in iron-smelting.
+
+WELDING COMPOUNDS.--Elsewhere formulas are given of the compounds most
+desirable to use. It is obvious that the application of these substances
+on the heated surfaces, is not only to facilitate the heating, but to
+prepare the articles in such a manner that they will more readily adhere
+to each other.
+
+OXIDATION.--Oxidation is the thing to guard against in welding. The
+moment a piece of metal, heated to whiteness, is exposed, the air coats
+it with a film which is called an _oxide_. To remove this the welding
+compound is applied.
+
+The next office of the substance thus applied, is to serve as a medium
+for keeping the welding parts in a liquid condition as long as possible,
+and thus facilitate the unity of the joined elements.
+
+When the hammer beats the heated metals an additional increment of heat
+is imparted to the weld, due to the forcing together of the molecules of
+the iron, so that these two agencies, namely, the compound and the
+mechanical friction, act together to unite the particles of the metal.
+
+SOLDERING.--Here another principle is involved, namely, the use of an
+intermediate material between two parts which are to be united. The
+surfaces to be brought together must be thoroughly cleaned, using such
+agents as will prevent the formation of oxides.
+
+The parts to be united may be of the same, or of different materials,
+and it is in this particular that the workman must be able to make a
+choice of the solder most available, and whether hard or soft.
+
+SOFT SOLDER.--A soft solder is usually employed where lead, tin, or
+alloys of lead, tin and bismuth are to be soldered. These solders are
+all fusible at a low temperature, and they do not, as a result, have
+great strength.
+
+Bismuth is a metal which lowers the fusing point of any alloy of which
+it forms a part, while lead makes the solder less fusible.
+
+HARD SOLDER.--These are so distinguished because they require a
+temperature above the low red to fuse them. The metals which are alloyed
+for this purpose are copper, silver, brass, zinc and tin. Various alloys
+are thus made which require a high temperature to flux properly, and
+these are the ones to use in joining steel to steel, the parts to be
+united requiring an intense furnace heat.
+
+SPELTER.--The alloy used for this purpose is termed "spelter," and
+brass, zinc and tin are its usual components. The hard solders are used
+for uniting brass, bronze, copper, and iron.
+
+Whether soft or hard solder is used, it is obvious that it must melt at
+a lower temperature than the parts which are to be joined together.
+
+There is one peculiarity with respect to alloys: They melt at a lower
+temperature than either of the metals forming the alloys.
+
+SOLDERING ACID.--Before beginning the work of soldering, the parts must
+be cleaned by filing or sandpapering, and coated with an acid which
+neutralizes the oxygen of the air.
+
+This is usually muriatic acid, of which use, say, one quart and into
+this drop small pieces of zinc. This will effervesce during the time the
+acid is dissolving the zinc. When the boiling motion ceases, the liquid
+may be strained, or the dark pieces removed.
+
+The next step is to dissolve two ounces of sal ammoniac in a third of a
+pint of water, and in another vessel dissolve an ounce of chloride of
+tin.
+
+Then mix the three solutions, and this can be placed in a bottle, or
+earthen jar or vessel, and it will keep indefinitely.
+
+THE SOLDERING IRON.--A large iron is always better than a small one,
+particularly for the reason that it will retain its heat better. This
+should always be kept tinned, which can be done by heating and plunging
+it into the soldering solution, and the solder will then adhere to the
+iron and cover the point, so that when the actual soldering takes place
+the solder will not creep away from the tool.
+
+By a little care and attention to these details, the work of uniting
+metals will be a pleasure. It is so often the case, however, that the
+apparatus for doing this work is neglected in a shop; the acid is
+allowed to become dirty and full or foreign matter, and the different
+parts separated.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+ON GEARING AND HOW ORDERED
+
+
+The technical name for gears, the manner of measuring them, their pitch
+and like terms, are most confusing to the novice. As an aid to the
+understanding on this subject, the wheels are illustrated, showing the
+application of these terms.
+
+SPUR AND PINION.--When a gear is ordered a specification is necessary.
+The manufacturer will know what you mean if you use the proper terms,
+and you should learn the distinctions between spur and pinion, and why a
+bevel differs from a miter gear.
+
+If the gears on two parallel shafts mesh with each other, they both may
+be of the same diameter, or one may be larger than the other. In the
+latter case, the small one is the pinion, and the larger one the spur
+wheel.
+
+Some manufacturers use the word "gear" for "pinion," so that, in
+ordering, they call them _gear_ and _pinion_, in speaking of the large
+and small wheels.
+
+MEASURING A GEAR.--The first thing to specify would be the diameter. Now
+a spur gear, as well as a pinion, has three diameters; one measure
+across the outer extremities of the teeth; one measure across the wheel
+from the base of the teeth; and the distance across the wheel at a point
+midway between the base and end of the teeth.
+
+These three measurements are called, respectively, "outside diameter,"
+"inside diameter," and "pitch diameter." When the word _diameter_ is
+used, as applied to a gear wheel, it is always understood to mean the
+"pitch diameter."
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 121. Spur Gears_]
+
+PITCH.--This term is the most difficult to understand. When two gears of
+equal size mesh together, the pitch line, or the _pitch circle_, as it
+is also called, is exactly midway between the centers of the two
+wheels.
+
+Now the number of teeth in a gear is calculated on the pitch line, and
+this is called:
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 122. Miter Gear Pitch_]
+
+DIAMETRAL PITCH.--To illustrate: If a gear has 40 teeth, and the pitch
+diameter of the wheel is 4 inches, there are 10 teeth to each inch of
+the pitch diameter, and the gear is then 10 _diametral pitch_.
+
+CIRCULAR PITCH.--Now the term "circular pitch" grows out of the
+necessity of getting the measurement of the distance from the center of
+one tooth to the center of the next, and it is measured along the pitch
+line.
+
+Supposing you wanted to know the number of teeth in a gear where the
+pitch diameter and the diametral pitch are given. You would proceed as
+follows: Let the diameter of the pitch circle be 10 inches, and the
+diameter of the diametral pitch be 4 inches. Multiplying these together
+the product is 40, thus giving the number of teeth.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 123. Bevel Gears._]
+
+It will thus be seen that if you have an idea of the diametral pitch and
+circular pitch, you can pretty fairly judge of the size that the teeth
+will be, and thus enable you to determine about what kind of teeth you
+should order.
+
+HOW TO ORDER A GEAR.--In proceeding to order, therefore, you may give
+the pitch, or the diameter of the pitch circle, in which latter case the
+manufacturer of the gear will understand how to determine the number of
+the teeth. In case the intermeshing gears are of different diameters,
+state the number of teeth in the gear and also in the pinion, or
+indicate what the relative speed shall be.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 124. Miter Gears._]
+
+This should be followed by the diameter of the hole in the gear and also
+in the pinion; the backing of both gear and pinion; the width of the
+face; the diameter of the gear hub; diameter of the pinion hub; and,
+finally, whether the gears are to be fastened to the shafts by key-ways
+or set-screws.
+
+Fig. 122 shows a sample pair of miter gears, with the measurements to
+indicate how to make the drawings. Fig. 123 shows the bevel gears.
+
+BEVEL AND MITER GEARS.--When two intermeshing gears are on shafts which
+are at right angles to each other, they may be equal diametrically, or
+of different sizes. If both are of the same diameter, they are called
+bevel gears; if of different diameters, miter gears.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 125. Sprocket Wheel._]
+
+It is, in ordering gears of this character, that the novice finds it
+most difficult to know just what to do. In this case it is necessary to
+get the proper relation of speed between the two gears, and, for
+convenience, we shall, in the drawing, make the gears in the relation of
+2 to 1.
+
+DRAWING GEARS.--Draw two lines at right angles, Fig. 124, as 1 and 2,
+marking off the sizes of the two wheels at the points 3, 4. Then draw a
+vertical line (A) midway between the marks of the line 2, and this will
+be the center of the main pinion.
+
+Also draw a horizontal line (B) midway between the marks on the vertical
+line (1), and this will represent the center of the small gear. These
+two cross lines (A, B) constitute the intersecting axes of the two
+wheels, and a line (5), drawn from the mark (3 to 4), and another line
+(6), from the axes to the intersecting points of the lines (1, 2), will
+give the pitch line angles of the two wheels.
+
+SPROCKET WHEELS.--For sprocket wheels the pitch line passes centrally
+through the rollers (A) of the chain, as shown in Fig. 125, and the
+pitch of the chain is that distance between the centers of two adjacent
+rollers. In this case the cut of the teeth is determined by the chain.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+MECHANICAL POWERS
+
+
+THE LEVER.--The lever is the most wonderful mechanical element in the
+world. The expression, _lever_, is not employed in the sense of a stick
+or a bar which is used against a fulcrum to lift or push something with,
+but as the type of numerous devices which employ the same principle.
+
+Some of these devices are, the wedge, the screw, the pulley and the
+inclined plane. In some form or other, one or more of these are used in
+every piece of mechanism in the world.
+
+Because the lever enables the user to raise or move an object hundreds
+of times heavier than is possible without it, has led thousands of
+people to misunderstand its meaning, because it has the appearance, to
+the ignorant, of being able to manufacture power.
+
+WRONG INFERENCES FROM USE OF LEVER.--This lack of knowledge of first
+principles, has bred and is now breeding, so-called perpetual motion
+inventors (?) all over the civilized world. It is surprising how many
+men, to say nothing of boys, actually believe that power can be made
+without the expenditure of something which equalizes it.
+
+The boy should not be led astray in this particular, and I shall try to
+make the matter plain by using the simple lever to illustrate the fact
+that whenever power is exerted some form of energy is expended.
+
+In Fig. 126 is a lever (A), resting on a fulcrum (B), the fulcrum being
+so placed that the lever is four times longer on one side than on the
+other. A weight (C) of 4 pounds is placed on the short end, and a
+1-pound weight (D), called the _power_, on the short end. It will thus
+be seen that the lever is balanced by the two weights, or that the
+_weight_ and the _power_ are equal.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 126. Simple Lever_]
+
+THE LEVER PRINCIPLE.--Now, without stopping to inquire, the boy will
+say: "Certainly, I can understand that. As the lever is four times
+longer on one side of the fulcrum than on the other side, it requires
+only one-fourth of the weight to balance the four pounds. But suppose I
+push down the lever, at the point where the weight (D) is, then, for
+every pound I push down I can raise four pounds at C. In that case do I
+not produce four times the power?"
+
+I answer, yes. But while I produce that power I am losing something
+which is equal to the power gained. What is that?
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 127. Lever Action_]
+
+First: Look at Fig. 127; the distance traveled. The long end of the
+lever is at its highest point, which is A; and the short end of the
+lever is at its lowest point C. When the long end of the lever is pushed
+down, so it is at B, it moves four times farther than the short end
+moves upwardly, as the distance from C to D is just one-fourth that from
+A to B. The energy expended in moving four times the distance balances
+the power gained.
+
+POWER VS. DISTANCE TRAVELED.--From this the following law is deduced:
+That whatever is gained in power is lost in the distance traveled.
+
+Second: Using the same figure, supposing it was necessary to raise the
+short end of the lever, from C to D, in one second of time. In that case
+the hand pressing down the long end of the lever, would go from A to B
+in one second of time; or it would go four times as far as the short
+end, in the same time.
+
+POWER VS. LOSS IN TIME.--This means another law: That what is gained in
+power is lost in time.
+
+Distinguish clearly between these two motions. In the first case the
+long end of the lever is moved down from A to B in four seconds, and it
+had to travel four times the distance that the short end moves in going
+from C to D.
+
+In the second case the long end is moved down, from A to B, in one
+second of time, and it had to go that distance in one-fourth of the
+time, so that four times as much energy was expended in the same time to
+raise the short end from C to D.
+
+WRONGLY DIRECTED ENERGY.--More men have gone astray on the simple
+question of the power of the lever than on any other subject in
+mechanics. The writer has known instances where men knew the principles
+involved in the lever, who would still insist on trying to work out
+mechanical devices in which pulleys and gearing were involved, without
+seeming to understand that those mechanical devices are absolutely the
+same in principle.
+
+This will be made plain by a few illustrations. In Fig. 128, A is a
+pulley four times larger, diametrically, than B, and C is the pivot on
+which they turn. The pulleys are, of course, secured to each other. In
+this case we have the two weights, one of four pounds on the belt, which
+is on the small pulley (B), and a one-pound weight on the belt from the
+large pulley (A).
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 128. The Pulley_]
+
+THE LEVER AND THE PULLEY.--If we should substitute a lever (D) for the
+pulleys, the similarity to the lever (Fig. 127) would be apparent at
+once. The pivot (C) in this case would act the same as the pivot (C) in
+the lever illustration.
+
+In the same manner, and for like reasons, the wedge, the screw and the
+incline plane, are different structural applications of the principles
+set forth in the lever.
+
+Whenever two gears are connected together, the lever principle is used,
+whether they are the same in size, diametrically, or not. If they are
+the same size then no change in power results; but instead, thereof, a
+change takes place in the direction of the motion.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 129. Fig. 130. Change of Direction_]
+
+When one end of the lever (A) goes down, the other end goes up, as shown
+in Fig. 129; and in Fig. 130, when the shaft (C) of one wheel turns in
+one direction, the shaft of the other wheel turns in the opposite
+direction.
+
+It is plain that a gear, like a lever, may change direction as well as
+increase or decrease power. It is the thorough knowledge of these facts,
+and their application, which enables man to make the wonderful machinery
+we see on every hand.
+
+SOURCES OF POWER.--Power is derived from a variety of sources, but what
+are called the _prime movers_ are derived from heat, through the various
+fuels, from water, from the winds and from the tides and waves of the
+ocean. In the case of water the power depends on the head, or height, of
+the surface of the water above the discharging orifice.
+
+WATER POWER.--A column of water an inch square and 28 inches high gives
+a pressure at the base of one pound; and the pressure at the lower end
+is equal in all directions. If a tank of water 28 inches high has a
+single orifice in its bottom 1" x 1" in size, the pressure of water
+through that opening will be only one pound, and it will be one pound
+through every other orifice in the bottom of the same size.
+
+CALCULATING FUEL ENERGY.--Power from fuels depends upon the expansion of
+the materials consumed, or upon the fact that heat expands some element,
+like water, which in turn produces the power. One cubic inch of water,
+when converted into steam, has a volume equal to one cubic foot, or
+about 1,700 times increase in bulk.
+
+Advantage is taken of this in steam engine construction. If a cylinder
+has a piston in it with an area of 100 square inches, and a pipe one
+inch square supplies steam at 50 pounds pressure, the piston will have
+50 pounds pressure on every square inch of its surface, equal to 5,000
+pounds.
+
+THE PRESSURE OR HEAD.--In addition to that there will also be 50 pounds
+pressure on each square inch of the head, as well as on the sides of the
+cylinder.
+
+Fig. 131 shows a cylinder (A), a piston (B) and a steam inlet port (C),
+in which is indicated how the steam pressure acts equally in all
+directions. As, however, the piston is the only movable part, the force
+of the steam is directed to that part, and the motion is then
+transmitted to the crank, and to the shaft of the engine.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 131. Steam Pressure_]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 132. Water Pressure_]
+
+This same thing applies to water which, as stated, is dependent on its
+head. Fig. 132 represents a cylinder (D) with a vertically movable
+piston (E) and a standpipe (F). Assuming that the pipe (F) is of
+sufficient height to give a pressure of 50 pounds to the square inch,
+then the piston (E) and the sides and head of the cylinder (D) would
+have 50 pounds pressure on every square inch of surface.
+
+FUELS.--In the use of fuels, such as the volatile hydrocarbons, the
+direct expansive power of the fuel gases developed, is used to move the
+piston back and forth. Engines so driven are called _Internal Combustion
+Motors_.
+
+POWER FROM WINDS.--Another source of power is from the wind acting
+against wheels which have blades or vanes disposed at such angles that
+there is a direct conversion of a rectilinear force into circular
+motion.
+
+In this case power is derived from the force of the moving air and the
+calculation of energy developed is made by considering the pressure on
+each square foot of surface. The following table shows the force exerted
+at different speeds against a flat surface one foot square, held so that
+the wind strikes it squarely:
+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------
+-----------------+--------------++-------------------+--------------
+SPEED OF WIND    |   PRESSURE   || SPEED OF WIND     |   PRESSURE
+-----------------+--------------++-------------------+--------------
+5 Miles per hour |        2 oz. || 35 miles per hour |  6 lb. 2 oz.
+10 "        "    |        8  "  || 40   "       "    |  8  "
+15 "        "    |  1 lb. 2  "  || 45   "       "    | 10  "  2  "
+20 "        "    |  2  "        || 50   "       "    | 12  "  2  "
+25 "        "    |  3  "  2  "  || 55   "       "    | 15  "  2  "
+30 "        "    |  4  "  8  "  || 60   "       "    | 18  "
+-----------------+--------------++-------------------+--------------
+
+VARYING DEGREES OF PRESSURE.--It is curious to notice how the increase
+in speed changes the pressure against the blade. Thus, a wind blowing 20
+miles an hour shows 2 pounds pressure; whereas a wind twice that
+velocity, or 40 miles an hour, shows a pressure of 8 pounds, which is
+four times greater than at 20 miles.
+
+It differs, therefore, from the law with respect to water pressure,
+which is constant in relation to the height or the head--that is, for
+every 28 inches height of water a pound pressure is added.
+
+POWER FROM WAVES AND TIDES.--Many attempts have been made to harness the
+waves and the tide and some of them have been successful. This effort
+has been directed to the work of converting the oscillations of the
+waves into a rotary motion, and also to take advantage of the to-and-fro
+movement of the tidal flow. There is a great field in this direction for
+the ingenious boy.
+
+A PROFITABLE FIELD.--In no direction of human enterprise is there such
+a wide and profitable field for work, as in the generation of power. It
+is constantly growing in prominence, and calls for the exercise of the
+skill of the engineer and the ingenuity of the mechanic. Efficiency and
+economy are the two great watchwords, and this is what the world is
+striving for. Success will come to him who can contribute to it in the
+smallest degree.
+
+Capital is not looking for men who can cheapen the production of an
+article 50 per cent., but 1 per cent. The commercial world does not
+expect an article to be 100 per cent, better. Five per cent. would be an
+inducement for business.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+ON MEASURES
+
+
+HORSE-POWER.--When work is performed it is designated as horse-power,
+usually indicated by the letters H. P.; but the unit of work is called a
+_foot pound_.
+
+If one pound should be lifted 550 feet in one second, or 550 pounds one
+foot in the same time, it would be designated as one horse-power. For
+that reason it is called a foot pound. Instead of using the figure to
+indicate the power exerted during one minute of time, the time is taken
+for a minute, in all calculations, so that 550 multiplied by the number
+of seconds, 60, in a minute, equals 33,000 foot pounds.
+
+FOOT POUNDS.--The calculation of horse-power is in a large measure
+arbitrary. It was determined in this way: Experiments show that the heat
+expended in vaporizing 34 pounds of water per hour, develops a force
+equal to 33,000 foot pounds; and since it takes about 4 pounds of coal
+per hour to vaporize that amount of water, the heat developed by that
+quantity of coal develops the same force as that exercised by an average
+horse exerting his strength at ordinary work.
+
+All power is expressed in foot pounds. Suppose a cannon ball of
+sufficient weight and speed strikes an object. If the impact should
+indicate 33,000 pounds it would not mean that the force employed was one
+horse-power, but that many foot pounds.
+
+If there should be 60 impacts of 550 pounds each within a minute, it
+might be said that it would be equal to 1 horse-power, but the correct
+way to express it would be foot pounds.
+
+So in every calculation, where power is to be calculated, first find out
+how many foot pounds are developed, and then use the unit of measure,
+33,000, as the divisor to get the horse-power, if you wish to express it
+in that way.
+
+It must be understood, therefore, that horse-power is a simple unit of
+work, whereas a foot pound is a compound unit formed of a foot paired
+with the weight of a pound.
+
+ENERGY.--Now _work_ and _energy_ are two different things. Work is the
+overcoming of resistance of any kind, either by causing or changing
+motion, or maintaining it against the action of some other force.
+
+Energy, on the other hand, is the power of doing work. Falling water
+possesses energy; so does a stone poised on the edge of a cliff. In the
+case of water, it is called _kinetic_ energy; in the stone _potential_
+energy. A pound of pressure against the stone will cause the latter, in
+falling, to develop an enormous energy; so it will be seen that this
+property resides, or is within the thing itself. It will be well to
+remember these definitions.
+
+HOW TO FIND OUT THE POWER DEVELOPED.--The measure of power produced by
+an engine, or other source, is so interesting to boys that a sketch is
+given of a Prony Brake, which is the simplest form of the Dynamometer,
+as these measuring machines are called.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 133. Prony Brake_]
+
+In the drawing (A) is the shaft, with a pulley (A'), which turns in the
+direction of the arrow (B). C is a lever which may be of any length.
+This has a block (C'), which fits on the pulley, and below the shaft,
+and surrounding it, are blocks (D) held against the pulley by a chain
+(E), the ends of the chain being attached to bolts (F) which pass
+through the block (C') and lever (C).
+
+Nuts (G) serve to draw the bolts upwardly and thus tighten the blocks
+against the shaft. The free end of the lever has stops (H) above and
+below, so as to limit its movement. Weights (I) are suspended from the
+end of the lever.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 134. Speed Indicator_]
+
+THE TEST.--The test is made as follows: The shaft is set in motion, and
+the nuts are tightened until its full power at the required speed is
+balanced by the weight put on the platform.
+
+The following calculation can then be made:
+
+For our present purpose we shall assume that the diameter of the pulley
+(A') is 4 inches; the length of the lever (C), 3 feet; the speed of the
+shaft (A) and the pulley, 210 revolutions per minute; and the weight 600
+pounds.
+
+Now proceed as follows:
+
+(1) Multiply the diameter of the pulley (A') (4 inches) by 3.1416, and
+this will give the circumference 12.5664 inches; or, 1.0472 feet.
+
+(2) Multiply this product (1.0472) by the revolutions per minute. 1.0472
+x 210 = 219.912. This equals the _speed_ of the periphery of the pulley.
+
+(3) The next step is to get the length of the lever (C) from the center
+of the shaft (A) to the point from which the weights are suspended, and
+divide this by one-half of the diameter of the pulley (A'). 36" / 2" =
+18", or 1-1/2 feet. This is the _leverage_.
+
+(4) Then multiply the _weight_ in pounds by the _leverage_. 600 x 1-1/2
+= 900.
+
+(5) Next multiply this product (900) by the _speed_, 900 x 219.912 =
+197,920.8, which means _foot pounds_.
+
+(6) As each horse-power has 33,000 foot pounds, the last product should
+be divided by this figure, and we have 197,920.8 / 33,000 = 5.99 H. P.
+
+THE FOOT MEASURE.--How long is a foot, and what is it determined by? It
+is an arbitrary measure. The human foot is the basis of the measurement.
+But what is the length of a man's foot? It varied in different countries
+from 9 to 21 inches.
+
+In England, in early days, it was defined as a measure of length
+consisting of 12 inches, or 36 barleycorns laid end to end. But
+barleycorns differ in length as well as the human foot, so the standard
+adopted is without any real foundation or reason.
+
+WEIGHT.--To determine weight, however, a scientific standard was
+adopted. A gallon contains 8.33 pounds avoirdupois weight of distilled
+water. This gallon is divided up in two ways; one by weight, and the
+other by measurement.
+
+Each gallon contains 231 cubic inches of distilled water. As it has four
+quarts, each quart has 57-3/4 cubic inches, and as each quart is
+comprised of two pints, each pint has nearly 29 cubic inches.
+
+THE GALLON.--The legal gallon in the United States is equal to a
+cylindrical measure 7 inches in diameter and 6 inches deep.
+
+Notwithstanding the weights and dimensions of solids and liquids are
+thus fixed by following a scientific standard, the divisions into
+scruples, grains, pennyweights and tons, as well as cutting them up into
+pints, quarts and other units, is done without any system, and for this
+reason the need of a uniform method has been long considered by every
+country.
+
+THE METRIC SYSTEM.--As early as 1528, Fernal, a French physician,
+suggested the metric system. Our own government recognized the value of
+this plan when it established the system of coinage.
+
+The principle lies in fixing a unit, such as a dollar, or a pound, or a
+foot, and then making all divisions, or addition, in multiples of ten.
+Thus, we have one mill; ten mills to make a dime; ten dimes to make a
+dollar, and so on.
+
+BASIS OF MEASUREMENT.--The question arose, what to use as the basis of
+measurement, and it was proposed to use the earth itself, as the
+measure. For this purpose the meridian line running around the earth at
+the latitude of Paris was selected.
+
+One-quarter of this measurement around the globe was found to be
+393,707,900 inches, and this was divided into 10,000,000 parts. Each
+part, therefore, was a little over 39.37 inches in length, and this was
+called a meter, which means _measure_.
+
+A decimeter is one-tenth of that, namely, 3.937 inches; and a decameter
+39.37, or ten times the meter, and so on.
+
+For convenience the metrical table is given, showing lengths in feet and
+inches, in which only three decimal points are used.
+
+Metrical Table, showing measurements in feet and inches:
+
+METRICAL TABLE, SHOWING MEASUREMENTS IN FEET
+AND INCHES
+
+------------------------------------------
+------------+--------------+--------------
+   Length   |    Inches    |    Feet
+------------+--------------+--------------
+Millimeter  |       0.039  |      0.003
+Centimeter  |       0.393  |      0.032
+Decimeter   |       3.937  |      0.328
+Meter       |      39.370  |      3.280
+Decameter   |     393.707  |     32.808
+Hectometer  |    3937.079  |    328.089
+Kilometer   |   39370.790  |   3280.899
+Myriameter  |  393707.900  |  32808.992
+------------+--------------+--------------
+
+METRIC SYSTEM, SHOWING THE EQUIVALENTS
+IN OUR MEASURES
+
+1 Myriameter            = 5.4 nautical miles, or 6.21 statute
+                            miles.
+
+1 Kilometer             = 0.621 statute mile, or nearly 5/8
+                            mile.
+
+1 Hectometer            = 109.4 yards.
+
+1 Decameter             = 0.497 chain, 1.988 rods.
+
+1 Meter                 = 39.37 inches, or nearly 3 ft. 3-3/8
+                            inches.
+
+1 Decimeter             = 3.937 inches.
+
+1 Centimeter            = 0.3937 inch.
+
+1 Millimeter            = 0.03937 inch.
+
+1 Micron                = 1/25400 inch.
+
+1 Hectare               = 2.471 acres.
+
+1 Arc                   = 119.6 square yards.
+
+1 Centaire, or square
+meter                   = 10.764 square feet.
+
+1 Decastere             = 13 cubic yards, or about 2-3/4
+                            cords.
+
+1 Stere, or cubic meter = 1.308 cubic yards, or 35.3 cubic
+                            feet.
+
+1 Decistere             = 3-1/2 cubic feet.
+
+1 Kiloliter             = 1 ton, 12 gal., 2 pints, 2 gills
+                            old wine measure.
+
+1 Hectoliter            = 22.01 Imperial gals., or 26.4
+                            U. S. gals.
+
+1 Decaliter             = 2 gallons, 1 pint, 2-2/5 gills, imperial
+                            measure, or 2 gals., 2
+                            qts., 1 pt., 1/2 gill, U. S.
+
+1 Liter                 = 1 pint, 3 gills, imperial, or 1 qt.,
+                            1/2 gill U. S. measure.
+
+1 Decileter             = 0.704 gill, imperial, or 0.845 gill
+                            U. S. measure.
+
+1 Millier               = 2,204.6 pounds avoirdupois.
+
+1 Metric quintal        = 2  hundredweight, less 3-1/2
+                            pounds, or 220 pounds, 7
+                            ounces.
+
+1 Kilogram              = 2  pounds, 3 ounces, 4-3/8
+                            drams avoirdupois.
+
+1 Hectogram             = 3 ounces, 8-3/8 drams avoirdupois.
+
+1 Decagram              = 154.32 grains Troy.
+
+1 Gram                  = 15.432 grains.
+
+1 Decigram              = 1.542 grain.
+
+1 Centigram             = 0.154 grain.
+
+1 Milligram             = 0.015 grain.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+USEFUL INFORMATION FOR THE WORKSHOP
+
+
+To find the circumference of a circle: Multiply the diameter by 3.1416.
+
+To find the diameter of a circle: Multiply the circle by .31831.
+
+To find the area of a circle: Multiply the square of the diameter by
+.7854.
+
+To find the area of a triangle: Multiply the base by one-half the
+perpendicular height.
+
+To find the surface of a ball: Multiply the square of the diameter by
+3.1416.
+
+To find the solidity of a sphere: Multiply the cube of the diameter by
+.5236.
+
+To find the cubic contents of a cone: Multiply the area of the base by
+one-third the altitude.
+
+Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times.
+
+To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water:
+Multiply the height of the column in feet by .434.
+
+Standard Horse-power: The evaporation of 30 pounds of water per hour
+from a feed water temperature of 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit into steam at
+70 pounds gauge pressure.
+
+To find the capacity of any tank in gallons: Square the diameter in
+inches, multiply by the length, and then by .0034.
+
+In making patterns for aluminum castings provision must be made for
+shrinkage to a greater extent than with any other metal or alloy.
+
+The toughness of aluminum can be increased by adding a small per cent.
+of phosphorus.
+
+All alloys of metals having mercury are called _amalgams_.
+
+A sheet of zinc suspended in the water of a boiler will produce an
+electrolytic action and prevent scaling to a considerable extent.
+
+Hydrofluoric acid will not affect a pure diamond, but will dissolve all
+imitations.
+
+A strong solution of alum put into glue will make it insoluble in water.
+
+A grindstone with one side harder than the other can have its flinty
+side softened by immersing that part in boiled linseed oil.
+
+One barrel contains 3-3/4 cubic feet.
+
+One cubic yard contains 7-1/4 barrels.
+
+To find the speed of a driven pulley of a given diameter: Multiply the
+diameter of the driving pulley by its speed or number of revolutions.
+Divide this by the diameter of the driven pulley. The result will be the
+number of revolutions of the driven pulley.
+
+To find the diameter of a driven pulley that shall make any given number
+of revolutions in the same time: Multiply the diameter of the driving
+pulley by its number of revolutions, and divide the product by the
+number of revolutions of the driven pulley.
+
+A piece of the well-known tar soap held against the inside of a belt
+while running will prevent it from slipping, and will not injure the
+belt.
+
+Boiler scale is composed of the carbonate or the sulphate of lime. To
+prevent the formation it is necessary to use some substance which will
+precipitate these elements in the water. The cheapest and most
+universally used for this purpose are soda ash and caustic soda.
+
+Gold bronze is merely a mixture of equal parts of oxide of tin and
+sulphur. To unite them they are heated for some time in an earthen
+retort.
+
+Rusted utensils may be cleaned of rust by applying either turpentine or
+kerosene oil, and allowing them to stand over night, when the excess may
+be wiped off. Clean afterwards with fine emery cloth.
+
+Plaster of paris is valuable for many purposes in a machine shop, but
+the disadvantage in handling it is, that it sets so quickly, and its use
+is, therefore, very much limited. To prevent quick setting mix a small
+amount of arrow root powder with the plaster before it is mixed, and
+this will keep it soft for some time, and also increase its hardness
+when it sets.
+
+For measuring purposes a tablespoon holds 1/2 ounce; a dessertspoon 1/4
+ounce; a teaspoon 1/8 ounce; a teacupful of sugar weighs 1/2 pound; two
+teacupsful of butter weigh 1 pound; 1-1/3 pints of powdered sugar weigh
+1 pound; one pint of distilled water weighs 1 pound.
+
+Ordinarily, 450 drops of liquid are equal to 1 ounce; this varies with
+different liquids, some being thicker in consistency than others, but
+for those of the consistency of water the measure given is fairly
+accurate.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE SIMPLICITY OF GREAT INVENTIONS, AND OF NATURE'S MANIFESTATIONS
+
+
+If there is anything in the realm of mechanics which excites the wonder
+and admiration of man, it is the knowledge that the greatest inventions
+are the simplest, and that the inventor must take advantage of one law
+in nature which is universal in its application, and that is vibration.
+
+There is a key to every secret in nature's great storehouse. It is not a
+complicated one, containing a multiplicity of wards and peculiar angles
+and recesses. It is the very simplicity in most of the problems which
+long served as a bar to discovery in many of the arts. So extremely
+simple have been some of the keys that many inventions resulted from
+accidents.
+
+INVENTION PRECEDES SCIENCE.--Occasionally inventions were brought about
+by persistency and energy, and ofttimes by theorizing; but science
+rarely ever aids invention. The latter usually precedes science. Thus,
+reasoning could not show how it might be possible for steam to force
+water into a boiler against its own pressure. But the injector does
+this.
+
+If, prior to 1876, it had been suggested that a sonorous vibration could
+be converted into an electrical pulsation, and transformed back again to
+a sonorous vibration, science would have proclaimed it impossible; but
+the telephone does it. Invention shows how things are done, and science
+afterwards explains the phenomena and formulates theories and laws which
+become serviceable to others in the arts.
+
+SIMPLICITY IN INVENTIONS.--But let us see how exceedingly simple are
+some of the great discoveries of man.
+
+THE TELEGRAPH.--The telegraph is nothing but a magnet at each end of a
+wire, with a lever for an armature, which opens and closes the circuit
+that passes through the magnets and armature, so that an impulse on the
+lever, or armature, at one end, by making and breaking the circuit, also
+makes and breaks the circuit at the other end.
+
+TELEPHONE.--The telephone has merely a disk close to but not touching
+the end of a magnet. The sonorous vibration of the voice oscillates the
+diaphragm, and as the diaphragm is in the magnetic field of the magnet,
+it varies the pressure, so called, causing the diaphragm at the other
+end of the wire to vibrate in unison and give out the same sound
+originally imparted to the other diaphragm.
+
+TRANSMITTER.--The transmitter is merely a sensitized instrument. It
+depends solely on the principle of light contact points in an electric
+circuit, whereby the vibrations of the voice are augmented.
+
+PHONOGRAPH.--The phonograph is not an electrical instrument. It has a
+diaphragm provided centrally with a blunt pin, or stylus. To make the
+record, some soft or plastic material, like wax, or tinfoil, is caused
+to move along so that the point of the stylus makes impressions in it,
+and the vibrations of the diaphragm cause the point to traverse a groove
+of greater or smaller indentations. When this groove is again presented
+to the stylus the diaphragm is vibrated and gives forth the sounds
+originally imparted to it when the indentations were made.
+
+WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.--Wireless telegraphy depends for its action on what
+is called induction. Through this property a current is made of a high
+electro-motive force, which means of a high voltage, and this disturbs
+the ether with such intensity that the waves are sent out in all
+directions to immense distances.
+
+The great discovery has been to find a mechanism sensitive enough to
+detect the induction waves. The instrument for this purpose is called a
+coherer, in which small particles cohere through the action of the
+electric waves, and are caused to fall apart mechanically, during the
+electrical impulses.
+
+PRINTING TELEGRAPH.--The printing telegraph requires the synchronous
+turning of two wheels. This means that two wheels at opposite ends of a
+wire must be made to turn at exactly the same rate of speed. Originally,
+this was tried by clock work, but without success commercially, for the
+reason that a pendulum does not beat with the same speed at the equator,
+as at different latitudes, nor at altitudes; and temperature also
+affects the rate. The solution was found by making the two wheels move
+by means of a timing fork, which vibrates with the same speed
+everywhere, and under all conditions.
+
+ELECTRIC MOTOR.--The direct current electric motor depends for its
+action on the principle that likes repel, and unlikes attract. The
+commutator so arranges the poles that at the proper points, in the
+revolution of the armature, the poles are always presented to each other
+in such a way that as they approach each other, they are opposites, and
+thus attract, and as they recede from each other they repel. A dynamo is
+exactly the same, except that the commutator reverses the operation and
+makes the poles alike as they approach each other, and unlike as they
+recede.
+
+Steel is simply iron, to which has been added a small per cent of
+carbon.
+
+Quinine is efficient in its natural state, but it has been made
+infinitely more effectual by the breaking up or changing of the
+molecules with acids. Sulphate of quinine is made by the use of
+sulphuric acid as a solvent.
+
+EXPLOSIONS.--Explosions depend on oxygen. While this element does not
+burn, a certain amount of it must be present to support combustion.
+Thus, the most inflammable gas or liquid will not burn or explode unless
+oxygenized. Explosives are made by using a sufficient amount, in a
+concentrated form, which is added to the fuel, so that when it is
+ignited there is a sufficient amount of oxygen present to support
+combustion, hence the rapid explosion which follows.
+
+VIBRATION IN NATURE.--The physical meaning of vibration is best
+illustrated by the movement of a pendulum. All agitation is vibration.
+All force manifests itself in this way.
+
+The painful brilliancy of the sun is produced by the rapid vibrations of
+the rays; the twinkle of the distant star, the waves of the ocean when
+ruffled by the winds; the shimmer of the moon on its crested surface;
+the brain in thinking; the mouth in talking; the beating of the heart;
+all, alike, obey the one grand and universal law of vibratory motion.
+
+QUALITIES OF SOUND.--Sound is nothing but a succession of vibrations of
+greater or less magnitude. Pitch is produced by the number of
+vibrations; intensity by their force; and quality by the character of
+the article vibrated.
+
+Since the great telephone controversy which took place some years ago
+there has been a wonderful development in the knowledge of acoustics, or
+sounds. It was shown that the slightest sound would immediately set into
+vibration every article of furniture in a room, and very sensitive
+instruments have been devised to register the force and quality.
+
+THE PHOTOGRAPHER'S PLATE.--It is known that the chemical action of an
+object on a photographer's plate is due to vibration; each represents a
+force of different intensity, hence the varying shades produced. Owing
+to the different rates of vibrations caused by the different colors, the
+difficulty has been to photograph them, but this has now been
+accomplished. Harmony, or "being in tune," as is the common expression,
+is as necessary in light, as in music.
+
+Some chemicals will bring out or "develop," the pictures; others will
+not. Colors are now photographed because invention and science have
+found the harmonizing chemicals.
+
+QUADRUPLEX TELEGRAPHY.--One of the most remarkable of all the wonders of
+our age is what is known as duplex and quadruplex telegraphy. Every atom
+and impulse in electricity is oscillation. The current which transmits
+a telegram is designated in the science as "vibratory."
+
+But how is it possible to transmit two or more messages over one wire at
+the same time? It is by bringing into play the harmony of sounds. One
+message is sent in one direction in the key of A; another message in the
+other direction in B; and so any number may be sent, because the
+electrical vibrations may be tuned, just like the strings of a violin.
+
+ELECTRIC HARMONY.--Every sound produces a corresponding vibration in
+surrounding objects. While each vibrates, or is capable of transmitting
+a sound given to it by its vibratory powers, it may not vibrate in
+harmony.
+
+When a certain key of a piano is struck every key has a certain
+vibration, and if we could separate it from the other sounds, it would
+reflect the same sound as the string struck, just the same as the walls
+of a room or the air itself would convey that sound.
+
+But as no two strings in the instrument vibrate the same number of times
+each second, the rapid movement of successive sounds of the keys do not
+interfere with each other. If, however, there are several pianos in a
+room, and all are tuned the same pitch, the striking of a key on one
+instrument will instantly set in vibration the corresponding strings in
+all the other instruments.
+
+This is one reason why a piano tested in a music wareroom has always a
+more beautiful and richer sound than when in a drawing-room or hall,
+since each string is vibrated by the other instrument.
+
+If a small piece of paper is balanced upon the strings of a violin,
+every key of the piano may be struck, except the one in tune, without
+affecting the paper; but the moment the same key is struck the vibration
+of the harmonizing pitch will unbalance the paper.
+
+The musical sound of C produces 528 vibrations per second; D 616, and so
+on. The octave above has double the number of vibrations of the lower
+note. It will thus be understood why discord in music is not pleasant to
+the ear, as the vibrations are not in the proper multiples.
+
+ODORS.--So with odors. The sense of smell is merely the force set in
+motion by the vibration of the elements. An instrument called the
+_odophone_ demonstrates that a scale or gamut exists in flowers; that
+sharp smells indicate high tones and heavy smells low tones. Over fifty
+odors have thus been analyzed.
+
+The treble clef, note E, 4th space, is orange; note D, 1st space below,
+violet; note F, 4th space above clef, ambergris. To make a proper
+bouquet, therefore the different odors must be harmonized, just the
+same as the notes of a musical chord are selected.
+
+A BOUQUET OF VIBRATIONS.--The odophone shows that santal, geranium,
+orange flower and camphor, make a bouquet in the key of C. It is easy to
+conceive that a beautiful bouquet means nothing more than an agreeable
+vibratory sensation of the olfactory nerves.
+
+TASTE.--So with the sense of taste. The tongue is covered with minute
+cells surrounded by nervous filaments which are set in motion whenever
+any substance is brought into contact with the surface. Tasting is
+merely the movement of these filaments, of greater or less rapidity.
+
+If an article is tasteless, it means that these filaments do not
+vibrate. These vibrations are of two kinds. They may move faster or
+slower, or they may move in a peculiar way. A sharp acute taste means
+that the vibrations are very rapid; a mild taste, slow vibrations.
+
+When a pleasant taste is detected, it is only because the filaments are
+set into an agreeable motion. The vibrations in the tongue may become so
+rapid that it will be painful, just as a shriek becomes piercing to the
+ear, or an intense light dazzling to the eye; all proceed from the same
+physical force acting on the brain.
+
+COLOR.--Color, that seemingly unexplainable force, becomes a simple
+thing when the principles of vibration are applied, and this has been
+fully explained by the spectroscope and its operation.
+
+When the boy once appreciates that this force, or this motion in nature
+is just as simple as the great inventions which have grown out of this
+manifestation, he will understand that a knowledge of these things will
+enable him to utilize the energy in a proper way.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+WORKSHOP RECIPES AND FORMULAS
+
+
+In a work of this kind, dealing with the various elements, the boy
+should have at hand recipes or formulas for everything which comes
+within the province of his experiments. The following are most carefully
+selected, the objects being to present those which are the more easily
+compounded.
+
+ADHESIVES FOR VARIOUS USES.--Waterproof glue. Use a good quality of
+glue, and dissolve it in warm water, then add one pound of linseed oil
+to eight pounds of the glue. Add three ounces of nitric acid.
+
+Leather or Card-board Glue. After dissolving good glue in water, to
+which a little turpentine has been added, mix it with a thick paste of
+starch, the proportion of starch to glue being about two to every part
+of glue used. The mixture is used cold.
+
+A fine Belt Glue. Dissolve 50 ounces of gelatine in water, and heat
+after pouring off the excess water. Then stir in five ounces of
+glycerine, ten ounces of turpentine, and five ounces of linseed oil
+varnish. If too thick add water to suit.
+
+For cementing Iron to Marble. Use 30 parts of Plaster of Paris, 10 parts
+of iron filings, and one half part of sal ammoniac. These are mixed up
+with vinegar to make a fluid paste.
+
+To cement Glass to Iron. Use 3 ounces of boiled linseed oil and 1 part
+of copal varnish, and into this put 2 ounces of litharge and 1 ounce of
+white lead and thoroughly mingle so as to make a smooth paste.
+
+Water-proof Cement. Boiled linseed oil, 6 ounces; copal, 6 ounces;
+litharge, 2 ounces; and white lead, 16 ounces. To be thoroughly
+incorporated.
+
+To unite rubber or leather to hard substances. One ounce of pulverized
+gum shellac dissolved in 9-1/2 ounces of strong ammonia, will make an
+elastic cement. Must be kept tightly corked.
+
+For uniting iron to iron. Use equal parts of boiled oil, white lead,
+pipe clay and black oxide of manganese, and form it into a paste.
+
+Transparent Cement. Unite 1 ounce of india rubber, 67 ounces of
+chloroform, and 40 ounces of mastic. This is to be kept together for a
+week, and stirred at times, when it will be ready for use.
+
+To Attach Cloth to Metal. Water 100 parts, sugar 10 parts, starch 20
+parts, and zinc chloride 1 part. This must be first stirred and made
+free of lumps, and then heated until it thickens.
+
+United States Government Gum. Dissolve 1 part of gum arabic in water and
+add 4 parts of sugar and 1 part of starch. This is then boiled for a
+few minutes, and thinned down as required.
+
+TO MAKE DIFFERENT ALLOYS.--Silver-aluminum. Silver one-fourth part, and
+aluminum three-fourth parts.
+
+Bell-metal. Copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts. Or, copper, 72 parts; tin,
+26 parts; zinc, 2 parts. Or, copper 2; 1 of tin.
+
+Brass. Copper, 66 parts; zinc, 32 parts; tin, 1 part; lead, 1 part.
+
+Bronzes. Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 30 parts; tin, 5 parts. Or, copper, 85
+parts; zinc, 10 parts; tin, 3 parts; lead, 2 parts.
+
+German Silver. 52 parts of copper; 26 parts zinc; 22 parts nickel.
+
+For Coating Mirrors. Tin, 70 parts; mercury, 30 parts.
+
+BOILER COMPOUNDS.--To prevent scaling. Use common washing soda, or
+Glauber salts.
+
+TO DISSOLVE CELLULOID.--Use 50 parts of alcohol and 5 parts of camphor
+for every 5 parts of celluloid. When the celluloid is put into the
+solution it will dissolve it.
+
+To Soften Celluloid. This may be done by simply heating, so it will
+bend, and by putting it in steam, it can be worked like dough.
+
+CLAY MIXTURE FOR FORGES.--Mix dry 20 parts of fire clay, 20 parts
+cast-iron turnings, one part of common salt, and 1/2 part sal ammoniac,
+and then add water while stirring, so as to form a mortar of the proper
+consistency. The mixture will become very hard when heat is applied.
+
+A Modeling Clay. This is made by mixing the clay with glycerine and
+afterwards adding vaseline. If too much vaseline is added it becomes too
+soft.
+
+FLUIDS FOR CLEANING CLOTHES, FURNITURE, ETC.--For Delicate Fabrics. Make
+strong decoction of soap bark, and put into alcohol.
+
+Non-inflammable Cleaner. Equal parts of acetone, ammonia and diluted
+alcohol.
+
+Taking dried paint from clothing. Shake up 2 parts of ammonia water with
+1 part of spirits of turpentine.
+
+Cleaning Furniture, etc. Unite 2.4 parts of wax; 9.4 parts of oil of
+turpentine; 42 parts acetic acid; 42 parts citric acid; 42 parts white
+soap. This must be well mingled before using.
+
+Removing Rust from Iron or Steel. Rub the surface with oil of tartar.
+Or, apply turpentine or kerosene, and after allowing to stand over
+night, clean with emery cloth.
+
+For Removing Ink Stains from Silver. Use a paste made of chloride of
+lime and water.
+
+To clean Silver-Plated Ware. Make a mixture of cream of tartar, 2 parts;
+levigated chalk, 2 parts; and alum, 1 part. Grind up the alum and mix
+thoroughly.
+
+Cleaning a Gas Stove. Make a solution of 9 parts of caustic soda and 150
+parts of water, and put the separate parts of the stove in the solution
+for an hour or two. The parts will come out looking like new.
+
+Cleaning Aluminum. A few drops of sulphuric acid in water will restore
+the luster to aluminum ware.
+
+Oil Eradicator. Soap spirits, 100 parts; ammonia solution, 25; acetic
+ether, 15 parts.
+
+DISINFECTANTS.--Camphor, 1 ounce; carbolic acid (75 per cent.), 12
+ounces; aqua ammonia, 10 drachms; soft salt water, 8 drachms.
+
+Water-Closet Deodorant. Ferric chloride, 4 parts; zinc chloride, 5
+parts; aluminum chloride, 4 parts; calcium chloride, 5 parts; magnesium
+chloride, 3 parts; and water sufficient to make 90 parts. When all is
+dissolved add to each gallon 10 grains of thymol and a quarter-ounce of
+rosemary that had been previously dissolved in six quarts of alcohol.
+
+Odorless Disinfectants. Mercuric chloride, 1 part; cupric sulphate, 10
+parts; zinc sulphate, 50 parts; sodium chloride, 65 parts; water to make
+1,000 parts.
+
+Emery for Lapping Purposes. Fill a pint bottle with machine oil and
+emery flour, in the proportion of 7 parts oil and 1 part emery. Allow it
+to stand for twenty minutes, after shaking up well, then pour off half
+the contents, without disturbing the settlings, and the part so poured
+off contains only the finest of the emery particles, and is the only
+part which should be used on the lapping roller.
+
+EXPLOSIVES.--Common Gunpowder. Potassium nitrate, 75 parts; charcoal, 15
+parts; sulphur, 10 parts.
+
+Dynamite. 75 per cent. nitro-glycerine; 25 per cent. infusorial earth.
+
+Giant Powder. 36 per cent. nitro-glycerine; 48 per cent. nitrate of
+potash; 8 per cent. of sulphur; 8 per cent. charcoal.
+
+Fulminate. Chlorate of potassia, 6 parts; pure lampblack, 4 parts;
+sulphur, 1 part. A blow will cause it to explode.
+
+FILES.--How to Keep Clean. Olive oil is the proper substance to rub over
+files, as this will prevent the creases from filling up while in use,
+and preserve the file for a longer time, and also enable it to do better
+cutting.
+
+To Renew Old Files. Use a potash bath for boiling them in, and
+afterwards brush them well so as to get the creases clean. Then stretch
+a cotton cloth between two supports, and after plunging the file into
+nitric acid, use the stretched cloth to wipe off the acid. The object is
+to remove the acid from the ridges of the file, so the acid will only
+eat out or etch the deep portions between the ridges, and not affect the
+edges or teeth.
+
+FIRE PROOF MATERIALS OR SUBSTANCES.--For Wood. For the kind where it is
+desired to apply with a brush, use 100 parts sodium silicate; 50 parts
+of Spanish white, and 100 parts of glue. It must be applied hot.
+
+Another good preparation is made as follows: Sodium silicate, 350 parts;
+asbestos, powdered, 350 parts; and boiling water 1,000 parts.
+
+For Coating Steel, etc. Silica, 50 parts; plastic fire clay, 10 parts;
+ball clay, 3 parts. To be thoroughly mixed.
+
+For Paper. Ammonium sulphate, 8 parts; boracic acid, 3 parts; borax, 2
+parts; water, 100 parts. This is applied in a liquid state to the paper
+surface.
+
+FLOOR DRESSINGS.--Oil Stain. Neats' foot oil, 1 part; cottonseed oil, 1
+part; petroleum oil, 1 part. This may be colored with anything desired,
+like burnt sienna, annatto, or other coloring material.
+
+Ballroom Powder. Hard paraffine, 1 pound; powdered boric acid, 7 pounds;
+oil of lavender, 1 drachm; oil of neroli, 20 minims.
+
+FOOT POWDERS.--For Perspiring Feet. Balsam Peru, 15 minims; formic
+acid, 1 drachm; chloral hydrate, 1 drachm; alcohol to make 3 ounces.
+
+For Easing Feet. Tannaform, 1 drachm; talcum, 2 drachms; lycopodium, 30
+grains.
+
+Frost Bites. Carbolized water, 4 drachms; nitric acid, 1 drop; oil of
+geranium, 1 drop.
+
+GLASS.--To cut glass, hold it under water, and use a pair of shears.
+
+To make a hole through glass, place a circle of moist earth on the
+glass, and form a hole in this the diameter wanted for the hole, and in
+this hole pour molten lead, and the part touched by the lead will fall
+out.
+
+To Frost Glass. Cover it with a mixture of 6 ounces of magnesium
+sulphate, 2 ounces of dextrine, and 20 ounces of water. This produces a
+fine effect.
+
+To imitate ground glass, use a composition of sandarac, 2-1/2 ounces;
+mastic, 1/2 ounce; ether, 24 ounces; and benzine, 16 ounces.
+
+IRON AND STEEL.--How to distinguish them. Wash the metal and put it into
+a solution of bichromate of potash to which has been added a small
+amount of sulphuric acid. In a minute or so take out the metal, wash and
+wipe it. Soft steel and cast iron will have the appearance of an
+ash-gray tint; tempered steels will be black; and puddled or refined
+irons will be nearly white and have a metallic reflection.
+
+To Harden Iron or Steel. If wrought iron, put in the charge 20 parts, by
+weight, of common salt, 2 parts of potassium cyanide, .3 part of
+potassium bichromate, .15 part of broken glass.
+
+To harden cast iron, there should be added to the charge the following:
+To 60 parts of water, add 2-1/2 parts of vinegar, 3 parts of common
+salt, and .25 part of hydrochloric acid.
+
+To soften castings: Heat them to a high temperature and cover them with
+fine coal dust and allow to cool gradually.
+
+LACQUERS.--For Aluminum. Dissolve 100 parts of gum lac in 300 parts of
+ammonia and heat for an hour moderately in a water bath. The aluminum
+must be well cleaned before applying. Heat the aluminum plate
+afterwards.
+
+For Brass. Make a compound as follows; Annatto, 1/4 ounce; saffro, 1/4
+ounce; turmeric, 1 ounce; seed lac, 3 ounces; and alcohol, 1 pint. Allow
+the mixture to stand for three days, then strain in the vessel which
+contains the seed lac, and allow to stand until all is dissolved.
+
+For Copper. Heat fine, thickly liquid amber varnish so it can be readily
+applied to the copper, and this is allowed to dry. Then heat the coated
+object until it commences to smoke and turn brown.
+
+LUBRICANTS.--Heavy machinery oils. Use paraffine, 8 pounds; palm oil, 20
+pounds; and oleonaptha, 12 pounds. Dissolve the paraffine in the
+oleonaptha at a temperature of 160 degrees and then stir in the palm oil
+a little at a time.
+
+For Cutting Tools. Heat six gallons of water and put in three and a half
+pounds of soft soap and a half gallon of clean refuse oil. It should be
+well mixed.
+
+For high-speed bearings. Use flaky graphite and kerosene oil. Apply this
+as soon as there is any indication of heating in the bearings.
+
+For lathe centers, one part of graphite and four parts of tallow
+thoroughly mixed and applied will be very serviceable.
+
+For Wooden Gears. Use tallow, 30 parts; palm oil; 20 parts; fish oil, 10
+parts; and graphite, 20 parts.
+
+PAPER.--FIRE PROOF PAPER.--Make the following solution: Ammonium
+sulphate, 8 parts; boracic acid, 3 parts; water, 100 parts. Mix at a
+temperature of 120 degrees. Paper coated with this will resist heat.
+
+Filter Paper. Dip the paper into nitric acid of 1.433 specific gravity,
+and subsequently wash and dry it. This makes a fine filtering body.
+
+Carbon Paper. A variety of substances may be used, such as fine soot or
+ivory black, ultramarine or Paris blue. Mix either with fine grain
+soap, so it is of a uniform consistency and then apply to the paper with
+a stiff brush, rubbing it in until it is evenly spread over the surface.
+
+Tracing Paper. Take unsized paper and apply a coat of varnish made of
+equal parts of Canada balsam and oil of turpentine. To increase the
+transparency give another coat. The sheets must be well dried before
+using.
+
+PHOTOGRAPHY.--Developers.
+
+1. Pure water, 30 ounces; sulphite soda, 5 ounces; carbonate soda, 2-1/2
+ounces.
+
+2. Pure water, 24 ounces; oxalic acid, 15 grains; pyrogallic acid, 1
+ounce.
+
+To develop use of solution 1, 1 ounce; solution 2, 1/2 ounce; and water,
+3 ounces.
+
+Stock solutions for developing: Make solution No. 1 as follows: water,
+32 ounces; tolidol, I ounce; sodium sulphate, 1-1/2 ounces.
+
+Solution No. 2: Water, 32 ounces; sodium sulphate.
+
+Solution No. 3: Water, 32 ounces; sodium carbonate, from 4 to 6 ounces.
+
+Fixing bath. Add two ounces of S. P. C. clarifier (acid bisulphate of
+sodium) solution to one quart of hypo solution 1 in 5.
+
+Clearing solution. Saturated solution of alum, 20 ounces; and
+hydrochloric acid, 1 ounce. Varnish. Brush over the negative a solution
+of equal parts of benzol and Japanese gold size.
+
+PLASTERS.--Court Plaster. Use good quality silk, and on this spread a
+solution of isinglass warmed. Dry and repeat several times, then apply
+several coats of balsam of Peru. Or,
+
+On muslin or silk properly stretched, apply a thin coating of smooth
+strained flour paste, and when dry several coats of colorless gelatine
+are added. The gelatine is applied warm, and cooled before the fabric is
+taken off.
+
+PLATING.--Bronze coating. For antiques, use vinegar, 1,000 parts; by
+weight, powdered bloodstone, 125 parts; plumbago, 25 parts. Apply with
+brush.
+
+For brass where a copper surface is desired, make a rouge with a little
+chloride of platinum and water, and apply with a brush.
+
+For gas fixtures. Use a bronze paint and mix with it five times its
+volume of spirit of turpentine, and to this mixture add dried slaked
+lime, about 40 grains to the pint. Agitate well and decant the clear
+liquid.
+
+COLORING METALS.--Brilliant black for iron. Selenious acid, 6 parts;
+cupric sulphate, 10 parts; water 1,000 parts; nitric acid, 5 parts.
+
+Blue-black. Selenious acid, 10 parts; nitric acid, 5 parts; cupric
+sulphate; water, 1,000 parts. The colors will be varied dependent on
+the time the objects are immersed in the solution.
+
+Brass may be colored brown by using an acid solution of nitrate of
+silver and bismuth; or a light bronze by an acid solution of nitrate of
+silver and copper; or black by a solution of nitrate of copper.
+
+To copper plate aluminum, take 30 parts of sulphate of copper; 30 parts
+of cream of tartar; 25 parts of soda; and 1,000 parts of water. The
+article to be coated is merely dipped into the solution.
+
+POLISHERS.--Floor Polish. Permanganate of potash in boiling water,
+applied to the floor hot, will produce a stain, the color being
+dependent on the number of coats. The floor may them be polished with
+beeswax and turpentine.
+
+For Furniture. Make a paste of equal parts of plaster of paris, whiting,
+pumice stone and litharge, mixed with Japan dryer, boiled linseed oil
+and turpentine. This may be colored to suit. This will fill the cracks
+of the wood. Afterwards rub over the entire surface of the wood with a
+mixture of 1 part Japan, 2 of linseed oil, and three parts of
+turpentine, also colored, and after this has been allowed to slightly
+harden, rub it off, and within a day or two it will have hardened
+sufficiently so that the surface can be polished.
+
+Stove Polish. Ceresine, 12 parts; Japan wax, 10 parts; turpentine oil,
+100 parts; lampblack, 12 parts; graphite, 10 parts. Melt the ceresine
+and wax together, and cool off partly, and then add and stir in the
+graphite and lampblack which were previously mixed up with the
+turpentine.
+
+PUTTY.--Black Putty. Whiting and antimony sulphide, and soluble glass.
+This can be polished finely after hardening.
+
+Common Putty. Whiting and linseed oil mixed up to form a dough.
+
+RUST PREVENTIVE.--For Machinery. Dissolve an ounce of camphor in one
+pound of melted lard. Mix with this enough fine black lead to give it an
+iron color. After it has been on for a day, rub off with a cloth.
+
+For tools, yellow vaseline is the best substance.
+
+For zinc, clean the plate by immersing in water that has a small amount
+of sulphuric acid in it. Then wash clean and coat with asphalt varnish.
+
+SOLDERS.--For aluminum. Use 5 parts of tin and 1 part of aluminum as the
+alloy, and solder with the iron or a blow pipe.
+
+Yellow hard solder. Brass, 3-1/2 parts; and zinc, 1 part.
+
+For easily fusing, make an alloy of equal parts of brass and zinc.
+
+For a white hard solder use brass, 12 parts; zinc, 1 part; and tin, 2
+parts.
+
+SOLDERING FLUXES.--For soft soldering, use a solution of chloride of
+zinc and sal ammoniac. Powdered rosin is also used.
+
+For hard soldering, borax is used most frequently.
+
+A mixture of equal parts of cryolite and barium chloride is very good in
+soldering bronze or aluminum alloys.
+
+Other hard solders are alloyed as follows: brass, 4 parts; and zinc, 5
+parts. Also brass, 7 parts; and zinc, 2 parts.
+
+Steel Tempering-.-Heat the steel red hot and then plunge it into sealing
+wax.
+
+For tempering small steel springs, they may be plunged into a fish oil
+which has a small amount of rosin and tallow.
+
+VARNISHES.--Black Varnish. Shellac, 5 parts; borax, 2 parts; glycerine,
+2 parts; aniline black, 6 parts; water, 45 parts. Dissolve the shellac
+in hot water and add the other ingredients at a temperature of 200
+degrees.
+
+A good can varnish is made by dissolving 15 parts of shellac, and adding
+thereto 2 parts of Venice turpentine, 8 parts of sandarac, and 75 parts
+of spirits.
+
+A varnish for tin and other small metal boxes is made of 75 parts
+alcohol, which dissolves 15 parts of shellac, and 3 parts of turpentine.
+
+SEALING WAX.--For modeling purposes. White wax, 20 parts; turpentine, 5
+parts; sesame oil, 2 parts; vermilion, 2 parts.
+
+Ordinary Sealing. 4 pounds of shellac, 1 pound Venice turpentine, add 3
+pounds of vermilion. Unite by heat.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+HANDY TABLES
+
+
+TABLE OF WEIGHTS FOR ROUND AND SQUARE STEEL.
+
+The Estimate is on the basis of Lineal Feet. 1 cu. ft. of Steel--490
+lbs.
+
+==========+===================+==========+===================
+          |                   |          |
+          | Weight in Pounds  |          | Weight in Pounds
+ Sizes in |                   | Sizes in |
+  Inches  +---------+---------+  Inches  +---------+---------
+          |  Round  | Square  |          |  Round  | Square
+----------+---------+---------+----------+---------+---------
+   1/16   |   .110  |   .013  |  1-1/16  |  3.014  |  3.400
+   1/8    |   .042  |   .053  |  1-1/8   |  3.379  |  3.838
+   3/16   |   .094  |   .119  |  1-3/16  |  3.766  |  4.303
+   1/4    |   .167  |   .212  |  1-1/4   |  4.173  |  4.795
+   5/16   |   .261  |   .333  |  1-5/16  |  4.600  |  5.312
+   3/8    |   .375  |   .478  |  1-3/8   |  5.049  |  5.857
+   7/16   |   .511  |   .651  |  1-7/16  |  5.518  |  6.428
+   1/2    |   .667  |   .850  |  1-1/2   |  6.008  |  7.650
+   9/16   |   .845  |  1.026  |  1-9/16  |  6.520  |  7.650
+   5/8    |  1.043  |  1.328  |  1-5/8   |  7.051  |  8.301
+  11/16   |  1.262  |  1.608  |  1-11/16 |  7.604  |  8.978
+   3/4    |  1.502  |  1.913  |  1-3/4   |  8.178  | 10.41
+  13/16   |  1.773  |  2.245  |  1-13/16 |  8.773  | 11.17
+   7/8    |  2.044  |  2.603  |  1-7/8   |  9.388  | 11.95
+  15/16   |  2.347  |  2.989  |  1-15/16 | 10.02   | 12.76
+    1     |  2.670  |  3.400  |  2       | 10.68   | 13.60
+----------+---------+---------+----------+---------+---------
+
+WEIGHT OF FLAT STEEL BARS.
+
+=========+=============================================================
+Thickness|
+   in    |                             Width
+ Inches  |
+---------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+------+------
+   1/16  |  .212|  .265|  .32 |  .372|  .425|  .477|  .53|  .588|  .63
+   1/8   |  .425|  .53 |  .64 |  .745|  .85 |  .955| 1.06| 1.17 | 1.27
+   3/16  |  .638|  .797|  .957| 1.11 | 1.28 | 1.44 | 1.59| 1.75 | 1.91
+   1/4   |  .85 | 1.06 | 1.28 | 1.49 | 1.70 | 1.91 | 2.12| 2.34 | 2.55
+   5/16  | 1.06 | 1.33 | 1.59 | 1.86 | 2.12 | 2.39 | 2.65| 2.92 | 3.19
+   3/8   | 1.28 | 1.59 | 1.92 | 2.23 | 2.55 | 2.87 | 3.19| 3.51 | 3.83
+   7/16  | 1.49 | 1.85 | 2.23 | 2.60 | 2.98 | 3.35 | 3.72| 4.09 | 4.46
+   1/2   | 1.70 | 2.12 | 2.55 | 2.98 | 3.40 | 3.83 | 4.25| 4.67 | 5.10
+   9/16  | 1.92 | 2.39 | 2.87 | 3.35 | 3.83 | 4.30 | 4.78| 5.26 | 5.74
+   5/8   | 2.12 | 2.65 | 3.19 | 3.72 | 4.25 | 4.78 | 5.31| 5.84 | 6.38
+  11/16  | 2.34 | 2.92 | 3.51 | 4.09 | 4.67 | 5.26 | 5.84| 6.43 | 7.02
+   3/4   | 2.55 | 3.19 | 3.83 | 4.47 | 5.10 | 5.75 | 6.38| 7.02 | 7.65
+  13/16  | 2.76 | 3.45 | 4.14 | 4.48 | 5.53 | 6.21 | 6.90| 7.60 | 8.29
+   7/8   | 2.98 | 3.72 | 4.47 | 5.20 | 5.95 | 6.69 | 7.44| 8.18 | 8.93
+  15/16  | 3.19 | 3.99 | 4.78 | 5.58 | 6.38 | 7.18 | 7.97| 8.77 | 9.57
+    1    | 3.40 | 4.25 | 5.10 | 5.95 | 6.80 | 7.65 | 8.50| 9.35 |10.20
+---------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+------+------
+
+AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT.
+
+For Merchandise of all kinds.
+
+   16 Drams (dr.) make            1 Ounce (oz.)
+   16 Ounces make                 1 Pound (pd.)
+   25 Pounds make                 1 Quarter (qr.)
+    4 Quarters, or 100 lbs., make 1 Hundredweight (cwt.)
+   20 Hundredweights make         1 Ton (T.)
+2,240 Pounds make                 1 Long ton (L. T.)
+
+
+TROY WEIGHT.
+
+For Gold, Silver, and Precious Metals.
+
+24 Grains (gr.) make    1 Pennyweight (pwt.)
+20 Pennyweights make    1 Ounce (oz.)
+12 Ounces make          1 Pound (pd.)
+
+
+APOTHECARIES WEIGHT.
+
+For Drugs, Medicals and Chemicals.
+
+20 Grains (gr.) make     1 Scruple (sc.)
+ 3 Scruples make         1 Dram (dr.)
+ 8 Drams make            1 Ounce (oz.)
+12 Ounces make           1 Pound (pd.)
+
+LINEAR MEASURE.
+
+For Surveyors' Use.
+
+12 Inches make         1 Foot
+3 Feet make            1 Yard
+5-1/2 Yards make       1 Rod
+40 Rods make           1 Furlong
+8 Furlongs             1 Mile
+
+
+LONG MEASURE.
+
+12 Inches make      1 Foot
+3 Feet make         1 Yard
+6 Feet make         1 Fathom
+5-1/2 Yards make    1 Rod or pole
+40 Poles make       1 Furlong
+8 Furlongs make     1 Mile
+3 Miles make        1 League
+69-1/2 Miles make   1 Degree
+
+
+SQUARE MEASURE.
+
+144 square inches make      1 square foot
+9 square feet make          1 square yard
+30-1/2 square yards make    1 square pole
+40 square poles make        1 square rod
+4 square rods make          1 acre
+640 square acres make       1 acre mile
+
+SOLID OR CUBIC MEASURE.
+
+1,728 Cubic inches make     1 Cubic foot
+27 Cubic feet make          1 Cubic yard
+128 Cubic feet make         1 Cord of wood
+24-3/4 Cubic feet make      1 Perch of stone
+
+
+DRY MEASURE.
+
+2 Pints make        1 Quart (qt.)
+8 Quarts make       1 peck (pk.)
+4 Pecks make        1 Bushel (bu.)
+36 Bushels make     1 Chaldron (ch.)
+
+
+LIQUID MEASURE.
+
+4 Gills (g.) make            1 Pint (pt.)
+2 Pints make                 1 Quart (qt.)
+4 Quarts make                1 Gallon (gal.)
+31-1/2 Gallons make          1 Barrel (bbl.)
+2 Bbls., or 63 gals., make.   1 Hogshead (hhd.)
+
+
+PAPER MEASURE.
+
+24 Sheets (sh.) make   1 Quire (qu.)
+20 Quires make         1 Ream (r.)
+10 Reams make          1 Bale (ba.) or bundle.
+
+TABLE OF TEMPERATURES.
+
+Greatest artificial cold   220   degrees below Fahr.
+    "    natural      "     73.7    "      "      "
+Mercury freezes             39      "      "      "
+Mixture of snow and salt     4      "      "      "
+Greatest density of water at 39.2   "    above    "
+Blood Heat                   97.9   "      "      "
+Alcohol boils               172.4   "      "      "
+Water boils                 212     "      "      "
+Mercury boils               662     "      "      "
+Sulphur boils               824     "      "      "
+Silver melts              1,749     "      "      "
+Cast iron melts           2,786     "      "      "
+
+
+STRENGTH OF VARIOUS METALS.
+
+The tests are made by using a cubic inch of the metal and compressing
+it, and by trying to draw apart a square inch of metal. Indicated in
+pounds.
+
+========================+=========+=============
+                        | Tension | Compression
+------------------------+---------+-------------
+Aluminum                |  15,000 |   12,000
+Brass, cast             |  24,000 |   30,000
+Bronze, gun metal       |  32,000 |   20,000
+  "     manganese       |  60,000 |  120,000
+  "      phosphor       |  50,000 |   ......
+Copper, cast            |  24,000 |   40,000
+  "     wire annealed.  |  36,000 |   ......
+  "       " unannealed  |  60,000 |   ......
+Iron, cast              |  15,000 |   ......
+  "     "  annealed     |  60,000 |   80,000
+  "     "  unannealed   |  80,000 |   ......
+  "   wrought           |  48,000 |   46,000
+Lead, cast              |   2,000 |   ......
+Steel castings          |  70,000 |   70,000
+  "   plow              | 270,000 |   ......
+  "   structural        |  60,000 |   60,000
+  "   wire annealed     |  80,000 |   ......
+  "   crucible          | 180,000 |   ......
+Tin                     |   3,800 |    6,000
+------------------------+---------+-------------
+
+FREEZING MIXTURES
+
+===============================================+=======================
+                                               |Temperature Changes
+                                               |in Degrees Fahrenheit
+                                               +---------+------------
+          Mixtures                             | From    |   To
+-----------------------------------------------+---------+------------
+Common salt, 1 part; snow, 3 parts             |   32    | zero .0
+Common salt, 1 part; snow 1 part               |   32    |     -.4
+Calcium chloride, 3 parts; snow 1 part         |   32    |     -27
+Calcium chloride, 2 parts; snow 1 part         |   32    |     -44
+Sal ammoniac, 5 parts; salt-peter 5 parts;     |         |
+  water 16 parts.                              |   50    |     -10
+Sal ammoniac, 1 part; salt-peter 1 part;       |         |
+  water 1 part                                 |   46    |     -11
+Ammonium nitrate, 1 part; water 1 part         |   50    |      -3
+Potassium hydrate, 4 parts; snow 3 parts       |   32    |     -35
+-----------------------------------------------+---------+------------
+
+IGNITION TEMPERATURES.
+
+Phosphorus                 120 degrees Fahrenheit
+Bi-sulphide of carbon      300    "        "
+Gun-cotton                 430    "        "
+Nitro-glycerine            490    "        "
+Phosphorus, amorphous      500    "        "
+Rifle powder               550    "        "
+Charcoal                   660    "        "
+Dry pine wood              800    "        "
+Oak                        900    "        "
+
+POWER AND HEAT EQUIVALENTS.
+
+In studying matters pertaining to power and heat, certain terms are
+used, such as horsepower, horsepower-hours, watts, watt-hours, kilowatt,
+kilowatt-hours, foot-pounds, joule, and B. T. U. (British Thermal Unit).
+
+The following tables give a comprehensive idea of the values of the
+different terms:
+
+1 Horsepower-hour = 0.746 kilowatt-hour = 1,980,000 foot-pounds
+                    of water evaporated at 212 degrees Fahrenheit,
+                    raised from 62 degrees to 212 degrees.
+
+1 Kilowatt-hour   = 1,000 watt-hours = 1.34 horse-power-hours
+                    = 2,653,200 foot-pounds = 3,600,000 joules
+                    = 3,420 B. T. U. = 3.54 pounds of water evaporated
+                    at 212 degrees = 22.8 pounds of water raised from
+                    62 to 212 degrees.
+
+1 Horsepower      = 746 watts = 0.746 kilowatts.= 33,000 foot-pounds
+                    per second = 2,550 B. T. U. per min. = 0.71
+                    B. T. U. per second = 2.64 pounds of water
+                    evaporated per hour at 212 degrees.
+
+1 Kilowatt        = 1,000 watts = 1.34 horsepower = 2,653,200
+                    foot-pounds per hour = 44,220 foot-pounds per
+                    min. = 737 foot-pounds per second = 3,420
+                    B. T. U. per hour = 57 B. T. U. per min. = 0.95
+                    B. T. U. per second = 3.54 pounds of water
+                    evaporated per hour at 212.
+
+1 Watt            = 1 joule per second = 0.00134 horse-power = 0.001
+                    kilowatt = 342 B. T. U. per hour = 44.22
+                    foot-pounds per min. = 0.74 foot-pounds per second
+                    = 0.0035 pounds of water evaporated per hour at
+                    212 degrees.
+
+1 B. T. U. (British Thermal Unit) = 1,052 watt-seconds = 778
+                    foot-pounds = 0.252 calorie = 0.000292
+                    kilowatt-hours = 0.000391 horsepower-hour
+                    = 0.00104 pounds of water evaporated at 212
+                    degrees.
+
+1 Foot-pound      = 1.36 joule = 0.000000377 kilowatt-hour =
+                    0.00129 B. T. U. = 0.0000005 horsepower-hour.
+
+1 Joule           = 1 watt-second = 0.000000278 kilowatt-hour =
+                    0.00095 B. T. U. = 0.74 foot-pounds.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+INVENTIONS AND PATENTS, AND INFORMATION ABOUT THE RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF
+INVENTORS AND WORKMEN
+
+
+There is no trade or occupation which calls forth the inventive faculty
+to a greater degree than the machinist's. Whether it be in the direction
+of making some new tool, needed in some special work, or in devising a
+particular movement, or mechanical expedient, the machinist must be
+prepared to meet the issues and decide on the best structural
+arrangement.
+
+Opportunities also come daily to the workers in machine shops to a
+greater extent than other artisans, because inventors in every line
+bring inventions to them to be built and experimentally tested.
+
+A knowledge of the rights and duties of inventors, and of the men who
+build the models, is very desirable; and for your convenience we append
+the following information:
+
+The inventor of a device is he who has conceived an idea and has put it
+into some concrete form.
+
+A mere idea is not an invention.
+
+The article so conceived and constructed, must be both _new_ and
+_useful_. There must be some utility. It may be simply a toy, or
+something to amuse.
+
+If A has an idea, and he employs and pays B to work out the device, and
+put it into practical shape, A is the inventor, although B may have
+materially modified, or even wholly changed it. B is simply the agent or
+tool to bring it to perfection, and his pay for doing the work is his
+compensation.
+
+An inventor has two years' time within which he may apply for a patent,
+after he has completed his device and begun the sale of it. If he sells
+the article for more than two years before applying for a patent, this
+will bar a grant.
+
+Two or more inventors may apply for a patent, provided each has
+contributed something toward bringing it to its perfected state. Each
+cannot apply separately. The patent issued will be owned by them
+jointly.
+
+Joint owners of a patent are not partners, unless they have signed
+partnership papers respecting the patent. Because they are partners in
+some other enterprise, disconnected from the patent, that does not
+constitute them partners in the patent. They are merely joint owners.
+
+If they have no special agreement with respect to the patent each can
+grant licenses to manufacture, independently of the others, without
+being compelled to account to the others, and each has a right to sell
+his interest without asking permission of the others.
+
+An _inventor_ is one who has devised an invention. A _patentee_ is one
+who owns a patent, or an interest in one, be he the inventor or not.
+
+The United States government does not grant Caveats. The only protection
+offered is by way of patent.
+
+A patent runs for a period of seventeen years, and may be renewed by act
+of Congress only, for a further term of seven years.
+
+An interference is a proceeding in the Patent Office to determine who is
+the first inventor of a device. The following is a brief statement of
+the course followed:
+
+When two or more applicants have applications pending, which, in the
+opinion of the Examiner, appear to be similar, the Office may declare an
+interference.
+
+If an applicant has an application pending, and the Examiner rejects it
+on reference to a patent already issued, the applicant may demand an
+interference, and the Office will then grant a hearing to determine
+which of the two is entitled to the patent.
+
+The first step, after the declaration of interference, is to request
+that each applicant file a preliminary statement, under oath, in which
+he must set forth the following:
+
+First: The date of conception of the invention.
+
+Second: Date of the first reduction to writing, or the preparation of
+drawings.
+
+Third: Date of making of the first model or device.
+
+Fourth: When a complete machine was first produced.
+
+These statements are filed in the Patent Office, and opened on the same
+day, and times are then set for the respective parties to take
+testimony.
+
+If one of the parties was the first to conceive and reduce to practice,
+as well as the first to file his application, he will be adjudged to be
+the first inventor, without necessitating the taking of testimony.
+
+If, on the other hand, one was the first to conceive, and the other the
+first to file, then testimony will be required to determine the question
+of invention.
+
+The granting of a patent is not conclusive that the patentee was, in
+reality, the first inventor. The law is that the patent must issue to
+the _first_ inventor, and if it can be proven that another party was the
+first, a new patent will issue to the one who thus establishes his
+right. The Commissioner of Patents has no right to take away the patent
+first issued. Only the Courts are competent to do this.
+
+A patent is granted for the right to _make_, to _use_ and to _vend_.
+
+An owner of a patent cannot sell the right only to make, or to sell, or
+to use. Such a document would be a simple license, only, for that
+particular purpose.
+
+A patent may be sold giving a divided, or an undivided right.
+
+A divided right is where a State, or any other particular territorial
+right is granted. An undivided right is a quarter, or a half, or some
+other portion in the patent itself.
+
+If an inventor assigns his invention, and states in the granting clause
+that he conveys "all his right and title in and to the invention," or
+words to that effect, he conveys all his rights throughout the world.
+
+If the conveyance says, "all rights and title in and throughout the
+United States," he thereby reserves all other countries.
+
+If a patent is issued, and the number and date of the patent are given,
+the assignment conveys the patent for the United States only, unless
+foreign countries are specifically mentioned.
+
+To convey an invention or patent, some definite number or filing date
+must be given in the document, with sufficient clearness and certainty
+to show the intent of the assignor.
+
+An invention does not depend on quantity, but on quality. It is that
+which produces a new and a useful _result_.
+
+In the United States patents are granted for the purpose of promoting
+the useful arts and sciences.
+
+In England, and in many other foreign countries, patents are granted,
+not on account of any merit on the part of the inventor, but as a favor
+of the crown, or sovereign.
+
+Originally patents were granted by the crown for the exclusive privilege
+in dealing in any commodity, and for this right a royal fee was exacted.
+>From this fact the term _royalty_ originated.
+
+An international agreement is now in force among nearly all countries,
+which respects the filing of an application in any country, for a period
+of one year in the other countries.
+
+In making an application for a patent, a petition is required, a
+specification showing its object, use, and particular construction,
+followed by a claim, or claims, and accompanied by a drawing, if the
+invention will permit of it, (which must be made in black, with India
+ink), and an oath.
+
+The oath requires the following assertions: That the applicant is the
+first and original inventor of the device, and that he does not know
+and does not believe the same was ever known or used before his
+invention or more than two years before his application.
+
+He must also further allege that the invention was not patented or
+described in any printed publication here or abroad, and not
+manufactured more than two years prior to the application, and that he
+has not made an application, nor authorized any one to do so more than
+two years prior to his application.
+
+The first Government fee is $15, payable at the time of filing, and the
+second and final fee is $20, payable at the time the patent is ordered
+to issue.
+
+The filing of an application for patent is a secret act, and the Patent
+Office will not give any information to others concerning it, prior to
+the issue of the patent.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY OF WORDS
+
+USED IN TEXT OF THIS VOLUME
+
+
+Abrupt.          Suddenly; coming without warning.
+
+Abrasive.        A material which wears away.
+
+Actuate.         Influenced, as by sudden motive; incited to action.
+
+Accumulate.      To bring together; to amass; to collect.
+
+Acoustics.       The branch of physics which treats of sound.
+
+Adhesion.        To hold together; a molecular force by means of
+                 which particles stick together.
+
+Affinity.        Any natural drawing together; the property or force
+                 in chemicals to move toward each other.
+
+Aggravate.       To incite; to make worse or more burdensome.
+
+Alloy.           A combination of two or more metals.
+
+Altitude.        Height; a vertical distance above any point.
+
+Alkali.          Any substance which will neutralize an acid, as lime,
+                 magnesia, and the like.
+
+Amalgam.         Any compound of metal which has mercury as one
+                 of the elements.
+
+Amiss.           Wrong, fault, misdeed.
+
+Annealing.       A process of gradually heating and cooling metals,
+                 whereby hardness and toughness are brought about.
+
+Angle plate.     A metal structure which has two bodies, or limbs,
+                 at right angles to each other.
+
+Analysis.        The separating of substances into their elementary
+                 forms.
+
+Anchor bolt.     A structure intended to be placed in a hole in a wall,
+                 and held there by a brew which expands a part
+                 of the structure.
+
+Apprentice.      One who is learning a trade or occupation.
+
+Artificial.      That which resembles the original; made in imitation
+                 of.
+
+Arbor.           A shaft, spindle, mandrel, or axle.
+
+Armature.        A metallic body within the magnetic field of a magnet.
+
+Arbitrary.       Stubborn determination. Doing a thing without regard
+                 to consequences.
+
+Artisan.         One skilled in any mechanical art.
+
+Attributable.    That which belongs to or is associated with.
+
+Automatically.   Operating by its own structure, or without outside
+                 aid.
+
+Augmented.       Added to; to increase.
+
+Auxiliary.       To aid; giving or furnishing aid.
+
+Avoirdupois.     The system of weights, of which the unit is sixteen
+                 ounces.
+
+Back-saw.        A saw which has a rib at its upper margin.
+
+Barleycorn.      A grain of barley.
+
+Bastard.         A coarse-grained file.
+
+B. T. U.         British Thermal Unit.
+
+Back-gear.       That gear on a lathe for changing the feed.
+
+Bevel.           Not in a right line; slanting; oblique.
+
+Bibb.            A form of water faucet.
+
+Bit, or bitt.    A form of tool for cutting purposes on a lathe, planer,
+                 shaper, or drilling machine.
+
+Borax.           A white crystalline compound, of a sweetish taste.
+                 Chemically it is sodium biborate.
+
+Buffs.           Usually a wheel covered with leather or cloth, and
+                 having emery dust on it, for fine polishing purposes.
+
+Buffeted.        Thrown back.
+
+Bronze.          An alloy of copper and tin.
+
+Calcium.         Lime.
+
+Cant.            A form of lever.
+
+Carbonate.       A salt of carbonic acid.
+
+Caustic.         Capable of corroding or eating away.
+
+Capillary.       That quality of a liquid which causes it to move
+                 upwardly or along a solid with which it is in contact.
+
+Caliper.         An instrument for spanning inside and outside
+                 dimensions.
+
+Centripetal.     The force which tends to draw inwardly, or to the
+                 center.
+
+Centrifugal.     The outwardly-moving force from a body.
+
+Centering.       To form a point equidistant from a circular line.
+
+Chloride.        A compound of chlorine with one or more positive
+                 elements, such as, for instance, salt.
+
+Circular pitch.  The measurement around a gear taken at a point
+                 midway between the base and end of the teeth.
+
+Circumference.   The outside of a circular body.
+
+Clef.            A character placed on a staff of music to determine
+                 the pitch.
+
+Clutch.          A mechanical element for attaching one part to another.
+
+Chuck, Independent. A disk of metal to be attached to the live spindle
+                 of a lathe, and which has on its face a set of dogs
+                 which move radially independently of each other.
+
+Chuck, Universal. A disk to be attached as above, provided with dogs
+                 which are connected so they move radially in unison
+                 with each other.
+
+Classified.      Arranged in order, in such a manner that each of a
+                 kind is placed under a suitable heading.
+
+Clearance.       To provide a space behind the cutting edge of a tool
+                 which will not touch the work being cut.
+
+Consistency.     Harmonious; not contradictory.
+
+Coherer.         That instrument in a wireless telegraphy apparatus
+                 which detects the electrical impulses.
+
+Commutator.      The cylindrical structure on the end of an armature,
+                 which is designed to change the polarity of the
+                 current.
+
+Concentrated.    Brought together at one point.
+
+Coinage.         The system of making money from metals.
+
+Compound.        The unity of two or more elements.
+
+Constant.        Being insistent and consistent; also a term to be
+                 used in a problem which never varies.
+
+Conversion.      The change from one state to another.
+
+Cone.            A body larger at one end than at another; usually
+                 applied to a form which is cylindrical in shape
+                 but tapering, from end to end.
+
+Compression.     The bringing together of particles, or molecules.
+
+Convolute.       A spiral form of winding, like a watch spring.
+
+Coiled.          A form of winding, like a string wound around a
+                 bobbin.
+
+Conductivity.    Applied generally to the quality of material which
+                 will carry a current of electricity; also a quality
+                 of a material to convey heat.
+
+Cohesion.        The force by which the molecules of the same kind
+                 are held together.
+
+Concentric.      A line which is equidistant at all points from a
+                 center.
+
+Confined.        Held within certain bounds.
+
+Corpuscular.     Molecular or atomic form.
+
+Converge.        To come together from all points.
+
+Concave.         A surface which is depressed or sunken.
+
+Convex.          A surface which is raised, or projects beyond the
+                 surface of the edges.
+
+Component.       One of the elements in a problem or in a compound.
+
+Coefficient.     A number indicating the degree or quality possessed
+                 by a substance. An invariable unit.
+
+Cube.            A body having six equal sides.
+
+Cross-section.   A term used to designate that line which is at right
+                 angles to the line running from the view point.
+
+Cross slide.     The metal plate on a lathe which holds the tool post,
+                 and which is controlled, usually, by a screw.
+
+Contiguous.      Close to; near at hand.
+
+Countersink.     The depression around a bore.
+
+Collet.          A collar, clutch or clamping piece, which has jaws
+                 to hold a bar or rod.
+
+Countershaft.    A shaft which has thereon pulleys or gears to connect
+                 operatively with the gears or pulleys on a
+                 machine, and change the speed.
+
+Conducive.       Tending to; promotive of a result.
+
+Corundum.        An extremely hard aluminum oxide used for polishing.
+
+Cold chisel.     A term applied to an extremely hard chisel used for
+                 cutting and chipping metal.
+
+Combustion.      The action or operation of burning.
+
+Conjunctively.   Acting together.
+
+Comparatively.   Similitude or resemblance, one with another.
+
+Cotter.          A key to prevent a wheel turning on its shaft.
+
+Dead center.     A term used to designate the inoperative point of
+                 the crank.
+
+Depicting.       Showing; setting forth.
+
+Deodorant.       A substance which will decompose odors.
+
+Developer.       A chemical which will bring out the picture in making
+                 the film or plate in photography.
+
+Decimeter.       The length of one-tenth of a meter in the metric
+                 system.
+
+Decameter.       The length of ten meters in the metric system.
+
+Defective.       Not perfect; wrong in some particular.
+
+Diaphragm.       A plate, such as used in a telephone system, to receive
+                 and transmit vibrations.
+
+Dissolving.      To change from a solid to a liquid condition.
+
+Division plate.  A perforated plate in a gear-cutting machine, to aid
+                 in dividing the teeth of a wheel.
+
+Dispelled.       To drive away or scatter.
+
+Disinfectant.    A material which will destroy harmful germs.
+
+Diametral pitch. The number of teeth in a gear as calculated on the
+                 pitch line.
+
+Dimension.       Measurement; size.
+
+Ductility.       That property of metal which permits it to be drawn
+                 out, or worked.
+
+Dividers.        An instrument, like a compass, for stepping off
+                 measurements, or making circles.
+
+Diverge.         Spreading out from a common point.
+
+Drift.           A cutting tool for smoothing a hole in a piece of
+                 metal.
+
+Duplex.          Two; double.
+
+Dynamite.        An explosive composed of an absorbent, like earth,
+                 combined with nitro-glycerine.
+
+Dynamometer.     An instrument for measuring power developed.
+
+Eccentric.       Out of center.
+
+Echoes.          The reflection of sound.
+
+Effervesce.      The action due to the unity of two opposite chemicals.
+
+Efficiency.      The term applied to the quality of effectiveness.
+
+Ellipse.         A form which is oblong, or having a shape, more or
+                 less, like the longitudinal section of an egg.
+
+Electrolytic.    The action of a current of water passing through a
+                 liquid, and decomposing it, and carrying elements
+                 from one electrode to the other.
+
+Elasticity.      The quality in certain substances to be drawn out
+                 of their normal shape, and by virtue of which they
+                 will resume their original form when released.
+
+Embedded.        To be placed within a body or substance.
+
+Emerge.          To come out of.
+
+Emphasize.       To lay particular stress upon.
+
+Emery.           A hard substance, usually some of the finely divided
+                 precious stones, and used for polishing and grinding
+                 purposes.
+
+Enormous.        A large amount; great in size.
+
+Enunciated.      Proclaimed; given out.
+
+Equalization.    To put on an even basis; to make the same
+                 comparatively.
+
+Eradicator.      To take out; to cause to disappear.
+
+Escapement.      A piece of mechanism devised for the purpose of giving
+                 a uniform rate of speed to the movement of
+                 wheels.
+
+Essential.       The important feature; the principal thing.
+
+Expansion.       To enlarge; growing greater.
+
+Equidistant.     The same distance from a certain point.
+
+Evolved.         Brought out of; the result of certain considerations.
+
+Facet.           A face.
+
+Facilitated.     Made easy.
+
+Flux.            Any substance which will aid in uniting material under
+                 heat. The act of uniting.
+
+Fluid.           Any substance in which the particles freely interchange
+                 positions.
+
+Flour emery.     Emery which is finely ground.
+
+Flexible.        The quality of any material which will permit bending.
+
+Float cut.       The term when applied to a tool where the cut is an
+                 easy one.
+
+Flexure.         The springing yield in a substance.
+
+Foot pound.      A unit, usually determined by the number of pounds
+                 raised one foot in one second of time. 550 pounds
+                 raised one foot in one second of time, means so
+                 many foot pounds.
+
+Formulate.       To arrange; to put in order from a certain
+                 consideration of things.
+
+Focus.           The center of a circle.
+
+Foci.            One of the points of an ellipse.
+
+Formation.       The structure of a machine or of a compound.
+
+Fractured.       Broken.
+
+Fundamental.     Basis; the first form; the original structure.
+
+Fulcrum.         The resting place for a lever.
+
+Fusion.          Melting. The change of a metal from a solid to a liquid
+                 state by heat.
+
+Fusible.         That which is capable of being melted.
+
+Fulminate.       A substance that will ignite or explode by heat or
+                 friction.
+
+Gamut.           The scale of sound or light, or vibrations of any kind.
+
+Gear.            A toothed wheel of any kind.
+
+Gelatine.        A tasteless transparent substance obtained from animal
+                 tissues.
+
+Globular.        Having the form of a globe or ball.
+
+Glazed.          Having a glossary appearance.
+
+Graphite.        A metallic, iron-black variety of carbon.
+
+Graduated.       To arrange in steps; a regular order or series.
+
+Grinder.         Any mechanism which abrades or wears down a substance.
+
+Gullet.          The curved notches or grooves between projecting parts
+                 of mechanism.
+
+Harmonizing.     To make the various parts act together in unison.
+
+H. P.            The symbol for horse power.
+
+Helico.          A form resembling that of the threads of a screw.
+
+Hexagon.         Six-sided.
+
+Heliograph.      The system of signaling by using flashlights.
+
+Horizontal.      Things level with the surface of the earth; like the
+                 surface of water.
+
+Hydrogen.        The lightest of all the elements. A tasteless,
+                 colorless substance.
+
+Import.          To bear, or convey as a meaning.
+
+Impulse.         The application of an impelling force.
+
+Impact.          A collision; striking against.
+
+Invariably.      Constant; without failing.
+
+Inertia.         The quality of all materials to remain at rest, or to
+                 continue in motion, unless acted on by some external
+                 force.
+
+Intersect.       To divide at a certain point. The crossing point of one
+                 line over another.
+
+Interval.        A space; a distance between.
+
+Intensity.       Strained or exerted to a high degree.
+
+Interstices.     The spaces between the molecules or atoms in a
+                 substance.
+
+Intermediate.    Between.
+
+Intermeshing.    The locking together of gear wheels.
+
+Internal.        That which is within.
+
+Inability.       Unable to perform or do.
+
+Initial.         The first; at the start.
+
+Increment.       One of the parts which go to make up the whole.
+
+Inference.       Drawing a conclusion from a certain state of things.
+
+Insoluble.       A substance which cannot be liquefied by a liquid.
+
+Indentations.    Recesses, or cut-out parts or places.
+
+Induction.       The movement of electricity through the air from
+                 one conductor to another.
+
+Inflammable.     That which will burn.
+
+Inclining.       At an angle; sloping.
+
+Inconsequential. Not of much importance.
+
+Isometric.       That view of a figure which will give the relation
+                 of all the parts in their proper proportions.
+
+Jaw.             The grasping part of a vise, or other tool.
+
+Joule.           The practical unit of electrical energy.
+
+Key-way.         A groove in a shaft and in the hub of a wheel, to
+                 receive therein a locking key.
+
+Kilowatt.        A unit of electrical power; one thousand watts.
+
+Kinetic.         Consisting of motion.
+
+Lacing.          The attaching of the ends of a belt to each other.
+
+Lap.             A tool, usually of copper or lead, on which flour emery
+                 is spread, with oil, and used to grind out the interior
+                 of cylinders.
+
+Lapping.         The act of using a lap to grind out cylinders.
+
+Lacquer.         A varnish for either wood or metal.
+
+Lazy-tongs.      A form of tool, by means of which a long range of
+                 movement is attainable, and great grasp of power.
+
+Levigated.       Reduced to a fine powder.
+
+Litharge.        A form of lead used in paints for drying purposes.
+
+Longitudinal.    Lengthwise.
+
+Luminous.        That which has the capacity to light up.
+
+Magnet.          A bar of iron or steel that has electricity in it
+                 capable of attracting certain metals.
+
+Manipulation.    Capable of being handled.
+
+Mandrel.         The revolving part of a lathe; a rod or bar which
+                 turns and carries mechanical elements thereon.
+
+Manually.        Operated by hand.
+
+Margin.          An edge.
+
+Malleability.    Softness. The state of being formed by hammering.
+
+Magnetism.       A quality of certain metals to receive and hold a
+                 charge of electricity.
+
+Major axis.      The measurement across the longest part of an ellipse.
+
+Minor axis.      The distance across the narrowest part of an ellipse.
+
+Meridian.        The time when the sun crosses the middle of the
+                 heavens; midday.
+
+Metric.          Measure; a system which takes the unit of its
+                 measurement from the circumference of the earth.
+
+Micrometer.      A tool for measuring small spaces or intervals.
+
+Milling machine. A large tool for the purpose of cutting gears and
+                 grooves or surfaces.
+
+Miter.           A meeting surface between two right-angled pieces.
+
+Momentum.        That quality of matter which is the combined energy
+                 of mass and speed.
+
+Molecular.       Any substance that is made up of any particles; the
+                 component elements in any substance.
+
+Modifications.   Changes; improved arrangements.
+
+Multiplicity.    Many; numerous; a large quantity.
+
+Mutilated.       As applied to a gear, one in which certain teeth are
+                 removed.
+
+Nautical.        Marine; applied to shipping, and the like.
+
+Neutralizes.     Any substance, like a chemical, which, when added
+                 to another chemical, will change them both.
+
+Nitro-glycerine. An explosive made from glycerine and nitrogen.
+
+Oblique.         At an angle; inclined.
+
+Obliterate.      To wipe out.
+
+Obvious.         That which can be seen; easily observed.
+
+Obtuse.          A blunt angle; not noticeable.
+
+Odophone.        An instrument for determining and testing odors.
+
+Olfactory.       The nerves of the sense of smell.
+
+Orifice.         An opening; a hole.
+
+Oscillation.     A movement to and fro, like a pendulum.
+
+Oxygen.          The most universal gas, colorless and tasteless; is
+                 called the acid-maker of the universe and unites
+                 with all known substances, producing an acid, an
+                 alkali, or a neutral compound.
+
+Oxidizing.       To impart to any substance the elements of oxygen.
+
+Oxide.           Any substance which has oxygen added to it.
+
+Pallet.          A part of a tooth or finger which acts on the teeth
+                 of a wheel.
+
+Parallel.        Lines or sides at equal distance from each other from
+                 end to end.
+
+Paraffine.       A light-colored substance, produced from refined
+                 petroleum.
+
+Perimeter.       The outer margin of a wheel; the bounding line of any
+                 figure of two dimensions.
+
+Periphery.       The outer side of a wheel.
+
+Peen.            The nailing end of a hammer.
+
+Persistence.     That quality of all matter to continue on in its
+                 present condition.
+
+Perpendicular.   A line drawn at right angles to another.
+
+Perpetual.       Without end.
+
+Perspective.     A view of an object which takes in all parts at one
+                 side.
+
+Physically.      Pertaining to the body.
+
+Phonautograph.   An apparatus for recording sound.
+
+Phonograph.      An apparatus for taking and sending forth sound
+                 vibration.
+
+Phenomena.       Any occurrence in nature out of the ordinary.
+
+Pitman.          The rod or bar which connects the piston and crank.
+
+Pivot.           A point or bar on which anything turns.
+
+Pinion.          A small toothed wheel.
+
+Pitch.           The number of vibrations. The term used to give the
+                 number of teeth in a wheel.
+
+Pitch diameter.  The point from which the measurements are made in
+                 determining the pitch.
+
+Pivoted.         A bar, lever, or other mechanical element, arranged to
+                 turn on or about a point.
+
+Plastic.         A substance in such a state that it may be kneaded or
+                 worked.
+
+Planer.          A large tool designed to cut or face off wood or metal.
+
+Porosity.        The quality in all substances to have interstices,
+                 or points of separation, between the molecules.
+
+Potential.       The power.
+
+Properties.      The qualities possessed by all elements.
+
+Projecting.      The throwing forward. The sending out.
+
+Promulgated.     Put forth; enunciated.
+
+Protractor.      A mechanic's and draughtsman's tool by means of
+                 which angles may be formed.
+
+Promote.         To carry forward in a systematic way.
+
+Precision.       Work done with care; observing correct measurements.
+
+Prony brake.     A machine for determining horse power.
+
+Punch.           A small tool to be struck by a hammer in order to
+                 make an impression or indentation.
+
+Quadrant.        One-fourth of a circle.
+
+Quadrant plate.  A plate on which are placed lines and numbers
+                 indicating degrees.
+
+Quadruplex.      A term to designate that system of telegraphy in
+                 which four messages are sent over a single wire at
+                 the same time.
+
+Ratchet.         A wheel having teeth at certain intervals to catch
+                 the end of a pawl or finger.
+
+Ratchet brace.   A tool to hold a drill, having a reversible ratchet
+                 wheel.
+
+Rasp cut.        A cut of a file which is rough, not smooth.
+
+Rake.            The angle or inclination of the upper surface of the
+                 cutting tool of a lathe.
+
+Reverse.         To turn about; in the opposite direction.
+
+Reciprocating.   To go back and forth.
+
+Revolve.         To move in an orbit or circle, as a merry-go-round.
+
+Reciprocity.     To give back in like measure.
+
+Reflection.      The throwing back from a surface.
+
+Resonance.       The quality of vibration which adds to the original
+                 movement, and aids in perpetuating the sound.
+
+Refraction.      The quality of light which causes it to bend in passing
+                 through different substances.
+
+Reducing.        Bringing it down to a smaller compass.
+
+Rectilinear.     A straight line.
+
+Retort.          A furnace of refractory material to take high heat.
+
+Reamer.          A tool designed to enlarge or to smooth out holes.
+
+Regulation.      To do things in an orderly way; a system which sets
+                 forth certain requirements.
+
+Refractory.      Difficult to work, and not easily fused.
+
+Recess.          A hole, or a depression.
+
+Rocking.         A lever which rotates only part way and then moves in
+                 the opposite direction.
+
+Rotate.          A spindle which turns round. Compare revolve.
+
+Rosin.           Certain gums; particularly the sap of pine trees.
+
+Roughing.        The taking off of the first coating with a tool.
+
+Saturated.       A soluble substance which cannot be further dissolved
+                 by a liquid.
+
+Scribe.          To mark with a tool.
+
+Screw plate.     A tool which has within it means for adjusting
+                 different cutting tools.
+
+Section lining.  The marks made diagonally across drawings to indicate
+                 that the part is cut away.
+
+Shaper.          A large tool for surfacing off material, cutting
+                 grooves, and the like.
+
+Shrinkage.       The term applied to metals when cast, as all will be
+                 smaller when cold than when cast in the mold.
+
+Slide rest.      The part of the lathe which holds the tool post.
+
+Sonorous.        Having the quality of vibration.
+
+Slotted.         Grooved, or channeled.
+
+Solvent.         That which can be changed from a solid by liquids.
+
+Spelter.         A combination of zinc and copper. A hard solder.
+
+Soldering.       Uniting of two substances by a third, with heat.
+
+Spindle.         A small shaft.
+
+Spur.            The larger of two intermeshing gears.
+
+Socket.          A depression or hole.
+
+Sprocket.        Teeth in a wheel to receive a chain.
+
+Spiral.          A form wound like the threads of a screw.
+
+Surface plate.   A true surface made of metal, used as a means of
+                 determining evenness of the article made.
+
+Sulphate.        Any substance which is modified by sulphuric acid.
+
+Substitute.      An element or substance used for another.
+
+Superposed.      One placed above the other.
+
+Swage.           Tool for the purpose of changing the form in a
+                 material.
+
+Swivel.          A point on which another turns.
+
+Surfacing.       Taking off the outer coating or covering.
+
+Tap.             A small drill.
+
+Tapering.        An object with the sides out of parallel.
+
+Tangential.      A line from the periphery of a circle which projects
+                 out at an angle.
+
+Tension.         The exertion of a force.
+
+Tenacity.        The property of a material to hang together.
+
+Tempering.       Putting metal in such condition that it will be not
+                 only hard but tough as well.
+
+Technical.       Pertaining to the strict forms and terms of an art.
+
+Texture.         That of which the element or substance is composed.
+
+Threads.         The ridges, spiral in form, which run around a bolt.
+
+Theoretically.   The speculative form or belief in a subject.
+
+Tinned.          The term applied to the coating on a soldering iron
+                 with a fluxed metal.
+
+Tines.           Small blades.
+
+Torsion.         The force exerted around an object, like the action of
+                 a crank on a shaft.
+
+Tommy.           A lever to be inserted in a hole in a screw head for
+                 turning a screw.
+
+Transmitting.    Sending forth; to forward.
+
+Trammel.         A tool for the purpose of drawing ellipses.
+
+Traction.        Drawing; pulling power.
+
+Tripping.        A motion applied to a finger, which holds a pivoted
+                 arm, whereby the latter may be swung from its
+                 locked position.
+
+Triangular.      Having three sides and three angles.
+
+Transverse.      Across; at right angles to the long direction.
+
+Undercut.        A wall of a groove or recess which is sloping.
+
+Undulatory.      A wave-like motion, applied generally to light and
+                 electricity.
+
+Unit.            A base for calculating from.
+
+Unison.          Acting together; as one.
+
+Unsized.         Generally applied to the natural condition of paper
+                 or fabric which has no glue or other fixing substance
+                 on it.
+
+Vaporising.      To change from a liquid or solid to a gas.
+
+Variation.       Changing into different conditions; unlike forms.
+
+Verge.           The edge; usually applied to the shoulder of a watch
+                 spindle, particularly to the escapement.
+
+Vertical.        Up and down. The direction of a plumb line.
+
+Velocity.        The speed of an article through space.
+
+Vitascope.       An instrument for determining the rate of vibration of
+                 different substances.
+
+Vibration.       The movement to and fro of all elements, and by means
+                 of which we are made sensitive of the different forces.
+
+Vocation.        The business or the calling of a person.
+
+Warding.         The act of cutting a projection or guard, such as is
+                 usually found on the insides of locks, and the
+                 correspondent detent in the key.
+
+Watt.            In electricity the unit of the rate of working in a
+                 circuit.  It is the electro-motive force of one volt
+                 and the current intensity of one ampere.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+(Figures indicate the pages)
+
+
+A
+
+Acetone, 165.
+
+Acid, 119, 120, 156, 168.
+
+Acid, Acetic, 165.
+
+Acid, Carbolic, 166.
+
+Acid, Hydrofluoric, 170.
+
+Acid, Muriatic, 119.
+
+Acid, Nitric, 168, 169, 171, 173.
+
+Acid, Oxalic, 172.
+
+Acid, Pyrogallic, 172.
+
+Acid, Sulphuric, 169.
+
+Acoustics, 87, 157.
+
+Adhesives, 162.
+
+Affinity, 83, 86.
+
+Agate, 82.
+
+Air, 84.
+
+Alcohol, 165, 166, 169, 170, 176, 183.
+
+Alloy, 81, 115, 116, 118, 119, 149, 175.
+
+Alum, 149, 166, 172.
+
+Aluminum, 38, 41, 42, 60, 82, 149, 164, 166, 169, 170, 174, 175, 176,
+          184.
+
+Amalgams, 149.
+
+Amber, 170.
+
+Ambergris, 159.
+
+Ammonia, 166, 170.
+
+Ammonium Nitrate, 185.
+
+Ammonium Sulphate, 168, 171.
+
+Analysis, 93.
+
+Analyzed, 159.
+
+Angle cutting, 30.
+
+Angle plate, 10.
+
+Angles, 31, 39, 59, 72, 102, 103, 104, 107, 152.
+
+Aniline, 176.
+
+Annatto, 168, 170.
+
+Annealing, 112, 113, 114, 115.
+
+Annular, 67.
+
+Anvils, 14, 15, 16.
+
+Apothecaries, 180.
+
+Application for patent, 191.
+
+Arbor, 14.
+
+Arc, 146.
+
+Area, 148.
+
+Armature, 153.
+
+Arrow root, 150.
+
+Artisan, 112.
+
+Asbestos, 168.
+
+Asphalt, 14, 175.
+
+Assign, 191, 193.
+
+Assignment, 192.
+
+Atom, 157.
+
+Attraction, 86.
+
+Avoirdupois, 180.
+
+Axis, 106, 127.
+
+Axis, major, 105.
+
+Axis, minor, 105, 106.
+
+
+B
+
+Ball, 75.
+
+Ball and Socket, 74.
+
+Balsam Peru, 168, 189, 173.
+
+Barium Chloride, 176.
+
+Bark, soap, 165.
+
+Barleycorn, 143.
+
+Barrel, 149.
+
+Base line, 102.
+
+B. T. U., 180, 181.
+
+Beeswax, 174.
+
+Bell metal, 164.
+
+Belt, 68.
+
+Belt, Lacing, 68, 69.
+
+Bench, 77, 104.
+
+Benzine, 169.
+
+Benzol, 173.
+
+Bevel, 69, 70, 125, 126.
+
+Bibb, 70.
+
+Bismuth, 118.
+
+Bisulphate of carbon, 185.
+
+Bisulphate of sodium, 172.
+
+Bitt, 28, 42.
+
+Bitts, machine, 38.
+
+Bitts, plain, 38.
+
+Bitts, round-nosed, 38.
+
+Bitts, setting, 39.
+
+Bitts, square, 38.
+
+Black, ivory, 171.
+
+Blade, hack-saw, 35, 36.
+
+Bloodstone, 173.
+
+Blue black, 173.
+
+Boiler, 150, 152.
+
+Boiler, compound, 161.
+
+Bolt, 75.
+
+Bolt, anchor, 7.
+
+Boracic acid, 168.
+
+Borax, 168, 176.
+
+Brass, 41, 43, 44, 168, 170, 174, 175, 176, 184.
+
+Bronze, 150, 164, 173, 176, 184.
+
+Bulk, 134.
+
+
+C
+
+Calcium, 166.
+
+Calcium Chloride, 185.
+
+Calipers, 37, 45, 49, 66.
+
+Calls, 160.
+
+Camphor, 164, 166, 175.
+
+Canada balsam, 172.
+
+Capillary attraction, 86, 87.
+
+Carbolic acid, 166.
+
+Carbon, 113.
+
+Carbonate, 150.
+
+Carbonate of soda, 116, 172.
+
+Carbon paper, 171.
+
+Cardinal, 102.
+
+Carbolized, 169.
+
+Cast iron, 42, 64, 81, 169, 183.
+
+Caustic soda, 106, 150.
+
+Caveat, 190.
+
+Celluloid, 164.
+
+Cement, 162, 163.
+
+Centaire, 146.
+
+Center, dead, 78.
+
+Center line, 41.
+
+Centering, 111.
+
+Centers, 62.
+
+Centimeter, 146.
+
+Centrifugal, 85.
+
+Centripetal, 85.
+
+Ceresine, 174.
+
+Chalk, 165.
+
+Channel, 71.
+
+Charcoal, 113, 167, 185.
+
+Chemical, 83, 157, 180.
+
+Chisels, drifting, 32.
+
+Chisels, key-way, 32.
+
+Chisels, square, 53.
+
+Chlorate of potash, 167, 169, 170.
+
+Chloride of lime, 165.
+
+Chloride of platinum, 173.
+
+Chloride of tin, 119.
+
+Chloride of zinc, 163, 176.
+
+Chloral hydrate, 169.
+
+Chloroform, 163.
+
+Chromate of potash, 169, 170.
+
+Chuck, 54.
+
+Chuck, independent, 64.
+
+Chuck, universal, 64.
+
+Circle, 96, 106, 107, 111, 148, 169.
+
+Circuit, 153, 154.
+
+Circular pitch, 122, 124, 125.
+
+Circumference, 148.
+
+Citric, 165.
+
+Clamp, 77.
+
+Clay, 164, 185.
+
+Clearance, 30, 38, 40.
+
+Clef, 159.
+
+Clutches, 74.
+
+Coal, 139.
+
+Coherer, 154.
+
+Cohesion, 50, 83.
+
+Color, 92, 157, 161.
+
+Combination, 136, 156.
+
+Commutator, 155.
+
+Compass, 106.
+
+Compound, Welding, 117.
+
+Compression, 77, 84.
+
+Compressibility, 84.
+
+Concave, 92, 93.
+
+Concentric, 88.
+
+Conception, 191.
+
+Conductivity, 82.
+
+Conductor, 82, 88.
+
+Cone, 70.
+
+Conveyor, 91.
+
+Convex, 92, 96.
+
+Convolute, 78.
+
+Copal varnish, 163.
+
+Copper, 45, 60, 112, 118, 164, 170, 173, 174, 184.
+
+Corpuscular, 91.
+
+Corundum, 27.
+
+Crank, 70, 76, 78, 135.
+
+Cream of Tartar, 165, 174.
+
+Crown wheel, 70.
+
+Cryolite, 176.
+
+Cube, 97, 98, 107, 149.
+
+Current, 154, 158.
+
+Curve, 104.
+
+Cutter, side, 30.
+
+Cutting tool, 171.
+
+Cyanide of Potassium, 170.
+
+Cylinder, 39, 40, 66, 80, 90, 134, 135, 136.
+
+
+D
+
+Decameter, 146, 106, 109, 183, 187.
+
+Decimeter, 146.
+
+Declaration of Interference, 190.
+
+Degree, 40, 101, 102, 103, 104.
+
+Deodorant, 166.
+
+Dessertspoon, 151.
+
+Detail, paper, 111.
+
+Develop, 157.
+
+Developer, 172.
+
+Dextrine, 169.
+
+Diameter, 52, 126, 140, 143, 144, 148, 149, 150.
+
+Diameter, inside, 122.
+
+Diameter, outside, 122.
+
+Diameter, pitch, 122.
+
+Diametral pitch, 123, 124.
+
+Diamond, 81, 149.
+
+Diaphragm, 90, 153, 154.
+
+Disinfectant, 163.
+
+Disks, 49, 50, 67, 71, 74, 75, 82, 91, 95, 96, 105.
+
+Disk shears, 90, 153, 154.
+
+Distilled, 144, 151.
+
+Diverge, 91.
+
+Divided, 192.
+
+Dividers, 45, 52, 62, 63.
+
+Dogs, 77.
+
+Dollar, 144.
+
+Drams, 180.
+
+Drawing, 95, 97, 101, 108, 109, 129, 191.
+
+Drill, 30, 31.
+
+Drilling Machine, 43.
+
+Driver, 73.
+
+Dry measure, 182.
+
+Ductility, 80, 81.
+
+Dynamite, 167.
+
+Dynamo, 155.
+
+
+E
+
+Eccentric, 78.
+
+Echo, 89.
+
+Effervesce, 119.
+
+Elastic, 91.
+
+Elasticity, 87, 112.
+
+Electrical, 82, 153, 154, 155.
+
+Electric current, 182.
+
+Electric curves, 182.
+
+Electricity, 78, 84, 93.
+
+Electrolytic, 149.
+
+Electro-motive force, 154.
+
+Ellipse, 72, 104, 105, 106, 107.
+
+Emery, 27, 36, 150, 165, 166, 167.
+
+Emery cloth, 55.
+
+Emery wheel, 22.
+
+Energy, 140.
+
+Engine, 45, 78, 134.
+
+Equalization, 82.
+
+Escapement, 72.
+
+Ether, 91, 169.
+
+Expansion, 93.
+
+Explosions, 156, 167.
+
+
+F
+
+Facet, 52.
+
+Fahrenheit, 148, 186.
+
+Feed, longitudinal, 66.
+
+Feed, transverse, 66.
+
+Ferric chloride, 166.
+
+Filament, 160.
+
+File, cross, 57.
+
+File, cutter, 56.
+
+File, do-able end, 57, 58.
+
+File, equalizing, 57.
+
+File, float cut, 57.
+
+File, half round, 56.
+
+File, holding, 59.
+
+File, middle, 57.
+
+File, movement, 59, 80.
+
+File, pinion, 56.
+
+File, rasp cut, 57.
+
+File, rat-tail, 56.
+
+File, rough, 57.
+
+File, round, 56.
+
+File, saw, 56.
+
+File, second cut, 57.
+
+File, shearing cut, 59.
+
+File, slitting, 57.
+
+File, smooth, 57.
+
+File, square, 56.
+
+File, triangular, 56.
+
+Files, 36, 48, 50, 52, 53, 56, 59, 60, 114, 167, 168.
+
+Files, Hexagon, 51, 52.
+
+Filing, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 61.
+
+Filter paper, 171.
+
+Fire clay, 164, 165.
+
+Fish oil, 171,176.
+
+Fire proof, 168, 171.
+
+Flexure, 79.
+
+Floor dressing, 168.
+
+Fluid, 165.
+
+Fluor spar, 116.
+
+Fluxes, 115, 116, 118, 176.
+
+Focal, 106, 107.
+
+Focus, foci, 105.
+
+Foot, 145.
+
+Foot lathe, 78.
+
+Foot pounds, 139, 140, 143, 181.
+
+Force, 156, 157.
+
+Forge work, 116.
+
+Forges, 164.
+
+Formic acid, 168.
+
+Formula, 162.
+
+Freezing mixtures, 185.
+
+Friction, 70, 171.
+
+Fuel, 134, 181.
+
+Fulcrum, 76, 128, 129.
+
+Fulminate, 167.
+
+Furlong, 181.
+
+Furniture, 164.
+
+Fusible, 116.
+
+Fusion, 115.
+
+
+G
+
+Gage, 45, 46, 47, 148.
+
+Gage surface, 84, 87, 94.
+
+Gallon, 144.
+
+Gas stove, 166.
+
+Gear, 42, 69, 70, 74, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, 133, 171.
+
+Gear, bevel, 70.
+
+Gear, friction, 70.
+
+Gearing, 121.
+
+Gear, miter, 70, 123, 124, 125, 126.
+
+Gear, mutilated, 72.
+
+Gear, spur, 122.
+
+Gelatine, 162, 173.
+
+Geranium, 169.
+
+German silver, 82.
+
+Giant powder, 167.
+
+Glass, 84, 92, 112, 163, 169.
+
+Glauber salts, 164.
+
+Glazing, 72.
+
+Glue, 159, 162, 168.
+
+Glycerine, 115, 162, 165, 176.
+
+Gold, size, 173.
+
+Grain, 81.
+
+Grains, 180.
+
+Graphite, 171, 175.
+
+Gravity, 85.
+
+Grinder, 27.
+
+Grinder wheels, 36.
+
+Grindstones, 22, 36, 149.
+
+Groove, 71, 76.
+
+Gum, 163.
+
+Gum arabic, 163.
+
+Gum lac, 170.
+
+Guncotton, 188.
+
+Gunpowder, 167.
+
+
+H
+
+Hack-saw, 34, 35, 36.
+
+Hack-saw blade, 35, 36.
+
+Hammer, 81, 115, 117.
+
+Handy tables, 178.
+
+Hardness, 81, 114, 115.
+
+Harmony, 154, 158, 169, 160.
+
+Head, 135.
+
+Heat, 93, 186.
+
+Hectare, 146.
+
+Hectometer, 146.
+
+Helical, 77.
+
+Helical, double, 77.
+
+Helix-volute, 77.
+
+Hexagon, 51, 52.
+
+Horizontal, 97, 102, 106.
+
+Horse power, 139, 143, 146, 148, 186, 187.
+
+Hours, H. P., 186, 187.
+
+Hours, kilowatt, 186, 187.
+
+Hub, 74.
+
+Hub, key-way, 125.
+
+Hydrochloric acid, 172.
+
+Hydrofluoric acid, 149.
+
+Hydrogen, 83.
+
+
+I
+
+Inches, 181.
+
+Inclined plane, 123, 128.
+
+Indentation, 154.
+
+Indicator, speed, 140.
+
+Induction, 154.
+
+Inertia, 84.
+
+Injector, 152.
+
+Inks, 110.
+
+Inside diameter, 122.
+
+Instrument, 158, 159.
+
+Internal, 86, 102.
+
+International, 193.
+
+Invention, 152, 153, 161, 188, 189, 190, 192, 193, 194.
+
+Inventor, 157, 181, 190.
+
+Iron, 42, 63, 155, 162, 165, 169, 175, 184.
+
+Iron, wrought, 42, 82, 112.
+
+Isinglass, interference, 190.
+
+Isometric, 107.
+
+Ivory, 84.
+
+Ivory, black, 171.
+
+
+J
+
+Japan wax, 174.
+
+Joint, ball and socket, 74.
+
+Joint, universal, 70.
+
+Joule, 174.
+
+
+K
+
+Kerosene, 150, 165, 171.
+
+Key, 158.
+
+Key-way, 125.
+
+Kilometer, 146.
+
+Kilowatt, 186, 187.
+
+Kilowatt hour, 186, 187.
+
+Kinetic, 140.
+
+
+L
+
+Lacquer, 170.
+
+Lampblack, 167, 175.
+
+Lapping, 166, 167.
+
+Lathe, 28, 39, 42, 45, 64, 65, 67, 104, 171.
+
+Lathe speed, 34.
+
+Lathe tool, 33, 39.
+
+Lavender, 168.
+
+Lead, 60, 118, 163, 164,175.
+
+Leather, 162, 163.
+
+Level, 87.
+
+Lever, 73, 75, 76, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 140, 153.
+
+Leverage, 143.
+
+Licenses, 189.
+
+Light, 100.
+
+Lime, 173.
+
+Linear measure, 181.
+
+Lines, 95, 99, 110.
+
+Lines, section, 84.
+
+Linseed, 162.
+
+Linseed oil, 149, 174,175.
+
+Liquid measure, 182.
+
+Liquids, 84.
+
+Litharge, 163.
+
+Long measure, 181.
+
+Lubricant, 171.
+
+Luminous, 91.
+
+Lycopodium, 169.
+
+
+M
+
+Machine, 26.
+
+Magnesium, 166.
+
+Magnesium sulphate, 169.
+
+Magnet, 153.
+
+Magnetism, 93.
+
+Major axis, 105.
+
+Malleability, 81.
+
+Malleable, 112.
+
+Mandrel, 66, 76.
+
+Manganese, 163.
+
+Marble, 162.
+
+Mass, 85.
+
+Mastic, 169.
+
+Measure, 139, 140, 143, 151.
+
+Measure, liquid, 182.
+
+Measure, long, 181.
+
+Measurement, 145.
+
+Measure, paper, 182.
+
+Measure, solid, 82.
+
+Measure, square, 181.
+
+Membrane, 90.
+
+Mercuric chloride, 166.
+
+Mercury, 94, 114, 183.
+
+Meridian, 145.
+
+Metric, 144, 145, 146.
+
+Metrical, 145.
+
+Micron, 146.
+
+Microscope, 91.
+
+Millimeter, 146.
+
+Milling machine, 26.
+
+Minor, 164.
+
+Minor axis, 105, 106.
+
+Miter, 146.
+
+Miter gear, 123, 124, 125, 126.
+
+Molecular, 82, 117.
+
+Molecular forces, 82.
+
+Molecules, 83, 84, 146.
+
+Momentum, 83, 85.
+
+Motion, 84, 156.
+
+Motor, 136, 155.
+
+
+N
+
+Neat's Foot oil, 168.
+
+Neroli, 168.
+
+Nickel, 164.
+
+Nitrate of copper, 174.
+
+Nitrate of potash, 167.
+
+Nitrate of silver, 174.
+
+Nitric acid, 162, 168, 169, 171, 173.
+
+Nitro-glycerine, 167, 185.
+
+
+O
+
+Oath, 193.
+
+Octave, 159.
+
+Odophone, 159.
+
+Odor, 159.
+
+Oil, 83, 87, 167, 171.
+
+Oil eradicator, 166.
+
+Oleonaptha, 171.
+
+Oscillations, 90, 157.
+
+Ounce, 180.
+
+Outlines, 99.
+
+Oxalic acid, 172.
+
+Oxidation, 117.
+
+Oxide, 117, 163.
+
+Oxidizing, 116.
+
+Oxygen, 83, 119.
+
+
+P
+
+Palm oil, 171.
+
+Paper, 168, 171.
+
+Paraffine, 168, 171.
+
+Parallel, 91, 100, 121.
+
+Paris blue, 172.
+
+Paste, 163, 173.
+
+Patents, 188, 189, 190, 192, 194.
+
+Pawl, 73, 76.
+
+Pendulum, 73.
+
+Parting tools, 28.
+
+Perimeter, 73.
+
+Periphery, 73.
+
+Permanganate of potash, 178.
+
+Perpendicular, 105.
+
+Perpetual motion, 128.
+
+Perspective, 97, 106, 107.
+
+Petroleum, 168.
+
+Phenomenon, 91, 153.
+
+Phonautograph, 90.
+
+Phonograph,-91, 154.
+
+Phosphorus, 149.
+
+Photographer, 157, 172.
+
+Piano, 158, 159.
+
+Pinion, 57, 74.
+
+Pitch, 121, 125, 156.
+
+Pitch, circle, 122, 124, 125.
+
+Pitch, diameter, 123, 124.
+
+Pitch, line, 123, 124, 127.
+
+Pitman, 70.
+
+Pivots, 70, 130.
+
+Planer, 26, 50, 51, 126.
+
+Plaster, 173.
+
+Plaster of Paris, 150, 174.
+
+Plate, 73.
+
+Plates, 50.
+
+Plating, 173.
+
+Platinum, 81.
+
+Plumbago, 173.
+
+Poles, 155.
+
+Polishes, 174.
+
+Position, 102.
+
+Potash, 116, 167.
+
+Potash, prussiate, 113.
+
+Potassium cyanide, 170.
+
+Potassium nitrate, 167.
+
+Pound, 145, 157, 180.
+
+Power, 128, 129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 140, 158, 159, 186.
+
+Power, horse, 139, 140.
+
+Precision tools, 50.
+
+Preliminary statement, 191.
+
+Pressure, 134, 135, 137, 148, 152.
+
+Prime mover, 134.
+
+Printing telegraph, 155.
+
+Prism, 92, 93.
+
+Protractor, 108, 109.
+
+Prussiate of potash, 113.
+
+Pulley, 68, 70, 73, 128, 133, 140, 149, 150.
+
+Pulsation, 153.
+
+Pumice, 83.
+
+Pumice stone, 110, 175.
+
+Punch, 62, 63.
+
+Punch, centering, 62.
+
+Punch cutter, 24.
+
+Putty, 175.
+
+
+Q
+
+Quadrant, 102, 103.
+
+Quality, 157.
+
+Quarter, 180.
+
+Quartz, 182.
+
+
+R
+
+Racks, 73, 74.
+
+Radius, 52.
+
+Rake, 29, 30, 38, 42, 43,45.
+
+Rainbow, 92.
+
+Ratchet, 77.
+
+Ratchet brace, 77.
+
+Reciprocity, 82.
+
+Reflected, 92.
+
+Reflecting, 89.
+
+Reflection, 88, 91.
+
+Refraction, 92.
+
+Resin, 176.
+
+Resistance, 79, 82, 83.
+
+Resonance, 89.
+
+Rim, 96.
+
+Ring, 96.
+
+Rods, 180.
+
+Rosemary, 166.
+
+Royalty, 193.
+
+Rubber, 84, 163.
+
+Rule, 53.
+
+Rule, key-seat, 53, 54.
+
+Rust preventive, 175.
+
+
+S
+
+Saffro, 170.
+
+Sal ammoniac, 119, 162, 165, 176, 185.
+
+Salt, 165, 170, 183, 185.
+
+Sandarac, 169, 176.
+
+Saw, 26, 64, 76.
+
+Saw, wabble, 76.
+
+Scale, 100, 101.
+
+Science, 157.
+
+Scraper, 50, 51.
+
+Scribe, 47, 53.
+
+Scruples, 180.
+
+Sealing wax, 176.
+
+Section lining, 103, 104, 110.
+
+Sense, 159.
+
+Sesame oil, 176.
+
+Shade, 96.
+
+Shading, 96, 110.
+
+Shaft, 68, 69, 70, 73, 74, 75.
+
+Shaft coupling, 74.
+
+Shaper, 26, 50, 51, 53.
+
+Shellac, 163.
+
+Side cutters, 30.
+
+Sienna, 168.
+
+Signals, 87.
+
+Silicate, 168.
+
+Silver, 82, 118, 164, 165, 180, 183.
+
+Snow, 185.
+
+Soap, 165, 172.
+
+Soap spirits, 166.
+
+Soda, sulphate, 172.
+
+Sodium carbonate, 172.
+
+Sodium silicate, 168.
+
+Sodium sulphate, 172.
+
+Solder, 118, 175.
+
+Solder, hard, 118.
+
+Solder, soft, 118.
+
+Soldering, 116, 117, 119, 176.
+
+Solids, 84.
+
+Sonorous, 88.
+
+Sound, 87.
+
+Sounding-boards, 88.
+
+Spanish white, 168.
+
+Spectroscope, 90, 93, 161.
+
+Spectrum, 93.
+
+Speed, 43.
+
+Spelter, 118.
+
+Sphere, 97.
+
+Spiral, 78.
+
+Sponge, 83.
+
+Spring, 72, 79, 176.
+
+Square, 48, 61, 63.
+
+Square combination, 24, 77, 81.
+
+Starch, 162, 163, 164.
+
+Steel, 39, 40, 42, 44, 63, 79, 113, 165, 168, 169, 170, 184.
+
+Stethoscope, 90.
+
+Stove polish, 174, 175.
+
+Straight edge, 61.
+
+Stylus, 90.
+
+Sugar, 163.
+
+Sulphate of copper, 174.
+
+Sulphate of potash, 115.
+
+Sulphate of soda, 172.
+
+Sulphur, 167, 183.
+
+Sulphuric acid, 165, 169, 175.
+
+Surfacing, 49, 50, 63.
+
+
+T
+
+Table of weights, 178.
+
+Talcum, 169.
+
+Tallow, 176.
+
+Tannaform, 169.
+
+Taps, 45.
+
+Taste, 160.
+
+Teeth, 72.
+
+Telegram, 158.
+
+Telescope, 91, 92.
+
+Temperature, 82, 88, 114, 116, 118, 119.
+
+Temperature table, 180.
+
+Tempering, 113, 114, 115,176.
+
+Tenacity, 79, 80.
+
+Thread, 74.
+
+Thymol, 166.
+
+Tin, 98, 118, 175, 176, 184.
+
+Ton, 180.
+
+Tongs, 75.
+
+Tongs, lazy, 75.
+
+Tool, 22, 28, 40, 41, 61, 64, 71, 108, 113, 175.
+
+Tool boring, 43.
+
+Tool cutting, 26, 29, 45, 64.
+
+Tool holder, 64.
+
+Tool hook, 28.
+
+Tool, hooked, 44.
+
+Tool knife, 28.
+
+Tool, parting, 28.
+
+Tool, roughing, 29.
+
+Tools, precision, 50.
+
+Torsion, 79.
+
+Toughness, 114, 115.
+
+Tracing cloth, 110.
+
+Tracing paper, 172.
+
+Traction, 79.
+
+Transmitting, 158.
+
+Transparent, 163.
+
+Transverse, 80.
+
+Treadle, 78.
+
+Triangular, 97, 98.
+
+Tripping driver, 78.
+
+Turmeric, 170.
+
+Turpentine, 162, 165, 172, 173, 174, 175.
+
+Turpentine, Venice, 176, 177.
+
+
+U
+
+Ultramarine, 171.
+
+Undivided, 192.
+
+Undulatory, 91.
+
+Unguent, 114.
+
+
+V
+
+Valve, 70.
+
+Vapor, 87.
+
+Varnish, 162, 170, 172, 175, 176.
+
+Vaseline, 165, 175.
+
+Velocity, 81, 87, 91.
+
+Vermilion, 177.
+
+Vertical, 97.
+
+Vibrate, 160, 161.
+
+Vibration, 87, 88, 90, 158.
+
+Vibratory, 91.
+
+Vinegar, 163, 170, 173.
+
+Violin, 159.
+
+Vise, 33.
+
+Vitascope, 90.
+
+
+W
+
+Water, 165, 166, 168, 172, 183, 186, 187.
+
+Waterproof, 162, 163.
+
+Weight, 85.
+
+Weight of steel, 179.
+
+Weight, troy, 180.
+
+Welding, 115, 116, 117.
+
+Welding compound, 117.
+
+Wheel, 27, 72, 73, 85, 86.
+
+Whiting, 174.
+
+Workshop, 162.
+
+Wrench, 104.
+
+
+Y
+
+Yokes, 70, 76.
+
+
+Z
+
+Zinc, 118, 119, 164, 166, 175.
+
+Zinc chloride, 163.
+
+
+
+
+THE BOYS' ELITE SERIES
+
+_12mo, cloth. Price 75c each._
+
+Contains an attractive assortment of books for boys by standard and
+favorite authors. Printed from large, clear type on a superior quality
+of paper, bound in a superior quality of binders' cloth, ornamented with
+illustrated original designs on covers stamped in colors from unique and
+appropriate dies. Each book wrapped in attractive jacket.
+
+1. Cudjo's Cave                              Trowbridge
+2. Green Mountain Boys
+3. Life of Kit Carson                   Edward L. Ellis
+4. Tom Westlake's Golden Luck            Perry Newberry
+5. Tony Keating's Surprises    Mrs. G. R. Alden (Pansy)
+6. Tour of the World in 80 Days             Jules Verne
+
+
+THE GIRLS' ELITE SERIES
+
+_12mo, cloth. Price 75c each._
+
+Contains an assortment of attractive and desirable books for girls by
+standard and favorite authors. The books are printed on a good quality
+of paper in large clear type. Each title is complete and unabridged.
+Bound in clothene, ornamented on the sides and back with attractive
+illustrative designs and the title stamped on front and back.
+
+1. Bee and the Butterfly     Lucy Foster Madison
+2. Dixie School Girl        Gabrielle E. Jackson
+3. Girls of Mount Morris          Amanda Douglas
+4. Hope's Messenger         Gabrielle E. Jackson
+5. The Little Aunt           Marion Ames Taggart
+6. A Modern Cinderella            Amanda Douglas
+
+
+_For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 75c_
+
+
+
+
+THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS
+
+By J. S. ZERBE
+
+
+Carpentry for Boys
+
+A book which treats, in a most practical and fascinating manner all
+subjects pertaining to the "King of Trades"; showing the care and use of
+tools; drawing; designing, and the laying out of work; the principles
+involved in the building of various kinds of structures, and the
+rudiments of architecture. It contains over two hundred and fifty
+illustrations made especially for this work, and includes also a
+complete glossary of the technical terms used in the art. The most
+comprehensive volume on this subject ever published for boys.
+
+
+Electricity for Boys
+
+The author has adopted the unique plan of setting forth the fundamental
+principles in each phase of the science, and practically applying the
+work in the successive stages. It shows how the knowledge has been
+developed, and the reasons for the various phenomena, without using
+technical words so as to bring it within the compass of every boy. It
+has a complete glossary of terms, and is illustrated with two hundred
+original drawings.
+
+
+Practical Mechanics for Boys
+
+This book takes the beginner through a comprehensive series of practical
+shop work, in which the uses of tools, and the structure and handling of
+shop machinery are set forth; how they are utilized to perform the work,
+and the manner in which all dimensional work is carried out. Every
+subject is illustrated, and model building explained. It contains a
+glossary which comprises a new system of cross references, a feature
+that will prove a welcome departure in explaining subjects. Fully
+illustrated.
+
+_12mo, cloth. Price $1.00 each._
+
+
+_For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of $1.00._
+
+
+
+
+The American Boy's Sports Series
+
+BY MARK OVERTON
+
+12 Mo Cloth. Illustrated. Price 60c Each.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+These stories touch upon nearly every sport in which the active boy is
+interested. Baseball, rowing, football, hockey, skating, ice-boating,
+sailing, camping and fishing all serve to lend interest to an unusual
+series of books. There are the following four titles:
+
+1. Jack Winters' Baseball Team; or, The
+   Mystery of the Diamond.
+
+2. Jack Winters' Campmates; or, Vacation
+   Days in the Woods.
+
+3. Jack Winters' Gridiron Chums; or, When
+   the Half-back Saved the Day.
+
+4. Jack Winters' Iceboat Wonder; or, Leading
+   the Hockey Team to Victory.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Phil Bradley
+
+Mountain Boy's Series
+
+BY SILAS R. BOONE
+
+12 Mo. Cloth. Illustrated. Price 60c Each
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+These books describe with interesting detail the experience of a party
+of boys among the mountain pines. They teach the young reader how to
+protect themselves against the elements, what to do and what to avoid,
+and above all to become self-reliant and manly. There are five titles:
+
+1. Phil Bradley's Mountain Boys; or, The
+   Birch Bark Lodge.
+
+2. Phil Bradley at the Wheel; or, The Mountain
+   Boys' Mad Auto Dash.
+
+3. Phil Bradley's Shooting Box; or, The
+   Mountain Boys on Currituck Sound.
+
+4. Phil Bradley's Snow-shoe Trail; or, The
+   Mountain Boys in the Canadian Wilds.
+
+5. Phil Bradley's Winning Way.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 60c.
+
+
+
+
+GIRLS' LIBERTY SERIES
+
+Contains an assortment of attractive and desirable books for girls by
+standard and favorite authors. The books are printed on a good quality
+of paper in large clear type. Each title is complete and unabridged.
+Bound in clothene, ornamented on the sides and back with attractive
+illustrative designs and the title stamped on front and back.
+
+_12mo, clothene. Price 50c each._
+
+ 1. Camp Fire Girls on a Long Hike, or,
+    Lost in the Great Northern Woods     Stella M. Francis
+
+ 2. Daddy's Girl                          Mrs. L. T. Meade
+
+ 3. Ethel Hollister's First Summer as
+    a Camp Fire Girl                  Irene Elliott Benson
+
+ 4. Ethel Hollister's Second Summer   Irene Elliott Benson
+
+ 5. Flat Iron for a Farthing                    Mrs. Ewing
+
+ 6. Four Little Mischiefs                  Rose Mulholland
+
+ 7. Girls and I                            Mrs. Molesworth
+
+ 8. Girl from America                     Mrs. L. T. Meade
+
+ 9. Grandmother Dear                       Mrs. Molesworth
+
+10. Irvington Stories                     Mary Mapes Dodge
+
+11. Little Lame Prince                         Mrs. Muloch
+
+12. Little Susie Stories                  Mrs. H. Prentiss
+
+13. Mrs. Over the Way               Julianna Horatio Ewing
+
+14. Naughty Miss Bunny                     Rose Mulholland
+
+15. Sweet Girl Graduate                   Mrs. L. T. Meade
+
+16. School Queens                         Mrs. L. T. Meade
+
+17. Sue, A Little Heroine                 Mrs. L. T. Meade
+
+18. Wild Kitty                            Mrs. L. T. Meade
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 50c_
+
+
+
+
+THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS
+
+By ROGER T. FINLAY
+
+_12mo, cloth. Price 75c each, postpaid._
+
+Thrilling adventures on land and sea of two boys and a man cast upon an
+island in the South Seas without food or weapons; their experience in
+fashioning clothing, tools and weapons, and in overcoming nature and
+subduing and civilizing savage tribes; covers a wide range of subjects.
+
+ 1. The Castaways
+ 2. Exploring the Island
+ 3. The Mysteries of the Caverns
+ 4. The Tribesmen
+ 5. The Capture and Pursuit
+ 6. The Conquest of the Savages
+ 7. Adventures on Strange Islands
+ 8. Treasures of the Islands
+
+
+THE BOY GLOBE TROTTERS
+
+By ELBERT FISHER
+
+_12mo, cloth. Price 75c each, postpaid._
+
+This is a series of form books relating the adventures of two boys who
+made a trip around the world, working their way as they go. They meet
+with various peoples having strange habits and customs, and their
+adventures from a medium for the introduction of much instructive matter
+relative to the character and industries of the cities and countries
+through which they pass. A description is given of the native sports of
+boys in each of the foreign countries through which they travel. The
+books are illustrated by decorative head and end pieces for each
+chapter, there being 36 original drawings in each book, all by the
+author, and four striking halftones.
+
+ 1. From New York to the Golden Crate
+ 2. From San Francisco to Japan
+ 3. From Tokio to Bombay
+ 4. From India to the War Zone
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_For sale by all Booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 75c_
+
+
+
+
+BOYS' COPYRIGHTED BOOKS
+
+Printed from large, clear type on a superior quality of paper,
+embellished with original illustrations by eminent artists, and bound in
+a superior quality of book binders' cloth, ornamented with illustrated
+covers, stamped in colors from unique and appropriate dies, each book
+wrapped in a glazed paper wrapper printed in colors.
+
+
+MOTOR BOAT BOYS SERIES
+
+By Louis Arundel
+
+1. The Motor Club's Cruise Down the Mississippi; or, The Dash
+   for Dixie.
+
+2. The Motor Club on the St. Lawrence River; or, Adventures
+   Among the Thousand Islands.
+
+3. The Motor Club on the Great Lakes; or, Exploring the Mystic
+   Isle of Mackinac.
+
+4. Motor Boat Boys Among the Florida Keys; or, The Struggle for
+   the Leadership.
+
+5. Motor Boat Boys Down the Coast; or, Through Storm and
+   Stress.
+
+6. Motor Boat Boys' River Chase.
+
+THE BIRD BOYS SERIES
+
+By John Luther Langworthy
+
+1. The Bird Boys; or, The Young Sky Pilots' First Air Voyage.
+
+2. The Bird Boys on the Wing; or, Aeroplane Chums in the Tropics.
+
+3. The Bird Boys Among the Clouds; or, Young Aviators in a
+   Wreck.
+
+4. Bird Boys' Flight; or, A Hydroplane Round-up.
+
+5. Bird Boys' Aeroplane Wonder; or, Young Aviators on a Cattle
+   Ranch.
+
+CANOE AND CAMPFIRE SERIES
+
+By St. George Rathborne
+
+1. Canoe Mates in Canada; or, Three Boys Afloat on the Saskatchewan.
+
+2. Young Fur Takers; or, Traps and Trails in the Wilderness.
+
+3. The House Boat Boys; or, Drifting Down to the Sunny South.
+
+4. Chums in Dixie; or, The Strange Cruise in the Motor Boat.
+
+5. Camp Mates in Michigan; or, With Pack and Paddle in the Pine
+   Woods.
+
+6. Rocky Mountain Boys; or, Camping in the Big Game Country.
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For sale by all booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 75c
+
+
+
+
+BOYS' COPYRIGHTED BOOKS
+
+Printed from large, clear type on a superior quality of paper,
+embellished with original illustrations by eminent artists, and bound in
+a superior quality of book binders' cloth, ornamented with illustrated
+covers, stamped in colors from unique and appropriate dies, each book
+wrapped in a glazed paper wrapper printed in colors.
+
+
+MOTOR BOAT BOYS SERIES
+
+By Louis Arundel
+
+1. The Motor Club's Cruise Down the Mississippi; or, The Dash
+   for Dixie.
+
+2. The Motor Club on the St. Lawrence River; or, Adventures
+   Among the Thousand Islands.
+
+3. The Motor Club on the Great Lakes; or, Exploring the Mystic
+   Isle of Mackinac.
+
+4. Motor Boat Boys Among the Florida Keys; or, The Struggle for
+   the Leadership.
+
+5. Motor Boat Boys Down the Coast; or, Through Storm and
+   Stress.
+
+6. Motor Boat Boys' River Chase.
+
+THE BIRD BOYS SERIES
+
+By John Luther Langworthy
+
+1. The Bird Boys; or, The Young Sky Pilots' First Air Voyage.
+
+2. The Bird Boys on the Wing; or, Aeroplane Chums in the Tropics.
+
+3. The Bird Boys Among the Clouds; or, Young Aviators in a
+   Wreck.
+
+4. Bird Boys' Flight; or, A Hydroplane Round-up.
+
+5. Bird Boys' Aeroplane Wonder; or, Young Aviators on a Cattle
+   Ranch.
+
+CANOE AND CAMPFIRE SERIES
+
+By St. George Rathborne
+
+1. Canoe Mates in Canada; or, Three Boys Afloat on the Saskatchewan.
+
+2. Young Fur Takers; or, Traps and Trails in the Wilderness.
+
+3. The House Boat Boys; or, Drifting Down to the Sunny South.
+
+4. Chums in Dixie; or, The Strange Cruise in the Motor Boat.
+
+5. Camp Mates in Michigan; or, With Pack and Paddle in the Pine
+   Woods.
+
+6. Rocky Mountain Boys; or, Camping in the Big Game Country.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For sale by all booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of 75c
+
+
+
+
+ALWAYS _ASK FOR THE_ DONOHUE
+
+Complete Editions and you will get the best for the least money
+
+
+Henty Series
+
+_FOR BOYS_
+
+G. A. Henty was the most prolific writer of boy's stories of the
+nineteenth century. From two to five books a year came from his facile
+pen. No Christmas holidays were complete without a new "Henty Book."
+This new series comprises 45 titles. They are printed on an extra
+quality of paper, from new plates and bound in the best quality of
+cloth, stamped on back and side in inks from unique and attractive dies.
+12 mo. cloth. Each book in a printed wrapper.
+
+  1 Among Malay Pirates
+  2 Bonnie Prince Charlie
+  3 Boy Knight, The
+  4 Bravest of the Brave
+  5 By England's Aid
+  6 By Pike and Dyke
+  7 By Right of Conquest
+  8 By Sheer Pluck
+  9 Captain Bayley's Heir
+ 10 Cat of Bubastes
+ 11 Col. Thorndyke's Secret
+ 12 Cornet of Horse, The
+ 13 Dragon and the Raven
+ 14 Facing Death
+ 15 Final Reckoning, A
+ 16 For Name and Fame
+ 17 For the Temple
+ 18 Friends, Though Divided
+ 19 Golden Canon
+ 20 In Freedom's Cause
+ 21 In the Reign of Terror
+ 22 In Times of Peril
+ 23 Jack Archer
+ 24 Lion of St. Mark
+ 25 Lion of the North
+ 26 Lost Heir, The
+ 27 Maori and Settler
+ 28 One of the 28th
+ 29 Orange and Green
+ 30 Out on the Pampas
+ 31 Queen's Cup, The
+ 32 Rujub, the Juggler
+ 33 St. George for England
+ 34 Sturdy and Strong
+ 35 Through the Fray
+ 36 True to the Old Flag
+ 37 Under Drake's Flag
+ 38 With Clive in India
+ 39 With Lee in Virginia
+ 40 With Wolfe in Canada
+ 41 Young Buglers, The
+ 42 Young Carthaginians
+ 43 Young Colonists, The
+ 44 Young Franc-Tireurs
+ 45 Young Midshipman
+
+All of above titles can be procured at the store where this book was
+bought, or sent to any address for 75c, postage paid, by the publishers
+
+
+
+
+ALWAYS _ASK FOR THE_ DONOHUE
+
+COMPLETE EDITIONS--THE BEST FOR LEAST MONEY
+
+
+WOODCRAFT _for_ Boy Scouts and Others
+
+_By_ OWEN JONES _and_ MARCUS WOODMAN _With a Message to Boy Scouts by_
+SIR BADEN-POWELL, _Founder of the Boy Scouts' Movement_.
+
+One of the essential requirements of the Boy Scout training is a
+KNOWLEDGE OF WOODCRAFT. This necessitates a book embracing all the
+subjects and treating on all the topics that a thorough knowledge of
+WOODCRAFT implies.
+
+This book thoroughly exhausts the subject. It imparts a comprehensive
+knowledge of woods from fungus growth to the most stately monarch of the
+forest; it treats of the habits and lairs of all the feathered and furry
+inhabitants of the woods. Shows how to trail wild animals; how to
+identify birds and beasts by their tracks, calls, etc. Tells how to
+forecast the weather, and in fact; treats on every phase of nature with
+which a Boy Scout or any woodman or lover of nature should be familiar.
+The authorship guarantees it's authenticity and reliability.
+Indispensable to "Boy Scouts" and others. Printed from large clear type
+on superior paper.
+
+Embellished With Over 100 Thumb Nail Illustrations Taken From Life
+
+Bound in Cloth. Stamped with unique and appropriate designs in ink!
+
+Price, 75c Postpaid
+
+M. A. DONOHUE & CO.
+701-727 S. DEARBORN ST.  CHICAGO
+
+
+
++------------------------------------------------------------------+
+|                                                                  |
+| Transcriber's Note:                                              |
+|                                                                  |
+| Every effort has been made to replicate this text as             |
+| faithfully as possible, including obsolete and variant           |
+| spellings and other inconsistencies. Obvious                     |
+| spelling/typographical and punctuation errors have been          |
+| corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences        |
+| within the text and consultation of external sources. Minor      |
+| punctuation errors have been amended without note.               |
+|                                                                  |
+| Page 137: Incorrect pressure of 88 oz. for wind speed of 10      |
+| mph changed to 8 oz.                                             |
+|                                                                  |
+| Page 146: Micron incorrectly printed as 1.25400, changed to      |
+| 1/24500.                                                         |
+|                                                                  |
+| Page 178: Corrected table entry for 1-7/8, printed as 1/7-16.    |
+|                                                                  |
+| Alphabetic order errors in the glossary retained.                |
+|                                                                  |
++------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Practical Mechanics for Boys, by J. S. Zerbe
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 22298.txt or 22298.zip *****
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+
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