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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Facts About Shakespeare + +Author: William Allan Nielson + Ashley Horace Thorndike + +Release Date: August 8, 2007 [EBook #22281] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FACTS ABOUT SHAKESPEARE *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Stephen Blundell and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 213px;"><a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a> +<img src="images/001.jpg" width="213" height="500" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="captionn">The Shakespeare Monument in the Parish Church, Stratford-on-Avon.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + + +<h1>THE FACTS ABOUT<br /> +SHAKESPEARE</h1> + +<p> </p> + +<p class="ooh">BY</p> + +<h2>WILLIAM ALLAN NEILSON, <span class="smcap">Ph.D.</span></h2> + +<p class="oh">PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY</p> + +<p class="ooh">AND</p> + +<h2>ASHLEY HORACE THORNDIKE, <span class="smcap">Ph.D., L.H.D.</span></h2> + +<p class="oh">PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY</p> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 69px;"> +<img src="images/002.png" width="69" height="68" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<p> </p> + +<p class="oh">New York</p> + +<p class="ooh">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</p> +<p class="ooh">1927</p> + +<p class="oh"><i>All rights reserved</i></p> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1913,</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.</span></p> + +<hr class="zerop" style='width: 10%;' /> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1913. Reprinted +April, 1914; July, 1915; May, November, 1916; January, 1918; +February, September, 1920; September, 1921; March, 1922; +February, December, 1923; October, 1924; June, 1926; January, +December, 1927.</p></div> + +<p> </p> + +<p class="center"><small> +PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY<br /> +THE BERWICK & SMITH CO.<br /> +</small></p> + +<div class="trans2"><p class="ooh">Transcriber's Notes</p> + +<p>Unique page headings have been retained and displayed in the left-hand margin.</p> + +<p>Many spelling inconsistencies exist due to the historical period of +the quoted sources. These, in addition to the original punctuation, +have been retained.</p> + +<p>Obvious typesetting errors have been corrected and noted in the <a href="#Transcriber_Corrections">Transcriber's Endnotes</a> at the end +of the text.</p> + +<p>Some index entries have been re-sequenced to allow for clarity of sub-entries. These changes are recorded in the <a href="#Transcriber_Corrections">Transcriber's Endnotes</a> along +with a copy of the original text.</p></div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Contents" id="Contents"></a>Contents</h2> + + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="toc" colspan="2">CHAPTER</td><td class="nor">PAGE</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nor">I.</td><td class="toc">Shakespeare's England and London</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nor">II.</td><td class="toc">Biographical Facts and Traditions</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nor">III.</td><td class="toc">Shakespeare's Reading</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nor">IV.</td><td class="toc">Chronology and Development</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nor">V.</td><td class="toc">The Elizabethan Drama</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nor">VI.</td><td class="toc">The Elizabethan Theater</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nor">VII.</td><td class="toc">The Text of Shakespeare</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nor">VIII.</td><td class="toc">Questions of Authenticity</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nor">IX.</td><td class="toc">Shakespeare since 1616</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nor">X.</td><td class="toc">Conclusion</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="toc">Appendix A. Biographical Documents and Authorities</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="toc">Appendix B. Index of the Characters in Shakespeare's Plays</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="toc">Appendix C. Index of the Songs</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="toc">Appendix D. Bibliography</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" class="toc">INDEX</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>THE FACTS ABOUT SHAKESPEARE</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="The_Facts_about_Shakespeare" id="The_Facts_about_Shakespeare"></a>The Facts about Shakespeare</h2> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 69px;"> +<img src="images/008.png" width="69" height="68" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Shakespeare's England and London</span></h3> + + +<p>Shakespeare lived in a period of change. In +religion, politics, literature, and commerce, in the +habits of daily living, in the world of ideas, his lifetime +witnessed continual change and movement. +When Elizabeth came to the throne, six years before +he was born, England was still largely Catholic, as it +had been for nine centuries; when she died England +was Protestant, and by the date of Shakespeare's +death it was well on the way to becoming Puritan. +The Protestant Reformation had worked nearly its +full course of revolution in ideas, habits, and beliefs. +The authority of the church had been replaced by that +of the Bible, of the English Bible, superbly translated +by Shakespeare's contemporaries. Within his lifetime, +again, England had attained a national unity +and an international importance heretofore unknown. +The Spanish Armada had been defeated, the kingdoms<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> +of England and Scotland united, and the first colony +established in America. Even more revolutionary had +been the assertion of national greatness in literature +and thought. The Italian Renaissance, following the +rediscovery of Greek and Roman literature, had +extended its influence to England early in the century, +but only after the accession of Elizabeth did it bring +full harvest. The names that crowd the next fifty +years represent fine native endowments, boundless +aspiration, and also novelty,—as Spenser in poetry, +Bacon in philosophy, Hooker in theology. In commerce +as well as in letters there was this same activity +and innovation. It was a time of commercial prosperity, +of increase in comfort and luxury, of the +growth of a powerful commercial class, of large fortunes +and large benefactions. Whatever your status, your +birth, trade, profession, residence, religion, education, +or property, in the year 1564 you had a better chance +to change these than any of your ancestors had; and +there was more chance than there had ever been that +your son would improve his inheritance. The individual +man had long been boxed up in guild, church, +or the feudal system; now the covers were opened, +and the new opportunity bred daring, initiative, and +ambition. The exploits of the Elizabethan sea rovers +still stir us with the thrill of adventure; but adventure +and vicissitude were hardly less the share of merchant, +priest, poet, or politician. The individual has had no +such opportunity for fame in England before or since.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Tudor England</span>The nineteenth century, which saw the industrial revolution, +the triumphs of steam and electricity, and the +discoveries of natural science, is the only period that +equalled the Elizabethan in the rapidity of its changes +in ideas and in the conditions of living; and even that +era of change offered relatively fewer new impulses to +individual greatness than the fifty years of Shakespeare's +life.</p> + + + + + +<p>Shakespeare's England was an agricultural country +of four or five million inhabitants. It fed itself, except +when poor harvests compelled the importation of grain, +and it supplemented agriculture by grazing, fishing, +and commerce, chiefly with the Netherlands, but +growing in many directions. The forests were becoming +thin, but the houses were still of timber; the roads +were poor, the large towns mostly seaports. The +dialects spoken were various, but the speech of the midland +counties had become established in London, at the +universities, and in printed books, and was rapidly +increasing its dominance. The monasteries and religious +orders were gone, but feudalism still held sway, +and the people were divided into classes,—the various +ranks of the nobility, the gentry, the yeomen, the burgesses, +and the common people. But changes from +one class to another were numerous; for many lords +were losing their inheritances by extravagance, while +many business men were putting their profits into land. +In spite of persecutions, occasional insurrections, and +the plague which devastated the unsanitary towns, it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +was a time of peace and prosperity. The coinage was +reformed, roads were improved, taxes were not burdensome, +and life in the country was more comfortable and +secure than it had been. Books and education were +spreading. Numerous grammar schools taught Latin, +the universities made provision for poor students, and +there were now many careers besides that of the church +open to the educated man.</p> + +<p>Stratford, then a village of some two thousand +inhabitants, somewhat off the main route of traffic, +was far more removed from the world than most towns +of similar size in this day of railways, newspapers, and +the telegraph. With the nearby country, it made up +an independent community that attended to its own +affairs with great thoroughness. The corporation, +itself the outgrowth of a medieval religious guild, +regulated the affairs of every one with little regard for +personal liberty. It was especially severe on rebellious +servants, idle apprentices, shrewish women, the pigs that +ran loose in the streets, and (after 1605) persons guilty +of profanity. Regular church attendance and fixed +hours of work were required. The corporation frequently +punished with fines (the poet's father on one +occasion) those who did not clean the street before their +houses; and it was much occupied in regulating the +ale-houses, of which the village possessed some thirty. +Like all towns of this period, Stratford suffered frequently +from fire and the plague. Trade was dependent +mainly on the weekly markets and semi-annual fairs,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Sports and Plays</span>and Stratford was by no means isolated, being not far +from the great market town of Coventry, near Kenilworth +and Warwick, and only eighty miles from +London.</p> + + + +<p>Shakespeare's England was merry England. At +least, it was probably as near to deserving that adjective +as at any time before or since. There was plenty +of time for amusement. There were public bowling-greens +and archery butts in Stratford, though the corporation +was very strict in regard to the hours when +these could be used. Every one enjoyed hunting, +hawking, cock-fighting, bull-baiting, dancing, until the +Puritans found such enjoyments immoral. The youthful +Shakespeare acquired an intimate knowledge of +dogs and horses, hunting and falconry, though this +was a gentleman's sport. The highways were full of +ballad singers, beggars, acrobats, and wandering +players. Play-acting of one kind or another had long +been common over most of rural England. Miracle +plays were given at Coventry up to 1580, and bands of +professional actors came to Stratford frequently, and +on their first recorded appearance received their permission +to act from the bailiff, John Shakespeare (1568-1569). +There was many a Holofernes or Bottom to +marshal his pupils or fellow-mechanics for an amateur +performance; and Shakespeare may have seen the +most famous of the royal entertainments, that at +Kenilworth in 1575, when Gascoigne recited poetry, +and Leicester, impersonating Deep Desire, addressed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> +Elizabeth from a bush, and a minstrel represented +Arion on a dolphin's back. The tradition may be right +which declares that it was the trumpets of the comedians +that summoned Shakespeare to London.</p> + +<p>In the main, life in the country was not so very different +from what it is now in the remoter places. Many +a secluded English village, as recently as fifty years ago, +jogged on much as in the sixteenth century. Opportunity +then as now dwelt mostly in the cities, but the +city of the sixteenth century bore slight resemblance +to a city of to-day.</p> + +<p>London, with less than 200,000 inhabitants, was +still a medieval city in appearance, surrounded by a +defensive wall, guarded by the Tower, and crowned by +the cathedral. The city proper lay on the north of the +Thames, and the wall made a semicircle of some two +miles, from the Tower on the east to the Fleet ditch +and Blackfriars on the west. Seven gates pierced +the wall to the north, and the roads passing through +them into the fields were lined with houses. Westward +along the river were great palaces, behind which +the building was practically continuous along the +muddy road that led to the separate city of Westminster. +The Thames, noted for its fish and swans, was the +great thoroughfare, crowded with many kinds of boats +and spanned by the famous London Bridge. By one +of the many rowboats that carried passengers hither +and thither, or on foot over the arches of the bridge, +between the rows of houses that lined it, and under the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Tudor London</span>heads of criminals which decorated its entrance, you +might cross the Thames to Southwark. Turning west, +past St. Saviour's and the palace of the Bishop of +Winchester, you were soon on the Bankside, a locality +long given over to houses of ill fame and rings for the +baiting of bulls and bears. The theaters, forbidden in +the city proper, were built either in the fields to the +north of the walls, or across the river close by the kennels +and rings. Here, as Shakespeare waited for a boatman +to ferry him across to Blackfriars, the whole city +was spread before his eyes, in the foreground the +panorama of the beautiful river, beyond it the crowded +houses, the spires of many churches, and the great +tower of old St. Paul's.</p> + + + +<p>It was a city of narrow streets, open sewers, wooden +houses, without an adequate water supply or sanitation, +in constant danger from fire and plague. But dirt and +disease were no more prevalent than they had been for +centuries; in spite of them, there was no lack of life +in the crowded lanes. The great palaces were outside +the city proper, and there were few notable buildings +within its precincts except the churches. The dismantled +monasteries still occupied large areas, but +were being made over to strange uses, the theaters +eventually finding a place in Blackfriars and Whitefriars. +The Strand was an ill-paved street running +behind the river palaces, past the village of Charing +Cross, on to the royal palace of Whitehall and to the +Abbey and Hall at Westminster. The walls and surrounding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +moat had ceased to be of use for defense, and +building constantly spread into the fields without. +These fields were favorite places for recreation and +served the purpose of city parks. The Elizabethans +were fond of outdoor sports and spent little daytime +indoors. The shops were open to the street, and +the clear spaces at Cheapside and St. Paul's Church-yard +seem to have been always crowded. St. Paul's, +although still used for religious services, had become a +sort of city club or general meeting place. Mules and +horses were no longer to be found there as in the reign of +Mary, but the nave was in constant use as a place for +gossip and business. The churchyard was the usual +place for holding lotteries, and here were the shops of +a majority of the London booksellers. In its northeast +corner was Paul's Cross, the famous pulpit whence the +wishes of the government were announced and popularized +by the Sunday preachers. And here the variety +of London life was most fully exhibited. The processions +and entertainments at court, the ambassadors +from afar, the law students from the Temple, the old +soldiers destitute after service in Flanders, the seamen +returned from plundering the Spanish gold fleet, the +youths from the university come to the city to earn their +living by their wits, the bishop and the puritan, who +looked at each other askance, the young squire come to +be gulled of his lands by the roarers of the tavern, the +solid merchant with his chain of gold, the wives who +aped the court ladies with their enormous farthingales<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Commercial Prosperity</span>and ruffs, the court gallant with his dyed beard and +huge breeches, the idle apprentices quick to riot, the +poor poets in prison for debt—these and how many +more are familiar to every reader of the Elizabethan +drama. As often in periods of commercial prosperity, +luxury became fantastic. Men sold their acres to +put costly garments on their backs. Clothing was absurd +and ran to extreme sizes of ruffs, farthingales, +and breeches, or to gaudy colors and jewels. Enormous +sums were spent on feasts, entertainments, and +masques, especially in the reign of James I. Cleanliness +did not thrive, perfumes took the place of baths, +and rushes, seldom renewed, covered the floor even of +the presence chamber of Elizabeth. But the comforts +and luxuries of life increased and spread to all classes. +Tobacco, potatoes, and forks were first introduced in +Shakespeare's time. Building improved, streets were +widened, and coaches became so common as to excite +much animadversion and complaint. If some poets +spent much time in the debtors' prison, others lived well, +and some actors gained large fortunes.</p> + + + +<p>The industrious apprentice who refused the allurements +of pageants, theaters, tailors, and taverns, was +sure to have his reward. It was a time of commercial +expansion, such as the last generation has witnessed in +Germany and the United States. Bankers, brokers, +and merchants gained great fortunes and managed to +protect them. Industry, thrift, and shrewdness were +likely to win enough to buy a knighthood. The trade<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +of the old East and the new West came to the London +wharves, and every one was ready to take a risk. The +merchants of London had furnished support to the policies +of Henry VIII and were rich enough to fit out the +expedition against Flanders and to pay for a third of the +fleet that met the Armada. It was a time, too, for great +enterprises and benefactions to charity. Sir Thomas +Gresham built the Exchange, Sir Hugh Middleton paid +for the New River water supply, and there were many +gifts to hospitals. With all this increase in wealth, the +various professions prospered, especially that of law. +The inns of court were crowded with students, not a +few of whom forsook the courts for the drama. The +age of chivalry was over, that of commerce begun. No +one gained much glory by a military career in the days +of Elizabeth. The church, the law, banking, commerce, +even politics and literature, offered better roads to +wealth or fame.</p> + +<p>The importance of the court in Elizabethan London +is not easy to realize to-day. It dominated the life of +the small city. Its nobles and their retainers, its courtiers +and hangers-on, made up a considerable portion of +the population; its shows supplied the entertainment, +its gossip the politics of the hour. It was the seat of +pageantry, the mirror of manners, the patron or the +oppressor of every one. No one could be so humble +as to escape coming somehow within its sway, and +some of the greatest wrecked their lives in efforts to +secure its approval. It is no wonder that the plays of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">The City and the Court</span>Shakespeare deal so largely with kings, queens, and +their courts. Under the Tudors, and still more under +the Stuarts, the court aimed at increasing the central +authority so as to bring every affair of its subjects under +its direct control. In London, however, this effort +at centralization met with strong opposition. The +government was in the hands of the guilds representative +of the wealth of the city, and was coming face to +face with many of the problems of modern municipalities. +The corporation was in constant clash with +the court; and in the end the city, which had supported +Henry VIII and Elizabeth against powerful +nobles, became the Puritan London that aided in ousting +the Stuarts.</p> + + + +<p>This conflict between city and court is illustrated in +the regulation of the theaters and companies of actors. +The actors had a legal status only as the license of some +nobleman enrolled them as his servants, and they relied +on the protection of their patron and the court against +the opposition of the city authorities. The fact that +they were employed to give plays before the Queen +was, indeed, about the only argument that won any +consideration from the corporation. This opposition +was based in part on moral or puritan grounds, but was +determined still more by the fear of three menaces, +fire, sedition, and the plague. Wooden buildings were +already discouraged by statute, and the danger of fire +from the wooden theaters is shown by the burning of +the Globe and the Fortune. The gathering of crowds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +was feared by every property holder, and the theaters +were frequently the scenes of outbreaks of the apprentices. +The danger of the plague from the crowd at +plays was the greatest of all. London was hardly ever +free from it, and suffered terrible devastation in the +years 1593 and 1603. For these reasons the theaters +were forbidden within the city's jurisdiction, and were +driven into the outskirts. The best companies appeared +frequently at court, and on the accession of +James I they were licensed directly as servants of +various members of the royal family. The actors +were thereafter under the immediate control of the +court, and certain "private" theaters were established +within the city. But this triumph of the court over +the long opposition of the city was not an unmixed +blessing for the drama.</p> + +<p>The theaters in 1590 represented the public on which +they depended for support; by 1616 they were far less +representative of the nation or London, and more dependent +on the court and its following. The Blackfriars +theater, before which gathered the crowd of coaches +that annoyed the puritans of the neighborhood, was a +symptom of the growth of wealth and luxury, and +of the increased power of the monarchy; the protests +of the puritan neighborhood were an indication of the +growth of a large class hostile alike to an arbitrary +court, luxury, and the theater.</p> + +<p>Shakespeare's lifetime, however, saw little of this +sharp division into parties or of that narrow moral<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Elizabethan Incongruities</span>consistency which Puritanism came to require. Looking +back on his age in contrast with our own, we are +perhaps most impressed by its striking incongruities. +This London of dirt and disease was also the arena for +extravagant fashion and princely display. This populace +that watched with joy the cruel torment of a bear +or the execution of a Catholic also delighted in the +romantic comedies of Shakespeare. This people, so +appallingly credulous and ignorant, so brutal, childish, +so mercurial compared with Englishmen of to-day, +yet set the standard of national greatness. This +absurdly decorated gallant could stab a rival in the +back or write a penitential lyric. Each man presents +strange, almost inexplicable, contrasts in character, +as Bacon or Raleigh, or Elizabeth herself. The drama +mingles its sentiment and fancy with horrors and +bloodshed; and no wonder, for poetry was no occupation +of the cloister. Read the lives of the poets—Surrey, +Wyatt, Sidney, Spenser, Raleigh, Marlowe, +Jonson—and of these, only Spenser and Jonson died +in their beds, and Ben had killed his man in a duel. +The student of Elizabethan history and biography will +find stranger contrasts than in the lives of these poets, +for crime, meanness, and sexual depravity often appear +in the closest juxtaposition with imaginative idealism, +intellectual freedom, and moral grandeur.</p> + + + +<p>The Italian Renaissance, with its mingled passions +for beauty, art, blood, lust, and intellect, seems for a +time transferred to London and dwelling alongside<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +of commerce and Puritanism. Yet these incongruities +of character, manners, and motives that seem so striking +to us to-day may probably be explained by conditions +already described. The opportunities created by the +changes in church and religion, the new education and +prosperity, the new America, and the revived classics, +all tended to create a new thirst for experience. This +thirst for experience led to excess and incongruity, but +it also furnished an unparalleled range of human +motive for a poet's observation and imitation.</p> + +<p>In the wide range of our poet's survey, there is, however, +one notable omission. The reign of Elizabeth, +like those of her three predecessors, was one of religious +controversy, change, and persecution. But all this +strife, all this debate, repression, persecution, and all +of this great turmoil working in the minds of Englishmen, +find little reflection in Shakespeare's plays, and +little in the whole Elizabethan drama. Religious controversy +had played a part in the drama of the reign +of Edward and Mary, but it rarely enters the Elizabethan +drama, and then mainly in the form of ridicule +for the puritan. Shakespeare's plays seem almost to +ignore the most momentous facts of his time. They +treat pagan, Catholic, and Protestant with cordiality and +only smile at the puritan or Brownist. His England of +the merry wives or Falstaff's justices seems strangely +untroubled by questions of faith or ritual. There is, +to be sure, plenty of religion and controversy in the +literature of the time, but the drama as a whole is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">An Age of Freedom</span>singularly non-religious. It reflects rather that freedom +from restraint, that buoyancy of spirit, that lively +interest in experience, which had their full course in the +few years when the old garment was off and the new +not quite fitted. The immense intellectual and imaginative +activity of the period consists precisely in this +freedom from restrictions, partisanship, dogmas, or +caste. Things had lost their labels and some time +and argument were required to find new ones. Ideas +were free and not bound to any school, party, or cause. +You grasped an idea without knowing whether it made +you realist, romanticist, or classicist; papist, puritan, +or pagan. After centuries of imprisonment, individuality +had its full chance in the world of ideas as elsewhere.</p> + + + +<p>In a few years this was all over, and your sphere of +life and the ideas proper to that sphere were prescribed +for you. By another century, England had fought out +the issues of creed and government with expense of +blood and spirit, and had settled down to the compromise +of 1688. In Shakespeare's day there was also, +of course, some movement toward fixity of ideas, and +there were great men who strove to convert others to +their ideas and to dictate belief and conduct. But +there was a breathing spell in which, comparatively +speaking, men were not alike, but individual, and in +which their motives and ideas revelled in a freedom +from ancient precedent. In this era of flux the modern +drama found its panorama of novel and varied experience +making and marring character.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p> + +<p>Shakespeare lived peaceably in the heyday of this +change, nearly of an age with Sidney, Raleigh, Spenser, +Bacon, Marlowe. Like Marlowe in the soliloquies of +Barabbas and Faust, he recognized the new possibilities +that the age opened through money or ideas. He made +much out of the commercial prosperity of the day, +gained such profits as were possible from his profession, +raised his estate, and acquired wealth. He gave his +mind not to any cause or party but to the study of men. +The drunkards of the London inn, the yokels of Warwickshire, +and the finest gentlewomen of the land alike +came under the scrutiny of the creator of Falstaff, +Dogberry, and Rosalind. And like his great contemporaries, +he triumphed over incongruities, for he translated +his studies of the human mind into verse of +immortal beauty that yet delighted the public stage +which was located halfway between the bear dens and +the brothels.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Biographical Facts and Traditions</span></h3> + + +<p>In the time of Shakespeare, the fashion of writing +lives of men of letters had not yet arisen. The art of +biography could hardly be said to be even in its infancy, +for the most notable early examples, such as the lives +of Wolsey by Cavendish and of Sir Thomas More by +his son-in-law in the sixteenth century, and Walton's +handful in the seventeenth, are far from what the +present age regards as scientific biography. The preservation +of official records makes it possible for the +modern scholar to reconstruct with considerable fullness +the careers of public men; but in the case of Shakespeare, +as of others of his profession, we must needs be +content with a few scrappy documents, supplemented +by oral traditions of varying degrees of authenticity. +About Shakespeare himself it must be allowed that we +have been able to learn more than about most of his +fellow dramatists and actors.</p> + +<p>In a matter which has been the subject of so much +controversy, it may be an aid to clearness if the facts +established by contemporary documents be first related, +and the less trustworthy reports added later. The first +indubitable item is trivial and unsavory enough. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +April, 1552, a certain John Shakespeare, residing in +Henley Street, Stratford-on-Avon, in the county of +Warwick, was fined twelvepence for failing to remove +a heap of filth from before his door. This John, who +shared his surname with a multitude of other Shakespeares +in the England and especially in the Warwickshire +of his time, appears, without reasonable doubt, +to have been the father of the poet. He is described +in later tradition as a glover and as a butcher; the +truth seems to be that he did a miscellaneous business in +farm products. For twenty years or more after this +first record he prospered, rising through various petty +municipal offices to the position of bailiff, or mayor, of +the town in 1568. His fortunes must have been notably +improved by his marriage, for the Mary Arden whom +he wedded in 1557 was the daughter of a well-to-do +farmer, Robert Arden, who bequeathed her £6 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> +in money and a house with fifty acres of land.</p> + +<p>To John and Mary Shakespeare was born a son +William, whose baptism was registered in the Church +of the Holy Trinity in Stratford on April 26, 1564. +He was their eldest son, two daughters previously born +being already dead. Their other children were Gilbert, +Joan, Anna, Richard, and Edmund. The precise day +of William's birth is unknown. The monument over +his grave states that at his death on April 23, 1616, he +was "Ætatis 53," which would seem to indicate that +he must have been born at least as early as April 22; +and, since in those days baptism usually took place<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Marriage</span>within a very few days of birth, there is no reason for +pushing the date farther back.</p> + + + +<p>Of the education of the poet we have no record. +Stratford had a free grammar school, to which such +a boy as the bailiff's son would be sure to be sent; and +the inference that William Shakespeare was a pupil +there and studied the usual Latin authors is entirely +reasonable. About 1577 his father began to get into +financial difficulties, and it is reported that about +this time the boy was withdrawn from school to help +in his father's business. We know nothing certainly, +however, until we learn from the registry of the Bishop +of Worcester that on November 28, 1582, two husbandmen +of Stratford gave bonds "to defend and save harmless" +the bishop and his officers for licensing the marriage +of William Shakespeare and Anne Hathaway. +Of the actual marriage there is no record. Anne is +probably to be identified with Agnes or Anne, the +daughter of Richard Hathaway of the neighboring +hamlet of Shottery, who had died in the previous July, +and had owned the house of which a part still survives +and is shown to visitors as "Anne Hathaway's cottage." +The date on Anne's tombstone indicates that she was +eight years older than the poet.</p> + +<p>A comparison of the bond just mentioned with other +documents of the kind indicates it to be exceptional in the +absence of any mention of consent by the bridegroom's +parents, a circumstance rendered still more remarkable +by the fact that he was a minor. The bondsmen were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +from Shottery, and this, along with the considerations +already advanced, has naturally led to the inference +that the marriage was hurried by the bride's friends, +and to the finding of a motive for their haste in the +birth within six months of "Susanna, daughter to +William Shakespere," who was baptized on May 26, +1583.</p> + +<p>The record of the baptism of Shakespeare's only +other children, the twins Hamnet and Judith, in +February, 1585, practically exhausts the documentary +evidence concerning the poet in Stratford until 1596. +It is conjectured, but not known, that about 1586 he +found his way to London and soon became connected +with the theater, according to one tradition, as call-boy, +to another, as holder of the horses of theatergoers. +But by 1592 we are assured that he had entered the +ranks of the playwrights, and had achieved enough +success to rouse the jealous resentment of a rival. +Robert Greene, who died on the third of September in +that year, left unpublished a pamphlet, <i>Greenes Groatsworth +of Witte: bought with a Million of Repentaunce</i>, +in which he warned three of his fellows against certain +plagiarists, "those puppits, I meane, that speake from +our mouths, those anticks garnisht in our colours." +"Yes, trust them not," he goes on; "for there is an +upstart crow, beautified with our feathers, that with +his <i>Tygers heart wrapt in a Players hide</i>, supposes he is +as well able to bumbast out a blanke verse as the best +of you; and being an absolute <i>Johannes Factotum</i>, is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">"The only Shake-scene"</span>in his owne conceit the only Shake-scene in a countrie. +O that I might intreate your rare wits to be imployed +in more profitable courses, and let those apes imitate +your past excellence, and never more acquaint them +with your admired inventions! I know the best +husband of you all will never prove an usurer, and the +kindest of them all wil never proove a kinde nurse; yet, +whilst you may, seeke you better maisters, for it is pittie +men of such rare wits should be subject to the pleasures +of such rude groomes." The phrase about the +"tyger's heart" is an obvious parody on the line,</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Oh Tiger's heart wrapt in a woman's hide!<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>which occurs both in <i>The True Tragedie of Richard Duke +of Yorke</i>, and in the variant of that play which is +included in the First Folio as the third part of <i>Henry VI</i>. +"The only Shake-scene" has naturally been taken as +an allusion to Shakespeare's name; and it is scarcely +possible to doubt the reference to him throughout the +passage. This being so, we may infer that by this date +Shakespeare had written, with whatever else, his share +in the three parts of <i>Henry VI</i>, and was successful +enough to seem formidable to the dying Greene. It +is noteworthy, too, that thus early we have allusion +to his double profession: as an actor in the words +"player's hide" and "Shake-scene," and as an author +in the charge of plagiarism. That the reference in +"beautified with our feathers" is to literary plagiarism +is confirmed by the following lines from <i>Greene's Funeralls</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +by R. B., 1594, which seem to have been suggested +by Greene's phrase:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Greene is the ground of everie painters die;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Greene gave the ground to all that wrote upon him.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Nay, more, the men that so eclipst his fame,<br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Purloynde his plumes</i>: can they deny the same?<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Somewhat less certain is the allusion in a document +closely connected with the foregoing. <i>Greenes Groatsworth</i> +had been prepared for the press by his friend +Henry Chettle, and in the address "To the Gentlemen +Readers" prefixed to his <i>Kind-Harts Dreame</i> (registered +December 8, 1592), Chettle regrets that he has not +struck out from Greene's book the passages that have +been "offensively by one or two of them taken." "With +neither of them that take offence was I acquainted, +and with one of them I care not if I never be. The +other, whome at that time I did not so much spare as +since I wish I had, for that as I have moderated the +heate of living writers, and might have usde my owne +discretion,—especially in such a case, the Author +beeing dead,—that I did not, I am as sory, as if the +originall fault had beene my fault, because myselfe have +seene his demeanor no lesse civill, than he exelent in +the qualitie<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> he professes: Besides, divers of worship +have reported his uprightnes of dealing, which argues +his honesty, and his facetious grace in writing, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">First Publications</span>aprooves his Art." This characterization so well fits +in with the tone of later contemporary allusions to +Shakespeare that it is regrettable that Chettle did not +make its reference to him beyond a doubt.</p> + +<p>Within a few months after the disturbance caused +by Greene's charges, Shakespeare appeared in the field +of authorship in quite unambiguous fashion. On +April 18, 1593, Richard Field, himself a Stratford man, +entered at Stationers' Hall a book entitled <i>Venus and +Adonis</i>. The dedication, which is to the Earl of Southampton, +is signed by "William Shakespeare," and the +state of the text confirms the inference that the poet +himself oversaw the publication. The terms of the +dedication, read in the light of contemporary examples +of this kind of writing, do not imply any close relation +between poet and patron; and the phrase "the first +heyre of my invention," applied to the poem, need not +be taken as placing its composition earlier than any +of the plays, since writing for the stage was then scarcely +regarded as practising the art of letters. <i>Lucrece</i> was +registered May 9, 1594, and appeared likewise without +a name on the title-page, but with Shakespeare's full +signature attached to a dedication, somewhat more +warmly personal than before, to the same nobleman. +The frequency of complimentary references to these +poems, and the number of editions issued during the +poet's lifetime (seven of <i>Venus</i>, and five of <i>Lucrece</i>), +indicate that it was through them that he first obtained +literary distinction.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p> + +<p>Meanwhile he was gaining a footing as an actor. +The accounts of the Treasurer of the Chamber for +March 15, 1594-5, bear record of Shakespeare's having +been summoned, along with Kempe and Burbage, +as a member of the Lord Chamberlain's Company, to +present two comedies before the Queen at Greenwich +Palace in the Christmas season of 1594. This is the +earliest mention of the poet as sharing with his company +a kind of recognition as honorable as it was profitable.</p> + +<p>The records now take us back to his family. On +August 11, 1596, his only son Hamnet was buried. In +the same year John Shakespeare applied to the College +of Heralds for a grant of arms, basing the claim on +services of his ancestors to Henry VII, the continued +good reputation of the family, and John's marriage to +"Mary, daughter and heiress of Robert Arden, of Wilmcote, +gent." Since there is evidence to show that the +financial difficulties that had beset John Shakespeare +before his son went to London had continued, and since +the attempts of actors to obtain gentility by grants of +arms were not uncommon, it is likely that the poet +was the moving force in this matter. Though a draft +granting this request was drawn up, it was not executed; +but in 1599 a renewed application was successful, +the heralds giving an exemplification of the coat +which the applicants claimed had been assigned them +in 1568, "Gold, on a bend sable, a spear of the first, +and for his crest or cognizance a falcon, his wings +displayed argent, standing on a wreath of his colours,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">The Purchase of New Place</span>supporting a spear gold steeled as aforesaid." The +motto is "Non Sans Droit." These arms appear on +the monument over Shakespeare's grave in Trinity +Church in Stratford, and, impaled with the Hall arms, +on the tombstone of his daughter Susanna and her husband +John Hall.</p> + + + +<p>A more substantial step towards restoring the +standing of the family was taken when the poet bought +on May 4, 1597, for sixty pounds, New Place, the +largest house in Stratford. This was only the beginning +of a considerable series of investments of the profits of +his professional life in landed and other property in his +native district. On his father's death in 1601 he inherited +the two houses in Henley Street, the only real +property of which the elder Shakespeare had retained +possession; and in one of these the poet's mother lived +until her death in 1608. About a hundred and seven +acres of arable land with common pasture appertaining +to it was conveyed to the poet on May 1, 1602, by William +and John Combe, of Warwick and Old Stratford +respectively, in consideration of £320; and twenty +acres of pasture land were acquired from the same +owners in 1610. On September 28, 1602, the Court +Rolls of the Manor of Rowington record the transfer to +Shakespeare from Walter Getley of a cottage and +garden in Chapel Lane, Stratford. In 1605 he paid +£440 for the thirty-one years remaining of a lease of +the Stratford tithes, a purchase which involved him in +a considerable amount of litigation. It was through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +this acquisition that he became involved in the dispute +over the attempted inclosure of certain common fields +belonging to the town of Stratford. John Combe, who +died in July, 1614, bequeathing Shakespeare £5, left +as heir a son, William, who with Arthur Mannering, +sought to annex to their respective estates the aforesaid +common lands. After having secured a deed safeguarding +himself as part owner of the tithes from any +loss that might result from the inclosure, Shakespeare +seems to have lent his influence to Combe, in spite of +the requests of the corporation for aid. The inclosure +was not carried out.</p> + +<p>His investments were not confined to his native +county. A deed of sale has come down to us concerning +the purchase of a house near the Blackfriars Theater +in London, in March, 1613. The price was £140; +but on the following day, March 11, Shakespeare gave +the previous owner, Henry Walker, a mortgage deed +for £60, which he never seems to have paid off. There +is evidence of his ownership of other property in +Blackfriars in three documents, recently discovered by +Professor C. W. Wallace, dealing with a suit in Chancery, +and dated April 26, May 15, and May 22, 1615, in which +Shakespeare and others sought to obtain from one +Matthew Bacon possession of certain deeds pertaining +to their property within the precinct of Blackfriars.</p> + + + +<p>Other traces of Shakespeare's business transactions +suggest that he was by no means averse to going to law. +After his resumption of relations with Stratford in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Litigation</span>1596, we find his parents engaged (November, 1597) +in a lawsuit, the outcome of which does not appear to +recover the mortgaged estate of Asbies, which had +formed part of his mother's inheritance. The years +1600, 1604, 1608, and 1609 all contain records of suits +by the poet to recover small sums of money; and, on +the other hand, we find tax collectors in London seeking +payment of taxes incurred on his goods while he +lived in the parish of St. Helen's, Bishopgate, in 1593 +or 1594. These claims Shakespeare satisfied some +years later when he was living across the river in Southwark. +The documents of a law case of 1612, recently +discovered by Professor C. W. Wallace in the Public +Record office, include Shakespeare's deposition as a +witness and add some interesting information. It +appears that, possibly from 1598 to 1604, he lodged in +the house of Christopher Mountjoy, a wigmaker, at +the corner of Muggle and Silver streets near Cripplegate. +In 1604 he had aided in arranging the marriage +of Mary Mountjoy to her father's apprentice, Stephen +Bellott. The lawsuit was brought by Bellott against +his father-in-law to secure the dowry and promise of +inheritance. Shakespeare's negotiations in regard to +the marriage play an important part in the various +depositions, as the question whether a dowry of £50 +had been promised was crucial to the case. Shakespeare +himself was examined on September 11, but the +poet failed to remember that a definite sum had been +agreed upon for the dowry.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p> + +<p>Further evidence relating to Shakespeare as a man +of substance is to be found in letters in the Stratford +archives, written by prominent townsmen. One, from +Abraham Sturley to a relative in London on the business +of the town of Stratford, dated January 24, +1597-8, contains a reference to "Mr. Shaksper" as +"willing to disburse some money upon some odd yard-land +or other at Shottery or near about us," and suggests +urging upon Shakespeare the purchase of the +tithes. It seems fairly certain from other letters of +Sturley's that this one was addressed to Richard Quiney, +father of Shakespeare's future son-in-law, Thomas +Quiney. On October 25 of the same year, this Richard +Quiney wrote from the Bell in Carter Lane, London, +"to my loving friend and countryman, Mr. Wm. +Shackespere," asking for his help with £30. From a +letter from Abraham Sturley to Richard Quiney on the +following fourth of November it appears that Quiney +was seeking an enlargement of the charter of Stratford, +with a view to an increase of revenue. In Sturley's +previous letter reference had been made to an attempt +to gain "an ease and discharge of such taxes and subsidies +wherewith our town is like to be charged, and I +assure you I am in great fear and doubt by no means +able to pay." In this extreme condition of affairs +Sturley heard with satisfaction "that our countryman +Mr. Wm. Shak. would procure us money, which I will +like of as I shall here when, and where, and how; and +I pray let not go that occasion if it may sort to any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Professional Progress</span>indifferent conditions." The poet is probably referred +to in still another letter, of about the same period, to +Richard Quiney, this time from his father Adrian: +"If you bargain with Wm. Sha., or receive money +therefor, bring your money home that you may." +All of these documents carry the unmistakable implication +that William Shakespeare in London was regarded +by his fellow-townsmen as a person of resources, +likely to be of service to his friends in financial stress.</p> + + + +<p>If we return now to the evidences of Shakespeare's +professional progress, we shall see whence these resources +were derived. Confining ourselves still to +explicit and unambiguous records, we find the year +1598 marking Shakespeare's emergence as actor and +dramatist into a somewhat opener publicity. The +quarto editions of <i>Richard II</i> and <i>Love's Labour's Lost</i>, +issued that year, are the first plays to exhibit his name +on the title-page; and in the 1616 folio edition of +Ben Jonson's works, attached to <i>Every Man in His +Humour</i>, is the statement: "This Comedie was first +Acted in the yeere 1598 by the then L. Chamberleyne +his servants. The principal Comedians were Will. +Shakespeare, Aug. Philips, Hen. Condel, Will. Slye, +Will. Kempe, Ric. Burbadge, Joh. Hemings, Tho. +Pope, Chr. Beeston, Joh. Dyke." These evidences of +prominence are more than corroborated by the famous +passage in the <i>Palladis Tamia</i> (1598) of Francis Meres, +in which he not only compares the "mellifluous and +honey-tongued Shakespeare" with Ovid for his <i>Venus</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +<i>and Adonis</i>, his <i>Lucrece</i>, "his sugred sonnets among his +private friends," but with Plautus and Seneca for his +excellence "in both kinds for the stage; for comedy, +witness his Gentlemen of Verona, his Errors, his Love +Labors Lost, his Love Labours Wonne, his Midsummers +Night Dreame, and his Merchant of Venice; for tragedy, +his Richard the 2, Richard the 3, Henry the 4, King +John, Titus Andronicus, and his Romeo and Juliet." +Barnfield in the same year harps on the "honey-flowing +vein" of the author of <i>Venus</i> and <i>Lucrece</i>, and "honey-tongued" +is again the opening epithet of John Weever's +epigram "Ad Gulielmum Shakespeare" (1599), in +which "<i>Romeo</i>" and "<i>Richard</i>" share the praises with the +narrative poems. From this time on, publishers of the +plays recognize Shakespeare's reputation by generally +placing his name on the title-page: a form of compliment +which the author probably did not appreciate +when it was extended, as in the case of <i>The Passionate +Pilgrim</i> (1599), to pirated works, some of which +were meant to be private, and others were not by +him at all.</p> + +<p>Reminiscences or references to his works are frequent +in contemporary literature. Among these are several +passages in two plays, <i>The Return from Parnassus</i>, acted +in St. John's College, Cambridge, about 1601. In one +passage, Kempe, the famous actor, speaks slightingly +of the acting qualities of the plays by university pens +and continues, "Why here's our fellow Shakespeare +puts them all down, ay, and Ben Jonson too,"—<span class="sidenote">Contemporary Allusions</span>another<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +identification of the actor and the dramatist +Shakespeare. Another character in these plays prefers +Shakespeare to Chaucer, Gower, and Spenser. Less +enthusiastic though sincerely appreciative is John +Webster, who, in the address to the Reader prefixed +to <i>The White Devil</i>, 1612, acknowledges his indebtedness +to his predecessors, Chapman, Jonson, Beaumont, and +Fletcher and to "the right happy and copious industry +of Master Shakespeare, Master Dekker, and Master +Heywood." Though of widely varying significance +and interest, the numerous allusions to Shakespeare +or to his plays give further testimony to his growing +reputation.</p> + + + +<p>While it is probable that the sale of Shakespeare's +poems brought him in some financial return, he is not +likely to have profited from the publication of his +plays. The playwright at that time sold his product to +the manager or company, and thereby gave up all rights. +To the end of the sixteenth century managers usually +paid from £5 to £11 for a new play, adding a bonus +in the case of success, and sometimes a share of the proceeds +of the second performance. During the first decade +of Shakespeare's activity as a dramatist, then, we +may calculate that he obtained for about twenty-one +plays an average of about £10 each, which, making the +usual allowance for the greater purchasing power of +money, would be equivalent to about $400, or an annual +income of about $800. During his second decade the +prices for plays had so risen that he may be estimated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +to have received about twice as much from this source +as in the early half of his career.</p> + +<p>More profitable than playwriting was acting. Lee +estimates Shakespeare's salary as an actor before 1599 +at £100 a year at least, exclusive of special rewards +for court performances, and we know that by 1635 an +actor-shareholder, such as Shakespeare latterly was, +had a salary of £180. Besides this, he became about +1599 a sharer, with Heming, Condell, Philips, and +others, in the receipts of the Globe Theater, erected +in 1597-8 by Richard and Cuthbert Burbage. The +annual income from a single share was over £200, +and Shakespeare may have had more than one. In +1610 he became a sharer also in the smaller Blackfriars +Theater, after it had been acquired by the Burbages.</p> + +<p>The evidence thus accumulated of Shakespeare's +having acquired a substantial fortune is corroborated +by what we know of the earnings of other members of his +profession, and it leaves no mystery about the source +of the capital which he invested in real property in +Stratford and London.</p> + +<p>The death of Elizabeth and the accession of James I +improved rather than impaired Shakespeare's prospects. +A patent, dated May 19, 1603, authorizes the King's +servants, "Lawrence Fletcher, William Shakespeare, +Richard Burbage ... and the rest of their associats +freely to use and exercise the arte and faculty of playing +comedies, tragedies, histories, interludes, moralls, +pastorals, stage-plaies, and such other like as they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Growing Prosperity</span>have already studied, or hereafter shall use or studie, +as well for the recreation of our lovinge subjects, as for +our solace and pleasure when we shall thinke good to +see them, duringe our pleasure." By this document +the Lord Chamberlain's Company became the King's, +and so remained during the rest of Shakespeare's +connection with the stage. At least a dozen instances +are recorded in the Revels Accounts of the Company's +having acted before his Majesty, and on the occasion +of a performance before the court at the Earl of Pembroke's +mansion of Wilton House, £30 was given them +"by way of his majesty's reward." Shakespeare's +name stands first in a list of nine actors who walked in +a procession on the occasion of James's entry into +London, March 15, 1604, when each actor was granted +four yards and a half of scarlet cloth for cloaks for the +occasion.</p> + + + +<p>This recognition by the court is the latest evidence +we have of Shakespeare's belonging to the profession of +acting. He is mentioned in the Jonson Folio of 1616 +as playing a part in <i>Sejanus</i> in 1603; but his name +is absent from the list of the King's servants, as his +company had now become, when they performed +<i>Volpone</i> in 1605, <i>The Alchemist</i> in 1610, and <i>Catiline</i> +in 1611. It would thus seem that he gave up acting +shortly after the death of Elizabeth.</p> + +<p>The date of his withdrawal from London to Stratford +is less precisely indicated. The likelihood is that the +transference was gradual; for after 1611, the date<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +usually conjectured for his retirement from the metropolis, +we have indications of at least occasional activities +there, as in the collaboration with Fletcher, now +generally admitted, in <i>Henry VIII</i> and <i>The Two Noble +Kinsmen</i>, and in the business dealings in Blackfriars +already described. On the other hand, he had disposed +of his shares in the theaters before his death; as we +have seen, he appears frequently in his last years +in connection with municipal affairs in Stratford; +and later formal references are usually to "William +Shakespeare, gent., of Stratford-on-Avon." It was +during this period that we find record of the poet serving +in a new capacity. There has recently been discovered +in the Household Book at Belvoir Castle the +following entry: "Item 31 Martij (1613) to Mr. Shakspeare +in gold about my Lordes Impreso xiiij s. To +Richard Burbadge for paynting and making yt in gold +xliiij s. (Total) iiij<sup>li</sup> viij<sup>s</sup>." This means that the +Earl of Rutland, who took part in a tournament at +Whitehall on March 24, 1613, had the heraldic device +for his shield made by Shakespeare and Burbage,—Burbage, +whose skill as painter is well known, being +probably responsible for the design and Shakespeare +for the motto. Rutland was a friend and associate +of that Earl of Southampton to whom Shakespeare had +dedicated his two narrative poems.</p> + +<p>The remaining documents are chiefly domestic. +On June 5, 1607, his elder daughter Susanna married +John Hall, a physician of Stratford, who succeeded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Death and Burial</span>the poet in the occupancy of New Place; and on September +9, 1608, the Stratford Register records the burial of +his mother, "Mayry Shaxspere, wydowe." His younger +daughter, Judith, married Thomas Quiney on February +10, 1616, with such haste and informality as led to +the imposition of a fine by the ecclesiastical court at +Worcester. In the previous month Shakespeare had a +draft of his will drawn up by Francis Collins, a solicitor +of Warwick, and after certain changes this was signed +in March. On the twenty-fifth of April the Registers +show the burial of "Will. Shakespeare gent." The +monument over his grave gives the day of his death as +April 23 (Old Style). He was buried in the chancel +of Stratford Church, and on the grave may still be +read the much discussed lines:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbeare<br /></span> +<span class="i0">To dig the dust enclosed heare;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Bleste be the man that spares these stones,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And curst be he that moves my bones.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>William Hall, who visited Stratford in 1694, records +the tradition that the poet himself composed the +lines in a style calculated to impress sextons and prevent +them from digging up his bones and throwing them +into the adjacent charnel house. However this may +be, the grave has remained unopened.</p> + + + +<p>Seven years later, thirty-six of Shakespeare's plays +were collected by two of his former colleagues of the +theater, Heming and Condell, whom he had remembered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +in his will, and published in the famous First Folio. +The preliminary documents in this volume, printed in +our appendix, close significantly the contemporary +records of the man, and bind together the burgess of +Stratford with the actor of London and the dramatist of +the world.</p> + +<p>Of Shakespeare's handwriting nothing that can be +called his with complete assurance has survived except +six signatures; one to the deposition in the matter +of the Mountjoy marriage; one to the deed of the house +he bought in Blackfriars in 1613, one to the mortgage-deed +on the same house, executed on the day after the +purchase, and one on each of the three sheets of paper +containing his will, the last of which has in addition the +words "By me." All six are somewhat crabbed specimens +of the old English style of handwriting, which is +the character he would naturally acquire in such a school +as that at Stratford in the sixteenth century, as we +learn from surviving examples of the copy-books of the +period. The manuscripts of his plays have gone the +way of all, or almost all, the autographs of the men +of letters of his time, nor is it likely that future research +will add materially to what we have. The exact signatures, +though it is difficult to be certain of all the letters, +seem to show a variation in spelling—Shakspere, Shakespere, +or Shakspeare. His father's name appears in +the records of the town in sixteen different forms, an +illustration of the inconsistency in the orthography of +proper names, as of other words, which was common<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Signatures and Portraits</span>with people of that time of greater worldly consequence +and education than the poet or his father. The form +of the name used in the present edition is that which +generally appears on the title-pages of plays ascribed +to him; it is that which he himself used in signing the +dedications of his two poems to the Earl of Southampton; +it is that which occurs in the legal documents +having to do with his property; and it is the common +spelling in the literary allusions of the seventeenth +century.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 254px;"><a name="signatures" id="signatures"></a> +<img src="images/044-1.jpg" width="254" height="105" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 686px; margin-top: 1em;"> +<img src="images/044-2.jpg" width="686" height="136" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 634px; margin-top: 1em;"> +<img src="images/044-3.jpg" width="634" height="157" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="captionn">THREE AUTOGRAPH SIGNATURES WRITTEN BY SHAKESPEARE ON +THREE SHEETS OF HIS WILL</p> +<p><small>From the document now at Somerset House, London</small></p> +</div> + + +<p>Our knowledge of Shakespeare's personal appearance +is also far from being definite. The bust on the +monument in the church at Stratford was cut apparently +before 1623 by a Dutch stone cutter called +Gerard Janssen. It was originally colored; probably +the eyes light hazel, and the hair auburn. Its crude +workmanship renders it unreliable as a likeness. The +frontispiece to the First Folio was engraved for that +work by Martin Droeshout, who was only twenty-two +years old at the time, so that he is more likely to have +made it from a portrait than from memory. No portrait +has been found that seems actually to have served +this purpose, though there are resemblances between +the engraving and the portrait, dated 1609, presented +to the Memorial Picture Gallery at Stratford by Mrs. +Charles Flower. The numerous other portraits that have +been claimed as likenesses of the dramatist have varying +degrees of probability, but none has a pedigree without +a flaw. Those with most claim to interest are the Ely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +Palace portrait, the Chandos portrait, the Garrick Club +bust, and the Kesselstadt death-mask.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>Such is the very considerable body of authenticated +facts about the life of Shakespeare. Lacking though +they are in intimate and personal touches, they can +hardly be said to leave the main outlines of his career +shadowy or mysterious. But they do not by any means +exhaust the data at our disposal for forming an impression +of the poet's personality. A large mass of tradition, +of less than legal validity but much of it of a high degree +of probability, has come down to us, the sources +of which may now be detailed.</p> + +<p>In the seventeenth century we have several biographical +and critical collections in which Shakespeare +figures, the most important being these: Fuller's +<i>Worthies of England</i> (1662), Aubrey's <i>Lives of Eminent +Men</i> (compiled 1669-1696), Phillips's <i>Theatrum Poetarum</i> +(1675), and Langbaine's <i>English Dramatic Poets</i> +(1691). The two last are for strictly biographical purposes +negligible, though interesting as early criticism. +Fuller began his work in 1643, so that he may be supposed +to have had access to oral tradition from men +who actually knew Shakespeare. He gives few facts, +but some hints as to temperament. "Though his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Sources of Traditions</span>genius generally was jocular and inclining him to +festivity, yet he could, when so disposed, be solemn and +serious.... Many were the wit-combats betwixt +him and Ben Jonson; which two I beheld like a Spanish +great galleon and an English man-of-war; master +Jonson (like the former) was built far higher in learning; +solid, but slow, in his performances. Shakespeare, +with the English man-of-war, lesser in bulk, but lighter +in sailing, could turn with all tides, tack about, and +take advantage of all winds, by the quickness of his +wit and invention."</p> + + + +<p>Among the actors who, with Shakespeare, took part +in the first production of Jonson's <i>Every Man in His +Humour</i> was Christopher Beeston, who when he died +in 1637 was manager of the Cockpit Theater in Drury +Lane. He was succeeded in this office by his son +William, who became in his old age the revered transmitter +to Restoration players and playwrights of the +traditions of the great age in which he had spent his +youth. From him, and from another actor of the same +period, John Lacy, as well as from other sources, the +antiquary John Aubrey collected fragments of gossip for +his lives of the English poets. According to Aubrey's +notes, confused and unequal in value, Shakespeare +"did act exceeding well"; "understood Latin pretty +well, for he had been in his younger years a schoolmaster +in the country"; "was a handsome, well-shaped +man, very good company, and of a very ready and +pleasant smooth wit." It is Aubrey, too, that reports<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +that John Shakespeare was a butcher, and he adds, "I +have been told heretofore by some of the neighbours that +when he was a boy he exercised his father's trade.... +When he killed a calf, he would doe it in a high style +and make a speech. There was at that time another +butcher's son in this towne, that was held not at all +inferior to him for a naturall wit, his acquaintance, and +coetanean, but dyed young." The same writer is +authority for the statement that it was at Grendon, near +Oxford, on the road from Stratford to London, that the +dramatist "happened to take the humour of the constable +in Midsummer Night's Dream"—a remark +that may refer loosely either to Bottom and his friends, +or to Dogberry and Verges. He also ascribes to the +poet an apocryphal epigram on a Stratford usurer, +John Combe.</p> + +<p>The Rev. John Ward, vicar of Stratford-on-Avon for +1662 to 1668, kept about the time of his coming to +this charge a diary in which he relates certain echoes +of the conversation of the town at a time when the +poet's nephews were still living there. From him we +hear that in his elder days Shakespeare retired to +Stratford; that in his most active period he wrote two +plays a year; that he spent at the rate of £1000 a year; +and that his death was due to a fever following a "merry +meeting" in Stratford with Jonson and Drayton.</p> + +<p>An additional reference to the tradition of Shakespeare's +convivial tendencies is to be found in the +legend of his visit to Bidford, six miles from Stratford,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Traditions</span>with a group of cronies to compare capacities with the +Bidford Drinkers. According to the earliest version +of this somewhat widespread tale, that of a visitor +to Stratford in 1762, "he enquired of a shepherd for +the Bidford Drinkers, who replied they were absent +but the Bidford sippers were at home, and, I suppose, +continued the sheepkeeper, they will be sufficient for +you; and so, indeed, they were; he was forced to take +up his lodging under that tree [the crab-tree, long +pointed out] for some hours."</p> + + + +<p>The earliest description of Shakespeare as "a glover's +son" is found in the memoranda of Archdeacon Plume +of Rochester, written about 1656. Plume adds, "Sir +John Mennes saw once his old father in his shop—a +merry cheeked old man that said, 'Will was a good +honest fellow, but he darest have crackt a jeast with +him at any time.'" No Sir John Mennes who could +have seen John Shakespeare is known, but the saying +may well be the echo of contemporary gossip.</p> + +<p>A manuscript preserved at Corpus Christi College, +Oxford, contains certain notes made before 1688 by the +Rev. William Fulman. Among them are interpolated +others (given here in italics) by the Rev. Richard +Davies previously to 1708. "William Shakespeare was +born at Stratford-on-Avon in Warwickshire about +1563-4. <i>Much given to all unluckinesse in stealing +venison and rabbits, particularly from Sr. ... Lucy, who +had him whipt and sometimes imprisoned, and at last +made him fly his native country to his great advancement;</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +<i>but his reveng was so sweet that he is his Justice Clodpate, +and calls him a great man, and that in allusion to his +name bore three lowses rampant for his arms.</i> From an +actor of playes he became a composer. He dyed Apr. +23, 1616, ætat 53, probably at Stratford, for there he +is buried, and hath a monument (Dugd. p. 520), <i>on +which he lays a heavy curse upon any one who shall +remove his bones. He dyed a papist."</i> The inaccuracy +of Davies's version of facts otherwise known warns +us against too great a reliance on his individual contribution.</p> + +<p>A certain John Dowdall left a short account of places +he visited in Warwickshire in 1693. He describes the +monument and tombstone, giving inscriptions, and +adds, "The clarke that shew'd me this church is +above 80 years old; he says that this Shakespeare was +formerly in this towne bound apprentice to a butcher, +but that he run from his master to London, and there +was received into the play-house as a serviture, and by +this means had an opportunity to be what he afterwards +prov'd. He was the best of his family, but the +male line is extinguished. Not one for feare of the curse +abovesaid dare touch his gravestone, tho his wife and +daughters did earnestly desire to be leyd in the same +grave with him." The traditional explanation of the +curse as reported by William Hall, has already been +given (p. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>).</p> + + + +<p>The first regular biography of Shakespeare is that +by Nicholas Rowe, written as a preface to his edition of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Rowe's Biography</span>the plays which, issued in 1709, stands at the beginning +of modern Shakespearean interpretation. Though +compiled nearly a century after the poet's death, +Rowe's life has claims upon our credit more substantial +than might be expected. His chief source of information +was the great actor Betterton, a Shakespeare +enthusiast, who had himself taken pains to accumulate +facts concerning his hero. Much of Betterton's +material came to him through John Lowin and Joseph +Taylor, two actors who had been colleagues of Shakespeare's +and who lived into the Restoration period. +According to John Downes, a theatrical prompter in +the end of the seventeenth century, these veterans +brought to the new generation the actual instruction +they had received from the dramatist himself on the +playing of the parts respectively of Henry VIII and +Hamlet. Theatrical and other traditions reached +Rowe also through Sir William D'Avenant, the leading +figure in the revival of the stage after 1660. D'Avenant's +father was host of the Crown Inn at Oxford, +where, according to the statements of Aubrey and +of Anthony Wood in 1692, Shakespeare was accustomed +to put up on his journeys between London and Stratford. +Wood reports that the elder D'Avenant was a +"man of grave and saturnine disposition, yet an admirer +of plays and play-makers, especially Shakespeare," +and that Mrs. D'Avenant was "a very beautiful +woman, of a good wit and conversation." William +D'Avenant was generally reputed to be Shakespeare's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> +godson, and Aubrey, whose gossip must be accepted +with great hesitation, says that he was not averse +to being taken as his son. In spite of the fact of this +scandal's appearance in various seventeenth century +anecdotes, the more careful account of the D'Avenants +by Wood points to its rejection. The story is usually +linked with another recorded by the lawyer Manningham +in his Diary, March 13, 1602, that Burbage, who +had been playing Richard III, was overheard by Shakespeare +making an appointment with a lady in the +audience. When the tragedian arrived at the rendez-vous, +he found Shakespeare in possession; and on +knocking was answered that "William the Conqueror +was before Richard the Third."</p> + +<p>To return to the D'Avenants, the elder son, Robert, +used to tell that when he was a child Shakespeare had +given him "a hundred kisses." Sir William was +Rowe's authority for the statement that the Earl of +Southampton once gave the poet £1000 "to enable +him to go through with a purchase which he heard he +had a mind to"; but no purchase of this magnitude by +Shakespeare is recorded. D'Avenant himself was said +to own a complimentary letter written to Shakespeare +by James I, and the publisher Lintot says that the +Duke of Buckinghamshire claimed to have examined +the document. The story about Shakespeare's first +connection with the theater consisting in his holding +horses outside, told first in a manuscript note preserved +in the Library of the University of Edinburgh, 1748,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Further Traditions</span>is also credited to D'Avenant. According to this +tradition, frequently repeated, the future dramatist +organized a regular corps of boys and monopolized +the business, so that "as long as the practice of riding +to the play-house continued the waiters that held the +horses retained the appellation of Shakespeare's Boys."</p> + + + +<p>Many of the natural inferences to be drawn from the +data in the first part of the chapter are given by Rowe +as facts. Thus he states positively that Shakespeare +attended a free school, from which he was withdrawn +owing to "the narrowness of his circumstances, and +the want of assistance at home." He repeats the deer-stealing +anecdote, with further detail. As to his +acting, Rowe reports, "Tho' I have inquir'd, I could +never meet with any further account of him this way +than that the top of his performance was the ghost in +his own Hamlet." He corroborates the general contemporary +opinion of Shakespeare's fluency and +spontaneity in composition. As to his personality, +he says, "Besides the advantages of his wit, he was +in himself a good-natur'd man, of great sweetness in +his manners and a most agreeable companion." Rowe +credits Shakespeare with having prevented his company +from rejecting one of Jonson's plays at a time when +Jonson was altogether unknown, and is inclined to +consider the latter ungenerous in his critical remarks +on Shakespeare.</p> + +<p>William Oldys, in his manuscript <i>Adversaria</i>, now in +the British Museum, reports a few further fragments of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +gossip, the chief of which is that Shakespeare's brother +Gilbert was discovered still living about 1660 and was +questioned by some actors as to his memory of William. +All he could give them was a vague recollection of his +having played the part of Adam in <i>As You Like It</i>.</p> + +<p>Such are the most significant details which tradition, +unauthenticated but often plausible, has added to +our knowledge of the documents. There exists also +a very considerable amount of literary allusion to +Shakespeare's productions from 1594 onwards, which +is easily accessible in collected form. The most +notable of these are the comments of his friend and contemporary, +Ben Jonson. Besides the splendid eulogy +prefixed to the First Folio, Jonson talked of Shakespeare's +lack of art to Drummond of Hawthornden, +and expressed himself with affection and discrimination +in the famous passage in <i>Timber</i>.</p> + +<p>After all allowances have been made for the inaccuracies +of oral tradition, we may safely gather from +those concerning Shakespeare some inferences which +help to clothe the naked skeleton of the documented +facts. It is clear that, within a generation after +Shakespeare's death, common opinion both in Stratford +and London recognized that in the actor and dramatist +a great man had passed away, that he had been in a +worldly sense highly successful, though starting from +unpropitious beginnings, that he wrote with great +swiftness and ease, and that in his personal relations +he was gentle, kindly, genial, and witty. That the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Evidence of the Sonnets</span>bailiff's son who returned to his native town as a prosperous +gentleman, is to be identified with the actor and +shareholder of the London theaters, and with the +author of the plays and poems, it is difficult to see +how there can remain any reasonable doubt; and, +though the facts which prove this identity contain little +to illuminate the vast intellect and soaring imagination +which created Hamlet and Lear, they contain nothing +irreconcilable with the personality, which these creations +imply rather than reveal.</p> + + + +<p>One further source of information about Shakespeare's +personality has figured largely in some biographies. +The <i>Sonnets</i> were published in 1609, evidently +without Shakespeare's coöperation or consent, +with a dedication by the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, to +a Mr. W. H., "the onlie begetter of these insuing +sonnets." All attempts to identify this Mr. W. H. +have failed. He may have been merely the person who +procured the manuscript for Thorpe, though the +language of the dedication seems to imply that he was +the young gentleman who is the subject of a considerable +number of the poems. Of this young gentleman +and of a dark lady who seems to have been the occasion +of other of the sonnets, much has been written, but no +facts of Shakespeare's life have been established beyond +those which are obvious to every reader: that Shakespeare +wrote admiring and flattering sonnets to a young +man who is urged to marry (and who may have been +the Earl of Southampton, or an unknown Mr. W. H.,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +or another); and that he treats of an intrigue with +some unknown woman. The identification of the +young man of the first seventeen sonnets with other +friends who are praised in later sonnets is not certain, +though in some cases probable; and much research and +conjecture have entirely failed to make clear the relations +between the poet, the rival poet, the lady, and the +friend. The <i>Sonnets</i> furnish us with no knowledge of +Shakespeare's personal affairs, and only a meager basis +even for gossip as to some of his experiences with men +and women.</p> + +<p>Another kind of inquiry has sought to discover in +the sonnets not facts or incidents of Shakespeare's life, +but indications of his emotional experiences. The results +of such inquiry are manifestly outside the scope +of this chapter. For their discussion, the reader must +be referred to Professor Alden's introduction to the +Tudor edition of the <i>Sonnets</i>. Shakespeare's personality +as it is reflected from his works will also be considered +in the concluding chapter of this volume. So +much stress, however, has been placed on interpretations +of the sonnets, and these have so often occupied +an exaggerated place in his biography, that it may be +worth while to remark that whether these lyrical poems +are genuine and personal or are conventional and literary, +and whether they make the poet more clearly discernible +or not, they must certainly be taken not alone +by themselves, but in connection with the dramas as +affording us an impression of the man who wrote them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Evidence of the Sonnets</span>Of the sonnets, it may be said in almost the same +words just now used of the documents and traditions, +that whether they contain much or little to illuminate +the vast intellect and soaring imagination which created +Hamlet and Lear, they contain nothing irreconcilable +with the personality which these creations imply rather +than reveal.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>I.e.</i>, profession, used especially at that time of the profession +of acting.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> See frontispieces in the Tudor Shakespeare to editions of +<i>Henry V</i> (Droeshout original), <i>King Lear</i> (Ely Palace), <i>Romeo +and Juliet</i> (Chandos), <i>Pericles</i> (Garrick Club bust), and <i>The +Tempest</i> (Death-mask). The Stratford Monument and the +Droeshout engraving are reproduced in the present volume.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Shakespeare's Reading</span></h3> + + +<p>We have called the present chapter "Shakespeare's +Reading" rather than "The Learning of Shakespeare," +because, apart from the famous line in which Ben +Jonson stated that the poet had "small Latin and less +Greek," it is evident from the allusions throughout +the plays that Shakespeare was a reader rather than +a scholar. In other words, he used books for what +interested him; he did not study them for complete +mastery; and many and varied as are the traces of his +literary interests, they have the air of being detached +fragments that have stuck in a plastic and retentive +mind, not pieces of systematic erudition. It is true +that many books have been written to show that +Shakespeare had the knowledge of a professional in +law, medicine, navigation, theology, conveyancing, +hunting and hawking, horsemanship, politics, and +other fields; but such works are usually the products +of enthusiasts in single subjects, who are apt to forget +how much a man of acute mind and keen observation +can pick up of a technical matter that interests him +for the time, and how intelligently he can use it. The +cross-examination of an expert witness by an able +lawyer is an everyday illustration; and in the literature<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">School-Books</span>of our own day this kind of versatility is strikingly +exemplified in the work of such a writer as Mr. Kipling.</p> + + + + +<p>How Shakespeare learned to read and write his own +tongue we do not know; that he did learn hardly needs +to be argued. The free grammar school at Stratford-on-Avon, +like other schools of its type, was named from +its function of teaching Latin grammar; and we may +make what is known of the curricula of such schools +in the sixteenth century the basis for our inferences as +to what Shakespeare learned there.</p> + +<p>The accidence, with which the course began, was +studied in Lily's Grammar, and clear echoes of this +well-known work are heard in the conversation between +Sir Hugh Evans and William Page in <i>The Merry Wives +of Windsor</i>, IV. i, in <i>1 Henry IV</i>, II. i. 104, in <i>Much Ado</i>, +IV. i. 22, in <i>Love's Labour's Lost</i>, IV. ii. 82 (and perhaps, +V. i. 10 and 84), in <i>Twelfth Night</i>, II. iii. 2, in <i>The Taming +of the Shrew</i>, I. i. 167,—a line of Terence altered by +Lily,—and in <i>Titus Andronicus</i>, IV. ii. 20-23, where +Demetrius reads two lines from Horace, and Chiron says,</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">O, 'tis a verse in Horace; I know it well.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">I read it in the grammar long ago.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Such fragments of Latin as we find in the dialogue +between Holofernes and Nathaniel in <i>Love's Labour's +Lost</i>, IV. ii, and V. i, are probably due to some elementary +phrase-book no longer to be identified. It is to +be noted how prominently this early comedy figures +in the list of evidences of his school-day memories.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p> + +<p>Among the first pieces of connected Latin prose +read in the Elizabethan schools was <i>Æsop's Fables</i>, a +collection which, after centuries of rewriting and re-compiling +for adults, had come in the sixteenth century +to be regarded chiefly as a school-book, but allusions +to which are everywhere to be found in the literature +of the day. In <i>2 Henry VI</i>, III. i. 343, and <i>Richard +II</i>, III. ii. 129, we find references to the fable of +"The Countryman and a Snake"; in <i>2 Henry VI</i>, +III. i. 69, and <i>Timon of Athens</i>, II. i. 28, to "The Crow +in Borrowed Feathers"; in <i>2 Henry VI</i>, III. i. 77, to +"The Wolf in the Sheep's Skin"; in <i>King John</i>, II. i. +139, to "The Ass in the Lion's Skin"; in <i>Henry V</i>, IV. +iii. 91, to "The Hunter and the Bear"; in <i>As You +Like It</i>, I. i. 87, to "The Dog that Lost his Teeth"; +in <i>All's Well</i>, II. i. 71, to "The Fox and the Grapes"; +besides a number of slighter and less definite allusions. +The most detailed fable in Shakespeare, that of "The +Belly and the Members," in <i>Coriolanus</i>, I. i. 99, is derived, +not from <i>Æsop</i>, but from Plutarch's <i>Life of +Coriolanus</i>.</p> + +<p>The traces of the well-known collection of sayings +from various writers called <i>Sententiæ Pueriles</i>, and +of the so-called <i>Distichs of Cato</i>, both of which were +commonly read in the second and third years, are only +slight. Battista Spagnuoli Mantuanus, whose <i>Eclogues</i>, +written about 1500, had become a text-book, is honored +with explicit mention as well as quotation in <i>Love's +Labour's Lost</i>, IV. ii. 95. Cicero, who was read from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Ovid</span>the fourth year, has left his mark on only a phrase or +two, in spite of his importance in Renaissance culture; +but Ovid is much more important. The motto on +the title-page of <i>Venus and Adonis</i> is from the <i>Amores</i>, +and the matter of the poem is from <i>Metamorphoses</i>, X. +519 ff., with features from the stories of Hermaphroditus +and Salmacis (<i>Meta.</i> IV. 285 ff.), and the hunting in +Calydon (<i>Meta.</i> VIII. 270 ff.). Ovid is quoted in Latin +in three early plays; and even where a translation +was available, the phrasing of Shakespeare's allusions +sometimes shows knowledge of the original. Most of +Ovid had been translated into English before Shakespeare +began to write, and Golding's version of the +<i>Metamorphoses</i> (1567) was used for the references to +the Actæon myth in <i>A Midsummer-Night's Dream</i>, +IV. i. 107 ff., and for a famous passage in <i>The Tempest</i>, +V. i. 33. Livy, who had been translated in 1545 +according to Malone, seems to have been the chief +source of <i>Lucrece</i>, with some aid from Ovid's <i>Fasti</i>, II. +721 ff. Among other Ovidian allusions are those to +the story of Philomela, so pervasive in <i>Titus Andronicus</i>; +to the Medea myth in four or five passages; to +Narcissus and Echo, Phaeton, Niobe, Hercules, and a +score more of the familiar names of classical mythology. +Pyramus and Thisbe Shakespeare may have read about +in Chaucer as well as in Ovid, but Bottom's treatment +of this story in <i>A Midsummer-Night's Dream</i> gives but +a slight basis for proving literary relations.</p> + + + +<p>Virgil followed Ovid in the fifth year, and with Virgil,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +Terence. Of direct knowledge of the latter the plays +bear no trace, but of the former there seems to be an +influence in the description of the painting of Troy in +<i>Lucrece</i>, 1366 ff., and in two short Latin sentences in +<i>2 Henry VI</i>, II. i. 24, and IV. i. 117. Horace, Plautus, +Juvenal, Persius, and Seneca were the new authors +taken up in the last years in school. All the Horace in +the plays may have been taken from other works, like +the passage already quoted from Lily's Grammar. +Juvenal and Persius have left no mark. The <i>Menæchmi</i> +and <i>Amphitruo</i> of Plautus furnish the basis for <i>The +Comedy of Errors</i>, and no English translation of either +of these is known before that of the <i>Menæchmi</i> in +1595, which some critics think Shakespeare may have +seen in manuscript. But no verbal similarities confirm +this conjecture, and there is no reason why the dramatist +should not have known both plays at first hand.</p> + +<p>The influence of Seneca is dramatically the most important +among the classical authors. All the plays +that go by his name had been translated into English +in the first part of Elizabeth's reign; he was the main +channel through which the forms of classical tragedy +reached the Renaissance; and when Shakespeare began +to write he was the dominant force in the field of +tragedy. This makes it hard to say whether the +Senecan features in <i>Titus Andronicus</i>, <i>Richard III</i>, +and even <i>Hamlet</i>, are due to Seneca directly, or to the +tradition already well established among Shakespeare's +earlier contemporaries.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="sidenote">Results of Schooling</span></p> + +<p>The impression which the evidence from the textbooks +as a whole leaves on one is that Shakespeare +took from school enough Latin to handle an occasional +quotation<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> and to extract the plot of a play, but that +he probably preferred to use a translation when one +was to be had. The slight acquaintance shown with +authors not always read at school, Caesar, Livy, Lucan, +and Pliny, does not materially alter this impression. +Much more conclusive as to the effect of his Latin +training than the literary allusions are the numerous +words of Latin origin either coined by Shakespeare, or +used in such a way as to imply a knowledge of their +derivation. The discovery of a lost translation may +modify our views as to whether a particular author +was used by him in the original, but the evidence from +his use of Romance words gives clear proof that his +schooling was no unimportant element in his mastery +of speech.</p> + +<p>Greek was occasionally begun in the Elizabethan +grammar school, but we do not know whether this +was the case in Stratford. Certainly we have no +reason to believe that Shakespeare could read Greek, +as all his knowledge of Greek authors could have been +obtained from translations, and only two Greek words, +<i>misanthropos</i> and <i>threnos</i>, occur in his writings. Yet +no single author was so important in providing material +for the plays as the Greek Plutarch. His <i>Lives of +Julius Cæsar, Marcus Brutus, Marcus Antonius</i>, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +<i>Caius Martius Coriolanus</i>, in Sir Thomas North's +translation, are the direct sources of the great Roman +tragedies, and in a less important way the <i>Lives of +Antonius</i> and <i>Alcibiades</i> were used in <i>Timon of Athens</i>. +Homeric elements are discoverable in <i>Troilus and +Cressida</i>, which derives mainly from the medieval +tradition. As the Trojan story was already familiar +on the stage, these need not have come from Chapman's +Homer. The knowledge of Lucian which seems +implied in <i>Timon</i> was probably not gained from the +Greek original. The late Greek romances, which +were popular in translation, may have been read by +Shakespeare, since the reference to the "Egyptian +thief" in <i>Twelfth Night</i>, V. i. 120, is from the <i>Æthiopica</i> +of Heliodorus, translated in 1569. Attempts have been +made by the assembling of parallel passages to prove a +knowledge of Greek tragedy on the part of Shakespeare, +but such parallelisms are more naturally explained as +coincidences arising from the treatment of analogous +themes and situations.</p> + +<p>Of modern languages, French was the easiest for +an Elizabethan Englishman to acquire, and the French +passages and scenes in <i>Henry V</i> make it fairly certain +that Shakespeare had a working knowledge of this +tongue. Yet, as in the case of Latin, he seems to +have preferred a translation to an original when he +could find it. Montaigne, whose influence some have +found pervasive in Shakespeare, he certainly used in +Gonzalo's account of his ideal commonwealth in <i>The +Tempest</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span><span class="sidenote">French and Italian</span> II. i. 143 ff., but it seems that he employed +Florio's translation here. Rabelais's Gargantua is +explicitly mentioned in <i>As You Like It</i>, III, ii. 238, +and the great humorist is possibly the inspirer of +some of Sir Andrew's nonsense in <i>Twelfth Night</i>, II. iii. +23. Many of the Sonnets contain reminiscences of +the French sonneteers of the sixteenth century, and +it is thought that in some cases Shakespeare shows +direct acquaintance with Ronsard. He was thus acquainted +with the three greatest French writers of +his century, and French may well have been the +medium through which he reached authors in other +languages.</p> + + + +<p>The class of Italian literature with which Shakespeare +shows most acquaintance is that of the <i>novelle</i>, +though there is no proof that he could read the language. +The <i>Decameron</i> of Boccaccio contains the love-story +of <i>Cymbeline</i>, though there may have been an +intermediary; the plot of <i>All's Well</i> came from the +same collection, but had been translated by Painter in +his <i>Palace of Pleasure</i>; and the story of the caskets +in <i>The Merchant of Venice</i> is found in a form closer to +Shakespeare's in the English translation of the <i>Gesta +Romanorum</i> than in the <i>Decameron</i>. Thus we cannot +conclude that the poet knew this work as a whole. +Similarly with Bandello and Cinthio. The plot of +<i>Much Ado</i> is found in the former, and is translated by +Belleforest into French, but at least one detail seems +to come from Ariosto, and here again an intermediary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +is commonly conjectured. The novel from Cinthio's +<i>Hecatommithi</i> which formed the basis of <i>Othello</i> existed +in a French translation; and his form of the plot of +<i>Measure for Measure</i> came to Shakespeare through the +English dramatic version of George Whetstone. The +version of the bond story in <i>The Merchant of Venice</i> +closest to the play is in <i>Il Pecorone</i> of Sir Giovanni +Fiorentino, but the tale is widespread. Incidents in +<i>The Merry Wives</i> have sources or parallels in the same +work, in Straparola's <i>Piacevoli Notti</i>, and in Bandello, +but in both cases English versions were available. A +mass of Italian and French prototypes lies behind the +plot of <i>Twelfth Night</i>, but most of the details are to be +found in the English <i>Apolonius and Silla</i> of Barnabe +Riche, and there is reason to conjecture a lost English +play on the subject. <i>The Taming of the Shrew</i>, based +on an extant older play, draws also on Gascoigne's +version of Ariosto's <i>I Suppositi</i>; and the echoes of +Petrarch in the Sonnets may well have come through +French and English imitators. The introduction of +stock types from the Italian drama, such as the pedant +and the braggart-soldier, can be accounted for by the +previous knowledge of these in England, and does not +imply a first-hand reading of Italian literature. The +negative position is still stronger in the case of Spanish, +where the use of episodes from George of Montemayor's +<i>Diana</i> in <i>The Two Gentlemen</i>, <i>Twelfth Night</i>, and <i>A +Midsummer-Night's Dream</i>, can be supposed to be due +to the author's having access to Yonge's translation in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Early English</span>manuscript, especially since there is no other trace of +Spanish influence.</p> + + + +<p>The conclusion with regard to Italian and Spanish, +then, seems to be that Shakespeare in his search for +plots was aware of the riches of the <i>novelle</i>, but that +he found what he wanted as a rule in English or +French versions; and that we have no evidence of +his knowledge of anything but fiction from these +literatures.</p> + +<p>Turning now to English, we find Shakespeare's +knowledge of books in his own tongue beginning after +the Conquest. The romances of the Middle Ages were +in the Elizabethan time rapidly undergoing the process +of degradation that was soon to end in the chap-books, +but the material was still widely known. The particular +versions read by the dramatist can rarely be determined +on account of the slight nature of most of the references, +but we find allusions to the Arthurian romances, to +<i>Guy of Warwick</i>, <i>Bevis of Hampton</i>, <i>The Squire of Low +Degree</i>, Roland and Oliver, and to <i>Huon of Bordeaux</i>, +from which last came the name of Oberon as king +of the fairies. Among popular ballads, those of +Robin Hood are frequently alluded to; the story of +<i>King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid</i> appears in no fewer +than five plays; Hamlet knew a ballad on Jephtha's +daughter, and Sir Toby one on the chaste Susanna. +A large number of popular songs appear in fragments; +and rimes and spells, current jests and anecdotes, combine +with the fairy-lore of <i>A Midsummer-Night's Dream</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +<i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, and <i>The Merry Wives</i> to assure us +that Shakespeare was thoroughly versed in the literature +and traditions of the people.</p> + +<p>His acquaintance with more formal letters begins +with Chaucer, whose <i>Knight's Tale</i> contributed some +details to <i>A Midsummer-Night's Dream</i>, and the main +plot of <i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i>, in which Shakespeare is +now usually supposed to have had a hand. This story +had, however, been already dramatized by Richard +Edwardes. More certainly direct is his knowledge of +Chaucer's <i>Troilus</i>, which, with Caxton's <i>Recuyell of +the Historyes of Troye</i>, is the main source of <i>Troilus +and Cressida</i>. The references to the leprosy of Cressida +are due to Henryson's <i>Testament of Creseide</i>, a Scots +sequel to Chaucer's poem, printed in the sixteenth century +editions of the older poet's works. In the <i>Legend +of Good Women</i> he may have found the story of Pyramus, +and a version of the tragedy of Lucrece, to supplement +his main sources in Livy and Ovid. Chaucer's contemporary +Gower contributed to his stock the story of +Florent (<i>Taming of the Shrew</i>, I. ii. 69) from the <i>Confessio +Amantis</i>, and from the same collection a version of the +tale of <i>Apollonius of Tyre</i>, dramatized by Shakespeare +and another in <i>Pericles</i>.</p> + + + +<p>With the non-dramatic literature produced by Shakespeare's +contemporaries, we naturally find most evidence +of his acquaintance in the case of those books which +provided material for his plays. Thus the otherwise +obscure Arthur Brooke, whose poem <i>Romeus and Juliet</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Contemporary Literature</span>is the chief source of the tragedy, is much more prominent +in such an enumeration as the present than he +probably was in Shakespeare's view of the literature +of the day. Painter, whose version of the same story +in his <i>Palace of Pleasure</i> cannot be shown to have been +used much, if at all, by the dramatist, seems nevertheless +to have been known to him; and we hardly need +evidence that Shakespeare must have kept a watchful +eye on similar collections of stories, such as Whetstone's, +Riche's, and Pettie's. Of the greater writers of imaginative +literature there is none missing from the list of +those he knew, though, as has been implied, the evidence +is not always proportionate to the greatness; +and some prominent figures in other fields, such as +Hooker and Bacon, do not appear. Spenser, who is +supposed to have alluded to Shakespeare in <i>Colin Clout's +come home again</i> and, less probably, in <i>The Teares of +the Muses</i>, is in turn alluded to in <i>A Midsummer-Night's +Dream</i>, V. i. 52; and his version of the story of Lear in +<i>The Faerie Queene</i>, II. x, is believed to have given Shakespeare +his form of the name Cordelia. Evidence is more +abundant in the case of Sir Philip Sidney. The under-plot +of <i>King Lear</i> is based on the story of the blind king +of Paphlagonia in the <i>Arcadia</i>, and Sidney's sonnets, +along with those of Daniel, Drayton, Constable, Watson, +and Barnes, formed the main channel through which +the French and Italian influences reached Shakespeare's. +However we may estimate the original element in his +sonnets, and in our opinion it is very great, there is no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +question of the author's having had a thorough familiarity +with contemporary sonnetteers.</p> + +<p>Similarly we can be certain that he had read many of +the elaborate narrative poems then in vogue, a class to +which he contributed <i>Venus and Adonis</i>, <i>Lucrece</i>, and +<i>A Lover's Complaint</i>. Daniel's <i>Rosamond</i> and Marlowe's +<i>Hero and Leander</i> especially have left many +traces, and Daniel's <i>Barons' Wars</i> is intimately related +to <i>Richard II</i> and <i>Henry IV</i>. The longer prose fictions +of the time he also watched, and Lyly's <i>Euphues</i> contributed +the germ of a number of passages, as Lodge's +<i>Rosalynde</i> and Greene's <i>Pandosto</i> supplied the plots of +<i>As You Like It</i> and <i>The Winter's Tale</i> respectively.</p> + +<p>Reference has already been made to his knowledge +of folk beliefs about fairies. To this should be added +other supernatural beliefs, especially as to ghosts, devils, +and witches, evidence of his familiarity with which will +occur to every one. Matters of this sort were much discussed +in his time, the frequency of ghosts in Senecan +plays having made them conspicuous in Elizabethan +imitations, and religious controversy having stimulated +interest in demonology. Several important books appeared +on the subject, and one of these at least Shakespeare +read, Harsnett's <i>Declaration of Egregious Popish +Impostures</i>, for from it Edgar, as Poor Tom in <i>King +Lear</i>, derived many of the names and phrases which +occur in his pretended ravings.</p> + +<p>The most useful book in all his reading, if we judge +by the amount of his work that is based on it, was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Contemporary Drama</span>the second edition of the <i>Chronicles of England, Scotland, +and Ireland</i>, compiled by Raphael Holinshed. +With it he used the work by Hall on <i>The Union of Lancaster +and York</i>, the <i>Chronicles</i> of Grafton and of Fabyan, +and the <i>Annals</i> of John Stowe. On these were based the +greater number of the historical plays, <i>Macbeth</i>, and the +political part of <i>Cymbeline</i>. In the case of <i>Henry VIII</i> +there should be added the <i>Acts and Monuments</i>, better +known as the <i>Book of Martyrs</i>, of John Foxe.</p> + + + +<p>To deal adequately with Shakespeare's reading in the +plays of his time would be to write a history of the +Elizabethan drama. Older dramatists, like Preston, +Gascoigne, and Whetstone, he knew, for he quotes +<i>Cambyses</i>, and from the two last he derives material for +the plots of <i>The Taming of the Shrew</i> and <i>Measure for +Measure</i>. Anonymous writers supplied the older plays +on which he based <i>King John, King Lear</i>, and <i>Hamlet</i>, +parts of <i>Henry V</i> and <i>VI</i>, and of <i>Richard III</i>, and +probably others. Allusions prove a familiarity with +all of Marlowe's dramas; <i>Hamlet</i> is indebted to the +tradition of which Kyd was one of the founders; Lyly +taught him much in the handling of light comic dialogue; +and he quotes lines from Peele. Greene's contribution +is less specifically marked; but Shakespeare's profession +of acting, as well as that of play-writing, of necessity +made him acquainted with the whole dramatic production +of the time. Thus, as has been stated in a previous +chapter, he acted in several of Jonson's plays, and a good +case has been made out for his modelling his last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +comedies on the new successes of Beaumont and +Fletcher.</p> + +<p>No Englishman of that day was insensible to what +was going on in exploration and conquest of the Western +World; and in <i>The Tempest</i>, <i>Othello</i>, and other plays +we have clear ground for stating that Shakespeare +shared this interest, and read books like Eden's <i>History +of Travayle in the West and East Indies</i>, Raleigh's <i>Discoverie +of Guiana</i>, and such pamphlets as were used in +the vast compilation of Richard Hakluyt. The scientific +knowledge implied in the plays reflects current beliefs, +and must have been derived from such works as Pliny, +<i>Batman uppon Bartholome his Booke De Proprietatibus +Rerum</i>, and from conversation.</p> + +<p>Finally, Shakespeare knew his Bible. Several volumes +have been written to exhibit the extent of this +knowledge, and it has been shown by Anders that he +knew both the Genevan and the Great Bible, as well +as the Prayer Book.</p> + +<p>Taken all together, the amount of literature indicated +by this summary account of the evidences in the plays +and poems abundantly proves the statement that +Shakespeare, if not a scholar, was a man of wide and +varied reading. When it is further considered that only +a fraction of what any author reads leaves a mark +that can be identified on what he writes, we shall readily +allow that in the matter of study Shakespeare showed an +activity and receptivity of mind that harmonizes with +the impression received from his creative work.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="sidenote">His Reading Typical</span></p> + +<p>It agrees with our impressions of him derived from +other sources also, that his reading reflects not so much +idiosyncrasies of taste as the prevalent literary interests +of the day. Thus in Latin literature the most conspicuous +author among general readers, as distinguished +from scholars, was Ovid, whose romantic narratives +appealed to a time which reveled in tales gathered from +all quarters; and this same prominence of Ovid has +been shown to exist among the classical authors known to +the dramatist. Similarly his use of chronicles like that +of Holinshed merely reflects a widespread interest in +national history; and Shakespeare shared the popular +interest in the translations of <i>novelle</i> and the like that +poured in from the Continent. The age of Elizabeth +was an age of great expansion in reading—especially +in the literature of entertainment. For the first time +since the introduction of printing the people were free +to indulge in books as a recreation, and the enormous +growth of publishing in this era indicates the response +to the new demand. In all this Shakespeare took part, +and the evidences appear in his works so far as the +nature of their themes permitted it. But the drama +gave no opportunity for anything but passing allusions +to scientific, philosophical, and religious matters, so +that direct evidence is lacking as to how far Shakespeare +was acquainted with what was being written in these +fields. On the other hand, the profundity of his insight +into human motive and behavior, the evidences of prolonged +and severe meditation on human life and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +ways of the world, and the richness of the philosophical +generalizations that lie just below the surface of his +greater plays, make it difficult to believe that in these +fields also he did not join in the intellectual activity of +his day.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> See the list in the appendix to Schmidt's <i><a href="#Page_255">Lexicon</a></i>.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Chronology and Development</span></h3> + + +<p>The value of a knowledge of the order in which an +author's works were composed no longer needs to be +argued. The development of power and skill which +such knowledge reveals is an important part of biography, +and an individual work is more surely interpreted +when we know the period and the circumstances +of the author's life in which it was written, and what +other works, by himself and his fellows, lie nearest +in point of time. Without a knowledge of chronology, +the indebtedness of contemporary authors to one +another and the growth of literary forms cannot be +determined.</p> + +<p>The fact, so often to be insisted upon, that at the +beginning of Shakespeare's career stage plays were +hardly regarded as literature at all and were not published +by their authors, deprives us of the evidence +usually afforded by date of publication. We are thus +forced to have recourse to a variety of more or less +casually recorded data, and to indications of differences +of maturity in style and matter which are often +much less clear than could be wished. Before giving +the results of the research that has been pursued for +a century and a half, it will be worth while to enumerate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +the most fruitful methods which have been employed, +and the sorts of evidence available.</p> + +<p>Of purely external evidence, the chief kinds are these: +records of the performance of plays in letters, diaries, +accounts, and the like; quotation, allusion, imitation, +or parody in other works; entries in the books of the +Master of the Revels at Court, and in the Register of +the Stationers' Company; dates on the title-pages of +the plays themselves; facts and traditions about the +life of the author; dates in the lives of actors and in +the careers of companies known to have performed the +plays, and in the histories of theaters in which they +were presented. Instances of some of these are the +manuscript which tells of a performance of <i>The Comedy +of Errors</i> at Gray's Inn in 1594; the diary of the quack, +Dr. Simon Forman, who witnessed performances of +<i>Macbeth, Cymbeline</i>, and <i>The Winter's Tale</i> at the +Globe in 1610 and 1611; the appreciation of Shakespeare, +with a list of a dozen plays by him, in the <i>Palladis +Tamia</i><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> of Francis Meres, 1598; and the pamphlets +on Somers's voyage to Virginia, which offered +suggestions for <i>The Tempest</i>.</p> + +<p>Partly external and partly internal are the evidences +derived from allusions in the plays to current events, +personal or political, such as the reference in the +Prologue to <i>Henry V</i> to the expedition of Essex +to Ireland in 1599; references to other books, like the +quotation from Marlowe in <i>As You Like It</i>, III. v. 82;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Kinds of Evidence</span>references from one play of Shakespeare's to another, +like the promise in the Epilogue to <i>2 Henry IV</i> to +"continue the story, with Sir John in it, and make +you merry with fair Katherine of France."</p> + + + +<p>The purely internal evidence is seldom as specific +as the external, and requires to be handled with much +judgment and caution. Most difficult in this class +is the weighing of considerations of a moral or esthetic +nature; for, though these are often powerful in their +effect on the individual reader, they are usually incapable +of proof to another person with different +tastes and a different point of view. Of such tests, +those afforded by a study of the methods used in the +treatment of plot and in the development of character +are perhaps the least subjective. Somewhat more +palpable are the changing characteristics of style. +The number and nature of classical allusions and Latin +words and quotations; the kind and degree of elaboration +of figures of speech, puns, conceits, and the like; +diffuseness or concentration in the expression of thought; +artificiality or lifelikeness in the treatment of dialogue; +the use of prose or verse; the employment of oaths, +checked by statute shortly after the accession of +James I: these are the main aspects of style which +can be used in determining, not exact dates, but the +period of Shakespeare's activity within which a given +work falls. More capable of mechanical calculation +than the tests of either matter or style are those derived +from changes in versification, though here too<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +there is often a subjective element in the reckoning. +The more important metrical tests include the following: +the frequency of rhyme, whether in the heroic +couplet or, as not uncommonly occurs in early plays, +in alternates and even such elaborate arrangements +as the sonnet; doggerel lines; alexandrines, or lines +of twelve syllables; the presence of an extra syllable +before a pause within the line; short lines, especially +at the end of speeches; the substitution of other feet +for the regular iambic movement of blank verse; +weak and light endings; and, most valuable, the position +of the pause in the line ("end-stopped" or "run on"), +and feminine endings or hypermetrical lines, such as</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"These many summers in a sea of glor-y."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Many of these variable features were not consciously +manipulated by the author; and, even when a general +drift in a certain direction is clearly observable in his +practice with regard to them, it is not to be assumed +that his progress was perfectly regular, without leaps +forward and occasional returns to an earlier usage. +It is to be noted also that the subject and atmosphere +of a particular play might induce a metrical treatment +of a special kind, in which case the verse tests would +yield evidence not primarily chronological at all. +Nevertheless, when all allowances have been made and +all due caution exercised, it will be found that the indications +of the versification corroborate and supplement +the external evidences in a valuable way.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p> + + + +<p><span class="sidenote">Metrical Tests</span></p> +<h3 class="moretop">TABLE I</h3> + + + + + + +<div class='center'> +<table class="dat" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="lnlt"> </td><td class="lnrt">Total<br />No. of<br />Lines</td><td class="lnrt">Prose</td><td class="lnrt">Blank<br />Verse</td><td class="lnrt">Penta-<br />meter<br />Rhymes</td><td class="lnrt">%<br />Blank<br />Verse<br />w. Fem.<br />Endings</td><td class="lnrt">%<br />Run-on<br />Lines</td><td class="lnrt">%<br />Speeches<br />Ending<br />within<br />the Line</td><td class="lnrt">No. of<br />Light<br />and Weak<br />Endings</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">L. L. L.</td><td class="lnrl">2789</td><td class="lnrl">1086</td><td class="lnrl">579</td><td class="lnrl">1028</td><td class="lnrl">7.7</td><td class="lnrl">18.4</td><td class="lnrl">10.0</td><td class="lnrl">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">C. of E.</td><td class="lnrl">1770</td><td class="lnrl">240</td><td class="lnrl">1150</td><td class="lnrl">380</td><td class="lnrl">16.6</td><td class="lnrl">12.9</td><td class="lnrl">0.6</td><td class="lnrl">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">T. G. V.</td><td class="lnrl">2060</td><td class="lnrl">409</td><td class="lnrl">1510</td><td class="lnrl">116</td><td class="lnrl">18.4</td><td class="lnrl">12.4</td><td class="lnrl">5.8</td><td class="lnrl">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">R. III</td><td class="lnrl">3599</td><td class="lnrl">55</td><td class="lnrl">3374</td><td class="lnrl">170</td><td class="lnrl">19.5</td><td class="lnrl">13.1</td><td class="lnrl">2.9</td><td class="lnrl">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">K. J.</td><td class="lnrl">2553</td><td class="lnrl">2403</td><td class="lnrl">150</td><td class="lnrl">6.3</td><td class="lnrl">17.7</td><td class="lnrl">12.7</td><td class="lnrl">7</td><td class="lnrl">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">R. & J.</td><td class="lnrl">3002</td><td class="lnrl">405</td><td class="lnrl">2111</td><td class="lnrl">486</td><td class="lnrl">8.2</td><td class="lnrl">14.2</td><td class="lnrl">14.9</td><td class="lnrl">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">M. N. D.</td><td class="lnrl">2251</td><td class="lnrl">441</td><td class="lnrl">878</td><td class="lnrl">731</td><td class="lnrl">7.3</td><td class="lnrl">13.2</td><td class="lnrl">17.3</td><td class="lnrl">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">R. II</td><td class="lnrl">2644</td><td class="lnrl">2107</td><td class="lnrl">537</td><td class="lnrl">11.0</td><td class="lnrl">19.9</td><td class="lnrl">7.3</td><td class="lnrl">4</td><td class="lnrl">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">Merch.</td><td class="lnrl">2705</td><td class="lnrl">673</td><td class="lnrl">1896</td><td class="lnrl">93</td><td class="lnrl">17.6</td><td class="lnrl">21.5</td><td class="lnrl">22.2</td><td class="lnrl">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">1 Hy. IV</td><td class="lnrl">3170</td><td class="lnrl">1464</td><td class="lnrl">1622</td><td class="lnrl">84</td><td class="lnrl">5.1</td><td class="lnrl">22.8</td><td class="lnrl">14.2</td><td class="lnrl">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">2 Hy. IV</td><td class="lnrl">3437</td><td class="lnrl">1860</td><td class="lnrl">1417</td><td class="lnrl">74</td><td class="lnrl">16.3</td><td class="lnrl">21.4</td><td class="lnrl">16.8</td><td class="lnrl">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">M. W. W.</td><td class="lnrl">3018</td><td class="lnrl">2703</td><td class="lnrl">227</td><td class="lnrl">69</td><td class="lnrl">27.2</td><td class="lnrl">20.1</td><td class="lnrl">20.5</td><td class="lnrl">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">Hy. V</td><td class="lnrl">3320</td><td class="lnrl">1531</td><td class="lnrl">1678</td><td class="lnrl">101</td><td class="lnrl">20.5</td><td class="lnrl">21.8</td><td class="lnrl">18.3</td><td class="lnrl">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">M. Ado.</td><td class="lnrl">2823</td><td class="lnrl">2106</td><td class="lnrl">643</td><td class="lnrl">40</td><td class="lnrl">22.9</td><td class="lnrl">19.3</td><td class="lnrl">20.7</td><td class="lnrl">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">J. C.</td><td class="lnrl">2440</td><td class="lnrl">165</td><td class="lnrl">2241</td><td class="lnrl">34</td><td class="lnrl">19.7</td><td class="lnrl">19.3</td><td class="lnrl">20.3</td><td class="lnrl">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">A. Y. L. I.</td><td class="lnrl">2904</td><td class="lnrl">1681</td><td class="lnrl">925</td><td class="lnrl">71</td><td class="lnrl">25.5</td><td class="lnrl">17.1</td><td class="lnrl">21.6</td><td class="lnrl">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">T. N.</td><td class="lnrl">2684</td><td class="lnrl">1741</td><td class="lnrl">763</td><td class="lnrl">120</td><td class="lnrl">25.6</td><td class="lnrl">14.7</td><td class="lnrl">36.3</td><td class="lnrl">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">T. & C.</td><td class="lnrl">3423</td><td class="lnrl">1186</td><td class="lnrl">2025</td><td class="lnrl">196</td><td class="lnrl">23.8</td><td class="lnrl">27.4</td><td class="lnrl">31.3</td><td class="lnrl">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">A. W. W.</td><td class="lnrl">2981</td><td class="lnrl">1453</td><td class="lnrl">1234</td><td class="lnrl">280</td><td class="lnrl">29.4</td><td class="lnrl">28.4</td><td class="lnrl">74.0</td><td class="lnrl">13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">Hml.</td><td class="lnrl">3924</td><td class="lnrl">1208</td><td class="lnrl">2490</td><td class="lnrl">81</td><td class="lnrl">22.6</td><td class="lnrl">23.1</td><td class="lnrl">51.6</td><td class="lnrl">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">Meas.</td><td class="lnrl">2809</td><td class="lnrl">1134</td><td class="lnrl">1574</td><td class="lnrl">73</td><td class="lnrl">26.1</td><td class="lnrl">23.0</td><td class="lnrl">51.4</td><td class="lnrl">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">Oth.</td><td class="lnrl">3324</td><td class="lnrl">541</td><td class="lnrl">2672</td><td class="lnrl">86</td><td class="lnrl">28.1</td><td class="lnrl">19.5</td><td class="lnrl">41.4</td><td class="lnrl">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">Lear.</td><td class="lnrl">3298</td><td class="lnrl">903</td><td class="lnrl">2238</td><td class="lnrl">74</td><td class="lnrl">28.5</td><td class="lnrl">29.3</td><td class="lnrl">60.9</td><td class="lnrl">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">Mcb.</td><td class="lnrl">1993</td><td class="lnrl">158</td><td class="lnrl">1588</td><td class="lnrl">118</td><td class="lnrl">26.3</td><td class="lnrl">36.6</td><td class="lnrl">77.2</td><td class="lnrl">23</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">A. & C.</td><td class="lnrl">3064</td><td class="lnrl">255</td><td class="lnrl">2761</td><td class="lnrl">42</td><td class="lnrl">26.5</td><td class="lnrl">43.3</td><td class="lnrl">77.5</td><td class="lnrl">99</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">Cor.</td><td class="lnrl">3392</td><td class="lnrl">829</td><td class="lnrl">2521</td><td class="lnrl">42</td><td class="lnrl">28.4</td><td class="lnrl">45.9</td><td class="lnrl">79.0</td><td class="lnrl">104</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">Cym.</td><td class="lnrl">3448</td><td class="lnrl">638</td><td class="lnrl">2505</td><td class="lnrl">107</td><td class="lnrl">30.7</td><td class="lnrl">46.0</td><td class="lnrl">85.0</td><td class="lnrl">130</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">W. T.</td><td class="lnrl">2750</td><td class="lnrl">844</td><td class="lnrl">1825</td><td class="lnrl">32.9</td><td class="lnrl">37.5</td><td class="lnrl">87.6</td><td class="lnrl">100</td><td class="lnrl">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">Tmp.</td><td class="lnrl">2068</td><td class="lnrl">458</td><td class="lnrl">1458</td><td class="lnrl">2</td><td class="lnrl">35.4</td><td class="lnrl">41.5</td><td class="lnrl">84.5</td><td class="lnrl">67</td></tr> +<tr><td class="topiii" colspan="9"> </td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p> + + +<h3 class="moretop">TABLE II</h3> + +<p class="oh"><span class="smcap">Collaborated Plays</span></p> + +<div class='center'> +<table class="dat" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="lnlt"> </td><td class="lnrt">Total<br />No. of<br />Lines</td><td class="lnrt">Prose</td><td class="lnrt">Blank<br />Verse</td><td class="lnrt">Penta-<br />meter<br />Rhymes</td><td class="lnrt">%<br />Blank<br />Verse<br />w. Fem.<br />Endings</td><td class="lnrt">%<br />Run-on<br />Lines</td><td class="lnrt">%<br />Speeches<br />Ending<br />within<br />the Line</td><td class="lnrt">No. of<br />Light<br />and Weak<br />Endings</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">1 Hy. VI</td><td class="lnrl">2693</td><td class="lnrl">0</td><td class="lnrl">2379</td><td class="lnrl">314</td><td class="lnrl">8.2</td><td class="lnrl">10.4</td><td class="lnrl">0.5</td><td class="lnrl">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">2 Hy. VI</td><td class="lnrl">3032</td><td class="lnrl">448</td><td class="lnrl">2562</td><td class="lnrl">122</td><td class="lnrl">13.7</td><td class="lnrl">11.4</td><td class="lnrl">1.1</td><td class="lnrl">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">3 Hy. VI</td><td class="lnrl">2904</td><td class="lnrl">0</td><td class="lnrl">2749</td><td class="lnrl">155</td><td class="lnrl">13.7</td><td class="lnrl">9.5</td><td class="lnrl">0.9</td><td class="lnrl">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">T. And.</td><td class="lnrl">2525</td><td class="lnrl">43</td><td class="lnrl">2338</td><td class="lnrl">144</td><td class="lnrl">8.6</td><td class="lnrl">12.0</td><td class="lnrl">2.5</td><td class="lnrl">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">T. of S.</td><td class="lnrl">2671</td><td class="lnrl">516</td><td class="lnrl">1971</td><td class="lnrl">169</td><td class="lnrl">17.7</td><td class="lnrl">8.1</td><td class="lnrl">3.6</td><td class="lnrl">14</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">T. of A.</td><td class="lnrl">2358</td><td class="lnrl">596</td><td class="lnrl">1560</td><td class="lnrl">184</td><td class="lnrl">24.7</td><td class="lnrl">32.5</td><td class="lnrl">62.8</td><td class="lnrl">30 (S)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">Per.</td><td class="lnrl">2386</td><td class="lnrl">418</td><td class="lnrl">1436</td><td class="lnrl">225</td><td class="lnrl">20.2</td><td class="lnrl">18.2</td><td class="lnrl">71.0</td><td class="lnrl">82 (S)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">Hy. VIII</td><td class="lnrl">2754</td><td class="lnrl">67</td><td class="lnrl">2613</td><td class="lnrl">16</td><td class="lnrl">47.3</td><td class="lnrl">46.3</td><td class="lnrl">72.4</td><td class="lnrl">84 (S)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nol">T. N. K.</td><td class="lnrl">2734</td><td class="lnrl">179</td><td class="lnrl">2468</td><td class="lnrl">54</td><td class="lnrl">43.7</td><td class="lnrl"> </td><td class="lnrl"> </td><td class="lnrl"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="topiii" colspan="9"> </td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>The accompanying Tables<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> give the detailed results +of investigations along these lines, and a study of the +data therein contained will reveal both their possibilities +and their limitations. In Tables I and II the +order of the plays is approximately that of the dates of +their composition (virtually the same as the dates of +first performance). The second and third columns +cannot be regarded as giving any clue to chronology, +except that they show that in the dramas written +under the influence of Marlowe prose is comparatively<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Metrical Tests</span>rare. Elsewhere Shakespeare employed prose for a +variety of purposes: for low comedy, as in the tavern +scenes in <i>Henry IV</i>, and the scenes in which Sir Toby +figures in <i>Twelfth Night</i>; for repartee, as in the wit-combats +of Beatrice and Benedick; for purely intellectual +and moralizing speeches, such as Hamlet's over +the skull of Yorick. On the other hand, highly emotional +scenes are usually in verse, as are romantic passages +like the conversation of Lorenzo and Jessica in the +moonlight at Belmont, or the dialogues of Fenton and +Anne Page, which contrast with the realistic prose of +the rest of the <i>Merry Wives</i> and also the artificial pastoralism +of Silvius and Phœbe in <i>As You Like It</i>. Few +absolute rules can be laid down in the matter, but study +of Shakespeare's practice reveals an admirable tact +in his choice of medium.</p> + +<p>The frequency of rhyme, as shown in the fourth +column, has more relation to date. While there is no +very steady gradation, it is clear that in his earlier +plays he used rhyme freely, while at the close of his +career he had practically abandoned it. The large +number of rhymes in <i>A Midsummer-Night's Dream</i> and +<i>Romeo and Juliet</i> is accounted for mainly by the prevailing +lyrical tone of a great part of these plays, while, +on the other hand, in <i>All's Well</i> it probably points +to survivals of an earlier first form of this comedy. +It ought to be noted that, in the figures given here, +the rhyming lines in the play scene in <i>Hamlet</i>, the +vision in <i>Cymbeline</i>, the masque in <i>The Tempest</i>, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +the Prologue and Epilogue of <i>Henry VIII</i> are not +reckoned.</p> + +<p>More significant are the percentages in columns +five, six, and seven. Before 1598, feminine endings +never reach twenty per cent of the total number of +pentameter lines; after that date they are practically +always above that number, and show a fairly steady +increase to the thirty-five per cent of <i>The Tempest</i>. +The variations of run-on lines (which, of course, carry +with them the frequency of pauses within the line, +and inversely the growing rarity of end-stopped +lines) are closely parallel to those of the feminine +endings; while the increase in the proportion of speeches +ending within the line is still more striking. In <i>The +Comedy of Errors</i> this phenomenon hardly occurs at all; +in <i>The Tempest</i> it happens in over eighty-four per cent +of the speeches, the increase being especially regular +after 1598. Yet in some cases other causes are operative. +Thus cuts and revisions of plays were apt to +leave broken lines at the ends of speeches, and the +comparatively high percentages in <i>Love's Labour's +Lost</i>, <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, and <i>All's Well</i> are probably in +part due to these causes.</p> + +<p>The phenomena recorded in the last column are +peculiar. Previous to the date of <i>Macbeth</i> it appears +that Shakespeare practically avoided ending a line +with light or weak words such as prepositions, conjunctions, +and auxiliary verbs, but that from about 1606 +to the end he employed them in proportions ranging<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Risks of Error</span>from 3.53 per cent in <i>Antony and Cleopatra</i> to 7.14 +per cent in his part of <i>Henry VIII</i>.</p> + + + +<p>The figures for plays not wholly written by Shakespeare +are naturally less significant, and have therefore +been given separately; yet, on the whole, they show +the same general tendencies in the use of meter.</p> + +<p>It will be observed that while the developments +suggested by the different columns are fairly consistent, +they do not absolutely agree in any two cases, and +can obviously be used, as has been said, only to corroborate +other evidence in placing a play in a period, +not to fix a precise year. Further, in the calculations +involved, there are many doubtful cases calling for +the exercise of individual judgment, especially as to +what constitutes a run-on line, or a light or weak +ending. Thus Professor Bradley differs from König +in several cases as to the figures given in the seventh +column, counting the percentage of speeches ending +within the line as 57 for <i>Hamlet</i>, 54 for <i>Othello</i>, 69 for +<i>King Lear</i>, and 75 for <i>Macbeth</i>. For Acts III, IV, and +V of <i>Pericles</i>, the 71 per cent is Bradley's, for which +König's 17.1 is clearly a mistake. Serious as are such +discrepancies, and suggestive of a need for a general +re-counting of all the more significant phenomena, they +are not so great as to shake the faith of any scholar +who has seriously studied the matter in the usefulness +of metrical tests as an aid in the settling of the chronology.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p> + +<h3 class="moretop">TABLE III</h3> + +<div class='center'> +<table class="dat" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="nlt">Periods</td><td class="nct" colspan="2">Comedies</td><td class="nct" colspan="2">Histories</td><td class="nct" colspan="2">Tragedies</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nvc">I</td><td class="nva">L. L. L.<br />C. of E.<br />T. G. of V.</td><td class="nvb">1591<br />1591<br />1591-2<br /><br /></td><td class="nva">1 Hy. VI<br />2 Hy. VI<br />3 Hy. VI<br />R. III<br />K. J.</td><td class="nvb">1590-1<br />1590-2<br />1590-2<br />1593<br />1593<br /></td><td class="nva"><br /><br /><br /><br />T. And.</td><td class="nvb"><br /><br /><br /><br />1593-4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nvc">II</td><td class="nva">M. N. D.<br />M. of V.<br />T. of S.<br />M. W. of W.<br />M. Ado<br />A. Y. L. I.<br />Tw. N.</td><td class="nvb">1594-5<br />1595-6<br />1596-7<br />1598<br />1599<br />1599-1600<br />1601</td><td class="nva">R. II<br /><br />1 Hy. IV<br />2 Hy. IV<br />Hy. V</td><td class="nvb">1595<br /><br />1597<br />1598<br />1599</td><td class="nva">R. and J.<br /><br /><br /><br />J. Cæs.</td><td class="nvb">1594-5<br /><br /><br /><br />1599</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nvc">III</td><td class="nva">T. & C.<br />A. Well<br />Meas.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Per.</td><td class="nvb">1601-2<br />1602<br />1603<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />1607-8</td><td class="nva"> </td><td class="nvb"> </td><td class="nva"> <br /> <br />Ham.<br />Oth.<br />Lear<br />Mach.<br />T. of Ath.<br />A. & Cl.<br />Cor.</td><td class="nvb"> <br /> <br />1602, 1603<br />1604<br />1605-6<br />1606<br />1607<br />1607-8<br />1609</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nvc">IV</td><td class="nva">Cymb.<br />W. Tale<br />Temp.<br />T. N. K.</td><td class="nvb">1610<br />1611<br />1611<br />1612-13</td><td class="nva"><br /><br /><br />Hy. VIII</td><td class="nvb"><br /><br /><br />1612</td><td class="nva"> </td><td class="nvb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="topii" colspan="7"> </td></tr> +</table></div> + + + + + + + +<p>Table III gives a summary of the results of all the +kinds of evidence available as recorded in the introduction +to individual plays in the Tudor Shakespeare. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">First Period</span>classification into Comedies, Histories, and Tragedies +draws attention at once to the changes in the type +of drama on which Shakespeare concentrated his +main attention, and suggests the usual division of +his activity into four periods. In the first of these, +extending from the beginning of his writing (perhaps +earlier than 1590) to the end of 1593, he attempted +practically all the forms of drama then in vogue. +Plays which were given him to revise, or in which he +was invited to collaborate, may naturally be supposed +to have preceded independent efforts, and his still +undetermined share in <i>Henry VI</i> is usually regarded +as his earliest dramatic production. What he learned +in this field of tragic history from his more experienced +fellows may be seen in <i>Richard III</i>, in which +he can be observed following in the footsteps of Marlowe +in the treatment of meter, in the rhetorical and lyrical +nature of the dialogue, and in the conception of the +central character. Even less of his individual quality +is to be discerned in the field of tragedy, for the most +that can be claimed for him in <i>Titus Andronicus</i> is +the re-combination of the repellent episodes of that +crude specimen of the tragedy of blood, and the rewriting +of the lines which occasionally cloak the horrors +with passages of poetry. If, as is unlikely, the first +form of <i>Romeo and Juliet</i> was written in this period, +the extant form must show it so radically revised that +it leaves us little ground for generalization as to his +power in tragedy in this first period.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p> + +<p>It was in comedy that Shakespeare first showed +originality. <i>Love's Labour's Lost</i> is one of the few plays +whose plots seem to have been due to his own invention; +and full of sparkle and grace as it is, it bears +obvious marks of the <i>tour de force</i>, the young writer's +conscious testing of his powers in social satire, in comic +situation, and most of all in verbal mastery and the +manipulation of dialogue. In <i>The Comedy of Errors</i> +he had the advantage of a definite model in the well-defined +type of the Plautian comedy; but here again +in the doubling of the twins and the elaboration of +the entanglements there are traces of the beginner's +delight in technic for its own sake. The clearly contrasted +types in the two pairs of heroes and heroines +of <i>The Two Gentlemen of Verona</i> point to a conscious +effort in characterization, as the author's attention +had been concentrated on dialogue and on situation +in the other two comedies of this group. Thus, regarding +the variety of kind and the nature of his +achievement in these first eight or nine plays, we can +hardly fail to acquiesce in the general opinion that +views the first period as one of experiment.</p> + + + +<p>The chronicle history was the Elizabethan dramatic +form whose possibilities were first exhausted. <i>King +John</i> had been only a making over of an earlier work, +and perhaps the most significant single change Shakespeare +made was the excision of the anti-Romanist +bias which in the older play had made John a Protestant +hero. Yet this history voices, too, in the speeches of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Second Period</span>Faulconbridge, that patriotic enthusiasm which finds +fuller expression in the dying Gaunt's eulogy of England +in <i>Richard II</i>, and culminates in the triumphant heroics +of <i>Henry V</i>. This national enthusiasm, especially +ebullient in the years following the Great Armada, +is justly to be regarded as an important condition of +the flourishing of these plays on English history; and +it is natural to suppose that the ebbing of this spirit +in the closing years of Elizabeth's reign is not unconnected +with the decline of this dramatic type. +There are, however, other causes clearly perceptible. +The material was nearly exhausted. Almost every +prominent national figure for the three hundred years +before the founding of the Tudor dynasty had been +put upon the stage; and to come down to more recent +times was to meddle with matters of controversy, +the ashes of which were not yet cold. The reign of +Henry VIII was not touched till after the death of +Elizabeth, and the nature of the treatment given to +the court of her father by Shakespeare and Fletcher +corroborates our view. Further, the growing mastery +of technic which is so clearly perceptible in the +comedies of the second period must have been accompanied +by a restlessness under the hampering +conditions as to the manipulation of character and +plot which were imposed by the less plastic material +of the chronicles. Some effort towards greater freedom +the dramatist made in the later histories. The earlier +plays of this class had been prevailingly tragic; but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +now he supplemented and enlivened the political +element with the comic scenes which gave us Falstaff; +yet these scenes, brilliant as they are in dialogue and +superb in characterization, are of necessity little more +than episodes. The form had served its purpose as an +outlet for national feeling, but it was now outgrown. +So distinguished, however, is Shakespeare's achievement +in this kind that we might be almost justified +in calling this second period that of the culmination +of the chronicle history.</p> + +<p>The main objection to this title lies in his contemporary +accomplishment in comedy. <i>A Midsummer-Night's +Dream</i> and <i>The Merchant of Venice</i>, the one in +its graceful poetic fancy and dainty lyricism, the other +in its balanced treatment of all the elements of dramatic +effectiveness—action, character, and dialogue,—exhibit +the dramatist in complete control of his technical +instruments, the creator of masterpieces of romantic +comedy. <i>The Taming of the Shrew</i> is a more or less +perfunctory revision, probably in collaboration, of +an older farce comedy; <i>The Merry Wives of Windsor</i> +bears on its face corroboration of the tradition that it +was written to order in a fortnight. The power in +high comedy first fully shown in <i>The Merchant of +Venice</i> reaches its supreme pitch in the three plays +composed at the turn of the century, <i>Much Ado about +Nothing</i>, <i>As You Like It</i>, and <i>Twelfth Night</i>. In each +of these a romantic love-tale, laid in some remote +holiday world, is taken up, given a specific atmosphere,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Third Period</span>acted out by a group of delightful creations who are +endowed with intellect, wit, and natural affection, +bathed in poetic imagination, and yet handled with +sufficient naturalism to awaken and hold our human +sympathies. No more purely delightful form of dramatic +art has ever been contrived; none has ever been +treated so as to yield more fully its appropriate charm; +so that in view of the completeness of the artist's +success we are bound to call the period which closed +with the first year of the seventeenth century the triumph +of comedy.</p> + + + +<p><i>Julius Cæsar</i>, the first of the plays dealing with +Roman history, may have been written before 1600, +but, whether it preceded <i>Hamlet</i> by one year or three, +it forms a gradual introduction to the group of the great +tragedies. Masterly as it is in its delineation of types, +rich in political wisdom and the knowledge of human +nature, splendid in rhetoric, it still fails to rise to the +intensity of passion that marks the succeeding dramas. +In <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Othello</i>, <i>King Lear</i>, and <i>Macbeth</i>, Shakespeare +at length faced the great fundamental forces that +operate in individual, family, and social life, realized +especially those that make for moral and physical +disaster, took account alike of the deepest tendencies +in character and of the mystery of external fate or +accident, exhibited these in action and reaction, in +their simplicity and their complexity, and wrought out +a series of spectacles of the pity and terror of human +suffering and human sin without parallel in the modern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +world. In these stupendous tragedies he availed +himself of all the powers with which he was endowed +and all the skill which he had acquired. His verse +has liberated itself from the formalism and monotony +that had marked it in the earlier plays, and is now +free, varied, responsive to every mood and every +type of passion; the language is laden almost to the +breaking point with the weight of thought; the dialogue +ranges from the lightest irony to heart-rending pathos +and intolerable denunciation; the characters lose all +semblance of artificial creations and challenge criticism +and analysis like any personage in history; the action +is pregnant with the profoundest significance. Hardly, +if at all, less powerful are the later tragedies of the +Roman group. <i>Antony and Cleopatra</i> is unsurpassed +for the intensity of its picture of passion, for its superb +mastery of language, for its relentless truth. The +more somber scenes of <i>Coriolanus</i> convey a tragedy +which either on its personal or its political side scarcely +yields to its predecessors in poignancy and gloom. +Whatever else he may have written in these years, +here is surely the period of tragedy.</p> + +<p>Nor do the plays classed as comedies and falling in +the first three years of the new century seriously modify +this impression of the prevailing tone of the period. +<i>Troilus and Cressida</i>, <i>All's Well that Ends Well</i>, and +<i>Measure for Measure</i> present a marked contrast to the +romantic comedy of the preceding stage. The love-story +of the first deals with a coquette and ends sordidly;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Fourth Period</span>while in the political plot, though it gives occasion for +speeches full of weighty thinking, jealousy and intrigue +overwhelm the heroic element. The second, alone of +Shakespeare's comedies, has a hero who is a rake; and, +skilful as is the delineation of Helena, it needs all the +dramatist's power to hold our sympathy and to force +us to an unwilling assent to the title. <i>Measure for +Measure</i> has its scene laid in a city seething in moral +corruption: out of this rises the central situation of +the play; and the presence of the most idealistic of +Shakespeare's heroines does not avail to counterbalance +the atmosphere of sin and death that mocks +the conventional happy ending, and makes this play, +even more than the two others, seem more in place +among the tragedies than among the comedies.</p> + + + +<p>The plays of the last period are, in the Folio, classed +with comedies, and such no doubt they are if judged +merely by the nature of their dénouements. But if +we consider their characteristic note, and the fact that +through the greater part of each play the forces and +passions involved are rather those operative in tragedy +than in comedy, we easily perceive why they have +been classed as tragi-comedies or dramatic romances. +<i>Pericles</i> in many respects stands apart from the other +three in nature as well as in date, for it is a dramatization +of an old Greek romance, and in it the hand of +another than Shakespeare is only too evident. Yet +it shares with the others certain common features: +like <i>The Tempest</i> it has scenes at sea; all four deal with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +the separation and reuniting of families; all show us +sympathetic figures deeply wronged and finally overcoming +their injurers by forgiveness. The abounding +high spirits of the earlier comedies are here replaced +by a mood of calm assurance of the ultimate triumph +of good and a placid faith that survives a rude acquaintance +with the evil that is in men's hearts. No period +has a more distinctive quality than this of the dramatic +romances, in which the dramatist, on the eve of his +retirement from London, gave his imagination free +play, and in both character and action stamped his +last creations with the mark of a lofty idealism.</p> + + + +<p>The obvious fitness of this fourfold division into +periods inevitably raises the question of its causes, and +attempts at an answer have run along two main lines. +One of these has been followed out with much eloquence +and persuasiveness by Professor Dowden, whose phrases +"In the Workshop," "In the World," "In the Depths," +"On the Heights," to describe the four periods, point +clearly enough to the kind of significance which he finds +in the changes in mood and type of play. With the +first of these phrases few will be disposed to quarrel. +In his period of experiment Shakespeare's style was +as yet comparatively unformed, and his attention +was so much occupied with problems of technic that +even the most psychological of critics finds here little +revelation of personality, and must be content to +describe the stage as one of professional apprenticeship. +In the terms used of the three later periods, however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Interpretation of Periods</span>there is an implication that the tone and mood of the +plays in each are the direct reflection of the emotional +experiences through which the poet himself was passing +at the period of their composition. But this is to +take for granted a theory of the relation between +artist and production which has against it the general +testimony of creator and critic alike. It is not at the +pitch of an emotional experience that an artist successfully +transmutes his life into art, but in retrospect, +when his recollective imagination reproduces his mood +in a form capable of being expressed without being +dissipated. Of course, Shakespeare must have lived +and enjoyed and suffered intensely; but this does not +commit us to a belief in an immediate turning to account +of personal experience in the writing of drama. His +boy, Hamnet, died in 1596, about the time that he was +writing <i>The Merchant of Venice</i> and the rollicking farce +of <i>The Taming of the Shrew</i>, and just before he conceived +Falstaff; it was fourteen years later that he gave us +the pathetic figure of the young Mamillius in <i>The +Winter's Tale</i>. From all we know of his personal life, +the years of <i>King Lear</i> and <i>Othello</i> were years of abounding +prosperity. The <i>lacrimæ rerum</i> that touch the +mind in these stupendous tragedies are the outcome +of profound meditation and vivid imagination, not the +accompaniment of a cry of instant pain. However we are +to reconstruct the spiritual biography of Shakespeare, it +is clear that it is by no such simple reading of his life +in terms of his treatment of comic or tragic themes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p> + +<p>The other line of explanation will suggest itself to +any thoughtful student who contemplates the facts +summed up in Chapter V on the Elizabethan drama. +Whatever Shakespeare's preëminence in the quality +of his work, he was not singular for innovations in +kind. Not only are the plays of his experimental stage +preceded by models easily discerned, but throughout his +career one can see him eagerly taking up and developing +varieties of drama on which less capable men had +stumbled and for which the public had shown relish. +Chronicle history, romantic comedy, tragedies of blood +and revenge, dramatic romance, had all been invented +by others, and Shakespeare never hesitated to follow +their trail when it promised to lead to popular success. +This does not mean that he did not put conscience into +his work, but only that the change in type of play +perceptible from period to period is more safely to be +explained by changes of theatrical fashion and public +taste than by conjectures as to the inner life of the +dramatist. Nor are we prevented from finding here +too that great good fortune as to occasion and opportunity +that is needed, along with whatever natural +endowment, to explain the achievement of Shakespeare. +The return of the vogue of tragedy after he had attained +maturity and seen life was indeed happy for him and +for us; as was the rise of the imaginative type of +dramatic romance when the storm and stress of his +youth had gone by. Had the theatrical demand +called for tragedy when Shakespeare was in the early<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Dates of the Poems</span>thirties and light comedy when he was in the forties, +it seems likely that he would have responded to the +demand, though we can hardly suppose that the +result would have been as fortunate as in the existing +state of things it proved to be.</p> + + + +<p>The foregoing discussion has been confined to +Shakespeare's plays; the poems present problems of +their own. <i>Venus and Adonis</i> (1593) and <i>Lucrece</i> +(1594), indeed, resemble the plays of the first period, +with which they are contemporary, both in conforming +to a familiar type then much in vogue, the re-telling +in ornate style of classical legends drawn chiefly from +Ovid, and in exhibiting marks of the conscious exercise +of technical dexterity. They show the Shakespeare of +the dramas mainly in their revelation of a remarkable +power of detailed observation and their richness of +phrase and fluency of versification. Vivid and eloquent +though they are, they can hardly be regarded as affording +a sure prophecy of the passion and power of characterization +that mark his mature dramatic production.</p> + +<p>The case of the <i>Sonnets</i> is very different. From +Meres's mention of them in 1598 we know that some +had been written and were being circulated in manuscript +by that date, and certain critics have sought to +assign the main body of them to the first half of the last +decade of the sixteenth century. But they were not +published till 1609, and many of the greatest strike +a note of emotion more profound than can be heard +before the date of <i>Hamlet</i>. In writing them, Shakespeare<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +was, to be sure, following a vogue, but as Professor +Alden has pointed out in his introduction to them +in the Tudor Shakespeare, they stand apart in important +respects from the ordinary sonnet sequences of the time. +All our researches have failed to tell us to whom they +were addressed, if, indeed, they were addressed to any +actual person at all; it is hardly necessary to urge +that Shakespeare was capable of profound and passionate +utterance under the impulse of imagination alone. +The probability is that they were produced at intervals +over a period of perhaps a dozen years, and that they +represent a great variety of moods, impulses, and +suggestions. While some of them betray signs of +youth and remind us of the apprentice workman of +<i>Loves Labour's Lost</i>, others display in their depth +of thought, intensity of feeling, and superb power of +incisive and concentrated expression, the full maturity +of the man and the artist. Hardly in the great tragedies +themselves is there clearer proof of Shakespeare's +supremacy in thought and language.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> See Appendix A, <a href="#Page_214">13</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The figures here given are based in columns 1, 2, 3, and 4 +on the calculations of Fleay; in 5, 6, and 7 on those of König; +and in 8 on those of Ingram. (S) = Shakespeare's scenes.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">The Elizabethan Drama</span></h3> + + +<p>Shakespeare's lifetime was coincident with a period +of extraordinary activity and achievement in the +drama. By the date of his birth Europe was witnessing +the passing of the religious drama that had held its +course for some five centuries, and the creation of new +and mixed forms under the incentive of classical +tragedy and comedy. These new forms were at first +mainly written by scholars and performed by amateurs, +but in England, as everywhere else in western Europe, +the growth of a class of professional actors was threatening +to make the drama popular, whether it should be +new or old, classical or medieval, literary or farcical. +Court, school, organizations of amateurs, and the +strolling actors were all rivals in supplying a widespread +desire for dramatic entertainment; and no boy +who went to a grammar school could be ignorant that +the drama was a form of literature which gave glory to +Greece and Rome and might yet bestow its laurels on +England.</p> + +<p>When Shakespeare was twelve years old the first +public playhouse was built in London. For a time +literature held aloof from this public stage. Plays +aiming at literary distinction were written for schools<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +or court, or for the choir boys of St. Paul's and the +royal chapel, who, however, gave plays in public as well +as at court. But the professional companies prospered +in their permanent theaters, and university men with +literary ambitions were quick to turn to these theaters +as offering a means of livelihood. By the time that +Shakespeare was twenty-five, Lyly, Peele, and Greene +had made comedies that were at once popular and literary; +Kyd had written a tragedy that crowded the +pit; and Marlowe had brought poetry and genius +to triumph on the common stage—where they had +played no part since the death of Euripides. A native +literary drama had been created, its alliance with the +public playhouses established, and at least some of its +great traditions had been begun.</p> + +<p>The development of the Elizabethan drama for the +next twenty-five years is of exceptional interest to +students of literary history, for in this brief period, in +connection with the half-dozen theaters of a growing +city and the demands of its varied population, we may +trace the beginning, growth, florescence, and decay of +many kinds of plays, and of many great careers. +Actors, audiences, and dramatists all contributed to +changes in taste and practice and to a development of +unexampled rapidity and variety. In every detail of +dramatic art there was change and improvement, a +constant addition of new subject-matter, a mastery of +new methods of technic, and an invention of new kinds +of plays. The popular successes of Marlowe and Kyd<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Elizabethan Drama</span>and the early plays of Shakespeare himself seemed old-fashioned +and crude to the taste of twenty years after, +yet the triumphs of Shakespeare's maturity failed to +exhaust the opportunities for innovation and advance. +We are amazed to-day at the mere number of plays +produced, as well as by the number of dramatists writing +at the same time for this London of two hundred thousand +inhabitants. To realize how great was the +dramatic activity, we must remember further that +hosts of plays have been lost, and that probably there +is no author of note whose entire work has survived. +By the time, however, that Shakespeare withdrew +from London to Stratford the drama had reached its +height. The dozen years from 1600 to 1612 included +not only Shakespeare's great tragedies, but the best +plays of Jonson, Chapman, and Webster, and the +entire collaboration of Beaumont and Fletcher. The +only other decades comparable with this in the history +of the drama are that which heard plays by Sophocles, +Euripides, and Aristophanes and that other which saw +the masterpieces of Racine and Molière.</p> + + + +<p>The greatness of the drama, however, by no means +ended with the retirement and death of Shakespeare. +Some of those who had been his early associates continued +to write for the stage, and younger men, as +Fletcher, Massinger, Ford, and Shirley, carried on the +traditions of their predecessors. If, as in other forms +of literature, there was decline and decadence during +the next twenty-five years, the drama also retained<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +initiative, poetry, and intellectual force until the end. +It was not dead or dying when the outbreak of the Civil +War cut short its course; in fact, its plays, its traditions, +even some of its theaters, actors, and dramatists survived +the suppression of twenty years and helped to +start the drama of the Restoration. Had Shakespeare +lived to the age of seventy-eight he would have seen the +closing of the theaters, and his lifetime would have +covered the crowded history of the drama's development +from such semi-moralities as <i>Cambises</i> and <i>The +Nice Wanton</i> to the last plays of Massinger and Shirley.</p> + +<p>For nearly a quarter of a century he was a sharer in +this dramatic movement, working in London as actor, +manager, and playwright. While no playwright was +more desirous than he to find in the stage full opportunity +for his genius, he was as keen as any in gauging the +immediate theatrical demand and in meeting the varying +conditions of a highly competitive profession. As +we have already noted, he began by imitating those who +had won success, and to the end he was adroit in taking +advantage of a new dramatic fashion or discovery. +Like his fellows, he often took his plots from novels, +histories, or other narratives; but his very choice of +stories might be determined by the theatrical taste of +the moment, and in his treatment of those stories he +shows in person, situation, or scene, a consideration of +current practices, traditions, and conventions. In +every field of literature, a writer is conditioned by the +work of his predecessors and contemporaries, and this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Beginnings of the Drama</span>dependence on current taste is especially important +in the drama, where practice tends to fix itself in convention, +and where innovation to be successful requires +coöperation from the actors and approval from the +audience as well as genius from the author. Though +Shakespeare is for all time, he is part and parcel of the +Elizabethan drama. If his plays are Elizabethan in +their defects and limitations, such as their trivial puns +and word-play, their overcrowded imagery, their loose +and broken structure, their paucity of female rôles, +their mixture of comic and tragic, their reliance on disguise +and mistaken identity as motives, their use of +improbable or absurd stories; they are Elizabethan also +in the qualities of their greatness, their variety of subject, +their intense interest in the portrayal of character, +the flexibility and audacity of their language, their noble +and opulent verse, the exquisite idealism of their +romantic love, and their profound analysis of the +sources of human tragedy.</p> + + + +<p>The Elizabethan drama was a continuation of the +medieval drama transformed by the influence of classical +models, especially the comedies of Terence and Plautus +and the tragedies of Seneca. In England, by the +beginning of the sixteenth century, the Miracle and +Mystery plays were declining and were soon to disappear. +The most common type of drama for the next +sixty years was the Morality, which symbolized life as +a conflict of vices and virtues or of the body and the +soul. The drama was rapidly changing from long<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +out-door performances to brief plays that could be +given almost anywhere by a few actors. The term +Interludes became common for all such entertainments, +and allegorical frameworks served to contain a wide +variety of matter, farce, pedagogy, politics, religion, +history, or pageant. Close imitations of the classical +forms were soon attempted by scholars and men of +letters; but as the professional actors grew in importance +the development of a national comedy and tragedy +went on without much direction from critics or theorists, +but rather in response to the demands of actors +and audiences and to the initiative of authors.</p> + +<p>The developments of comedy were numerous. Allegory +gradually disappeared, and the Morality ceased +to exist as a definite type, though its symbolization of +life and its concern with conduct were handed along to +the later drama. The plays of Robert Wilson, about +1580, show an interesting use of allegory for the purposes +of social satire, and realism and satire long continued +to characterize Elizabethan comedy, though for +a time confined mostly to incidental scenes. Common +and incidental also was farce, which is found in most +plays of the century whether tragic, comic, or moral +in their main purpose. Further, it was soon discovered +that the Plautian scheme of comedy was well suited to +farcical incident, as in <i>Gammer Gurton's Needle</i> (1552).<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> +The classical models or their Italian imitations also produced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Influence of Plautus</span>other and less domestic imitations, as in Gascoigne's +translation of Ariosto's <i>I Suppositi</i> (pr. 1566) +and Udall's <i>Ralph Roister Doister</i> (1540); a little later, +Lyly's <i>Mother Bombie</i>, Munday's <i>Two Italian Gentlemen</i>, +and Shakespeare's <i>Comedy of Errors</i>. Indeed such +adaptations continued much later and resulted in some +of the best farces, or realistic comedies of intrigue, as +Shakespeare's <i>Merry Wives of Windsor</i> (1598), Heywood's +<i>Wise Woman of Hogsdon</i> (1604), Jonson's +<i>Epicene</i> (1609) and <i>Alchemist</i> (1610).</p> + + + +<p>The Plautian model, however, was far more influential +than can be indicated by these close adaptations +or by any list of direct imitations or borrowings. For +the Elizabethan it offered a standard of comedy, and its +plots, persons, and devices were freely used in all kinds +of plays, romantic as well as realistic, sentimental as +well as satirical or farcical. The plots of Plautus and +Terence offer a series of tricks in which the complications +are often increased by having the trickster tricked. +Certain fixed types of character play the parts of gulls +or gullers, as the old parents, the young lovers, the +parasite, the braggart soldier, and the clever slave. +The intrigue is forwarded by the use of disguise, mistaken +identity, and most surprising coincidences; and +it is accomplished by dialogue, often gross and abusive, +but usually lively. This model served every nation +of western Europe, reappearing with prolonged vitality +in the inventions of Lope de Vega, the "commedia del +arte" of Italy, and in the masterpieces of Molière.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +Much in its scheme that seems artificial and theatrical +to-day was, we must remember, accepted without +question by Europe of the sixteenth century as essential +and desirable in comedy, especially in realistic comedy +of intrigue or manners.</p> + +<p>The plots of Terence, notably that of the <i>Andria</i>, +also gave some encouragement to the modern fondness +for adventure and sentimental love, and some classical +sanction to the abundant romantic material that was +knocking at the doors of comedy. If by romantic we +mean what is strange and removed from ordinary +experience and what has the attractions of wonder, +thrill, and idealization, then for the Elizabethan the +world of romance was a wide one. It included the +medieval stories of knights and their gests, and also +the fresher tales of classical mythology; the Americas +and Indies of contemporary adventure and the artificial +Arcadias of humanist imitators of Virgil and Theocritus. +Ovid and Malory, Homer and Boccaccio, Drake and +Sanazzaro, were all contributors. The union of this +romance with comedy on the stage began in two ways, +and principally under the innovation of two writers, +Lyly and Greene.</p> + +<p>The taste for pageants, processions, and tableaux +grew and flourished under the patronage of the court; +and music, dancing, and spectacle were combined with +dialogue in various court exhibitions and plays given by +the child actors. John Lyly, writing for these choir +boys, developed this type of entertainment into a distinct<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Lyly and Greene</span>species of comedy. Of his eight plays, written at +intervals from 1580 to 1593, all but one were in prose, +and all except the Plautian <i>Mother Bombie</i> adhere +loosely to a common formula. Classical myth or story, +with pastoral elements, and occasionally an allegory +of contemporary politics, furnish the basis of plots with +similar love complications. Gods, goddesses, nymphs, +fairies, and many others add to the spectacle and mingle +in the love intrigue, and all rise to a graceful dialogue, +which quickens to brisk repartee when the pages or +servants appear. The witty page supersedes the rude +buffoon of earlier plays, and everything is graceful and +ingenious, slight in serious interest, but relieved by +movement and song.</p> + + + +<p>This is the form of comedy which Shakespeare +adopted for <i>Love's Labour's Lost</i> and perfected in <i>A Midsummer-Night's +Dream</i>. But Lyly's contribution should +not be defined merely by this type of drama, original +as it is in its departure from medieval or classical +precedents. He showed how comedy might be a courtly +and literary entertainment and also the playground of +fancy and wit.</p> + +<p>The second development of romantic comedy came +through the dramatization of stories of love, adventure, +and marvels. To such stories Robert Greene gave a +heightened charm through the idealization of his +heroines. His <i>Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay</i> (1590) +is a magic play with an historical setting; but the +interest gathers and centers on the love story of Margaret,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +the Keeper's daughter. In <i>James IV</i> (<i>c.</i> 1591) +the pseudo-historical setting frames the stories of the +noble Ida and the wronged but faithful Dorothea. +In the incidents of the plot, with its woman disguised +as a page, the faithless lover, and the final reconciliation, +and also in the sweetness, modesty, and loyalty of the +heroine, the play reminds us of Shakespeare's comedies +and is indeed very close to <i>The Two Gentlemen of +Verona</i>, in which he was clearly adopting Greene's +formula.</p> + +<p>Tragedy naturally lagged somewhat behind comedy +as a form of popular entertainment. So far as we can +judge from the extant plays, there was until the appearance +of Kyd and Marlowe no real union between +Senecan imitations like <i>Gorboduc</i> (1562), <i>Jocasta</i> (1566), +and <i>The Misfortunes of Arthur</i> (1588), on the one hand, +and popular medleys of morality, tragedy, and farce +like <i>Cambises</i> (1565), <i>Horestes</i> (<i>pr.</i> 1567), and <i>Appius and +Virginia</i> (1563), on the other. Marlowe's <i>Tamburlaine</i> +(1587) was an epoch-making play because it brought +to the popular drama true poetry and genuine passion; +but it and its successors also established a new type +of tragedy. Marlowe made no effort to retain the +structure or themes of classical tragedy; on the contrary, +he made his plays loosely connected series of +scenes dealing with the life and death of the hero, +crowded with persons and with startling action. In +this he was conforming to the method of the dramatic +narratives that pleased the theaters. But each play<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Marlowe and Kyd</span>centers its dramatic interest on a mighty protagonist +battling with his overweening desires and their inevitable +disappointment. With the spectacle and sensation, +the rant and absurdity, there is also dramatic +structure and tragic significance in the revelation of +these protagonists, their volitional struggles, and +their direful catastrophes. These plays set the key +for all Elizabethan tragedy, including Shakespeare's +<i>Lear</i>, <i>Othello</i>, and <i>Macbeth</i>. They were immediately +followed by dozens of imitators. All blank verse echoed +Marlowe's mighty line, and tragedy was filled with +ranting conquerors like Tamburlaine, monstrous villains +like Barabbas, and murders like that of Edward II. +Shakespeare was his pupil in the <i>2</i> and <i>3 Henry VI</i>, +mastered his methods in <i>Richard III</i>, and still wrote in +emulation, though no longer in imitation, in <i>Richard II</i> +and <i>The Merchant of Venice</i>.</p> + + + +<p>Within a few months of <i>Tamburlaine</i>, appeared a play +of almost equal influence on subsequent drama, Kyd's +<i>Spanish Tragedy</i>. Kyd was a student of Seneca, a +translator of Garnier's <i>Cornelia</i>, a Senecan imitation; +and he adapted some elements of classical tragedy to +the English stage. The ten plays ascribed to Seneca +were the accepted models of tragedy in the Renaissance. +Their presentation of the more horrible stories of Greek +tragedy, their rhetorical and aphoristic style, their +moralizing and their psychology, were all greatly +admired. They were believed by the Elizabethans to +have been acted, and their murders and violence seemed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +to warrant such action on the modern stage; though +the Elizabethans found less adaptable their use of the +chorus, the restriction of the number of persons speaking, +their long monologues, and the limitation of the +action to the last phase of a story. Kyd modeled his +rhetoric on Seneca and retained a vestige of the chorus, +long soliloquies, and some other traits of Senecan +structure; but his main borrowing was the essential +story of a crime and its punishment. He thus brought +to the Elizabethan stage the classical theme of retribution. +In his <i>Spanish Tragedy</i>, a murder is avenged +under the direction of a ghost, by a hesitating and soliloquizing +protagonist, who is driven through doubt and +speculation almost to madness, and then to craft, with +which he outwits the wily villain and brings all the +leading <i>dramatis personæ</i> to a final slaughter.</p> + +<p>Blood revenge was established as the favorite motive +of tragedy; the conflict of craft between protagonist +and villain made up the action, and the speculations of +the avenger gave a chance for wisdom and eloquence. +One other play, probably by Kyd, the lost <i>Hamlet</i>, +also presented these features and later formed the basis +for Shakespeare's tragedy. Other plays, as <i>Soliman +and Perseda</i>, <i>The True Tragedy of Richard III</i>, and +<i>Locrine</i> immediately adopted Kyd's theme and technic; +indeed the stage for half a dozen years abounded in +avenging heroes, diabolical villains, shrieking ghosts, +and long soliloquies on fate, death, retribution, and +kindred themes. <i>Titus Andronicus</i> is quite in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">English History Plays</span>Kydian vein. Many plays combined the salient traits +of Marlowe and Kyd, and henceforth no one wrote +tragedy without paying homage to their inventions.</p> + + + +<p>We have now noticed the most important developments +in comedy and tragedy made by the time that +Shakespeare began writing for the theaters; and he +made quick use of the progress accomplished by +Plautian and Lylyan comedy, by Greene's romances, +and by the tragedies of Kyd and Marlowe. There +were other plays not easily classified under these names +and of less service to Shakespeare. But to the +critical playgoer of 1590 few plays would have seemed +either 'right comedies' or 'right tragedies.' The majority +were mere dramatizations of story without close +construction or selection of material, seeking merely +varied and abundant action. They drew their material +from all kinds of narrative sources, Italian <i>novelle</i>, +current pamphlets, Latin historians, or English chronicles; +and, whether historical or fictitious, were usually +known as Histories, <i>i.e.</i>, stories.</p> + +<p>The patriotic interest in English history fostered +the presentation of its scenes upon the stage. The +chronicles of Halle and Holinshed furnished abundant +material; and embassies, processions, and pitched battles +filled the stage with movement. Historical plays +might, indeed, draw from classical history or from current +foreign history, but from 1590 to 1603 a very large +number of plays give scenic representation to the +reigns of English kings.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p> + +<p>Some of these form a distinct class, since, however +mixed with comic matter, they imitate Kyd or Marlowe +and recast the chronicle of a reign to fit the accepted +subjects of tragedy, the downfall of a prince, the +revenge for a crime, the overthrow of a tyrant, or the +retribution brought upon a conspirator or usurper. +Conceived under Marlowe's influence, and perhaps +owing something to his hand, is the tetralogy that +includes the three parts of <i>Henry VI</i> and <i>Richard III</i>.</p> + +<p>Those history plays, however, that do not follow the +formulas for tragedy, are a heterogeneous group not +easily classified. They usually keep to the loose chronicle +method that presented a series of scenes without +much regard to unity or coherence. Farce, comedy, +magic, spectacle, heroics, and everything that might +have happened was permissible in these plays, and +perhaps the only thing indispensable was a pitched +field with opposing armies. Biographical, comic, +popular, patriotic, or what not, these plays brought a +variety of scenes to the theaters, but offered only a +loose and flexible form rather than any dramatic +direction or model to the creator of Falstaff.</p> + +<p>The early deaths of Greene and Marlowe and the +retirement of Lyly left Shakespeare the heir of their +inventions. Though his plays were at first imitative, +he soon surpassed his predecessors in gift of expression, +in depiction of character, and in deftness of +dramatic technic. The years from 1593 to near the +turn of the century are particularly lacking in records of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Shakespeare's Leadership</span>plays or theaters; but it seems clear that the main +developments of the drama were in romantic comedy +and chronicle history; and it is also clear that Shakespeare +was the unquestioned leader in both of these +forms.</p> + + + +<p>In comparison with his associates, he was now the +master, relying on his own experience rather than on +their innovations. Neither the crude but popular +<i>Mucedorus</i> (1595) nor Dekker's poetical extravagance, +<i>Old Fortunatus</i> (1596), could contribute to his development +of romantic comedy; and domestic comedy could +not instruct the inventor of Launce and Launcelot. +Incidental relationships may indeed be noted. <i>As +You Like It</i>, for example, dramatizes a pastoral novel +with the addition of scenes that recall Robin Hood's +forest life, and may owe something to the suggestion of +two Robin Hood plays by Chettle and Munday, <i>The +Downfall and Death of Robert Earl of Huntingdon</i> (1598). +But, on the whole, the indebtedness was on the other +side, and imitations indicate that men of Shakespeare's +day realized that romantic comedy and history could +not be carried farther.</p> + +<p>In fact, a certain reaction set in against these forms +of drama. Near the close of the century new tendencies +became manifest. Comedy tended to become +more realistic and satiric. Chapman, Marston, Middleton, +and Jonson, all began writing romantic comedy, +but changed shortly to realistic. Jonson, in his <i>Every +Man in His Humour</i> (1598), announced his opposition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> +to the lawless drama which had preceded—whether +romantic comedy or chronicle history—and proposed +the creation of a new satirical comedy of manners. He +was moved partly by a desire to break from past +methods in order to bring comedy closer to classical +example, and partly by a desire for realism, a faithful +presentation, analysis, and criticism of current manners. +The growth of London and the increase in luxury and +immorality seem to have encouraged such a movement, +and for the decade after 1598 there were many comedies +of London life, mostly satiric, and nearly all +realistic. Many varieties are to be found, from gross +representation of the seamy side of city life to serious +discussion of social questions, and from sympathetic +picturing of certain trades to satiric exposure of the +evils of society.</p> + +<p>Jonson's emulation of Aristophanes led him into +arrogant personal satire in the <i>Poetaster</i> (1601), and +there ensued the so-called war of the theaters, in which +Marston, Dekker, and, according to report, Shakespeare +were Jonson's opponents. If Shakespeare, indeed, had +a share in this war, he showed only slight interest in the +prevailing comedy. <i>Measure for Measure</i> uses the +device of a spying duke employed in Marston's <i>Malcontent</i>, +and discusses sexual relationships somewhat in +the tone of the time, while the scenes dealing with +houses of ill fame are not unlike similar scenes in the +contemporary plays of Middleton, Webster, and others. +<i>Troilus and Cressida</i>, also, show more of a satiric temper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Realistic Comedy</span>than is usual in Shakespeare. But neither of these +plays partakes to any extent of the prevailing satire on +contemporary London. Wide as was the range of +Shakespeare's genius, it seems to have avoided the field +of satire.</p> + + + +<p>A review of the drama must, however, at least remark +the importance of this development of realistic +comedy which flourished in the decade after 1598 and +continued to the end. Jonson's comedy of 'humors' +includes <i>Volpone</i> (1605), which overstepped the bounds +of comedy in its denunciation of evil, the <i>Alchemist</i> +(1611), perhaps the best English play on the Latin +model, and <i>Bartholomew Fair</i> (1614), most original and +English of them all. Dekker's fine drama of middle +class life, <i>The Honest Whore</i> (1604), and Heywood's +masterpiece, <i>A Woman Killed with Kindness</i> (1603), a +play suggesting both the sentimental comedy of the +eighteenth century and the problem play of to-day, +also belong to this very remarkable era of domestic +themes and serious realism.</p> + +<p>If Shakespeare did not turn to satire or realism or +current social problems, he did turn away from chronicle +history plays and romantic comedies. As we saw in +the last chapter, for a period of eight or nine years, from +<i>Julius Cæsar</i> to <i>Antony and Cleopatra</i>, he gave his best +efforts of his maturity to tragedy. The day for +mere imitation of Seneca, Kyd, or Marlowe, was past; +and scholars like Jonson and Chapman as well as +Shakespeare sought in the tragedy of the public theater,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +an opportunity for wisdom and poetry and a criticism +of life.</p> + +<p>For models, Shakespeare did not need to go back +farther than his own <i>Romeo and Juliet</i> and <i>Richard II</i>, +nor to imitate any other than himself. Yet his great +plays may have seemed to his contemporaries to adopt +rather than to depart from current dramatic practices. +They belong to the Elizabethan 'tragedy of blood'; +against a background of courts and battles they present +the downfall of princes; they rest on improbable stories +that end in fearful slaughter; they invariably set forth +great crimes, compact of murder, lust, villainous +intrigue, and ferocious cruelty. Some of them follow +Kyd in recounting a story of blood vengeance presided +over by ghosts, or discover the retribution due for crime +in physical torments. Nearly all follow Marlowe in +centering the tragic interest in the fate of a supernormal +protagonist who is swayed by an overpowering emotion, +and in elevating these human desires and passions into +tremendous forces that work their waste of devastation +and ruin on character and life.</p> + + + +<p>The contemporary tragedy is brought closest to +Shakespeare in the relations of the revenge plays to +<i>Hamlet</i>. The type, introduced by Kyd in <i>The Spanish +Tragedy</i> and the original <i>Hamlet</i>, underwent a special +development in Marston's <i>Antonio's Revenge</i> (1598) +and several other plays appearing from 1598 to 1603, +that dealt with the blood vengeance of a son for a +father. At the same time Shakespeare turned to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Tragedy</span>remaking of the old <i>Hamlet</i> and to a new treatment of +the old theme, yet retained many of the old accessories. +Marston reproduces the essential story of blood vengeance, +presided over by a ghost, crossed by both lust +and sentimental love, commented on by long soliloquies, +and accompanied by pretended madness. Chettle, in +<i>Hoffman</i>, amplifies the horrors and villainy and brings +the story of the mad girl into closer juncture with the +main plot than is the case in <i>Hamlet</i>. Tourneur, writing +independently of Shakespeare, introduces, among all +sorts of horrors, a Christian ghost who forbids blood +vengeance and commands submission to Providence. +Ben Jonson, in his additions to the old <i>Spanish Tragedy</i>, +gives fine imaginative interpretation of the wavering +moods of meditation, irony, and frenzy with which +Kyd had dealt only crudely. The later development +of this type proceeded without much regard to Shakespeare's +<i>Hamlet</i>, but rather in the direction started by +Marston's tragedies and his influential tragi-comedy, +<i>The Malcontent</i>. While <i>Hamlet</i> may be described as +centering attention on a meditative and high-minded +avenger, Tourneur, Webster, Middleton, and later +dramatists found greater interest in the study of villainy +and intrigue. Revenge is born of depravity rather than +duty, and given a setting of physical horrors and unnatural +lust. Tourneur's <i>Revenger's Tragedy</i> (1606) and +Webster's <i>White Devil</i> (1610) and <i>Duchess of Malfi</i> (1611) +represent the culmination of this play of revenge, lust, +and horror, and supply a sort of standard for tragedy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> +until the Civil War. Webster, it must be added, was +hardly less interested than Shakespeare in character +and motive, though he chose to study these in a chamber +of horrors.</p> + +<p>Shakespeare's Roman tragedies also suggest comparison +with contemporary plays, those either on Roman +or on contemporary foreign history. Tragedies dealing +with Roman history had preceded <i>Julius Cæsar</i>, but +that play doubtless stimulated Jonson's <i>Sejanus</i> (1603) +and <i>Catiline</i> (1611). Both these plays attempted an +approach to classical structure and a thorough study +and digest of classical history. This effort to make +tragedy a serious and authoritative interpretation of +history was also shared by Chapman in his plays dealing +with contemporary French history, <i>1</i> and <i>2 Bussy +D'Ambois</i> (1601-1607) and <i>1</i> and <i>2 Biron</i> (1608). +While Jonson strove to free his style from the abundance +of conceits, figures, and passages of description that +had characterized earlier drama, Chapman used every +chance to crowd his verse with far-stretched figure and +weighty apothegm. At its worst it is peculiarly representative +of Elizabethan confusion and bombast; at +its best it is closest of all in its resemblance to Shakespeare's. +Like Jonson and Chapman, Shakespeare +sought historical backgrounds for his characters and +found a fascination in the interpretation of the motives +of the great protagonists of the world of antiquity. +It is worthy of note, however, that he seems to have +taken no interest in another class of subjects much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Beaumont and Fletcher</span>favored by his contemporaries. Contemporary crimes +treated with an excess of realism and didactic conclusions +are common in drama from <i>Arden of Feversham</i> +(1590) on, and engaged the services of Jonson, Webster, +Ford, Dekker, and others.</p> + + + +<p>About 1607 a new departure appeared in the work of +the dramatic collaborators, Beaumont and Fletcher. +After some experiments, they won, in their tragi-comedies, +<i>Philaster</i> (1608) and <i>A King and No King</i> (1610), +and their tragedy, <i>The Maid's Tragedy</i> (1609), great +theatrical successes, and in these and similar plays established +a new kind of dramatic romance. The realistic +comedies of Jonson and Middleton, which, along with +the great tragedies of Shakespeare, crowd the stage +history of the preceding ten years, had offered nothing +similar to these romances which joined tragic and +idyllic material in scenes of brilliant theatrical effectiveness, +abounding in transitions from suspense to surprise, +and culminating in telling dénouements. This new +realm of romance is an artificial one, contrasting pure +love with horrid entanglements of lust, and ever +bringing love in conflict with duty, friendship, or the +code of honor. In its intriguing courts, or in nearby +forests where the idyls are placed, love of one kind or +another is the ruling and vehement passion, riding +high-handed over tottering thrones, rebellious subjects, +usurping tyrants, and checked, if checked at all, only +by the unexampled force of honor. Romance, in short, +depends on situation, on the artificial but skilful juxtaposition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> +of emotions and persons, and on the new +technic that sacrifices consistency of characterization +for surprise. Characterization tends to become typical, +and motives tend to be based on fixed conventions, such +as the code of honor might dictate to a seventeenth-century +gentleman; but the lack of individuality in +character is counterbalanced by the vividness with +which the lovers, tyrants, faithful friends, evil women, +and sentimental heroines are presented, and by the +fluent and lucid style which varies to any emotional +requirement and rises to the demands of the most +sensational situations.</p> + +<p><i>Cymbeline</i> in its plot bears some close resemblances +to <i>Philaster</i>, and it seems likely that Shakespeare was +adopting the methods and materials of the new romance. +At all events, he turned from tragedy to romance, and +in <i>Cymbeline</i> and the far more original and successful +<i>Winter's Tale</i> and <i>Tempest</i> produced tragi-comedies that, +like Beaumont and Fletcher's, rely on a contrast of +tragic and idyllic and on surprising plots and idealized +heroines. After Beaumont's retirement in 1611 or +1612, it seems probable that Fletcher and Shakespeare +collaborated together on <i>Henry VIII</i> and <i>The Two +Noble Kinsmen</i>.</p> + +<p>There is ample evidence that the plays of Beaumont +and Fletcher won a great popular renown, surpassing for +a time those of Shakespeare and all others. Beaumont +did not live long after he ceased to write for the stage, +dying at thirty, in the same year as Shakespeare. Jonson<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Tragi-Comedy</span>had given up dramatic writing for the time, and +Fletcher was left the chief writer for Shakespeare's old +company and the undoubted leader of the theater. +Including the plays written in collaboration with Beaumont, +Shakespeare, and later with Massinger, he left +some sixty dramas of many kinds, varying from farcical +comedy of manners to the most extreme tragedy. The +comedies of manners present the affairs of women, and +spice their lively conversation and surprising situations +with a wit that often reminds one of the Restoration; +indeed they carry the development of comedy nearly to +the point where Wycherley and Congreve began. The +tragi-comedies, which display the qualities already +noted as belonging to the romances, have the technical +advantage that the disentanglement of their rapid plots +and sub-plots is left hanging in the balance until the +very end. The happy ending to tragic entanglements +won a favor it has never lost on the English stage, and +tragi-comedy of the Fletcherian type continued the most +popular form of the drama until Dryden.</p> + + + +<p>It is unnecessary here to dwell long over the drama +after Shakespeare's death. Jonson, Dekker, Heywood, +and Webster wrote from time to time, and Middleton +devoted his versatile talent to whatever kind of play +was in vogue, now rather to Websterian tragedy and +Fletcherian tragi-comedy than to realistic comedy. +Yet, in collaboration with Rowley, he produced the +powerful tragedy, <i>The Changeling</i>, and the much-admired +tragi-comedy, <i>A Fair Quarrel</i>. After Fletcher's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +death in 1625, Massinger took his place as leader of the +stage, and his work, with that of Ford and Shirley, carry +on the great traditions of the drama to the very end. +A host of minor writers, as Brome, D'Avenant, Suckling, +Cartwright, offer little that is new; but no survey of +the drama, however brief, can neglect to mention +the skilful exposition, admirable psychology, and +sound structural principles that characterized the best of +Massinger's many plays, the unique and amazing dramatic +genius shown in Ford's masterpieces, <i>The Broken +Heart</i> and <i>'Tis Pity She's a Whore</i>, and the ingenuity in +plot, adroitness in characterization, and genuine poetic +gifts of Shirley.</p> + +<p>Comedies from 1616 to 1642 reveal two chief influences; +they are realistic and satiric, following +Jonson, or they are light-hearted, lively combinations +of manners and intrigue, after Fletcher. In the former +class are Massinger's two great comedies, <i>The City +Madam</i> and <i>A New Way to Pay Old Debts</i>. To the +latter class belong most of the comedies of Shirley. +Tragi-comedies follow Fletcher with the variations +due to the authors' ingenuity, and include perhaps the +most attractive plays of Massinger and Shirley. Tragedies +usually mingle lust, devilish intrigue, physical +horror, after the fashion of Webster and Tourneur, but +now often with romantic variation on the theme of +love, and a technic of suspense and surprise similar +to Beaumont and Fletcher. These are the main tendencies +in the last twenty years of the drama, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Pastoral and Masque</span>characterize in the large the work of the greater men +as well as of the less. Shakespeare's influence is widespread, +but appears incidentally in particular scene, +situation, character, or phrase, rather than as affecting +the main course and fashions of the drama. After +the publication of his plays in 1623, this incidental +influence increased, and is distinctly noticeable in the +plays of Ford and Shirley.</p> + + + +<p>A glance must suffice for two dramatic forms that +had only slight connection with the public theaters, +the Pastoral Play and the Court Masque. Pastoral +elements are found in many early entertainments +and in the plays of Lyly and Peele. Later, in imitation +of Guarini's <i>Il Pastor Fido</i>, attempts were made to +inaugurate a pastoral drama, presenting a full-fledged +dramatic exposition of the golden age. Daniel's +<i>Queen's Arcadia</i> (1605) and Fletcher's <i>Faithful Shepherdess</i> +(1609) had many later followers, but the form won +no permanent hold on the popular taste. Traces +of its influence, however, may often be seen, as in +Shakespeare's <i>As You Like It</i>, or Beaumont and Fletcher's +<i>Philaster</i>. The masque, originally only a masquerade, +soon acquired some dramatic accompaniment, +and in the court of James I developed into an elaborate +form of entertainment. The masked dance of the +ladies and gentlemen of the court was merely the focus +for dialogue, elaborate setting, spectacle, music, and +grotesque dances by professionals. These shows, +costing vast sums for staging, costumes, and music,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +depended for their success mainly on the architect Inigo +Jones, but in some degree also on Ben Jonson, who was +the creator of the Court Masque as a literary form. +Such expensive spectacles were far beyond the reach +of the public theater, but provoked considerable imitation, +as in Shakespeare's <i>Tempest</i>, or several of Beaumont +and Fletcher's plays. Later Milton immortalized +the form in <i>Comus</i>.</p> + +<p>The most hasty review of the Elizabethan drama +must suggest how constantly Shakespeare responded to +its prevailing conditions. There are, of course, great +variations in the signs which different plays offer +of contemporary influence and peculiarity. So it is +with most of his fellow dramatists. <i>Lear</i> and <i>Othello</i> +were perhaps written within the same year, yet <i>Othello</i>, +in its unity, its technical excellence, and its depiction of +character, is the most modern of the tragedies, while +<i>Lear</i>, with its impossible story, its horrors, its treatment +of madness, its likeness to the chronicle plays, its prolonged +passage from crisis to catastrophe, in its very +conception, is the most Elizabethan, though perhaps +the most impressive of the tragedies. <i>Twelfth Night</i> is +suited to any stage, but <i>Troilus and Cressida</i> and <i>Pericles</i> +are hardly conceivable except on the Elizabethan. Despite +such variations, however, Shakespeare's relations +to the contemporary drama were manifestly constant +and immediate. If it was rarely a question with him +what the ancients had written, it was always a question +what was being acted and what was successful at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Shakespeare and His Contemp­oraries</span>moment. His own growth in dramatic power goes step +by step with the rapid and varied development of the +drama, and the measure for comparison must be, not by +decades, but by years or months.</p> + + + +<p>A study of the Elizabethan drama may help to excuse +some of the faults and limitations of Shakespeare, but +it also enforces his merits. Both faults and merits +are often to be understood in the efforts of lesser men +to do what he did. We admire his triumphs the more +as we consider their failures. Yet they often had +admirable success, and their triumphs as well as his are +due in part to the dramatic conditions which gave the +freest opportunity for individual initiative in language, +verse, story, and construction. Noble bursts of poetry, +richness and variety of life, an intense interest in human +nature, comic or tragic—these are the great merits of +that drama. That in a superlative degree they are +also the characteristics of Shakespeare is not due solely +to his exceptional genius, but to the fact that his genius +worked in a favorable environment.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 297px;"> +<a href="images/116.png"><img src="images/t116.png" width="297" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a> +<p class="captionn">A TYPICAL SHAKESPEREAN STAGE</p> +<p><small>From Albright's <i>Shaksperian Stage</i></small></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> In this chapter the dates appended to the plays indicate +the conjectured year of presentation. Dates of publication are +prefixed by <i>pr</i>.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">The Elizabethan Theater</span></h3> + + +<p>In 1576, James Burbage, father of the great actor, +Richard Burbage, and himself a member of the Earl +of Leicester's company, built the first London playhouse, +the Theater in Shoreditch. In the next year a +second playhouse, the Curtain, was erected nearby, +and these seem to have remained the only theaters +until 1587-1588, when probably the Rose, on the Bankside, +was built by Henslowe. In 1599 Richard and +Cuthbert Burbage, after some difficulty over their +lease, demolished the old Theater and used the timber +for the Globe, near the Rose, on the Bankside. The +Swan, another theater, had been built there in 1594, +somewhat to the west; and in 1614 the Hope was +erected hard by the old Rose and the new Globe, which +in 1613 had replaced the old Globe. Meantime the +Fortune had been built by Henslowe and Alleyn in +1600 in Golden Lane to the north of Cripplegate, on +the model of the Globe, and the Red Bull was erected +in the upper end of St. John's Street about 1603-1607. +These were all public theaters, open to the air, built of +wood, outside the city limits and the jurisdiction of +the city corporation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p> + +<p>Before the Theater, plays had been acted in various +places about the city, and especially in inn-yards, some +of which long continued to be used for dramatic performances. +At an early date also, the companies of +children actors connected with the choirs of St. Paul's +and the Queen's Chapel had given public performances, +probably indoors, at places near St. Paul's and in Blackfriars. +When the Burbages were in difficulties about +the Theater, they had leased certain rooms in the dismantled +monastery of Blackfriars, but had then released +these to a company of children which acted +there for some years. In 1608 the Burbages regained +possession of this property, and Shakespeare's company +began acting there. This Blackfriars theater +was known as a private theater in order to avoid the application +of certain statutes directed against the public +theaters, but it differed from them merely in being indoors, +with artificial lights, and higher prices. It was +used by Shakespeare's company as a winter theater, +while the Globe served for summer performances, and +it was the model for various other private theaters, +two of which survived the Protectorate and became in +turn the models for the Restoration Theater. Drury +Lane and Covent Garden, indeed, trace their ancestry +back directly to the Blackfriars through the Cockpit +and the Salisbury Court playhouses.</p> + +<p>The companies of actors which occupied these +theaters were coöperative organizations. Eight or ten +actors formed a company, leased a theater, hired supernumeraries,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Companies of Actors</span>bought plays, and shared in the profits. +In Elizabeth's reign they secured a legal position by +obtaining a license from some nobleman, and so were +known as the Earl of Leicester's men, Lord Admiral's +men, and so on. On the accession of James I, the leading +London companies were taken directly under +patronage of members of the royal family. During +Shakespeare's time there were innumerable companies, +but the tendency was for the best actors to become +associated in a few companies, and for each company +to keep to a particular theater; so that at the accession +of James I, there were only five adult companies in +London with permanent theaters. The best companies +were frequently employed to act at court, and during +the summer or when the plague was raging in London, +they often toured the country. The children's companies +flourished from time to time, and especially +from 1599-1607 they were, as we learn from <i>Hamlet</i>, +formidable rivals of the men.</p> + + + +<p>The history of the adult companies shows the growth +of two distinct interests, that of Henslowe and Alleyn, +and that of the Burbages. Henslowe, whose diary is +one of the chief documents for the history of the +theater, built the Rose, and in partnership with his +son-in-law, the famous actor Alleyn, controlled the +Fortune and the Hope, and the companies known as +the Admiral's and the Earl of Worcester's men, and +later on the Queen's and the Prince's men. The Burbages +owned the Theater, the Globe, and the Blackfriars,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> +and were in control of Shakespeare's company. This +company, at first the Earl of Leicester's men, was known +by the names of its various patrons, Strange's, Derby's, +Hunsdon's, and the Lord Chamberlain's, until in 1603 +it became the King's men. For a short time, as Lord +Strange's men, it acted at the Rose, and apparently +later at the playhouse in Newington Butts, but its +regular theaters were the Theater, the Globe, and +Blackfriars. With this company Shakespeare was +connected from the beginning, and he aided in making +it the chief London company. For a time, Alleyn and +the Admiral's men were its close rivals, but even before +the accession of James I, Shakespeare and Burbage +had given it a supremacy that it maintained to the +closing of the theaters.</p> + +<p>There are various pictures of the exterior of Elizabethan +theaters in the contemporary maps or views of +London, the best representation of the four Bankside +theaters being the engraving of Hollar printed in the +Tudor edition of <i>Twelfth Night</i>. This was first published +in <i>Londinopolis</i>, 1657, but represents the Bankside +as it was about 1620. Four pictures of interiors +have been preserved, that from Kirkman's <i>Drolls</i>, those +from the title-pages of <i>Roxana</i> and <i>Messalina</i>, and the +DeWitt drawing of the Swan, reproduced in the Tudor +Shakespeare, <i>1 Henry VI</i>. The drawing from Kirkman's +<i>Drolls</i> is usually known as the Red Bull stage, +but it was not issued until 1679, and does not seem +to have anything to do with the Red Bull or with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Public Theaters</span>any other regular theater. The <i>Messalina</i> and <i>Roxana</i> +pictures are small, and both show a rear curtain and a +projecting stage. The DeWitt drawing was done from +hearsay evidence, is inaccurate in details, and represents +a theater with a movable stage, probably not +long regularly used for plays; it gives little idea of +the stage, but does afford a good general notion of the +interior of a public theater. The contract for the Fortune +theater, built on the model of the Globe, except +that it was square instead of octagonal, has been preserved +and enables us to complete this view of the +interior in detail.</p> + + + +<p>The public theaters were usually round, or nearly +round, wooden buildings of three stories. These +stories were occupied by tiers of galleries encircling the +pit, which was open to the air. The stage projected +halfway into the pit, and was provided with dressing +rooms in the rear, and a protecting roof overhead, +supported in some cases by pillars. At the top was +the 'hut', a room used to provide apparatus for raising +and lowering persons or properties from the stage, +Light when needed was provided by torches. Admission +to standing room in the pit was usually only a +penny, but seats in the gallery or boxes or on the stage +cost much more, rising as high as half a crown. Performances +were given on every fair day except Sunday, +and a flag flying from the hut indicated that a play +was to be performed. Some of the public playhouses +were used for acrobats, fencing, or even bear-baiting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +as well as for plays; but the better theaters, as the +Globe and Fortune, seem to have been limited to dramatic +performances.</p> + +<p>The size and arrangement of the stage doubtless +varied somewhat with the different theaters, and considerable +changes seem to have been introduced by +the indoor private theaters. But the Curtain was +used from 1577 to 1642, some new theaters were +modeled closely on the old, and the same plays were +acted on different stages, so it is apparent that in all +the stage was the same in its main features. For clearness +these may be again enumerated. The stage +was a platform projecting into the pit, open on three +sides, and without any front curtain. In the rear +were two doors, and between them, an alcove, or inner +stage, separated from the front stage by curtains. +Above the inner stage was a gallery, also provided with +curtains, and over the doors were windows or balconies. +The arrangement of doors, inner stage, gallery, and +curtain may have varied somewhat, but the essential +elements are a curtained space at the rear, and a gallery +above. Trap-doors were also provided, and the hut +overhead supplied the machinery for ascents and +descents of gods and goddesses.</p> + + + +<p>Our diagram for the ground floor of the Fortune +shows a square-cornered stage with doors flat on the +rear, while the perspective drawing from Dr. Albright's +<i>Shaksperian Stage</i> shows a tapering stage, as in the +<i>Messalina</i> picture, with doors on the bias. Some stages<span class="sidenote">The Fortune Theater</span><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +may have had rounded corners with doors in the side. +The pillars were not necessary in the private theaters; +or in some public houses where other means were found +for supporting the roof.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="PLAN" id="PLAN"></a> +<a href="images/123.png"><img src="images/t123.png" width="400" height="400" alt="Originally occupying P. 123" title="" /></a> +<p class="captionn">GROUND PLAN OF THE FORTUNE THEATER<br /><br /> +<small>Dimensions: 80 ft. square on the outside; 55 ft. square on the inside,<br /> +the stage 43 ft. wide and extending to the middle of the pit.</small></p> +</div> + +<p>The performance of a play differed in many ways +from one to-day. There was no scenery and there were +no women actors. Though scenes were used in court +performances as early as 1604, they do not seem to have +been employed by the professional companies to any +extent until after the Restoration. Female parts were +taken by boys, and, except in plays acted by the children's +companies, there were rarely more than two important +female characters in a play. Though without +scenery, the Elizabethan stage was by no means devoid +of spectacle. Processions, battles, all kinds of mythological +beings, ascents to heaven, descents to hell, fire-works, +and elaborate properties, were employed. +Numerous contemporary plays indicate that neither the +fairyland of <i>A Midsummer-Night's Dream</i>, nor the magnificent +court of <i>Henry VIII</i>, was devised without an +eye to the resources of the stage. Large sums of money +were lavished on costumes, the cost of a coat often +exceeding the price paid an author for a play. Costume +was anachronistic; Cleopatra was impersonated +by a boy in stays and farthingale; and Cæsar, probably +by Burbage, in a costume much like that worn +by the Earl of Essex. Some attention, however, was +paid to appropriateness. Shepherds were clothed in +white, hunters in green; and doubtless mermaids,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Stage Presentation</span>fairies, Venuses, and satyrs were given as appropriate +a dress as fancy could devise. The action of a play +seems usually to have been completed in two hours. +There was sometimes music between the acts, but +there were no long waits, and little stage business.</p> + + + +<p>The peculiarities in the presentation of a play due +to the arrangement of the stage were considerable, and +have been the subject of much discussion and misunderstanding +among investigators. There is, however, +no doubt that the action was largely on the front +stage, and that most of the scenes, at least in Shakespeare's +lifetime, were designed for presentation on this +projecting platform. Since there was no drop-curtain, +actors had some distance to traverse, on entrances and +exits, between the doors and the front. At the end of a +scene or a play, all must retire, and the bodies of the +dead must be carried out. Hence a tragedy often +ends with a funeral procession, a comedy with a dance. +The indications of scene supplied by modern editors +for Shakespeare's plays help to visualize a modern +presentation, but are misleading as to Shakespeare's +intentions or an Elizabethan performance. The majority +of scenes in his plays differ strikingly from those +in a modern play in that they offer no hints as to the +exact locality. Often it is not clear from the text +whether the scene is conceived as indoors or outdoors, +in the palace, or the courtyard, or before the entrance. +Even when the scene is presumably within a room, +there is often no indication of the nature of the furnishings,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +never any of the elaborate attention to details +of setting, such as we find in a play by Pinero or Shaw. +Sometimes placards were hung up indicating the scene +of a play, but apparently these merely gave the general +scene, as "Venice" or "Verona," and did not often +designate localities more closely. In fact the majority +of the scenes were probably written with no precise +conception of their setting. They were written to be +acted on a front stage, bare of scenery, projecting out +into the audience. This did not represent a particular +locality, but rather any locality whatever.</p> + +<p>The inner stage and the gallery above, and to some +extent the doors and the windows, were used to indicate +specific localities when these were necessary. +The gallery represented the wall of a town, an upper +story of a house, or any elevated locality. The doors +represented doors to houses or gates to a city, and the +windows or balconies over them were often used for +the windows of the houses. The inner stage was used +in various ways to indicate a specific locality requiring +properties, and this use apparently increased as time +went on, and especially in the indoor, artificially lighted +private theaters. In any case, however, when the curtains +were opened, the inner stage became a part of +the main stage, and while action might take place +there, it might also serve as a background for action +proceeding in the front. Properties could be brought +on and off the inner stage, behind the closed curtains, +hence large properties were confined to its precincts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Inner Stage</span>Furniture, as chairs, tables, or even beds, could, however, +be pushed or carried out from the inner to the +outer stage. A play might be given on the front +stage without using the curtained recess at all, but +numerous references to curtains make it clear that the +inner stage was used from the early days of the theater.</p> + + + +<p>The uses of the inner stage have been much discussed +and are still in dispute, but they may be summarized +briefly. <i>First</i>, the inner stage was used for a +specific, restricted, and usually propertied locality—a +cave, a study, a shop, a prison. <i>Second</i>, the inner +stage was used for scenes requiring discovery or tableaux. +Numerous stage directions indicate the drawing of the +curtains to present a scene set on the inner stage, as +Bethsabe at her bath, Friar Bungay in bed with his +magical apparatus about him, Ferdinand and Miranda +playing chess. <i>Third</i>, the use of the inner stage was +extended so that it represented any propertied background, +especially for scenes in a forest, church, or +temple. In <i>As You Like It</i>, for example, the last four +acts are located in the Forest of Arden. "This is the +Forest of Arden," says Rosalind as soon as she arrives +there; and even before this, Duke senior alludes to +"these woods," and later we learn that there are practicable +trees on which Orlando hangs his verses. The +forest setting, consisting of trees and rocks, was placed on +the inner stage and served to give a scenic background. +Of course, different places in the forest are to be presumed, +but one forest background would be sufficient<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +for all. In the course of the four acts, however, +there are three scenes (II. ii; II. iii; III. i) that are +not in the forest, but at unspecified and unpropertied +places about the palace and Oliver's house. For these +scenes the curtain would be closed, shutting off the +forest background and transferring the spectators to +the unspecified localities of Act I, <i>i.e.</i>, to the bare front +stage. <i>Fourth.</i> An extension of this last use made it +possible to employ the curtain to indicate change of +scene. Several scenes, where no heavy properties were +required, might succeed one another on the front stage +with the curtains closed; but the opening of the curtains +would reveal a special background and a manifest +change of scene. One instance of this use of the inner +stage is seen in the immediate change from an outdoor +to an indoor scene, or <i>vice versa</i>. The scene is in +the street, <i>i.e.</i>, on the front stage; the person knocks +at one of the doors and is admitted to a house; when +he reappears, it is through the inner stage, the curtains +of which have been drawn, disclosing the setting of a +room. Or this process is reversed. In <i>A Yorkshire +Tragedy</i>, there is an interesting case of such an alternation +from indoors to outdoors, with one character +remaining on the stage all of the time. A more extensive +use of this "alternation" could be employed to +indicate marked changes of place. As long as the +action remains in Venice, the bare front stage will do, +but a transfer to Portia's house at Belmont can be +made by means of the curtains and the inner stage.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Evolution of the Theater</span>In the later plays at the private theaters this use of the +inner stage, then better lighted, seems to have increased, +especially in the change from a street or general hall +to special apartments.</p> + + + +<p>These uses of the inner stage, together with that of +the upper stage or gallery, gave a chance for considerable +variety in the action, and rendered the rapid succession +of scenes less bewildering than one would at first +suppose. Shakespeare's stage was the outcome of the +peculiar conditions of acting by professionals in the +sixteenth century, but it was also a natural step in the +evolution from the medieval to the modern stage. +On the medieval stage there was a neutral place or +<i>platea</i> and special localized and propertied places called +<i>sedes</i>, <i>domus</i>, <i>loca</i>. On the Elizabethan stage the front +stage is the <i>platea</i>, the inner and upper stages the <i>domus</i> +or <i>loca</i>. In the Restoration theater the scenery was +placed on the inner stage and shut off from the outer +stage by a curtain. With the use of scenery, the inner +stage became more important, and the projecting apron +of the front stage was gradually cut down. The proscenium +doors in front of the curtain long survived +their original use as entrances, but, as a rule, they +have now finally disappeared with the front stage. +The modern picture-frame stage of to-day is the evolution +of the inner stage of the Elizabethans. Similarly +the method of stage presentation has changed +only gradually from Shakespeare's day to ours. The +alternation from outer to inner stage was very common<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +in the Restoration theaters, where flat scenes were used +instead of a curtain, and it may still be seen in the production +of melodrama or of Shakespeare's plays. A +painted drop shuts off a few feet of the stage, which +becomes a street or a hall, while properties and scenery +are being arranged in the rear. When the drop goes +up, we pass from the street or the court of the wicked +Duke to the Forest of Arden, just as the Elizabethans +did.</p> + +<p>The Elizabethan stage affected Shakespeare's dramatic +art in many ways. The absence of scenery, of +women actors, and of a front curtain, the use of a bare +stage that served for neutral or unspecified localities, +naturally influenced the composition of every play. +But the theatrical presentation was by no means as +crude or as medieval as these differences from modern +practice seem to indicate. The intimacy established +between actors and audience by the projecting stage, +the rapidity of action hastened by the lack of scenery +or furniture, the possibilities of rapid changes of scene +rendered intelligible by the use of the inner stage, +were all manifest advantages in encouraging dramatic +invention. The traditions formed in this theater for +the presentation of <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, and the +other plays, were handed on from Shakespeare and +Burbage to Lowin and Taylor, to Betterton, Cibber, +and Garrick, down to the present day; and have perhaps +been less revolutionized by scenery and electric +lights than we might imagine.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">The Text of Shakespeare</span></h3> + + +<p>The main difficulties that stand in the way of determining +the actual form in which Shakespeare left his +plays are due, first, to the total absence of manuscripts, +and, secondly, to the fact that he, like his contemporaries, +regarded dramatic literature as material for performance +on the stage, not as something to be read in the +library. The most obvious evidence of this lies in his +having himself issued with every appearance of personal +attention his poems of <i>Venus and Adonis</i> and +<i>Lucrece</i>, while he permitted his plays to find their way +into print without any trace of supervision and, in +some cases, apparently without his consent. When +the author sold a play to the theatrical company which +was to perform it, he appears to have regarded himself +as having no longer any rights in it; and when a play +was published, we are in general justified in supposing +either that it had been obtained surreptitiously, or that +it had been disposed of by the company. Exceptions +to this begin to appear in the first half of the seventeenth +century, notably in the case of Heywood, who +defended his action on the plea of protecting the text +from mutilation, and in that of Ben Jonson, who issued<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +in 1616, in the face of ridicule for his presumption, a +folio volume of his "Works." But, though Shakespeare +is reported to have felt annoyance at the pirating +of his productions, there is no evidence of his having +been led to protect himself or the integrity of his writings +by departing from the usual practice in his profession.</p> + +<p>Among the various documents which make us aware +of this situation, so general then, but so strongly in +contrast with modern methods, three explicit statements +by Heywood are so illuminating that they +deserve quotation. One occurs in the preface to his +<i>Rape of Lucrece</i>, 1630:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>To the Reader.—It hath beene no custome in mee of all +other men (courteous Reader) to commit my plaies to the +presse: the reason though some may attribute to my owne +insufficiencie, I had rather subscribe in that to their seuare +censure then by seeking to auoide the imputation of weaknes +to incurre greater suspition of honestie: for though some +haue vsed a double sale of their labours, first to the Stage, +and after to the presse, For my owne part I heere proclaime +my selfe euer faithfull in the first, and neuer guiltie of the last: +yet since some of my plaies haue (vnknowne to me, and without +any of my direction) accidentally come into the Printers +hands, and therefore so corrupt and mangled, (coppied only +by the eare) that I have bin as vnable to know them, as +ashamed to chalenge them, This therefore, I was the willinger +to furnish out in his natiue habit: first being by consent, +next because the rest haue beene so wronged in being +publisht in such sauadge and ragged ornaments: accept +it courteous Gentlemen, and prooue as fauorable Readers +as we haue found you gratious Auditors. Yours T. H.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p> + + + +<p><span class="sidenote">The Right to Print</span>The second is in Heywood's <i>Pleasant Dialogues and +Dramas</i>, 1637, the prologue to <i>If you know not me, +you know no bodie; Or, The troubles of Queen Elizabeth</i>. +It is as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A Prologve to the Play of Queene Elizabeth as it was last +revived at the Cock-pit, in which the Author taxeth the most +corrupted copy now imprinted, which was published without +his consent.</p></div> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Prologue</span></p> +<div class="cpoem"> +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i2">Playes have a fate in their conception lent,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Some so short liv'd, no sooner shew'd than spent;<br /></span> +<span class="i2">But borne to-day, to morrow buried, and<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Though taught to speake, neither to goe nor stand.<br /></span> +<span class="i2">This: (by what fate I know not) sure no merit,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">That it disclaimes, may for the age inherit.<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Writing 'bove one and twenty: but ill nurst,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And yet receiv'd as well performed at first,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Grac't and frequented, for the cradle age,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Did throng the Seates, the Boxes, and the Stage<br /></span> +<span class="i2">So much: that some by Stenography drew<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The plot: put it in print: (scarce one word trew:)<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And in that lamenesse it hath limp't so long,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The Author now to vindicate that wrong<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Hath tooke the paines, upright upon its feete<br /></span> +<span class="i2">To teache it walke, so please you sit, and see't.<br /></span> +</div></div> +</div> + +<p>The third passage occurs in the address to the reader +prefixed to <i>The English Traveller</i>, 1633:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>True it is that my plays are not exposed to the world in +volumes, to bear the titles of Works (as others). One reason +is that many of them by shifting and changing of companies +have been negligently lost; others of them are still retained +in the hands of some actors who think it against their peculiar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> +profit to have them come in print; and a third that it was +never any great ambition in me in this kind to be voluminously +read.</p></div> + +<p>From these passages we gather that Heywood considered +it dishonest to sell the same play to the stage +and to the press; that some of his plays were stolen +through stenographic reports taken in the theater and +were printed in corrupt forms; that, in order to counteract +this, he obtained the consent of the theatrical +owners to his publication of a correct edition; that +some actors considered the printing of plays against their +interest (presumably because they thought that if a +man could read a play, he would not care to see it +acted); and that many plays were lost through +negligence and the changes in the theatrical companies. +That we are here dealing with the conditions +of Shakespeare's time is clear enough, since the +edition of <i>If you know not me</i> on which Heywood +casts reflections was published in 1605, and in 1604 +Marston supplies corroboration in the preface to his +<i>Malcontent</i>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>I would fain leave the paper; only one thing afflicts me, to +think that scenes, invented merely to be spoken, should be enforcively +published to be read, and that the least hurt I can +receive is to do myself the wrong. But since others otherwise +would do me more, the least inconvenience is to be accepted. +I have myself, therefore, set forth this comedy; but so, that +my enforced absence must much rely upon the printer's discretion: +but I shall entreat slight errors in orthography may be +as slightly overpassed, and that the unhandsome shape which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Pirated Editions</span>this trifle in reading presents, may be pardoned for the pleasure +it once afforded you when it was presented with the soul of +lively action.</p></div> + + + +<p>The only form in which any of Shakespeare's plays +found their way into print during his lifetime was that +of small pamphlets, called Quartos, which were sold at +sixpence each.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> In the case of five of these there is +general agreement that they came to the press by +the surreptitious method of reporting described by +Heywood: the first Quarto versions of <i>Romeo and +Juliet</i>, <i>Henry V</i>, <i>The Merry Wives</i>, <i>Hamlet</i>, and <i>Pericles</i>. +All of these bear clear traces of the effects of such +mutilation as would naturally result from the attempt +to write down the dialogue during the performance, +and patch up the gaps later. The first Quartos of +<i>Richard III</i> and <i>King Lear</i>, though much superior to +the five mentioned, yet contain so many variants from +the text of the Folio which seem to be due to mistakes +of the ear and to slips of memory on the part of the +actors, that probably they should also be included in the +list of those surreptitiously obtained.</p> + +<p>Redress for such pirating as is implied in these publications +was difficult on account of the absence of a +law of copyright. The chief pieces of legislation +affecting the book trade were the law of licensing and +the charter of the Stationers' Company. According +to the first, all books, with a few exceptions, such as +academic publications, had to be licensed before publication<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +by the Bishop of London or the Archbishop of +Canterbury. This was an unworkable provision, and +in fact the responsibility for all books not likely to +raise political or theological controversy was left to +the Stationers' Company. This close corporation of +printers and publishers exercised its powers for the protection +of its members rather than of authors. A +publisher wishing to establish a monopoly in a book +he had acquired entered it on the Stationers' Register, +paying a fee of sixpence, and was thereby protected +against piracy. When the copy so registered was improperly +acquired, the state of the case is not so clear. +At times the officials showed hesitation about registering +a book until the applicant "hath gotten sufficient +authoritye for yt," and <i>As You Like It</i>, for example, +appears in the Register only "to be staied," which it +was until the publication of the first Folio. Further, +the pirated <i>Romeo and Juliet</i> and <i>Henry V</i> were never +entered at all; the pirated <i>Hamlet</i> and <i>Pericles</i> were +entered, but to other publishers, who in the case of +<i>Hamlet</i> brought out a more correct text in the following +year; the pirated <i>Merry Wives</i> was transferred +from one publisher to another on the day of entry, and +actually issued by the second. Thus this group of +plays does not support the view that the Stationers' +Company stood ready to give perpetual copyright to +their members even for obviously stolen goods. It is +to be noted, too, that the previous publication of these +surreptitious copies formed no hindrance to the later<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Publisher's Copyright</span>issue of an authentic copy. The second Quarto of +<i>Hamlet</i>, printed from a complete manuscript, followed, +as has been said, the first the next year, and +the same thing happened in the case of <i>Romeo and +Juliet</i>.</p> + + + +<p>On the other hand, the great majority of the Quartos +printed from playhouse copies of the plays were regularly +entered, and the rights of the original publisher +preserved to him. The appearance of groups of plays +in the market following interference with theatrical +activity such as came from the plague in 1594, from the +breaking up of companies, or from Puritan attempts at +restriction, confirm the belief that these better Quartos +were honorably acquired by the publishers from the +companies owning them, when the actors thought that +there was more to gain than to lose by giving them to +the press.</p> + + + +<p>The accompanying "Table of Quarto Editions" +gives the names of all the Shakespearean plays issued +in this form before the publication of the collected +edition in 1623, known as the First Folio. In the +cases of <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, <i>1 Henry IV</i>, <i>Love's Labour's +Lost</i>, <i>Merchant of Venice</i>, <i>Much Ado</i>, <i>A Midsummer-Night's +Dream</i>, and <i>Richard II</i>, a Quarto, usually the +most recent, provided the text from which the version in +the Folio was printed. Hence, though in several cases +the copy of the Quarto thus employed seems to have +been one used by the actors and containing corrections +of some value, the extant Quarto rather than the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> +Folio is the prime authority for the text to-day. +The same is true of <i>Titus Andronicus</i>, except that in +this case the Folio restores from some manuscript +source a scene which had been dropped from the +Quarto. If, as some hold, the Folio texts of <i>Richard +III</i> and <i>King Lear</i> were printed from Quartos, there +must have been available also a manuscript version, +which is so heavily drawn upon that the Folio text +virtually represents an independent source, as it does +in the case of four of the five plays acknowledged to +be due to surreptitious reporting. <i>Pericles</i>, the fifth of +these, was first admitted to the collected works in the +third Folio, and is the only "reported" text forming +our sole authority.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> + +<p><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a><span class="sidenote">Table of Quarto Editions</span></p> +<h3 class="moretop">TABLE OF QUARTO EDITIONS BEFORE 1623</h3> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table class="dat1" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Originally occupying pages 138 and 139"> + +<tr><td class="nlt" style="width: 10%;" rowspan="2"> </td><td class="nct" colspan="2" rowspan="2">Entries in<br />Stationers'<br />Register</td> +<td class="nct" colspan="8">Dates Of</td> +<td class="nct" rowspan="2" style="width: 18%;" colspan="2">Source of<br />Q Text</td><td class="nct" rowspan="2" style="width: 16%;">Source of<br />F<sub>1</sub> Text</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nqs">Q<sub>1</sub></td> +<td colspan="2" class="nqs">Q<sub>2</sub></td> +<td colspan="2" class="nqs">Q<sub>3</sub></td> +<td class="nqs">Q<sub>4</sub></td> +<td class="nqs">Q<sub>5</sub></td> +<td class="nqs">Q<sub>6</sub></td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="nol">T. A.</td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Feb. 6, 1594</td> +<td class="lnrl">1594</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1600</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1611</td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Playhouse</td> +<td class="lnl">Q<sub>3</sub> completed and<br /> corrected</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="nol">R. II</td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Aug. 29, 1597</td> +<td class="lnrl">1597</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1598</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1608</td> +<td class="lnrl">1615</td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Playhouse</td> +<td class="lnl">Q<sub>4</sub> corrected</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="nol">R. III</td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Oct. 19, 1597</td> +<td class="lnrl">1597</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1598</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1602</td> +<td class="lnrl">1605</td> +<td class="lnrl">1612</td> +<td class="lnrl">1622</td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Disputed</td> +<td class="lnl">Disputed</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="nol">R. J.</td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">No entry</td> +<td class="lnrl">1597</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1599</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1609</td> +<td class="lnrl">n.d.</td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="nbrc" style="font-size: 200%;">{</td> +<td class="nol" style="padding-left: 0em;">Q<sub>1</sub> Reported<br />Q<sub>2</sub> Playhouse</td> +<td class="lnl">Q<sub>3</sub> from Q<sub>2</sub></td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="nol">1 H. IV</td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Feb. 25, 1598</td> +<td class="lnrl">1598</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1599</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1604</td> +<td class="lnrl">1608</td> +<td class="lnrl">1613</td> +<td class="lnrl">1622</td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Playhouse</td> +<td class="lnl">Q<sub>5</sub> corrected</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="nol">L. L. L.</td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">No entry</td> +<td class="lnrl">1598</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2"> </td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Playhouse</td> +<td class="lnl">Q<sub>1</sub></td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="nol">Merch.<br /><br /></td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">July 22, 1598<br /> (conditional)</td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2"> </td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2"> </td> +<td class="lnl"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="nol"> </td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Oct. 28, 1600</td> +<td class="lnrl">1600</td> +<td class="nbrc" style="font-size: 300%;">{</td> +<td class="nor">1600<br />or <br />1619</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Playhouse</td> +<td class="lnl">Q<sub>1</sub> (Heyes)</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="nol">H. V.<br /><br /></td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">[Aug. 4, 1600]<br /> "to be stayed"</td> +<td class="lnrl">1600</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1602</td> +<td class="nbrc" style="font-size: 300%;">{</td> +<td class="nor">1608<br />or <br />1619</td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Reported</td> +<td class="lnl">Independent</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="nol">M. Ado<br /><br /><br /></td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">[Aug. 4, 1600]<br /> "to be stayed"<br />Aug. 23, 1600</td> +<td class="lnrl"><br /><br />1600</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2"> </td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2"><br /><br />Playhouse</td> +<td class="lnl"><br /><br />Q<sub>1</sub> corrected</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="nol">2 H. IV</td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Aug. 23, 1600</td> +<td class="lnrl">1600</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2"> </td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Playhouse</td> +<td class="lnl">Independent</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="nol">M. N. D.</td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Oct. 8, 1600</td> +<td class="lnrl">1600</td> +<td class="nbrc" style="font-size: 300%;">{</td> +<td class="nor">1600<br />or <br />1619</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Playhouse</td> +<td class="lnl">Q<sub>2</sub> corrected</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="nol">M. W.</td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Jan. 18, 1602</td> +<td class="lnrl">1602</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1619</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Reported</td> +<td class="lnl">Independent</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="nol">Hml.</td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">July 26, 1602</td> +<td class="lnrl">1603</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1604,5</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1611</td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="nbrc" style="font-size: 200%;">{</td> +<td class="nol" style="padding-left: 0em;">Q<sub>1</sub> Reported<br />Q<sub>2</sub> Playhouse</td> +<td class="lnl">Independent</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="nol">Lear</td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Nov. 26, 1607</td> +<td class="lnrl">1608</td> +<td class="nbrc" style="font-size: 300%;">{</td> +<td class="nor">1608<br />or <br />1619</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Disputed</td> +<td class="lnl"><br />Disputed (Q<sub>1</sub> in<br /> several states)</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="nol">T. C.</td> +<td class="lnl" style="width: 12%;">Feb. 7, 1603<br /> (conditional)<br />Jan. 28, 1609</td> +<td class="nbrcr" style="font-size: 300%; width: 2%;">}</td> +<td class="lnrl">1609</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2"> </td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Playhouse</td> +<td class="lnl"><br />Independent (Q<sub>1</sub><br /> in two issues)</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="nol">Per.</td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">May 20, 1608</td> +<td class="lnrl">1609</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1609</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1611</td> +<td class="lnrl">1619</td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Reported</td> +<td class="lnl"><br />Not in F<sub>1</sub><br />F<sub>3</sub> from Q<sub>4</sub></td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="nol">Oth.</td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Oct. 6, 1621</td> +<td class="lnrl">1622</td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2"> </td> +<td class="lnrl" colspan="2"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnrl"> </td> +<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Playhouse</td> +<td class="lnl">Independent</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td class="topiii" colspan="14"> </td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p> + + +<p><span class="sidenote">The First Folio</span>We come now to the publication of the First Folio, +the most important single volume in the history of the +text of Shakespeare. On November 8, 1623, the +following entry occurs in the Stationers' Register:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Mr. Blount: Isaak Jaggard. Entred for their copie under +the hands of M<sup>r</sup> Doctor Worrall and M<sup>r</sup> Cole, Warden, +M<sup>r</sup> William Shakspeers Comedyes, Histories and Tragedyes, +soe manie of the said copyes as are not formerly entred to +other men viz<sup>t</sup>, Comedyes. The Tempest. The two gentlemen +of Verona. Measure for Measure. The Comedy of +Errors. As you like it. All's well that ends well. Twelft +Night. The winters tale. Histories. The thirde part of +Henry the sixt. Henry the eight. Tragedies. Coriolanus. +Timon of Athens. Julius Cæsar. Mackbeth. Anthonie +and Cleopatra. Cymbeline.</p></div> + +<p>One notes here the omission of <i>1</i> and <i>2 Henry VI</i>, +<i>King John</i>, and <i>The Taming of the Shrew</i>, which had +neither been previously entered nor issued in Quarto. +This is probably due to the fact that three of these are +based on older plays of which Quartos exist, which may +have seemed to the publishers reason enough to save +their sixpences. If we assume that "The thirde part +of Henry the sixt" is a misprint for "The first part,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +the explanation covers the whole case. The registration +of <i>Antony and Cleopatra</i> was superfluous, as it had +been entered, though not printed, so far as we know, +on May 20, 1608.</p> + +<p>There are thus in the First Folio, the publication of +which immediately followed this entry in 1623, twenty +plays not before issued, for which the text of this +volume is our sole authority. The emphasis so commonly +placed on the supreme value of the text of the +First Folio is justified with regard to these twenty +plays; as for the remaining seventeen, its importance +is shared, in proportions varying from play to play, +with the texts of the Quartos. The sources from which +the compilers of the Folio obtained their new material +were in all probability playhouse copies, as in the case +of the better Quartos. Heminge and Condell, Shakespeare's +actor colleagues and friends, who sign the Address +to the Readers,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> would obviously be the instruments +for obtaining such copies. As for the so-called +"private transcripts" which some have postulated as +a source of material, there is no evidence that at this +date any such existed. Whether any of the playhouse +manuscripts provided by Heminge and Condell were in +Shakespeare's autograph we can neither affirm nor deny, +but it is well to be cautious in accepting at its face +value the implication contained in their words that they +had "scarce received from him a blot in his papers."</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 238px;"><a name="Facsim" id="Facsim"></a> +<a href="images/286.jpg"><img src="images/t286.jpg" width="238" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a> +<p class="captionn"><span class="smcap">The Title Page of the First Folio</span><br /> +(<i>From the copy in the New York Public Library.</i>)</p></div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></p> + + + +<p><span class="sidenote">The First Folio</span>The First Folio is a large volume of 908 pages, +measuring in the tallest extant copy 13⅜ x 8½ inches. +A reduced facsimile of the title page with the familiar +wood-cut portrait appears on the opposite page. The +text is printed in two columns with sixty-six lines to a +column. The typography is only fairly good, and many +mistakes occur in the pagination. Extant copies, of +which there are at least 156, vary in some respects, on +account of the practice of making corrections while the +sheets were being printed. The printer was William +Jaggard, and his associates in the publishing enterprise +were his son Isaac and the booksellers, William Aspley, +John Smethwick, and Edward Blount. Estimates of the +size of the edition vary from five to six hundred.</p> + +<p>Many of the causes which made the text of these +early editions inaccurate are common to all the plays, +while some are peculiar to those obtained by reporters +in the theater. Of the first, the most fundamental +is, of course, the illegibility or ambiguity of the author's +original manuscript. Such flaws were perpetuated and +multiplied with each successive transcript, and when +the manuscript copy came into the printer's hands, +the errors of the compositor—confusion of words +sounding alike, of words looking alike, unconscious +substitution of synonyms, mere manual slips, and the +like—were added to those already existing. The +absence of any uniform spelling, and carelessness in +punctuation, which led to these being freely modified +by the printer, increased the risk of corruption. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> +punctuation of both Quartos and Folio, though by no +means without weight, cannot be regarded as having +the author's sanction, and all modernized editions +re-punctuate with greater or less freedom. Most +nineteenth-century editors carry on with minor modifications +the punctuation of Pope, so that their texts +show a composite of sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, +and nineteenth century methods; the text used in the +Tudor edition is frankly punctuated, as far as the syntax +permits, according to modern methods, with, it is +believed, no loss in authority. There is no clear evidence +that, in such productions as plays, proof was +read outside of the printing-office. The theory, insisted +on by Dr. Furness in successive volumes of the <i>New +Variorum Shakespeare</i>, that the Elizabethan compositor +set type to dictation is without foundation, the +phenomena which he seeks to explain by it occurring +commonly to-day when there is no question of such a +practice.</p> + +<p>Another class of variation in text arose from the +treatment of the manuscript in the playhouse. Cuts, +additions, and alterations were made for acting purposes, +stage directions were added with or without +the assistance of the author, revivals of the play called +for revision by the original writer or another. The +majority of stage directions in modern editions, except +exits and entrances, are due to editors from Rowe +onwards, and these unauthorized additions are distinguished +in the Tudor edition by brackets. Almost<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Corruptions of Text</span>all notes of place at the beginnings of scenes belong to +this class.</p> + + + +<p>The defects to which the texts of the surreptitiously +obtained Quartos are particularly subject include +omissions and alterations due to lapse of memory on +the part of the actors, additions due to the tendency to +improvise which Shakespeare censures in <i>Hamlet</i>, +omissions due to the reporter's failure to hear or to +write quickly enough, garbled paraphrases made up +to supply such omissions, and the writing of prose as +verse and verse as prose.</p> + +<p>Such are the most important of the causes of the +corruptions which the long series of editors of Shakespeare +have devoted their study and their ingenuity +to remedying. The series really begins with the second +Folio of 1632 and is continued with but slight improvements +in the third Folio of 1663, reprinted with the +addition of <i>Pericles</i> and six spurious plays in 1664, +and in the fourth Folio of 1685. The emendations +made in the seventeenth-century editions are mainly +modernizations in spelling and such minor changes as +occurred to members of the printing staff. In no case +do they have any authority except such as may be +supposed to belong to a man not far removed from +Shakespeare in date; and they add about as many +mistakes as they remove.</p> + +<p>The difficulty of the task of the modern editor varies +greatly from play to play. It is least in the twenty +plays for which the First Folio is the sole authority,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +greater in the eight in which the Folio reprints a Quarto +with some variations, greatest in the nine in which +Folio and Quarto represent rival versions. In these last +cases, it is the duty of the editor to decide from all the +accessible data which version has the best claim to +represent the author's intention, and to make that a +basis to be departed from only in clear cases of corruption. +The temptation, which no editor has completely +resisted, is naturally towards an eclecticism which adopts +the reading that seems most plausible in itself, without +giving due weight to the general authority of the +text chosen as a basis. If carried far, such eclecticism +results in a patchwork quite distinct from any version +that Shakespeare can have known.</p> + +<p>The first editor of Shakespeare, in the modern sense, +was Nicholas Rowe, poet laureate under Queen +Anne. He published in 1709 an edition of the plays +in six octavo volumes, preceded by the first formal +memoir of the dramatist, and furnished with notes. +The poems were issued in the following year in similar +form, with essays by Gildon. Rowe based his text +upon that of the fourth Folio, with hardly any collation +of previous editions. He corrected a large number of +the more obvious corruptions, the most notable of +his emendations being perhaps the phrase in <i>Twelfth +Night</i>, "Some are become great," which he changed +to "Some are born great." On the external aspect +of the plays Rowe has left a deeper mark than any +subsequent editor. In the Folios only eight of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Rowe and Pope</span>plays had lists of <i>dramatis personæ</i>; Rowe supplied +them for the rest. In the Folios the division into +acts and scenes is carried out completely in only +seventeen cases, it is partially done in thirteen, and +in six it is not attempted at all. Rowe again completed +the work, and though some of his divisions +have been modified and others should be, he performed +this task with care and intelligence. He modernized +the spelling and the punctuation, completed the exits +and entrances, corrected many corrupt speech-tags, +and arranged many passages where the verse was +disordered. In virtue of these services, he must, in +spite of his leaving much undone, be regarded as one +of the most important agents in the formation of our +modern text.</p> + + + +<p>A second edition of Rowe's Shakespeare was published +in 1714, and in 1725 appeared a splendid quarto +edition in six volumes, edited by Alexander Pope. +In his preface Pope made strong professions of his +good faith in dealing with the text. "I have discharged," +he said, "the dull duty of an editor to my +best judgment, with more labor than I expect thanks, +with a religious abhorrence of all innovation, and without +any indulgence to my private sense or conjecture.... +The various readings are fairly put in the margin, so +that anyone may compare 'em; and those I have preferred +into the text are constantly <i>ex fide codicum</i>, +upon authority.... The more obsolete or unusual +words are explained." Hardly one of these statements<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> +is entirely true. Pope possessed copies of the +first and second Folios, and at least one Quarto of each +play that had been printed before 1623, except <i>Much +Ado</i>, but these he consulted only occasionally, and +seldom registered the variants as he said he had done. +When he did, he gave no clue to their source. He +constantly inserted his private conjectures without +notice, and his explanations of difficult expressions +are few and frequently wrong. Passages considered +by him inferior or spurious he relegated to the foot of +the pages; others he merely omitted without notice. +His ear was often jarred by the freedom of Shakespeare's +verse, and he did his best to make it +"regular" by eighteenth-century standards. Yet +Pope spent much ingenuity in striving to better the +text, and no small number of restorations and emendations +are to be credited to him, especially in connection +with the arrangement of the verse. He is to be credited +also with discernment in rejecting the seven plays +added to the Shakespearean canon in the third Folio, +of which only <i>Pericles</i> has since been restored.</p> + +<p>The weaknesses of Pope's edition did not long remain +hidden. In the spring of 1726 appeared "Shakespeare +Restored: or, a Specimen of the many Errors, as well +committed, as unamended, by Mr. Pope in his late +edition of this Poet. Designed not only to correct the +said edition, but to restore the True Reading of Shakespeare +in all the Editions ever yet publish'd." Lewis +Theobald, the author, was a translator and scholar,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Theobald and Hanmer</span>much better equipped than Pope for the work of editing, +and his merciless exposure of Pope's defects gave +a foretaste of the critical ability later displayed in the +edition of Shakespeare which he published in 1734. +Lovers of Shakespeare discerned at the time the service +performed by Theobald in this attack on Pope, but the +publication in 1728 of the first edition of the <i>Dunciad</i>, +with Theobald as hero, gave Pope his revenge, and +cast over the reputation of his critic a cloud which is +only now dispersing. Modern scholarship, however, +has come to recognize the primacy of Theobald among +emendators of Shakespeare's text, and the most famous +of his contributions, his correction of "a table of green +fields" to "'a babled of green fields," in Quickly's +account of the death of Falstaff in <i>Henry V</i>, II. iii. 17, +is only a specially brilliant example of the combination +of acuteness, learning, and sympathy which made his +edition a landmark in the history of the text. For +many of his troubles, however, Theobald was himself +to blame; he attacked his opponents with unnecessary +vehemence, as he expressed his appreciation of his +own work with unnecessary emphasis; he was not +always candid as to what he owed to others, even to +the despised edition of Pope, from which he printed; +and he indulged his appetite for conjecture at times +beyond reasonable bounds.</p> + + + +<p>Theobald's edition was followed in 1744 by that of +Sir Thomas Hanmer in six beautifully printed volumes. +This edition is based on that of Pope, and even goes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +farther than Pope's in relegating to the foot of the page +passages supposed unworthy. Hanmer performed no +collating worth mentioning, but made some acute conjectures.</p> + +<p>The student is apt to be prejudiced against the work +of William Warburton on account of the extravagance +of his claims and his ungenerous treatment of predecessors +to whom he was greatly indebted. "The +Genuine Text," he announced, "(collated with all +former editions and then corrected and emended) +is here settled: Being restored from the Blunders of +the first editors and the Interpolations of the two +Last"; yet he based his text on Theobald's and joined +Pope's name with his own on the title-page. Whatever +value belongs to Warburton's edition (1747) lies +in a number of probable conjectural emendations, +some of which he had previously allowed Theobald to +use, and in the amusing bombast and arrogance of many +of his notes. The feeble support that lay behind the +pretensions of this editor was exposed by a number +of critics such as John Upton, Zachary Grey, Benjamin +Heath, and Thomas Edwards, who did not issue new +editions, but contributed a considerable number of +corrections and interpretations.</p> + +<p>The value of Dr. Johnson's edition (1765) does not lie +in his emendations, which are usually, though not +always, poor, or in his collation of older editions, for +which he was too indolent, but in the sturdy common-sense +of his interpretations and the consummate skill<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Johnson and Capell</span>frequently shown in paraphrases of obscure passages. +His Preface to the edition was the most weighty general +estimate of Shakespeare so far produced, and +remains a valuable piece of criticism. In scientific +treatment of the text, involving full use of all the +Quartos and Folios then accessible, Johnson and his +predecessors were far surpassed by Edward Capell, who +issued his edition in ten volumes in 1768. Unfortunately, +the enormous labor Capell underwent did not +bear its full fruit, for he suppressed much of his textual +material in the interests of a well-printed page, and his +preface and notes are written in a crabbed style that +obscures the acuteness of his editorial intelligence. +He elaborated stage directions, and carried farther the +correction of disarranged meter; but, like most of his +fellow-editors in that century, he did less than justice +to his predecessors and was too indulgent to his own +conjectures. This edition was supplemented by volumes +of notes published in 1775 (1 vol.) and 1779-1783 +(3 vols.).</p> + + + +<p>Before the publication of Capell's text, the antiquary +George Steevens had issued in 1766 reprints of +twenty of the early Quartos; and in 1773 he produced, +in association with Johnson, an edition with a good text +in which he benefited from Capell's labors (though he +denies this). Through his knowledge of Elizabethan literature +he made substantial contributions to the interpretation +of difficult passages. He restored <i>Pericles</i> to +a place in the canon, but excluded the <i>Poems</i>, because<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +"the strongest Act of Parliament that could be framed +would fail to compel readers into their service." To +the second edition of Johnson and Steevens's text +(1778) Edmund Malone contributed his famous "Essay +on the Chronology of Shakespeare's Plays," which +began modern investigation of this subject. The +third edition was revised in 1785 by Isaac Reed; and +this was succeeded by the edition of Malone in 1790, +in which the vast learning and conscientious care of +that scholar combined to produce the most trustworthy +text so far published. Malone was not brilliant, +but he was extremely erudite and candid, and +his so-called "Third Variorum" edition in twenty-one +volumes, brought out after his death by James Boswell +in 1821, is a mine of information on theatrical history +and cognate matters, which will probably always be +of value to students of the period. The name of +"First Variorum Edition" is given to the fifth edition +of Johnson and Steevens, revised by Reed in 1803, and +"Second Variorum" to the sixth edition of the same, +1813. Meantime occasional critiques of complete +editions contributed something to the text. Johnson's +edition called forth comment by Kendrick in 1765 +and Tyrwhitt in 1766, and the Johnson and Steevens +text was criticized by Joseph Ritson in 1783 and 1788, +and by J. Monck Mason in 1785. The first American +edition was published in Philadelphia in 1795-1796 +from Johnson's text; the first continental edition at +Brunswick in 1797-1801 by C. Wagner.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p> + + + +<p><span class="sidenote">Nineteenth-Century Editors</span>The editions of the nineteenth century are too +numerous for detailed mention here. Passing by the +"family" Shakespeare of T. Bowdler, 1807 and 1820, +and the editions of Harness, 1825, and Singer, 1826, we +note the editions of 1838-1842, and 1842-1844 in which +Charles Knight resorted to the text of the First Folio +as an exclusive authority. J. P. Collier in his edition +of 1844 leaned, on the other hand, to the side of the +Quartos, but later became a clever if somewhat rash +emendator, who spoiled his reputation by seeking to +obtain authority for his guesses by forging them in a +seventeenth-century hand in a copy of the second +Folio. The colossal volumes of J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps's +edition, 1853-1865, contain stores of antiquarian +illustration; and in the edition of Delius, 1854-1861, +we have the chief contribution of Germany to +the text of Shakespeare. Delius, like Knight, though +not to the same extreme, exaggerated the authority of +the First Folio; but for the plays for which that is the +sole source, his text has earned high respect. Alexander +Dyce, wisest of Elizabethan scholars, produced +in 1857 a characteristically sane text, on the whole the +best to this date; while in America in 1857-1860 and +1859-1865 the brilliant but erratic Richard Grant +White produced editions which show a commendable +if puzzling openness to conviction in successive changes +of opinion.</p> + +<p>From 1863 to 1866 appeared the first issue of the +Cambridge Shakespeare, edited originally by W. G.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> +Clark, J. Glover, and W. A. Wright. The responsibility +for the later revised edition of 1891-3 is Dr. Wright's. +The exceedingly careful and exhaustive collation of all +previous textual readings in the notes of this edition +make it indispensable for the serious student, and its +text, substantially reprinted in the Globe edition, is the +most widely accepted form of the works of Shakespeare +which has ever been circulated. The over-emphasis +on the First Folio which has been noted in Knight and +Delius is no longer found here, and in general the comparative +value of Quarto and Folio is weighed in the +case of each play. Occasionally, in cases like that of +<i>Richard III</i>, where both Quarto and Folio are good +but vary widely, the Cambridge editors seem more +eclectic than their general theory warrants, and the +punctuation is still archaic, clinging to the eighteenth-century +tradition. But the acceptance of this careful +and conservative text has been a wholesome influence +in Shakespearean study.</p> + +<p>The only completely reëdited texts which have +been issued since the revised Cambridge edition are +that of the Oxford Shakespeare, by W. J. Craig, on +principles very similar to the Cambridge, and the +Neilson text, originally published in one volume in +1906 and revised and reprinted in the Tudor Shakespeare. +The massive volumes of Dr. H. H. Furness's +<i>New Variorum Shakespeare</i>, begun in 1871 (17 volumes +issued), now reprint the text of the First Folio, and show +marked traces of the tendency to follow this authority<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Recent Editors</span>without due discrimination. This monumental abstract +of all previous criticism is of great value to the +professional student of Shakespeare, and its textual +apparatus has the advantage over the Cambridge +edition of recording not only the first occurrence of a +reading, but the names of the chief editors who have +adopted it. It thus gives a compendious history of +editorial judgment on all disputed points.</p> + + + +<p>The conjectural emendation of Shakespeare still +goes on, but since Dyce, comparatively few suggestions +find general acceptance. More progress has been made +in interpretation through the greater accessibility of +contemporary documents and the advance in recent +years in our knowledge of Elizabethan theatrical conditions. +But, in view of the circumstances under which +the original editions were printed, there will always be +room for variations of individual opinion in many cases, +both as to what Shakespeare wrote and as to what he +meant.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> For facsimile reproductions see Bibliography, <a href="#Appendix_D">Appendix D</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> In the table of Quarto editions may be noted four entries +with the words "or 1619" added to the date which appears +on the title-page. These four plays, the Roberts Quartos of +<i>The Merchant of Venice</i> and <i>A Midsummer-Night's Dream</i> +of 1600, the third Quarto of <i>Henry V</i>, 1608, the second Quarto +of <i>King Lear</i>, 1608, along with the 1619 Quartos of <i>The Merry +Wives</i> and <i>Pericles</i>, an undated Quarto of <i>The Whole Contention</i> +(the earlier form of <i>2</i> and <i>3 Henry VI</i>), the Quarto of <i>Sir +John Oldcastle</i>, dated 1600, and the Quarto of <i>A Yorkshire +Tragedie</i>, dated 1619, have been shown by Mr. A. W. Pollard, +with the coöperation of Mr. W. W. Greg, to have been put +on the market at the same time, and Mr. W. J. Neidig has +proved from typographical evidence that the title-pages of +all nine were set up in succession in 1619. A very curious +problem is thus presented, and the motives for the deception +practised, apparently by the printers Pavier and Jaggard, +have not been satisfactorily cleared up; but at present it +appears likely that in the case of these nine Quartos the +correct date of publication should be 1619, and that, in the +case of the first two mentioned, the question of the comparative +authority of the Heyes and Fisher Quartos respectively +as against that of the Roberts Quartos should be settled +against the latter. This last point is the only part of this +remarkable discovery which is of importance in determining +the text, as the Quartos dated 1608 and 1619 were already +known to be mere reprints of earlier ones.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> For this and other prefatory matter from the First +Folio, see <a href="#Appendix_A">Appendix A</a>.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Questions of Authenticity</span></h3> + + +<p>Owing to the conditions of publication described in +Chapter VII there are questions as to the authenticity +of a number of the poems and plays ascribed to Shakespeare. +Of the poems, "The Phœnix and the Turtle" +and "A Lover's Complaint" have been sometimes rejected +as unworthy, but there is no other evidence +against the ascription to him by the original publishers. +The case of <i>The Passionate Pilgrim</i> is different and is +interesting as illustrating the methods of piracy practised +by booksellers and as affording the only record of +a protest by Shakespeare against the free use which +they made of his name. This anthology was published +by W. Jaggard in 1599 as "by W. Shakespeare." The +third edition in 1612 added two pieces by Thomas +Heywood. Heywood immediately protested and in +the postscript to his <i>Apologie for Actors</i>, 1612, declared +that Shakespeare was "much offended with M. Jaggard +that (altogether unknown to him) presumed to make +so bold with his name." Of the twenty poems that +made up the volume, only five are certainly by Shakespeare, +two appearing also in <i>The Sonnets</i> and three in +<i>Love's Labour's Lost</i>. Six others can be assigned to +contemporary poets. The authorship of the remaining<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">The Shakespeare Apocrypha</span>nine is unknown, but probably only one or two are by +Shakespeare.</p> + + + +<p>In addition to the thirty-seven plays now included +in all editions of Shakespeare, some forty others have +been, for one reason or another, attributed to him. +The First Folio contained thirty-six plays; and it is a +strong evidence of the honesty and information of its +editors, Heming and Condell, that subsequent criticism +has been satisfied to retain the plays of their choice and +to make but one addition, <i>Pericles</i>. Of these plays, +however, it is now generally agreed that a number are +not entirely the work of Shakespeare, but were written +by him in part in collaboration with other writers, <i>e.g.</i>, +<i>Titus Andronicus, 1, 2</i>, and <i>3</i> <i>Henry VI</i>, <i>Timon of +Athens</i>, <i>Pericles</i>, and <i>Henry VIII</i>. Of two of these, +<i>Titus Andronicus</i> and <i>1 Henry VI</i>, some students +refuse to give Shakespeare any share. Of the forty +doubtful plays, there is not one which in its entirety +is now credited to Shakespeare; and only three or +four in which any number of competent critics see +traces of his hand. Only in the case of <i>The Two Noble +Kinsmen</i> is there any weight of evidence or opinion +that he had a considerable share.</p> + +<p>The second Folio kept to the thirty-six plays of the +First Folio; but the second printing of the third Folio +(1664) added seven plays: <i>Pericles Prince of Tyre</i>, +<i>The London Prodigal</i>, <i>The History of Thomas Lord +Cromwell</i>, <i>Sir John Oldcastle</i>, <i>Lord Cobham</i>, <i>The Puritan +Widow</i>, <i>A Yorkshire Tragedy</i>, <i>The Tragedy of Locrine</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +These seven plays were also included in the fourth +Folio, and as supplementary volumes to Rowe's, Pope's, +and some later editions. They were all originally +published in quarto as by W. S., or William Shakespeare, +but except in the case of <i>Pericles</i>, this has been regarded +as a bookseller's mistake or deception without warrant. +<i>Locrine</i>, "newly set forth, overseen, and corrected +by W. S., 1595," is a play of about the date of <i>Titus +Andronicus</i>, and is probably by Greene, Peele, or some +imitator of Marlowe and Kyd. <i>Sir John Oldcastle</i> +appeared in 1600 in two quartos, one of which ascribed +it to William Shakespeare, but it was clearly composed +for the Admiral's men as a rival to the Falstaff +plays which the Chamberlain's men had been acting. +<i>Thomas Lord Cromwell</i> (1602) and <i>The Puritan</i> (1607) +were ascribed to W. S., on their title-pages, but offer +no possible resemblances to Shakespeare. <i>The London +Prodigal</i> (1605) and <i>A Yorkshire Tragedy</i> (1608) were +both acted by Shakespeare's company, and bore his +name on their first editions, and the latter also on a +second edition, 1619. The external evidence for his +authorship is virtually the same as in the case of +<i>Pericles</i>, which also was acted by his company, appeared +under his name during his lifetime, but was rejected by +the editors of the First Folio. No one, however, can +discover any suggestion of Shakespeare in <i>The London +Prodigal</i>. <i>A Yorkshire Tragedy</i> is a domestic tragedy in +one act, dealing with a contemporary murder. It gives +the conclusion of a story also treated in a play, <span class="sidenote">The Two Noble Kinsmen</span><i>The</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +<i>Miseries of Enforced Marriage</i> (1607) by George Wilkins, +the author of a novel <i>The Painful Adventures of +Pericles</i>, and sometimes suggested as a collaborator +on the play <i>Pericles</i>. <i>A Yorkshire Tragedy</i> is very +unlike Shakespeare, but it has a few passages of extraordinarily +vivid prose, which might conceivably owe +something to him.</p> + + + +<p><i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i> was registered April 8, 1634, +and appeared in the same year with the following +title-page "The Two Noble Kinsmen: Presented at +the Blackfriars by the Kings Maiesties servants, with +great applause: Written by the memorable Worthies +of their time;</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td class="nol">Mr. John Fletcher, and<br />Mr. William Shakespeare</td> +<td class="nbrcr" style="font-size: 200%;">}</td><td class="nol">Gent.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Printed at London by the Tho. Cotes for Iohn Waterson; +and are to be sold at the signe of the Crowne in +Paul's Church-yard. 1634." The exclusion of the +play from the First Folio may be explained on the same +basis as the exclusion of <i>Pericles</i>; for in each play +Shakespeare wrote the minor part. There is now +general agreement that <i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i> was +written by two authors with distinct styles, and that +the author of the larger portion is Fletcher. The +attribution of the non-Fletcherian part to Shakespeare +has been upheld by Lamb, Coleridge, De Quincey, +Spalding (in a notable Letter on Shakespeare's Authorship +of <i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i>, 1833), Furness, and +Littledale (who edited the play for <i>The New Shakespeare<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +Society</i>, Series II, 1, 8, 15, London, 1876-1885); but +there are still many critics who do not believe that +Shakespeare had any part in the play. This question +will probably always remain a matter of opinion; +but the evidence of various verse tests confirms esthetic +judgment in assigning about two fifths of the verse to +Shakespeare. The Shakespearean portion, here and +there possibly touched by Fletcher, includes, I. i; +I. ii; I. iii; I. iv. 1-28; III. i; III. ii; V. i. 17-73; V. iii. +1-104; V. iv, and perhaps the prose II. i and IV. iii.</p> + +<p>The dance in the play is borrowed from an anti-masque +in Beaumont's <i>Masque of the Inner Temple and +Gray's Inn</i>, presented at court, February 20, 1613. This +fixes the date of composition for the play in 1613, the +same year as <i>Henry VIII</i>, on which it is now generally +agreed that Shakespeare and Fletcher collaborated. +On both of the plays the collaboration seems to have +been direct; <i>i.e.</i>, after making a fairly detailed outline, +each writer took certain scenes, and, to all intents, +completed these scenes after his own fashion.</p> + +<p>One other play must be mentioned in connection +with <i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i>. <i>Cardenio</i>, entered on +the Stationers' Register, 1653, was described as "by +Fletcher and Shakespeare." It seems probably identical +with a <i>Cardenno</i> acted at court by the King's men +in May, 1613, and a <i>Cardenna</i> in June, 1613. Attempts +have been made to connect it with <i>Double Falsehood</i>, +assigned to Shakespeare by Theobald on its publication +in 1728.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p> + + + +<p><span class="sidenote">Last Ascriptions</span>Other non-extant plays ascribed to Shakespeare after +1642 require no attention, nor do a number of Elizabethan +plays assigned to him in certain of their later +quartos. Among these are <i>The Troublesome Reign +of King John</i>, on which Shakespeare's <i>King John</i> was +based; <i>The First Part of The Contention</i>, and (the +Second Part) <i>The True Tragedy of Richard Duke of +York</i> (versions of <i>2 Henry VI</i> and <i>3 Henry VI</i>); and +<i>The Taming of a Shrew</i>, the basis of Shakespeare's +play. The relation of Shakespeare's plays to these +earlier versions is discussed in the introductions to the +respective volumes of the Tudor Shakespeare. Other +plays assigned, without grounds, to Shakespeare by +late seventeenth-century booksellers are <i>The Merry +Devil of Edmonton, The Arraignment of Paris, Fair Em, +Mucedorus</i>, and <i>The Birth of Merlin</i>.</p> + +<p>A few other anonymous plays have been ascribed +to Shakespeare by modern critics. Of chief note +are <i>Arden of Feversham</i>, 1592, first attributed to Shakespeare +by Edward Jacob in 1770; <i>Edward III</i>, 1596, +included with other false attributions to Shakespeare +in a bookseller's list of 1659, and edited and assigned to +Shakespeare by Capell in 1760; <i>Sir Thomas More</i>, an +old play of about 1587, preserved in manuscript until +edited by Dyce in 1844 and assigned to Shakespeare by +Richard Simpson in 1871. There is no evidence for +the ascription of various portions of these plays to +Shakespeare, except that certain passages seem to some +critics characteristic of him. But at the date when the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +three plays were written his style had not attained +its characteristic individuality; and the assignment of +these anonymous plays to any particular author +neglects the obvious fact that many writers of that +period present similar traits of versification and imagery. +The attribution to Shakespeare of the Countess of +Salisbury episode in <i>Edward III</i>, parts of the insurrection +scenes in <i>Sir Thomas More</i>, and a few passages +in <i>Arden of Feversham</i> has scarcely any warrant beyond +the enthusiastic admiration of certain critics for these +passages.</p> + +<p>Thus only one play of the Shakespeare Apocrypha has +any considerable claim to admission into the canon. +The evidence for his participation in <i>The Two Noble +Kinsmen</i> is about as strong as in <i>Pericles</i>, and the part +assigned to him is fairly comparable with his contribution +to <i>Henry VIII</i>.</p> + +<p>An account of the Shakespeare Apocrypha is, however, +incomplete without reference to the forgeries of documents +or plays. Theobald published <i>Double Falsehood</i> +in 1728, as based on a seventeenth-century manuscript +which he conjectured to be by Shakespeare. John +Jordan, a resident of Stratford, forged the will of Shakespeare's +father, and probably some other papers in his +<i>Collections</i>, 1780; William Henry Ireland, with the aid +of his father, produced in 1796 a volume of forged papers +purporting to relate to Shakespeare's career, and on +April 2, 1796, Sheridan and Kemble presented at Drury +Lane the tragedy of <i>Vortigern</i>, really by Ireland, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Forgeries</span>said by him to have been found among Shakespeare's +manuscripts. Ireland was exposed by Malone, and +he published a confession of his forgeries in 1805. +More skilful and far more disturbing to Shakespearean +scholarship are the forgeries of John Payne Collier, +extending over a period from 1835 to 1849. These +included manuscript corrections in a copy of the second +Folio, and many documents concerning the biography of +Shakespeare and the history of the Elizabethan theater. +These forgeries have vitiated many of Collier's most +important publications, as his <i>Memoirs of Edward +Alleyn</i>, and <i>History of English Dramatic Poetry</i>.</p> + + + +<p>We turn now from attempts to increase Shakespeare's +writings to an extraordinary effort to deny him the +authorship of all his plays. Doubts on this score +seem to have been raised by Joseph C. Hart in his +<i>Romance of Yachting</i>, 1848, and by an article in <i>Chambers' +Journal</i>, August 7, 1852. In 1856, Mr. W. H. +Smith first proposed Bacon's authorship in a letter to +Lord Ellesmere, "Was Lord Bacon the author of +Shakespeare's plays?" These were followed by an +article by Miss Delia Bacon in <i>Putnam's Monthly</i>, 1856, +and a volume, <i>The Philosophy of the Plays of Shakespeare +unfolded by Delia Bacon</i>. Since Miss Bacon's +book, her hypothesis has resulted in the publication +of hundreds of volumes and pamphlets supporting +many variations of the theory. Some are content to +view the authorship as a mystery, assigning the plays +to an unknown author. Others attribute the authorship<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> +to a club of distinguished men, or to Sir Anthony +Shirley, or the Earl of Rutland, or another. Others +give Bacon only a portion of the plays, as those containing +many legal terms. The majority, however, +are thoroughgoing "Baconians," and the most prodigious +cases of misapplied ingenuity have been the +efforts to find in the First Folio a cipher, by which certain +letters are selected which proclaim Bacon's authorship; +as <i>The Great Cryptogram</i>, 1887, by Ignatius +Donnelly, and <i>The Bi-Literal Cypher of Francis Bacon</i>, +1900, by Mrs. Gallup. Such cyphers are mutually +destructive, and their absurdity has been repeatedly +demonstrated. Either they will not work without +much arbitrary manipulation, or they work too well and +are found to indicate Bacon's authorship of literature +written before his birth and after his death. Yet similar +'discoveries' continue to be announced.</p> + +<p>The evidences supporting Shakespeare's authorship +have been set forth sufficiently in this volume and +offer no basis for an attitude of skepticism. A few +considerations may be recalled as correctives for a +partial or mistaken reading of the evidence. (1) +Though the records of Shakespeare's life are meager, +they are fuller than for any other Elizabethan dramatist. +Indeed we know little of the biography of any +men of the sixteenth century unless their lives affected +church or politics and hence found preservation in +the records. There is no 'mystery' about Shakespeare. +(2) Records amply establish the identity between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">The "Baconian" Question</span>Shakespeare the actor and the writer. Moreover, the +plays contain many words and phrases natural to an +actor, many references to the actor's art, and show a +wide and detailed knowledge of the ways and peculiarities +of the theater. (3) The extent of observation and +knowledge in the plays is, indeed, remarkable, but it +is not accompanied by any indication of thorough +scholarship, or a detailed connection with any profession +outside of the theater, or a profound knowledge of +the science or philosophy of the time. (4) The law +terms are numerous, and usually correct, but do not +establish any great knowledge of the law. Elizabethan +London was full of law students who were among +frequent patrons of the theater. Through acquaintance +with these gentlemen Shakespeare might have +readily acquired all the law that he displays. Moreover +Shakespeare had an opportunity to gain a considerable +familiarity with the law through the frequent litigations +in which he and his father were concerned. (5) The +dedication, commendatory poems, and address to the +readers prefixed to the First Folio ought in themselves +to be sufficient to remove the skepticism as to Shakespeare's +authorship.</p> + + + +<p>The following considerations apply to the attribution +to Bacon, so far as that rests on any tangible +basis: (1) Sir Tobie Matthews writes in a letter to +Bacon, written some time later than January, 1621, +"The most prodigious wit that ever I knew of my nation +and of this side of the sea is of your Lordship's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +name, though he be known by another." The sentence +probably refers to Father Thomas Southwell, a Jesuit, +whose real surname was Bacon. There is nothing to +connect it with Shakespeare. (2) The parallelisms +between passages in Shakespeare and Bacon deal with +phrases in common use and fail to establish any connection +between the two men. (3) The few surviving +examples of Bacon's verse suggest no ability as a +poet. (4) Bacon's life is well known, and it offers no +hint of connection with the theaters and no space in +its crowded annals for the production of Shakespeare's +plays. In fact, if we had to find an author for Shakespeare's +plays among writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth +centuries, Bacon would be about the last person +conceivable.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Shakespeare since 1616</span></h3> + + +<p>During Shakespeare's lifetime, his plays were mentioned +and imitated as often as those of any of his +contemporaries. The more important documents bearing +on his growing reputation have already been noted +in this volume. This popularity, however, was confined +to theater-goers and the readers of the sixteen +plays that had appeared before 1616. There was no +opportunity for a full estimate of his plays as literature +until their publication in the Folio of 1623. This +is given full and worthy expression in the fine verses +which Ben Jonson contributed as a preface to the Folio. +He had girded at several of Shakespeare's plays, and +his own views of the principles and practices of the +dramatic art were largely opposed to Shakespeare's, +but he took this opportunity to express unstinted appreciation +of Shakespeare's greatness. He notes with +discrimination that Shakespeare learned his art in an +earlier day, but far outshone Kyd, Lyly, and Marlowe.</p> + + +<p class="center">Soul of the Age<br /> +The applause! delight! the wonder of our Stage!</p> + + +<p>He may challenge comparison with the great Greek +tragedians, or in comedies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Of all that insolent Greece or haughty Rome<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Sent forth, or since did from their ashes come.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">He was not of an age but for all time!<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>The magnitude of Shakespeare's achievement was thus +enthusiastically proclaimed by the literary dictator of +the time.</p> + +<p>From 1623, until the closing of the theaters, the +plays continued favorites on the stage, though they +yielded somewhat in the current taste to the theatrical +successes of Fletcher and Massinger. After 1623, they +continued to be read and admired, as is shown by +the publication of the second and third folios in 1632 +and 1663-1664, and by many appreciations, including +those of D'Avenant, Suckling, the Duchess of Newcastle, +and Milton. At the Restoration many of the +plays were at once revived on the stage, and Dryden's +essay <i>Of Dramatick Poesie</i> (1668) summed up +in a masterly fashion contemporary opinion on Shakespeare. +He is compared with other great dramatists, +and is declared less correct than Jonson and less +popular and modern than Beaumont and Fletcher, +yet is "the man who of all Moderns, and perhaps +Ancient Poets, had the largest and most comprehensive +soul."</p> + + + +<p>The Restoration was in some doubt about Shakespeare, +for while it found in him much to admire, it +also found much to condemn. His plays now had the +advantage of women actors for the female parts, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">The Seventeenth Century</span>they encountered changed fashions in the theater. The +romantic comedies were not to the taste of the time, and +disappeared from the stage until toward the middle of +the eighteenth century. Meanwhile, <i>The Merry Wives +of Windsor</i> was the most popular and most highly +esteemed of his comedies. The tragedies attracted the +genius of Betterton and were constantly acted, but these +were subject to revision of various kinds. <i>Hamlet</i> and +<i>Othello</i> held their places without alterations, but Nahum +Tate's tame version of <i>King Lear</i> and Cibber's version +of <i>Richard III</i> superseded the originals for many years. +<i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, too, gave way to Otway's <i>Caius +Marius</i>, 1692, which kept large portions of Shakespeare's +play; and <i>Antony and Cleopatra</i> yielded place +on the stage to Dryden's fine <i>All for Love</i> (1678), in +the style of which he professes to imitate the "divine +Shakespeare." By 1692, adaptations had also been +made of <i>Troilus and Cressida</i>, <i>The Tempest</i>, <i>Macbeth</i>, +<i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i>, <i>Timon</i>, <i>Richard II</i>, <i>Coriolanus</i>, +<i>Henry VI</i>, <i>Cymbeline</i>, <i>Titus Andronicus</i>, <i>Julius Cæsar</i>. +A great deal of contempt has been visited upon these +revisions of Shakespeare, and their attempts to improve +on him are usually feeble enough; but sufficient +recognition has not been given to the testimony that +these revisors bear to a great appreciation and admiration +of Shakespeare. They tried to adapt him to +current metrical conventions, to current literary +fashions, to an idea of art quite foreign to his, but +they made these efforts because they admired his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +genius. If they did not admire everything in his +thirty-seven plays, they admired a great deal.</p> + +<p>Further, these revisions are the outcome of critical +strictures on the plays which were then common and, +in essence, have been frequently repeated. Critics objected +to the irregularity and confusion of their structure, +to their disregard of the unities of action, their mixture +of tragic and comic, their obscurity and archaism +of diction, their mixed and confused figures, their occasional +puns and bombast. These are substantially the +criticisms that Dryden offers when under the influence +of Rymer. Rymer himself (<i>A Short View of Tragedy</i>, +1693) goes much farther. He desires tragedy to give +a rationalized view of life, dealing poetic justice to +various typical persons, and consequently condemns +Shakespeare's persons as too individual, his plots as +too irregular, and the total effect of his plays as insufficiently +didactic and moral. This view of tragedy +was mainly due to the rationalistic and classical +ideas which continued for a century to dominate +European criticism. But before the seventeenth century +was over, Shakespeare's growing reputation had +proved itself a rock against which the tendencies in +criticism had broken like unavailing waves. However +much they might insist on rules in art, critics were +generally willing to hail Shakespeare as the great exception. +Champions were ready to answer Rymer and +to defend Shakespeare. <i>Othello</i>, selected by Rymer for +special analysis and condemnation, continued to hold<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Widening Influence</span>its place on the stage and to incite dramatists to +emulation. The plays continued to be read, and new +editions were demanded. In the forty years from 1660 +to 1700, in spite of great changes in theatrical conditions, +in spite of changes of taste in readers that +relegated most of Elizabethan drama to neglect, and +in spite of the formation of a criticism doubtful or +neglectful of the very qualities in literature that his +plays present, Shakespeare continued to win admirers. +By 1700 he was recognized as a dramatist and poet who +was one of the great possessions of the English race.</p> + + + +<p>In the two centuries since, Shakespeare's fame and +influence have spread and multiplied to an extent +difficult to characterize justly in a brief summary. +Some important evidences of this growth may indeed +be collected and analyzed. The position and importance +of his plays on the stage, the ever increasing +number of editions, the changing attitudes of critics +and men of letters—on these matters it is not difficult +to draw conclusions as to Shakespeare's influence +at home and abroad. But it is not so easy to say +what his influence was on the literature of any generation, +and still less easy to summarize with certainty +the effects on thought and feeling and conduct which +made up his continuing power over generation after +generation of readers. This much is clear, that a +study of Shakespeare's influence is in part a study of +changing ideas and ideals in literature—that as he +survived the Restoration taste, so he survived the new<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> +classicism of the eighteenth and the romanticism of +the early nineteenth century. It is also clear that a +full record of the influence of Shakespeare on English-speaking +readers would touch on almost all the varied +changes of thought and conduct that have entered into +the history of two centuries.</p> + +<p>The most important of the successive editions of +Shakespeare from that of Nicholas Rowe, 1709, to the +present time, have been noted in the history of the +text in <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Chapter VII</a>. It must be observed that these +various publications indicate not only progress toward +establishing a sound text, but also a constantly increasing +number of readers. The multiplication of editions +kept pace with the vast extension of the middle-class +interest in literature. By the end of the eighteenth +century, the works of Shakespeare were in the possession +of everyone who had a library, and with a text +and notes that left few difficulties for a person of any +education.</p> + +<p>The nineteenth century well maintained the tradition +of earlier scholarship. Malone's extensive antiquarian +knowledge of Elizabethan drama and theater +served as the basis for further research in these fields +by Dyce, Ward, Fleay, and others. The chronological +order of the plays, which Malone was the first to investigate, +was determined with considerable certainty +and gave a new significance to the study of Shakespeare's +work as a whole. Dyce, Sidney Walker, and +Wright, Delius of the Germans, Richard Grant White<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">On the Stage</span>of the Americans, are a few among the long list of +scholars who have added notable emendations and illustrative +notes. Editions of the collected works indeed +soon became almost too numerous for record, and the +number of readings, notes, and illustrations too great +for collection even in the largest variorum. To-day +the task of scholarship may lie in the restriction, simplification, +and final determination of certain varying +editorial practices rather than in the accumulation of +further illustrative and appreciative comment. But +to the work of adding new editions there can be no +end so long as the number of readers increases. Volumes +of all sizes, for many classes, following various +editorial methods, are likely to continue to meet the +changing but ever increasing demands of English-speaking +readers. At the end of the nineteenth century +Shakespeare's works were not merely a household +possession, they were to be had in every possible form +to suit every possible taste or convenience.</p> + + + +<p>The extension of Shakespeare's popularity on the +stage was concurrent with this widening range of +readers. In the first thirty years of the eighteenth +century, which marked a revolution in the nature of +the drama and the taste of the audiences, Shakespeare's +tragedies continued to be among the most frequently +acted stock plays at the two patented theaters. The +middle of the century saw the revival of most of the +romantic comedies and the appearance of David Garrick. +Some of the adaptations continued, but others<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +were displaced by genuine Shakespeare, as in <i>Macbeth</i>, +<i>The Merchant of Venice</i>, and <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>. <i>All's +Well That Ends Well</i>, <i>As You Like It</i>, <i>Cymbeline</i>, <i>Much +Ado</i>, <i>Twelfth Night</i>, <i>The Winter's Tale</i>, were all revived. +In fact, if we include adaptations, every play of Shakespeare +was seen on the stage during the eighteenth +century, with the exceptions of <i>2</i> and <i>3 Henry VI</i>, only +parts of these appearing, and of <i>Love's Labour's Lost</i>, +of which a version prepared for acting was published +in 1762 but not produced.</p> + +<p>The traditions of Betterton had been carried on by +Wilks (1670-1732), Barton Booth (1681-1733), Colley +Cibber (1671-1757), and others. But the prevailing +manner was condemned as stiff and lifeless in comparison +with the energy of Garrick's presentation. +From his first triumph in Richard III in 1741, to his +farewell performance of Lear in 1776, he won a series +of signal successes in both tragedy and comedy, in +Hamlet, Lear, Macbeth, Richard III, Falconbridge, +Romeo, Hotspur, Iago, Leontes, Posthumus, Benedick, +and Antony. Garrick's services to Shakespeare extended +beyond the parts which he impersonated. He +revived many plays, and though he garbled the texts +freely, yet in comparison with earlier practice he really +had some right to boast that he had restored the text of +Shakespeare to the stage. Further, his example led +to an increased popularity of Shakespeare in the theater +and afforded new incentives for other actors. Mrs. +Clive, Mrs. Cibber, and Mrs. Pritchard were among<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Kemble and Kean</span>the women who acted with Garrick. Macklin, by his +revival of Shylock as a tragic character, Henderson by +his impersonation of Falstaff, and John Palmer in +secondary characters, as Iago, Mercutio, Touchstone, +and Sir Toby, were his contemporaries most famous +in their day.</p> + + + +<p>Garrick's place at the head of the English stage was +taken by John Philip Kemble (1757-1823), an actor +of great dignity of presence and manner, who won +general admiration in the great tragic parts, especially +those offering opportunities for declamation. His +sister, Mrs. Sarah Siddons, was doubtless the greatest +of English actresses; her Lady Macbeth, Queen Katherine, +and Constance overwhelmed her audiences by +their majesty and passion. Kemble's reputation was +surpassed by Edmund Kean, whose appearance as +Shylock in 1819, at Drury Lane, was the first of a +series of great successes in most of the tragic parts, +including Hamlet, Lear, Othello, and Richard III. In +contrast to Kemble's declamation, Kean's acting was +vehement and passionate. Coleridge declared that to +see him was "reading Shakespeare by flashes of lightning." +Readers of the dramatic criticism of Hazlitt +and Lamb will recall tributes to Kean and to other +favorite actors, especially perhaps their praise of Mrs. +Jordan's Viola and Rosalind. Macready for forty years +maintained the great traditions of English acting, and +during his managements of Drury Lane sought to retain +for Shakespeare's plays their preëminence on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +stage. Associated with his many impersonations were +those of Mrs. Warner and Helen Faucit (Lady Martin). +From Garrick's début to the retirement of Macready +(1851) is a century of great actors and actresses who +brought to the interpretation of the many characters +of the plays a skill and intelligence that satisfied the +most critical theater-goers and extended vastly the +appreciation and knowledge of Shakespeare's men and +women.</p> + +<p>Shakespeare's position on the stage was, however, +maintained only with difficulty against the melodramas, +musical farces, and spectacles that absorbed the theaters. +Yet from 1844 to 1862, Samuel Phelps, at Sadler's +Wells, presented thirty-one of the plays. Since then +the stage has hardly seen an equally important revival; +but the great traditions of acting have been carried on +by many eminent actors: Sir Henry Irving, Ellen +Terry, Forbes Robertson, in England; Edwin Forrest, +Edwin Booth, Junius Brutus Booth, Charlotte Cushman, +Ada Rehan, Julia Marlowe, and Edward Sothern +in America. Lately, successful attempts have been +made to perform plays in the Elizabethan manner, and +perhaps there is a tendency to pay less attention to +elaborate scenic presentation than was the habit during +the last of the nineteenth century. In one respect, at +least, the present offers a decided improvement on the +past, for there is now a strong sentiment in favor of as +close an adherence as possible to an authorized text of +the plays.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p> + + + +<p><span class="sidenote">The Eighteenth Century</span>Shakespeare has held his place on the stage in spite +of many and great changes in theatrical conditions and +dramatic taste. He will probably survive changes +greater than those which separate the picture stage +with its electric lights from the projecting open-air +platform of his own day, or than those which separate +the dramas of Ibsen, Shaw, and Barrie from those of +Marlowe and Fletcher, or the cinematograph and +comic opera from the bear-baiting and jugglery which +rivaled the Globe. The visitor who scans, in the +Stratford Museum, the curious collection of portraits +of actors and actresses in Shakespearean parts may +wonder what peculiarities of costume, manner, and +expression will be devised for the admired interpretations +of the centuries to come. But it hardly seems +possible that any actor of the future will influence as +greatly the appreciation of Shakespeare's characters +and speeches as did Garrick and Mrs. Siddons in England +or Edwin Booth in America.</p> + +<p>Shakespearean criticism in the eighteenth century +was, as has been noted, largely textual, but there was +also a considerable discussion of Shakespeare's learning, +his art, and its violations of neo-classical theory. +John Dennis, in his <i>Letters</i>, 1711, proved a sturdy admirer, +and the consensus of opinion of following writers +was that of Sedley's couplet which described Shakespeare +as</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">The pride of Nature, and the shame of Schools,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Born to Create, and not to Learn from Rules.<br /></span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></div></div> + +<p>Voltaire's attacks brought rejoinders from Mrs. Elizabeth +Montagu in 1769 and from Dr. Johnson in the +preface to his edition, 1765. In fact, admiration for +Shakespeare was a powerful factor in forcing the rejection +of rules and standards of French criticism. Johnson's +Preface finds fault with Shakespeare's neglect of +poetic justice and dwells at length on the faults in +plots and diction, but Johnson defends the violation of +the unities, and his praise is a discriminating summary +of the merits that the eighteenth century had found +in Shakespeare. It is praise that is likely to endure.</p> + +<p>Within another generation, however, reverence for +Shakespeare had increased to an intensity that made +Johnson's admiration seem feeble and niggardly. This +transformation was due to many causes, but in the main +it was a part of the vast changes in European literature +known as the Romantic movement. This resulted in +a rejection of the rules and models of neo-classicism, a +new interest in the literature and manners of the +Middle Ages, a conception of poetry as the expression +of individuality, attention to the individual man in all +orders of society, a fresh concern for external nature, +an emphasis on the emotions rather than mere reason, +a desire for wonder and mystery, and an exaltation of +natural instincts and intuitions as opposed to general +truths or social conventions. In each of these particulars, +Shakespeare seemed the complete fulfilment of the +new tendencies—which indeed his growing influence +had undoubtedly encouraged. More than Spenser or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Appreciative Criticism</span>Milton or the old ballads, he was the inspiration and +guide for new endeavors in literature. It seemed to +the new age of critics and poets that they had rediscovered +him, and they hastened to raise him from neglect +to the throne of omniscience. He was no longer a +wayward genius, he was the model from whom art and +wisdom were to be learned.</p> + + + +<p>This new criticism was esthetic and appreciative. +It did not try to balance Shakespeare's merits and +faults, or to test him by codes of arts or morals. It +recognized him as supreme, and its discipleship was +devoted to reverent interpretation and enthusiastic +admiration. Believing in the importance of the poetic +imagination in the affairs of men, it found in him a +gospel and an example for its creed. Its delightful +task was to find new beauties and to search out the +hiding-places that revealed the god of its idolatry. +If the genius of the master-poet was the source of art +and wisdom, the personality of the critic gained a new +refulgence through its service of reflecting the rays of +glory. The interest in the study of individual characters +had resulted, even in Johnson's day, in some notable +interpretive essays, as Maurice Morgann's on +Falstaff (1777). In the next generation, Coleridge, +Lamb, and Hazlitt in England, and Schlegel and +Goethe in Germany, brought the keenest intelligence +and most sympathetic taste to a criticism that aspired +to reveal the full range and height of Shakespeare's +creative faculty.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span></p> + +<p>The results of this criticism may be more specifically +summarized. (1) It viewed the individual characters +of the plays as if they were real persons, analyzing their +motives and elaborating or repainting their portraits, +as in the analyses of Hamlet by Goethe and Coleridge, +or in the brilliant sketches of Hazlitt. The few hundred +lines spoken by a leading character have thus +been expanded by the impressions made on successive +critics into volumes of biography. (2) Shakespeare's +works were studied as a whole in an effort to study +the development of his art and mind. Schlegel and +Coleridge gave a unity to the phenomena of the thirty-seven +plays that had not been recognized hitherto; +but they and their followers naturally tended to make +of their author a sort of nineteenth-century romanticist. +(3) Exalting the services of poetry and the creative +imagination, they viewed Shakespeare's exhibition of +human nature and his incidental wisdom as profound, +consistent, and immensely valuable for the human race. +Hence they were ever seeking in his work for a philosophy, +a synthetic ethics, and making the widest +applications of his words to conduct. Believing that +he could do no wrong, they inevitably came to attribute +to him ideas and morals that were of their own +creation.</p> + +<p>The defects of this criticism are most apparent in +critics like Ulrici and Gervinus who carry its methods +to extremes. Personal, fanciful, unhistorical, idolatrous, +it is yet a tremendous tribute and an amazing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">The Nineteenth Century</span>record of the sway that Shakespeare has exerted on the +human mind. The writings of no other man have +been studied so intimately by so many sympathetic +readers, or have excited such different impressions. +Throughout the nineteenth century this appreciative +criticism has continued, and Shakespeare has been +interpreted through the personality of many critics, +German and American, as well as British, more recently +through the delicate sensibility of Professor Dowden, +and the penetrating reflection of Professor A. C. Bradley.</p> + + + +<p>At the end of the nineteenth century, Shakespearean +criticism has become too varied for a brief survey. +Textual and esthetic criticism both continue. The +biography has been established on a sound basis of +fact by Halliwell-Phillipps and Sidney Lee; and still +new facts reward patient investigators of the legal and +court documents, almost the only records preserved +that can possibly bear on Shakespeare's life. Special +studies of all sorts have been numerous, as to his +reading, religion, folk-lore, and so on. More significant +in its effect on our general view have been the +efforts of historical criticism. As our knowledge of +Elizabethan literature, drama, theater, have increased, +it has been possible to see Shakespeare in relation +to his time and environment. The study of Shakespeare +as a sixteenth-century dramatist aims not +merely at a better appreciation of his work, but also +to explain his development and to account for some of +the qualities of his achievement. Its attitude is that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> +of the scientific historian examining the records of any +great human activity, and trying to understand its +causes, results, and meaning. Somewhat allied to this +has been technical dramatic criticism, which is uniting +knowledge of the Elizabethan theater with interest in +drama as a peculiar form, and thereby studying Shakespeare +as a dramatist rather than as a poet or philosopher. +In fact, Shakespeare is no longer merely man, +poet, dramatist, philosopher, or genius. Jonson's tribute, +Dryden's summary, Johnson's judicial essay, or Coleridge's +admiring studies, all seem hopelessly inadequate +to express the range of his dominion. He has become +the source of the most various and extensive interests, +a continent that ever expands its fields for exploration, +an epoch that ever extends the years of its duration, a +race that never dies, though its progeny ever multiplies.</p> + + + +<p>It is in the nineteenth century that Shakespeare's +dominance becomes international. Four of his plays +were acted at Dresden and elsewhere early in the +seventeenth century, but there seems to have been no +literary acquaintance with the plays in Germany until +about the middle of the eighteenth century, when two +poor translations of <i>Julius Cæsar</i> and <i>Romeo and Juliet</i> +appeared, and J. C. Gottsched severely criticized +Shakespeare's art. In 1759, in a journal, "Litteraturbriefe," +Lessing began a warm defense of Shakespeare +and declared his superiority to Racine and Corneille. +His <i>Hamburgische Dramaturgie</i> (1767) went +far in directing the change of taste from French classicism<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">In Germany</span>and in establishing Shakespeare in German +thought as the greatest of poets, whether ancient or +modern. A prose translation was begun by Wieland +in 1762 and completed by Eschenburg in 1789. What +is perhaps the best translation of Shakespeare into +any foreign tongue was begun in 1797 by A. W. von +Schlegel and Ludwig Tieck, two leaders of German +romanticism, and finally completed in 1853. Schlegel's +lectures on <i>Shakespeare and the Drama</i> were delivered +in Vienna in 1808, and present both the romanticist's +idolizing of Shakespeare and a new kind of esthetic +criticism destined to exercise great influence on Coleridge +and the English critics. Meanwhile Goethe was +adapting <i>Romeo and Juliet</i> for the Weimar theater +(1801) and Schiller was arranging <i>Macbeth</i> for presentation +at Stuttgart (1801). Goethe indeed was, throughout +his life, an enthusiastic admirer of Shakespeare, and +his works are full of discriminating criticism, of which +perhaps the most famous passage is the analysis of +Hamlet in <i>Wilhelm Meister</i>. Since Lessing and Herder, +German poetry and drama have felt Shakespeare's +influence, and in both textual and esthetic criticism, +Germany has rivaled England and the United States. +Delius and Schmidt, whose <i>Shakespeare-Lexicon</i> (1874) +is one of the great monuments of Shakespeare scholarship, +are perhaps first among textual students; since +1865 the German Shakespeare Society has published +yearly contributions of all kinds to Shakespeare criticism, +and especially an excellent bibliography. On the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> +stage Shakespeare has been constantly acted since the +beginning of the century, and has engaged the services +of some of the greatest actors, as Schroeder, the two +Devrients, and Barnay. At present a large number of his +plays are performed annually, in the smaller as well as +the larger cities, and more frequently than in Britain +or America. Twenty-six of the plays were acted in +1911, <i>Othello</i> leading with 158 performances. For the +years 1909, 1910, 1911, <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Othello</i>, <i>The Merchant +of Venice</i> have been the favorites, with <i>The Taming of +the Shrew</i> and <i>A Midsummer-Night's Dream</i> the most +popular of the comedies. For over a century Shakespeare +has profoundly influenced German life and letters. +Rarely, if ever, has a great people been so powerfully +affected by a writer in a foreign tongue.</p> + +<p>In France, during the eighteenth century, Shakespeare's +reputation was both aided and hindered by +Voltaire. Though there are a few earlier notices of +the English dramatist, Voltaire, after his visit to England, +1720-1729, was virtually the first to win attention +for Shakespeare. He admired Shakespeare, +acknowledged his influence, but deplored his deficiencies +in taste and art, "le Corneille de Londres, grand +fou d'ailleurs, mais il a des morceaux admirables." +Voltaire's criticism provoked replies in England and a +defense from Diderot, who shared with Lessing the +effort to emancipate the drama from some of its neo-classical +restriction. Translations of twelve plays by +La Place (1745-1748) and all of the plays by Le Tourneur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">In France</span>(1776-1782) gave an opportunity for greater +acquaintance with his work. A version of <i>Hamlet</i> by +Ducis was acted at Paris in 1769. But even at the +end of the century, French literary opinion, though +partly won by Le Tourneur's praise of Shakespeare, +still sympathized with Voltaire, now engaged in an +attack on Englishmen and their favorite. His last +opinion (1778) declares, "Shakespeare est un sauvage +avec des étincelles de génie qui brillent dans une nuit +horrible."</p> + + + +<p>The nineteenth century saw a reaction from this +criticism, indicated by the praise of Madame de Staël +(<i>De la Litterature</i>, 1804), by Guizot's essay accompanying +a revision of Le Tourneur's translation (1821), and +later in the appreciation of Mézières's <i>Shakespeare ses +Œuvres et ses Critiques</i> (1860), in several translations, +and in Victor Hugo's eulogy (1869). The best of the +translations is by the poet's son, François Victor Hugo +in prose (1859-1866). On the Paris stage, the leading +English actors have appeared from time to time, and +French versions of <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Macbeth</i>, and <i>Othello</i> have +made a permanent place. M. Jusserand is the chief +authority for the history of Shakespeare in France and +an ambassador of peace between the conflicting literary +tastes of the two nations.</p> + +<p>In Italy, Holland, Russia, Poland, and Hungary, +during the nineteenth century, many of the plays have +been regularly acted, and from Italy have come great +actors and actresses, as Ristori, Salvini, and Rossi.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> +Complete translations have been published in these +countries and in Bohemian, Swedish, Danish, Finnish, +and Spanish; and separate plays have been translated +and acted in many other languages including those of +India, Japan, and China.</p> + +<p>In music and painting Shakespeare's influence has +also been international. Books have been devoted to +the history of Shakespeare's music, and such surveys +include nearly every English composer of note, and +also Schubert, Schumann, Mendelssohn, Berlioz, Ambroise +Thomas, Saint Saëns, Rossini, and Verdi. In +painting as well, the persons and scenes of the play +have excited the efforts of English, German, and American +artists.</p> + +<p>In America, as has already been indicated, the interest +in Shakespeare is hardly separable from that in +Great Britain. Editors, critics, scholars, have been +numerous and their contributions important, and the +plays have been acted constantly and widely through +the country. Probably there is no part of the world +to-day where the study of Shakespeare is so active and +where the interest in his work is so widespread. In one +respect, at least, the United States in recent years has +carried this study and interest beyond England, in the +fields of education. As the study of the mother tongue +has become the basis of American education, so Shakespeare +has come to play a more and more important +part in the training of youth. The universities offer +training in the various departments of Shakespearean<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">In the United States</span>scholarship, every college offers courses on his plays, a +number of them are prescribed for reading and study +in the high schools; a few of them are read and extracts +memorized in the primary schools. The child +begins his education with Ariel and the fairies, and +until his schooling is completed is kept in almost daily +intercourse with the poetry and persons of the dramas. +Homer was not better known in Athens. In a democracy +still young and widely separated from older +nations and cultures, Shakespeare has become one of +the links that bind the American public not only to +the common inheritances of the English-speaking races, +but to the traditional culture of Europe.</p> + + + +<p>Known in the literature and theater of every civilized +nation, the subject of a vast and increasing amount of +discussion and criticism, the source of a scholarship +rivaling that devoted to the writers of antiquity, the +familiar theme for music and painting, the household +possession of Great Britain, Germany, and America, +influencing thought and conduct as few books have +ever influenced them, and now an important element +in the education of a great democracy,—the plays of +Shakespeare occupy a position whence imagination +"can not pierce a wink beyond, but doubt discovery +there." His reputation and influence must change +greatly in the years to come; but this at least is secure—three +hundred years of an ever increasing sway over +the human mind.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Conclusion</span></h3> + + +<p>The purpose of this volume has been to summarize +what we know about Shakespeare. The documentary +records and early traditions of his life have been supplemented +by information in regard to the times and +places in which he lived, the literature which he read, +and the theaters for which he worked. The evolution +of the drama that grew up in those theaters has been +reviewed, and its manifest connections with Shakespeare's +own development have been indicated. That +development has been traced by means of a careful +determination of the chronology of the plays; and the +recognition of this growth of his powers has been shown +to be a necessary basis for a just estimate of their +achievement.</p> + +<p>If, now, in conclusion, we attempt to define our +general impression of the man and his work, this +must inevitably take into account considerations of +environment and development. The man belonged +to his era, his city, and his profession. The documents +make it plain that he did not live apart, but in close +contact with the affairs of his day and generation. +The plays make it clear that few men ever became so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">The Sonnets</span>intimately familiar with the manners, morals, and ideas +of their own time. There is no doubt that he drank +deeply of the experience that Elizabethan London offered +him. Still more, the plays make it clear that his life +was one of constant and extraordinary intellectual and +spiritual growth. Though, from the objective nature +of the dramas, it is impossible to translate them into +terms of personal experience or into exact stages of +mental growth, yet it is none the less evident that the +progress from the author of <i>Love's Labour's Lost</i> to the +author of <i>The Tempest</i>, from the creator of Richard III +and Valentine to the creator of Iago and Antony, was +marked, not only by a widening experience, but also by +a development of personal character.</p> + + + +<p>To understand a man's surroundings does not, however, +reveal the man; and to measure the growth of +genius does not interpret its quality. Lovers of the +plays are likely always to query: What manner of man +was this? Taken out of his London, at any time +in his career, how would he seem if we could know him +as a man? Of what nature is this companion and +friend whose presence we have felt through all his +verses and in all of his characters? The few clues offered +by records or tradition, and the difficulties in +separating the creator from the thousand men and +women of his creation, have driven many to seek answers +to these questions in the sonnets. There he +speaks in the first person, and there are revealed not +merely some dubious hints of actual incidents, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> +the surer indications of emotional conflicts that went +to the heart of the man's nature. At their worst, +the sonnets may have been only literary exercises on +conventional themes, but at their best they are surely +both superb poetry and the result of genuine emotion. +Can we doubt that the poet knew the pitfalls that +beset the course of human passion or that he had +faith in the triumphant beauty of love and friendship? +Yet the most splendid of these lyrical declarations of +faith add little to what we knew of the creator of the +lovers and friends of the dramas. The trivialities and +the sublimities, the sin and the idealism of the sonnets +coalesce with the emotional effects of the comedies and +tragedies. In forming our impression of the man, +whatever we may derive from the sonnets does not +contradict and does not largely affect the impressions +made by the poetry and humanity of the plays. For +the conception which each one forms of Shakespeare +the man must be derived in the main from the impressions +of personality implied by the plays. Such a +conception is bound to be individual and without +validity that can rest on proofs, but in the main it +has not varied greatly from individual to individual +or from generation to generation. From Jonson and +Dryden to Goethe and Tennyson, there has been no +great difference in the essentials of this estimate of +the man.</p> + + + +<p>If the plays do not throw a clear light on matters +of conduct and exercise of the will, they certainly tell<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Personality of Shakespeare</span>of no lack of self-control and no weakness or feverishness +of action. The traditions of conviviality and the records +of a life of constant industry that secured wealth +and social position are both in accord with the impressions +derived from the plays of an eagerness for experience +controlled by a self-mastery and a serenity of +purpose. If one were to search for a modern writer +most like Shakespeare, one would select Scott, rather +than Shelley, or Byron, or Wordsworth. As to the +intellectual quality of the author of the plays, it is +clear that he was not a Galileo or a Bacon. If we +judge intellectual power by its creation of system or +synthesis, we shall probably estimate Shakespeare less +highly than if we remember that intellect of the highest +order is often displayed by maintaining openness and +largeness of view in face of the solicitations of theory or +prejudice. No one can read the plays in connection +with the literature of the time, or of any time, without +marveling at their freedom from vulgarity, pettiness, +or narrowness of mental attitude. If they do not +afford evidences of a profound culture in philosophy, +letters, or science, they offer no trace of intellectual +blindness or conceit, and they leave no doubt that +their author had thought greatly and freely. Even +more certain is their assurance of the range and intensity +of his emotional life. In these respects again, +no one can compare his work with that of other writers +without feeling the effect of his personality. Fletcher, +perhaps next to him among the Elizabethans in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> +versatile expression of a wide range of emotions, gives +no sign of the sincere, profound, and searching interest +in humankind which we are sure was Shakespeare's. +Bacon, surpassing him perhaps in intellectual curiosity +and thoroughness, manifestly gives no evidence in +his writings of the warmth of sympathy, the quickness +of emotional response, the fire of passion which we find +in the author of Shakespeare's plays. It is difficult +to disbelieve that their imaginative participation in the +height and breadth of human feeling was the creation +of a man who united intellectual greatness with an +emotional susceptibility of extraordinary range and +delicacy, and with a sympathy, genial, wide, tolerant, +but also heartfelt, deep, and passionate. Such is +the ineffaceable impression of the man which has been +shared by many generations of readers, and which +found expression two hundred and fifty years ago in +Dryden's carefully considered estimate, "The man who +of all Moderns, and perhaps Ancient Poets, had the +largest and most comprehensive soul."</p> + +<p>What of the plays themselves? Is there any fixed +and universal estimate of their quality and significance +as literature? In this volume we have been concerned +in reviewing our knowledge about them rather than +in their interpretation or evaluation. We have noted +the sources from which their plots were drawn, the +conditions under which they were produced in the playhouses, +the influences at work in the contemporary +drama which determined in some measure their subjects<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Qualities of the Plays</span>and treatment. Starting with the probable +dates of their composition, we have traced them from +the theater to the printer, through the hands of +many editors, and through the long history of their +effects on theatergoers and readers. In their history +they have played a part in the changes of taste and opinion +of three centuries, and if they have grown greatly in +men's estimation, this has not been without much variability +of appreciation and uncertainty as to their value. +What, then, are the qualities of the plays that raised +them at once above the measure of contemporary +influence and rivalry? Are these the qualities that +have continued to win the most general appreciation? +Despite all the stress we are to-day taught to place +on change, growth, evolution, are there qualities +in these plays which insure them a continued preëminence +in literature?</p> + + + +<p>Differences of opinion testify, indeed, to the comprehensive +appeal of the plays to different minds, nations, +or epochs, but they have not greatly affected the +essential elements in men's admiration. If some critic +brings into new prominence a quality that has partly +escaped attention, his discovery is not likely to affect +the more permanent elements of their reputation. If +for a time attention is turned to the plays as plays +rather than as poems and to the merits of Shakespeare +as a dramatist, this criticism does not lead to any +lasting disregard of their poetic quality or to the permanent +acceptance of skill in dramatic structure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> +as a chief element in their literary preëminence. Nor +is such an element discoverable in their philosophical +synthesis or their incidental wisdom, although some of +the most brilliant criticism has exalted that wisdom +or sought to formulate and expound their view of life. +Concerning the essential elements of their greatness +no real difference of opinion has arisen from the time +they were written down to the present day. They were +lifted at once above the level of contemporary endeavor, +and they have continued to grow in reputation chiefly +because of their poetry and their characterization.</p> + +<p>Concerning the nature and quality of these there is +little difference of opinion, though critics may vary +in estimating their beauty or value. One may prefer +the verse of Homer or of Milton, but he will not deny +the traits that distinguish Shakespeare's. Another +may prefer the well-ordered study of human motives +in Sophocles, or the realistic analysis of a modern +realist like Turgenieff, but he will recognize the qualities +in Shakespeare's characterization that are the basis of +general admiration. Still another may condemn that +admiration, but he will not differ from us as to the +chief sources of its existence.</p> + +<p>These two sources are hardly to be separated, for the +persons are revealed through the beauty of the verse, +and the poetry is ever adapted to the speakers. In the +early plays the poet's fancy often refuses to be bound +by the requirements of his characters and escapes in +lyric or descriptive excursions; but as his art becomes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Poetry of the Plays</span>more masterly, the poetry adapts itself with increasing +devotion to the dramatic task, discarding the +limitations of the verse form and even at times sacrificing +clarity and harmony of expression in its effort +to make a few lines significant of the thought and emotion +of some individual. An enormous vocabulary +is treated with daring freedom; words are coined, +changed, or restamped in order to let nothing of significance +escape. The effect is not primarily that of +finished workmanship or elaborate harmony, though +these may be found in many passages and notably in +the greatest of the sonnets. Broken rather than +completed images, richness of suggestion rather than +unity of impressiveness, surprise and novelty in words +rather than their delicate adjustment, make up an +effect of bewildering enchantment rather than of +perfected form. This is true even in an early play +like <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, where the verse becomes undramatic +in order to make the most of every opportunity +for fancy or melody, and it is true also in <i>Othello</i>, where +poetry and characterization are wedded with consummate +art. The reader's pleasure is not in finding +each idea finally developed or each motive given full +elaboration. It is rather in the flow of words which +endow each person and moment with their wealth of +color and suggestion, and somehow carry on to the +reader both their impression of life and the transforming +power of their dignity and splendor.</p> + + + +<p>In a last analysis the quality of the poetry is less<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +dependent on the music of line or passage than on the +imagery of the words themselves. It seems as if the +imagination had hurried on Ariel's wing around the +universe in order to freight each phrase with a fresh +trope and an unexpected meaning. Sometimes, to +be sure, there results an excess or mixture of figures; +but restrained to character and situation, bound by +the measure of the pentameter, the carnival of words +becomes a gorgeous yet ordered pageant, the very +spectacle of beauty.</p> + +<p>Let us take but one passage, not from the great +crises of passion, nor from those unsurpassable revelations +of the tortured spirit, but from the opening of a +play where the purpose is chiefly expository, and where +indeed the language is not free from that mixture of +figures which some condemn. The wonderful first +scene of <i>Antony and Cleopatra</i>, which within the compass +of its sixty-two lines presents the two protagonists +and their background of empire and war, +opens thus in the speech of a subordinate.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Nay, but this dotage of our general's<br /></span> +<span class="i0">O'erflows the measure. Those his goodly eyes,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That o'er the files and musters of the war<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Have glow'd like plated Mars, now bend, now turn<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The office and devotion of their view<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Upon a tawny front; his captain's heart,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Which in the scuffles of great fights hath burst<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The buckles on his breast, reneges all temper,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And is become the bellows and the fan<br /></span> +<span class="i0">To cool a gipsy's lust.<br /></span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></div></div> + + + +<p><span class="sidenote">Character­ization</span>A few lines further on Antony speaks thus, as he +embraces Cleopatra.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Let Rome in Tiber melt, and the wide arch<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Of the rang'd Empire fall! Here is my space.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Kingdoms are clay; our dungy earth alike<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Feeds beast as man; the nobleness of life<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Is to do thus, when such a mutual pair<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And such a twain can do't, in which I bind,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">On pain of punishment, the world to wit<br /></span> +<span class="i0">We stand up peerless.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>No other man ever wrote verse like this; and it is +hard to believe that words will ever again respond to +such a magician.</p> + +<p>This poetry is the fitting accompaniment of a characterization, +the range and vitality of which, the world to +wit, stand up peerless. While these are in general +qualities of the Elizabethan drama, it is noteworthy +that almost from the beginning Shakespeare outstripped +his rivals. Launce, Richard III, Shylock, Juliet, were +enough to establish a supremacy. The years that +followed with their maturing thought and experience +gave an amazing development to what was manifestly +the native bent of his genius. Whatever else one may +find in the plays, indeed whatever one finds there of +wisdom or beauty, truth or art, it cannot be separated +from their revelation of human nature.</p> + +<p>It is this primarily that makes the dramas great and +lasting. The histories, with all their pomp and movement +and patriotism, reveal kings and lords and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> +peasants as alike the subjects of changing fortune, +alike human beings for our pity, admiration, or laughter. +The comedies with their fancy and sentiment and fun, +and their perennial sunshine on the self-deceived and +selfish, are ruled by the most charming and refined +of womankind. The tragedies with their presentation +of the waste and suffering of life, though here depravity +may seem to fill the scene and innocence share in the +punishment and ruin, yet redeem us from the terror +of their devastation by their assurances of both the +majesty and the loveliness of men and women.</p> + +<p>Shakespeare's methods in characterization have +seemed to some haphazard and bewildering. He does +not fit his men and women into an analysis of the constitution +of society or into an obvious view of man's +relations in the universe. Nor does he use his characters +to illustrate fixed conceptions or processes of cause +and effect. He usually started with an old story, with +certain types of character, and he was not forgetful +of theatrical necessities or dramatic construction. But +as he went on he brought all his astounding interest +in human nature to focus on the old plot and the stock +type. Hamlet, the hesitating avenger, becomes the sentimentalist, +the idealist, the thinker at war with himself, +the embodiment of that conflict between circumstance +and a nature unfitted to its task, which in some measure +we have all encountered in life. An arrogant and +doting old man, by the force of creative imagination, +transcends the nursery tale from which he came, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Human Nature</span>carries to us all the implications of suffering and love +that surround the aging of parents and the growth of +children. Cleopatra is a wanton, but no analysis +can explain the subtleties with which the idealism and +animalism, the sacrifice and frivolity—and how much +else—of human passion are bound together in the few +hundred lines which she speaks. It is impossible to +affirm that each of the great characters is thoroughly +consistent or offers a strictly accurate motivation. +Rather, they are magnificent portraits—like the +Mona Lisa—crowded with a penetrating but question-provoking +psychology. Into such parts and situations +as the drama could afford are impressed every +possible revelation of our motives; but his model was +always reality and he never yielded truth to whim or +prepossession.</p> + + + +<p>Human nature, at its best or worst, droll or tragic, +is thus given magnitude and potency. This idealization, +rendered still more effective by the verse, persuades +us as we read that here are our own attributes and +conflicts exalted, now into serene beauty, again +into torment and horror, and again into the Olympic +warfare of unknown supermen. No doubt there is +confusion because of the complexity of motives depicted +and the multiplicity of impressions created, but there +is also a final message of the greatness and comprehensiveness +of human souls. In this world of sin and +weakness and death, it is human beings, however +mocked or maltreated by circumstance or by themselves,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> +that are still triumphant and interesting. Out +of his strifes and failures, the individual man yet +emerges, the object of our contemplation and the +assurance of our faith.</p> + +<p>In periods or persons when interest in the individual +gives way to thought about class or system or some +form of organization, it is likely that admiration for +Shakespeare's plays will suffer a decline. In periods +or persons when the individual assumes a larger place in +thought and his power to affect and dominate the world +is emphasized, the plays are likely to acquire a new +regard. As long, however, as the study of human +nature is a chief occupation of mankind and as long +as we believe that a great purpose of imaginative literature +is to enlarge our knowledge and sympathy for +our fellows, so long, we may be sure, these dramas will +not lose their preëminence in literature.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201"></a><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a></p> +<h2><a name="APPENDICES" id="APPENDICES"></a>APPENDICES</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Appendix_A" id="Appendix_A"></a>Appendix A</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Biographical Documents and Authorities</span></h3> + + +<h4>I. REPOSITORIES OF DOCUMENTS</h4> + +<p>L. refers to Lambert's <i>Shakespeare Documents</i> and H.-P. to +Halliwell-Phillipps's <i>Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare</i>. 7th ed.</p> + + +<h5>1</h5> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Parish Registers of Stratford-on-Avon</span> are the +authority for the baptisms of John Shakespeare's seven children +(L. 1-7); for the burials of Anne and Edmund (L. 10); +for the baptisms of William Shakespeare's daughter Susanna +(L. 13) and the twins, Hamnet and Judith (L. 14); for the +burials of Hamnet (L. 28), of the poet's father, John (L. 75), +of his mother, Mary (L. 110), of the poet himself (L. 146), +and of his widow (L. 159). These Registers have been edited +for the Parish Registers Society, by R. Savage, 1898-9.</p> + + +<h5>2</h5> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Corporation Records of Stratford-on-Avon</span> contain +the Quiney-Sturley correspondence (L. 39, 43, 44; H.-P. +II. 57-60); a return of the quantities of corn and malt held +by the inhabitants of the ward in which New Place was situated, +"Wm. Shackespere" being down for ten quarters (L. 53); +a Bill of Complaint presented by R. Lane, T. Green, and +William Shakespeare respecting the tithes of Stratford-upon-Avon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> +(L. 125); the answer of William Combe to the foregoing +Bill (L. 126).</p> + + + + +<h5>3</h5> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Public Record Office in London</span> preserves the following: +record of the purchase by John Shakespeare of two +houses on Henley Street, Stratford-on-Avon (L. 8); record +of a mortgage on an estate at "Awston Cawntlett" given to +Edmund Lambert by John and Mary Shakespeare (L. 9); +Bill of Complaint brought by John Shakespeare against John, +son of Edmund Lambert, respecting an estate at Wilmecote, +near Stratford (L. 15); Ms. accounts of the Treasurer of the +Chamber, "To Willm. Kempe, Willm. Shakespeare & +Richarde Burbage, servaunts to the Lord Chamberleyne, upon +the Councelles warrant dated at Whitehall xv<sup>to</sup> Marcij 1594 +for twoe severall Comedies or enterludes shewed by them +before her Majestic in Christmas tyme laste paste, viz: upon +St. Stephens daye and Innocentes daye xiij.li. vj.s. viijd., +and by waye of her Majesties rewarde vj.li. xiii.s. iiijd. in all +xx.li." (L. 25); record of the purchase of New Place by Shakespeare +(L. 32); papers in a Chancery suit relating to the +estate at Wilmecote mortgaged to Edmund Lambert, and +consisting of a Bill of Complaint by John and Mary Shakespeare +against John Lambert for his refusal to accept £40 +and reconvey the property to the complainants, John Lambert's +answer, and the replication of John and Mary Shakespeare +to the answer (L. 35); a subsidy roll showing William +Shakespeare as a defaulter in respect of a tax of five shillings, +October, 1596, and of thirteen shillings and four pence, October, +1598, based on an assessment made about 1598 or 1594, +when the poet was living in St. Helen's, Bishopsgate, and +paid after he had moved to Southwark (<i>Athenæum</i>, March 16, +1906, and L. 42); Royal Warrant for a Patent and the Patent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Biographical Documents</span>itself (May 19, 1603) licensing the company of actors, "Laurence +Fletcher, William Shakespeare, Richard Burbage, Augustine +Phillippes, John Hemmings, Henrie Condell, William Sly, +Robert Armyn, Richard Cowly and the rest of their associates" +as the King's Servants (L. 87, 88); the Accounts of the Revels +at Court in the reigns of Elizabeth and James, containing +entries showing performances at Court of "The Moor of +Venis," "The Merry Wives of Winsor," "Mesur for Mesur" +by "Shaxberd," "the plaie of Errors" by "Shaxberd," +"Loves Labours lost," "Henry the fift," and "the Martchant +of Venis" by "Shaxberd" (twice, being "againe commanded +by the Kings Ma<sup>tie</sup>"), all in 1604 (O.S.), of "the Tempest" +and "y<sup>e</sup> winters nightes Tayle" in 1611, all by the King's +men, and of the performance before the Court at Wilton, +Dec. 2, 1603 (L. 96, 133, <i>Notes in the History of the Revels +Office under the Tudors</i>, ed. by E. K. Chambers, and <i>Supposed +Shakespeare Forgeries</i>, by Ernest Law); record of the purchase +in 1610 of an estate in Old Stratford and Stratford-on-Avon +by Shakespeare from William and John Combe (L. 127); +three documents in a Chancery suit relating to the ownership +of property in Blackfriars, April 26, May 15, May 22, 1615 +(C. W. Wallace in <i>Englische Studien</i>, April, 1906, and Preface +to New Edition of Lee's <i>Life</i>, xxii ff.); the grant for cloaks +for the King's entry into London, March 15, 1604 (Ld. Chamberlain's +Papers, No. 600); the documents in the law suit +among the heirs of Richard Burbage (1635), relating to the +ownership of the Globe and the Blackfriars theaters, and +giving much information on the value of theatrical shares, +actors' salaries, etc. (H.-P. i. 312-319); and the documents +in the lawsuit of Bellots <i>vs.</i> Mountjoy (1612), including Shakespeare's +deposition (<i>New Shakespeare Discoveries</i>, C. W. Wallace, +<i>Harper's Magazine</i>, March, 1910).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span></p> + + +<h5>4</h5> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Shakespeare's Birthplace Museum in Stratford-on-Avon</span> +contains several documents of importance: record +of the conveyance in 1602 of an estate in Old Stratford from +William and John Combe to William Shakespeare (L. 79, +H.-P. II, 17-19); extract from the Court Rolls of the Manor +of Rowington, transferring from Walter Getley to William +Shakespeare certain premises in Chapel Lane, Stratford-on-Avon +(L. 81); the conveyance to Shakespeare from Ralph +Hubande of the residue of a lease of a moiety of the tithes of +Stratford-on-Avon, Old Stratford, Welcombe, and Bishopton +(L. 99); the diary of one Thomas Greene, containing a reference +to the dispute as to the inclosing of common lands (reproduced +in facsimile in C. M. Ingleby's <i>Shakespeare and the +Enclosure of Common Fields at Welcombe</i>, 1885).</p> + + +<h5>5</h5> + +<p><span class="smcap">The British Museum</span> possesses the Ms. diary of John +Manningham of the Middle Temple, which, under the date of +Feb. 2, 1601, records a performance of <i>Twelfth Night</i>, and the +anecdote recorded above, p. 44 (L. 77; Ms. Harl. 5353, ed. +Camden Soc., p. 39); also the Mortgage Deed from Shakespeare +to Henry Walker on the property in Blackfriars conveyed +to Shakespeare and others on the day previous, March +10, 1612/13.</p> + + +<h5>6</h5> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Bodleian Library at Oxford</span> has the Ms. diary of +Dr. Simon Forman describing performances of <i>Winter's Tale, +Cymbeline</i>, and <i>Macbeth</i> in 1610 and 1611 (L. 128; Ms. +Ashmol. 208, fol. 201<i>b</i>); and the Accounts of Lord Stanhope +of Harrington, Treasurer of the Chamber to James I, containing +the following entry: "1613, May 20. Item paid to John<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Biographical Documents</span>Heminges uppon the cowncells warrant dated att Whitehall +xx<sup>o</sup> die Maii 1613 for presentinge before the Princes highnes +the La: Elizabeth and the Prince Pallatyne Elector fowerteene +severall playes viz ... Much adoe abowte nothinge ... +The Tempest ... The Winters Tale, S<sup>r</sup> John Falstafe, +The Moore of Venice ... Cæsars Tragedye ... All w<sup>ch</sup> +Playes weare played within the tyme of this Accompte, viz +p<sup>d</sup> the some of iiij. (xx.) xiij.li. vj.s. viij.d.</p> + + + +<p>"Item paid to the said John Heminges uppon the lyke +warrant dated att Whitehall xx<sup>o</sup> die Maij 1613 for presenting +sixe severall playes viz. one playe called ... And one other +called Benidicte and Betteris all played within the tyme of +this Accompte viz p<sup>d</sup> ffortie powndes And by waye of his +Ma<sup>tis</sup> rewarde twentie powndes In all ... lx li." (L. 138; +Ms. Rawl. A. 239).</p> + + +<h5>7</h5> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Episcopal Register of the Diocese of Worcester</span> +contains the bond given by Sandells and others for the marriage +of Shakespeare and Anne Hathaway (L. 12).</p> + + +<h5>8</h5> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Library of the Guildhall in London</span> has the indenture +prepared for the purchaser in the sale of the house in +Blackfriars on March 10, 1613, by Henry Walker to William +Shakespeare and others (L. 136). The indenture held by the +seller is in the library of Mr. Marsden J. Perry, Providence, +R. I.</p> + + +<h5>9</h5> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Principal Probate Registry</span>, Somerset House, +London, contains Shakespeare's Will, which runs as follows:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span></p> + + + +<div class="blockquot"><p><a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">Vicesimo</span> quinto die [Januarii] <i>Martii</i>, anno regni domini +nostri Jacobi, nunc regis Angliæ, &c., decimo quarto, et +Scotiæ xlix<sup>o</sup>, annoque Domini 1616.</p> + +<p>—<span class="smcap">T. Wmi. Shackspeare</span></p> + +<p>In the name of God, Amen! I William Shackspeare, of +Stratford upon Avon in the countie of Warr., gent., in perfect +health and memorie, God be praysed, doe make and ordayne +this my last will and testament in manner and forme followeing, +that ys to saye, ffirst, I comend my soule into the handes +of God my Creator, hoping and assuredlie beleeving, through +thonelie merittes, of Jesus Christe my Saviour, to be made partaker +of lyfe everlastinge, and my bodye to the earth whereof +yt ys made. Item, I gyve and bequeath unto my [sonne and]<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> +daughter Judyth one hundred and fyftie poundes of lawfull +English money, to be paied unto her in the manner and forme +foloweng, that ys to saye, one hundred poundes <i>in discharge +of her marriage porcion</i> within one yeare after my deceas, with +consideracion after the rate of twoe shillinges in the pound +for soe long tyme as the same shalbe unpaied unto her after +my deceas, and the fyftie poundes residwe thereof upon her +surrendring <i>of</i>, or gyving of such sufficient securitie as the +overseers of this my will shall like of, to surrender or graunte +all her estate and right that shall discend or come unto her +after my deceas, or <i>that shee</i> nowe hath, of, in, or to, one copiehold +tenemente, with thappurtenaunces, lyeing and being in +Stratford upon Avon aforesaied in the saied countye of Warr., +being parcell or holden of the mannour of Rowington, unto +my daughter Susanna Hall and her heires for ever. Item, I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Shakespeare's Will</span>gyveand bequeath unto my saied daughter Judith one hundred +and fyftie poundes more, if shee or anie issue of her bodie be +lyvinge att thend of three yeares next ensueing the daie of the +date of this my will, during which tyme my executours are +to paie her consideracion from my deceas according to the +rate aforesaied; and if she dye within the saied tearme without +issue of her bodye, then my will ys, and I doe gyve and +bequeath one hundred poundes thereof to my neece Elizabeth +Hall, and the fiftie poundes to be sett fourth by my executours +during the lief of my sister Johane Harte, and the use and +proffitt thereof cominge shalbe payed to my saied sister Jone, +and after her deceas the saied l.<sup><i>li.</i></sup> shall remaine amongst the +children of my saied sister, equallie to be divided amongst +them; but if my saied daughter Judith be lyving att thend +of the saied three yeares, or anie yssue of her bodye, then my +will ys, and soe I devise and bequeath the saied hundred and +fyftie poundes to be sett out <i>by my executours and overseers</i> +for the best benefitt of her and her issue, and <i>the stock</i> not <i>to +be</i> paied unto her soe long as she shalbe marryed and covert +baron [by my executours and overseers]; but my will ys, that +she shall have the consideracion yearelie paied unto her +during her lief, and, after her deceas, the saied stock and +consideracion to bee paied to her children, if she have anie, +and if not, to her executours or assignes, she lyving the saied +terme after my deceas. Provided that yf suche husbond as +she shall att thend of the saied three years be marryed unto, +or att anie after (<i>sic</i>), doe sufficientlie assure unto her and +thissue of her bodie landes awnswereable to the porcion by this +my will gyven unto her, and to be adjudged soe by my executours +and overseers, then my will ys, that the said cl.<sup><i>li.</i></sup> shalbe +paied to such husbond as shall make such assurance, to his +owne use. Item, I gyve and bequeath unto my saied sister<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> +Jone xx.<sup><i>li</i></sup> and all my wearing apparrell, to be paied and delivered +within one yeare after my deceas; and I doe will and +devise unto her <i>the house</i> with thappurtenaunces in Stratford, +wherein she dwelleth, for her naturall lief, under the yearlie +rent of xij.<sup><i>d.</i></sup> Item, I gyve and bequeath unto her three sonnes, +William Harte, ... Hart, and Michaell Harte, fyve pounds +a peece, to be paied within one yeare after my deceas [to be +sett out for her within one yeare after my deceas by my executours, +with thadvise and direccions of my overseers, for her +best profitt, untill her mariage, and then the same with the +increase thereof to be paied unto her]. Item, I gyve and +bequeath unto [her] <i>the saied Elizabeth Hall</i>, all my plate, +<i>except my brod silver and gilt bole</i>, that I now have att the +date of this my will. Item, I gyve and bequeath unto the +poore of Stratford aforesaied tenn poundes; to Mr. Thomas +Combe my sword; to Thomas Russell esquier fyve poundes; +and to Frauncis Collins, of the borough of Warr. in the countie +of Warr. gentleman, thirteene poundes, sixe shillinges, and +eight pence, to be paied within one yeare after my deceas. +Item, I gyve and bequeath to [Mr. Richard Tyler thelder] +<i>Hamlett Sadler</i> xxvj.<sup><i>s.</i></sup> viij.<sup><i>d.</i></sup> to buy him a ringe; to <i>William +Raynoldes gent., xxvj.<sup>s.</sup> viij.<sup>d.</sup> to buy him a ringe</i>; to my godson +William Walker xx<sup><i>s.</i></sup> in gold; to Anthonye Nashe gent., xxvj.<sup><i>s.</i></sup> +viij.<sup><i>d.</i></sup>; and to Mr. John Nashe xxvj.<sup><i>s.</i></sup> <i>viij.<sup>d.</sup></i> [in gold]; <i>and to +my fellowes John Hemynges, Richard Burbage, and Henry Cundell, +xxvj.<sup>s.</sup> viij.<sup>d.</sup> a peece to buy them ringes</i>. Item, I gyve, will, +bequeath, and devise, unto my daughter Susanna Hall, <i>for +better enabling of her to performe this my will, and towards the +performans thereof</i>, all that capitall messuage or tenemente +with thappurtenaunces, <i>in Stratford aforesaid</i>, called the New +Place, wherein I nowe dwell, and two messuages or tenementes +with thappurtenaunces, scituat, lyeing, and being in Henley<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Shakespeare's Will</span>streete, within the borough of Stratford aforesaied; and all +my barnes, stables, orchardes, gardens, landes, tenementes, +and hereditamentes, whatsoever, scituat, lyeing, and being, +or to be had, receyved, perceyved, or taken, within the townes, +hamletes, villages, fieldes, and groundes, of Stratford upon +Avon, Oldstratford, Bushopton, and Welcombe, or in anie of +them in the saied countie of Warr. And alsoe all that messuage +or tenemente with thappurtenaunces, wherein one John +Robinson dwelleth, scituat, lyeing and being, in the Blackfriers +in London, nere the Wardrobe; and all my other landes, +tenementes, and hereditamentes whatsoever, To have and to +hold all and singuler the saied premisses, with theire appurtenaunces, +unto the saied Susanna Hall, for and during the +terme of her naturall lief, and after her deceas, to the first +sonne of her bodie lawfullie yssueing, and to the heires males +of the bodie of the saied first sonne lawfullie yssueinge; and +for defalt of such issue, to the second sonne of her bodie, lawfullie +issueinge, and [of] to the heires males of the bodie of the +saied second sonne lawfullie yssueinge; and for defalt of such +heires, to the third sonne of the bodie of the saied Susanna +lawfullie yssueing, and of the heires males of the bodie of the +saied third sonne lawfullie yssueing; and for defalt of such +issue, the same soe to be and remaine to the ffourth [sonne], +ffyfth, sixte, and seaventh sonnes of her bodie lawfullie issueing, +one after another, and to the heires males of the bodies +of the saied fourth, fifth, sixte, and seaventh sonnes lawfullie +yssueing, in such manner as yt ys before lymitted to be and +remaine to the first, second, and third sonns of her bodie, and +to theire heires males; and for defalt of such issue, the said +premisses to be and remaine to my sayed neece Hall, and the +heires males of her bodie lawfullie yssueinge; and for defalt +of such issue, to my daughter Judith, and the heires males of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> +her bodie lawfullie issueinge; and for defalt of such issue, to +the right heires of me the saied William Shakspeare for ever. +<i>Item, I gyve unto my wief my second best bed with the furniture.</i> +Item, I gyve and bequeath to my saied daughter Judith my +broad silver gilt bole. All the rest of my goodes, chattels, +leases, plate, jewels, and household stuffe whatsoever, after +my dettes and legasies paied, and my funerall expenses dischardged, +I give, devise, and bequeath to my sonne in lawe, +John Hall gent., and my daughter Susanna, his wief, whom I +ordaine and make executours of this my last will and testament. +And I doe intreat and appoint <i>the saied</i> Thomas +Russell esquier and Frauncis Collins gent, to be overseers +hereof, and doe revoke all former wills, and publishe this +to be my last will and testament. In witness whereof I +have hereunto put my [seale] <i>hand</i>, the daie and yeare first +abovewritten.</p> + +<p class="author">By me <span class="smcap">William Shakspeare</span>.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Witnes to the publyshing hereof,<br /></span> +<span class="i2"><span class="smcap">Fra: Collyns</span>,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a><br /></span> +<span class="i2"><span class="smcap">Julyus Shawe</span>,<br /></span> +<span class="i2"><span class="smcap">John Robinson</span>,<br /></span> +<span class="i2"><span class="smcap">Hamnet Sadler</span>,<br /></span> +<span class="i2"><span class="smcap">Robert Whattcott</span>.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Probatum coram magistro Willielmo Byrde, legum doctore +comiss. &c. xxij<sup>do.</sup> die mensis Junii anno Domini 1616, +juramento Johannis Hall, unius executorum, &c. cui &c. +de bene &c. jurat. reservat. potestate &c. Susannæ Hall, +alteri executorum &c. cum venerit petitur, &c. (Inv. +ex.)</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></p> + + +<p><span class="sidenote">Biographical Documents</span></p><h5>10</h5> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Heralds' College</span> has the two drafts of a grant of +arms to John Shakespeare in 1596 (Ms. Vincent. Coll. Arm. +157, arts. 23, 24); and the confirmation of the grant in 1599 +(L. 30, 55). For further details on the matter of the coat of +arms, see <i>Herald and Genealogist</i>, i. 510, and for facsimiles, +<i>Miscellanea Genealogica et Heraldica</i>, 2d ser. 1886, i. 109. +On the criticism of the herald's complaisance in the matter of +the Shakespeare and similar grants, see Preface to New Edition +(1909) of Lee's <i>Life</i>, pp. xi-xv.</p> + + +<h5>11</h5> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Stationers' Register</span>, accessible in the <i>Transcript</i> +edited by E. Arber, 5 vols. 1875-94, contains the records of the +entries of those of Shakespeare's works which were registered +either with or without his name. The Shakespearean entries +are gathered out of the great mass contained in these volumes +by Lambert, Fleay, Stokes, H. P., <i>Chronological Order of +Shakespeare's Plays</i>, 1878, Appendix V, and others.</p> + + +<h5>12. <span class="smcap">Miscellaneous</span></h5> + +<p>The literary allusions to Shakespeare in the sixteenth and +earlier seventeenth centuries have been collected in <i>Shakespeare's +Century of Praise</i>, revised and reëdited by J. Munro +as <i>The Shakespeare Allusion Books</i>, London, 1909.</p> + +<p>Greene's attack in <i>Greenes Groatsworth</i> will be found in its +context in his works, ed. A. B. Grosart, 1881-1886, and +Chettle's Apology in his <i>Kind Hartes Dreame</i>, Percy Society, +1874.</p> + +<p><i>The Historical MSS. Commission's Report on the Historical +MSS. of Belvoir Castle</i>, IV. 494, contains the entry from the +Belvoir Household Book as to Rutland's "impresa." See also<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> +<i>Times</i>, December 27, 1905, and Preface to New Edition of +Lee's <i>Life</i>, pp. xvi-xxii.</p> + + +<h5>13. <span class="smcap">Extracts from Meres's <i>Palladis Tamia</i></span>, 1598</h5> + +<p>As the Greeke tongue is made famous and eloquent by +<i>Homer</i>, <i>Hesiod</i>, <i>Euripedes</i>, <i>Æschilus</i>, <i>Sophocles</i>, <i>Pindarus</i>, +<i>Phocylides</i> and <i>Aristophanes</i>; and the Latine tongue by <i>Virgill</i>, +<i>Ovid</i>, <i>Horace</i>, <i>Silius Italicus</i>, <i>Lucanus</i>, <i>Lucretius</i>, <i>Ausonius</i> +and <i>Claudianus</i>: so the English tongue is mightily enriched, +and gorgeouslie invested in rare ornaments and resplendent +abiliments by sir <i>Philip Sidney</i>, <i>Spencer</i>, <i>Daniel</i>, <i>Drayton</i>, +<i>Warner</i>, <i>Shakespeare</i>, <i>Marlow</i> and <i>Chapman</i>.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>As the soule of <i>Euphorbus</i> was thought to live in <i>Pythagoras</i>: +so the sweete wittie soule of <i>Ovid</i> lives in mellifluous & hony-tongued +Shakespeare, witnes his <i>Venus</i> and <i>Adonis</i>, his <i>Lucrece</i>, +his sugred Sonnets among his private friends, &c.</p> + +<p>As <i>Plautus</i> and <i>Seneca</i> are accounted the best for Comedy +and Tragedy among the Latines, so <i>Shakespeare</i> among y<sup>e</sup> +English is the most excellent in both kinds for the stage; for +Comedy, witnes his <i>Gẽtlemẽ of Verona</i>, his <i>Errors</i>, his <i>Love +labors lost</i>, his <i>Love labours wonne</i>, his <i>Midsummers night +dreame</i>, & his <i>Merchant of Venice</i>: for Tragedy, his <i>Richard +the 2, Richard the 3, Henry the 4, King Iohn, Titus Andronicus,</i> +and his <i>Romeo</i> and <i>Iuliet</i>.</p> + +<p>As <i>Epius Stolo</i> said, that the Muses would speake with +<i>Plautus</i> tongue, if they would speak Latin: so I say that the +Muses would speak with <i>Shakespeares</i> fine filed phrase, if +they would speake English.</p> + +<p>As <i>Ovid</i> saith of his worke:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Iamque opus exegi, quod nec Iovis ira, nec ignis,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Nec poterit ferrum, nec edax abolere vetustas.<br /></span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></div></div> + + + +<p><span class="sidenote">Extracts from Meres</span>And as <i>Horace</i> saith of his; <i>Exegi monumentum ære perennius; +Regalique; situ pyramidum altius; Quod non imber +edax; Non Aquilo impotens possit diruere; aut innumerabilis +annorum feries &c. fuga temporum</i>: so say I severally of sir +<i>Philip Sidneys</i>, <i>Spencers</i>, <i>Daniels</i>, <i>Draytons</i>, <i>Shakespeares</i>, and +<i>Warners workes</i>;</p> + +<p>As <i>Pindarus</i>, <i>Anacreon</i> and <i>Callimachus</i> among the Greekes; +and <i>Horace</i> and <i>Catullus</i> among the Latines are the best +Lyrick Poets: so in this faculty the best among our Poets +are <i>Spencer</i> (who excelleth in all kinds) <i>Daniel</i>, <i>Drayton</i>, +<i>Shakespeare</i>, <i>Bretton</i>.</p> + +<p>As ... so these are our best for Tragedie, the Lorde +<i>Buckhurst</i>, Doctor <i>Leg</i> of Cambridge, Doctor <i>Edes</i> of Oxforde, +maister <i>Edward Ferris</i>, the Authour of the <i>Mirrour for Magistrates</i>, +<i>Marlow</i>, <i>Peele</i>, <i>Watson</i>, <i>Kid</i>, <i>Shakespeare</i>, <i>Drayton</i>, +<i>Chapman</i>, <i>Decker</i>, and <i>Benjamin Johnson</i>.</p> + +<p>... so the best for Comedy amongst us bee, <i>Edward</i> Earle of +Oxforde, Doctor <i>Gager</i> of Oxforde, Maister <i>Rowley</i> once a +rare Scholler of learned Pembroke Hall in Cambridge, Maister +<i>Edwardes</i> one of her Maiesties Chappell, eloquent and wittie +<i>John Lilly</i>, <i>Lodge</i>, <i>Gascoyne</i>, <i>Greene</i>, <i>Shakespeare</i>, <i>Thomas +Nash</i>, <i>Thomas Heywood</i>, <i>Anthony Mundye</i> our best plotter, +<i>Chapman</i>, <i>Porter</i>, <i>Wilson</i>, <i>Hathway</i>, and <i>Henry Chettle.</i></p> + +<p>... so these are the most passionate among us to bewaile +and bemoane the perplexities of Love, <i>Henrie Howard</i> Earle +of Surrey, sir <i>Thomas Wyat</i> the elder, sir <i>Francis Brian</i>, sir +<i>Philip Sidney</i>, sir <i>Walter Rawley</i>, sir <i>Edward Dyer</i>, <i>Spencer</i>, +<i>Daniel</i>, <i>Drayton</i>, <i>Shakespeare</i>, <i>Whetstone</i>, <i>Gascoyne</i>, <i>Samuell +Page</i> sometimes fellowe of <i>Corpus Christi</i> Colledge in Oxford, +<i>Churchyard, Bretton</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p> + + +<h5>14. <span class="smcap">The Inscription on Shakespeare's Monument in +the Church of the Holy Trinity, Stratford-on-Avon</span></h5> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i4">Judicio Pylium, genio Socratem, arte Maronem<br /></span> +<span class="i6">Terra tegit, populus mæret, Olympus habet.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Stay, passenger, why goest thou by so fast?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Read, if thou canst, whom envious death hath plast<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Within this monument: Shakespeare with whome<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Quick nature dide; whose name doth deck ys tombe<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Far more than cost; sith all yt he hath writt<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Leaves living art but page to serve his witt.<br /></span> +</div> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i8">Obiit ano. doi 1616. Ætatis 53. Die 23 Ap.</span> +</div></div> + + + +<h5>15. <span class="smcap"><a name="The_Introductory_Matter_in_the_First_Folio" id="The_Introductory_Matter_in_the_First_Folio"></a>The Introductory Matter in the First Folio</span></h5> + +<p class="captionn"> +TO THE MOST NOBLE<br /> +<span class="smcap">and</span><br /> +INCOMPARABLE PAIRE OF BRETHREN.<br /> +WILLIAM<br /> +Earle of Pembroke, &c. Lord Chamberlaine to the<br /> +<i>Kings most Excellent Maiesty</i>.<br /> +<span class="smcap">and</span><br /> +PHILIP<br /> +Earle of Montgomery, &c. Gentleman of his Maiesties Bed-Chamber.<br /> +Both Knights of the most Noble Order of the Garter,<br /> +and our singular good <span class="smcap">Lords</span>.</p> +<p class="zerop" style="margin-left: 2em;">Right Honourable,</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Whilst</span> we studie to be thankful in our particular, for the +many fauors we haue receiued from your L. L. we are falne +vpon the ill fortune, to mingle two the most diuerse things +that can bee, feare, and rashnesse; rashnesse in the enterprize, +and feare of the successe. For, when we valew the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">The First Folio</span>places your H. H. sustaine, we cannot but know their dignity +greater, then to descend to the reading of these trifles: and, +while we name them trifles, we haue depriu'd our selues of +the defence of our Dedication. But since your L. L. haue +beene pleas'd to thinke these trifles some-thing, heeretofore; +and haue prosequuted both them, and their Authour liuing, +with so much fauour: we hope, that (they out-liuing him, +and he not hauing the fate, common with some, to be exequutor +to his owne writings) you will vse the like indulgence toward +them, you haue done vnto their parent. There is a great +difference, whether any Booke choose his Patrones, or finde +them: This hath done both. For, so much were your L. L. +likings of the seuerall parts, when they were acted, as before +they were published, the Volume ask'd to be yours. We haue +but collected them, and done an office to the dead, to procure +his Orphanes, Guardians: without ambition either of selfe-profit, +or fame: onely to keepe the memory of so worthy a +Friend, & Fellow aliue, as was our <span class="smcap">Shakespeare</span>, by humble +offer of his playes, to your most noble patronage. Wherein, +as we haue iustly obserued, no man to come neere your L. L. +but with a kind of religious addresse; it hath bin the height +of our care, who are the Presenters, to make the present +worthy of your H. H. by the perfection. But, there we must +also craue our abilities to be considerd, my Lords. We cannot +go beyond our owne powers. Country hands reach foorth +milke, creame, fruites, or what they haue: and many Nations +(we haue heard) that had not gummes & incense, obtained +their requests with a leauened Cake. It was no fault to approch +their Gods, by what meanes they could: And the most, +though meanest, of things are made more precious, when +they are dedicated to Temples. In that name therefore, we +most humbly consecrate to your H. H. these remaines of your<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> +seruant <span class="smcap">Shakespeare</span>; that what delight is in them, may be +euer your L. L. the reputation his, & the faults ours, if any +be committed, by a payre so carefull to shew their gratitude +both to the liuing, and the dead, as is</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 34em;">Your Lordshippes most bounden,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 40em;"><span class="smcap">Iohn Heminge</span>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 40em;"><span class="smcap">Henry Condell</span>.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p><i>To the Great Variety of Readers.</i>—From the most able to +him that can but spell;—there you are number'd. We had +rather you were weighd, especially when the fate of all bookes +depends upon your capacities, and not of your heads alone, +but of your purses. Well! It is now publique, and you will +stand for your privileges wee know; to read and censure. +Do so, but buy it first. That doth best commend a booke, +the stationer saies. Then, how odde soever your braines be, +or your wisedomes, make your licence the same and spare +not. Judge your sixe-pen'orth, your shillings worth, your five +shillings worth at a time, or higher, so you rise to the just +rates, and welcome. But, whatever you do, buy. Censure +will not drive a trade or make the jacke go. And though you +be a magistrate of wit, and sit on the stage at Black-Friers +or the Cock-pit to arraigne playes dailie, know, these playes +have had their triall alreadie, and stood out all appeales, and +do now come forth quitted rather by a Decree of Court than +any purchas'd letters of commendation.</p> + +<p>It had bene a thing, we confesse, worthie to have bene +wished, that the author himselfe had liv'd to have set forth +and overseen his owne writings; but since it hath bin ordain'd +otherwise, and he by death departed from that right, we pray +you do not envie his friends the office of their care and paine +to have collected and publish'd them; and so to have publish'd<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">The First Folio</span>them, as where (before) you were abus'd with diverse +stolne and surreptitious copies, maimed and deformed by the +frauds and stealthes of injurious impostors that expos'd +them; even those are now offer'd to your view cur'd and +perfect of their limbes, and all the rest absolute in their numbers +as he conceived them; who, as he was a happie imitator +of Nature, was a most gentle expresser of it. His mind and +hand went together; and what he thought, he uttered with +that easinesse that wee have scarse received from him a blot in +his papers. But it is not our province, who onely gather his +works and give them you, to praise him. It is yours that +reade him. And there we hope, to your divers capacities, +you will finde enough both to draw and hold you; for his wit +can no more lie hid then it could be lost. Reade him, therefore; +and againe and againe; and if then you doe not like +him, surely you are in some manifest danger not to understand +him. And so we leave you to other of his friends, whom, +if you need, can bee your guides. If you neede them not, +you can leade yourselves and others; and such readers we +wish him.—<i>Iohn Heminge.</i>—<i>Henrie Condell.</i></p> + + + +<p class="moretopc"> +TO THE MEMORY OF MY BELOUED,<br /> +<br /> +THE AVTHOR<br /> +<br /> +<small>MR. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE:<br /> +AND<br /> +what he hath left vs.</small><br /> +</p> + + +<div class="cpoem"> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">To draw no enuy (<i>Shakespeare</i>) on thy name,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Am I thus ample to thy Booke, and Fame:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">While I confesse thy writings to be such,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">As neither <i>Man</i>, nor <i>Muse</i>, can praise too much.<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> +<span class="i0">'Tis true, and all mens suffrage. But these wayes<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Were not the paths I meant vnto thy praise:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">For seeliest Ignorance on these may light,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Which, when it sounds at best, but eccho's right;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Or blinde Affection, which doth ne're aduance<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The truth, but gropes, and vrgeth all by chance;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Or crafty Malice, might pretend this praise,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And thinke to ruine, where it seem'd to raise.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">These are, as some infamous Baud, or Whore,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Should praise a Matron. What could hurt her more?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">But thou art proofe against them, and indeed<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Aboue th' ill fortune of them, or the need.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">I, therefore will begin. Soule of the Age!<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The applause! delight! the wonder of our Stage!<br /></span> +<span class="i0">My <i>Shakespeare</i>, rise; I will not lodge thee by<br /></span> +<span class="i2"><i>Chaucer</i>, or <i>Spenser</i>, or bid <i>Beaumont</i> lye<br /></span> +<span class="i0">A little further, to make thee a roome:<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Thou art a Moniment, without a tombe,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And art aliue still, while thy Booke doth liue,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And we haue wits to read, and praise to giue.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That I not mixe thee so, my braine excuses;<br /></span> +<span class="i2">I meane with great, but disproportion'd <i>Muses</i>:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">For, if I thought my iudgement were of yeeres,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">I should commit thee surely with thy peeres,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And tell, how farre thou didstst our <i>Lily</i> out-shine,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Or sporting <i>Kid</i>, or <i>Marlowes</i> mighty line.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And though thou hadst small <i>Latine</i>, and lesse <i>Greeke</i>,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">From thence to honour thee, I would not seeke<br /></span> +<span class="i0">For names; but call forth thund'ring <i>Æschilus</i>,<br /></span> +<span class="i2"><i>Euripides</i>, and <i>Sophocles</i> to vs,<br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Paccuuius</i>, <i>Accius</i>, him of <i>Cordoua</i> dead,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">To life againe, to heare thy Buskin tread,<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span><span class="sidenote">Ben Jonson's Eulogy</span> +<span class="i0">And shake a Stage: Or, when thy Sockes were on,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Leaue thee alone, for the comparison<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Of all, that insolent <i>Greece</i>, or haughtie <i>Rome</i><br /></span> +<span class="i2">Sent forth, or since did from their ashes come.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Triumph, my <i>Britaine</i>, thou hast one to showe,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">To whom all Scenes of <i>Europe</i> homage owe.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">He was not of an age, but for all time!<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And all the <i>Muses</i> still were in their prime,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">When like <i>Apollo</i> he came forth to warme<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Our eares, or like a <i>Mercury</i> to charme!<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Nature her selfe was proud of his designes,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And ioy'd to weare the dressing of his lines!<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Which were so richly spun, and wouen so fit,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">As, since, she will vouchsafe no other Wit.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The merry <i>Greeke</i>, tart <i>Aristophanes</i>,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Neat <i>Terence</i>, witty <i>Plautus</i>, now not please;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">But antiquated, and deserted lye<br /></span> +<span class="i2">As they were not of Natures family.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Yet must I not giue Nature all: Thy Art,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">My gentle <i>Shakespeare</i>, must enioy a part.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">For though the <i>Poets</i> matter, Nature be,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">His Art doth giue the fashion. And, that he,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Who casts to write a liuing line, must sweat,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">(Such as thine are) and strike the second heat<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Vpon the <i>Muses</i> anuile: turne the same,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">(And himselfe with it) that he thinkes to frame;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Or for the lawrell, he may gaine a scorne,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">For a good <i>Poet's</i> made, as well as borne.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And such wert thou. Looke how the fathers face<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Liues in his issue, euen so, the race<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Of <i>Shakespeares</i> minde, and manners brightly shines<br /></span> +<span class="i2">In his well torned, and true-filed lines:<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> +<span class="i0">In each of which, he seemes to shake a Lance,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">As brandish't at the eyes of Ignorance.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Sweet Swan of <i>Auon</i>! what a sight it were<br /></span> +<span class="i2">To see thee in our waters yet appeare,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And make those flights vpon the bankes of <i>Thames</i>,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">That so did take <i>Eliza</i>, and our <i>Iames</i>!<br /></span> +<span class="i0">But stay, I see thee in the <i>Hemisphere</i><br /></span> +<span class="i2">Aduanc'd, and made a Constellation there!<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Shine forth, thou Starre of <i>Poets</i>, and with rage,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Or influence, chide, or cheere the drooping Stage;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Which, since thy flight fro hence, hath mourn'd like night,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And despaires day, but for thy Volumes light.<br /></span> +</div></div><p class="author"><span class="smcap">Ben: Ionson.</span></p></div> + + + +<p class="moretopc">VPON THE LINES AND LIFE OF THE FAMOUS</p> + +<p class="center">Scenicke Poet, Master <span class="smcap">William Shakespeare</span></p> + +<div class="cpoem"> +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Those hands, which you so clapt, go now, and wring<br /></span> +<span class="i0">You <i>Britaines</i> braue; for done are <i>Shakespeares</i> dayes:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">His dayes are done, that made the dainty Playes,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Which made the Globe of heau'n and earth to ring.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Dry'de is that veine, dry'd is the <i>Thespian</i> Spring,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Turn'd all to teares, and <i>Phœbus</i> clouds his rayes:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That corp's, that coffin now besticke those bayes,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Which crown'd him <i>Poet</i> first, then <i>Poets</i> King.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">If <i>Tragedies</i> might any <i>Prologue</i> haue,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">All those he made, would scarse make one to this:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Where <i>Fame</i>, now that he gone is to the graue<br /></span> +<span class="i0">(Deaths publique tyring-house) the <i>Nuncius</i> is.<br /></span> +<span class="i2">For though his line of life went soone about,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The life yet of his lines shall neuer out.<br /></span> +</div></div> +<p class="author"><span class="smcap">Hvgh Holland</span>.</p> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span></div> + +<p><span class="sidenote">The First Folio</span></p> + + +<p class="moretopc">TO THE MEMORIE</p> + +<p class="center">of the deceased Authour Maister<br /><br /> +<small>W. SHAKESPEARE</small></p> + +<div class="cpoem"> +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0"><i>Shake-speare</i>, at length thy pious fellowes giue<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The world thy Workes: thy Workes, by which, out-liue<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Thy Tombe, thy name must: when that stone is rent,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And Time dissolues thy <i>Stratford</i> Moniment,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Here we aliue shall view thee still. This Booke,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">When Brasse and Marble fade, shall make thee looke<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Fresh to all Ages: when Posteritie<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Shall loath what's new, thinke all is prodegie<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That is not <i>Shake-speares</i> eu'ry Line, each Verse<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Here shall reuiue, redeeme thee from thy Herse.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Nor Fire, nor cankring Age, as <i>Naso</i> said,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Of his, thy wit-fraught Booke shall once inuade.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Nor shall I e're beleeue, or thinke thee dead<br /></span> +<span class="i0">(Though mist) vntill our bankrout Stage be sped<br /></span> +<span class="i0">(Jmpossible) with some new straine t'out-do<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Passions of <i>Iuliet</i>, and her <i>Romeo</i>;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Or till J heare a Scene more nobly take,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Then when thy half-Sword parlying <i>Romans</i> spake.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Till these, till any of thy Volumes rest<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Shall with more fire, more feeling be exprest,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Be sure, our <i>Shake-speare</i>, thou canst neuer dye,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">But crown'd with Lawrell, liue eternally.<br /></span> +</div></div> +<p class="author"><span class="smcap">L. Digges.</span></p> +</div> + + +<p class="moretopc">To the memorie of M. <i>W. Shake-speare</i>.</p> +<div class="cpoem"> +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0"><span class="smcap">Wee</span> wondred (<i>Shake-speare</i>) that thou went'st so soone<br /></span> +<span class="i0">From the Worlds-Stage, to the Graues-Tyring-roome.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Wee thought thee dead, but this thy printed worth,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Tels thy Spectators, that thou went'st but forth<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> +<span class="i0">To enter with applause. An Actors Art,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Can dye, and liue, to acte a second part.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That's but an <i>Exit</i> of Mortalitie;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">This, a Re-entrance to a Plaudite.<br /></span> +</div></div> +<p class="author">I. M.</p> +</div> + + +<p><i>The Workes of William Shakespeare, containing all his +Comedies, Histories, and Tragedies; truely set forth according +to their first Originall.</i>—<i>The names of the Principall Actors in +all these playes.</i>—William Shakespeare; Richard Burbadge; +John Hemmings; Augustine Phillips; William Kempt; +Thomas Poope; George Bryan; Henry Condell; William +Slye; Richard Cowly; John Lowine; Samuell Crosse; Alexander +Cooke; Samuel Gilburne; Robert Armin; William +Ostler; Nathan Field; John Underwood; Nicholas Tooley; +William Ecclestone; Joseph Taylor; Robert Benfeld; Robert +Goughe; Richard Robinson; John Shancke; John Rice.</p> + +<p><i>A Catalogue of the severall Comedies, Histories, and Tragedies +contained in this Volume.</i>—<span class="smcap">Comedies.</span> The Tempest, +folio 1; The Two Gentlemen of Verona, 20; The Merry Wives +of Windsor, 38; Measure for Measure, 61; The Comedy of +Errours, 85; Much adoo about Nothing, 101; Loves Labour +lost, 122; Midsommer Nights Dreame, 145; The Merchant +of Venice, 163; As You Like it, 185; The Taming of the +Shrew, 208; All is well that Ends well, 230; Twelfe-Night, +or what you will, 255; The Winters Tale, 304.—<span class="smcap">Histories.</span> +The Life and Death of King John, fol. 1; The Life and Death +of Richard the Second, 23; The First Part of King Henry the +Fourth, 46; The Second Part of K. Henry the fourth, 74; +The Life of King Henry the Fift, 69; The First part of King +Henry the Sixt, 96; The Second part of King Hen. the Sixt, +120; The Third part of King Henry the Sixt, 147; The Life +and Death of Richard the Third, 173; The Life of King<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> +<span class="sidenote">Traditional Material</span>Henry the Eight, 205.—<span class="smcap">Tragedies</span>. The Tragedy of +Coriolanus, fol. 1; Titus Andronicus, 31; Romeo and Juliet, +53; Timon of Athens, 80; The Life and death of Julius +Cæsar, 109; The Tragedy of Macbeth, 131; The Tragedy of +Hamlet, 152; King Lear, 283; Othello, the Moore of Venice, +310; Anthony and Cleopater, 346; Cymbeline King of +Britaine, 369.</p> + + + + +<h4>II. <a name="SOURCES_OF_TRADITIONAL_MATERIAL" id="SOURCES_OF_TRADITIONAL_MATERIAL"></a>SOURCES OF TRADITIONAL MATERIAL</h4> + + +<p>Fuller's Worthies of England. 1662.</p> + +<p>Aubrey's Lives of Eminent Men, 2 vols. Ed. A. Clark. +Oxford, 1895.</p> + +<p>Diary of Rev. John Ward (1661-1663). Ed. C. A. Severn, 1839.</p> + +<p>Rev. William Fulman's and Rev. Richard Davies's Mss. +Corpus Christi College, Oxford.</p> + +<p>John Dowdall's Travels in Warwickshire (1693). London, 1838.</p> + +<p>William Hall (1694), Letter in Bodleian Mss. London, 1884.</p> + +<p>William Oldys, Ms. Adversaria in British Museum, printed in +Appendix to Yeowell's Memoir of Oldys, 1862.</p> + +<p>Archdeacon Plume's Ms. memoranda at Maldon, Essex. See +Lee, <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, May, 1906, and Preface to +New Edition (1909) of <i>Life</i>.</p> + +<p>For the anecdote of the Bidford Drinkers, see H.-P. and +Greene's Legend of the Crab Tree, 1857.</p> + +<p>Antony Wood. Athenæ Oxonienses, 1692.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The words which have been erased are put between brackets; those +which have been interlined are printed in italics.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> So Lambert, Halliwell-Phillipps reads "sonne in L."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Francis Collyns was the lawyer at Warwick who prepared the will, +of which the draft only was executed, no time being possible for an engrossed +copy.—Note by Lambert.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Appendix_B" id="Appendix_B"></a>Appendix B</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Index to the Characters in Shakespeare's Plays</span></h3> + + + + +<p>This Index records the act and scene in which each character first +speaks, not necessarily the same as that in which he first appears. Only +persons who speak are included, except a few marked with asterisk.</p> + + +<ul><li>Aaron. TA. II. i.</li> + +<li>Abbess, Lady. CofE. V. i.</li> + +<li>Abergavenny, Lord. H8. I. i.</li> + +<li>Abhorson. Meas. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Abraham. R&J. I. i.</li> + +<li>Achilles. T&C. II. i.</li> + +<li>Adam. AYLI. I. i.</li> + +<li>Adrian. Tmp. II. i.</li> + +<li>Adriana. CofE. II. i.</li> + +<li>Ædile, an. Cor. III. i.</li> + +<li>Ægeon. CofE. I. i.</li> + +<li>Æmilia. CofE. V. i.</li> + +<li>Æmilius. TA. IV. iv.</li> + +<li>Æneas. T&C. I. i.</li> + +<li>Agamemnon. T&C. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Agrippa. A&C. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Aguecheek, Sir Andrew. TwN. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Ajax. T&C. II. i.</li> + +<li>Alarbus. TA.*</li> + +<li>Albany, Duke of. Lear I. i.</li> + +<li>Alcibiades. Tim. I. i.</li> + +<li>Alençon, Duke of. 1H6. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Alexander. T&C. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Alexas. A&C. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Alice. H5. III. iv.</li> + +<li>Alonso. Tmp. I. i.</li> + +<li>Ambassadors:<ul> +<li>Hml. V. ii;</li> +<li>H5. I. ii;</li> +<li>1H6. V. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Amiens. AYLI. II. i. v.</li> + +<li>Andromache. T&C. V. iii.</li> + +<li>Andronicus. <i>See</i> <a href="#Titus">Titus</a>, <a href="#Marcus">Marcus</a>.</li> + +<li>Angelo. CofE. III. i.</li> + +<li>Angelo. Meas. I. i.</li> + +<li>Angus. Mcb. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Anne Bullen, Queen. H8. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Anne, Lady. R3. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Anne Page. MWW. I. i.</li> + +<li>Antigonus. WT. II. i.</li> + +<li>Antiochus, King of Antioch. Per. I. i.</li> + +<li>Antipholus of Ephesus. CofE. III. i.</li> + +<li>Antipholus of Syracuse. CofE. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Antonio. Merch. I. i.</li> + +<li>Antonio. MAdo. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Antonio. Tmp. I. i.</li> + +<li>Antonio. TGV. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Antonio. TwN. II. i.</li> + +<li>Antony.<ul> +<li>JC. I. ii;</li> +<li>A&C. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Apemantus. Tim. I. i.</li> + +<li>Apothecary. R&J. V. i.</li> + +<li>Apparitions. Mcb. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Archbishop. <i>See</i> <a href="#York">York</a>, <a href="#Canterbury">Canterbury</a>.</li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>Archidamus. WT. I. i.</li> + +<li>Ariel. Tmp. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Armado, Don. LLL. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Arragon, Prince of. Merch. II. ix.</li> + +<li>Artemidorus. JC. II. iii.</li> + +<li>Arthur, Duke of Bretagne. John II. i.</li> + +<li>Arviragus. Cym. III. iii.</li> + +<li>Astringer, Gentle. AWEW. V. i.</li> + +<li>Attendants. +<ul><li>A&C. I. ii;</li> +<li>Hml. IV. vi.</li> +<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Servants">Servants</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Audrey. AYLI. III. iii.</li> + +<li>Aufidius, Tullus. Cor. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Aumerle, Duke of. R2. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Austria, Archduke of. +<ul><li>John II. i.</li> +<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Lymoges">Lymoges</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Autolycus. WT. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Auvergne, Countess of. 1H6. II. iii.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Bagot. R2. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Balthasar. MAdo. II. iii.</li> + +<li>Balthazar. CofE. III. i.</li> + +<li>Balthazar. Merch. III. iv.</li> + +<li>Balthazar. R&J. I. i.</li> + +<li>Banditti. Tim. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Banquo. Mcb. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Baptista. TofS. I. i.</li> + +<li>Bardolph. +<ul><li>1H4. II. ii;</li> +<li>2H4. II. i;</li> +<li>H5. II. i;</li> +<li>MWW. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Bardolph, Lord. 2H4. I. i.</li> + +<li>Barnardine. Meas. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Bassanio. Merch. I. i.</li> + +<li>Bassanius. TA. I. i.</li> + +<li>Basset. 1H6. III. iv.</li> + +<li>Bastard of Orleans. 1H6. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Bastard. <i>See</i> <a href="#Edmund">Edmund</a>, <a href="#Faulconbridge">Faulconbridge</a>, and <a href="#Margarelon">Margarelon</a>.</li> + +<li>Bates. H5. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Bawd. +<ul><li>Per. IV. ii.</li> +<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Overdone">Overdone</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Beadles. +<ul><li>2H4. V. iv;</li> +<li>2H6. II. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Beatrice. MAdo. I. i.</li> + +<li>Beaufort, Henry, Bishop of Winchester, and Cardinal. +<ul><li>1H6. I. i;</li> +<li>2H6. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Beaufort, John, Duke of Somerset. +<ul><li>1H6. II. iv;</li> +<li>2H6. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Beaufort, Thomas, Duke of Exeter. +<ul><li>H5. I. ii;</li> +<li>1H6. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Bedford, Duke of. H5. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Bedford, Duke of. 1H6. I. i.</li> + +<li>Belarius. Cym. III. iii.</li> + +<li>Belch, Sir Toby. TwN. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Benedick. MAdo. I. i.</li> + +<li>Benvolio. R&J. I. i.</li> + +<li>Berkeley. R3. I. iii.*</li> + +<li>Berkeley, Lord. R2. II. iii.</li> + +<li>Bernardo. Hml. I i.*</li> + +<li><a name="Bertram" id="Bertram"></a>Bertram, Count of Rousillon. AWEW. I. i.</li> + +<li>Bevis, George. 2H6. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Bianca. Oth. III. iv.</li> + +<li>Bianca. TofS. I. i.</li> + +<li>Bigot, Lord. John IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Biondello. TofS. I. i.</li> + +<li>Biron. LLL. I. i.</li> + +<li>Blanche of Spain. John II. i.</li> + +<li>Blunt, Sir James. R3. V. ii.</li> + +<li>Blunt, Sir Walter. 1H4. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Boatswain. Tmp. I. i.</li> + +<li>Bolingbroke, Roger. 2H6. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Bolingbroke, afterwards King Henry IV. R2. I. i.</li> + +<li>Bona. 3H6. III. iii.</li> + +<li>Borachio. MAdo. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Bottom. MND. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Boult. Per. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Bourbon, Duke of. H5. III. v.</li> + +<li><a name="Bourchier" id="Bourchier"></a>Bourchier, Cardinal. R3. III. i.</li> + +<li>Boyet. LLL. II. i.</li> + +<li><a name="Boys" id="Boys"></a>Boys: +<ul><li>H5. II. i;</li> +<li>1H6. I. iv;</li> +<li>H8. V. i;</li> +<li>Mcb. IV. ii;</li> +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>Meas. IV. i;</li> +<li>MAdo. II. iii;</li> +<li>R3. II. ii;</li> +<li>T&C. I. ii.</li> +<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Pages">Pages</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Brabantio. Oth. I. i.</li> + +<li>Brakenbury, Sir Robert. R3. I. i.</li> + +<li>Brandon. H8. I. i.</li> + +<li>Brothers, to Posthumus, ghosts. Cym. V. iv.</li> + +<li>Brutus, Decius. JC. II. i.</li> + +<li>Brutus, Junius. Cor. I. i.</li> + +<li>Brutus, Marcus. JC. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Buckingham, Duke of. +<ul><li>2H6. I. i;</li> +<li>R3. I. iii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Buckingham, Duke of. H8. I. i.</li> + +<li>Bullcalf. 2H4. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Bullen, Anne. H8. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Burgundy, Duke of. H5. V. ii.</li> + +<li>Burgundy, Duke of. 1H6. II. i.</li> + +<li>Burgundy, Duke of. Lear I. i.</li> + +<li>Bushy. R2. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Butts, Doctor. H8. V. ii.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Cade, John. 2H6. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Cæsar. <i>See</i> <a href="#Julius">Julius</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#Octavius">Octavius</a>.</li> + +<li>Caithness. Mcb. V. ii.</li> + +<li>Caius. TA.*</li> + +<li>Caius, Doctor. MWW. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Caius Ligarius. JC. II. i.</li> + +<li>Caius Lucius. Cym. III. i.</li> + +<li>Caius Marcius (Coriolanus). Cor. I. i.</li> + +<li>Calchas. T&C. III. iii.</li> + +<li>Caliban. Tmp. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Calpurnia. JC. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Cambridge, Earl of. H5. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Camillo. WT. I. i.</li> + +<li>Campeius, Cardinal. H8. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Canidius. A&C. III. x.</li> + +<li><a name="Canterbury" id="Canterbury"></a>Canterbury, Archbishop of. +<ul><li>H5. I. i.</li> +<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Bourchier">Bourchier</a>, <a href="#Cranmer">Cranmer</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Caphis. Tim. II. i.</li> + +<li>Captains: +<ul><li>A&C. IV. iv;</li> +<li>Cym. IV. ii, V. iii;</li> +<li>Hml. IV. iv;</li> +<li>1H6. II. ii;</li> +<li>Lear V. iii;</li> +<li>Mcb. I. ii;</li> +<li>R2. II. iv;</li> +<li>TA. I. i.</li> +<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Sea-Captain">Sea Captain</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Capucius. H8. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Capulet. R&J. I. i.</li> + +<li>Capulet, Lady. R&J. I. i.</li> + +<li>Capulet, second. R&J. I. v.</li> + +<li>Cardinal. <i>See</i> <a href="#Bourchier">Bourchier</a>, <a href="#Winchester">Winchester</a>.</li> + +<li>Carlisle, Bishop of. R2. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Carpenter. JC. I. i.</li> + +<li>Carriers. 1H4. II. i.</li> + +<li>Casca. JC. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Cassandra. T&C. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Cassio. Oth. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Cassius. JC. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Catesby, Sir William. R3. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Cato, young. JC. V. iii.</li> + +<li>Celia. AYLI. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Ceres. Tmp. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Cerimon. Per. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Chamberlain. 1H4. II. i.</li> + +<li>Chamberlain, Lord. H8. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Chancellor, Lord. H8. V. iii.</li> + +<li>Charles, a wrestler. AYLI. I. i.</li> + +<li>Charles, the dauphin, later King of France. 1H6. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Charles VI, King of France. H5. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Charmian. A&C. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Chatillon, ambassador. John I. i.</li> + +<li>Chief Justice. 2H4. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Chiron. TA. I. i.</li> + +<li>Chorus. +<ul><li>H5;</li> +<li>Per;</li> +<li>R&J;</li> +<li>WT.</li></ul></li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>Cicero. JC. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Cimber, Metellus. JC. II. i.</li> + +<li>Cinna, a conspirator. JC. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Cinna, a poet. JC. III. iii.</li> + +<li><a name="Citizens" id="Citizens"></a>Citizens. +<ul><li>Cor. I. i;</li> +<li>2H6. IV. v;</li> +<li>John II. i;</li> +<li>R3. II. iii;</li> +<li>R&J. III. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Clarence, George, Duke of. +<ul><li>3H6. II. ii;</li> +<li>R3. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Clarence, Thomas, Duke of. 2H4. IV. iv.</li> + +<li>Clarence, son and daughter of. R3. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Claudio. Meas. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Claudio. MAdo. I. i.</li> + +<li>Claudius, King of Denmark. Hml. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Claudius. JC. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Cleomenes. WT. III. i.</li> + +<li>Cleon. Per. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Cleopatra. A&C. I. i.</li> + +<li>Clerk. 2H6. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Clifford, Lord. +<ul><li>2H6. IV. viii;</li> +<li>3H6. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Clifford, young, son of preceding. 2H6. V. i.</li> + +<li>Clitus. JC. V. v.</li> + +<li>Cloten. Cym. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Clowns: +<ul><li>A&C. V. ii;</li> +<li>AWEW. I. iii;</li> +<li>Hml. V. ii;</li> +<li>LLL. I. ii;</li> +<li>Oth. III. i;</li> +<li>TA. IV. iii;</li> +<li>WT. IV. iii.</li> +<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Feste">Feste</a>, <a href="#Peter">Peter</a>, <a href="#Pompey">Pompey</a>, etc.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Cobbler. JC. I. i.</li> + +<li>Cobweb. MND. III. i.</li> + +<li>Colville, Sir John. 2H4. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Cominius. Cor. I. i.</li> + +<li>Commons. 2H6. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Conrade. MAdo. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Conspirators. Cor. V. vi.</li> + +<li>Constable (Dull). LLL. I. i.</li> + +<li>Constable of France. H5. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Constance. John II. i.</li> + +<li>Cordelia. Lear I. i.</li> + +<li>Corin. AYLI. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Coriolanus. Cor. I. i.</li> + +<li>Cornelius, a physician. Cym. I. v.</li> + +<li>Cornelius. Hml. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Cornwall, Duke of. Lear I. i.</li> + +<li>Costard. LLL. I. i.</li> + +<li>Court. H5. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Courtesan. CofE. IV. iii.</li> + +<li><a name="Cranmer" id="Cranmer"></a>Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury. H8. V. i.</li> + +<li>Cressida. T&C. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Crier. H8. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Cromwell. H8. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Cupid. Tim. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Curan. Lear II. i.</li> + +<li>Curio. TwN. I. i.</li> + +<li>Curtis. TofS. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Cymbeline, King. Cym. I. i.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Dancer, A. 2H4. Epi.</li> + +<li>Dardanius. JC. V. v.</li> + +<li>Daughter of Antiochus. Per. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Dauphin. H5. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Davy. 2H4. V. i.</li> + +<li>Deiphobus. T&C. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Demetrius. A&C. I. i.</li> + +<li>Demetrius. MND. I. i.</li> + +<li>Demetrius. TA. I. i.</li> + +<li>Dennis. AYLI. I. i.</li> + +<li>Denny, Sir Anthony. H8. V. i.</li> + +<li>Derby, Earl of. R3. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Dercetas. A&C. IV. xiv.</li> + +<li>Desdemona. Oth. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Diana. Per.*</li> + +<li>Diana. AWEW. III. v.</li> + +<li>Dick, butcher. 2H6. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Diomedes. T&C. II. iii.</li> + +<li>Diomedes. A&C. IV. xiv.</li> + +<li>Dion. WT. III. i.</li> + +<li>Dionyza. Per. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Doctor. Lear IV. iv.</li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>Doctor, English Mcb. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Doctor, Scotch. Mcb. V. i.</li> + +<li>Dogberry. MAdo. III. iii.</li> + +<li>Dolabella. A&C. III. xii.</li> + +<li>Doll Tearsheet. 2H4. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Don Adriano de Armado. LLL. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Donalbain. Mcb. II. iii.</li> + +<li>Don John. MAdo. I. i.</li> + +<li>Don Pedro. MAdo. I. i.</li> + +<li>Dorcas. WT. IV. iv.</li> + +<li>Dorset, Marquis of. R3. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Douglas Archibald, Earl of. 1H4. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Drawers. 2H4. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Dromio of Ephesus. CofE. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Dromio of Syracuse. CofE. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Duke, in banishment. AYLI. II. i.</li> + +<li>Duke Frederick. AYLI. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Duke of Milan. TGV. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Dull. LLL. I. i.</li> + +<li>Dumain. LLL. I. i.</li> + +<li>Duncan, King. Mcb. I. ii.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Edgar. Lear I. ii.</li> + +<li><a name="Edmund" id="Edmund"></a>Edmund. Lear I. i.</li> + +<li>Edmund, Earl of Rutland. 3H6. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Edward, Earl of March, later Edward IV. +<ul><li>3H6. I. i;</li> +<li>R3. II. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Edward IV, King. +<ul><li>3H6. I. i;</li> +<li>R3. II. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Edward V, King. R3. III. i.</li> + +<li>Edward, Prince of Wales, afterwards Edward V. R3. III. i.</li> + +<li>Edward Plantagenet, Prince of Wales. 3H6. I. i.</li> + +<li>Egeus. MND. I. i.</li> + +<li>Eglamour. TGV. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Egyptian. A&C. V. i.</li> + +<li>Elbow. Meas. II. i.</li> + +<li>Eleanor, Duchess of Gloucester. 2H6. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Eleanor, Queen. John I. i.</li> + +<li>Elizabeth, Queen (as L. Grey). +<ul><li>3H6. III. ii;</li> +<li>R3. I. iii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Ely, Bishop of. H5. I. i.</li> + +<li>Ely, Bishop of. R3. III. iv.</li> + +<li>Emilia. Oth. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Emilia. WT. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Enobarbus. A&C. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Eros. A&C. III. v.</li> + +<li>Erpingham, Sir Thomas. H5. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Escalus, Prince. R&J. I. i.</li> + +<li>Escalus. Meas. I. i.</li> + +<li>Escanes. Per. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Essex, Earl of. John I. i.</li> + +<li>Euphronius. A&C. III. xii.</li> + +<li>Evans, Sir Hugh. MWW. I. i</li> + +<li>Executioners. John IV. i.</li> + +<li>Exeter (Beaufort), Duke of. +<ul><li>H5. I. ii;</li> +<li>1H6. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Exeter, Duke of. 3H6. I. i.</li> + +<li>Exton, Sir Pierce of. R2. V. iv.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Fabian. TwN. II. v.</li> + +<li>Fairies. +<ul><li>MND. II. i;</li> +<li>MWW. V. iv.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Falstaff, Sir John. +<ul><li>1H4. I. ii;</li> +<li>2H4. I. ii;</li> +<li>MWW. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Fang. 2H4. II. i.</li> + +<li>Fastolfe, Sir John. 1H6. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Father that hath killed his son. 3H6. II. v.</li> + +<li>Faulconbridge, Lady. John I. i.</li> + +<li><a name="Faulconbridge" id="Faulconbridge"></a>Faulconbridge, Philip the Bastard. John I. i.</li> + +<li>Faulconbridge, Robert. John I. i.</li> + +<li>Feeble. 2H4. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Fenton. MWW. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Ferdinand. Tmp. I. ii.</li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span>Ferdinand, King of Navarre. LLL. I. i.</li> + +<li><a name="Feste" id="Feste"></a>Feste. TwN. I. v.</li> + +<li>Fisherman. Per. II. i.</li> + +<li>Fitzwater, Lord. R2. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Flaminius. Tim. III. i.</li> + +<li>Flavius. JC. I. i.</li> + +<li>Flavius. Tim. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Fleance. Mcb. II. i.</li> + +<li>Florence, Duke of. AWEW. III. i.</li> + +<li>Florizel. WT. IV. iv.</li> + +<li>Fluellen. H5. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Flute. MND. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Fool. +<ul><li>Lear I. iv;</li> +<li>Tim. II. ii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Ford. MWW. II. i.</li> + +<li>Ford, Mistress. MWW. II. i.</li> + +<li>Forester. +<ul><li>AYLI. IV. ii;</li> +<li>LLL. IV. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Fortinbras. Hml. IV. iv.</li> + +<li>France, King of. AWEW. I. ii.</li> + +<li>France, King of. Lear I. i.</li> + +<li>France, Princess of. LLL. II. i.</li> + +<li>Francis. 1H4. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Francisca. Meas. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Francisco. Hml. I. i.</li> + +<li>Francisco. Tmp. II. i.</li> + +<li>Frederick, Duke. AYLI. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Frenchman, A. Cym. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Friar Francis. MAdo. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Friar John. R&J. V. 2.</li> + +<li>Friar Lawrence. R&J. II. 3.</li> + +<li>Friar Peter. Meas. IV. vi.</li> + +<li>Friar Thomas. Meas. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Froth. Meas. II. i.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Gadshill. 1H4. II. i.</li> + +<li><a name="Gaolers" id="Gaolers"></a>Gaolers: +<ul><li>CofE. I. i;</li> +<li>Cym. V. iv;</li> +<li>1H6. II. v;</li> +<li>Merch. III. iii;</li> +<li>WT. II. ii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Gallus. A&C. V. i.</li> + +<li>Gardener. R2. III. iv.</li> + +<li>Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester. H8. V. i.</li> + +<li>Gargrave, Sir Thomas. 1H6. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Gaunt, John, Duke of Lancaster. R2. I. i.</li> + +<li>Gentleman Usher. H8. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Gentlemen: +<ul><li>AWEW. V. iii;</li> +<li>Cym. I. i;</li> +<li>Hml. IV. v;</li> +<li>2H6. IV. i;</li> +<li>H8. II. i;</li> +<li>Lear I. v;</li> +<li>Meas. I. ii;</li> +<li>Per. III. ii;</li> +<li>Oth. II. i;</li> +<li>WT. V. ii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Gentlewomen. +<ul><li>Cor. I. iii;</li> +<li>Mcb. V. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>George, Duke of Clarence. +<ul><li>3H6. II. ii;</li> +<li>R3. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Gertrude, Queen of Denmark. Hml. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Ghosts of: +<ul><li>Cæsar, JC. IV. iii;</li> +<li>of Hamlet's father, Hml. I. v;</li> +<li>Sicilius Leonatus, wife, two sons, Cym. V. iv;</li> +<li>Banquo,* Mcb. III. iv;</li> +<li>Prince Edward, Henry VI, Clarence, Rivers, Grey, Vaughan, Hastings, two young princes, +<ul><li>Lady Anne, and Buckingham, R3. V. iii.</li></ul></li></ul></li> + +<li>Glansdale, Sir William. 1H6. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Glendower, Owen. 1H4. III.</li> + +<li>Gloucester, Humphrey, Duke of. +<ul><li>2H4. IV. iv;</li> +<li>H5. III. vii;</li> +<li>1H6. I. i;</li> +<li>2H6. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Gloucester, Richard, Duke of. +<ul><li>3H6. I. i;</li> +<li>R3. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Gloucester, Duchess of. 2H6. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Gloucester, Duchess of. R2. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Gloucester, Earl of. Lear I. i.</li> + +<li>Gobbo, Launcelot. Merch. II. ii.</li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>Gobbo, Old, father of Launcelot. Merch. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Goffe, Matthew. 2H6.*</li> + +<li>Goneril. Lear I. i.</li> + +<li>Gonzalo. Tmp. I. i.</li> + +<li>Goths. TA. V. i.</li> + +<li>Governor of Harfleur. H5. III. iii.</li> + +<li>Governor of Paris. 1H6. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Gower. +<ul><li>2H4. II. i;</li> +<li>H5. III. ii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Gower, chorus. Per.</li> + +<li>Grandpré. H5. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Gratiano. Merch. I. i.</li> + +<li>Gratiano. Oth. V. ii.</li> + +<li>Gravediggers. Hml. V. i.</li> + +<li>Green. R2. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Gregory. R&J. I. i.</li> + +<li>Gremio. TofS. I. i.</li> + +<li>Grey, Lady, later Queen Elizabeth. +<ul><li>3H6. III. ii;</li> +<li>R3. I. iii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Grey, Lord. R3. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Grey, Sir Thomas. H5. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Griffith. H8. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Grooms. +<ul><li>2H4. V. v;</li> +<li>R2. V. v.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Grumio. TofS. I. i.</li> + +<li>Guard. A&C. IV. xiv.</li> + +<li>Guiderius. Cym. III. iii.</li> + +<li>Guildenstern. Hml. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Guildford, Sir Henry. H8. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Gurney, James. John I. i.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Haberdasher. TofS. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Hamlet. Hml. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Harcourt. 2H4. IV. iv.</li> + +<li>Hastings, Lord. 2H4. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Hastings, Lord. +<ul><li>3H6. IV. i;</li> +<li>R3. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Hecate. Mcb. III. v.</li> + +<li>Hector. T&C. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Helen, an attendant. Cym. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Helen. T&C. III. i.</li> + +<li>Helena. AWEW. I. i.</li> + +<li>Helena. MND. I. i.</li> + +<li>Helenus. T&C. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Helicanus. Per. I. ii.</li> + +<li><a name="Henry_IV" id="Henry_IV"></a>Henry IV, King (Bolingbroke). +<ul><li>1H4. I. i;</li> +<li>2H4. III. i;</li> +<li>R2. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Henry V, King (first, Henry, Prince of Wales). +<ul><li>1H4. I. ii;</li> +<li>2H4. II. ii;</li> +<li>H5. I. ii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Henry, Prince. +<ul><li>1H4. I. ii;</li> +<li>2H4. II. ii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Henry, Prince, son of King John. John V. vii.</li> + +<li>Henry VI, King. +<ul><li>1H6. III. i;</li> +<li>2H6. I. i;</li> +<li>3H6. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Henry VII, King, first Earl of Richmond. +<ul><li>3H6.*</li> +<li>R3. V. iii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Henry VIII, King. H8. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Heralds. +<ul><li>Cor. II. i;</li> +<li>H5. III. vi, IV. viii;</li> +<li>2H6. II. iv;</li> +<li>John II. i;</li> +<li>Lear V. iii;</li> +<li>Oth. II. ii;</li> +<li>R2. I. iii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Herbert, Sir Walter. R3. V. ii.</li> + +<li>Hereford, Duke of. +<ul><li><i>See</i> <a href="#Henry_IV">Henry IV</a>.</li> +<li>R2. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Hermia. MND. I. i.</li> + +<li>Hermione. WT. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Hero. MAdo. I. i.</li> + +<li>Hippolyta. MND. I. i.</li> + +<li>Holland, John. 2H6. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Holofernes. LLL. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Horatio. Hml. I. i.</li> + +<li>Horner, Roger. 2H6. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Hortensio. TofS. I. i.</li> + +<li>Hortensius. Tim. III. iv.</li> + +<li>Host. TGV. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Host of the Garter Inn. MWW. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Hostess. +<ul><li>H5. II. i.</li> +<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Quickly">Quickly</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Hostess. TofS. Ind.</li> + +<li>Hotspur. +<ul><li>1H4. I. iii.</li> +<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Percy">Percy</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>Hubert de Burgh. John III. iii.</li> + +<li>Hume, John. 2H6. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Humphrey of Gloucester. +<ul><li>2H4. IV. iv;</li> +<li>H5. III. vii;</li> +<li>1H6. I. i;</li> +<li>2H6. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Huntsmen. +<ul><li>3H6. IV. v;</li> +<li>TofS. Ind.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Hymen. AYLI. V. iv.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Iachimo. Cym. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Iago. Oth. I. i.</li> + +<li>Iden, Alexander. 2H6. IV. x.</li> + +<li>Imogen. Cym. I. i.</li> + +<li>Interpreter. AWEW. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Iras. A&C. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Iris. Tmp. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Isabel, Queen of France. H5. V. ii.</li> + +<li>Isabella. Meas. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Isadore, servant. Tim. II. ii.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Jamy. H5. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Jaquenetta. LLL. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Jaques. AYLI. II. v.</li> + +<li>Jaques, son of Sir Roland de Boys. AYLI.*</li> + +<li>Jessica. Merch. II. iii.</li> + +<li>Jeweller. Tim. I. i.</li> + +<li>Joan la Pucelle (Joan of Arc). 1H6. I. ii.</li> + +<li>John, King. John I. i.</li> + +<li>John of Lancaster. +<ul><li>1H4. V. iv;</li> +<li>2H4. IV. ii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Jordan, Margery. 2H6. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Julia. TGV. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Juliet. Meas. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Juliet. R&J. I. iii.</li> + +<li><a name="Julius" id="Julius"></a>Julius Cæsar. JC. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Juno. Tmp. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Jupiter. Cym. V. iv.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Katherina. TofS. I. i.</li> + +<li>Katherine. LLL. II. i.</li> + +<li>Katherine, Princess of France. H5. III. iv.</li> + +<li>Katherine, Queen. H8. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Keepers: +<ul><li>3H6. III. i;</li> +<li>H8. V. ii; R2. V. v;</li> +<li>R3. I. iv.</li> +<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Gaolers">Gaolers</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Kent, Earl of. Lear I. i.</li> + +<li>Knights: +<ul><li>Lear I. iv;</li> +<li>Per. II. iii.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Ladies: +<ul><li>Cor. II. i;</li> +<li>Cym. I. v;</li> +<li>R2. III. iv;</li> +<li>Tim. I. ii;</li> +<li>WT. II. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Laertes. Hml. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Lafeu, Lord. AWEW. I. i.</li> + +<li>Lamprius. A&C. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Launce. TGV. II. iii.</li> + +<li>Launcelot Gobbo. Merch. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Lavache, a clown. AWEW. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Lavinia. TA. I. i.</li> + +<li>Lawyer, a. 1H6. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Lear, King. Lear I. i.</li> + +<li>Le Beau. AYLI. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Legate. 1H6. V. i.</li> + +<li>Lennox. Mcb. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Leonardo. Merch. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Leonato. MAdo. I. i.</li> + +<li>Leonatus, Posthumus. Cym. I. i.</li> + +<li>Leonine. Per. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Leontes. WT. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Lepidus. +<ul><li>JC. IV. i;</li> +<li>A&C. I. iv.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Lewis, the Dauphin. H5. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Lewis, the Dauphin. John II. i.</li> + +<li>Lewis XI, King of France. 3H6. III. iii.</li> + +<li>Lieutenant: +<ul><li>Cor. IV. vii;</li> +<li>2H6. IV. i;</li> +<li>3H6. IV. vi.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Ligarius. JC. II. i.</li> + +<li>Lincoln, Bishop of. H8. II. iv.</li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span>Lion. MND. V. i.</li> + +<li>Longaville. LLL. I. i.</li> + +<li>Lords: +<ul><li>AWEW. I. ii, III. i;</li> +<li>AYLI. II. i;</li> +<li>Cor. V. vi;</li> +<li>Cym. I. ii;</li> +<li>Hml. V. ii;</li> +<li>LLL. II. i;</li> +<li>Mcb. III. iv;</li> +<li>Per. I. ii;</li> +<li>R3. V. iii;</li> +<li>TofS. Ind.;</li> +<li>Tim. I. i;</li> +<li>WT. II. ii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Lorenzo. Merch. I. i.</li> + +<li>Lovel, Lord. R3. III. iv.</li> + +<li>Lovell, Sir Thomas. H8. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Luce. CofE. III. i.</li> + +<li>Lucentio. TofS. I. i.</li> + +<li>Lucetta. TGV. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Luciana. CofE. II. i.</li> + +<li>Lucianus. Hml. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Lucilius. JC. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Lucilius. Tim. I. i.</li> + +<li>Lucio. Meas. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Lucius, Caius. Cym. III. i.</li> + +<li>Lucius. JC. II. i.</li> + +<li>Lucius. TA. I. i.</li> + +<li>Lucius, young. TA. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Lucius. Tim. III. ii; +<ul><li>servant. Tim. III. iv.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Lucullus. Tim. III. i.</li> + +<li>Lucy, Sir William. 1H6. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Ludovico. Oth. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Lychorida. Per. III. i.</li> + +<li><a name="Lymoges" id="Lymoges"></a>Lymoges, Duke of Austria. John II. i.</li> + +<li>Lysander. MND. I. i.</li> + +<li>Lysimachus. Per. IV. vi.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Macbeth. Mcb. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Macbeth, Lady. Mcb. I. v.</li> + +<li>Macduff. Mcb. II. iii.</li> + +<li>Macduff, Lady. Mcb. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Macduff's son. Mcb. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Macmorris. H5. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Mæcenas. A&C. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Malcolm. Mcb. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Malvolio. TwN. I. v.</li> + +<li>Mamillius. WT. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Marcellus. Hml. I. i.</li> + +<li><a name="Marcus" id="Marcus"></a>Marcus Andronicus. TA. I. i.</li> + +<li>Marcus Antonius (Antony). +<ul><li>JC. I. ii;</li> +<li>A&C. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Mardian. A&C. I. v.</li> + +<li><a name="Margarelon" id="Margarelon"></a>Margarelon. T&C. V. vi.</li> + +<li>Margaret. MAdo. II. i.</li> + +<li>Margaret, Queen. +<ul><li>1H6. V. iii;</li> +<li>2H6. I. i;</li> +<li>3H6. I. i;</li> +<li>R3. I. iii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Margaret Plantagenet, daughter of Clarence. R3. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Maria. LLL. II. i.</li> + +<li>Maria. TwN. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Mariana. AWEW. III. v.</li> + +<li>Mariana. Meas. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Marina. Per. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Mariner. +<ul><li>WT. III. iii;</li> +<li>Tmp. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Marshal. Per. II. iii.</li> + +<li>Marshal, Lord. R2. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Martext, Sir Oliver. AYLI. III. iii.</li> + +<li>Martius. TA. I. i.</li> + +<li>Marullus. JC. I. i.</li> + +<li>Master. 2H6. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Master gunner. 1H6. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Master, of a ship. +<ul><li>Tmp. I. i;</li> +<li>2H6. IV. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Master's Mate. 2H6. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Mayor of London. +<ul><li>1H6. III. i;</li> +<li>R3. III. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Mayor of St. Albans. 2H6. II. i.</li> + +<li>Mayor of York. 3H6. IV. vii.</li> + +<li>Melun. John V. iv.</li> + +<li>Menas. A&C. II. i.</li> + +<li>Menecrates. A&C. II. i.</li> + +<li>Menelaus. T&C. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Menenius Agrippa. Cor. I. i.</li> + +<li>Menteith. Mcb. V. ii.</li> + +<li>Mercade. LLL. V. ii.</li> + +<li>Merchants: +<ul><li>CofE. I. ii;</li> +<li>Tim. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Mercutio. R&J. I. iv.</li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>Messala. JC. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Messengers: +<ul><li>A&C. I. i;</li> +<li>AWEW. IV. iii;</li> +<li>CofE. V. i;</li> +<li>Cor. I. i;</li> +<li>Cym. V. iv;</li> +<li>Hml. IV. v;</li> +<li>1H4. IV. i;</li> +<li>2H4. IV. i;</li> +<li>H5. II. v;</li> +<li>1H6. I. i;</li> +<li>2H6. I. ii;</li> +<li>3H6. I. ii;</li> +<li>H8. IV. ii;</li> +<li>John IV. ii;</li> +<li>JC. IV. iii;</li> +<li>Lear IV. ii;</li> +<li>LLL. V. ii;</li> +<li>Mcb. I. v;</li> +<li>Meas. IV. ii;</li> +<li>Merch. II. ix;</li> +<li>MAdo. I. i;</li> +<li>Oth. I. iii;</li> +<li>Per. I. i;</li> +<li>R3. III. ii;</li> +<li>TofS. III. i;</li> +<li>Tim. I. i;</li> +<li>TA. III. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Metellus Cimber. JC. II. i.</li> + +<li>Michael. 2H6. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Michael, Sir. 1H4. IV. iv.</li> + +<li>Milan, Duke of. TGV. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Miranda. Tmp. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Montague. R&J. I. i.</li> + +<li>Montague, Lady. R&J. I. i.</li> + +<li>Montague, Marquess of. 3H6. I. i.</li> + +<li>Montano. Oth. II. i.</li> + +<li>Montgomery, Sir John. 3H6. IV. vii.</li> + +<li>Montjoy. H5. III. vi.</li> + +<li>Moonshine. MND. V. i.</li> + +<li>Mopsa. WT. IV. iv.</li> + +<li>Morocco, Prince of. Merch. II. i.</li> + +<li>Mortimer, Edmund, Earl of March. 1H4. III. i.</li> + +<li>Mortimer, Edmund, Earl of March. 1H6. II. v.</li> + +<li>Mortimer, Lady. 1H4. III. i.</li> + +<li>Mortimer, Sir Hugh.* 3H6. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Mortimer, Sir John. 3H6. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Morton. 2H4. I. i.</li> + +<li>Morton, John, Bishop of Ely. R3. III. iv.</li> + +<li>Moth. LLL. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Moth. MND. III. i.</li> + +<li>Mother to Posthumus, a ghost. Cym. V. iv.</li> + +<li>Mouldy. 2H4. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Mowbray, Lord. 2H4. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Mowbray, Thomas, Duke of Norfolk. R2. I. i.</li> + +<li>Murderers: +<ul><li>2H6. III. ii;</li> +<li>Mcb. III. i;</li> +<li>R3. I. iii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Musicians: +<ul><li>Merch. V. i;</li> +<li>Oth. III. i;</li> +<li>R&J. IV. v;</li> +<li>TGV. IV. ii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Mustardseed. MND. III. i.</li> + +<li>Mutius. TA. I. i.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Nathaniel, Sir. LLL. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Neighbors. 2H6. II. iii.</li> + +<li>Nerissa. Merch. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Nestor. T&C. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Noble, a. Cor. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Nobleman, a. 3H6. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Norfolk, Duke of. +<ul><li>3H6. I. i;</li> +<li>R3. V. iii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Norfolk, Duke of, Thomas Mowbray. R2. I. i.</li> + +<li>Norfolk, Duke of. H8. I. i.</li> + +<li>Northumberland. <i>See</i> <a href="#Percy">Percy</a>.</li> + +<li>Northumberland, Earl of. 3H6. I. i.</li> + +<li>Northumberland, Lady. 2H4. II. iii.</li> + +<li>Nurse. R&J. I. 3.</li> + +<li>Nurse. TA. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Nym. +<ul><li>H5. II. i;</li> +<li>MWW. I. i.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Oberon. MND. II. i.</li> + +<li>Octavia. A&C. III. ii.</li> + +<li><a name="Octavius" id="Octavius"></a>Octavius Cæsar (Augustus). +<ul><li>JC. IV. i;</li> +<li>A&C. I. iv.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Officers: +<ul><li>CofE. IV. i;</li> +<li>Cor. II. ii;</li> +<li>Oth. I. iii;</li> +<li>R&J. I. i;</li> +<li>TwN. III. iv;</li> +<li>WT. III. ii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Old Athenian. Tim. I. i.</li> + +<li>Old Lady. H8. II. iii.</li> + +<li>Old Man. +<ul><li>Lear IV. i;</li> +<li>Mcb. II. iv.</li></ul></li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>Oliver. AYLI. I. i.</li> + +<li>Oliver Martext, Sir. AYLI. III. iii.</li> + +<li>Olivia. TwN. I. v.</li> + +<li>Ophelia. Hml. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Orlando. AYLI. I. i.</li> + +<li>Orleans, bastard of. 1H6. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Orleans, Duke of. H5. III. vii.</li> + +<li>Orsino, Duke of Illyria. TwN. I. i.</li> + +<li>Osric. Hml. V. ii.</li> + +<li>Ostler. 1H4. II. i.</li> + +<li>Oswald. Lear I. iii.</li> + +<li>Othello. Oth. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Outlaws. TGV. IV. i.</li> + +<li><a name="Overdone" id="Overdone"></a>Overdone, Mrs. Meas. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Oxford, Earl of. 3H6. III. iii.</li> + +<li>Oxford, Earl of. R3. V. ii.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Page. MWW. I. i.</li> + +<li>Page, Mistress. MWW. II. i.</li> + +<li>Page, Mistress Anne, a daughter. MWW. I. i.</li> + +<li>Page, William, a son. MWW. IV. i.</li> + +<li><a name="Pages" id="Pages"></a>Pages: +<ul><li>AWEW. I. i;</li> +<li>AYLI. V. iii;</li> +<li>2H4. I. ii;</li> +<li>H8. V. i;</li> +<li>R3. IV. ii;</li> +<li>R&J. V. ii;</li> +<li>Tim. II. ii.</li> +<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Boys">Boys</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Painter. Tim. I. i.</li> + +<li>Pandar. Per. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Pandarus. T&C. I. i.</li> + +<li>Pandulph, Cardinal. John III. i.</li> + +<li>Panthino. TGV. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Paris. R&J. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Paris. T&C. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Parolles. AWEW. I. i.</li> + +<li>Patience. H8. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Patrician. Cor. III. i.</li> + +<li>Patroclus. T&C. II. i.</li> + +<li>Paulina. WT. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Peaseblossom. MND. III. i.</li> + +<li>Pedant. TofS. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Pedro, Don. MAdo. I. i.</li> + +<li>Pembroke, Earl of. 3H6. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Pembroke, Earl of. John IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Percy, Henry, Earl of Northumberland. +<ul><li>1H4. I. iii;</li> +<li>2H4. I. i;</li> +<li>R2. III. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li><a name="Percy" id="Percy"></a>Percy, Henry (Hotspur). +<ul><li>1H4. I. iii;</li> +<li>R2. II. iii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Percy, Lady (wife of Hotspur). +<ul><li>1H4. II. iii;</li> +<li>2H4. II. iii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Percy, Thomas, Earl of Worcester. 1H4. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Perdita. WT. IV. iv.</li> + +<li>Pericles. Per. I. i.</li> + +<li>Peter. 2H6. I. iii.</li> + +<li><a name="Peter" id="Peter"></a>Peter. R&J. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Peter of Pomfret. John IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Petitioners. 2H6. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Peto. +<ul><li>1H4. II. ii;</li> +<li>2H4. II. iv.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Petruchio. TofS. I. i.</li> + +<li>Phebe. AYLI. III. v.</li> + +<li>Philario. Cym. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Philemon. Per. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Philip, King of France. John II. i.</li> + +<li>Philo. A&C. I. i.</li> + +<li>Philostrate. MND. V. i.</li> + +<li>Philotus. Tim. III. iv.</li> + +<li>Phrynia. Tim. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Physicians: +<ul><li>Cym. I. v;</li> +<li>Lear IV. iv;</li> +<li>Mcb. IV. iii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Pierce, Sir, of Exton. R2. V. iv.</li> + +<li>Pinch. CofE. IV. iv.</li> + +<li>Pindarus. JC. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Pirates. Per. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Pisanio. Cym. I. i.</li> + +<li>Pistol. +<ul><li>2H4. II. iv;</li> +<li>H5. II. i;</li> +<li>MWW. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Plantagenet. <i>See</i> <a href="#Richard">Richard</a>.</li> + +<li>Player King. Hml. III. ii.</li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>Player Queen. Hml. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Players. +<ul><li>Hml. II. ii;</li> +<li>TofS. Ind.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Plebeians. +<ul><li>JC. III. ii.</li> +<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Citizens">Citizens</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Poet. Tim. I. i.</li> + +<li>Poet. JC. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Poins. +<ul><li>1H4. I. ii;</li> +<li>2H4. II. ii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Polixenes. WT. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Polonius. Hml. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Pompeius, Sextus. A&C. II. i.</li> + +<li><a name="Pompey" id="Pompey"></a>Pompey. Meas. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Popilius. JC. III. i.</li> + +<li>Porters: +<ul><li>2H4. I. i;</li> +<li>1H6. II. iii;</li> +<li>H8. V. iv;</li> +<li>Mcb. II. iii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Porter's Man. H8. V. iv.</li> + +<li>Portia. JC. II. i.</li> + +<li>Portia. Merch. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Post. +<ul><li>2H6. III. i;</li> +<li>3H6. III. iii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Posthumus Leonatus. Cym. I. i.</li> + +<li>Prentices. 2H6. II. iii.</li> + +<li>Priam, King of Troy. T&C. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Priests: +<ul><li>Hml. V. i;</li> +<li>R3. III. ii;</li> +<li>TwN. V. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Princess of France. LLL. II. i.</li> + +<li>Proculeius. A&C. V. i.</li> + +<li>Prologue. +<ul><li>R&J;</li> +<li>H5;</li> +<li>MND;</li> +<li>Hml. III, ii;</li> +<li>H8;</li> +<li>T&C.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Prospero. Tmp. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Proteus. TGV. I. i.</li> + +<li>Provost. Meas. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Publius. JC. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Publius. TA. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Puck, Robin Goodfellow. MND. II. i.</li> + +<li>Pursuivant. R3. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Pyramus. MND. V. i.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Queen, wife of Cymbeline. Cym. I. i.</li> + +<li>Queen, wife of Richard II. R2. II. i.</li> + +<li><a name="Quickly" id="Quickly"></a>Quickly, Mrs. +<ul><li>1H4. II. iv;</li> +<li>2H4. II. i;</li> +<li>H5. II. i;</li> +<li>MWW. I. iv.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Quince. MND. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Quintus. TA. I. i.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Rambures. H5. III. vii.</li> + +<li>Ratcliff, Sir Richard. R3. III. iii.</li> + +<li>Regan. Lear I. i.</li> + +<li>Reignier, Duke of Anjou. 1H6. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Reynaldo. Hml. II. i.</li> + +<li>Richard II, King. R2. I. i.</li> + +<li>Richard II, Queen to. R2. II. i.</li> + +<li>Richard III, King (at first Gloucester). +<ul><li>3H6. I. i;</li> +<li>R3. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li><a name="Richard_Duke_of_York_son_of_Edward_IV" id="Richard_Duke_of_York_son_of_Edward_IV"></a>Richard, Duke of York, son of Edward IV. R3. II. iv.</li> + +<li><a name="Richard" id="Richard"></a>Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York. +<ul><li>1H6. II. iv;</li> +<li>2H6. I. i;</li> +<li>3H6. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Richard Plantagenet, son of preceding. +<ul><li>2H6*;</li> +<li>3H6. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Richmond, Earl of, later Henry VII. +<ul><li>3H6*;</li> +<li>R3. V. iii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Rivers, Lord. +<ul><li>3H6. IV. iv;</li> +<li>R3. I. iii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Robin. MWW. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Robin Goodfellow. MND. II. i.</li> + +<li>Roderigo. Oth. I. i.</li> + +<li>Roman, a. +<ul><li>Cor. IV. iii.</li> +<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Citizens">Citizens</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Romeo. R&J. I. i.</li> + +<li>Rosalind. AYLI. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Rosaline. LLL. II. i.</li> + +<li>Rosencrantz. Hml. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Ross. Mcb. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Ross, Lord. R2. II. i.</li> + +<li><a name="Rotherham" id="Rotherham"></a>Rotherham, Thomas. Archbishop of York. R3. II. iv.</li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>Rousillon, Count. <i>See</i> <a href="#Bertram">Bertram</a>.</li> + +<li>Rousillon, Countess. AWEW. I. i.</li> + +<li>Rugby, John. MWW. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Rumour. 2H4. Ind.</li> + +<li>Rutland, Edmund, Earl of. 3H6. I. iii.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Sailors: +<ul><li>Hml. IV. vi;</li> +<li>Oth. I. iii;</li> +<li>Per. III. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Salanio. Merch. I. i.</li> + +<li>Salarino. Merch. I. i.</li> + +<li>Salerio. Merch. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Salisbury, Earl of. +<ul><li>H5. IV. iii;</li> +<li>1H6. I. iv.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Salisbury, Earl of. 2H6. I. i.</li> + +<li>Salisbury, Earl of. John III. i.</li> + +<li>Salisbury, Earl of. R2. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Sampson. R&J. I. i.</li> + +<li>Sandys, William (Lord). H8. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Saturninus. TA. I. i.</li> + +<li>Say, Lord. 2H6. IV. iv.</li> + +<li>Scales, Lord. 2H6. IV. v.</li> + +<li>Scarus. A&C. III. x.</li> + +<li>Scout. 1H6. V. ii.</li> + +<li>Scribe. H8. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Scrivener. R3. III. vi.</li> + +<li>Scroop, Lord. H5. II. ii.</li> + +<li><a name="Scroop" id="Scroop"></a>Scroop, Richard, Archbishop of York. +<ul><li>1H4. IV. iv;</li> +<li>2H4. I. iii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Scroop, Sir Stephen. R2. III. ii.</li> + +<li><a name="Sea-Captain" id="Sea-Captain"></a>Sea-Captain (Lieut.). +<ul><li>2H6. IV. i;</li> +<li>TwN. I. ii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Sebastian. Tmp. I. i.</li> + +<li>Sebastian. TwN. II. i.</li> + +<li>Secretary. H8. I i.</li> + +<li>Seleucus. A&C. V. ii.</li> + +<li>Sempronius. TA.*</li> + +<li>Sempronius. Tim. III. iii.</li> + +<li>Senators, +<ul><li>Roman. +<ul><li>Cor. I. i;</li> +<li>Cym. III. vii;</li></ul></li></ul> +<ul><li>Venetian. Oth. I. iii;</li></ul> +<ul><li>Athenian. Tim. II. i;</li></ul> +<ul><li>Coriolanian. Cor. I. ii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Sentinels. 1H6. II. i.</li> + +<li>Sentry. A&C. IV. ix.</li> + +<li>Sergeant. 1H6. II. i; +<ul><li>(at arms) H8. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li><a name="Servants" id="Servants"></a>Servants: +<ul><li>A&C. II. vii;</li> +<li>Hml. IV. vi;</li> +<li>1H4. II. iii;</li> +<li>2H4. I. ii;</li> +<li>H8. I. iv;</li> +<li>JC. II. ii;</li> +<li>Lear III. vii;</li> +<li>Mcb. III. i;</li> +<li>Meas. II. ii;</li> +<li>Merch. III. i;</li> +<li>Per. III. ii;</li> +<li>R2. II. ii;</li> +<li>TofS. IV. i;</li> +<li>Tim. I. ii;</li> +<li>T&C. III. i;</li> +<li>TwN. III. iv;</li> +<li>WT. II. iii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Servilius. Tim. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Servingmen: +<ul><li>Cor. IV. v;</li> +<li>1H6. I. iii;</li> +<li>2H6. II. iv;</li> +<li>Merch. I. ii;</li> +<li>TofS. Ind.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Seyton. Mcb. V. iii.</li> + +<li>Sexton. MAdo. I. i.</li> + +<li>Sextus Pompeius. A&C. II. i.</li> + +<li>Shadow. 2H4. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Shallow, Justice. +<ul><li>2H4. III. ii;</li> +<li>MWW. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Shepherd. 1H6. V. iv.</li> + +<li>Shepherd, Old. WT. III. iii.</li> + +<li>Sheriff. +<ul><li>1H4. II. iv;</li> +<li>2H6. II. iv;</li> +<li>R3. V. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Shrewsbury, Talbot, Earl of. 1H6. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Shylock. Merch. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Sicilius Leonatus, a ghost. Cym. V. iv.</li> + +<li>Sicinius Velutus. Cor. I. i.</li> + +<li>Silence. 2H4. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Silius. A&C. III. i.</li> + +<li>Silvia. TGV. II. i.</li> + +<li>Silvius. AYLI. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Simonides, King of Pentapolis. Per. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Simpcox. 2H6. II. i.</li> + +<li>Simpcox's wife. 2H6. II. i.</li> + +<li>Simple, Peter. MWW. I. i.</li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>Siward. Mcb. V. iv.</li> + +<li>Siward, young. Mcb. V. vii.</li> + +<li>Slender, Abraham. MWW. I. i.</li> + +<li>Sly, Christopher. TofS. Ind.</li> + +<li>Smith. 2H6. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Snare. 2H4. II. i.</li> + +<li>Snout. MND. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Snug. MND. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Soldiers: +<ul><li>A&C. III. vii;</li> +<li>AWEW. IV. i;</li> +<li>Cor. I. iv;</li> +<li>H5. IV. iv;</li> +<li>1H6. II. i;</li> +<li>2H6. IV. vi;</li> +<li>3H6. IV. viii;</li> +<li>JC. IV. ii;</li> +<li>Mcb. V. iv;</li> +<li>Tim. V. iv;</li> +<li>T&C. V. ix.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Solinus, Duke of Ephesus. CofE. I. i.</li> + +<li>Somerset, Duke of. +<ul><li>1H6. II. iv;</li> +<li>2H6. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Somerset, Duke of. 3H6. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Somerville, Sir John. 3H6. V. i.</li> + +<li>Son that hath killed his father. 3H6. II. v.</li> + +<li>Soothsayers. +<ul><li>A&C. I. ii;</li> +<li>Cym. IV. ii;</li> +<li>JC. I. ii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Southwell, John. 2H6. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Speed. TGV. I. i.</li> + +<li>Spirits. 2H6. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Spring (Ver). LLL. V. ii.</li> + +<li>Stafford, Lord. 3H6.*</li> + +<li>Stafford, Sir Humphrey. 2H6. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Stafford, William. 2H6. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Stanley, Lord, Earl of Derby. R3. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Stanley, Sir John. 2H6. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Stanley, Sir William. 3H6. IV. v.*</li> + +<li>Starveling. MND. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Stephano. Merch.*</li> + +<li>Stephano. Tmp. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Steward. AWEW. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Strangers. Tim. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Strato. JC. V. v.</li> + +<li>Suffolk, Earl and Duke of. +<ul><li>1H6. II. iv;</li> +<li>2H6. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Suffolk, Duke of. H8. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Surrey, Earl of. 2H4.*</li> + +<li>Surrey, Earl of. R2. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Surrey, Earl of. R3. V. iii.</li> + +<li>Surrey, Lord. H8. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Surveyor. H8. I. ii.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Tailor. TofS. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury. 1H6. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Talbot, John. 1H6. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Tamora, Queen of Goths. TA. I. i.</li> + +<li>Taurus. A&C. III. viii.</li> + +<li>Thaisa. Per. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Thaliard. Per. I. i.</li> + +<li>Thersites. T&C. II. i.</li> + +<li>Theseus. MND. I. i.</li> + +<li>Thieves. 1H4. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Thisbe. MND. V. i.</li> + +<li>Thomas, Friar. Meas. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Thurio. TGV. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Thyreus (Thidias). A&C. III. xii.</li> + +<li>Timandra. Tim. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Time (chorus). WT. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Timon. Tim. I. i.</li> + +<li>Titania. MND. II. i.</li> + +<li>Titinius. JC. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Titus. Tim. III. iv.</li> + +<li><a name="Titus" id="Titus"></a>Titus Andronicus. TA. I. i.</li> + +<li>Titus Lartius. Cor. I. i.</li> + +<li>Touchstone. AYLI. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Townsmen of St. Albans. 2H6. II. i.</li> + +<li>Tranio. TofS. I. i.</li> + +<li>Travellers. 1H4. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Travers. 2H4. I. i.</li> + +<li>Trebonius. JC. II. i.</li> + +<li>Tressel. R3. I. iii.*</li> + +<li>Tribunes, Roman: +<ul><li>Cym. III. vii;</li> +<li>TA. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>Trinculo. Tmp. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Troilus. T&C. I. i.</li> + +<li>Tubal. Merch. III. i.</li> + +<li>Tullus Aufidius. Cor. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Tutor. 3H6. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Tybalt. R&J. I. i.</li> + +<li>Tyrrel, Sir James. R3. IV. ii.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Ulysses. T&C. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Ursula. MAdo. II. i.</li> + +<li>Urswick, Christopher. R3. IV. v.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Valentine. TwN. I. iv.</li> + +<li>Valentine. TGV. I. i.</li> + +<li>Valentine. TA.*</li> + +<li>Valeria. Cor. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Varrius. A&C. II. i.</li> + +<li>Varro, servant. Tim. II. ii.</li> + +<li>Varro. JC. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Vaughan, Sir Thomas. R3. III. iii.</li> + +<li>Vaux. 2H6. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Vaux, Sir Nicholas. H8. II. i.</li> + +<li>Venice, Duke of. Merch. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Venice, Duke of. Oth. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Ventidius. A&C. III. i.</li> + +<li>Ventidius. Tim. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Verges. MAdo. III. iii.</li> + +<li>Vernon. 1H6. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Vernon, Sir Richard. 1H4. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Vincentio. TofS. IV. v.</li> + +<li>Vincentio, Duke. Meas. I. i.</li> + +<li>Vintner. 1H4. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Viola. TwN. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Violenta. AWEW. III. v.</li> + +<li>Virgilia. Cor. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Volsce, a. Cor. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Voltimand. Hml. I. ii.</li> + +<li>Volumnia. Cor. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Volumnius. JC. V. v.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Wall, MND. V. i.</li> + +<li>Warders. 1H6. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Wart. 2H4. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Warwick (Beauchamp), Earl of. +<ul><li>2H4. III. i;</li> +<li>H5. IV. viii;</li> +<li>1H6. II. iv.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Warwick (Nevil), Earl of. +<ul><li>2H6. I. i;</li> +<li>3H6. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Watchmen: +<ul><li>Cor. V. ii;</li> +<li>3H6. IV. iii;</li> +<li>MAdo. III. iii;</li> +<li>R&J. V. iii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Westminster, Abbot of. R2. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Westmoreland, Earl of. +<ul><li>1H4. I. i;</li> +<li>2H4. IV. i;</li> +<li>H5. I. ii.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Westmoreland, Earl of. 3H6. I. i.</li> + +<li>Whitmore, Walter. 2H6. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Widow. TofS. V. ii.</li> + +<li>Widow, of Florence. AWEW. III. v.</li> + +<li>William. AYLI. V. i.</li> + +<li>Williams. H5. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Willoughby, Lord. R2. II. i.</li> + +<li><a name="Winchester" id="Winchester"></a>Winchester, Bishop of. +<ul><li>1H6. I. i;</li> +<li>2H6. I. i.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Winchester (Gardiner), Bishop of. H8. V. i.</li> + +<li>Witches. Mcb. I. i.</li> + +<li>Wolsey, Cardinal. H8. I. i.</li> + +<li>Woodville. 1H6. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Worcester, Earl of. 1H4. I. iii.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li><a name="York" id="York"></a>York, Archbishop of. <i>See</i> <a href="#Rotherham">Rotherham</a> and <a href="#Scroop">Scroop</a>.</li> + +<li>York, Duchess of. R2. V. ii.</li> + +<li>York, Duchess of. R3. II. ii.</li> + +<li>York, Duke of. H5. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>York, Duke of. <i>See</i> <a href="#Richard">Richard</a>.</li> + +<li>York, Duke of. <i>See</i> <a href="#Richard_Duke_of_York_son_of_Edward_IV">Richard, son of Edward IV</a>.</li> + +<li>York, Edmund Langley, Duke of. R2. II. i.</li> + +<li>Young Marcius. Cor. V. iii.</li> +</ul> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Appendix_C" id="Appendix_C"></a>Appendix C</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Index of the Songs in Shakespeare's Plays</span></h3> + + + + +<p>The first lines are given. In a few cases it is doubtful whether the +verses were sung or spoken.</p> + + +<ul><li>A cup of wine that's brisk and fine, 2H4. V. iii.</li> + +<li>And let me the canakin clink, clink; Oth. II. iii.</li> + +<li>And will he not come again? Hml. IV. v.</li> + +<li>An old hare hoar, R&J. II. iv.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Be merry, be merry, my wife has all; 2H4. V. iii.</li> + +<li>Blow, blow, thou winter wind. AYLI. II. vii.</li> + +<li>By gis, and by Saint Charity, Hml. IV. v.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Come away, come away, Mcb. III. v.</li> + +<li>Come away, come away, death, TN. II. iv.</li> + +<li>Come, thou monarch of the vine, A&C. II. vii.</li> + +<li>Come unto these yellow sands, Tmp. I. ii.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Do me right, 2H4. V. iii.</li> + +<li>Do nothing but eat, and make good cheer, 2H4. V. iii.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Farewell, master; farewell, farewell! Tmp. II. iii.</li> + +<li>Fear no more the heat o' the sun, Cym. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>Fie on sinful fantasy! MWW. V. v.</li> + +<li>Fill the cup, and let it come; 2H4. V. iii.</li> + +<li>Flout 'em and scout 'em. Tmp. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Fools had ne'er less grace in a year; Lear I. iv.</li> + +<li>For bonny sweet Robin is all my joy. Hml. IV. v.</li> + +<li>Full fathom five thy father lies; Tmp. I. ii.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Get you hence, for I must go. WT. IV. iv.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Hark, hark! the lark at heaven's gate sings, Cym. II. iii.</li> + +<li>He that has and a little tiny wit,— Lear. III. ii.</li> + +<li>Honour, riches, marriage-blessing, Tmp. IV. i.</li> + +<li>How should I your true love know. Hml. IV. v.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>I am gone, sir, TN. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>If it do come to pass, AYLI. II. vi.</li> + +<li>In youth, when I did love, did love, Hml. V. i.</li> + +<li>I shall no more to sea, to sea, Tmp. II. ii.</li> + +<li>It was a lover and his lass, AYLI. V. iii.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>Jog, jog on, the foot-path way, WT. IV. iii.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>King Stephen was and a worthy peer, Oth. II. iii.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Lawn as white as driven snow; WT. IV. iv.</li> + +<li>Love, love, nothing but love, still more! T&C. III. i.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>No more dams I'll make for fish; Tmp, II. ii.</li> + +<li>No more, thou thunder-master, show. Cym. V. iv.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Oh mistress mine, where are you roaming? TN. II. iii.</li> + +<li>On the ground, MND. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Orpheus with his lute made trees. (Fletcher?) H8. III. i.</li> + +<li>Over hill, over dale, MND. II. i.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Pardon, goddess of the night, MAdo. V. iv.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Round about the cauldron go; Mcb. IV. i.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Sigh no more, ladies, sigh no more, MAdo. II. iii.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Take, O, take those lips away, Meas. IV. i.</li> + +<li>Tell me where is fancy bred, Merch. III. ii.</li> + +<li>The god of love, MAdo. V. ii.</li> + +<li>The master, the swabber, the boatswain, and I, Tmp. II. ii.</li> + +<li>The ousel cock so black of hue, MND. III. ii.</li> + +<li>The poor soul sat sighing by a sycamore tree, Oth. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>They bore him barefac'd on the bier; Hml. IV. v.</li> + +<li>To-morrow is Saint Valentine's day, Hml. IV. v.</li> + +<li>To shallow rivers, to whose falls. MWW. III. i.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Under the greenwood tree, AYLI. II. vi.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Was this fair face the cause, quoth she, AWEW. I. iii.</li> + +<li>Wedding is great Juno's crown. AYLI. V. iv.</li> + +<li>What shall he have that killed the deer? AYLI. IV. ii.</li> + +<li>When daffodils begin to peer, WT. IV. i.</li> + +<li>When daisies pied and violets blue. LLL. V. ii.</li> + +<li>When that I was and a little tiny boy, TN. V. i.</li> + +<li>Where the bee sucks, there suck I. Tmp. V. i.</li> + +<li>While you here do snoring lie, Tmp. II. i.</li> + +<li>Who doth ambition shun, AYLI. II. vi.</li> + +<li>Who is Silvia? What is she, TGV. IV. iii.</li> + +<li>Will you buy any tape, WT. IV. iv.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>You spotted snakes with double tongue, MND. II. ii.</li> +</ul> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Appendix_D" id="Appendix_D"></a>Appendix D</h2> + +<h3>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h3> + + + + +<p>This Bibliography is arranged in divisions corresponding +to the chapters of this volume. It aims to include those books +most important for the student, and to furnish guidance for +those interested in more specialized fields of study.</p> + +<p>The following are the chief general bibliographies:</p> + +<p>Shakespeare Bibliography, by William Jaggard, Stratford-on-Avon, +1911. This is the most important and useful attempt +that has yet been made toward a complete bibliography of +works in the English language; but it is far from being exhaustive +or accurate.</p> + +<p>Catalogue of the Barton Collection of the Boston Public +Library, part i, Shakespeare's Works and Shakesperiana, +1878-1888. Probably the best bibliography up to the date +of its publication.</p> + +<p>Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakespeare-Gesellschaft. Weimar, +1865-. The bibliographies, with indexes, issued in this annual +provide the best bibliography of all recent Shakespearean +literature in all languages. They include references to +periodicals and to book reviews.</p> + +<p>The Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. v, chaps. +viii-xii. Cambridge, 1910. The best recent short selected +bibliography.</p> + +<p>Other useful bibliographical aids are: the article on Shakespeare +Encycl. Brit., Eleventh ed., 1911; the British Museum +Catalogue of Printed Books, 1897; the Catalogue of the +Lenox Library, New York, 1880; and the Index to the +Shakespeare Memorial Library, Birmingham, 1900.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>CHAPTER I<br /><br /><span class="smcap">Shakespeare's England and London</span></h4> + +<p>See bibliographies in the Cambridge Modern History, +vol. iii, chap. x, and the Cambridge History of English Literature, +vol. v, chap. xiv. The two most accessible and important +works on the subject are: William Harrison's <i>Description +of Britaine and England</i>, in Holinshed's Chronicle, 1577, +reprinted in the Shaks. Soc. Publ. 1877-1888, in the Scott +Library, 1899, and in Everyman's Library; and John Stow's +<i>Survey of London</i>, 1st ed., 1598, reprinted in Everyman's +Library. J. D. Wilson's <i>Life in Shakespeare's England</i> +(Cambridge, 1911) is an excellent anthology drawn from +Elizabethan publications.</p> + +<p>The following list includes only more important and more +recent books.</p> + +<p>Aiken, L. Memoirs of the Court of James I. 2d ed., +1822.</p> + +<p>Ashton, J. Humour, Wit, and Society in the Seventeenth +Century. 1883.</p> + +<p>Besant, Sir W. London. 1892.</p> +<p>—— London in the Times of the Tudors. 1908.</p> + +<p>Creighton, M. The Age of Elizabeth. 1892.</p> + +<p>Creizenach, W. Geschichte des neueren Dramas, Halle, +1893. See vol. iv, part i, book iii, Religios-sittliche und politisch-soziale +Anschauungen der Theaterdichter.</p> + +<p>Douce, F. Illustrations of Shakespeare and of Ancient +Manners. 1839.</p> + +<p>An English Garner. New ed., 1903. See vols.: Social +England Illustrated; Tudor Tracts, 1532-1582; Stuart Tracts, +1603-1693.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span></p> + +<p>Froude, J. A. History of England from the Fall of Wolsey +to the Defeat of the Armada. 1856-1870. Reprinted in +Everyman's Library.</p> + +<p>Gildersleeve, V. Government Regulation of the Elizabethan +Drama. New York, 1908.</p> + +<p>Hall, H. Society in the Elizabethan Age. 4th ed., 1901.</p> + +<p>Jusserand, J. J. Histoire litteraire du peuple Anglais. +Paris, 1904. English trans., 1909. See especially vol. ii, +book v, chap. i.</p> + +<p>Lee, S. Stratford-on-Avon from the Earliest Times to the +Death of Shakespeare. 1907.</p> + +<p>—— An Account of Shakespeare's England, a survey of +social life and conditions in the Elizabethan age (in preparation).</p> + +<p>Nicholls, J. The Progresses and Processions of Queen +Elizabeth. New ed., 3 vols., 1823.</p> + +<p>—— The Progresses, Processions, and Festivities of King +James I. 4 vols., 1828.</p> + +<p>Stephenson, H. T. Shakespeare's London. New York, +1905.</p> + +<p>—— The Elizabethan People. New York, 1910.</p> + +<p>Strutt, J. Sports and Pastimes of the People of England. +1801. New ed., 1903.</p> + +<p>Thompson, E. N. S. The Controversy between the Puritans +and the Stage. Yale Studies in English, vol. xx. New +York, 1903.</p> + +<p>Traill, H. D. Social England. 3d ed., 1904. See vols. iii +and iv.</p> + +<p>Wakeman, H. O. The Church and the Puritans, 1570-1660. +New ed., 1902.</p> + +<p>Wheatley, H. B. London Past and Present. 3 vols. +1891.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span></p> + + +<h4><a name="BCHAP_II" id="BCHAP_II"></a>CHAPTER II<br /><br /><span class="smcap">Biographical Facts and Traditions</span></h4> + +<p>Halliwell-Phillipps, J. O. Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare. +2 vols. 7th ed., 1887. Later eds. are reprints. +With illustrations, facsimiles, and a full collection of documents.</p> + +<p>Lambert, D. H. Shakespeare Documents. (Published +originally as Cartæ Shakespeareanæ, 1904.) A chronological +catalogue of extant evidence.</p> + +<p>Lee, Sidney. A Life of William Shakespeare, London and +New York, 1898. New and revised ed., 1909.</p> + +<p>—— Shakespeare in Oral Tradition, Chap. III in Shakespeare +and the Modern Stage, 1906.</p> + +<p>The preceding are the most important books, but the following +are useful in various ways: William Shakespeare. +K. Elze. Halle, 1876. Eng. trans, by L. D. Schmitz, 1888. +A Chronicle History of the Life and Works of Shakspere. +F. G. Fleay. London, 1886. Shakespeare's Marriage. +J. W. Gray. 1905. Shakespeare's Family. C. C. Stopes. +1901. Shakespeare's Warwickshire Contemporaries. C. C. +Stopes. 1907. New Shakespeare Discoveries. C. W. Wallace. +Harper's Magazine, March, 1910. Catalogues of the books, +manuscripts, works of art, antiquities, and relics at present +exhibited in Shakespeare's birthplace, Stratford-on-Avon, +1910. For discussion of portraits of Shakespeare, see +Portraits of Shakespeare, J. P. Norris, Philadelphia, 1885; +M. R. Spielmann in Stratford-Town Shakespeare, vol. x; and +in Encycl. Brit., 11th ed., article on Shakespeare. On a Portrait +of Shakespeare in the Shakespeare Memorial at Stratford-on-Avon, +L. Cust, Proc. Soc. Antiq., 1895.</p> + +<p>See also <a href="#SOURCES_OF_TRADITIONAL_MATERIAL">Sources of Traditional Material</a>, Appendix A, p. 225.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span></p> + + +<h4 class="moretop">CHAPTER III<br /><br /><span class="smcap">Shakespeare's Reading</span></h4> + +<p>Shakespeare's Books: A dissertation on Shakespeare's +reading and the immediate sources of his works. By H. R. D. +Anders. Berlin, 1904. The best book on the subject.</p> + +<p>Shakespeare's Studies, T. S. Baynes, 1893.</p> + +<p>Shakespeare's Holinshed. Ed. W. G. Boswell-Stone. 1896. +New ed., 1907. A reprint of the passages in Holinshed's +Chronicles which Shakespeare used.</p> + +<p>Shakespeare's Plutarch. Ed. W. W. Skeat. 1875.</p> + +<p>The English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare. J. J. Jusserand, +trans. E. Lee. 1890.</p> + +<p>The Shakespeare Classics, gen. ed. L. Gollancz (in progress, +1907-), reprints the chief sources of the plays: +Lodge's Rosalynde, Greene's Pandosto, Brooke's Romeo and +Juliet, the Chronicle History of King Leir, The Taming of a +Shrew, The Sources and Analogues of A Mid-summer-Night's +Dream, Shakespeare's Plutarch. Most of these, with other +valuable material, are found also in W. C. Hazlitt's revision of +Collier's Shakespeare Library. 6 vols. 1875 (out of print).</p> + +<p>Many translations which Shakespeare may have known +are included in the long series of the Tudor Translations, ed. +W. E. Henley and Charles Whibley (mostly out of print).</p> + +<p>For drama see Bibliography, chap. <a href="#BCHAP_VI">vi</a>; for contemporary literature +see bibliography in Cambridge History of English Literature; +or any short manual, as Saintsbury's Elizabethan +Literature, or Seccombe and Allen's Age of Shakespeare. +2 vols.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>CHAPTER IV<br /><br /> + +<span class="smcap">Chronology and Development</span></h4> + +<p>The first thorough attempt to determine the chronology of +Shakespeare's plays was made in Malone's "Attempt to +ascertain the order in which the plays attributed to Shakespeare +were written," published in Steevens's edition of 1778. +His final conclusions on the subject are to be found in the preliminary +volumes of the 1821 Variorum. Since then, discussions +of chronology and development have appeared in almost every +edition of Shakespeare's Works and in many volumes discussing +his life and art. (See Bibliography for Chaps. <a href="#BCHAP_II">II</a> and <a href="#BCHAP_VIII">VIII</a>.) +The following are the most important contributions to the +general question of the chronology.</p> + +<p>Hertzberg, W. G. Preface to Cymbeline in Ulrici's ed. of +Schlegel and Tieck's trans. of Shakespeare, 1871.</p> + +<p>—— Metrisches, grammatisches, chronologisches zu Shakespeares +Dramen. Jahrbuch, xiii, 1878.</p> + +<p>Fleay, F. G. Shakspere Manual, 1878.</p> + +<p>New Shakspere Society. Publications for 1874 contain +Fleay's tests as originally proposed with discussions by Furnivall, +Ingram, et al. Publications for 1877-9 contain F. S. +Pulling's essay on The Speech-ending test, p. 457.</p> + +<p>Ingram, J. K. On the weak endings of Shakspere with +some account of the verse-tests in general. N. S. S. Publ. 1874.</p> + +<p>König, G. Der Vers in Shaksperes Dramen. Quellen +und Forschungen vol. 61, 1888. The fullest presentation of +numerical results for various verse tests.</p> + +<p>Furnivall, F. J. Preface to the Leopold Shakespeare, 1876.</p> + +<p>Hales, J. W. The Succession of Shakespeare's plays. 1874.</p> + +<p>Stokes, H. P. Attempt to determine the chronological +order of Shakespeare's plays, 1878.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>CHAPTER V<br /><br /> + +<span class="smcap">The Elizabethan Drama</span></h4> + +<p>Full bibliographies of both plays and critical works are to +be found in Schelling's Elizabethan Drama and in the Cambridge +History of English Literature, vols. v and vi.</p> + + +<h5>1. EDITIONS OF PLAYS</h5> + +<p>Convenient collections, often with valuable introductions +and notes, are: Dodsley's Old English Plays, ed. W. C. Hazlitt, +15 vols., 1874-1876; Manly's Pre-Shaksperean Drama, +2 vols., Boston; Neilson's Chief Elizabethan Dramatists, +Boston, 1911 (30 plays in one volume); the Mermaid Series +of the Old Dramatists (4 or 5 plays by one author in each +vol.); the Belles Lettres Edition (with excellent bibliographies), +Boston; Masterpieces of the English Drama, New York; +Temple Dramatists. Valuable reprints of old plays and +documents are found in the following series now in progress: +The Tudor Facsimile Texts, ed. J. S. Farmer, 43 vols., 1907; +Materialien zur Kunde des älteren englischen Dramas, ed. +W. Bang, Louvain, 1902; Publications of the Malone Society, +1906.</p> + +<p>Collected editions of the chief dramatists include those of +Greene, Peele, Webster, Ford, Beaumont and Fletcher, and +Shirley, ed. by Alexander Dyce; of Middleton, Marston, +Marlowe, and Webster, by A. H. Bullen, and the more recent +editions from the Clarendon Press,—Greene, ed. J. Churton +Collins; Kyd, by F. S. Boas; Lyly, by W. Bond; Nash, by +McKerrow; Marlowe, by Tucker Brooke. Massinger and +Jonson exist only in the early nineteenth-century editions of +Gifford. There are also recent editions of Beaumont and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> +Fletcher by A. R. Waller, Cambridge, and by A. H. Bullen +<i>et al.</i> (in progress), and an edition of Chapman by T. Parrott.</p> + +<h5>2. CRITICAL AND HISTORICAL</h5> + +<p>Die Geschichte des neueren Dramas. W. Creizenach (in +progress). Halle, 1893-. This is the standard history of +the modern drama, vol. iv dealing in a masterly fashion with +the Shakespearean period. There is no English translation.</p> + +<p>History of English Dramatic Literature to the Death of +Queen Anne. A. W. Ward. 2d ed. 3 vols. 1899.</p> + +<p>Elizabethan Drama. F. E. Schelling. 2 vols. Boston, +1902. This contains valuable bibliographies and a finding +list for the plays.</p> + +<p>The Mediæval Stage. E. K. Chambers. 2 vols. Oxford, +1903. Authoritative for the pre-Elizabethan drama, with +valuable bibliography and appendices.</p> + +<p>A Bibliographical Chronicle of the English Drama. F. G. +Fleay. 1559-1642. A work of great value to scholars, but +not of much service to the general reader.</p> + +<p>Other works less comprehensive in scope, but dealing with +special aspects or divisions of the drama, are: Tragedy, A. H. +Thorndike, Boston, 1908; Shakespeare and his Predecessors, +F. S. Boas, 1896; Tudor Drama, C. F. Tucker Brooke, +Boston, 1912.</p> + +<p>Special treatises which have also been drawn upon for this +chapter are: F. E. Schelling's English Chronicle Play, New +York, 1902; A. H. Thorndike's Influence of Beaumont and +Fletcher on Shakspere, Lemcke and Buechner, N. Y., 1901; and +Hamlet and the Revenge Plays, Publ. Mod. Lang. Assn., 1902; +E. E. Stoll's John Webster, 1905; F. H. Ristine's English +Tragi-Comedy, 1910; Reyher's Les Masques Anglais, Paris, +1909; W. W. Greg's Pastoral Poetry and Pastoral Drama, 1906.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span></p> + + +<h4><a name="BCHAP_VI" id="BCHAP_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI<br /><br /> + +<span class="smcap">The Elizabethan Theater</span></h4> + +<p>None of the books here listed gives a comprehensive account +of the theater. Greg's admirable edition of Henslowe's +Diary, Fleay's researches, and Murray's supplements to them +are all valuable for students. The account of the stage and +the method of performance given in this chapter are based +in part on Albright. During the last ten years there has +been much controversy on this subject; and those interested +should consult the bibliographies in the Shakespeare Jahrbuch +under Albright, Brodmeier, Archer, Chambers, Corbin, Lawrence, +Reynolds, Wegener. For contemporary documents, +see the Bibliography to chap, x, vol. vi, of the Cambridge +History of English Literature.</p> + +<p>Albright, V. E. The Shakespearian Stage. New York, +1909.</p> + +<p>Archer, W. The Elizabethan Stage. Quarterly Review, +April, 1908.</p> + +<p>Brodmeier, C. Die Shakespeare-Bühne nach der alten +Bühnenanweisungen. Weimar, 1904.</p> + +<p>Chambers, E. K. The Stage of the Globe. Stratford +Ed. Shakespeare's Works, vol. x.</p> + +<p>Collier, J. P. Memoirs of the Principal Actors in the Plays +of Shakespeare. Shaks. Soc., 1846.</p> + +<p>Feuillerat, A. Documents relating to the Office of the +Revels in the time of Queen Elizabeth. Louvain, 1908.</p> + +<p>Fleay, F. G. A Chronicle History of the London Stage. +1890.</p> + +<p>—— A Biographical Chronicle of the English Drama, 1559-1642. +2 vols., 1891.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p> + +<p>Gildersleeve, V. Government Regulation of the Elizabethan +Theater. New York, 1908.</p> + +<p>Greg, W. W., ed. Henslowe's Diary, 2 parts. London, +1907-1908.</p> + +<p>—— Henslowe Papers. 1907.</p> + +<p>Lawrence, W. J. The Elizabethan Playhouse and other +studies. Stratford. 1912.</p> + +<p>Mantzius, R. A History of Theatrical Art in Ancient and +Modern Times. 1904. Cf. vol. iii.</p> + +<p>Murray, J. T. English Dramatic Companies, 1558-1642. +1910.</p> + +<p>Ordish, T. F. Early London Theaters. 1894.</p> + +<p>Rendle, W. Old Southwark and its People. 1878.</p> + +<p>Reynolds, G. F. Some Principles of Elizabethan Staging. +Reprinted from Modern Philology. Chicago, 1905.</p> + +<p>—— What we know of the Elizabethan Stage, Modern +Philology, July, 1911. With bibliography of recent discussions.</p> + +<p>Wallace, C. W. The Children of the Chapel at Blackfriars, +1597-1603. Univ. of Nebraska, 1908.</p> + +<p>—— Evolution of the English drama up to Shakespeare: +with a history of the first Blackfriars theatre. Stechert. +1912.</p> + +<p>These two volumes contain some newly discovered material, +but their discussions of theatrical history are not valuable.</p> + +<p>Wegener, R. Die Bühneneinrichtung des Shakespeareschen +Theaters nach der zeitgenössischen Dramen. Halle, 1907.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>CHAPTER VII<br /><br /> + +<span class="smcap">History of the Text</span></h4> + + +<h5>1. COMPLETE EDITIONS</h5> + +<p class="moretop"><i>In one volume.</i></p> + +<p>The Globe Edition, ed. W. G. Clark and W. Aldis Wright +1864.</p> + +<p>The 'Oxford' Edition, ed. W. J. Craig. Oxford, 1904.</p> + +<p>The 'Cambridge Poets' Edition, ed. with introductions to +each play, ed. W. A. Neilson. Boston, 1906 (the text used in +the Tudor Shakespeare).</p> + +<p class="moretop"><i>Annotated Library Editions.</i></p> + +<p>The Cambridge Shakespeare, ed. W. Aldis Wright. 9 vols. +1863-1866. 2d ed., 1891-1893. The text known as the Cambridge +text is very near to that of the Globe ed., and these +have been generally used in recent editions.</p> + +<p>A new Variorum Edition, ed. H. Howard Furness and +H. H. Furness, Jr. (in progress). Philadelphia, 1871. This +ed. prints (latterly) the First Folio text with exhaustive +variants and annotations. The appendices supply much +illustrative matter. The following plays have appeared: +Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth (2d ed.), Hamlet (2 vols.), +Lear, Othello, Merchant of Venice, As You Like It, The +Tempest, A Midsummer-Night's Dream, A Winter's Tale, +Much Ado About Nothing, Twelfth Night, Love's Labour's +Lost, Antony and Cleopatra, Richard III, Julius Cæsar.</p> + +<p>The Arden Shakespeare, general ed. W. J. Craig, in progress, +1899. Publ. in the U. S. without special title by Bobbs-Merrill +Co., Indianapolis.</p> + +<p>The Eversley Edition, ed. by C. H. Herford. 10 vols., 1901-1907.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span></p> + +<p>Among other recent editions are the Rolfe ed., 40 vols., +1871, revised 1896; Temple, ed. I. Gollancz, 40 vols., 1894, +1895; First Folio, ed. C. Porter and H. Clarke (following and +defending the text of the First Folio). New York, 1903; +Caxton, general ed. S. Lee, 1910.</p> + +<p class="moretop"><i>Historical Editions.</i></p> + +<p>The most valuable is the Third Variorum, Boswell and +Malone, 21 vols., 1821. The other principal editions are discussed +in this volume, and include: Rowe, 1709, 1714; Pope, +1723-1725; Theobald, 1733; Hanmer, 1744; Warburton, +1747; Johnson, 1765; Steevens (20 plays), 1766; Capell, +1768; Steevens (and Johnson), 1773; Malone, 1790; Reed +(Steevens and Johnson), 1st Variorum, 1803; 2d Variorum, +1813; Knight, 1838-1842, second ed., 1842-1844; Hudson, +1851-1856; Delius, 1854-1861; Dyce, 1857, second ed., 1864-1867; +White, 1857-1860, second ed., 1859-1865.</p> + + +<h5>2. FACSIMILE REPRINTS</h5> + +<p>For a discussion of conditions of publication of early editions, +see A. W. Pollard's Shakespeare's Folios and Quartos. +1909.</p> + +<p>The First Folio, With introd. by Sidney Lee. Oxford, +1902.</p> + +<p>The First, Second, Third, and Fourth Folios. Methuen, +1904-1910.</p> + +<p>The First Folio, reprint, L. Booth, 1869.</p> + +<p>The First Folio, in reduced facsimile, J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, +1876. Very small type.</p> + +<p>Quarto Facsimiles. E. W. Ashbee. 48 vols. 1862-1871.</p> + +<p>Quarto Facsimiles reproduced by photographic process,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> +J. W. Griggs, under the superintendence of F. J. Furnivall. +43 vols. 1883-1889.</p> + +<p>Shakespeare's Poems and Pericles, with introduction by +Sidney Lee. 5 vols. Oxford, 1905.</p> + + +<h5>3. GLOSSARIES, GRAMMARS, ETC.</h5> + +<p>The standard concordance is Bartlett's <i>New and Complete +Concordance</i>, 1894. The standard dictionary and one of the +great monuments of Shakespeare scholarship is Alexander +Schmidt's <i>Shakespeare-Lexikon</i>. 2 vols. Berlin, 1894, 1895. +3d ed., 1902. This contains valuable appendices on syntax. +The most recent brief glossary is C. T. Onion's <i>Shakespeare +Glossary</i>. Oxford, 1911. It makes partial use of the valuable +material in the New English Dictionary. The best grammar +in English, though now somewhat out of date, is F. A. Abbott's +<i>Shakespearian Grammar</i>, 1869, often reprinted.</p> + +<p>The following are also of value:</p> + +<p>Cunliffe, R. J. A New Shakespearean Dictionary. 1910.</p> + +<p>Dyce, A. A Glossary to the Works of Shakespeare. 1867. +Revised by H. Littledale, 1902.</p> + +<p>Ellis, A. J. On Early English Pronunciation, with especial +reference to Shakspere and Chaucer. 5 parts. E. E. T. S., +1869-1889.</p> + +<p>Franz, W. Shakespeare-Grammatik. 2 parts. Halle, +1898-1900. 2d ed., Heidelberg, 1905. No English translation.</p> + +<p>Vietor, W. A Shakespeare Phonology, Marburg and +London, 1906.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span></p> + + +<h4><a name="BCHAP_VIII" id="BCHAP_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII<br /><br /> + +<span class="smcap">Questions of Authenticity</span></h4> + + +<h5>1. THE DOUBTFUL PLAYS</h5> + +<p>The Shakespeare Apocrypha. Ed. C. F. T. Brooke. Oxford, +1908. This contains texts of fourteen of the plays discussed +in this chapter.</p> + +<p>Pseudo-Shakespearean Plays. Ed. K. Warnke and L. Proescholdt. +5 vols. Halle, 1883, 1888. Contains only 5 plays.</p> + +<p>The Two Noble Kinsmen. Ed. H. Littledale. New Shaks. +Soc. Publ., 1876.</p> + +<p>Doubtful Plays of William Shakespeare. Ed. M. Moltke. +Leipsig, 1869. Contains 6 plays.</p> + +<p>A good bibliography for the critical matter on these plays +is to be found in the Cambridge History of English Literature, +vol. v, pp. 442-444. As to Cardenio, connected with +Double Falsehood, see Bradford, G., Jr., Mod. Lang. Notes, +February, 1910.</p> + + +<h5>2. FORGERIES</h5> + +<p>Ingleby, C. M. The Shakespeare Fabrications. 1859. A +complete review of the Collier forgeries, with bibliography.</p> + +<p>Ireland, W. H. Confessions containing the particulars of +his fabrication of the Shakespeare manuscripts. 1808.</p> + +<p>Malone, E. Inquiry into the Authenticity (of the Ireland +Ms.). 1796.</p> + +<p>Law, E. Some Supposed Shakespeare Forgeries. 1911.</p> + +<p>Wheatley, H. B. Notes on the life of John Payne Collier. +1884. Gives a list and account of the spurious documents.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span></p> + + +<h5>3. THE BACON CONTROVERSY</h5> + +<p>Allen, C. Notes on the Bacon-Shakespeare question. +Boston, 1900. An account of Shakespeare's legal phrases.</p> + +<p>Bacon, Delia. The Philosophy of the Plays of Shakespeare +Unfolded. 1857.</p> + +<p>Bacon, Francis. Life and Letters. Ed. J. Spedding. 7 +vols. 1861-1872.</p> + +<p>Beeching, H. C. William Shakespeare: Player, Play maker +and Poet. A reply to Mr. George Greenwood. 1908.</p> + +<p>Bompas, G. C. The Problem of Shakespeare's Plays. +1902.</p> + +<p>Booth, W. S. Some Acrostic Signatures of Francis Bacon. +Boston, 1909.</p> + +<p>Donnelly, I. The Great Cryptogram. 2 vols. Chicago, +1887.</p> + +<p>Fiske, John. Forty Years of Bacon-Shakespeare Folly. +Atlantic Monthly, 1897; reprinted in Century of Science, +1899.</p> + +<p>Gallup, E. W. The Bi-literal Cypher of Francis Bacon.</p> + +<p>Greenwood, G. G. The Shakespeare Problem restated. +Lane, 1908.</p> + +<p>—— In re Shakespeare Beeching <i>v.</i> Greenwood. Lane, +1909.</p> + +<p>Lang, A. Shakespeare, Bacon, and the Great Unknown. +1912.</p> + +<p>Pott, Mrs. H. Did Francis Bacon write Shakespeare? +Chicago, 1891.</p> + +<p>Robertson, J. M. The Baconian heresy, 1913.</p> + +<p>Wyman, W. H. Bibliography of the Shakespeare-Baconian +controversy. Cincinnati, 1884. Continued in Shakespeariana. +Philadelphia.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>CHAPTER IX<br /><br /> + +<span class="smcap">Shakespeare since 1616</span></h4> + + +<h5>1. THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES</h5> + +<p>The Shakespeare Allusion Books. Ed. J. Munro. 2 vols. +This reprints references to Shakespeare before 1700.</p> + +<p>Eighteenth Century Essays on Shakespeare. Ed. D. +Nichol Smith. Glasgow. Contains Rowe's, Pope's, Theobald's, +Johnson's prefaces, Farmer's essay on Shakespeare's +learning, Morgann's essay on Falstaff, etc.</p> + +<p>Shakespearian Wars. T. R. Lounsbury. i. Shakespeare +as a Dramatic Artist, ii. Shakespeare and Voltaire. 2 vols. +Yale Univ., 1901.</p> + +<p>First Editors of Shakespeare or The Text of Shakespeare +(Pope and Theobald). T. R. Lounsbury. 1906.</p> + +<p>Shakespeare en France sous l'ancien régime. J. J. Jusserand. +Paris. 1898. Eng. trans. London, 1899.</p> + +<p>Considerable matter in the following volumes from the +Clarendon Press bears on the early criticism of Shakespeare: +Elizabethan Critical Essays, ed. Gregory Smith, 2 vols.; +Seventeenth Century Critical Essays, ed. J. E. Spingarn, +3 vols.; Dryden's Essays, ed. W. P. Ker, 2 vols.</p> + + +<h5>2. THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES</h5> + +<p>Baker, G. P. The Development of Shakespeare as a Dramatist. +Macmillan, 1907.</p> + +<p>Boas, F. S. Shakespeare and his Predecessors. 1895.</p> + +<p>Bradley, A. C. Shakespearean Tragedy. Macmillan, +1904.</p> + +<p>—— Oxford Lectures on Poetry. Macmillan, 1909.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span></p> + +<p>Brandes, G. William Shakespeare. Copenhagen, 1896. +Eng. trans. 2 vols., 1898.</p> + +<p>Coleridge, S. T. Notes and Lectures on Shakespeare, etc. +2 vols. 1849. Reprinted in Everyman's Library, the +New Universal Library, and Bohn's Library.</p> + +<p>Collins, J. C. Studies in Shakespeare. 1904.</p> + +<p>Dowden, E. Shakspeare: His Mind and Art. 1874.</p> + +<p>—— A Shakspere Primer. 1877.</p> + +<p>—— Introduction to Shakespeare. 1893.</p> + +<p>Elze, K. William Shakespeare. Halle, 1876. Eng. trans., +1888.</p> + +<p>Goethe. Wilhelm Meister, book IV, chaps. 13-16, contains +an analysis of Hamlet.</p> + +<p>—— Wahrheit und Dichtung, and Eckermann's Reports +of Goethe's conversations contain references. An essay +"Shakespeare und kein Ende" appears in his collected +works.</p> + +<p>Hazlitt, W. Characters of Shakespeare's plays, 1817. Reprinted +in Everyman's Library, New Universal Library, +Bohn's Library.</p> + +<p>Heine, Heinrich. Shakespeare's Maidens and Women, in +Works. Eng. trans. Heinemann, 1851.</p> + +<p>Jameson, Mrs. Shakespeare's Heroines. Temple Classics.</p> + +<p>Kreyssig, F. S. T. Vorlesungen über Shakespeare. 2 vols. +3d ed. Berlin, 1876.</p> + +<p>Lamb, Charles. On Some of the Old Actors (Essays of +Elia). Reprinted in Everyman's Library.</p> + +<p>—— On the Tragedies of Shakespeare (Misc. essays). Reprinted +in Temple Classics.</p> + +<p>Lee, Sidney. Shakespeare and the Modern Stage. 1906.</p> + +<p>Lessing, G. E. Laokoön, and Dramatic Notes. Eng. trans., +Bohn's Library.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span></p> + +<p>MacCallum, M. W. Shakespeare's Roman Plays and their +Background. 1910.</p> + +<p>Martin, Lady (Helen Faucit). On Some of Shakespeare's +Female Characters. 1885.</p> + +<p>Matthews, Brander. Shakespeare as a Playwright. In +preparation.</p> + +<p>Moulton, R. G. Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist. Oxford, +1885.</p> + +<p>—— The Moral System of Shakespeare. 1903.</p> + +<p>Raleigh, W. Shakespeare (English Men of Letters). 1907.</p> + +<p>Schlegel, A. W. von. Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature. +Reprinted in Bohn's Library.</p> + +<p>Swinburne, A. C. A Study of Shakespeare. 1880.</p> + +<p>Thorndike, A. H. The Influence of Beaumont and Fletcher +on Shakespeare. Lemcke and Buechner, N. Y., 1901.</p> + +<p>Wendell, B. William Shakspere. 1894.</p> + +<p>White, R. G. Studies in Shakespeare. 9th ed. 1896.</p> + +<p>—— Shakespeare's Scholar. 1854.</p> + +<p>Important critical and interpretative aids will also be +found in the bibliographies for earlier chapters, as in the complete +editions of Shakespeare's works, in histories of literature +and the drama, or in special studies, as Anders's +Shakespeare's Books, and Madden's Diary of Master William +Silence.</p> + +<p>For a handy bibliography of studies of botany, folk-lore, law, +medicine, the supernatural in Shakespeare, etc., see the Cambridge +History of English Literature, vol. v, pp. 450, 451, to +which may be added Freytag, G., Technique of the Drama, +Eng. trans. 1891; Matthew, B., A Study of the Drama, 1910; +Arnold, M. E., Soliloquies of Shakespeare, New York, 1911; +Fansler, H. E., Evolution of Technic in Elizabethan Tragedy, +1914; Archer, W., Play Making, 1912.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the New Variorum Furness gives a summary of the interpretation +and criticism for each play; but he is often quite +neglectful of recent tendencies in criticism.</p> + + +<h5>3. STAGE HISTORY</h5> + +<p>The standard work for the English stage is <i>Some Account +of the English Stage, from the Restoration in 1660 to 1830</i>, by +J. Genest, 10 vols., Bath, 1832. There is no authoritative +history of the stage since 1832. Information in regard to the +Shakespearean plays may be had in the lives of the actors, +as Colley Cibber's Apology; Davies's Memoirs of Garrick, +1790; Murphy's Life of Garrick, 1801; Boaden's Memoirs of +Mrs. Siddons, 1827, and Memoirs of Kemble, 1825; Cumberland's +Memoir, 1806; Boaden's Memoirs of Mrs. Inchbald; +Private Correspondence of David Garrick, 1831-1832; +Cooke's Memoirs of Charles Macklin, 1808; Macready's +Reminiscences, 1878; Archer's Life of Macready, 1890; +Molloy's Life of Edmund Kean, 1888; Winter's Life and Art +of Edwin Booth, 1893; Brereton's Life of Sir Henry Irving, +London, 1908.</p> + +<p>Baker, H. B. The London Stage, 1576-1903. 1904.</p> + +<p>Brown, J. S. A History of the New York Stage, 1732-1901. +3 vols. New York, 1903.</p> + +<p>Doran, J. Their Majesties' Servants. 1888. Ed. R. W. +Lowe.</p> + +<p>Dunlap, W. A History of the American Theater. 1832.</p> + +<p>Fitzgerald, P. A New History of the English Stage. 2 +vols. London, 1882.</p> + +<p>Hazlitt, W. A View of the English Stage. 1818.</p> + +<p>Home, R. H. New Spirit of the Age. 1884.</p> + +<p>Lowe, R. W. Thomas Betterton, New York, 1891.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span></p> + +<p>Lowe, R. W. Bibliographical Account of English Dramatic +Literature. 1888.</p> + +<p>Phelps, W. M., and Forbes Robertson, J. Life and Works +of Samuel Phelps. London, 1886.</p> + +<p>Seilhamer, G. O. A History of the American Theater, +3 vols. Philadelphia, 1891.</p> + + +<h5>4. SHAKESPEARE ON THE CONTINENT</h5> + +<p>A good selected bibliography is to be found in the Cambridge +History of English Literature, vol. v, pp. 456-472, +and a full bibliography annually in the Shakespeare Jahrbuch. +Only a few of the most important titles are given here, including +some already noted.</p> + +<p>Böhtling, A. R. A. Goethe und Shakespeare. Leipzig, +1909.</p> + +<p>Burckhardt, C. A. H. Das Repertoire des Weimarischen +Theaters unter Goethes Leitung. Hamburg, 1901.</p> + +<p>Chateaubriand, F. R. de. Shakespeare. 1801.</p> + +<p>Cohn, A. Shakespeare in Germany in the Sixteenth and +Seventeenth Centuries. Berlin, 1865.</p> + +<p>Creizenach, W. Die Schauspiele der englischen Komödianten. +Stuttgart, 1889.</p> + +<p>Delius, N. Sämmtliche Werke, Kritische Ausgabe. 1854-1861. +5th ed., 1882.</p> + +<p>Elze, K. William Shakespeare. Halle, 1876.</p> + +<p>Genée, R. Geschichte der Shakespeareschen Dramen in +Deutschland. Leipzig, 1870.</p> + +<p>Guizot, F. De Shakespeare et de la Poésie dramatique. +Paris, 1822.</p> + +<p>Heine, H. Shakespeares Mädchen und Frauen, in sämmtliche +Werke. vol. v, 1839. Eng. trans., 1895.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span></p> + +<p>Hugo, F. V. Œuvres complètes de Shakespeare, traduites. +18 vols. Paris, 1856-1867.</p> + +<p>Hugo, Victor. Cromwell, Preface. Paris, 1827.</p> + +<p>—— William Shakespeare. Paris, 1864.</p> + +<p>Jusserand, J. J. Shakespeare en France sous l'ancien +régime. Paris, 1898. Eng. trans. London, 1899.</p> + +<p>Koeppel, E. Studien über Shakespeare's Wirkung auf +zeitgenössische Dramatiker. Louvain, 1905.</p> + +<p>Kreyssig, F. Vorlesungen über Shakespeare und seine +Werke. 1858. 3d ed., 1877.</p> + +<p>Lee, Sidney. Shakespeare in France. In Shakespeare and +the Modern Stage.</p> + +<p>Lessing, G. E. Hamburgische Dramaturgie. Nos. 12, 15, +73. 1767, 1768.</p> + +<p>Lounsbury, T. R. Shakespeare and Voltaire. 1902.</p> + +<p>Mézières, A. Shakespeare, ses œuvres et ses critiques. +Paris, 1860.</p> + +<p>Renan, E. Caliban, Suite de la Tempête. Paris, 1878.</p> + +<p>Schlegel, A. W. Ueber dramatische Kunst und Literatur. +Heidelberg, 1809-1811.</p> + +<p>—— Shakespeare's Dramatische Werke, übersetzt. 1797-1810. +Neue Ausgabe, ergänzt und erläutert von L. Tieck. +9 vols. 1825, 1880-1883. Revised by Ulrici, 1867-1871, by +Grandl, 1897-1899, by H. Conrad, 1905.</p> + +<p>Stendhal (Henri Bergh) Racine et Shakespeare. Paris, +1823.</p> + +<p>Taine, H. Histoire de la litterature anglaise. Paris, 1844. +Eng. trans., rev. ed., 1873.</p> + +<p>Ten Brink, B. Shakespeare. Strassburg, 1893.</p> + +<p>Tolstoi, L. N. Shakespeare. 1906.</p> + +<p>Ward, A. W. History of English Dramatic Literature. +vol. i, pp. 534 ff.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Index" id="Index"></a>Index</h2> + + + + + +<ul><li><i>Adversaria</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Æsop's Fables</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Æthiopica</i> of Heliodorus, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>Albright, V. E., <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Alchemist</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li>Alden, R. M., <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li>Alleyn, Edward, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li><i>All for Love</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li><i>All's Well that Ends Well</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Amores</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Amphitruo</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Andria</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Antonio's Revenge</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Antony and Cleopatra</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Apollonius of Tyre</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Apologie for Actors</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Apolonius and Silla</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Appius and Virginia</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Arcadia</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li>Archbishop of Canterbury, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Arden of Feversham</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li>Ariosto, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li>Aristophanes, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Arraignment of Paris</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li>Aspley, William, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> + +<li><i>As You Like It</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + +<li>Aubrey, John, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + +<li>Autographs, facsimiles of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Bacon, Delia, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li>Bacon, Francis, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163-166</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> + +<li>Bacon, Matthew, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + +<li>"Baconians," <a href="#Page_163">163-166</a>.</li> + +<li>Bandello, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li>Bankside, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Barnay, L., <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li>Barnes, Barnabe, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Barons' Wars</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li>Barrie, J. M., <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Bartholomew Fair</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Batman upon Bartholome</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Beaumont_and_Fletcher" id="Beaumont_and_Fletcher"></a>Beaumont and Fletcher, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li>Beaumont, Francis, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>. +<ul><li><i>See</i> <a href="#Beaumont_and_Fletcher">Beaumont and Fletcher</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Belleforest, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li>Beeston, Christopher, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + +<li>Betterton, Thomas, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Bevis of Hampton</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li>Bible, the, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li>Bidford, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Bi-Literal Cypher of Francis Bacon</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Biron</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Birth of Merlin</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li>Blackfriars, +<ul><li>property in, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> +<li>theater, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Blount, Edward, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> + +<li>Boccaccio, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + +<li>Booth, Barton, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + +<li>Booth, Edwin, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + +<li>Booth, Junius Brutus, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Boswell, J., <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li>Bowdler, T., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + +<li>Bradley, A. C., <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Broken Heart</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li>Brome, R., <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>Brooke, Arthur, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li>Buckinghamshire, Duke of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + +<li>Burbage, Cuthbert, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + +<li>Burbage, James, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + +<li>Burbage, Richard, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Bussy d'Ambois</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li>Byron, Lord, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Cæsar, Julius <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Cambridge Shakespeare</i>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Cambyses</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + +<li>Capell, Edward, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Cardenio</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> + +<li>Cartwright, W., <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Catiline</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li>Caxton, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Chambers' Journal</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li>Chandos portrait, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Changeling</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li>Chapman, George, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li>Chaucer, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li>Chettle, Henry, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li>Cibber, Colley, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + +<li>Cibber, Mrs., <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + +<li>Cicero, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li>Cinthio, Giraldi, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li><i>City Madam</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li>Clark, W. G., <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + +<li>Clive, Mrs., <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + +<li>Cockpit theater, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> + +<li>Coleridge, S. T., <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Colin Clout</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li>Collier, J. P., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li>Collins, Francis, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>Combe, John, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + +<li>Combe, William, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Comedy of Errors</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li>Condell Henry, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Confessio Amantis</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li>Congreve, William, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li>Constable, Henry, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Contention of York and Lancaster</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Coriolanus</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li>Corneille, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Cornelia</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + +<li>Covent Garden theater, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> + +<li>Craig, W. J., <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + +<li>Curtain theater, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + +<li>Cushman, Charlotte, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Cymbeline</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Daniel, Samuel, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + +<li>D'Avenant, Sir William, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li>Davies, Rev. R., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Decameron</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li>Dekker, T., <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li><i>De la Litterature</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Delius, N., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li>Dennis, John, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + +<li><i>De proprietatibus rerum</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li>De Quincey, T., <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + +<li>Derby's men, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Devrients, the, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li>De Witt drawing of Swan theater, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Diana</i> of Montemayor, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li>Diderot, D., <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Discovery of Guiana</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Distichs of Cato</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li>Donnelly, I., <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Double Falsehood</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li>Dowdall, John, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li>Dowden, E., <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li>Downes, John, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Downfall and Death of Huntington</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + +<li>Drake, Sir F., <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + +<li>Drayton, Michael, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li>Droeshout, Martin, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Footnote_2_2">38n</a>.</li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span>Drummond, W., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + +<li>Drury Lane theater, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + +<li>Dryden, John, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> + +<li>Ducis, J. F., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Dunciad</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> + +<li>Dyce, A., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li>Dyke, John, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Earl of Leicester's men, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Earl of Worcester's men, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + +<li>Eden's <i>History of Travayle</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Edward III</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li>Edwards, Richard, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li>Edwards, T., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + +<li>Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li>Ellesmere, Lord, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li>Ely Palace portrait, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Footnote_2_2">38n</a>.</li> + +<li><i>English Dramatic Poets</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li><i>English Traveller</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Epicene</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Essay of Dramatic Poesie</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li>Essex, Earl of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Euphues</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li>Euripides, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + +<li>Evans, Sir Hugh, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Everyman in His Humour</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Fables in Shakespeare, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li>Fabyan's <i>Chronicles</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Faerie Queen</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Fair Em</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Fair Quarrel</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Faithful Shepherdess</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Fasti</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + +<li>Faucit, Helen, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Field, Richard, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="First_Folio" id="First_Folio"></a>First Folio, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>; +<ul><li>described, <a href="#Page_141">141-143</a>;</li> +<li>facsimile of title-page, <a href="#Facsim">143</a>;</li> +<li>introductory matter in, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#The_Introductory_Matter_in_the_First_Folio">Appendix A</a></span>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Fisher Quarto, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">141n</a>.</li> + +<li>Fleay, F. G., <a href="#Footnote_5_5">72n</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Fletcher_John" id="Fletcher_John"></a>Fletcher, John, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>; +<ul><li>collaboration on <i>Two Noble Kinsman</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> +<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Beaumont_and_Fletcher">Beaumont and Fletcher</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Fletcher, Lawrence, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Florio" id="Florio"></a>Florio, John, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>. +<ul><li><i>See</i> <a href="#Montaigne">Montaigne</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Flower, Mrs. Charles, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li>Folios, Second, Third, Fourth, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + +<li>Ford, John, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + +<li>Forman, Dr. Simon, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li>Forrest, Edwin, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Fortune theater, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>; +<ul><li>diagram of, <a href="#PLAN">123</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Foxe, John, <i>Book of Martyrs</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + +<li>Fuller, Thomas, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li>Fulman, Rev. W., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li>Furness, H. H., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Galileo, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> + +<li>Gallup, Mrs., <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Gammer Gurton's Needle</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + +<li>Garrick Club bust, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li>Garrick, David, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + +<li>Gascoigne, George, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li>Gervinus, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Gesta Romanorum</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li>Getley, Walter, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li>Gildon, C., <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li>Goethe, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Globe Shakespeare</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + +<li>Globe theater, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + +<li>Glover, J., <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + +<li>Golding, Arthur, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Gorboduc</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + +<li>Gottsched, J. C., <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>Gower, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li>Grafton's <i>Chronicles</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Great Cryptogram</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Greene" id="Greene"></a>Greene, Robert, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>; +<ul><li>attack on S., <a href="#Page_20">20-23</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li><i>Greene's Funeralls</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li>Greene's <i>Groatsworth of Wit</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20-22</a>.</li> + +<li>Greg, W. W., <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>.</li> + +<li>Gresham, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + +<li>Grey, Z., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + +<li>Guarini, G. B., <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + +<li>Guizot, F., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Guy of Warwick</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Hakluyt, Richard, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li>Hall, John, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li>Hall, Susanna, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li>Hall, William, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li>Halliwell-Phillipps, J. O., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li>Hall's <i>Union of Lancaster and York</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Hamburgische Dramaturgie</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Hamlet</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Hamlet</i>, the lost, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li>Hanmer, Sir T., <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + +<li>Harness, W., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + +<li>Harsnett's <i>Popish Impostures</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li>Hart, J. C., <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li>Hazlitt, William, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li>Heath, B., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Hecatommithi</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li>Heliodorus, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>Heminge, John, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + +<li>Henderson, J., <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + +<li><i>1 Henry IV</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + +<li><i>2 Henry IV</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Henry V</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> + +<li><i>1 Henry VI</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + +<li><i>2 Henry VI</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li><i>3 Henry VI</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Henry VIII</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li>Henry VIII, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + +<li>Henryson, Robert, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li>Henslowe, P., <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + +<li>Herder, J. G., <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Hero and Leander</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li>Heyes Quarto, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">141n</a>.</li> + +<li>Heywood, Thomas, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>; +<ul><li>quoted in publishing, <a href="#Page_132">132-134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li><i>History of English Dramatic Poetry</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Hoffman</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li>Hollar, W., <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Hollinshed's <i>Chronicles</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + +<li>Homer, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Honest Whore</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li>Hooker, Richard, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li>Hope theater, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + +<li>Horace, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Horestes</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + +<li>Hugo, F. V., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Hugo, Victor, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Hunsdon's men, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Huon of Bordeaux</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Ibsen, H., <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + +<li><i>If you know not me you know nobodie</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + +<li>Ingram, J. K., <a href="#Footnote_5_5">72n</a>.</li> + +<li>Ireland, W. H., <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li>Irving, Sir Henry, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>Jacob, E., <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li>Jaggard, Isaac, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> + +<li>Jaggard, William, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + +<li>James I, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li><i>James IV</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + +<li>Janssen, Gerard, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Jocasta</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + +<li>Johnson, Samuel, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + +<li>John, King, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Jonson_Ben" id="Jonson_Ben"></a>Jonson, Ben, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>; +<ul><li>eulogy of S., <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Jordan's <i>Collections</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li>Jordan, Mrs., <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Julius Cæsar</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + +<li>Jusserand, J. J., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Juvenal, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Kean, Edmund, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + +<li>Kemble, J. P., <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + +<li>Kempe, Will., <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li>Kendrick, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li>Kesselstadt, death-mask, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Kind-Heart's Dream</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li><i>King and No King</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + +<li><i>King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li><i>King John</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li>King's men, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Kipling, Rudyard, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li>Kirkman's <i>Drolls</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Knight, Charles, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Knight's Tale</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li>König, G., <a href="#Footnote_5_5">72n</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li>Kyd, Thomas, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Lacy, John, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + +<li>Lamb, Charles, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + +<li>Langbaine, G., <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li>La Place's translation, 184.</li> + +<li><i>Lear</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#FNanchor_8_8">140n</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li>Lee, Sidney, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Legend of Good Women</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li>Leicester, Earl of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + +<li>Lessing, G. E., <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + +<li>Le Tourneur, P., <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Lily's Grammar, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li>Littledale, H., <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Lives of eminent men</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li>Livy, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Locrine</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Lodge, Thomas, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Londinopolis</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>London, described, <a href="#Page_6">6-12</a>.</li> + +<li><i>London Prodigal</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Lope de Vega, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li>Lord Admiral's men, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Lord Chamberlain's men, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Lover's Complaint, A</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Love's Labour's Lost</i>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Love's Labour's Won</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + +<li>Lowin, John, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li>Lucan, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li>Lucian, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Lucrece</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + +<li>Lucy, Sir T., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li>Lyly, John, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li><i>Macbeth</i>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Macklin, C., <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + +<li>Macready, W., <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Maid's Tragedy</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Malcontent</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>; +<ul><li>quoted, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span>Malone, Edmund, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li>Malory, Sir T., <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + +<li>Mannering, Arthur, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + +<li>Manningham, John, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + +<li>Mantuan's <i>Eclogues</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li>Marlowe, Christopher, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + +<li>Marlowe, Julia, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Marston, J., <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + +<li>Mason, J. M., <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> + +<li>Massinger, Philip, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li>Matthews, Sir T., <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Measure for Measure</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Memoirs of Edward Alleyn</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li>Mennes, Sir John, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Menæchmi</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Merchant of Venice</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li>Meres, Francis, <i>Palladis Tamia</i>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Merry Devil of Edmonton</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Merry Wives of Windsor</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Messalina</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Metamorphoses</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + +<li>Mézières, A., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Middleton, Sir Hugh, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + +<li>Middleton, T., <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Midsummer Night's Dream</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li>Milton, John, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> + +<li>Miracle plays, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Miseries of Enforced Marriage</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Misfortunes of Arthur</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + +<li>Molière, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li>Montagu, Mrs. Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Montaigne" id="Montaigne"></a>Montaigne, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>Montemayor, George of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li>Morality plays, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + +<li>More, Sir Thomas, life of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>Morgann, M., <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Mother Bombie</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + +<li>Mountjoy, Christopher, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Much Ado About Nothing</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Mucedorus</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li>Munday, A., <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + +<li>Music, Shakespeare in, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Neidig, W. J., <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>.</li> + +<li>Neilson Text, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + +<li>Newcastle, Duchess of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li>Newington Butts theater, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li><i>New Variorum</i>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + +<li><i>New Way to Pay Old Debts</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Nice Wanton</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + +<li>North, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>. +<ul><li><i>See</i> <a href="#Plutarch">Plutarch</a>.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li><i>Oldcastle, Sir John</i>, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Old Fortunatus</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + +<li>Oldys, William, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Othello</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> + +<li>Otway, T., <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li>Ovid, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Oxford Shakespeare</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li><i>Painful Adventures of Pericles</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + +<li>Painter's <i>Palace of Pleasure</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li>Palmer, J., <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Palladis Tamia</i>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Pandosto</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span><i>Passionate Pilgrim</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Pastor Fido</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + +<li>Pavier, T., <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Pecorone, Il.</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li>Peele, George, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Pericles</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Persius, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li>Petrarch, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li>Phelps, S., <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Philaster</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + +<li>Philip, Augustus, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li>Phillips, Edward, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Philosophy of the Plays of S.</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Phœnix and the Turtle</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Piacevoli Notti</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li>Plautus, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Pleasant Dialogues and Dramas</i>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li>Pliny, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li>Plume, Archdeacon, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li><i><a name="Plutarch" id="Plutarch"></a>Plutarch's Lives</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Poetaster</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li>Pollard, A. W., <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>.</li> + +<li>Pope, Alexander, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Pope, Thomas, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li>Preston, T., <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li>Pritchard, Mrs., <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + +<li>Prince's men, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Puritan, the</i> <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Puritan Widow</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Putnam's Monthly</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Quartos, <a href="#Page_135">135-140</a>; +<ul><li>table of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> +<li>of apocryphal plays, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li><i>Queen's Arcadia</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + +<li>Queen's Chapel boys, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> + +<li>Queen's men, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + +<li>Quiney, Richard, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li>Quiney, Thomas, son-in-law of S., <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Rabelais, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li>Racine, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + +<li>Raleigh, Sir Walter, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Ralph Royster Doyster</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Rape of Lucrece</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Recuyell of Troy</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li>Red Bull theater, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Reed, I., <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li>Rehan, Ada, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Return from Parnassus</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Revenger's Tragedy</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Richard II</i>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Richard III</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li>Riche, Barnaby, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li>Ristori, Madame, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Ritson, T., <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li>Roberts Quartos, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">141n</a>.</li> + +<li>Robertson, Sir Forbes, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Robin Hood, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + +<li>Robin Hood plays, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Romance of Yachting</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Romeus and Juliet</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li>Ronsard, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Rosalynde</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Rosamond</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li>Rose theater, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Rossi, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Rowe, Nicholas, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li>Rowley, W., <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Roxana</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + +<li>Rutland, Earl of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> + +<li>Rymer, T., <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Sadler's Wells, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Salisbury Court theater, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> + +<li>Salvini, T., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Sanazzaro, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + +<li>Schlegel, A. W., <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li>Schmidt's <i>Lexicon</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>Schroeder, F., <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li>Scott, Sir Walter, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Sejanus</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li>Seneca, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Sententiæ Pueriles</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li>Shakespeare, Anna, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + +<li>Shakespeare, Anne (Hathaway), <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li>Shakespeare, Edmund, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + +<li>Shakespeare, Gilbert, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + +<li>Shakespeare, Hamnet, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + +<li>Shakespeare, Joan, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + +<li>Shakespeare, John, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li>Shakespeare, Judith, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>Shakespeare, Mary Arden, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>Shakespeare, Richard, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + +<li>Shakespeare, Susanna, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li>Shakespeare, William. <i>See</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Page_v">Contents</a></span>. +<ul><li>Monument of, <a href="#frontispiece">frontispiece</a>;</li> +<li>facsimile autographs of, <a href="#signatures">36</a>;</li> +<li>portrait of in First Folio, <a href="#Facsim">143</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li><i>Shakespeare and the Drama</i>, Schlegel's, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Shakespeare Restored</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> + +<li>Shakespeare Society, New, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> + +<li>Shaw, G. B., <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + +<li>Shelley, P. B. <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> + +<li>Sheridan, T., <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li>Shirley, James, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + +<li>Shirley, Sir A., <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Short View of Tragedy</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + +<li>Siddons, Mrs. Sarah, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + +<li>Sidney, Sir Philip, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li>Simpson, R., <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li>Singer, S. W., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Sir Thomas More</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Sir Thomas Oldcastle</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Slye, William, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li>Smethwick, John, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> + +<li>Smith, W. H., <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Soliman and Perseda</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li>Somers, Sir George, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li><i><a name="Sonnets" id="Sonnets"></a>Sonnets</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>; +<ul><li>date of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> +<li>evidence of, <a href="#Page_47">47-49</a>;</li> +<li>personality in, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Sophocles, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li>Sothern, Edward, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Southampton, Earl of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li>Southwell, T., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> + +<li>Spalding, William, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + +<li>Spenser, Edmund, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Spanish Tragedy</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Squire of Low Degree</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li>St. Paul's, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + +<li>Staël, Madame de, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Stage, typical Shakespearean, illustration, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + +<li>Stationers' Company, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + +<li>Steevens, G., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li>Stowe, John, <i>Annals</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li>Strange's men, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Stratford, described, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>; +<ul><li>Shakespeare at, <a href="#Page_18">18-35</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Sturley, Abraham, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li>Suckling, Sir John, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Supposoti, I</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li>Surrey, Earl of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + +<li>Swan theater, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Tables of metrical tests, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>; +<ul><li>of chronology of plays, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> +<li>of quarto editions, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li><i>Tamburlaine</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Taming of a Shrew</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Taming of the Shrew</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li>Taylor, Joseph, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Tears of the Muses</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Tempest, The</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span>Tennyson, A., <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> + +<li>Terence, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + +<li>Terry, Ellen, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Testament of Cressid</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li>Theater, in Shoreditch, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Theatrum Poetarum</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Theobald L., <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li>Theocritus, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Thomas Lord Cromwell</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Thorpe, Thomas, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li>Tieck, L., <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Timber</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Timon of Athens</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li><i>'Tis Pity She's a Whore</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Titus Andronicus</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li>Tourgenieff, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> + +<li>Tourneur, C., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li>Troilus and Cressida, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Troilus and Cressida</i>, (Chaucer's), <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Troublesome Reign of King John</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li><i>True Tragedy of Richard III</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li><i>True Tragedy of Richard Duke of York</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Tudor Shakespeare</i>, <a href="#Footnote_2_2">38n</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Twelfth Night</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Two Gentlemen of Verona</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Two Italian Gentlemen</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Two Noble Kinsmen, The</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li>Tyrwhitt, T., <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Udall, N., <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li>Ulrici, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li>Upton, J., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li><i>Venus and Adonis</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + +<li>Virgil, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Volpone</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li>Voltaire, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Vortigern</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li>Wagner, C., <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li>Walker, Henry, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + +<li>Walker, Sidney, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li>Wallace, C. W., <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + +<li>Walton's <i>Lives</i>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>Warburton, W., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + +<li>Ward, Rev. J., <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + +<li>Ward, W. A., <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> + +<li>Warner, Mrs., <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Watson, Thomas, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li>Webster, John, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li>Weever, John, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + +<li>Whetstone, George, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li><i>White Devil</i> <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li>White, R. G., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li>Wieland, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Wilhelm Meister</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li>Wilson, Robert, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + +<li>Winchester, Bishop of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Winter's Tale</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Wise Woman of Hogsdon</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li>Wolsey, life of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Woman Killed with Kindness</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li>Wood, Anthony, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li>Wordsworth, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Worthies of England</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li>Wright, W. A., <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li>Wyatt, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + +<li>Wycherley, W., <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li><i>Yorkshire Tragedy</i>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<p class="oh">Printed in the United States of America.</p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="trans2"><p class="ooh"><a name="Transcriber_Corrections" id="Transcriber_Corrections"></a>Transcriber's Endnotes</p> + +<p><b>Corrections:</b></p> +<ul> +<li>Page <a href="#Page_41">41</a>. Chapter II. "certains" corrected to <i>certain</i>. +<ul><li>"... contains certain notes made before 1688 by the ..."</li></ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li>Page <a href="#Page_72">72</a>. Table 2. "<span class="smcap">Lines</span>" corrected to <i><span class="smcap">Line</span></i>. +<ul><li>"<span class="smcap">... Ending within the Line ...</span>"</li></ul></li></ul> + +<ul><li>Page <a href="#Page_89">89</a>. Chapter V. "comedy These" corrected to <i>comedy. These</i>. +<ul><li>"... of classical tragedy and comedy. These new forms ..."</li></ul></li></ul> + +<ul><li>Page <a href="#Page_234">234</a>. Appendix B. "St. Alban's" corrected to <i>St. Albans</i>. +<ul><li>"... Mayor of St. Albans. 2H6. II. i."</li></ul></li></ul> + +<ul><li>Page <a href="#Page_265">265</a>. Index entry. "Bi-Lateral" corrected to <i>Bi-Literal</i>. +<ul><li>"... Bi-Literal Cypher of Francis Bacon ..."</li></ul></li></ul> + +<ul><li>Page <a href="#Page_268">268</a>. Index Hamlet entry. "160" corrected to <i>106</i>. +<ul><li>"... 87, 100, 106, 107, 119 ..."</li></ul></li></ul> + +<p><b>Re-sequenced Index entries:</b></p> +<ul><li><a href="#First_Folio">First Folio</a>, described, 141-143; facsimile of title-page, 143; 167; introductory matter in, <i>see</i> Appendix A.</li></ul> + +<ul><li><a href="#Fletcher_John">Fletcher, John</a>, 9, 91, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114; collaboration on <i>Two Noble Kinsman</i>, 159, 160; 168, 177, 191. <i>See</i> Beaumont and Fletcher.</li></ul> + +<ul><li><a href="#Florio">Florio</a>, John. <i>See</i> Montaigne, 57.</li></ul> + +<ul><li><a href="#Greene">Greene</a>, Robert, attack on S., 20-23: 62, 63, 90, 96, 97, 101, 102, 158.</li></ul> + +<ul><li><a href="#Jonson_Ben">Jonson, Ben</a>, 13, 29, 30, 31, 33, 39, 40, 45, 46, 50, 63, 91, 95, 103, 105, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 114, 131; eulogy of S., 167, 168; 182, 190.</li></ul> + +<ul><li><i><a href="#Sonnets">Sonnets</a></i>, evidence of, 47-49; 57, 58; date of, 87, 156; personality in, 189, 190.</li></ul> +</div> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Facts About Shakespeare, by +William Allan Nielson and Ashley Horace Thorndike + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FACTS ABOUT SHAKESPEARE *** + +***** This file should be named 22281-h.htm or 22281-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/2/2/8/22281/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Stephen Blundell and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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