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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Facts About Shakespeare, by 
+William Allan Nielson and Ashley Horace Thorndike
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Facts About Shakespeare
+
+Author: William Allan Nielson
+        Ashley Horace Thorndike
+
+Release Date: August 8, 2007 [EBook #22281]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FACTS ABOUT SHAKESPEARE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Stephen Blundell and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: The Shakespeare Monument in the Parish Church,
+Stratford-on-Avon.]
+
+
+
+
+              THE FACTS ABOUT
+                SHAKESPEARE
+
+
+                    BY
+
+       WILLIAM ALLAN NEILSON, PH.D.
+PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY
+
+                    AND
+
+  ASHLEY HORACE THORNDIKE, PH.D., L.H.D.
+PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
+
+
+              [Illustration]
+
+
+                 New York
+           THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                   1927
+
+           _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1913,
+BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1913. Reprinted April,
+1914; July, 1915; May, November, 1916; January, 1918; February,
+September, 1920; September, 1921; March, 1922; February, December, 1923;
+October, 1924; June, 1926; January, December, 1927.
+
+
+
+PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY
+THE BERWICK & SMITH CO.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+    Unique page headings have been retained, marked as [Page Heading:],
+    and positioned at the first available paragraph break of the page or
+    the preceding page.
+
+    Many spelling inconsistencies exist due to the historical period of
+    the quoted sources. These, in addition to the original punctuation,
+    have been retained.
+
+    Obvious typesetting errors have been corrected and noted in the
+    Transcriber's Endnotes at the end of the text.
+
+    Some index entries have been re-sequenced to allow for clarity of
+    sub-entries. These changes are recorded in the Transcriber's
+    Endnotes along with a copy of the original text.
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+CHAPTER                                                        PAGE
+
+   I. SHAKESPEARE'S ENGLAND AND LONDON                            1
+
+  II. BIOGRAPHICAL FACTS AND TRADITIONS                          17
+
+ III. SHAKESPEARE'S READING                                      50
+
+  IV. CHRONOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT                                 67
+
+   V. THE ELIZABETHAN DRAMA                                      89
+
+  VI. THE ELIZABETHAN THEATER                                   117
+
+ VII. THE TEXT OF SHAKESPEARE                                   131
+
+VIII. QUESTIONS OF AUTHENTICITY                                 156
+
+  IX. SHAKESPEARE SINCE 1616                                    167
+
+   X. CONCLUSION                                                188
+
+APPENDIX A. BIOGRAPHICAL DOCUMENTS AND AUTHORITIES              203
+
+APPENDIX B. INDEX OF THE CHARACTERS IN SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS      226
+
+APPENDIX C. INDEX OF THE SONGS                                  241
+
+APPENDIX D. BIBLIOGRAPHY                                        243
+
+INDEX                                                           265
+
+
+
+
+THE FACTS ABOUT SHAKESPEARE
+
+
+
+
+The Facts about Shakespeare
+
+[Illustration]
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+SHAKESPEARE'S ENGLAND AND LONDON
+
+
+Shakespeare lived in a period of change. In religion, politics,
+literature, and commerce, in the habits of daily living, in the world of
+ideas, his lifetime witnessed continual change and movement. When
+Elizabeth came to the throne, six years before he was born, England was
+still largely Catholic, as it had been for nine centuries; when she died
+England was Protestant, and by the date of Shakespeare's death it was
+well on the way to becoming Puritan. The Protestant Reformation had
+worked nearly its full course of revolution in ideas, habits, and
+beliefs. The authority of the church had been replaced by that of the
+Bible, of the English Bible, superbly translated by Shakespeare's
+contemporaries. Within his lifetime, again, England had attained a
+national unity and an international importance heretofore unknown. The
+Spanish Armada had been defeated, the kingdoms of England and Scotland
+united, and the first colony established in America. Even more
+revolutionary had been the assertion of national greatness in literature
+and thought. The Italian Renaissance, following the rediscovery of Greek
+and Roman literature, had extended its influence to England early in the
+century, but only after the accession of Elizabeth did it bring full
+harvest. The names that crowd the next fifty years represent fine native
+endowments, boundless aspiration, and also novelty,--as Spenser in
+poetry, Bacon in philosophy, Hooker in theology. In commerce as well as
+in letters there was this same activity and innovation. It was a time of
+commercial prosperity, of increase in comfort and luxury, of the growth
+of a powerful commercial class, of large fortunes and large
+benefactions. Whatever your status, your birth, trade, profession,
+residence, religion, education, or property, in the year 1564 you had a
+better chance to change these than any of your ancestors had; and there
+was more chance than there had ever been that your son would improve his
+inheritance. The individual man had long been boxed up in guild, church,
+or the feudal system; now the covers were opened, and the new
+opportunity bred daring, initiative, and ambition. The exploits of the
+Elizabethan sea rovers still stir us with the thrill of adventure; but
+adventure and vicissitude were hardly less the share of merchant,
+priest, poet, or politician. The individual has had no such opportunity
+for fame in England before or since. The nineteenth century, which saw
+the industrial revolution, the triumphs of steam and electricity, and
+the discoveries of natural science, is the only period that equalled the
+Elizabethan in the rapidity of its changes in ideas and in the
+conditions of living; and even that era of change offered relatively
+fewer new impulses to individual greatness than the fifty years of
+Shakespeare's life.
+
+[Page Heading: Tudor England]
+
+Shakespeare's England was an agricultural country of four or five
+million inhabitants. It fed itself, except when poor harvests compelled
+the importation of grain, and it supplemented agriculture by grazing,
+fishing, and commerce, chiefly with the Netherlands, but growing in many
+directions. The forests were becoming thin, but the houses were still of
+timber; the roads were poor, the large towns mostly seaports. The
+dialects spoken were various, but the speech of the midland counties had
+become established in London, at the universities, and in printed books,
+and was rapidly increasing its dominance. The monasteries and religious
+orders were gone, but feudalism still held sway, and the people were
+divided into classes,--the various ranks of the nobility, the gentry,
+the yeomen, the burgesses, and the common people. But changes from one
+class to another were numerous; for many lords were losing their
+inheritances by extravagance, while many business men were putting their
+profits into land. In spite of persecutions, occasional insurrections,
+and the plague which devastated the unsanitary towns, it was a time of
+peace and prosperity. The coinage was reformed, roads were improved,
+taxes were not burdensome, and life in the country was more comfortable
+and secure than it had been. Books and education were spreading.
+Numerous grammar schools taught Latin, the universities made provision
+for poor students, and there were now many careers besides that of the
+church open to the educated man.
+
+Stratford, then a village of some two thousand inhabitants, somewhat off
+the main route of traffic, was far more removed from the world than most
+towns of similar size in this day of railways, newspapers, and the
+telegraph. With the nearby country, it made up an independent community
+that attended to its own affairs with great thoroughness. The
+corporation, itself the outgrowth of a medieval religious guild,
+regulated the affairs of every one with little regard for personal
+liberty. It was especially severe on rebellious servants, idle
+apprentices, shrewish women, the pigs that ran loose in the streets, and
+(after 1605) persons guilty of profanity. Regular church attendance and
+fixed hours of work were required. The corporation frequently punished
+with fines (the poet's father on one occasion) those who did not clean
+the street before their houses; and it was much occupied in regulating
+the ale-houses, of which the village possessed some thirty. Like all
+towns of this period, Stratford suffered frequently from fire and the
+plague. Trade was dependent mainly on the weekly markets and semi-annual
+fairs, and Stratford was by no means isolated, being not far from the
+great market town of Coventry, near Kenilworth and Warwick, and only
+eighty miles from London.
+
+[Page Heading: Sports and Plays]
+
+Shakespeare's England was merry England. At least, it was probably as
+near to deserving that adjective as at any time before or since. There
+was plenty of time for amusement. There were public bowling-greens and
+archery butts in Stratford, though the corporation was very strict in
+regard to the hours when these could be used. Every one enjoyed hunting,
+hawking, cock-fighting, bull-baiting, dancing, until the Puritans found
+such enjoyments immoral. The youthful Shakespeare acquired an intimate
+knowledge of dogs and horses, hunting and falconry, though this was a
+gentleman's sport. The highways were full of ballad singers, beggars,
+acrobats, and wandering players. Play-acting of one kind or another had
+long been common over most of rural England. Miracle plays were given at
+Coventry up to 1580, and bands of professional actors came to Stratford
+frequently, and on their first recorded appearance received their
+permission to act from the bailiff, John Shakespeare (1568-1569). There
+was many a Holofernes or Bottom to marshal his pupils or
+fellow-mechanics for an amateur performance; and Shakespeare may have
+seen the most famous of the royal entertainments, that at Kenilworth in
+1575, when Gascoigne recited poetry, and Leicester, impersonating Deep
+Desire, addressed Elizabeth from a bush, and a minstrel represented
+Arion on a dolphin's back. The tradition may be right which declares
+that it was the trumpets of the comedians that summoned Shakespeare to
+London.
+
+In the main, life in the country was not so very different from what it
+is now in the remoter places. Many a secluded English village, as
+recently as fifty years ago, jogged on much as in the sixteenth century.
+Opportunity then as now dwelt mostly in the cities, but the city of the
+sixteenth century bore slight resemblance to a city of to-day.
+
+London, with less than 200,000 inhabitants, was still a medieval city in
+appearance, surrounded by a defensive wall, guarded by the Tower, and
+crowned by the cathedral. The city proper lay on the north of the
+Thames, and the wall made a semicircle of some two miles, from the Tower
+on the east to the Fleet ditch and Blackfriars on the west. Seven gates
+pierced the wall to the north, and the roads passing through them into
+the fields were lined with houses. Westward along the river were great
+palaces, behind which the building was practically continuous along the
+muddy road that led to the separate city of Westminster. The Thames,
+noted for its fish and swans, was the great thoroughfare, crowded with
+many kinds of boats and spanned by the famous London Bridge. By one of
+the many rowboats that carried passengers hither and thither, or on foot
+over the arches of the bridge, between the rows of houses that lined it,
+and under the heads of criminals which decorated its entrance, you
+might cross the Thames to Southwark. Turning west, past St. Saviour's
+and the palace of the Bishop of Winchester, you were soon on the
+Bankside, a locality long given over to houses of ill fame and rings for
+the baiting of bulls and bears. The theaters, forbidden in the city
+proper, were built either in the fields to the north of the walls, or
+across the river close by the kennels and rings. Here, as Shakespeare
+waited for a boatman to ferry him across to Blackfriars, the whole city
+was spread before his eyes, in the foreground the panorama of the
+beautiful river, beyond it the crowded houses, the spires of many
+churches, and the great tower of old St. Paul's.
+
+[Page Heading: Tudor London]
+
+It was a city of narrow streets, open sewers, wooden houses, without an
+adequate water supply or sanitation, in constant danger from fire and
+plague. But dirt and disease were no more prevalent than they had been
+for centuries; in spite of them, there was no lack of life in the
+crowded lanes. The great palaces were outside the city proper, and there
+were few notable buildings within its precincts except the churches. The
+dismantled monasteries still occupied large areas, but were being made
+over to strange uses, the theaters eventually finding a place in
+Blackfriars and Whitefriars. The Strand was an ill-paved street running
+behind the river palaces, past the village of Charing Cross, on to the
+royal palace of Whitehall and to the Abbey and Hall at Westminster. The
+walls and surrounding moat had ceased to be of use for defense, and
+building constantly spread into the fields without. These fields were
+favorite places for recreation and served the purpose of city parks. The
+Elizabethans were fond of outdoor sports and spent little daytime
+indoors. The shops were open to the street, and the clear spaces at
+Cheapside and St. Paul's Church-yard seem to have been always crowded.
+St. Paul's, although still used for religious services, had become a
+sort of city club or general meeting place. Mules and horses were no
+longer to be found there as in the reign of Mary, but the nave was in
+constant use as a place for gossip and business. The churchyard was the
+usual place for holding lotteries, and here were the shops of a majority
+of the London booksellers. In its northeast corner was Paul's Cross, the
+famous pulpit whence the wishes of the government were announced and
+popularized by the Sunday preachers. And here the variety of London life
+was most fully exhibited. The processions and entertainments at court,
+the ambassadors from afar, the law students from the Temple, the old
+soldiers destitute after service in Flanders, the seamen returned from
+plundering the Spanish gold fleet, the youths from the university come
+to the city to earn their living by their wits, the bishop and the
+puritan, who looked at each other askance, the young squire come to be
+gulled of his lands by the roarers of the tavern, the solid merchant
+with his chain of gold, the wives who aped the court ladies with their
+enormous farthingales and ruffs, the court gallant with his dyed beard
+and huge breeches, the idle apprentices quick to riot, the poor poets in
+prison for debt--these and how many more are familiar to every reader of
+the Elizabethan drama. As often in periods of commercial prosperity,
+luxury became fantastic. Men sold their acres to put costly garments on
+their backs. Clothing was absurd and ran to extreme sizes of ruffs,
+farthingales, and breeches, or to gaudy colors and jewels. Enormous sums
+were spent on feasts, entertainments, and masques, especially in the
+reign of James I. Cleanliness did not thrive, perfumes took the place of
+baths, and rushes, seldom renewed, covered the floor even of the
+presence chamber of Elizabeth. But the comforts and luxuries of life
+increased and spread to all classes. Tobacco, potatoes, and forks were
+first introduced in Shakespeare's time. Building improved, streets were
+widened, and coaches became so common as to excite much animadversion
+and complaint. If some poets spent much time in the debtors' prison,
+others lived well, and some actors gained large fortunes.
+
+[Page Heading: Commercial Prosperity]
+
+The industrious apprentice who refused the allurements of pageants,
+theaters, tailors, and taverns, was sure to have his reward. It was a
+time of commercial expansion, such as the last generation has witnessed
+in Germany and the United States. Bankers, brokers, and merchants gained
+great fortunes and managed to protect them. Industry, thrift, and
+shrewdness were likely to win enough to buy a knighthood. The trade of
+the old East and the new West came to the London wharves, and every one
+was ready to take a risk. The merchants of London had furnished support
+to the policies of Henry VIII and were rich enough to fit out the
+expedition against Flanders and to pay for a third of the fleet that met
+the Armada. It was a time, too, for great enterprises and benefactions
+to charity. Sir Thomas Gresham built the Exchange, Sir Hugh Middleton
+paid for the New River water supply, and there were many gifts to
+hospitals. With all this increase in wealth, the various professions
+prospered, especially that of law. The inns of court were crowded with
+students, not a few of whom forsook the courts for the drama. The age of
+chivalry was over, that of commerce begun. No one gained much glory by a
+military career in the days of Elizabeth. The church, the law, banking,
+commerce, even politics and literature, offered better roads to wealth
+or fame.
+
+The importance of the court in Elizabethan London is not easy to realize
+to-day. It dominated the life of the small city. Its nobles and their
+retainers, its courtiers and hangers-on, made up a considerable portion
+of the population; its shows supplied the entertainment, its gossip the
+politics of the hour. It was the seat of pageantry, the mirror of
+manners, the patron or the oppressor of every one. No one could be so
+humble as to escape coming somehow within its sway, and some of the
+greatest wrecked their lives in efforts to secure its approval. It is no
+wonder that the plays of Shakespeare deal so largely with kings,
+queens, and their courts. Under the Tudors, and still more under the
+Stuarts, the court aimed at increasing the central authority so as to
+bring every affair of its subjects under its direct control. In London,
+however, this effort at centralization met with strong opposition. The
+government was in the hands of the guilds representative of the wealth
+of the city, and was coming face to face with many of the problems of
+modern municipalities. The corporation was in constant clash with the
+court; and in the end the city, which had supported Henry VIII and
+Elizabeth against powerful nobles, became the Puritan London that aided
+in ousting the Stuarts.
+
+[Page Heading: The City and the Court]
+
+This conflict between city and court is illustrated in the regulation of
+the theaters and companies of actors. The actors had a legal status only
+as the license of some nobleman enrolled them as his servants, and they
+relied on the protection of their patron and the court against the
+opposition of the city authorities. The fact that they were employed to
+give plays before the Queen was, indeed, about the only argument that
+won any consideration from the corporation. This opposition was based in
+part on moral or puritan grounds, but was determined still more by the
+fear of three menaces, fire, sedition, and the plague. Wooden buildings
+were already discouraged by statute, and the danger of fire from the
+wooden theaters is shown by the burning of the Globe and the Fortune.
+The gathering of crowds was feared by every property holder, and the
+theaters were frequently the scenes of outbreaks of the apprentices. The
+danger of the plague from the crowd at plays was the greatest of all.
+London was hardly ever free from it, and suffered terrible devastation
+in the years 1593 and 1603. For these reasons the theaters were
+forbidden within the city's jurisdiction, and were driven into the
+outskirts. The best companies appeared frequently at court, and on the
+accession of James I they were licensed directly as servants of various
+members of the royal family. The actors were thereafter under the
+immediate control of the court, and certain "private" theaters were
+established within the city. But this triumph of the court over the long
+opposition of the city was not an unmixed blessing for the drama.
+
+The theaters in 1590 represented the public on which they depended for
+support; by 1616 they were far less representative of the nation or
+London, and more dependent on the court and its following. The
+Blackfriars theater, before which gathered the crowd of coaches that
+annoyed the puritans of the neighborhood, was a symptom of the growth of
+wealth and luxury, and of the increased power of the monarchy; the
+protests of the puritan neighborhood were an indication of the growth of
+a large class hostile alike to an arbitrary court, luxury, and the
+theater.
+
+Shakespeare's lifetime, however, saw little of this sharp division into
+parties or of that narrow moral consistency which Puritanism came to
+require. Looking back on his age in contrast with our own, we are
+perhaps most impressed by its striking incongruities. This London of
+dirt and disease was also the arena for extravagant fashion and princely
+display. This populace that watched with joy the cruel torment of a bear
+or the execution of a Catholic also delighted in the romantic comedies
+of Shakespeare. This people, so appallingly credulous and ignorant, so
+brutal, childish, so mercurial compared with Englishmen of to-day, yet
+set the standard of national greatness. This absurdly decorated gallant
+could stab a rival in the back or write a penitential lyric. Each man
+presents strange, almost inexplicable, contrasts in character, as Bacon
+or Raleigh, or Elizabeth herself. The drama mingles its sentiment and
+fancy with horrors and bloodshed; and no wonder, for poetry was no
+occupation of the cloister. Read the lives of the poets--Surrey, Wyatt,
+Sidney, Spenser, Raleigh, Marlowe, Jonson--and of these, only Spenser
+and Jonson died in their beds, and Ben had killed his man in a duel. The
+student of Elizabethan history and biography will find stranger
+contrasts than in the lives of these poets, for crime, meanness, and
+sexual depravity often appear in the closest juxtaposition with
+imaginative idealism, intellectual freedom, and moral grandeur.
+
+[Page Heading: Elizabethan Incongruities]
+
+The Italian Renaissance, with its mingled passions for beauty, art,
+blood, lust, and intellect, seems for a time transferred to London and
+dwelling alongside of commerce and Puritanism. Yet these incongruities
+of character, manners, and motives that seem so striking to us to-day
+may probably be explained by conditions already described. The
+opportunities created by the changes in church and religion, the new
+education and prosperity, the new America, and the revived classics, all
+tended to create a new thirst for experience. This thirst for experience
+led to excess and incongruity, but it also furnished an unparalleled
+range of human motive for a poet's observation and imitation.
+
+In the wide range of our poet's survey, there is, however, one notable
+omission. The reign of Elizabeth, like those of her three predecessors,
+was one of religious controversy, change, and persecution. But all this
+strife, all this debate, repression, persecution, and all of this great
+turmoil working in the minds of Englishmen, find little reflection in
+Shakespeare's plays, and little in the whole Elizabethan drama.
+Religious controversy had played a part in the drama of the reign of
+Edward and Mary, but it rarely enters the Elizabethan drama, and then
+mainly in the form of ridicule for the puritan. Shakespeare's plays seem
+almost to ignore the most momentous facts of his time. They treat pagan,
+Catholic, and Protestant with cordiality and only smile at the puritan
+or Brownist. His England of the merry wives or Falstaff's justices seems
+strangely untroubled by questions of faith or ritual. There is, to be
+sure, plenty of religion and controversy in the literature of the time,
+but the drama as a whole is singularly non-religious. It reflects
+rather that freedom from restraint, that buoyancy of spirit, that lively
+interest in experience, which had their full course in the few years
+when the old garment was off and the new not quite fitted. The immense
+intellectual and imaginative activity of the period consists precisely
+in this freedom from restrictions, partisanship, dogmas, or caste.
+Things had lost their labels and some time and argument were required to
+find new ones. Ideas were free and not bound to any school, party, or
+cause. You grasped an idea without knowing whether it made you realist,
+romanticist, or classicist; papist, puritan, or pagan. After centuries
+of imprisonment, individuality had its full chance in the world of ideas
+as elsewhere.
+
+[Page Heading: An Age of Freedom]
+
+In a few years this was all over, and your sphere of life and the ideas
+proper to that sphere were prescribed for you. By another century,
+England had fought out the issues of creed and government with expense
+of blood and spirit, and had settled down to the compromise of 1688. In
+Shakespeare's day there was also, of course, some movement toward fixity
+of ideas, and there were great men who strove to convert others to their
+ideas and to dictate belief and conduct. But there was a breathing spell
+in which, comparatively speaking, men were not alike, but individual,
+and in which their motives and ideas revelled in a freedom from ancient
+precedent. In this era of flux the modern drama found its panorama of
+novel and varied experience making and marring character.
+
+Shakespeare lived peaceably in the heyday of this change, nearly of an
+age with Sidney, Raleigh, Spenser, Bacon, Marlowe. Like Marlowe in the
+soliloquies of Barabbas and Faust, he recognized the new possibilities
+that the age opened through money or ideas. He made much out of the
+commercial prosperity of the day, gained such profits as were possible
+from his profession, raised his estate, and acquired wealth. He gave his
+mind not to any cause or party but to the study of men. The drunkards of
+the London inn, the yokels of Warwickshire, and the finest gentlewomen
+of the land alike came under the scrutiny of the creator of Falstaff,
+Dogberry, and Rosalind. And like his great contemporaries, he triumphed
+over incongruities, for he translated his studies of the human mind into
+verse of immortal beauty that yet delighted the public stage which was
+located halfway between the bear dens and the brothels.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+BIOGRAPHICAL FACTS AND TRADITIONS
+
+
+In the time of Shakespeare, the fashion of writing lives of men of
+letters had not yet arisen. The art of biography could hardly be said to
+be even in its infancy, for the most notable early examples, such as the
+lives of Wolsey by Cavendish and of Sir Thomas More by his son-in-law in
+the sixteenth century, and Walton's handful in the seventeenth, are far
+from what the present age regards as scientific biography. The
+preservation of official records makes it possible for the modern
+scholar to reconstruct with considerable fullness the careers of public
+men; but in the case of Shakespeare, as of others of his profession, we
+must needs be content with a few scrappy documents, supplemented by oral
+traditions of varying degrees of authenticity. About Shakespeare himself
+it must be allowed that we have been able to learn more than about most
+of his fellow dramatists and actors.
+
+In a matter which has been the subject of so much controversy, it may
+be an aid to clearness if the facts established by contemporary
+documents be first related, and the less trustworthy reports added
+later. The first indubitable item is trivial and unsavory enough. In
+April, 1552, a certain John Shakespeare, residing in Henley Street,
+Stratford-on-Avon, in the county of Warwick, was fined twelvepence for
+failing to remove a heap of filth from before his door. This John, who
+shared his surname with a multitude of other Shakespeares in the England
+and especially in the Warwickshire of his time, appears, without
+reasonable doubt, to have been the father of the poet. He is described
+in later tradition as a glover and as a butcher; the truth seems to be
+that he did a miscellaneous business in farm products. For twenty years
+or more after this first record he prospered, rising through various
+petty municipal offices to the position of bailiff, or mayor, of the
+town in 1568. His fortunes must have been notably improved by his
+marriage, for the Mary Arden whom he wedded in 1557 was the daughter of
+a well-to-do farmer, Robert Arden, who bequeathed her £6 13_s._ 4_d._ in
+money and a house with fifty acres of land.
+
+To John and Mary Shakespeare was born a son William, whose baptism was
+registered in the Church of the Holy Trinity in Stratford on April 26,
+1564. He was their eldest son, two daughters previously born being
+already dead. Their other children were Gilbert, Joan, Anna, Richard,
+and Edmund. The precise day of William's birth is unknown. The monument
+over his grave states that at his death on April 23, 1616, he was
+"Ætatis 53," which would seem to indicate that he must have been born at
+least as early as April 22; and, since in those days baptism usually
+took place within a very few days of birth, there is no reason for
+pushing the date farther back.
+
+[Page Heading: Marriage]
+
+Of the education of the poet we have no record. Stratford had a free
+grammar school, to which such a boy as the bailiff's son would be sure
+to be sent; and the inference that William Shakespeare was a pupil there
+and studied the usual Latin authors is entirely reasonable. About 1577
+his father began to get into financial difficulties, and it is reported
+that about this time the boy was withdrawn from school to help in his
+father's business. We know nothing certainly, however, until we learn
+from the registry of the Bishop of Worcester that on November 28, 1582,
+two husbandmen of Stratford gave bonds "to defend and save harmless" the
+bishop and his officers for licensing the marriage of William
+Shakespeare and Anne Hathaway. Of the actual marriage there is no
+record. Anne is probably to be identified with Agnes or Anne, the
+daughter of Richard Hathaway of the neighboring hamlet of Shottery, who
+had died in the previous July, and had owned the house of which a part
+still survives and is shown to visitors as "Anne Hathaway's cottage."
+The date on Anne's tombstone indicates that she was eight years older
+than the poet.
+
+A comparison of the bond just mentioned with other documents of the kind
+indicates it to be exceptional in the absence of any mention of consent
+by the bridegroom's parents, a circumstance rendered still more
+remarkable by the fact that he was a minor. The bondsmen were from
+Shottery, and this, along with the considerations already advanced, has
+naturally led to the inference that the marriage was hurried by the
+bride's friends, and to the finding of a motive for their haste in the
+birth within six months of "Susanna, daughter to William Shakespere,"
+who was baptized on May 26, 1583.
+
+[Page Heading: "The only Shake-scene"]
+
+The record of the baptism of Shakespeare's only other children, the
+twins Hamnet and Judith, in February, 1585, practically exhausts the
+documentary evidence concerning the poet in Stratford until 1596. It is
+conjectured, but not known, that about 1586 he found his way to London
+and soon became connected with the theater, according to one tradition,
+as call-boy, to another, as holder of the horses of theatergoers. But by
+1592 we are assured that he had entered the ranks of the playwrights,
+and had achieved enough success to rouse the jealous resentment of a
+rival. Robert Greene, who died on the third of September in that year,
+left unpublished a pamphlet, _Greenes Groatsworth of Witte: bought with
+a Million of Repentaunce_, in which he warned three of his fellows
+against certain plagiarists, "those puppits, I meane, that speake from
+our mouths, those anticks garnisht in our colours." "Yes, trust them
+not," he goes on; "for there is an upstart crow, beautified with our
+feathers, that with his _Tygers heart wrapt in a Players hide_, supposes
+he is as well able to bumbast out a blanke verse as the best of you; and
+being an absolute _Johannes Factotum_, is in his owne conceit the only
+Shake-scene in a countrie. O that I might intreate your rare wits to be
+imployed in more profitable courses, and let those apes imitate your
+past excellence, and never more acquaint them with your admired
+inventions! I know the best husband of you all will never prove an
+usurer, and the kindest of them all wil never proove a kinde nurse; yet,
+whilst you may, seeke you better maisters, for it is pittie men of such
+rare wits should be subject to the pleasures of such rude groomes." The
+phrase about the "tyger's heart" is an obvious parody on the line,
+
+    Oh Tiger's heart wrapt in a woman's hide!
+
+which occurs both in _The True Tragedie of Richard Duke of Yorke_, and
+in the variant of that play which is included in the First Folio as the
+third part of _Henry VI_. "The only Shake-scene" has naturally been
+taken as an allusion to Shakespeare's name; and it is scarcely possible
+to doubt the reference to him throughout the passage. This being so, we
+may infer that by this date Shakespeare had written, with whatever else,
+his share in the three parts of _Henry VI_, and was successful enough to
+seem formidable to the dying Greene. It is noteworthy, too, that thus
+early we have allusion to his double profession: as an actor in the
+words "player's hide" and "Shake-scene," and as an author in the charge
+of plagiarism. That the reference in "beautified with our feathers" is
+to literary plagiarism is confirmed by the following lines from
+_Greene's Funeralls_, by R. B., 1594, which seem to have been suggested
+by Greene's phrase:
+
+    Greene is the ground of everie painters die;
+    Greene gave the ground to all that wrote upon him.
+    Nay, more, the men that so eclipst his fame,
+    _Purloynde his plumes_: can they deny the same?
+
+Somewhat less certain is the allusion in a document closely connected
+with the foregoing. _Greenes Groatsworth_ had been prepared for the
+press by his friend Henry Chettle, and in the address "To the Gentlemen
+Readers" prefixed to his _Kind-Harts Dreame_ (registered December 8,
+1592), Chettle regrets that he has not struck out from Greene's book the
+passages that have been "offensively by one or two of them taken." "With
+neither of them that take offence was I acquainted, and with one of them
+I care not if I never be. The other, whome at that time I did not so
+much spare as since I wish I had, for that as I have moderated the heate
+of living writers, and might have usde my owne discretion,--especially
+in such a case, the Author beeing dead,--that I did not, I am as sory,
+as if the originall fault had beene my fault, because myselfe have seene
+his demeanor no lesse civill, than he exelent in the qualitie[1] he
+professes: Besides, divers of worship have reported his uprightnes of
+dealing, which argues his honesty, and his facetious grace in writing,
+that aprooves his Art." This characterization so well fits in with the
+tone of later contemporary allusions to Shakespeare that it is
+regrettable that Chettle did not make its reference to him beyond a
+doubt.
+
+[1] _I.e._, profession, used especially at that time of the profession
+of acting.
+
+[Page Heading: First Publications]
+
+Within a few months after the disturbance caused by Greene's charges,
+Shakespeare appeared in the field of authorship in quite unambiguous
+fashion. On April 18, 1593, Richard Field, himself a Stratford man,
+entered at Stationers' Hall a book entitled _Venus and Adonis_. The
+dedication, which is to the Earl of Southampton, is signed by "William
+Shakespeare," and the state of the text confirms the inference that the
+poet himself oversaw the publication. The terms of the dedication, read
+in the light of contemporary examples of this kind of writing, do not
+imply any close relation between poet and patron; and the phrase "the
+first heyre of my invention," applied to the poem, need not be taken as
+placing its composition earlier than any of the plays, since writing for
+the stage was then scarcely regarded as practising the art of letters.
+_Lucrece_ was registered May 9, 1594, and appeared likewise without a
+name on the title-page, but with Shakespeare's full signature attached
+to a dedication, somewhat more warmly personal than before, to the same
+nobleman. The frequency of complimentary references to these poems, and
+the number of editions issued during the poet's lifetime (seven of
+_Venus_, and five of _Lucrece_), indicate that it was through them that
+he first obtained literary distinction.
+
+Meanwhile he was gaining a footing as an actor. The accounts of the
+Treasurer of the Chamber for March 15, 1594-5, bear record of
+Shakespeare's having been summoned, along with Kempe and Burbage, as a
+member of the Lord Chamberlain's Company, to present two comedies before
+the Queen at Greenwich Palace in the Christmas season of 1594. This is
+the earliest mention of the poet as sharing with his company a kind of
+recognition as honorable as it was profitable.
+
+The records now take us back to his family. On August 11, 1596, his only
+son Hamnet was buried. In the same year John Shakespeare applied to the
+College of Heralds for a grant of arms, basing the claim on services of
+his ancestors to Henry VII, the continued good reputation of the family,
+and John's marriage to "Mary, daughter and heiress of Robert Arden, of
+Wilmcote, gent." Since there is evidence to show that the financial
+difficulties that had beset John Shakespeare before his son went to
+London had continued, and since the attempts of actors to obtain
+gentility by grants of arms were not uncommon, it is likely that the
+poet was the moving force in this matter. Though a draft granting this
+request was drawn up, it was not executed; but in 1599 a renewed
+application was successful, the heralds giving an exemplification of the
+coat which the applicants claimed had been assigned them in 1568, "Gold,
+on a bend sable, a spear of the first, and for his crest or cognizance a
+falcon, his wings displayed argent, standing on a wreath of his
+colours, supporting a spear gold steeled as aforesaid." The motto is
+"Non Sans Droit." These arms appear on the monument over Shakespeare's
+grave in Trinity Church in Stratford, and, impaled with the Hall arms,
+on the tombstone of his daughter Susanna and her husband John Hall.
+
+[Page Heading: The Purchase of New Place]
+
+A more substantial step towards restoring the standing of the family was
+taken when the poet bought on May 4, 1597, for sixty pounds, New Place,
+the largest house in Stratford. This was only the beginning of a
+considerable series of investments of the profits of his professional
+life in landed and other property in his native district. On his
+father's death in 1601 he inherited the two houses in Henley Street, the
+only real property of which the elder Shakespeare had retained
+possession; and in one of these the poet's mother lived until her death
+in 1608. About a hundred and seven acres of arable land with common
+pasture appertaining to it was conveyed to the poet on May 1, 1602, by
+William and John Combe, of Warwick and Old Stratford respectively, in
+consideration of £320; and twenty acres of pasture land were acquired
+from the same owners in 1610. On September 28, 1602, the Court Rolls of
+the Manor of Rowington record the transfer to Shakespeare from Walter
+Getley of a cottage and garden in Chapel Lane, Stratford. In 1605 he
+paid £440 for the thirty-one years remaining of a lease of the Stratford
+tithes, a purchase which involved him in a considerable amount of
+litigation. It was through this acquisition that he became involved in
+the dispute over the attempted inclosure of certain common fields
+belonging to the town of Stratford. John Combe, who died in July, 1614,
+bequeathing Shakespeare £5, left as heir a son, William, who with Arthur
+Mannering, sought to annex to their respective estates the aforesaid
+common lands. After having secured a deed safeguarding himself as part
+owner of the tithes from any loss that might result from the inclosure,
+Shakespeare seems to have lent his influence to Combe, in spite of the
+requests of the corporation for aid. The inclosure was not carried out.
+
+His investments were not confined to his native county. A deed of sale
+has come down to us concerning the purchase of a house near the
+Blackfriars Theater in London, in March, 1613. The price was £140; but
+on the following day, March 11, Shakespeare gave the previous owner,
+Henry Walker, a mortgage deed for £60, which he never seems to have paid
+off. There is evidence of his ownership of other property in Blackfriars
+in three documents, recently discovered by Professor C. W. Wallace,
+dealing with a suit in Chancery, and dated April 26, May 15, and May 22,
+1615, in which Shakespeare and others sought to obtain from one Matthew
+Bacon possession of certain deeds pertaining to their property within
+the precinct of Blackfriars.
+
+[Page Heading: Litigation]
+
+Other traces of Shakespeare's business transactions suggest that he was
+by no means averse to going to law. After his resumption of relations
+with Stratford in 1596, we find his parents engaged (November, 1597) in
+a lawsuit, the outcome of which does not appear to recover the mortgaged
+estate of Asbies, which had formed part of his mother's inheritance. The
+years 1600, 1604, 1608, and 1609 all contain records of suits by the
+poet to recover small sums of money; and, on the other hand, we find tax
+collectors in London seeking payment of taxes incurred on his goods
+while he lived in the parish of St. Helen's, Bishopgate, in 1593 or
+1594. These claims Shakespeare satisfied some years later when he was
+living across the river in Southwark. The documents of a law case of
+1612, recently discovered by Professor C. W. Wallace in the Public
+Record office, include Shakespeare's deposition as a witness and add
+some interesting information. It appears that, possibly from 1598 to
+1604, he lodged in the house of Christopher Mountjoy, a wigmaker, at the
+corner of Muggle and Silver streets near Cripplegate. In 1604 he had
+aided in arranging the marriage of Mary Mountjoy to her father's
+apprentice, Stephen Bellott. The lawsuit was brought by Bellott against
+his father-in-law to secure the dowry and promise of inheritance.
+Shakespeare's negotiations in regard to the marriage play an important
+part in the various depositions, as the question whether a dowry of £50
+had been promised was crucial to the case. Shakespeare himself was
+examined on September 11, but the poet failed to remember that a
+definite sum had been agreed upon for the dowry.
+
+Further evidence relating to Shakespeare as a man of substance is to be
+found in letters in the Stratford archives, written by prominent
+townsmen. One, from Abraham Sturley to a relative in London on the
+business of the town of Stratford, dated January 24, 1597-8, contains a
+reference to "Mr. Shaksper" as "willing to disburse some money upon some
+odd yard-land or other at Shottery or near about us," and suggests
+urging upon Shakespeare the purchase of the tithes. It seems fairly
+certain from other letters of Sturley's that this one was addressed to
+Richard Quiney, father of Shakespeare's future son-in-law, Thomas
+Quiney. On October 25 of the same year, this Richard Quiney wrote from
+the Bell in Carter Lane, London, "to my loving friend and countryman,
+Mr. Wm. Shackespere," asking for his help with £30. From a letter from
+Abraham Sturley to Richard Quiney on the following fourth of November it
+appears that Quiney was seeking an enlargement of the charter of
+Stratford, with a view to an increase of revenue. In Sturley's previous
+letter reference had been made to an attempt to gain "an ease and
+discharge of such taxes and subsidies wherewith our town is like to be
+charged, and I assure you I am in great fear and doubt by no means able
+to pay." In this extreme condition of affairs Sturley heard with
+satisfaction "that our countryman Mr. Wm. Shak. would procure us money,
+which I will like of as I shall here when, and where, and how; and I
+pray let not go that occasion if it may sort to any indifferent
+conditions." The poet is probably referred to in still another letter,
+of about the same period, to Richard Quiney, this time from his father
+Adrian: "If you bargain with Wm. Sha., or receive money therefor, bring
+your money home that you may." All of these documents carry the
+unmistakable implication that William Shakespeare in London was regarded
+by his fellow-townsmen as a person of resources, likely to be of service
+to his friends in financial stress.
+
+[Page Heading: Professional Progress]
+
+If we return now to the evidences of Shakespeare's professional
+progress, we shall see whence these resources were derived. Confining
+ourselves still to explicit and unambiguous records, we find the year
+1598 marking Shakespeare's emergence as actor and dramatist into a
+somewhat opener publicity. The quarto editions of _Richard II_ and
+_Love's Labour's Lost_, issued that year, are the first plays to exhibit
+his name on the title-page; and in the 1616 folio edition of Ben
+Jonson's works, attached to _Every Man in His Humour_, is the statement:
+"This Comedie was first Acted in the yeere 1598 by the then L.
+Chamberleyne his servants. The principal Comedians were Will.
+Shakespeare, Aug. Philips, Hen. Condel, Will. Slye, Will. Kempe, Ric.
+Burbadge, Joh. Hemings, Tho. Pope, Chr. Beeston, Joh. Dyke." These
+evidences of prominence are more than corroborated by the famous passage
+in the _Palladis Tamia_ (1598) of Francis Meres, in which he not only
+compares the "mellifluous and honey-tongued Shakespeare" with Ovid for
+his _Venus and Adonis_, his _Lucrece_, "his sugred sonnets among his
+private friends," but with Plautus and Seneca for his excellence "in
+both kinds for the stage; for comedy, witness his Gentlemen of Verona,
+his Errors, his Love Labors Lost, his Love Labours Wonne, his Midsummers
+Night Dreame, and his Merchant of Venice; for tragedy, his Richard the
+2, Richard the 3, Henry the 4, King John, Titus Andronicus, and his
+Romeo and Juliet." Barnfield in the same year harps on the
+"honey-flowing vein" of the author of _Venus_ and _Lucrece_, and
+"honey-tongued" is again the opening epithet of John Weever's epigram
+"Ad Gulielmum Shakespeare" (1599), in which "_Romeo_" and "_Richard_"
+share the praises with the narrative poems. From this time on,
+publishers of the plays recognize Shakespeare's reputation by generally
+placing his name on the title-page: a form of compliment which the
+author probably did not appreciate when it was extended, as in the case
+of _The Passionate Pilgrim_ (1599), to pirated works, some of which were
+meant to be private, and others were not by him at all.
+
+Reminiscences or references to his works are frequent in contemporary
+literature. Among these are several passages in two plays, _The Return
+from Parnassus_, acted in St. John's College, Cambridge, about 1601. In
+one passage, Kempe, the famous actor, speaks slightingly of the acting
+qualities of the plays by university pens and continues, "Why here's our
+fellow Shakespeare puts them all down, ay, and Ben Jonson
+too,"--another identification of the actor and the dramatist
+Shakespeare. Another character in these plays prefers Shakespeare to
+Chaucer, Gower, and Spenser. Less enthusiastic though sincerely
+appreciative is John Webster, who, in the address to the Reader prefixed
+to _The White Devil_, 1612, acknowledges his indebtedness to his
+predecessors, Chapman, Jonson, Beaumont, and Fletcher and to "the right
+happy and copious industry of Master Shakespeare, Master Dekker, and
+Master Heywood." Though of widely varying significance and interest, the
+numerous allusions to Shakespeare or to his plays give further testimony
+to his growing reputation.
+
+[Page Heading: Contemporary Allusions]
+
+While it is probable that the sale of Shakespeare's poems brought him in
+some financial return, he is not likely to have profited from the
+publication of his plays. The playwright at that time sold his product
+to the manager or company, and thereby gave up all rights. To the end of
+the sixteenth century managers usually paid from £5 to £11 for a new
+play, adding a bonus in the case of success, and sometimes a share of
+the proceeds of the second performance. During the first decade of
+Shakespeare's activity as a dramatist, then, we may calculate that he
+obtained for about twenty-one plays an average of about £10 each, which,
+making the usual allowance for the greater purchasing power of money,
+would be equivalent to about $400, or an annual income of about $800.
+During his second decade the prices for plays had so risen that he may
+be estimated to have received about twice as much from this source as
+in the early half of his career.
+
+More profitable than playwriting was acting. Lee estimates Shakespeare's
+salary as an actor before 1599 at £100 a year at least, exclusive of
+special rewards for court performances, and we know that by 1635 an
+actor-shareholder, such as Shakespeare latterly was, had a salary of
+£180. Besides this, he became about 1599 a sharer, with Heming, Condell,
+Philips, and others, in the receipts of the Globe Theater, erected in
+1597-8 by Richard and Cuthbert Burbage. The annual income from a single
+share was over £200, and Shakespeare may have had more than one. In 1610
+he became a sharer also in the smaller Blackfriars Theater, after it had
+been acquired by the Burbages.
+
+The evidence thus accumulated of Shakespeare's having acquired a
+substantial fortune is corroborated by what we know of the earnings of
+other members of his profession, and it leaves no mystery about the
+source of the capital which he invested in real property in Stratford
+and London.
+
+The death of Elizabeth and the accession of James I improved rather than
+impaired Shakespeare's prospects. A patent, dated May 19, 1603,
+authorizes the King's servants, "Lawrence Fletcher, William Shakespeare,
+Richard Burbage ... and the rest of their associats freely to use and
+exercise the arte and faculty of playing comedies, tragedies, histories,
+interludes, moralls, pastorals, stage-plaies, and such other like as
+they have already studied, or hereafter shall use or studie, as well
+for the recreation of our lovinge subjects, as for our solace and
+pleasure when we shall thinke good to see them, duringe our pleasure."
+By this document the Lord Chamberlain's Company became the King's, and
+so remained during the rest of Shakespeare's connection with the stage.
+At least a dozen instances are recorded in the Revels Accounts of the
+Company's having acted before his Majesty, and on the occasion of a
+performance before the court at the Earl of Pembroke's mansion of Wilton
+House, £30 was given them "by way of his majesty's reward."
+Shakespeare's name stands first in a list of nine actors who walked in a
+procession on the occasion of James's entry into London, March 15, 1604,
+when each actor was granted four yards and a half of scarlet cloth for
+cloaks for the occasion.
+
+[Page Heading: Growing Prosperity]
+
+This recognition by the court is the latest evidence we have of
+Shakespeare's belonging to the profession of acting. He is mentioned in
+the Jonson Folio of 1616 as playing a part in _Sejanus_ in 1603; but his
+name is absent from the list of the King's servants, as his company had
+now become, when they performed _Volpone_ in 1605, _The Alchemist_ in
+1610, and _Catiline_ in 1611. It would thus seem that he gave up acting
+shortly after the death of Elizabeth.
+
+The date of his withdrawal from London to Stratford is less precisely
+indicated. The likelihood is that the transference was gradual; for
+after 1611, the date usually conjectured for his retirement from the
+metropolis, we have indications of at least occasional activities there,
+as in the collaboration with Fletcher, now generally admitted, in _Henry
+VIII_ and _The Two Noble Kinsmen_, and in the business dealings in
+Blackfriars already described. On the other hand, he had disposed of his
+shares in the theaters before his death; as we have seen, he appears
+frequently in his last years in connection with municipal affairs in
+Stratford; and later formal references are usually to "William
+Shakespeare, gent., of Stratford-on-Avon." It was during this period
+that we find record of the poet serving in a new capacity. There has
+recently been discovered in the Household Book at Belvoir Castle the
+following entry: "Item 31 Martij (1613) to Mr. Shakspeare in gold about
+my Lordes Impreso xiiij s. To Richard Burbadge for paynting and making
+yt in gold xliiij s. (Total) iiij^li viij^s." This means that the Earl
+of Rutland, who took part in a tournament at Whitehall on March 24,
+1613, had the heraldic device for his shield made by Shakespeare and
+Burbage,--Burbage, whose skill as painter is well known, being probably
+responsible for the design and Shakespeare for the motto. Rutland was a
+friend and associate of that Earl of Southampton to whom Shakespeare had
+dedicated his two narrative poems.
+
+The remaining documents are chiefly domestic. On June 5, 1607, his elder
+daughter Susanna married John Hall, a physician of Stratford, who
+succeeded the poet in the occupancy of New Place; and on September 9,
+1608, the Stratford Register records the burial of his mother, "Mayry
+Shaxspere, wydowe." His younger daughter, Judith, married Thomas Quiney
+on February 10, 1616, with such haste and informality as led to the
+imposition of a fine by the ecclesiastical court at Worcester. In the
+previous month Shakespeare had a draft of his will drawn up by Francis
+Collins, a solicitor of Warwick, and after certain changes this was
+signed in March. On the twenty-fifth of April the Registers show the
+burial of "Will. Shakespeare gent." The monument over his grave gives
+the day of his death as April 23 (Old Style). He was buried in the
+chancel of Stratford Church, and on the grave may still be read the much
+discussed lines:
+
+    Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbeare
+    To dig the dust enclosed heare;
+    Bleste be the man that spares these stones,
+    And curst be he that moves my bones.
+
+William Hall, who visited Stratford in 1694, records the tradition that
+the poet himself composed the lines in a style calculated to impress
+sextons and prevent them from digging up his bones and throwing them
+into the adjacent charnel house. However this may be, the grave has
+remained unopened.
+
+[Page Heading: Death and Burial]
+
+Seven years later, thirty-six of Shakespeare's plays were collected by
+two of his former colleagues of the theater, Heming and Condell, whom he
+had remembered in his will, and published in the famous First Folio.
+The preliminary documents in this volume, printed in our appendix, close
+significantly the contemporary records of the man, and bind together the
+burgess of Stratford with the actor of London and the dramatist of the
+world.
+
+Of Shakespeare's handwriting nothing that can be called his with
+complete assurance has survived except six signatures; one to the
+deposition in the matter of the Mountjoy marriage; one to the deed of
+the house he bought in Blackfriars in 1613, one to the mortgage-deed on
+the same house, executed on the day after the purchase, and one on each
+of the three sheets of paper containing his will, the last of which has
+in addition the words "By me." All six are somewhat crabbed specimens of
+the old English style of handwriting, which is the character he would
+naturally acquire in such a school as that at Stratford in the sixteenth
+century, as we learn from surviving examples of the copy-books of the
+period. The manuscripts of his plays have gone the way of all, or almost
+all, the autographs of the men of letters of his time, nor is it likely
+that future research will add materially to what we have. The exact
+signatures, though it is difficult to be certain of all the letters,
+seem to show a variation in spelling--Shakspere, Shakespere, or
+Shakspeare. His father's name appears in the records of the town in
+sixteen different forms, an illustration of the inconsistency in the
+orthography of proper names, as of other words, which was common with
+people of that time of greater worldly consequence and education than
+the poet or his father. The form of the name used in the present edition
+is that which generally appears on the title-pages of plays ascribed to
+him; it is that which he himself used in signing the dedications of his
+two poems to the Earl of Southampton; it is that which occurs in the
+legal documents having to do with his property; and it is the common
+spelling in the literary allusions of the seventeenth century.
+
+[Page Heading: Signatures and Portraits]
+
+[Illustration: THREE AUTOGRAPH SIGNATURES WRITTEN BY SHAKESPEARE ON
+THREE SHEETS OF HIS WILL
+
+From the document now at Somerset House, London]
+
+Our knowledge of Shakespeare's personal appearance is also far from
+being definite. The bust on the monument in the church at Stratford was
+cut apparently before 1623 by a Dutch stone cutter called Gerard
+Janssen. It was originally colored; probably the eyes light hazel, and
+the hair auburn. Its crude workmanship renders it unreliable as a
+likeness. The frontispiece to the First Folio was engraved for that work
+by Martin Droeshout, who was only twenty-two years old at the time, so
+that he is more likely to have made it from a portrait than from memory.
+No portrait has been found that seems actually to have served this
+purpose, though there are resemblances between the engraving and the
+portrait, dated 1609, presented to the Memorial Picture Gallery at
+Stratford by Mrs. Charles Flower. The numerous other portraits that have
+been claimed as likenesses of the dramatist have varying degrees of
+probability, but none has a pedigree without a flaw. Those with most
+claim to interest are the Ely Palace portrait, the Chandos portrait,
+the Garrick Club bust, and the Kesselstadt death-mask.[2]
+
+[2] See frontispieces in the Tudor Shakespeare to editions of _Henry V_
+(Droeshout original), _King Lear_ (Ely Palace), _Romeo and Juliet_
+(Chandos), _Pericles_ (Garrick Club bust), and _The Tempest_
+(Death-mask). The Stratford Monument and the Droeshout engraving are
+reproduced in the present volume.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Such is the very considerable body of authenticated facts about the life
+of Shakespeare. Lacking though they are in intimate and personal
+touches, they can hardly be said to leave the main outlines of his
+career shadowy or mysterious. But they do not by any means exhaust the
+data at our disposal for forming an impression of the poet's
+personality. A large mass of tradition, of less than legal validity but
+much of it of a high degree of probability, has come down to us, the
+sources of which may now be detailed.
+
+In the seventeenth century we have several biographical and critical
+collections in which Shakespeare figures, the most important being
+these: Fuller's _Worthies of England_ (1662), Aubrey's _Lives of Eminent
+Men_ (compiled 1669-1696), Phillips's _Theatrum Poetarum_ (1675), and
+Langbaine's _English Dramatic Poets_ (1691). The two last are for
+strictly biographical purposes negligible, though interesting as early
+criticism. Fuller began his work in 1643, so that he may be supposed to
+have had access to oral tradition from men who actually knew
+Shakespeare. He gives few facts, but some hints as to temperament.
+"Though his genius generally was jocular and inclining him to
+festivity, yet he could, when so disposed, be solemn and serious....
+Many were the wit-combats betwixt him and Ben Jonson; which two I beheld
+like a Spanish great galleon and an English man-of-war; master Jonson
+(like the former) was built far higher in learning; solid, but slow, in
+his performances. Shakespeare, with the English man-of-war, lesser in
+bulk, but lighter in sailing, could turn with all tides, tack about, and
+take advantage of all winds, by the quickness of his wit and invention."
+
+[Page Heading: Sources of Traditions]
+
+Among the actors who, with Shakespeare, took part in the first
+production of Jonson's _Every Man in His Humour_ was Christopher
+Beeston, who when he died in 1637 was manager of the Cockpit Theater in
+Drury Lane. He was succeeded in this office by his son William, who
+became in his old age the revered transmitter to Restoration players and
+playwrights of the traditions of the great age in which he had spent his
+youth. From him, and from another actor of the same period, John Lacy,
+as well as from other sources, the antiquary John Aubrey collected
+fragments of gossip for his lives of the English poets. According to
+Aubrey's notes, confused and unequal in value, Shakespeare "did act
+exceeding well"; "understood Latin pretty well, for he had been in his
+younger years a schoolmaster in the country"; "was a handsome,
+well-shaped man, very good company, and of a very ready and pleasant
+smooth wit." It is Aubrey, too, that reports that John Shakespeare was
+a butcher, and he adds, "I have been told heretofore by some of the
+neighbours that when he was a boy he exercised his father's trade....
+When he killed a calf, he would doe it in a high style and make a
+speech. There was at that time another butcher's son in this towne, that
+was held not at all inferior to him for a naturall wit, his
+acquaintance, and coetanean, but dyed young." The same writer is
+authority for the statement that it was at Grendon, near Oxford, on the
+road from Stratford to London, that the dramatist "happened to take the
+humour of the constable in Midsummer Night's Dream"--a remark that may
+refer loosely either to Bottom and his friends, or to Dogberry and
+Verges. He also ascribes to the poet an apocryphal epigram on a
+Stratford usurer, John Combe.
+
+The Rev. John Ward, vicar of Stratford-on-Avon for 1662 to 1668, kept
+about the time of his coming to this charge a diary in which he relates
+certain echoes of the conversation of the town at a time when the poet's
+nephews were still living there. From him we hear that in his elder days
+Shakespeare retired to Stratford; that in his most active period he
+wrote two plays a year; that he spent at the rate of £1000 a year; and
+that his death was due to a fever following a "merry meeting" in
+Stratford with Jonson and Drayton.
+
+An additional reference to the tradition of Shakespeare's convivial
+tendencies is to be found in the legend of his visit to Bidford, six
+miles from Stratford, with a group of cronies to compare capacities
+with the Bidford Drinkers. According to the earliest version of this
+somewhat widespread tale, that of a visitor to Stratford in 1762, "he
+enquired of a shepherd for the Bidford Drinkers, who replied they were
+absent but the Bidford sippers were at home, and, I suppose, continued
+the sheepkeeper, they will be sufficient for you; and so, indeed, they
+were; he was forced to take up his lodging under that tree [the
+crab-tree, long pointed out] for some hours."
+
+[Page Heading: Traditions]
+
+The earliest description of Shakespeare as "a glover's son" is found in
+the memoranda of Archdeacon Plume of Rochester, written about 1656.
+Plume adds, "Sir John Mennes saw once his old father in his shop--a
+merry cheeked old man that said, 'Will was a good honest fellow, but he
+darest have crackt a jeast with him at any time.'" No Sir John Mennes
+who could have seen John Shakespeare is known, but the saying may well
+be the echo of contemporary gossip.
+
+A manuscript preserved at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, contains
+certain notes made before 1688 by the Rev. William Fulman. Among them
+are interpolated others (given here in italics) by the Rev. Richard
+Davies previously to 1708. "William Shakespeare was born at
+Stratford-on-Avon in Warwickshire about 1563-4. _Much given to all
+unluckinesse in stealing venison and rabbits, particularly from Sr. ...
+Lucy, who had him whipt and sometimes imprisoned, and at last made him
+fly his native country to his great advancement; but his reveng was so
+sweet that he is his Justice Clodpate, and calls him a great man, and
+that in allusion to his name bore three lowses rampant for his arms._
+From an actor of playes he became a composer. He dyed Apr. 23, 1616,
+ætat 53, probably at Stratford, for there he is buried, and hath a
+monument (Dugd. p. 520), _on which he lays a heavy curse upon any one
+who shall remove his bones. He dyed a papist."_ The inaccuracy of
+Davies's version of facts otherwise known warns us against too great a
+reliance on his individual contribution.
+
+A certain John Dowdall left a short account of places he visited in
+Warwickshire in 1693. He describes the monument and tombstone, giving
+inscriptions, and adds, "The clarke that shew'd me this church is above
+80 years old; he says that this Shakespeare was formerly in this towne
+bound apprentice to a butcher, but that he run from his master to
+London, and there was received into the play-house as a serviture, and
+by this means had an opportunity to be what he afterwards prov'd. He was
+the best of his family, but the male line is extinguished. Not one for
+feare of the curse abovesaid dare touch his gravestone, tho his wife and
+daughters did earnestly desire to be leyd in the same grave with him."
+The traditional explanation of the curse as reported by William Hall,
+has already been given (p. 35).
+
+[Page Heading: Rowe's Biography]
+
+The first regular biography of Shakespeare is that by Nicholas Rowe,
+written as a preface to his edition of the plays which, issued in 1709,
+stands at the beginning of modern Shakespearean interpretation. Though
+compiled nearly a century after the poet's death, Rowe's life has claims
+upon our credit more substantial than might be expected. His chief
+source of information was the great actor Betterton, a Shakespeare
+enthusiast, who had himself taken pains to accumulate facts concerning
+his hero. Much of Betterton's material came to him through John Lowin
+and Joseph Taylor, two actors who had been colleagues of Shakespeare's
+and who lived into the Restoration period. According to John Downes, a
+theatrical prompter in the end of the seventeenth century, these
+veterans brought to the new generation the actual instruction they had
+received from the dramatist himself on the playing of the parts
+respectively of Henry VIII and Hamlet. Theatrical and other traditions
+reached Rowe also through Sir William D'Avenant, the leading figure in
+the revival of the stage after 1660. D'Avenant's father was host of the
+Crown Inn at Oxford, where, according to the statements of Aubrey and of
+Anthony Wood in 1692, Shakespeare was accustomed to put up on his
+journeys between London and Stratford. Wood reports that the elder
+D'Avenant was a "man of grave and saturnine disposition, yet an admirer
+of plays and play-makers, especially Shakespeare," and that Mrs.
+D'Avenant was "a very beautiful woman, of a good wit and conversation."
+William D'Avenant was generally reputed to be Shakespeare's godson, and
+Aubrey, whose gossip must be accepted with great hesitation, says that
+he was not averse to being taken as his son. In spite of the fact of
+this scandal's appearance in various seventeenth century anecdotes, the
+more careful account of the D'Avenants by Wood points to its rejection.
+The story is usually linked with another recorded by the lawyer
+Manningham in his Diary, March 13, 1602, that Burbage, who had been
+playing Richard III, was overheard by Shakespeare making an appointment
+with a lady in the audience. When the tragedian arrived at the
+rendez-vous, he found Shakespeare in possession; and on knocking was
+answered that "William the Conqueror was before Richard the Third."
+
+To return to the D'Avenants, the elder son, Robert, used to tell that
+when he was a child Shakespeare had given him "a hundred kisses." Sir
+William was Rowe's authority for the statement that the Earl of
+Southampton once gave the poet £1000 "to enable him to go through with a
+purchase which he heard he had a mind to"; but no purchase of this
+magnitude by Shakespeare is recorded. D'Avenant himself was said to own
+a complimentary letter written to Shakespeare by James I, and the
+publisher Lintot says that the Duke of Buckinghamshire claimed to have
+examined the document. The story about Shakespeare's first connection
+with the theater consisting in his holding horses outside, told first in
+a manuscript note preserved in the Library of the University of
+Edinburgh, 1748, is also credited to D'Avenant. According to this
+tradition, frequently repeated, the future dramatist organized a regular
+corps of boys and monopolized the business, so that "as long as the
+practice of riding to the play-house continued the waiters that held the
+horses retained the appellation of Shakespeare's Boys."
+
+[Page Heading: Further Traditions]
+
+Many of the natural inferences to be drawn from the data in the first
+part of the chapter are given by Rowe as facts. Thus he states
+positively that Shakespeare attended a free school, from which he was
+withdrawn owing to "the narrowness of his circumstances, and the want of
+assistance at home." He repeats the deer-stealing anecdote, with further
+detail. As to his acting, Rowe reports, "Tho' I have inquir'd, I could
+never meet with any further account of him this way than that the top of
+his performance was the ghost in his own Hamlet." He corroborates the
+general contemporary opinion of Shakespeare's fluency and spontaneity in
+composition. As to his personality, he says, "Besides the advantages of
+his wit, he was in himself a good-natur'd man, of great sweetness in his
+manners and a most agreeable companion." Rowe credits Shakespeare with
+having prevented his company from rejecting one of Jonson's plays at a
+time when Jonson was altogether unknown, and is inclined to consider the
+latter ungenerous in his critical remarks on Shakespeare.
+
+William Oldys, in his manuscript _Adversaria_, now in the British
+Museum, reports a few further fragments of gossip, the chief of which
+is that Shakespeare's brother Gilbert was discovered still living about
+1660 and was questioned by some actors as to his memory of William. All
+he could give them was a vague recollection of his having played the
+part of Adam in _As You Like It_.
+
+Such are the most significant details which tradition, unauthenticated
+but often plausible, has added to our knowledge of the documents. There
+exists also a very considerable amount of literary allusion to
+Shakespeare's productions from 1594 onwards, which is easily accessible
+in collected form. The most notable of these are the comments of his
+friend and contemporary, Ben Jonson. Besides the splendid eulogy
+prefixed to the First Folio, Jonson talked of Shakespeare's lack of art
+to Drummond of Hawthornden, and expressed himself with affection and
+discrimination in the famous passage in _Timber_.
+
+After all allowances have been made for the inaccuracies of oral
+tradition, we may safely gather from those concerning Shakespeare some
+inferences which help to clothe the naked skeleton of the documented
+facts. It is clear that, within a generation after Shakespeare's death,
+common opinion both in Stratford and London recognized that in the actor
+and dramatist a great man had passed away, that he had been in a worldly
+sense highly successful, though starting from unpropitious beginnings,
+that he wrote with great swiftness and ease, and that in his personal
+relations he was gentle, kindly, genial, and witty. That the bailiff's
+son who returned to his native town as a prosperous gentleman, is to be
+identified with the actor and shareholder of the London theaters, and
+with the author of the plays and poems, it is difficult to see how there
+can remain any reasonable doubt; and, though the facts which prove this
+identity contain little to illuminate the vast intellect and soaring
+imagination which created Hamlet and Lear, they contain nothing
+irreconcilable with the personality, which these creations imply rather
+than reveal.
+
+[Page Heading: Evidence of the Sonnets]
+
+One further source of information about Shakespeare's personality has
+figured largely in some biographies. The _Sonnets_ were published in
+1609, evidently without Shakespeare's coöperation or consent, with a
+dedication by the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, to a Mr. W. H., "the onlie
+begetter of these insuing sonnets." All attempts to identify this Mr. W.
+H. have failed. He may have been merely the person who procured the
+manuscript for Thorpe, though the language of the dedication seems to
+imply that he was the young gentleman who is the subject of a
+considerable number of the poems. Of this young gentleman and of a dark
+lady who seems to have been the occasion of other of the sonnets, much
+has been written, but no facts of Shakespeare's life have been
+established beyond those which are obvious to every reader: that
+Shakespeare wrote admiring and flattering sonnets to a young man who is
+urged to marry (and who may have been the Earl of Southampton, or an
+unknown Mr. W. H., or another); and that he treats of an intrigue with
+some unknown woman. The identification of the young man of the first
+seventeen sonnets with other friends who are praised in later sonnets is
+not certain, though in some cases probable; and much research and
+conjecture have entirely failed to make clear the relations between the
+poet, the rival poet, the lady, and the friend. The _Sonnets_ furnish us
+with no knowledge of Shakespeare's personal affairs, and only a meager
+basis even for gossip as to some of his experiences with men and women.
+
+Another kind of inquiry has sought to discover in the sonnets not facts
+or incidents of Shakespeare's life, but indications of his emotional
+experiences. The results of such inquiry are manifestly outside the
+scope of this chapter. For their discussion, the reader must be referred
+to Professor Alden's introduction to the Tudor edition of the _Sonnets_.
+Shakespeare's personality as it is reflected from his works will also be
+considered in the concluding chapter of this volume. So much stress,
+however, has been placed on interpretations of the sonnets, and these
+have so often occupied an exaggerated place in his biography, that it
+may be worth while to remark that whether these lyrical poems are
+genuine and personal or are conventional and literary, and whether they
+make the poet more clearly discernible or not, they must certainly be
+taken not alone by themselves, but in connection with the dramas as
+affording us an impression of the man who wrote them. Of the sonnets,
+it may be said in almost the same words just now used of the documents
+and traditions, that whether they contain much or little to illuminate
+the vast intellect and soaring imagination which created Hamlet and
+Lear, they contain nothing irreconcilable with the personality which
+these creations imply rather than reveal.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+SHAKESPEARE'S READING
+
+
+We have called the present chapter "Shakespeare's Reading" rather than
+"The Learning of Shakespeare," because, apart from the famous line in
+which Ben Jonson stated that the poet had "small Latin and less Greek,"
+it is evident from the allusions throughout the plays that Shakespeare
+was a reader rather than a scholar. In other words, he used books for
+what interested him; he did not study them for complete mastery; and
+many and varied as are the traces of his literary interests, they have
+the air of being detached fragments that have stuck in a plastic and
+retentive mind, not pieces of systematic erudition. It is true that many
+books have been written to show that Shakespeare had the knowledge of a
+professional in law, medicine, navigation, theology, conveyancing,
+hunting and hawking, horsemanship, politics, and other fields; but such
+works are usually the products of enthusiasts in single subjects, who
+are apt to forget how much a man of acute mind and keen observation can
+pick up of a technical matter that interests him for the time, and how
+intelligently he can use it. The cross-examination of an expert witness
+by an able lawyer is an everyday illustration; and in the literature of
+our own day this kind of versatility is strikingly exemplified in the
+work of such a writer as Mr. Kipling.
+
+[Page Heading: School-Books]
+
+How Shakespeare learned to read and write his own tongue we do not know;
+that he did learn hardly needs to be argued. The free grammar school at
+Stratford-on-Avon, like other schools of its type, was named from its
+function of teaching Latin grammar; and we may make what is known of the
+curricula of such schools in the sixteenth century the basis for our
+inferences as to what Shakespeare learned there.
+
+The accidence, with which the course began, was studied in Lily's
+Grammar, and clear echoes of this well-known work are heard in the
+conversation between Sir Hugh Evans and William Page in _The Merry Wives
+of Windsor_, IV. i, in _1 Henry IV_, II. i. 104, in _Much Ado_, IV. i.
+22, in _Love's Labour's Lost_, IV. ii. 82 (and perhaps, V. i. 10 and
+84), in _Twelfth Night_, II. iii. 2, in _The Taming of the Shrew_, I. i.
+167,--a line of Terence altered by Lily,--and in _Titus Andronicus_, IV.
+ii. 20-23, where Demetrius reads two lines from Horace, and Chiron says,
+
+    O, 'tis a verse in Horace; I know it well.
+    I read it in the grammar long ago.
+
+Such fragments of Latin as we find in the dialogue between Holofernes
+and Nathaniel in _Love's Labour's Lost_, IV. ii, and V. i, are probably
+due to some elementary phrase-book no longer to be identified. It is to
+be noted how prominently this early comedy figures in the list of
+evidences of his school-day memories.
+
+Among the first pieces of connected Latin prose read in the Elizabethan
+schools was _Æsop's Fables_, a collection which, after centuries of
+rewriting and re-compiling for adults, had come in the sixteenth century
+to be regarded chiefly as a school-book, but allusions to which are
+everywhere to be found in the literature of the day. In _2 Henry VI_,
+III. i. 343, and _Richard II_, III. ii. 129, we find references to the
+fable of "The Countryman and a Snake"; in _2 Henry VI_, III. i. 69, and
+_Timon of Athens_, II. i. 28, to "The Crow in Borrowed Feathers"; in _2
+Henry VI_, III. i. 77, to "The Wolf in the Sheep's Skin"; in _King
+John_, II. i. 139, to "The Ass in the Lion's Skin"; in _Henry V_, IV.
+iii. 91, to "The Hunter and the Bear"; in _As You Like It_, I. i. 87, to
+"The Dog that Lost his Teeth"; in _All's Well_, II. i. 71, to "The Fox
+and the Grapes"; besides a number of slighter and less definite
+allusions. The most detailed fable in Shakespeare, that of "The Belly
+and the Members," in _Coriolanus_, I. i. 99, is derived, not from
+_Æsop_, but from Plutarch's _Life of Coriolanus_.
+
+The traces of the well-known collection of sayings from various writers
+called _Sententiæ Pueriles_, and of the so-called _Distichs of Cato_,
+both of which were commonly read in the second and third years, are only
+slight. Battista Spagnuoli Mantuanus, whose _Eclogues_, written about
+1500, had become a text-book, is honored with explicit mention as well
+as quotation in _Love's Labour's Lost_, IV. ii. 95. Cicero, who was read
+from the fourth year, has left his mark on only a phrase or two, in
+spite of his importance in Renaissance culture; but Ovid is much more
+important. The motto on the title-page of _Venus and Adonis_ is from the
+_Amores_, and the matter of the poem is from _Metamorphoses_, X. 519
+ff., with features from the stories of Hermaphroditus and Salmacis
+(_Meta._ IV. 285 ff.), and the hunting in Calydon (_Meta._ VIII. 270
+ff.). Ovid is quoted in Latin in three early plays; and even where a
+translation was available, the phrasing of Shakespeare's allusions
+sometimes shows knowledge of the original. Most of Ovid had been
+translated into English before Shakespeare began to write, and Golding's
+version of the _Metamorphoses_ (1567) was used for the references to the
+Actæon myth in _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_, IV. i. 107 ff., and for a
+famous passage in _The Tempest_, V. i. 33. Livy, who had been translated
+in 1545 according to Malone, seems to have been the chief source of
+_Lucrece_, with some aid from Ovid's _Fasti_, II. 721 ff. Among other
+Ovidian allusions are those to the story of Philomela, so pervasive in
+_Titus Andronicus_; to the Medea myth in four or five passages; to
+Narcissus and Echo, Phaeton, Niobe, Hercules, and a score more of the
+familiar names of classical mythology. Pyramus and Thisbe Shakespeare
+may have read about in Chaucer as well as in Ovid, but Bottom's
+treatment of this story in _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_ gives but a
+slight basis for proving literary relations.
+
+[Page Heading: Ovid]
+
+Virgil followed Ovid in the fifth year, and with Virgil, Terence. Of
+direct knowledge of the latter the plays bear no trace, but of the
+former there seems to be an influence in the description of the painting
+of Troy in _Lucrece_, 1366 ff., and in two short Latin sentences in _2
+Henry VI_, II. i. 24, and IV. i. 117. Horace, Plautus, Juvenal, Persius,
+and Seneca were the new authors taken up in the last years in school.
+All the Horace in the plays may have been taken from other works, like
+the passage already quoted from Lily's Grammar. Juvenal and Persius have
+left no mark. The _Menæchmi_ and _Amphitruo_ of Plautus furnish the
+basis for _The Comedy of Errors_, and no English translation of either
+of these is known before that of the _Menæchmi_ in 1595, which some
+critics think Shakespeare may have seen in manuscript. But no verbal
+similarities confirm this conjecture, and there is no reason why the
+dramatist should not have known both plays at first hand.
+
+The influence of Seneca is dramatically the most important among the
+classical authors. All the plays that go by his name had been translated
+into English in the first part of Elizabeth's reign; he was the main
+channel through which the forms of classical tragedy reached the
+Renaissance; and when Shakespeare began to write he was the dominant
+force in the field of tragedy. This makes it hard to say whether the
+Senecan features in _Titus Andronicus_, _Richard III_, and even
+_Hamlet_, are due to Seneca directly, or to the tradition already well
+established among Shakespeare's earlier contemporaries.
+
+[Page Heading: Results of Schooling]
+
+The impression which the evidence from the textbooks as a whole leaves
+on one is that Shakespeare took from school enough Latin to handle an
+occasional quotation[3] and to extract the plot of a play, but that he
+probably preferred to use a translation when one was to be had. The
+slight acquaintance shown with authors not always read at school,
+Caesar, Livy, Lucan, and Pliny, does not materially alter this
+impression. Much more conclusive as to the effect of his Latin training
+than the literary allusions are the numerous words of Latin origin
+either coined by Shakespeare, or used in such a way as to imply a
+knowledge of their derivation. The discovery of a lost translation may
+modify our views as to whether a particular author was used by him in
+the original, but the evidence from his use of Romance words gives clear
+proof that his schooling was no unimportant element in his mastery of
+speech.
+
+[3] See the list in the appendix to Schmidt's _Lexicon_.
+
+Greek was occasionally begun in the Elizabethan grammar school, but we
+do not know whether this was the case in Stratford. Certainly we have no
+reason to believe that Shakespeare could read Greek, as all his
+knowledge of Greek authors could have been obtained from translations,
+and only two Greek words, _misanthropos_ and _threnos_, occur in his
+writings. Yet no single author was so important in providing material
+for the plays as the Greek Plutarch. His _Lives of Julius Cæsar, Marcus
+Brutus, Marcus Antonius_, and _Caius Martius Coriolanus_, in Sir Thomas
+North's translation, are the direct sources of the great Roman
+tragedies, and in a less important way the _Lives of Antonius_ and
+_Alcibiades_ were used in _Timon of Athens_. Homeric elements are
+discoverable in _Troilus and Cressida_, which derives mainly from the
+medieval tradition. As the Trojan story was already familiar on the
+stage, these need not have come from Chapman's Homer. The knowledge of
+Lucian which seems implied in _Timon_ was probably not gained from the
+Greek original. The late Greek romances, which were popular in
+translation, may have been read by Shakespeare, since the reference to
+the "Egyptian thief" in _Twelfth Night_, V. i. 120, is from the
+_Æthiopica_ of Heliodorus, translated in 1569. Attempts have been made
+by the assembling of parallel passages to prove a knowledge of Greek
+tragedy on the part of Shakespeare, but such parallelisms are more
+naturally explained as coincidences arising from the treatment of
+analogous themes and situations.
+
+Of modern languages, French was the easiest for an Elizabethan
+Englishman to acquire, and the French passages and scenes in _Henry V_
+make it fairly certain that Shakespeare had a working knowledge of this
+tongue. Yet, as in the case of Latin, he seems to have preferred a
+translation to an original when he could find it. Montaigne, whose
+influence some have found pervasive in Shakespeare, he certainly used in
+Gonzalo's account of his ideal commonwealth in _The Tempest_, II. i.
+143 ff., but it seems that he employed Florio's translation here.
+Rabelais's Gargantua is explicitly mentioned in _As You Like It_, III,
+ii. 238, and the great humorist is possibly the inspirer of some of Sir
+Andrew's nonsense in _Twelfth Night_, II. iii. 23. Many of the Sonnets
+contain reminiscences of the French sonneteers of the sixteenth century,
+and it is thought that in some cases Shakespeare shows direct
+acquaintance with Ronsard. He was thus acquainted with the three
+greatest French writers of his century, and French may well have been
+the medium through which he reached authors in other languages.
+
+[Page Heading: French and Italian]
+
+The class of Italian literature with which Shakespeare shows most
+acquaintance is that of the _novelle_, though there is no proof that he
+could read the language. The _Decameron_ of Boccaccio contains the
+love-story of _Cymbeline_, though there may have been an intermediary;
+the plot of _All's Well_ came from the same collection, but had been
+translated by Painter in his _Palace of Pleasure_; and the story of the
+caskets in _The Merchant of Venice_ is found in a form closer to
+Shakespeare's in the English translation of the _Gesta Romanorum_ than
+in the _Decameron_. Thus we cannot conclude that the poet knew this work
+as a whole. Similarly with Bandello and Cinthio. The plot of _Much Ado_
+is found in the former, and is translated by Belleforest into French,
+but at least one detail seems to come from Ariosto, and here again an
+intermediary is commonly conjectured. The novel from Cinthio's
+_Hecatommithi_ which formed the basis of _Othello_ existed in a French
+translation; and his form of the plot of _Measure for Measure_ came to
+Shakespeare through the English dramatic version of George Whetstone.
+The version of the bond story in _The Merchant of Venice_ closest to the
+play is in _Il Pecorone_ of Sir Giovanni Fiorentino, but the tale is
+widespread. Incidents in _The Merry Wives_ have sources or parallels in
+the same work, in Straparola's _Piacevoli Notti_, and in Bandello, but
+in both cases English versions were available. A mass of Italian and
+French prototypes lies behind the plot of _Twelfth Night_, but most of
+the details are to be found in the English _Apolonius and Silla_ of
+Barnabe Riche, and there is reason to conjecture a lost English play on
+the subject. _The Taming of the Shrew_, based on an extant older play,
+draws also on Gascoigne's version of Ariosto's _I Suppositi_; and the
+echoes of Petrarch in the Sonnets may well have come through French and
+English imitators. The introduction of stock types from the Italian
+drama, such as the pedant and the braggart-soldier, can be accounted for
+by the previous knowledge of these in England, and does not imply a
+first-hand reading of Italian literature. The negative position is still
+stronger in the case of Spanish, where the use of episodes from George
+of Montemayor's _Diana_ in _The Two Gentlemen_, _Twelfth Night_, and _A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream_, can be supposed to be due to the author's
+having access to Yonge's translation in manuscript, especially since
+there is no other trace of Spanish influence.
+
+[Page Heading: Early English]
+
+The conclusion with regard to Italian and Spanish, then, seems to be
+that Shakespeare in his search for plots was aware of the riches of the
+_novelle_, but that he found what he wanted as a rule in English or
+French versions; and that we have no evidence of his knowledge of
+anything but fiction from these literatures.
+
+Turning now to English, we find Shakespeare's knowledge of books in his
+own tongue beginning after the Conquest. The romances of the Middle Ages
+were in the Elizabethan time rapidly undergoing the process of
+degradation that was soon to end in the chap-books, but the material was
+still widely known. The particular versions read by the dramatist can
+rarely be determined on account of the slight nature of most of the
+references, but we find allusions to the Arthurian romances, to _Guy of
+Warwick_, _Bevis of Hampton_, _The Squire of Low Degree_, Roland and
+Oliver, and to _Huon of Bordeaux_, from which last came the name of
+Oberon as king of the fairies. Among popular ballads, those of Robin
+Hood are frequently alluded to; the story of _King Cophetua and the
+Beggar Maid_ appears in no fewer than five plays; Hamlet knew a ballad
+on Jephtha's daughter, and Sir Toby one on the chaste Susanna. A large
+number of popular songs appear in fragments; and rimes and spells,
+current jests and anecdotes, combine with the fairy-lore of _A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream_, _Romeo and Juliet_, and _The Merry Wives_ to
+assure us that Shakespeare was thoroughly versed in the literature and
+traditions of the people.
+
+His acquaintance with more formal letters begins with Chaucer, whose
+_Knight's Tale_ contributed some details to _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_,
+and the main plot of _The Two Noble Kinsmen_, in which Shakespeare is
+now usually supposed to have had a hand. This story had, however, been
+already dramatized by Richard Edwardes. More certainly direct is his
+knowledge of Chaucer's _Troilus_, which, with Caxton's _Recuyell of the
+Historyes of Troye_, is the main source of _Troilus and Cressida_. The
+references to the leprosy of Cressida are due to Henryson's _Testament
+of Creseide_, a Scots sequel to Chaucer's poem, printed in the sixteenth
+century editions of the older poet's works. In the _Legend of Good
+Women_ he may have found the story of Pyramus, and a version of the
+tragedy of Lucrece, to supplement his main sources in Livy and Ovid.
+Chaucer's contemporary Gower contributed to his stock the story of
+Florent (_Taming of the Shrew_, I. ii. 69) from the _Confessio Amantis_,
+and from the same collection a version of the tale of _Apollonius of
+Tyre_, dramatized by Shakespeare and another in _Pericles_.
+
+[Page Heading: Contemporary Literature]
+
+With the non-dramatic literature produced by Shakespeare's
+contemporaries, we naturally find most evidence of his acquaintance in
+the case of those books which provided material for his plays. Thus the
+otherwise obscure Arthur Brooke, whose poem _Romeus and Juliet_ is the
+chief source of the tragedy, is much more prominent in such an
+enumeration as the present than he probably was in Shakespeare's view of
+the literature of the day. Painter, whose version of the same story in
+his _Palace of Pleasure_ cannot be shown to have been used much, if at
+all, by the dramatist, seems nevertheless to have been known to him; and
+we hardly need evidence that Shakespeare must have kept a watchful eye
+on similar collections of stories, such as Whetstone's, Riche's, and
+Pettie's. Of the greater writers of imaginative literature there is none
+missing from the list of those he knew, though, as has been implied, the
+evidence is not always proportionate to the greatness; and some
+prominent figures in other fields, such as Hooker and Bacon, do not
+appear. Spenser, who is supposed to have alluded to Shakespeare in
+_Colin Clout's come home again_ and, less probably, in _The Teares of
+the Muses_, is in turn alluded to in _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_, V. i.
+52; and his version of the story of Lear in _The Faerie Queene_, II. x,
+is believed to have given Shakespeare his form of the name Cordelia.
+Evidence is more abundant in the case of Sir Philip Sidney. The
+under-plot of _King Lear_ is based on the story of the blind king of
+Paphlagonia in the _Arcadia_, and Sidney's sonnets, along with those of
+Daniel, Drayton, Constable, Watson, and Barnes, formed the main channel
+through which the French and Italian influences reached Shakespeare's.
+However we may estimate the original element in his sonnets, and in our
+opinion it is very great, there is no question of the author's having
+had a thorough familiarity with contemporary sonnetteers.
+
+Similarly we can be certain that he had read many of the elaborate
+narrative poems then in vogue, a class to which he contributed _Venus
+and Adonis_, _Lucrece_, and _A Lover's Complaint_. Daniel's _Rosamond_
+and Marlowe's _Hero and Leander_ especially have left many traces, and
+Daniel's _Barons' Wars_ is intimately related to _Richard II_ and _Henry
+IV_. The longer prose fictions of the time he also watched, and Lyly's
+_Euphues_ contributed the germ of a number of passages, as Lodge's
+_Rosalynde_ and Greene's _Pandosto_ supplied the plots of _As You Like
+It_ and _The Winter's Tale_ respectively.
+
+Reference has already been made to his knowledge of folk beliefs about
+fairies. To this should be added other supernatural beliefs, especially
+as to ghosts, devils, and witches, evidence of his familiarity with
+which will occur to every one. Matters of this sort were much discussed
+in his time, the frequency of ghosts in Senecan plays having made them
+conspicuous in Elizabethan imitations, and religious controversy having
+stimulated interest in demonology. Several important books appeared on
+the subject, and one of these at least Shakespeare read, Harsnett's
+_Declaration of Egregious Popish Impostures_, for from it Edgar, as Poor
+Tom in _King Lear_, derived many of the names and phrases which occur in
+his pretended ravings.
+
+The most useful book in all his reading, if we judge by the amount of
+his work that is based on it, was the second edition of the _Chronicles
+of England, Scotland, and Ireland_, compiled by Raphael Holinshed. With
+it he used the work by Hall on _The Union of Lancaster and York_, the
+_Chronicles_ of Grafton and of Fabyan, and the _Annals_ of John Stowe.
+On these were based the greater number of the historical plays,
+_Macbeth_, and the political part of _Cymbeline_. In the case of _Henry
+VIII_ there should be added the _Acts and Monuments_, better known as
+the _Book of Martyrs_, of John Foxe.
+
+[Page Heading: Contemporary Drama]
+
+To deal adequately with Shakespeare's reading in the plays of his time
+would be to write a history of the Elizabethan drama. Older dramatists,
+like Preston, Gascoigne, and Whetstone, he knew, for he quotes
+_Cambyses_, and from the two last he derives material for the plots of
+_The Taming of the Shrew_ and _Measure for Measure_. Anonymous writers
+supplied the older plays on which he based _King John, King Lear_, and
+_Hamlet_, parts of _Henry V_ and _VI_, and of _Richard III_, and
+probably others. Allusions prove a familiarity with all of Marlowe's
+dramas; _Hamlet_ is indebted to the tradition of which Kyd was one of
+the founders; Lyly taught him much in the handling of light comic
+dialogue; and he quotes lines from Peele. Greene's contribution is less
+specifically marked; but Shakespeare's profession of acting, as well as
+that of play-writing, of necessity made him acquainted with the whole
+dramatic production of the time. Thus, as has been stated in a previous
+chapter, he acted in several of Jonson's plays, and a good case has been
+made out for his modelling his last comedies on the new successes of
+Beaumont and Fletcher.
+
+No Englishman of that day was insensible to what was going on in
+exploration and conquest of the Western World; and in _The Tempest_,
+_Othello_, and other plays we have clear ground for stating that
+Shakespeare shared this interest, and read books like Eden's _History of
+Travayle in the West and East Indies_, Raleigh's _Discoverie of Guiana_,
+and such pamphlets as were used in the vast compilation of Richard
+Hakluyt. The scientific knowledge implied in the plays reflects current
+beliefs, and must have been derived from such works as Pliny, _Batman
+uppon Bartholome his Booke De Proprietatibus Rerum_, and from
+conversation.
+
+Finally, Shakespeare knew his Bible. Several volumes have been written
+to exhibit the extent of this knowledge, and it has been shown by Anders
+that he knew both the Genevan and the Great Bible, as well as the Prayer
+Book.
+
+Taken all together, the amount of literature indicated by this summary
+account of the evidences in the plays and poems abundantly proves the
+statement that Shakespeare, if not a scholar, was a man of wide and
+varied reading. When it is further considered that only a fraction of
+what any author reads leaves a mark that can be identified on what he
+writes, we shall readily allow that in the matter of study Shakespeare
+showed an activity and receptivity of mind that harmonizes with the
+impression received from his creative work.
+
+[Page Heading: His Reading Typical]
+
+It agrees with our impressions of him derived from other sources also,
+that his reading reflects not so much idiosyncrasies of taste as the
+prevalent literary interests of the day. Thus in Latin literature the
+most conspicuous author among general readers, as distinguished from
+scholars, was Ovid, whose romantic narratives appealed to a time which
+reveled in tales gathered from all quarters; and this same prominence of
+Ovid has been shown to exist among the classical authors known to the
+dramatist. Similarly his use of chronicles like that of Holinshed merely
+reflects a widespread interest in national history; and Shakespeare
+shared the popular interest in the translations of _novelle_ and the
+like that poured in from the Continent. The age of Elizabeth was an age
+of great expansion in reading--especially in the literature of
+entertainment. For the first time since the introduction of printing the
+people were free to indulge in books as a recreation, and the enormous
+growth of publishing in this era indicates the response to the new
+demand. In all this Shakespeare took part, and the evidences appear in
+his works so far as the nature of their themes permitted it. But the
+drama gave no opportunity for anything but passing allusions to
+scientific, philosophical, and religious matters, so that direct
+evidence is lacking as to how far Shakespeare was acquainted with what
+was being written in these fields. On the other hand, the profundity of
+his insight into human motive and behavior, the evidences of prolonged
+and severe meditation on human life and the ways of the world, and the
+richness of the philosophical generalizations that lie just below the
+surface of his greater plays, make it difficult to believe that in these
+fields also he did not join in the intellectual activity of his day.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CHRONOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT
+
+
+The value of a knowledge of the order in which an author's works were
+composed no longer needs to be argued. The development of power and
+skill which such knowledge reveals is an important part of biography,
+and an individual work is more surely interpreted when we know the
+period and the circumstances of the author's life in which it was
+written, and what other works, by himself and his fellows, lie nearest
+in point of time. Without a knowledge of chronology, the indebtedness of
+contemporary authors to one another and the growth of literary forms
+cannot be determined.
+
+The fact, so often to be insisted upon, that at the beginning of
+Shakespeare's career stage plays were hardly regarded as literature at
+all and were not published by their authors, deprives us of the evidence
+usually afforded by date of publication. We are thus forced to have
+recourse to a variety of more or less casually recorded data, and to
+indications of differences of maturity in style and matter which are
+often much less clear than could be wished. Before giving the results of
+the research that has been pursued for a century and a half, it will be
+worth while to enumerate the most fruitful methods which have been
+employed, and the sorts of evidence available.
+
+Of purely external evidence, the chief kinds are these: records of the
+performance of plays in letters, diaries, accounts, and the like;
+quotation, allusion, imitation, or parody in other works; entries in the
+books of the Master of the Revels at Court, and in the Register of the
+Stationers' Company; dates on the title-pages of the plays themselves;
+facts and traditions about the life of the author; dates in the lives of
+actors and in the careers of companies known to have performed the
+plays, and in the histories of theaters in which they were presented.
+Instances of some of these are the manuscript which tells of a
+performance of _The Comedy of Errors_ at Gray's Inn in 1594; the diary
+of the quack, Dr. Simon Forman, who witnessed performances of _Macbeth,
+Cymbeline_, and _The Winter's Tale_ at the Globe in 1610 and 1611; the
+appreciation of Shakespeare, with a list of a dozen plays by him, in the
+_Palladis Tamia_[4] of Francis Meres, 1598; and the pamphlets on
+Somers's voyage to Virginia, which offered suggestions for _The
+Tempest_.
+
+[4] See Appendix A, 13.
+
+Partly external and partly internal are the evidences derived from
+allusions in the plays to current events, personal or political, such as
+the reference in the Prologue to _Henry V_ to the expedition of Essex to
+Ireland in 1599; references to other books, like the quotation from
+Marlowe in _As You Like It_, III. v. 82; references from one play of
+Shakespeare's to another, like the promise in the Epilogue to _2 Henry
+IV_ to "continue the story, with Sir John in it, and make you merry with
+fair Katherine of France."
+
+[Page Heading: Kinds of Evidence]
+
+The purely internal evidence is seldom as specific as the external, and
+requires to be handled with much judgment and caution. Most difficult in
+this class is the weighing of considerations of a moral or esthetic
+nature; for, though these are often powerful in their effect on the
+individual reader, they are usually incapable of proof to another person
+with different tastes and a different point of view. Of such tests,
+those afforded by a study of the methods used in the treatment of plot
+and in the development of character are perhaps the least subjective.
+Somewhat more palpable are the changing characteristics of style. The
+number and nature of classical allusions and Latin words and quotations;
+the kind and degree of elaboration of figures of speech, puns, conceits,
+and the like; diffuseness or concentration in the expression of thought;
+artificiality or lifelikeness in the treatment of dialogue; the use of
+prose or verse; the employment of oaths, checked by statute shortly
+after the accession of James I: these are the main aspects of style
+which can be used in determining, not exact dates, but the period of
+Shakespeare's activity within which a given work falls. More capable of
+mechanical calculation than the tests of either matter or style are
+those derived from changes in versification, though here too there is
+often a subjective element in the reckoning. The more important metrical
+tests include the following: the frequency of rhyme, whether in the
+heroic couplet or, as not uncommonly occurs in early plays, in
+alternates and even such elaborate arrangements as the sonnet; doggerel
+lines; alexandrines, or lines of twelve syllables; the presence of an
+extra syllable before a pause within the line; short lines, especially
+at the end of speeches; the substitution of other feet for the regular
+iambic movement of blank verse; weak and light endings; and, most
+valuable, the position of the pause in the line ("end-stopped" or "run
+on"), and feminine endings or hypermetrical lines, such as
+
+    "These many summers in a sea of glor-y."
+
+Many of these variable features were not consciously manipulated by the
+author; and, even when a general drift in a certain direction is clearly
+observable in his practice with regard to them, it is not to be assumed
+that his progress was perfectly regular, without leaps forward and
+occasional returns to an earlier usage. It is to be noted also that the
+subject and atmosphere of a particular play might induce a metrical
+treatment of a special kind, in which case the verse tests would yield
+evidence not primarily chronological at all. Nevertheless, when all
+allowances have been made and all due caution exercised, it will be
+found that the indications of the versification corroborate and
+supplement the external evidences in a valuable way.
+
+[Page Heading: Metrical Tests]
+
+
+TABLE I
+
+=========================================================================
+            |      |      |      |      |   %   |      |   %    |
+            |      |      |      |      |BLANK  |      |SPEECHES|NO. OF
+            |TOTAL |      |      |PENTA-|VERSE  |  %   |ENDING  |LIGHT
+            |NO. OF|      |BLANK |METER |W. FEM.|RUN-ON|WITHIN  |AND WEAK
+            |LINES |PROSE |VERSE |RHYMES|ENDINGS|LINES |THE LINE|ENDINGS
+------------+------+------+------+------+-------+------+--------+--------
+L. L. L.    | 2789 | 1086 |  579 | 1028 |   7.7 | 18.4 |  10.0  |    3
+C. of E.    | 1770 |  240 | 1150 |  380 |  16.6 | 12.9 |   0.6  |    0
+T. G. V.    | 2060 |  409 | 1510 |  116 |  18.4 | 12.4 |   5.8  |    0
+R. III      | 3599 |   55 | 3374 |  170 |  19.5 | 13.1 |   2.9  |    4
+K. J.       | 2553 |    0 | 2403 |  150 |   6.3 | 17.7 |  12.7  |    7
+R. & J.     | 3002 |  405 | 2111 |  486 |   8.2 | 14.2 |  14.9  |    7
+M. N. D.    | 2251 |  441 |  878 |  731 |   7.3 | 13.2 |  17.3  |    1
+R. II       | 2644 |    0 | 2107 |  537 |  11.0 | 19.9 |   7.3  |    4
+Merch.      | 2705 |  673 | 1896 |   93 |  17.6 | 21.5 |  22.2  |    7
+1 Hy. IV    | 3170 | 1464 | 1622 |   84 |   5.1 | 22.8 |  14.2  |    7
+2 Hy. IV    | 3437 | 1860 | 1417 |   74 |  16.3 | 21.4 |  16.8  |    1
+M. W. W.    | 3018 | 2703 |  227 |   69 |  27.2 | 20.1 |  20.5  |    1
+Hy. V       | 3320 | 1531 | 1678 |  101 |  20.5 | 21.8 |  18.3  |    2
+M. Ado.     | 2823 | 2106 |  643 |   40 |  22.9 | 19.3 |  20.7  |    2
+J. C.       | 2440 |  165 | 2241 |   34 |  19.7 | 19.3 |  20.3  |   10
+A. Y. L. I. | 2904 | 1681 |  925 |   71 |  25.5 | 17.1 |  21.6  |    2
+T. N.       | 2684 | 1741 |  763 |  120 |  25.6 | 14.7 |  36.3  |    4
+T. & C.     | 3423 | 1186 | 2025 |  196 |  23.8 | 27.4 |  31.3  |    6
+A. W. W.    | 2981 | 1453 | 1234 |  280 |  29.4 | 28.4 |  74.0  |   13
+Hml.        | 3924 | 1208 | 2490 |   81 |  22.6 | 23.1 |  51.6  |    8
+Meas.       | 2809 | 1134 | 1574 |   73 |  26.1 | 23.0 |  51.4  |    7
+Oth.        | 3324 |  541 | 2672 |   86 |  28.1 | 19.5 |  41.4  |    2
+Lear.       | 3298 |  903 | 2238 |   74 |  28.5 | 29.3 |  60.9  |    6
+Mcb.        | 1993 |  158 | 1588 |  118 |  26.3 | 36.6 |  77.2  |   23
+A. & C.     | 3064 |  255 | 2761 |   42 |  26.5 | 43.3 |  77.5  |   99
+Cor.        | 3392 |  829 | 2521 |   42 |  28.4 | 45.9 |  79.0  |  104
+Cym.        | 3448 |  638 | 2505 |  107 |  30.7 | 46.0 |  85.0  |  130
+W. T.       | 2750 |  844 | 1825 |    0 |  32.9 | 37.5 |  87.6  |  100
+Tmp.        | 2068 |  458 | 1458 |    2 |  35.4 | 41.5 |  84.5  |   67
+=========================================================================
+
+
+TABLE II
+
+COLLABORATED PLAYS
+
+=========================================================================
+            |      |      |      |      |   %   |      |   %    |
+            |      |      |      |      |BLANK  |      |SPEECHES|NO. OF
+            |TOTAL |      |      |PENTA-|VERSE  |  %   |ENDING  |LIGHT
+            |NO. OF|      |BLANK |METER |W. FEM.|RUN-ON|WITHIN  |AND WEAK
+            |LINES |PROSE |VERSE |RHYMES|ENDINGS|LINES |THE LINE|ENDINGS
+------------+------+------+------+------+-------+------+--------+--------
+1 Hy. VI    | 2693 |    0 | 2379 |  314 |   8.2 | 10.4 |   0.5  |  4
+2 Hy. VI    | 3032 |  448 | 2562 |  122 |  13.7 | 11.4 |   1.1  |  3
+3 Hy. VI    | 2904 |    0 | 2749 |  155 |  13.7 |  9.5 |   0.9  |  3
+T. And.     | 2525 |   43 | 2338 |  144 |   8.6 | 12.0 |   2.5  |  5
+T. of S.    | 2671 |  516 | 1971 |  169 |  17.7 |  8.1 |   3.6  | 14
+T. of A.    | 2358 |  596 | 1560 |  184 |  24.7 | 32.5 |  62.8  | 30 (S)
+Per.        | 2386 |  418 | 1436 |  225 |  20.2 | 18.2 |  71.0  | 82 (S)
+Hy. VIII    | 2754 |   67 | 2613 |   16 |  47.3 | 46.3 |  72.4  | 84 (S)
+T. N. K.    | 2734 |  179 | 2468 |   54 |  43.7 |      |        |
+=========================================================================
+
+The accompanying Tables[5] give the detailed results of investigations
+along these lines, and a study of the data therein contained will reveal
+both their possibilities and their limitations. In Tables I and II the
+order of the plays is approximately that of the dates of their
+composition (virtually the same as the dates of first performance). The
+second and third columns cannot be regarded as giving any clue to
+chronology, except that they show that in the dramas written under the
+influence of Marlowe prose is comparatively rare. Elsewhere Shakespeare
+employed prose for a variety of purposes: for low comedy, as in the
+tavern scenes in _Henry IV_, and the scenes in which Sir Toby figures in
+_Twelfth Night_; for repartee, as in the wit-combats of Beatrice and
+Benedick; for purely intellectual and moralizing speeches, such as
+Hamlet's over the skull of Yorick. On the other hand, highly emotional
+scenes are usually in verse, as are romantic passages like the
+conversation of Lorenzo and Jessica in the moonlight at Belmont, or the
+dialogues of Fenton and Anne Page, which contrast with the realistic
+prose of the rest of the _Merry Wives_ and also the artificial
+pastoralism of Silvius and Phœbe in _As You Like It_. Few absolute rules
+can be laid down in the matter, but study of Shakespeare's practice
+reveals an admirable tact in his choice of medium.
+
+[5] The figures here given are based in columns 1, 2, 3, and 4 on the
+calculations of Fleay; in 5, 6, and 7 on those of König; and in 8 on
+those of Ingram. (S) = Shakespeare's scenes.
+
+[Page Heading: Metrical Tests]
+
+The frequency of rhyme, as shown in the fourth column, has more relation
+to date. While there is no very steady gradation, it is clear that in
+his earlier plays he used rhyme freely, while at the close of his career
+he had practically abandoned it. The large number of rhymes in _A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream_ and _Romeo and Juliet_ is accounted for mainly
+by the prevailing lyrical tone of a great part of these plays, while, on
+the other hand, in _All's Well_ it probably points to survivals of an
+earlier first form of this comedy. It ought to be noted that, in the
+figures given here, the rhyming lines in the play scene in _Hamlet_, the
+vision in _Cymbeline_, the masque in _The Tempest_, and the Prologue
+and Epilogue of _Henry VIII_ are not reckoned.
+
+More significant are the percentages in columns five, six, and seven.
+Before 1598, feminine endings never reach twenty per cent of the total
+number of pentameter lines; after that date they are practically always
+above that number, and show a fairly steady increase to the thirty-five
+per cent of _The Tempest_. The variations of run-on lines (which, of
+course, carry with them the frequency of pauses within the line, and
+inversely the growing rarity of end-stopped lines) are closely parallel
+to those of the feminine endings; while the increase in the proportion
+of speeches ending within the line is still more striking. In _The
+Comedy of Errors_ this phenomenon hardly occurs at all; in _The Tempest_
+it happens in over eighty-four per cent of the speeches, the increase
+being especially regular after 1598. Yet in some cases other causes are
+operative. Thus cuts and revisions of plays were apt to leave broken
+lines at the ends of speeches, and the comparatively high percentages in
+_Love's Labour's Lost_, _Romeo and Juliet_, and _All's Well_ are
+probably in part due to these causes.
+
+The phenomena recorded in the last column are peculiar. Previous to the
+date of _Macbeth_ it appears that Shakespeare practically avoided ending
+a line with light or weak words such as prepositions, conjunctions, and
+auxiliary verbs, but that from about 1606 to the end he employed them in
+proportions ranging from 3.53 per cent in _Antony and Cleopatra_ to
+7.14 per cent in his part of _Henry VIII_.
+
+[Page Heading: Risks of Error]
+
+The figures for plays not wholly written by Shakespeare are naturally
+less significant, and have therefore been given separately; yet, on the
+whole, they show the same general tendencies in the use of meter.
+
+It will be observed that while the developments suggested by the
+different columns are fairly consistent, they do not absolutely agree in
+any two cases, and can obviously be used, as has been said, only to
+corroborate other evidence in placing a play in a period, not to fix a
+precise year. Further, in the calculations involved, there are many
+doubtful cases calling for the exercise of individual judgment,
+especially as to what constitutes a run-on line, or a light or weak
+ending. Thus Professor Bradley differs from König in several cases as to
+the figures given in the seventh column, counting the percentage of
+speeches ending within the line as 57 for _Hamlet_, 54 for _Othello_, 69
+for _King Lear_, and 75 for _Macbeth_. For Acts III, IV, and V of
+_Pericles_, the 71 per cent is Bradley's, for which König's 17.1 is
+clearly a mistake. Serious as are such discrepancies, and suggestive of
+a need for a general re-counting of all the more significant phenomena,
+they are not so great as to shake the faith of any scholar who has
+seriously studied the matter in the usefulness of metrical tests as an
+aid in the settling of the chronology.
+
+
+TABLE III
+
+==========================================================================
+ PERIODS |       COMEDIES        |    HISTORIES    |       TRAGEDIES
+---------+-----------------------+-----------------+----------------------
+         | L. L. L.    1591      | 1 Hy. VI 1590-1 |
+         | C. of E.    1591      | 2 Hy. VI 1590-2 |
+    I    | T. G. of V. 1591-2    | 3 Hy. VI 1590-2 |
+         |                       | R. III   1593   |
+         |                       | K. J.    1593   | T. And.    1593-4
+---------+-----------------------+-----------------+----------------------
+         | M. N. D.    1594-5    | R. II    1595   | R. and J.  1594-5
+         | M. of V.    1595-6    |                 |
+         | T. of S.    1596-7    | 1 Hy. IV 1597   |
+   II    | M. W. of W. 1598      | 2 Hy. IV 1598   |
+         | M. Ado      1599      | Hy. V    1599   | J. Cæs.    1599
+         | A. Y. L. I. 1599-1600 |                 |
+         | Tw. N.      1601      |                 |
+---------+-----------------------+-----------------+----------------------
+         | T. & C.     1601-2    |                 |
+         | A. Well     1602      |                 |
+         | Meas.       1603      |                 | Ham.       1602, 1603
+         |                       |                 | Oth.       1604
+   III   |                       |                 | Lear       1605-6
+         |                       |                 | Mach.      1606
+         |                       |                 | T. of Ath. 1607
+         | Per.        1607-8    |                 | A. & Cl.   1607-8
+         |                       |                 | Cor.       1609
+---------+-----------------------+-----------------+----------------------
+         | Cymb.       1610      |                 |
+         | W. Tale     1611      |                 |
+   IV    | Temp.       1611      |                 |
+         | T. N. K.    1612-13   | Hy. VIII 1612   |
+         |                       |                 |
+==========================================================================
+
+[Page Heading: First Period]
+
+Table III gives a summary of the results of all the kinds of evidence
+available as recorded in the introduction to individual plays in the
+Tudor Shakespeare. The classification into Comedies, Histories, and
+Tragedies draws attention at once to the changes in the type of drama on
+which Shakespeare concentrated his main attention, and suggests the
+usual division of his activity into four periods. In the first of these,
+extending from the beginning of his writing (perhaps earlier than 1590)
+to the end of 1593, he attempted practically all the forms of drama then
+in vogue. Plays which were given him to revise, or in which he was
+invited to collaborate, may naturally be supposed to have preceded
+independent efforts, and his still undetermined share in _Henry VI_ is
+usually regarded as his earliest dramatic production. What he learned in
+this field of tragic history from his more experienced fellows may be
+seen in _Richard III_, in which he can be observed following in the
+footsteps of Marlowe in the treatment of meter, in the rhetorical and
+lyrical nature of the dialogue, and in the conception of the central
+character. Even less of his individual quality is to be discerned in the
+field of tragedy, for the most that can be claimed for him in _Titus
+Andronicus_ is the re-combination of the repellent episodes of that
+crude specimen of the tragedy of blood, and the rewriting of the lines
+which occasionally cloak the horrors with passages of poetry. If, as is
+unlikely, the first form of _Romeo and Juliet_ was written in this
+period, the extant form must show it so radically revised that it leaves
+us little ground for generalization as to his power in tragedy in this
+first period.
+
+It was in comedy that Shakespeare first showed originality. _Love's
+Labour's Lost_ is one of the few plays whose plots seem to have been due
+to his own invention; and full of sparkle and grace as it is, it bears
+obvious marks of the _tour de force_, the young writer's conscious
+testing of his powers in social satire, in comic situation, and most of
+all in verbal mastery and the manipulation of dialogue. In _The Comedy
+of Errors_ he had the advantage of a definite model in the well-defined
+type of the Plautian comedy; but here again in the doubling of the twins
+and the elaboration of the entanglements there are traces of the
+beginner's delight in technic for its own sake. The clearly contrasted
+types in the two pairs of heroes and heroines of _The Two Gentlemen of
+Verona_ point to a conscious effort in characterization, as the author's
+attention had been concentrated on dialogue and on situation in the
+other two comedies of this group. Thus, regarding the variety of kind
+and the nature of his achievement in these first eight or nine plays, we
+can hardly fail to acquiesce in the general opinion that views the first
+period as one of experiment.
+
+[Page Heading: Second Period]
+
+The chronicle history was the Elizabethan dramatic form whose
+possibilities were first exhausted. _King John_ had been only a making
+over of an earlier work, and perhaps the most significant single change
+Shakespeare made was the excision of the anti-Romanist bias which in the
+older play had made John a Protestant hero. Yet this history voices,
+too, in the speeches of Faulconbridge, that patriotic enthusiasm which
+finds fuller expression in the dying Gaunt's eulogy of England in
+_Richard II_, and culminates in the triumphant heroics of _Henry V_.
+This national enthusiasm, especially ebullient in the years following
+the Great Armada, is justly to be regarded as an important condition of
+the flourishing of these plays on English history; and it is natural to
+suppose that the ebbing of this spirit in the closing years of
+Elizabeth's reign is not unconnected with the decline of this dramatic
+type. There are, however, other causes clearly perceptible. The material
+was nearly exhausted. Almost every prominent national figure for the
+three hundred years before the founding of the Tudor dynasty had been
+put upon the stage; and to come down to more recent times was to meddle
+with matters of controversy, the ashes of which were not yet cold. The
+reign of Henry VIII was not touched till after the death of Elizabeth,
+and the nature of the treatment given to the court of her father by
+Shakespeare and Fletcher corroborates our view. Further, the growing
+mastery of technic which is so clearly perceptible in the comedies of
+the second period must have been accompanied by a restlessness under the
+hampering conditions as to the manipulation of character and plot which
+were imposed by the less plastic material of the chronicles. Some effort
+towards greater freedom the dramatist made in the later histories. The
+earlier plays of this class had been prevailingly tragic; but now he
+supplemented and enlivened the political element with the comic scenes
+which gave us Falstaff; yet these scenes, brilliant as they are in
+dialogue and superb in characterization, are of necessity little more
+than episodes. The form had served its purpose as an outlet for national
+feeling, but it was now outgrown. So distinguished, however, is
+Shakespeare's achievement in this kind that we might be almost justified
+in calling this second period that of the culmination of the chronicle
+history.
+
+The main objection to this title lies in his contemporary
+accomplishment in comedy. _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_ and _The Merchant
+of Venice_, the one in its graceful poetic fancy and dainty lyricism,
+the other in its balanced treatment of all the elements of dramatic
+effectiveness--action, character, and dialogue,--exhibit the dramatist
+in complete control of his technical instruments, the creator of
+masterpieces of romantic comedy. _The Taming of the Shrew_ is a more or
+less perfunctory revision, probably in collaboration, of an older farce
+comedy; _The Merry Wives of Windsor_ bears on its face corroboration of
+the tradition that it was written to order in a fortnight. The power in
+high comedy first fully shown in _The Merchant of Venice_ reaches its
+supreme pitch in the three plays composed at the turn of the century,
+_Much Ado about Nothing_, _As You Like It_, and _Twelfth Night_. In each
+of these a romantic love-tale, laid in some remote holiday world, is
+taken up, given a specific atmosphere, acted out by a group of
+delightful creations who are endowed with intellect, wit, and natural
+affection, bathed in poetic imagination, and yet handled with sufficient
+naturalism to awaken and hold our human sympathies. No more purely
+delightful form of dramatic art has ever been contrived; none has ever
+been treated so as to yield more fully its appropriate charm; so that in
+view of the completeness of the artist's success we are bound to call
+the period which closed with the first year of the seventeenth century
+the triumph of comedy.
+
+[Page Heading: Third Period]
+
+_Julius Cæsar_, the first of the plays dealing with Roman history, may
+have been written before 1600, but, whether it preceded _Hamlet_ by one
+year or three, it forms a gradual introduction to the group of the great
+tragedies. Masterly as it is in its delineation of types, rich in
+political wisdom and the knowledge of human nature, splendid in
+rhetoric, it still fails to rise to the intensity of passion that marks
+the succeeding dramas. In _Hamlet_, _Othello_, _King Lear_, and
+_Macbeth_, Shakespeare at length faced the great fundamental forces that
+operate in individual, family, and social life, realized especially
+those that make for moral and physical disaster, took account alike of
+the deepest tendencies in character and of the mystery of external fate
+or accident, exhibited these in action and reaction, in their simplicity
+and their complexity, and wrought out a series of spectacles of the pity
+and terror of human suffering and human sin without parallel in the
+modern world. In these stupendous tragedies he availed himself of all
+the powers with which he was endowed and all the skill which he had
+acquired. His verse has liberated itself from the formalism and monotony
+that had marked it in the earlier plays, and is now free, varied,
+responsive to every mood and every type of passion; the language is
+laden almost to the breaking point with the weight of thought; the
+dialogue ranges from the lightest irony to heart-rending pathos and
+intolerable denunciation; the characters lose all semblance of
+artificial creations and challenge criticism and analysis like any
+personage in history; the action is pregnant with the profoundest
+significance. Hardly, if at all, less powerful are the later tragedies
+of the Roman group. _Antony and Cleopatra_ is unsurpassed for the
+intensity of its picture of passion, for its superb mastery of language,
+for its relentless truth. The more somber scenes of _Coriolanus_ convey
+a tragedy which either on its personal or its political side scarcely
+yields to its predecessors in poignancy and gloom. Whatever else he may
+have written in these years, here is surely the period of tragedy.
+
+Nor do the plays classed as comedies and falling in the first three
+years of the new century seriously modify this impression of the
+prevailing tone of the period. _Troilus and Cressida_, _All's Well that
+Ends Well_, and _Measure for Measure_ present a marked contrast to the
+romantic comedy of the preceding stage. The love-story of the first
+deals with a coquette and ends sordidly; while in the political plot,
+though it gives occasion for speeches full of weighty thinking, jealousy
+and intrigue overwhelm the heroic element. The second, alone of
+Shakespeare's comedies, has a hero who is a rake; and, skilful as is the
+delineation of Helena, it needs all the dramatist's power to hold our
+sympathy and to force us to an unwilling assent to the title. _Measure
+for Measure_ has its scene laid in a city seething in moral corruption:
+out of this rises the central situation of the play; and the presence of
+the most idealistic of Shakespeare's heroines does not avail to
+counterbalance the atmosphere of sin and death that mocks the
+conventional happy ending, and makes this play, even more than the two
+others, seem more in place among the tragedies than among the comedies.
+
+[Page Heading: Fourth Period]
+
+The plays of the last period are, in the Folio, classed with comedies,
+and such no doubt they are if judged merely by the nature of their
+dénouements. But if we consider their characteristic note, and the fact
+that through the greater part of each play the forces and passions
+involved are rather those operative in tragedy than in comedy, we easily
+perceive why they have been classed as tragi-comedies or dramatic
+romances. _Pericles_ in many respects stands apart from the other three
+in nature as well as in date, for it is a dramatization of an old Greek
+romance, and in it the hand of another than Shakespeare is only too
+evident. Yet it shares with the others certain common features: like
+_The Tempest_ it has scenes at sea; all four deal with the separation
+and reuniting of families; all show us sympathetic figures deeply
+wronged and finally overcoming their injurers by forgiveness. The
+abounding high spirits of the earlier comedies are here replaced by a
+mood of calm assurance of the ultimate triumph of good and a placid
+faith that survives a rude acquaintance with the evil that is in men's
+hearts. No period has a more distinctive quality than this of the
+dramatic romances, in which the dramatist, on the eve of his retirement
+from London, gave his imagination free play, and in both character and
+action stamped his last creations with the mark of a lofty idealism.
+
+[Page Heading: Interpretation of Periods]
+
+The obvious fitness of this fourfold division into periods inevitably
+raises the question of its causes, and attempts at an answer have run
+along two main lines. One of these has been followed out with much
+eloquence and persuasiveness by Professor Dowden, whose phrases "In the
+Workshop," "In the World," "In the Depths," "On the Heights," to
+describe the four periods, point clearly enough to the kind of
+significance which he finds in the changes in mood and type of play.
+With the first of these phrases few will be disposed to quarrel. In his
+period of experiment Shakespeare's style was as yet comparatively
+unformed, and his attention was so much occupied with problems of
+technic that even the most psychological of critics finds here little
+revelation of personality, and must be content to describe the stage as
+one of professional apprenticeship. In the terms used of the three later
+periods, however, there is an implication that the tone and mood of the
+plays in each are the direct reflection of the emotional experiences
+through which the poet himself was passing at the period of their
+composition. But this is to take for granted a theory of the relation
+between artist and production which has against it the general testimony
+of creator and critic alike. It is not at the pitch of an emotional
+experience that an artist successfully transmutes his life into art, but
+in retrospect, when his recollective imagination reproduces his mood in
+a form capable of being expressed without being dissipated. Of course,
+Shakespeare must have lived and enjoyed and suffered intensely; but this
+does not commit us to a belief in an immediate turning to account of
+personal experience in the writing of drama. His boy, Hamnet, died in
+1596, about the time that he was writing _The Merchant of Venice_ and
+the rollicking farce of _The Taming of the Shrew_, and just before he
+conceived Falstaff; it was fourteen years later that he gave us the
+pathetic figure of the young Mamillius in _The Winter's Tale_. From all
+we know of his personal life, the years of _King Lear_ and _Othello_
+were years of abounding prosperity. The _lacrimæ rerum_ that touch the
+mind in these stupendous tragedies are the outcome of profound
+meditation and vivid imagination, not the accompaniment of a cry of
+instant pain. However we are to reconstruct the spiritual biography of
+Shakespeare, it is clear that it is by no such simple reading of his
+life in terms of his treatment of comic or tragic themes.
+
+The other line of explanation will suggest itself to any thoughtful
+student who contemplates the facts summed up in Chapter V on the
+Elizabethan drama. Whatever Shakespeare's preëminence in the quality of
+his work, he was not singular for innovations in kind. Not only are the
+plays of his experimental stage preceded by models easily discerned, but
+throughout his career one can see him eagerly taking up and developing
+varieties of drama on which less capable men had stumbled and for which
+the public had shown relish. Chronicle history, romantic comedy,
+tragedies of blood and revenge, dramatic romance, had all been invented
+by others, and Shakespeare never hesitated to follow their trail when it
+promised to lead to popular success. This does not mean that he did not
+put conscience into his work, but only that the change in type of play
+perceptible from period to period is more safely to be explained by
+changes of theatrical fashion and public taste than by conjectures as to
+the inner life of the dramatist. Nor are we prevented from finding here
+too that great good fortune as to occasion and opportunity that is
+needed, along with whatever natural endowment, to explain the
+achievement of Shakespeare. The return of the vogue of tragedy after he
+had attained maturity and seen life was indeed happy for him and for us;
+as was the rise of the imaginative type of dramatic romance when the
+storm and stress of his youth had gone by. Had the theatrical demand
+called for tragedy when Shakespeare was in the early thirties and light
+comedy when he was in the forties, it seems likely that he would have
+responded to the demand, though we can hardly suppose that the result
+would have been as fortunate as in the existing state of things it
+proved to be.
+
+[Page Heading: Dates of the Poems]
+
+The foregoing discussion has been confined to Shakespeare's plays; the
+poems present problems of their own. _Venus and Adonis_ (1593) and
+_Lucrece_ (1594), indeed, resemble the plays of the first period, with
+which they are contemporary, both in conforming to a familiar type then
+much in vogue, the re-telling in ornate style of classical legends drawn
+chiefly from Ovid, and in exhibiting marks of the conscious exercise of
+technical dexterity. They show the Shakespeare of the dramas mainly in
+their revelation of a remarkable power of detailed observation and their
+richness of phrase and fluency of versification. Vivid and eloquent
+though they are, they can hardly be regarded as affording a sure
+prophecy of the passion and power of characterization that mark his
+mature dramatic production.
+
+The case of the _Sonnets_ is very different. From Meres's mention of
+them in 1598 we know that some had been written and were being
+circulated in manuscript by that date, and certain critics have sought
+to assign the main body of them to the first half of the last decade of
+the sixteenth century. But they were not published till 1609, and many
+of the greatest strike a note of emotion more profound than can be heard
+before the date of _Hamlet_. In writing them, Shakespeare was, to be
+sure, following a vogue, but as Professor Alden has pointed out in his
+introduction to them in the Tudor Shakespeare, they stand apart in
+important respects from the ordinary sonnet sequences of the time. All
+our researches have failed to tell us to whom they were addressed, if,
+indeed, they were addressed to any actual person at all; it is hardly
+necessary to urge that Shakespeare was capable of profound and
+passionate utterance under the impulse of imagination alone. The
+probability is that they were produced at intervals over a period of
+perhaps a dozen years, and that they represent a great variety of moods,
+impulses, and suggestions. While some of them betray signs of youth and
+remind us of the apprentice workman of _Loves Labour's Lost_, others
+display in their depth of thought, intensity of feeling, and superb
+power of incisive and concentrated expression, the full maturity of the
+man and the artist. Hardly in the great tragedies themselves is there
+clearer proof of Shakespeare's supremacy in thought and language.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE ELIZABETHAN DRAMA
+
+
+Shakespeare's lifetime was coincident with a period of extraordinary
+activity and achievement in the drama. By the date of his birth Europe
+was witnessing the passing of the religious drama that had held its
+course for some five centuries, and the creation of new and mixed forms
+under the incentive of classical tragedy and comedy. These new forms
+were at first mainly written by scholars and performed by amateurs, but
+in England, as everywhere else in western Europe, the growth of a class
+of professional actors was threatening to make the drama popular,
+whether it should be new or old, classical or medieval, literary or
+farcical. Court, school, organizations of amateurs, and the strolling
+actors were all rivals in supplying a widespread desire for dramatic
+entertainment; and no boy who went to a grammar school could be ignorant
+that the drama was a form of literature which gave glory to Greece and
+Rome and might yet bestow its laurels on England.
+
+When Shakespeare was twelve years old the first public playhouse was
+built in London. For a time literature held aloof from this public
+stage. Plays aiming at literary distinction were written for schools or
+court, or for the choir boys of St. Paul's and the royal chapel, who,
+however, gave plays in public as well as at court. But the professional
+companies prospered in their permanent theaters, and university men with
+literary ambitions were quick to turn to these theaters as offering a
+means of livelihood. By the time that Shakespeare was twenty-five, Lyly,
+Peele, and Greene had made comedies that were at once popular and
+literary; Kyd had written a tragedy that crowded the pit; and Marlowe
+had brought poetry and genius to triumph on the common stage--where they
+had played no part since the death of Euripides. A native literary drama
+had been created, its alliance with the public playhouses established,
+and at least some of its great traditions had been begun.
+
+The development of the Elizabethan drama for the next twenty-five years
+is of exceptional interest to students of literary history, for in this
+brief period, in connection with the half-dozen theaters of a growing
+city and the demands of its varied population, we may trace the
+beginning, growth, florescence, and decay of many kinds of plays, and of
+many great careers. Actors, audiences, and dramatists all contributed to
+changes in taste and practice and to a development of unexampled
+rapidity and variety. In every detail of dramatic art there was change
+and improvement, a constant addition of new subject-matter, a mastery of
+new methods of technic, and an invention of new kinds of plays. The
+popular successes of Marlowe and Kyd and the early plays of Shakespeare
+himself seemed old-fashioned and crude to the taste of twenty years
+after, yet the triumphs of Shakespeare's maturity failed to exhaust the
+opportunities for innovation and advance. We are amazed to-day at the
+mere number of plays produced, as well as by the number of dramatists
+writing at the same time for this London of two hundred thousand
+inhabitants. To realize how great was the dramatic activity, we must
+remember further that hosts of plays have been lost, and that probably
+there is no author of note whose entire work has survived. By the time,
+however, that Shakespeare withdrew from London to Stratford the drama
+had reached its height. The dozen years from 1600 to 1612 included not
+only Shakespeare's great tragedies, but the best plays of Jonson,
+Chapman, and Webster, and the entire collaboration of Beaumont and
+Fletcher. The only other decades comparable with this in the history of
+the drama are that which heard plays by Sophocles, Euripides, and
+Aristophanes and that other which saw the masterpieces of Racine and
+Molière.
+
+[Page Heading: Elizabethan Drama]
+
+The greatness of the drama, however, by no means ended with the
+retirement and death of Shakespeare. Some of those who had been his
+early associates continued to write for the stage, and younger men, as
+Fletcher, Massinger, Ford, and Shirley, carried on the traditions of
+their predecessors. If, as in other forms of literature, there was
+decline and decadence during the next twenty-five years, the drama also
+retained initiative, poetry, and intellectual force until the end. It
+was not dead or dying when the outbreak of the Civil War cut short its
+course; in fact, its plays, its traditions, even some of its theaters,
+actors, and dramatists survived the suppression of twenty years and
+helped to start the drama of the Restoration. Had Shakespeare lived to
+the age of seventy-eight he would have seen the closing of the theaters,
+and his lifetime would have covered the crowded history of the drama's
+development from such semi-moralities as _Cambises_ and _The Nice
+Wanton_ to the last plays of Massinger and Shirley.
+
+For nearly a quarter of a century he was a sharer in this dramatic
+movement, working in London as actor, manager, and playwright. While no
+playwright was more desirous than he to find in the stage full
+opportunity for his genius, he was as keen as any in gauging the
+immediate theatrical demand and in meeting the varying conditions of a
+highly competitive profession. As we have already noted, he began by
+imitating those who had won success, and to the end he was adroit in
+taking advantage of a new dramatic fashion or discovery. Like his
+fellows, he often took his plots from novels, histories, or other
+narratives; but his very choice of stories might be determined by the
+theatrical taste of the moment, and in his treatment of those stories he
+shows in person, situation, or scene, a consideration of current
+practices, traditions, and conventions. In every field of literature, a
+writer is conditioned by the work of his predecessors and
+contemporaries, and this dependence on current taste is especially
+important in the drama, where practice tends to fix itself in
+convention, and where innovation to be successful requires coöperation
+from the actors and approval from the audience as well as genius from
+the author. Though Shakespeare is for all time, he is part and parcel of
+the Elizabethan drama. If his plays are Elizabethan in their defects and
+limitations, such as their trivial puns and word-play, their overcrowded
+imagery, their loose and broken structure, their paucity of female
+rôles, their mixture of comic and tragic, their reliance on disguise and
+mistaken identity as motives, their use of improbable or absurd stories;
+they are Elizabethan also in the qualities of their greatness, their
+variety of subject, their intense interest in the portrayal of
+character, the flexibility and audacity of their language, their noble
+and opulent verse, the exquisite idealism of their romantic love, and
+their profound analysis of the sources of human tragedy.
+
+[Page Heading: Beginnings of the Drama]
+
+The Elizabethan drama was a continuation of the medieval drama
+transformed by the influence of classical models, especially the
+comedies of Terence and Plautus and the tragedies of Seneca. In England,
+by the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Miracle and Mystery plays
+were declining and were soon to disappear. The most common type of drama
+for the next sixty years was the Morality, which symbolized life as a
+conflict of vices and virtues or of the body and the soul. The drama was
+rapidly changing from long out-door performances to brief plays that
+could be given almost anywhere by a few actors. The term Interludes
+became common for all such entertainments, and allegorical frameworks
+served to contain a wide variety of matter, farce, pedagogy, politics,
+religion, history, or pageant. Close imitations of the classical forms
+were soon attempted by scholars and men of letters; but as the
+professional actors grew in importance the development of a national
+comedy and tragedy went on without much direction from critics or
+theorists, but rather in response to the demands of actors and audiences
+and to the initiative of authors.
+
+The developments of comedy were numerous. Allegory gradually
+disappeared, and the Morality ceased to exist as a definite type, though
+its symbolization of life and its concern with conduct were handed along
+to the later drama. The plays of Robert Wilson, about 1580, show an
+interesting use of allegory for the purposes of social satire, and
+realism and satire long continued to characterize Elizabethan comedy,
+though for a time confined mostly to incidental scenes. Common and
+incidental also was farce, which is found in most plays of the century
+whether tragic, comic, or moral in their main purpose. Further, it was
+soon discovered that the Plautian scheme of comedy was well suited to
+farcical incident, as in _Gammer Gurton's Needle_ (1552).[6] The
+classical models or their Italian imitations also produced other and
+less domestic imitations, as in Gascoigne's translation of Ariosto's _I
+Suppositi_ (pr. 1566) and Udall's _Ralph Roister Doister_ (1540); a
+little later, Lyly's _Mother Bombie_, Munday's _Two Italian Gentlemen_,
+and Shakespeare's _Comedy of Errors_. Indeed such adaptations continued
+much later and resulted in some of the best farces, or realistic
+comedies of intrigue, as Shakespeare's _Merry Wives of Windsor_ (1598),
+Heywood's _Wise Woman of Hogsdon_ (1604), Jonson's _Epicene_ (1609) and
+_Alchemist_ (1610).
+
+[6] In this chapter the dates appended to the plays indicate the
+conjectured year of presentation. Dates of publication are prefixed by
+_pr_.
+
+[Page Heading: Influence of Plautus]
+
+The Plautian model, however, was far more influential than can be
+indicated by these close adaptations or by any list of direct imitations
+or borrowings. For the Elizabethan it offered a standard of comedy, and
+its plots, persons, and devices were freely used in all kinds of plays,
+romantic as well as realistic, sentimental as well as satirical or
+farcical. The plots of Plautus and Terence offer a series of tricks in
+which the complications are often increased by having the trickster
+tricked. Certain fixed types of character play the parts of gulls or
+gullers, as the old parents, the young lovers, the parasite, the
+braggart soldier, and the clever slave. The intrigue is forwarded by the
+use of disguise, mistaken identity, and most surprising coincidences;
+and it is accomplished by dialogue, often gross and abusive, but usually
+lively. This model served every nation of western Europe, reappearing
+with prolonged vitality in the inventions of Lope de Vega, the "commedia
+del arte" of Italy, and in the masterpieces of Molière. Much in its
+scheme that seems artificial and theatrical to-day was, we must
+remember, accepted without question by Europe of the sixteenth century
+as essential and desirable in comedy, especially in realistic comedy of
+intrigue or manners.
+
+The plots of Terence, notably that of the _Andria_, also gave some
+encouragement to the modern fondness for adventure and sentimental love,
+and some classical sanction to the abundant romantic material that was
+knocking at the doors of comedy. If by romantic we mean what is strange
+and removed from ordinary experience and what has the attractions of
+wonder, thrill, and idealization, then for the Elizabethan the world of
+romance was a wide one. It included the medieval stories of knights and
+their gests, and also the fresher tales of classical mythology; the
+Americas and Indies of contemporary adventure and the artificial
+Arcadias of humanist imitators of Virgil and Theocritus. Ovid and
+Malory, Homer and Boccaccio, Drake and Sanazzaro, were all contributors.
+The union of this romance with comedy on the stage began in two ways,
+and principally under the innovation of two writers, Lyly and Greene.
+
+The taste for pageants, processions, and tableaux grew and flourished
+under the patronage of the court; and music, dancing, and spectacle were
+combined with dialogue in various court exhibitions and plays given by
+the child actors. John Lyly, writing for these choir boys, developed
+this type of entertainment into a distinct species of comedy. Of his
+eight plays, written at intervals from 1580 to 1593, all but one were in
+prose, and all except the Plautian _Mother Bombie_ adhere loosely to a
+common formula. Classical myth or story, with pastoral elements, and
+occasionally an allegory of contemporary politics, furnish the basis of
+plots with similar love complications. Gods, goddesses, nymphs, fairies,
+and many others add to the spectacle and mingle in the love intrigue,
+and all rise to a graceful dialogue, which quickens to brisk repartee
+when the pages or servants appear. The witty page supersedes the rude
+buffoon of earlier plays, and everything is graceful and ingenious,
+slight in serious interest, but relieved by movement and song.
+
+[Page Heading: Lyly and Greene]
+
+This is the form of comedy which Shakespeare adopted for _Love's
+Labour's Lost_ and perfected in _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_. But Lyly's
+contribution should not be defined merely by this type of drama,
+original as it is in its departure from medieval or classical
+precedents. He showed how comedy might be a courtly and literary
+entertainment and also the playground of fancy and wit.
+
+The second development of romantic comedy came through the dramatization
+of stories of love, adventure, and marvels. To such stories Robert
+Greene gave a heightened charm through the idealization of his heroines.
+His _Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay_ (1590) is a magic play with an
+historical setting; but the interest gathers and centers on the love
+story of Margaret, the Keeper's daughter. In _James IV_ (_c._ 1591) the
+pseudo-historical setting frames the stories of the noble Ida and the
+wronged but faithful Dorothea. In the incidents of the plot, with its
+woman disguised as a page, the faithless lover, and the final
+reconciliation, and also in the sweetness, modesty, and loyalty of the
+heroine, the play reminds us of Shakespeare's comedies and is indeed
+very close to _The Two Gentlemen of Verona_, in which he was clearly
+adopting Greene's formula.
+
+Tragedy naturally lagged somewhat behind comedy as a form of popular
+entertainment. So far as we can judge from the extant plays, there was
+until the appearance of Kyd and Marlowe no real union between Senecan
+imitations like _Gorboduc_ (1562), _Jocasta_ (1566), and _The
+Misfortunes of Arthur_ (1588), on the one hand, and popular medleys of
+morality, tragedy, and farce like _Cambises_ (1565), _Horestes_ (_pr._
+1567), and _Appius and Virginia_ (1563), on the other. Marlowe's
+_Tamburlaine_ (1587) was an epoch-making play because it brought to the
+popular drama true poetry and genuine passion; but it and its successors
+also established a new type of tragedy. Marlowe made no effort to retain
+the structure or themes of classical tragedy; on the contrary, he made
+his plays loosely connected series of scenes dealing with the life and
+death of the hero, crowded with persons and with startling action. In
+this he was conforming to the method of the dramatic narratives that
+pleased the theaters. But each play centers its dramatic interest on a
+mighty protagonist battling with his overweening desires and their
+inevitable disappointment. With the spectacle and sensation, the rant
+and absurdity, there is also dramatic structure and tragic significance
+in the revelation of these protagonists, their volitional struggles, and
+their direful catastrophes. These plays set the key for all Elizabethan
+tragedy, including Shakespeare's _Lear_, _Othello_, and _Macbeth_. They
+were immediately followed by dozens of imitators. All blank verse echoed
+Marlowe's mighty line, and tragedy was filled with ranting conquerors
+like Tamburlaine, monstrous villains like Barabbas, and murders like
+that of Edward II. Shakespeare was his pupil in the _2_ and _3 Henry
+VI_, mastered his methods in _Richard III_, and still wrote in
+emulation, though no longer in imitation, in _Richard II_ and _The
+Merchant of Venice_.
+
+[Page Heading: Marlowe and Kyd]
+
+Within a few months of _Tamburlaine_, appeared a play of almost equal
+influence on subsequent drama, Kyd's _Spanish Tragedy_. Kyd was a
+student of Seneca, a translator of Garnier's _Cornelia_, a Senecan
+imitation; and he adapted some elements of classical tragedy to the
+English stage. The ten plays ascribed to Seneca were the accepted models
+of tragedy in the Renaissance. Their presentation of the more horrible
+stories of Greek tragedy, their rhetorical and aphoristic style, their
+moralizing and their psychology, were all greatly admired. They were
+believed by the Elizabethans to have been acted, and their murders and
+violence seemed to warrant such action on the modern stage; though the
+Elizabethans found less adaptable their use of the chorus, the
+restriction of the number of persons speaking, their long monologues,
+and the limitation of the action to the last phase of a story. Kyd
+modeled his rhetoric on Seneca and retained a vestige of the chorus,
+long soliloquies, and some other traits of Senecan structure; but his
+main borrowing was the essential story of a crime and its punishment. He
+thus brought to the Elizabethan stage the classical theme of
+retribution. In his _Spanish Tragedy_, a murder is avenged under the
+direction of a ghost, by a hesitating and soliloquizing protagonist, who
+is driven through doubt and speculation almost to madness, and then to
+craft, with which he outwits the wily villain and brings all the leading
+_dramatis personæ_ to a final slaughter.
+
+Blood revenge was established as the favorite motive of tragedy; the
+conflict of craft between protagonist and villain made up the action,
+and the speculations of the avenger gave a chance for wisdom and
+eloquence. One other play, probably by Kyd, the lost _Hamlet_, also
+presented these features and later formed the basis for Shakespeare's
+tragedy. Other plays, as _Soliman and Perseda_, _The True Tragedy of
+Richard III_, and _Locrine_ immediately adopted Kyd's theme and technic;
+indeed the stage for half a dozen years abounded in avenging heroes,
+diabolical villains, shrieking ghosts, and long soliloquies on fate,
+death, retribution, and kindred themes. _Titus Andronicus_ is quite in
+the Kydian vein. Many plays combined the salient traits of Marlowe and
+Kyd, and henceforth no one wrote tragedy without paying homage to their
+inventions.
+
+[Page Heading: English History Plays]
+
+We have now noticed the most important developments in comedy and
+tragedy made by the time that Shakespeare began writing for the
+theaters; and he made quick use of the progress accomplished by Plautian
+and Lylyan comedy, by Greene's romances, and by the tragedies of Kyd and
+Marlowe. There were other plays not easily classified under these names
+and of less service to Shakespeare. But to the critical playgoer of 1590
+few plays would have seemed either 'right comedies' or 'right
+tragedies.' The majority were mere dramatizations of story without close
+construction or selection of material, seeking merely varied and
+abundant action. They drew their material from all kinds of narrative
+sources, Italian _novelle_, current pamphlets, Latin historians, or
+English chronicles; and, whether historical or fictitious, were usually
+known as Histories, _i.e._, stories.
+
+The patriotic interest in English history fostered the presentation of
+its scenes upon the stage. The chronicles of Halle and Holinshed
+furnished abundant material; and embassies, processions, and pitched
+battles filled the stage with movement. Historical plays might, indeed,
+draw from classical history or from current foreign history, but from
+1590 to 1603 a very large number of plays give scenic representation to
+the reigns of English kings.
+
+Some of these form a distinct class, since, however mixed with comic
+matter, they imitate Kyd or Marlowe and recast the chronicle of a reign
+to fit the accepted subjects of tragedy, the downfall of a prince, the
+revenge for a crime, the overthrow of a tyrant, or the retribution
+brought upon a conspirator or usurper. Conceived under Marlowe's
+influence, and perhaps owing something to his hand, is the tetralogy
+that includes the three parts of _Henry VI_ and _Richard III_.
+
+Those history plays, however, that do not follow the formulas for
+tragedy, are a heterogeneous group not easily classified. They usually
+keep to the loose chronicle method that presented a series of scenes
+without much regard to unity or coherence. Farce, comedy, magic,
+spectacle, heroics, and everything that might have happened was
+permissible in these plays, and perhaps the only thing indispensable was
+a pitched field with opposing armies. Biographical, comic, popular,
+patriotic, or what not, these plays brought a variety of scenes to the
+theaters, but offered only a loose and flexible form rather than any
+dramatic direction or model to the creator of Falstaff.
+
+The early deaths of Greene and Marlowe and the retirement of Lyly left
+Shakespeare the heir of their inventions. Though his plays were at first
+imitative, he soon surpassed his predecessors in gift of expression, in
+depiction of character, and in deftness of dramatic technic. The years
+from 1593 to near the turn of the century are particularly lacking in
+records of plays or theaters; but it seems clear that the main
+developments of the drama were in romantic comedy and chronicle history;
+and it is also clear that Shakespeare was the unquestioned leader in
+both of these forms.
+
+[Page Heading: Shakespeare's Leadership]
+
+In comparison with his associates, he was now the master, relying on his
+own experience rather than on their innovations. Neither the crude but
+popular _Mucedorus_ (1595) nor Dekker's poetical extravagance, _Old
+Fortunatus_ (1596), could contribute to his development of romantic
+comedy; and domestic comedy could not instruct the inventor of Launce
+and Launcelot. Incidental relationships may indeed be noted. _As You
+Like It_, for example, dramatizes a pastoral novel with the addition of
+scenes that recall Robin Hood's forest life, and may owe something to
+the suggestion of two Robin Hood plays by Chettle and Munday, _The
+Downfall and Death of Robert Earl of Huntingdon_ (1598). But, on the
+whole, the indebtedness was on the other side, and imitations indicate
+that men of Shakespeare's day realized that romantic comedy and history
+could not be carried farther.
+
+In fact, a certain reaction set in against these forms of drama. Near
+the close of the century new tendencies became manifest. Comedy tended
+to become more realistic and satiric. Chapman, Marston, Middleton, and
+Jonson, all began writing romantic comedy, but changed shortly to
+realistic. Jonson, in his _Every Man in His Humour_ (1598), announced
+his opposition to the lawless drama which had preceded--whether
+romantic comedy or chronicle history--and proposed the creation of a new
+satirical comedy of manners. He was moved partly by a desire to break
+from past methods in order to bring comedy closer to classical example,
+and partly by a desire for realism, a faithful presentation, analysis,
+and criticism of current manners. The growth of London and the increase
+in luxury and immorality seem to have encouraged such a movement, and
+for the decade after 1598 there were many comedies of London life,
+mostly satiric, and nearly all realistic. Many varieties are to be
+found, from gross representation of the seamy side of city life to
+serious discussion of social questions, and from sympathetic picturing
+of certain trades to satiric exposure of the evils of society.
+
+Jonson's emulation of Aristophanes led him into arrogant personal satire
+in the _Poetaster_ (1601), and there ensued the so-called war of the
+theaters, in which Marston, Dekker, and, according to report,
+Shakespeare were Jonson's opponents. If Shakespeare, indeed, had a share
+in this war, he showed only slight interest in the prevailing comedy.
+_Measure for Measure_ uses the device of a spying duke employed in
+Marston's _Malcontent_, and discusses sexual relationships somewhat in
+the tone of the time, while the scenes dealing with houses of ill fame
+are not unlike similar scenes in the contemporary plays of Middleton,
+Webster, and others. _Troilus and Cressida_, also, show more of a
+satiric temper than is usual in Shakespeare. But neither of these plays
+partakes to any extent of the prevailing satire on contemporary London.
+Wide as was the range of Shakespeare's genius, it seems to have avoided
+the field of satire.
+
+[Page Heading: Realistic Comedy]
+
+A review of the drama must, however, at least remark the importance of
+this development of realistic comedy which flourished in the decade
+after 1598 and continued to the end. Jonson's comedy of 'humors'
+includes _Volpone_ (1605), which overstepped the bounds of comedy in its
+denunciation of evil, the _Alchemist_ (1611), perhaps the best English
+play on the Latin model, and _Bartholomew Fair_ (1614), most original
+and English of them all. Dekker's fine drama of middle class life, _The
+Honest Whore_ (1604), and Heywood's masterpiece, _A Woman Killed with
+Kindness_ (1603), a play suggesting both the sentimental comedy of the
+eighteenth century and the problem play of to-day, also belong to this
+very remarkable era of domestic themes and serious realism.
+
+If Shakespeare did not turn to satire or realism or current social
+problems, he did turn away from chronicle history plays and romantic
+comedies. As we saw in the last chapter, for a period of eight or nine
+years, from _Julius Cæsar_ to _Antony and Cleopatra_, he gave his best
+efforts of his maturity to tragedy. The day for mere imitation of
+Seneca, Kyd, or Marlowe, was past; and scholars like Jonson and Chapman
+as well as Shakespeare sought in the tragedy of the public theater, an
+opportunity for wisdom and poetry and a criticism of life.
+
+For models, Shakespeare did not need to go back farther than his own
+_Romeo and Juliet_ and _Richard II_, nor to imitate any other than
+himself. Yet his great plays may have seemed to his contemporaries to
+adopt rather than to depart from current dramatic practices. They belong
+to the Elizabethan 'tragedy of blood'; against a background of courts
+and battles they present the downfall of princes; they rest on
+improbable stories that end in fearful slaughter; they invariably set
+forth great crimes, compact of murder, lust, villainous intrigue, and
+ferocious cruelty. Some of them follow Kyd in recounting a story of
+blood vengeance presided over by ghosts, or discover the retribution due
+for crime in physical torments. Nearly all follow Marlowe in centering
+the tragic interest in the fate of a supernormal protagonist who is
+swayed by an overpowering emotion, and in elevating these human desires
+and passions into tremendous forces that work their waste of devastation
+and ruin on character and life.
+
+[Page Heading: Tragedy]
+
+The contemporary tragedy is brought closest to Shakespeare in the
+relations of the revenge plays to _Hamlet_. The type, introduced by Kyd
+in _The Spanish Tragedy_ and the original _Hamlet_, underwent a special
+development in Marston's _Antonio's Revenge_ (1598) and several other
+plays appearing from 1598 to 1603, that dealt with the blood vengeance
+of a son for a father. At the same time Shakespeare turned to the
+remaking of the old _Hamlet_ and to a new treatment of the old theme,
+yet retained many of the old accessories. Marston reproduces the
+essential story of blood vengeance, presided over by a ghost, crossed by
+both lust and sentimental love, commented on by long soliloquies, and
+accompanied by pretended madness. Chettle, in _Hoffman_, amplifies the
+horrors and villainy and brings the story of the mad girl into closer
+juncture with the main plot than is the case in _Hamlet_. Tourneur,
+writing independently of Shakespeare, introduces, among all sorts of
+horrors, a Christian ghost who forbids blood vengeance and commands
+submission to Providence. Ben Jonson, in his additions to the old
+_Spanish Tragedy_, gives fine imaginative interpretation of the wavering
+moods of meditation, irony, and frenzy with which Kyd had dealt only
+crudely. The later development of this type proceeded without much
+regard to Shakespeare's _Hamlet_, but rather in the direction started by
+Marston's tragedies and his influential tragi-comedy, _The Malcontent_.
+While _Hamlet_ may be described as centering attention on a meditative
+and high-minded avenger, Tourneur, Webster, Middleton, and later
+dramatists found greater interest in the study of villainy and intrigue.
+Revenge is born of depravity rather than duty, and given a setting of
+physical horrors and unnatural lust. Tourneur's _Revenger's Tragedy_
+(1606) and Webster's _White Devil_ (1610) and _Duchess of Malfi_ (1611)
+represent the culmination of this play of revenge, lust, and horror, and
+supply a sort of standard for tragedy until the Civil War. Webster, it
+must be added, was hardly less interested than Shakespeare in character
+and motive, though he chose to study these in a chamber of horrors.
+
+Shakespeare's Roman tragedies also suggest comparison with contemporary
+plays, those either on Roman or on contemporary foreign history.
+Tragedies dealing with Roman history had preceded _Julius Cæsar_, but
+that play doubtless stimulated Jonson's _Sejanus_ (1603) and _Catiline_
+(1611). Both these plays attempted an approach to classical structure
+and a thorough study and digest of classical history. This effort to
+make tragedy a serious and authoritative interpretation of history was
+also shared by Chapman in his plays dealing with contemporary French
+history, _1_ and _2 Bussy D'Ambois_ (1601-1607) and _1_ and _2 Biron_
+(1608). While Jonson strove to free his style from the abundance of
+conceits, figures, and passages of description that had characterized
+earlier drama, Chapman used every chance to crowd his verse with
+far-stretched figure and weighty apothegm. At its worst it is peculiarly
+representative of Elizabethan confusion and bombast; at its best it is
+closest of all in its resemblance to Shakespeare's. Like Jonson and
+Chapman, Shakespeare sought historical backgrounds for his characters
+and found a fascination in the interpretation of the motives of the
+great protagonists of the world of antiquity. It is worthy of note,
+however, that he seems to have taken no interest in another class of
+subjects much favored by his contemporaries. Contemporary crimes
+treated with an excess of realism and didactic conclusions are common in
+drama from _Arden of Feversham_ (1590) on, and engaged the services of
+Jonson, Webster, Ford, Dekker, and others.
+
+[Page Heading: Beaumont and Fletcher]
+
+About 1607 a new departure appeared in the work of the dramatic
+collaborators, Beaumont and Fletcher. After some experiments, they won,
+in their tragi-comedies, _Philaster_ (1608) and _A King and No King_
+(1610), and their tragedy, _The Maid's Tragedy_ (1609), great theatrical
+successes, and in these and similar plays established a new kind of
+dramatic romance. The realistic comedies of Jonson and Middleton, which,
+along with the great tragedies of Shakespeare, crowd the stage history
+of the preceding ten years, had offered nothing similar to these
+romances which joined tragic and idyllic material in scenes of brilliant
+theatrical effectiveness, abounding in transitions from suspense to
+surprise, and culminating in telling dénouements. This new realm of
+romance is an artificial one, contrasting pure love with horrid
+entanglements of lust, and ever bringing love in conflict with duty,
+friendship, or the code of honor. In its intriguing courts, or in nearby
+forests where the idyls are placed, love of one kind or another is the
+ruling and vehement passion, riding high-handed over tottering thrones,
+rebellious subjects, usurping tyrants, and checked, if checked at all,
+only by the unexampled force of honor. Romance, in short, depends on
+situation, on the artificial but skilful juxtaposition of emotions and
+persons, and on the new technic that sacrifices consistency of
+characterization for surprise. Characterization tends to become typical,
+and motives tend to be based on fixed conventions, such as the code of
+honor might dictate to a seventeenth-century gentleman; but the lack of
+individuality in character is counterbalanced by the vividness with
+which the lovers, tyrants, faithful friends, evil women, and sentimental
+heroines are presented, and by the fluent and lucid style which varies
+to any emotional requirement and rises to the demands of the most
+sensational situations.
+
+_Cymbeline_ in its plot bears some close resemblances to _Philaster_,
+and it seems likely that Shakespeare was adopting the methods and
+materials of the new romance. At all events, he turned from tragedy to
+romance, and in _Cymbeline_ and the far more original and successful
+_Winter's Tale_ and _Tempest_ produced tragi-comedies that, like
+Beaumont and Fletcher's, rely on a contrast of tragic and idyllic and on
+surprising plots and idealized heroines. After Beaumont's retirement in
+1611 or 1612, it seems probable that Fletcher and Shakespeare
+collaborated together on _Henry VIII_ and _The Two Noble Kinsmen_.
+
+There is ample evidence that the plays of Beaumont and Fletcher won a
+great popular renown, surpassing for a time those of Shakespeare and all
+others. Beaumont did not live long after he ceased to write for the
+stage, dying at thirty, in the same year as Shakespeare. Jonson had
+given up dramatic writing for the time, and Fletcher was left the chief
+writer for Shakespeare's old company and the undoubted leader of the
+theater. Including the plays written in collaboration with Beaumont,
+Shakespeare, and later with Massinger, he left some sixty dramas of many
+kinds, varying from farcical comedy of manners to the most extreme
+tragedy. The comedies of manners present the affairs of women, and spice
+their lively conversation and surprising situations with a wit that
+often reminds one of the Restoration; indeed they carry the development
+of comedy nearly to the point where Wycherley and Congreve began. The
+tragi-comedies, which display the qualities already noted as belonging
+to the romances, have the technical advantage that the disentanglement
+of their rapid plots and sub-plots is left hanging in the balance until
+the very end. The happy ending to tragic entanglements won a favor it
+has never lost on the English stage, and tragi-comedy of the Fletcherian
+type continued the most popular form of the drama until Dryden.
+
+[Page Heading: Tragi-Comedy]
+
+It is unnecessary here to dwell long over the drama after Shakespeare's
+death. Jonson, Dekker, Heywood, and Webster wrote from time to time, and
+Middleton devoted his versatile talent to whatever kind of play was in
+vogue, now rather to Websterian tragedy and Fletcherian tragi-comedy
+than to realistic comedy. Yet, in collaboration with Rowley, he produced
+the powerful tragedy, _The Changeling_, and the much-admired
+tragi-comedy, _A Fair Quarrel_. After Fletcher's death in 1625,
+Massinger took his place as leader of the stage, and his work, with that
+of Ford and Shirley, carry on the great traditions of the drama to the
+very end. A host of minor writers, as Brome, D'Avenant, Suckling,
+Cartwright, offer little that is new; but no survey of the drama,
+however brief, can neglect to mention the skilful exposition, admirable
+psychology, and sound structural principles that characterized the best
+of Massinger's many plays, the unique and amazing dramatic genius shown
+in Ford's masterpieces, _The Broken Heart_ and _'Tis Pity She's a
+Whore_, and the ingenuity in plot, adroitness in characterization, and
+genuine poetic gifts of Shirley.
+
+Comedies from 1616 to 1642 reveal two chief influences; they are
+realistic and satiric, following Jonson, or they are light-hearted,
+lively combinations of manners and intrigue, after Fletcher. In the
+former class are Massinger's two great comedies, _The City Madam_ and _A
+New Way to Pay Old Debts_. To the latter class belong most of the
+comedies of Shirley. Tragi-comedies follow Fletcher with the variations
+due to the authors' ingenuity, and include perhaps the most attractive
+plays of Massinger and Shirley. Tragedies usually mingle lust, devilish
+intrigue, physical horror, after the fashion of Webster and Tourneur,
+but now often with romantic variation on the theme of love, and a
+technic of suspense and surprise similar to Beaumont and Fletcher. These
+are the main tendencies in the last twenty years of the drama, and
+characterize in the large the work of the greater men as well as of the
+less. Shakespeare's influence is widespread, but appears incidentally in
+particular scene, situation, character, or phrase, rather than as
+affecting the main course and fashions of the drama. After the
+publication of his plays in 1623, this incidental influence increased,
+and is distinctly noticeable in the plays of Ford and Shirley.
+
+[Page Heading: Pastoral and Masque]
+
+A glance must suffice for two dramatic forms that had only slight
+connection with the public theaters, the Pastoral Play and the Court
+Masque. Pastoral elements are found in many early entertainments and in
+the plays of Lyly and Peele. Later, in imitation of Guarini's _Il Pastor
+Fido_, attempts were made to inaugurate a pastoral drama, presenting a
+full-fledged dramatic exposition of the golden age. Daniel's _Queen's
+Arcadia_ (1605) and Fletcher's _Faithful Shepherdess_ (1609) had many
+later followers, but the form won no permanent hold on the popular
+taste. Traces of its influence, however, may often be seen, as in
+Shakespeare's _As You Like It_, or Beaumont and Fletcher's _Philaster_.
+The masque, originally only a masquerade, soon acquired some dramatic
+accompaniment, and in the court of James I developed into an elaborate
+form of entertainment. The masked dance of the ladies and gentlemen of
+the court was merely the focus for dialogue, elaborate setting,
+spectacle, music, and grotesque dances by professionals. These shows,
+costing vast sums for staging, costumes, and music, depended for their
+success mainly on the architect Inigo Jones, but in some degree also on
+Ben Jonson, who was the creator of the Court Masque as a literary form.
+Such expensive spectacles were far beyond the reach of the public
+theater, but provoked considerable imitation, as in Shakespeare's
+_Tempest_, or several of Beaumont and Fletcher's plays. Later Milton
+immortalized the form in _Comus_.
+
+The most hasty review of the Elizabethan drama must suggest how
+constantly Shakespeare responded to its prevailing conditions. There
+are, of course, great variations in the signs which different plays
+offer of contemporary influence and peculiarity. So it is with most of
+his fellow dramatists. _Lear_ and _Othello_ were perhaps written within
+the same year, yet _Othello_, in its unity, its technical excellence,
+and its depiction of character, is the most modern of the tragedies,
+while _Lear_, with its impossible story, its horrors, its treatment of
+madness, its likeness to the chronicle plays, its prolonged passage from
+crisis to catastrophe, in its very conception, is the most Elizabethan,
+though perhaps the most impressive of the tragedies. _Twelfth Night_ is
+suited to any stage, but _Troilus and Cressida_ and _Pericles_ are
+hardly conceivable except on the Elizabethan. Despite such variations,
+however, Shakespeare's relations to the contemporary drama were
+manifestly constant and immediate. If it was rarely a question with him
+what the ancients had written, it was always a question what was being
+acted and what was successful at the moment. His own growth in dramatic
+power goes step by step with the rapid and varied development of the
+drama, and the measure for comparison must be, not by decades, but by
+years or months.
+
+[Page Heading: Shakespeare and His Contemporaries]
+
+A study of the Elizabethan drama may help to excuse some of the faults
+and limitations of Shakespeare, but it also enforces his merits. Both
+faults and merits are often to be understood in the efforts of lesser
+men to do what he did. We admire his triumphs the more as we consider
+their failures. Yet they often had admirable success, and their triumphs
+as well as his are due in part to the dramatic conditions which gave the
+freest opportunity for individual initiative in language, verse, story,
+and construction. Noble bursts of poetry, richness and variety of life,
+an intense interest in human nature, comic or tragic--these are the
+great merits of that drama. That in a superlative degree they are also
+the characteristics of Shakespeare is not due solely to his exceptional
+genius, but to the fact that his genius worked in a favorable
+environment.
+
+[Illustration: A TYPICAL SHAKESPEREAN STAGE
+
+From Albright's _Shaksperian Stage_]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE ELIZABETHAN THEATER
+
+
+In 1576, James Burbage, father of the great actor, Richard Burbage, and
+himself a member of the Earl of Leicester's company, built the first
+London playhouse, the Theater in Shoreditch. In the next year a second
+playhouse, the Curtain, was erected nearby, and these seem to have
+remained the only theaters until 1587-1588, when probably the Rose, on
+the Bankside, was built by Henslowe. In 1599 Richard and Cuthbert
+Burbage, after some difficulty over their lease, demolished the old
+Theater and used the timber for the Globe, near the Rose, on the
+Bankside. The Swan, another theater, had been built there in 1594,
+somewhat to the west; and in 1614 the Hope was erected hard by the old
+Rose and the new Globe, which in 1613 had replaced the old Globe.
+Meantime the Fortune had been built by Henslowe and Alleyn in 1600 in
+Golden Lane to the north of Cripplegate, on the model of the Globe, and
+the Red Bull was erected in the upper end of St. John's Street about
+1603-1607. These were all public theaters, open to the air, built of
+wood, outside the city limits and the jurisdiction of the city
+corporation.
+
+Before the Theater, plays had been acted in various places about the
+city, and especially in inn-yards, some of which long continued to be
+used for dramatic performances. At an early date also, the companies of
+children actors connected with the choirs of St. Paul's and the Queen's
+Chapel had given public performances, probably indoors, at places near
+St. Paul's and in Blackfriars. When the Burbages were in difficulties
+about the Theater, they had leased certain rooms in the dismantled
+monastery of Blackfriars, but had then released these to a company of
+children which acted there for some years. In 1608 the Burbages regained
+possession of this property, and Shakespeare's company began acting
+there. This Blackfriars theater was known as a private theater in order
+to avoid the application of certain statutes directed against the public
+theaters, but it differed from them merely in being indoors, with
+artificial lights, and higher prices. It was used by Shakespeare's
+company as a winter theater, while the Globe served for summer
+performances, and it was the model for various other private theaters,
+two of which survived the Protectorate and became in turn the models for
+the Restoration Theater. Drury Lane and Covent Garden, indeed, trace
+their ancestry back directly to the Blackfriars through the Cockpit and
+the Salisbury Court playhouses.
+
+The companies of actors which occupied these theaters were coöperative
+organizations. Eight or ten actors formed a company, leased a theater,
+hired supernumeraries, bought plays, and shared in the profits. In
+Elizabeth's reign they secured a legal position by obtaining a license
+from some nobleman, and so were known as the Earl of Leicester's men,
+Lord Admiral's men, and so on. On the accession of James I, the leading
+London companies were taken directly under patronage of members of the
+royal family. During Shakespeare's time there were innumerable
+companies, but the tendency was for the best actors to become associated
+in a few companies, and for each company to keep to a particular
+theater; so that at the accession of James I, there were only five adult
+companies in London with permanent theaters. The best companies were
+frequently employed to act at court, and during the summer or when the
+plague was raging in London, they often toured the country. The
+children's companies flourished from time to time, and especially from
+1599-1607 they were, as we learn from _Hamlet_, formidable rivals of the
+men.
+
+[Page Heading: Companies of Actors]
+
+The history of the adult companies shows the growth of two distinct
+interests, that of Henslowe and Alleyn, and that of the Burbages.
+Henslowe, whose diary is one of the chief documents for the history of
+the theater, built the Rose, and in partnership with his son-in-law, the
+famous actor Alleyn, controlled the Fortune and the Hope, and the
+companies known as the Admiral's and the Earl of Worcester's men, and
+later on the Queen's and the Prince's men. The Burbages owned the
+Theater, the Globe, and the Blackfriars, and were in control of
+Shakespeare's company. This company, at first the Earl of Leicester's
+men, was known by the names of its various patrons, Strange's, Derby's,
+Hunsdon's, and the Lord Chamberlain's, until in 1603 it became the
+King's men. For a short time, as Lord Strange's men, it acted at the
+Rose, and apparently later at the playhouse in Newington Butts, but its
+regular theaters were the Theater, the Globe, and Blackfriars. With this
+company Shakespeare was connected from the beginning, and he aided in
+making it the chief London company. For a time, Alleyn and the Admiral's
+men were its close rivals, but even before the accession of James I,
+Shakespeare and Burbage had given it a supremacy that it maintained to
+the closing of the theaters.
+
+There are various pictures of the exterior of Elizabethan theaters in
+the contemporary maps or views of London, the best representation of the
+four Bankside theaters being the engraving of Hollar printed in the
+Tudor edition of _Twelfth Night_. This was first published in
+_Londinopolis_, 1657, but represents the Bankside as it was about 1620.
+Four pictures of interiors have been preserved, that from Kirkman's
+_Drolls_, those from the title-pages of _Roxana_ and _Messalina_, and
+the DeWitt drawing of the Swan, reproduced in the Tudor Shakespeare, _1
+Henry VI_. The drawing from Kirkman's _Drolls_ is usually known as the
+Red Bull stage, but it was not issued until 1679, and does not seem to
+have anything to do with the Red Bull or with any other regular
+theater. The _Messalina_ and _Roxana_ pictures are small, and both show
+a rear curtain and a projecting stage. The DeWitt drawing was done from
+hearsay evidence, is inaccurate in details, and represents a theater
+with a movable stage, probably not long regularly used for plays; it
+gives little idea of the stage, but does afford a good general notion of
+the interior of a public theater. The contract for the Fortune theater,
+built on the model of the Globe, except that it was square instead of
+octagonal, has been preserved and enables us to complete this view of
+the interior in detail.
+
+[Page Heading: Public Theaters]
+
+The public theaters were usually round, or nearly round, wooden
+buildings of three stories. These stories were occupied by tiers of
+galleries encircling the pit, which was open to the air. The stage
+projected halfway into the pit, and was provided with dressing rooms in
+the rear, and a protecting roof overhead, supported in some cases by
+pillars. At the top was the 'hut', a room used to provide apparatus for
+raising and lowering persons or properties from the stage, Light when
+needed was provided by torches. Admission to standing room in the pit
+was usually only a penny, but seats in the gallery or boxes or on the
+stage cost much more, rising as high as half a crown. Performances were
+given on every fair day except Sunday, and a flag flying from the hut
+indicated that a play was to be performed. Some of the public playhouses
+were used for acrobats, fencing, or even bear-baiting as well as for
+plays; but the better theaters, as the Globe and Fortune, seem to have
+been limited to dramatic performances.
+
+The size and arrangement of the stage doubtless varied somewhat with the
+different theaters, and considerable changes seem to have been
+introduced by the indoor private theaters. But the Curtain was used from
+1577 to 1642, some new theaters were modeled closely on the old, and the
+same plays were acted on different stages, so it is apparent that in all
+the stage was the same in its main features. For clearness these may be
+again enumerated. The stage was a platform projecting into the pit, open
+on three sides, and without any front curtain. In the rear were two
+doors, and between them, an alcove, or inner stage, separated from the
+front stage by curtains. Above the inner stage was a gallery, also
+provided with curtains, and over the doors were windows or balconies.
+The arrangement of doors, inner stage, gallery, and curtain may have
+varied somewhat, but the essential elements are a curtained space at the
+rear, and a gallery above. Trap-doors were also provided, and the hut
+overhead supplied the machinery for ascents and descents of gods and
+goddesses.
+
+[Page Heading: The Fortune Theater]
+
+Our diagram for the ground floor of the Fortune shows a square-cornered
+stage with doors flat on the rear, while the perspective drawing from
+Dr. Albright's _Shaksperian Stage_ shows a tapering stage, as in the
+_Messalina_ picture, with doors on the bias. Some stages may have had
+rounded corners with doors in the side. The pillars were not necessary
+in the private theaters; or in some public houses where other means were
+found for supporting the roof.
+
+[Illustration: GROUND PLAN OF THE FORTUNE THEATER
+
+Dimensions: 80 ft. square on the outside; 55 ft. square on the inside,
+the stage 43 ft. wide and extending to the middle of the pit.]
+
+The performance of a play differed in many ways from one to-day. There
+was no scenery and there were no women actors. Though scenes were used
+in court performances as early as 1604, they do not seem to have been
+employed by the professional companies to any extent until after the
+Restoration. Female parts were taken by boys, and, except in plays acted
+by the children's companies, there were rarely more than two important
+female characters in a play. Though without scenery, the Elizabethan
+stage was by no means devoid of spectacle. Processions, battles, all
+kinds of mythological beings, ascents to heaven, descents to hell,
+fire-works, and elaborate properties, were employed. Numerous
+contemporary plays indicate that neither the fairyland of _A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream_, nor the magnificent court of _Henry VIII_, was
+devised without an eye to the resources of the stage. Large sums of
+money were lavished on costumes, the cost of a coat often exceeding the
+price paid an author for a play. Costume was anachronistic; Cleopatra
+was impersonated by a boy in stays and farthingale; and Cæsar, probably
+by Burbage, in a costume much like that worn by the Earl of Essex. Some
+attention, however, was paid to appropriateness. Shepherds were clothed
+in white, hunters in green; and doubtless mermaids, fairies, Venuses,
+and satyrs were given as appropriate a dress as fancy could devise. The
+action of a play seems usually to have been completed in two hours.
+There was sometimes music between the acts, but there were no long
+waits, and little stage business.
+
+[Page Heading: Stage Presentation]
+
+The peculiarities in the presentation of a play due to the arrangement
+of the stage were considerable, and have been the subject of much
+discussion and misunderstanding among investigators. There is, however,
+no doubt that the action was largely on the front stage, and that most
+of the scenes, at least in Shakespeare's lifetime, were designed for
+presentation on this projecting platform. Since there was no
+drop-curtain, actors had some distance to traverse, on entrances and
+exits, between the doors and the front. At the end of a scene or a play,
+all must retire, and the bodies of the dead must be carried out. Hence a
+tragedy often ends with a funeral procession, a comedy with a dance. The
+indications of scene supplied by modern editors for Shakespeare's plays
+help to visualize a modern presentation, but are misleading as to
+Shakespeare's intentions or an Elizabethan performance. The majority of
+scenes in his plays differ strikingly from those in a modern play in
+that they offer no hints as to the exact locality. Often it is not clear
+from the text whether the scene is conceived as indoors or outdoors, in
+the palace, or the courtyard, or before the entrance. Even when the
+scene is presumably within a room, there is often no indication of the
+nature of the furnishings, never any of the elaborate attention to
+details of setting, such as we find in a play by Pinero or Shaw.
+Sometimes placards were hung up indicating the scene of a play, but
+apparently these merely gave the general scene, as "Venice" or "Verona,"
+and did not often designate localities more closely. In fact the
+majority of the scenes were probably written with no precise conception
+of their setting. They were written to be acted on a front stage, bare
+of scenery, projecting out into the audience. This did not represent a
+particular locality, but rather any locality whatever.
+
+The inner stage and the gallery above, and to some extent the doors and
+the windows, were used to indicate specific localities when these were
+necessary. The gallery represented the wall of a town, an upper story of
+a house, or any elevated locality. The doors represented doors to houses
+or gates to a city, and the windows or balconies over them were often
+used for the windows of the houses. The inner stage was used in various
+ways to indicate a specific locality requiring properties, and this use
+apparently increased as time went on, and especially in the indoor,
+artificially lighted private theaters. In any case, however, when the
+curtains were opened, the inner stage became a part of the main stage,
+and while action might take place there, it might also serve as a
+background for action proceeding in the front. Properties could be
+brought on and off the inner stage, behind the closed curtains, hence
+large properties were confined to its precincts. Furniture, as chairs,
+tables, or even beds, could, however, be pushed or carried out from the
+inner to the outer stage. A play might be given on the front stage
+without using the curtained recess at all, but numerous references to
+curtains make it clear that the inner stage was used from the early days
+of the theater.
+
+[Page Heading: Inner Stage]
+
+The uses of the inner stage have been much discussed and are still in
+dispute, but they may be summarized briefly. _First_, the inner stage
+was used for a specific, restricted, and usually propertied locality--a
+cave, a study, a shop, a prison. _Second_, the inner stage was used for
+scenes requiring discovery or tableaux. Numerous stage directions
+indicate the drawing of the curtains to present a scene set on the inner
+stage, as Bethsabe at her bath, Friar Bungay in bed with his magical
+apparatus about him, Ferdinand and Miranda playing chess. _Third_, the
+use of the inner stage was extended so that it represented any
+propertied background, especially for scenes in a forest, church, or
+temple. In _As You Like It_, for example, the last four acts are located
+in the Forest of Arden. "This is the Forest of Arden," says Rosalind as
+soon as she arrives there; and even before this, Duke senior alludes to
+"these woods," and later we learn that there are practicable trees on
+which Orlando hangs his verses. The forest setting, consisting of trees
+and rocks, was placed on the inner stage and served to give a scenic
+background. Of course, different places in the forest are to be
+presumed, but one forest background would be sufficient for all. In the
+course of the four acts, however, there are three scenes (II. ii; II.
+iii; III. i) that are not in the forest, but at unspecified and
+unpropertied places about the palace and Oliver's house. For these
+scenes the curtain would be closed, shutting off the forest background
+and transferring the spectators to the unspecified localities of Act I,
+_i.e._, to the bare front stage. _Fourth._ An extension of this last use
+made it possible to employ the curtain to indicate change of scene.
+Several scenes, where no heavy properties were required, might succeed
+one another on the front stage with the curtains closed; but the opening
+of the curtains would reveal a special background and a manifest change
+of scene. One instance of this use of the inner stage is seen in the
+immediate change from an outdoor to an indoor scene, or _vice versa_.
+The scene is in the street, _i.e._, on the front stage; the person
+knocks at one of the doors and is admitted to a house; when he
+reappears, it is through the inner stage, the curtains of which have
+been drawn, disclosing the setting of a room. Or this process is
+reversed. In _A Yorkshire Tragedy_, there is an interesting case of such
+an alternation from indoors to outdoors, with one character remaining on
+the stage all of the time. A more extensive use of this "alternation"
+could be employed to indicate marked changes of place. As long as the
+action remains in Venice, the bare front stage will do, but a transfer
+to Portia's house at Belmont can be made by means of the curtains and
+the inner stage. In the later plays at the private theaters this use of
+the inner stage, then better lighted, seems to have increased,
+especially in the change from a street or general hall to special
+apartments.
+
+[Page Heading: Evolution of the Theater]
+
+These uses of the inner stage, together with that of the upper stage or
+gallery, gave a chance for considerable variety in the action, and
+rendered the rapid succession of scenes less bewildering than one would
+at first suppose. Shakespeare's stage was the outcome of the peculiar
+conditions of acting by professionals in the sixteenth century, but it
+was also a natural step in the evolution from the medieval to the modern
+stage. On the medieval stage there was a neutral place or _platea_ and
+special localized and propertied places called _sedes_, _domus_, _loca_.
+On the Elizabethan stage the front stage is the _platea_, the inner and
+upper stages the _domus_ or _loca_. In the Restoration theater the
+scenery was placed on the inner stage and shut off from the outer stage
+by a curtain. With the use of scenery, the inner stage became more
+important, and the projecting apron of the front stage was gradually cut
+down. The proscenium doors in front of the curtain long survived their
+original use as entrances, but, as a rule, they have now finally
+disappeared with the front stage. The modern picture-frame stage of
+to-day is the evolution of the inner stage of the Elizabethans.
+Similarly the method of stage presentation has changed only gradually
+from Shakespeare's day to ours. The alternation from outer to inner
+stage was very common in the Restoration theaters, where flat scenes
+were used instead of a curtain, and it may still be seen in the
+production of melodrama or of Shakespeare's plays. A painted drop shuts
+off a few feet of the stage, which becomes a street or a hall, while
+properties and scenery are being arranged in the rear. When the drop
+goes up, we pass from the street or the court of the wicked Duke to the
+Forest of Arden, just as the Elizabethans did.
+
+The Elizabethan stage affected Shakespeare's dramatic art in many ways.
+The absence of scenery, of women actors, and of a front curtain, the use
+of a bare stage that served for neutral or unspecified localities,
+naturally influenced the composition of every play. But the theatrical
+presentation was by no means as crude or as medieval as these
+differences from modern practice seem to indicate. The intimacy
+established between actors and audience by the projecting stage, the
+rapidity of action hastened by the lack of scenery or furniture, the
+possibilities of rapid changes of scene rendered intelligible by the use
+of the inner stage, were all manifest advantages in encouraging dramatic
+invention. The traditions formed in this theater for the presentation of
+_Hamlet_, _Romeo and Juliet_, and the other plays, were handed on from
+Shakespeare and Burbage to Lowin and Taylor, to Betterton, Cibber, and
+Garrick, down to the present day; and have perhaps been less
+revolutionized by scenery and electric lights than we might imagine.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE TEXT OF SHAKESPEARE
+
+
+The main difficulties that stand in the way of determining the actual
+form in which Shakespeare left his plays are due, first, to the total
+absence of manuscripts, and, secondly, to the fact that he, like his
+contemporaries, regarded dramatic literature as material for performance
+on the stage, not as something to be read in the library. The most
+obvious evidence of this lies in his having himself issued with every
+appearance of personal attention his poems of _Venus and Adonis_ and
+_Lucrece_, while he permitted his plays to find their way into print
+without any trace of supervision and, in some cases, apparently without
+his consent. When the author sold a play to the theatrical company which
+was to perform it, he appears to have regarded himself as having no
+longer any rights in it; and when a play was published, we are in
+general justified in supposing either that it had been obtained
+surreptitiously, or that it had been disposed of by the company.
+Exceptions to this begin to appear in the first half of the seventeenth
+century, notably in the case of Heywood, who defended his action on the
+plea of protecting the text from mutilation, and in that of Ben Jonson,
+who issued in 1616, in the face of ridicule for his presumption, a
+folio volume of his "Works." But, though Shakespeare is reported to have
+felt annoyance at the pirating of his productions, there is no evidence
+of his having been led to protect himself or the integrity of his
+writings by departing from the usual practice in his profession.
+
+Among the various documents which make us aware of this situation, so
+general then, but so strongly in contrast with modern methods, three
+explicit statements by Heywood are so illuminating that they deserve
+quotation. One occurs in the preface to his _Rape of Lucrece_, 1630:
+
+    To the Reader.--It hath beene no custome in mee of all other men
+    (courteous Reader) to commit my plaies to the presse: the reason
+    though some may attribute to my owne insufficiencie, I had rather
+    subscribe in that to their seuare censure then by seeking to auoide
+    the imputation of weaknes to incurre greater suspition of honestie:
+    for though some haue vsed a double sale of their labours, first to
+    the Stage, and after to the presse, For my owne part I heere
+    proclaime my selfe euer faithfull in the first, and neuer guiltie of
+    the last: yet since some of my plaies haue (vnknowne to me, and
+    without any of my direction) accidentally come into the Printers
+    hands, and therefore so corrupt and mangled, (coppied only by the
+    eare) that I have bin as vnable to know them, as ashamed to chalenge
+    them, This therefore, I was the willinger to furnish out in his
+    natiue habit: first being by consent, next because the rest haue
+    beene so wronged in being publisht in such sauadge and ragged
+    ornaments: accept it courteous Gentlemen, and prooue as fauorable
+    Readers as we haue found you gratious Auditors. Yours T. H.
+
+[Page Heading: The Right to Print]
+
+The second is in Heywood's _Pleasant Dialogues and Dramas_, 1637, the
+prologue to _If you know not me, you know no bodie; Or, The troubles of
+Queen Elizabeth_. It is as follows:
+
+    A Prologve to the Play of Queene Elizabeth as it was last revived at
+    the Cock-pit, in which the Author taxeth the most corrupted copy now
+    imprinted, which was published without his consent.
+
+    PROLOGUE
+
+    Playes have a fate in their conception lent,
+    Some so short liv'd, no sooner shew'd than spent;
+    But borne to-day, to morrow buried, and
+    Though taught to speake, neither to goe nor stand.
+    This: (by what fate I know not) sure no merit,
+    That it disclaimes, may for the age inherit.
+    Writing 'bove one and twenty: but ill nurst,
+    And yet receiv'd as well performed at first,
+    Grac't and frequented, for the cradle age,
+    Did throng the Seates, the Boxes, and the Stage
+    So much: that some by Stenography drew
+    The plot: put it in print: (scarce one word trew:)
+    And in that lamenesse it hath limp't so long,
+    The Author now to vindicate that wrong
+    Hath tooke the paines, upright upon its feete
+    To teache it walke, so please you sit, and see't.
+
+The third passage occurs in the address to the reader prefixed to _The
+English Traveller_, 1633:
+
+    True it is that my plays are not exposed to the world in volumes, to
+    bear the titles of Works (as others). One reason is that many of
+    them by shifting and changing of companies have been negligently
+    lost; others of them are still retained in the hands of some actors
+    who think it against their peculiar profit to have them come in
+    print; and a third that it was never any great ambition in me in
+    this kind to be voluminously read.
+
+From these passages we gather that Heywood considered it dishonest to
+sell the same play to the stage and to the press; that some of his plays
+were stolen through stenographic reports taken in the theater and were
+printed in corrupt forms; that, in order to counteract this, he obtained
+the consent of the theatrical owners to his publication of a correct
+edition; that some actors considered the printing of plays against their
+interest (presumably because they thought that if a man could read a
+play, he would not care to see it acted); and that many plays were lost
+through negligence and the changes in the theatrical companies. That we
+are here dealing with the conditions of Shakespeare's time is clear
+enough, since the edition of _If you know not me_ on which Heywood casts
+reflections was published in 1605, and in 1604 Marston supplies
+corroboration in the preface to his _Malcontent_:
+
+    I would fain leave the paper; only one thing afflicts me, to think
+    that scenes, invented merely to be spoken, should be enforcively
+    published to be read, and that the least hurt I can receive is to do
+    myself the wrong. But since others otherwise would do me more, the
+    least inconvenience is to be accepted. I have myself, therefore, set
+    forth this comedy; but so, that my enforced absence must much rely
+    upon the printer's discretion: but I shall entreat slight errors in
+    orthography may be as slightly overpassed, and that the unhandsome
+    shape which this trifle in reading presents, may be pardoned for
+    the pleasure it once afforded you when it was presented with the
+    soul of lively action.
+
+[Page Heading: Pirated Editions]
+
+The only form in which any of Shakespeare's plays found their way into
+print during his lifetime was that of small pamphlets, called Quartos,
+which were sold at sixpence each.[7] In the case of five of these there
+is general agreement that they came to the press by the surreptitious
+method of reporting described by Heywood: the first Quarto versions of
+_Romeo and Juliet_, _Henry V_, _The Merry Wives_, _Hamlet_, and
+_Pericles_. All of these bear clear traces of the effects of such
+mutilation as would naturally result from the attempt to write down the
+dialogue during the performance, and patch up the gaps later. The first
+Quartos of _Richard III_ and _King Lear_, though much superior to the
+five mentioned, yet contain so many variants from the text of the Folio
+which seem to be due to mistakes of the ear and to slips of memory on
+the part of the actors, that probably they should also be included in
+the list of those surreptitiously obtained.
+
+[7] For facsimile reproductions see Bibliography, Appendix D.
+
+Redress for such pirating as is implied in these publications was
+difficult on account of the absence of a law of copyright. The chief
+pieces of legislation affecting the book trade were the law of licensing
+and the charter of the Stationers' Company. According to the first, all
+books, with a few exceptions, such as academic publications, had to be
+licensed before publication by the Bishop of London or the Archbishop
+of Canterbury. This was an unworkable provision, and in fact the
+responsibility for all books not likely to raise political or
+theological controversy was left to the Stationers' Company. This close
+corporation of printers and publishers exercised its powers for the
+protection of its members rather than of authors. A publisher wishing to
+establish a monopoly in a book he had acquired entered it on the
+Stationers' Register, paying a fee of sixpence, and was thereby
+protected against piracy. When the copy so registered was improperly
+acquired, the state of the case is not so clear. At times the officials
+showed hesitation about registering a book until the applicant "hath
+gotten sufficient authoritye for yt," and _As You Like It_, for example,
+appears in the Register only "to be staied," which it was until the
+publication of the first Folio. Further, the pirated _Romeo and Juliet_
+and _Henry V_ were never entered at all; the pirated _Hamlet_ and
+_Pericles_ were entered, but to other publishers, who in the case of
+_Hamlet_ brought out a more correct text in the following year; the
+pirated _Merry Wives_ was transferred from one publisher to another on
+the day of entry, and actually issued by the second. Thus this group of
+plays does not support the view that the Stationers' Company stood ready
+to give perpetual copyright to their members even for obviously stolen
+goods. It is to be noted, too, that the previous publication of these
+surreptitious copies formed no hindrance to the later issue of an
+authentic copy. The second Quarto of _Hamlet_, printed from a complete
+manuscript, followed, as has been said, the first the next year, and the
+same thing happened in the case of _Romeo and Juliet_.
+
+[Page Heading: Publisher's Copyright]
+
+On the other hand, the great majority of the Quartos printed from
+playhouse copies of the plays were regularly entered, and the rights of
+the original publisher preserved to him. The appearance of groups of
+plays in the market following interference with theatrical activity such
+as came from the plague in 1594, from the breaking up of companies, or
+from Puritan attempts at restriction, confirm the belief that these
+better Quartos were honorably acquired by the publishers from the
+companies owning them, when the actors thought that there was more to
+gain than to lose by giving them to the press.
+
+[Page Heading: Table of Quarto Editions]
+
+The accompanying "Table of Quarto Editions" gives the names of all the
+Shakespearean plays issued in this form before the publication of the
+collected edition in 1623, known as the First Folio. In the cases of
+_Romeo and Juliet_, _1 Henry IV_, _Love's Labour's Lost_, _Merchant of
+Venice_, _Much Ado_, _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_, and _Richard II_, a
+Quarto, usually the most recent, provided the text from which the
+version in the Folio was printed. Hence, though in several cases the
+copy of the Quarto thus employed seems to have been one used by the
+actors and containing corrections of some value, the extant Quarto
+rather than the Folio is the prime authority for the text to-day. The
+same is true of _Titus Andronicus_, except that in this case the Folio
+restores from some manuscript source a scene which had been dropped from
+the Quarto. If, as some hold, the Folio texts of _Richard III_ and _King
+Lear_ were printed from Quartos, there must have been available also a
+manuscript version, which is so heavily drawn upon that the Folio text
+virtually represents an independent source, as it does in the case of
+four of the five plays acknowledged to be due to surreptitious
+reporting. _Pericles_, the fifth of these, was first admitted to the
+collected works in the third Folio, and is the only "reported" text
+forming our sole authority.[8]
+
+
+TABLE OF QUARTO EDITIONS BEFORE 1623
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+  The following abbreviations are used in the "SOURCE OF Q TEXT" column:
+  D--Disputed;
+  P--Playhouse;
+  R--Reported.
+
+==========================================================================
+      |              |           DATES OF             |      |
+      | ENTRIES IN   |--------------------------------|SOURCE|
+      | STATIONERS'  |    |      |     |    |    |    | OF Q | SOURCE OF
+      |  REGISTER    |Q1  | Q2   |Q3   |Q4  |Q5  |Q6  | TEXT |  F1 TEXT
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+------+--------------+----+------+-----+----+----+----+------+------------
+T.A.  |Feb. 6, 1594  |1594|  1600| 1611|    |    |    |P     |Q3 completed
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      | & corrected
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+R. II |Aug. 29, 1597 |1597|  1598| 1608|1615|    |    |P     |Q4 corrected
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+R. III|Oct. 19, 1597 |1597|  1598| 1602|1605|1612|1622|D     |Disputed
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+R.J.  |No entry      |1597|  1599| 1609|n.d.|    |    |{Q1 R |Q3 from Q2
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |{Q2 P |
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+1 H.IV|Feb. 25, 1598 |1598|  1599| 1604|1608|1613|1622|P     |Q5 corrected
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+L.L.L.|No entry      |1598|      |     |    |    |    |P     |Q1
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+Merch.|July 22, 1598 |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |(conditional) |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    | {1600|     |    |    |    |      |
+      |Oct. 28, 1600 |1600| { or |     |    |    |    |P     |Q1 (Heyes)
+      |              |    | {1619|     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    |      |{1608|    |    |    |      |
+H.V.  |[Aug. 4, 1600]|1600|  1602|{ or |    |    |    |R     |Independent
+      |"to be stayed"|    |      |{1619|    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+M.Ado |[Aug. 4, 1600]|    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |"to be stayed"|    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |Aug. 23, 1600 |1600|      |     |    |    |    |P     |Q1 corrected
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+2 H.IV|Aug. 23, 1600 |1600|      |     |    |    |    |P     |Independent
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    | {1600|     |    |    |    |      |
+M.N.D.|Oct. 8, 1600  |1600| {or  |     |    |    |    |P     |Q2 corrected
+      |              |    | {1619|     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+M.W.  |Jan. 18, 1602 |1602|  1619|     |    |    |    |R     |Independent
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+Hml.  |July 26, 1602 |1603|1604,5| 1611|    |    |    |{Q1 R |Independent
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |{Q2 P |
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    | {1608|     |    |    |    |      |Disputed (Q1
+Lear  |Nov. 26, 1607 |1608| { or |     |    |    |    |D     | in several
+      |              |    | {1619|     |    |    |    |      | states)
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+T.C.  |Feb. 7, 1603 }|    |      |     |    |    |    |      |Independent
+      |(conditional)}|1609|      |     |    |    |    |P     | (Q1 in two
+      |Jan. 28, 1609}|    |      |     |    |    |    |      | issues)
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+Per.  |May 20, 1608  |1609|  1609| 1611|1619|    |    |R     |Not in F1
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |F3 from Q4
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+Oth.  |Oct. 6, 1621  |1622|      |     |    |    |    |P     |Independent
+==========================================================================
+
+[8] In the table of Quarto editions may be noted four entries with the
+words "or 1619" added to the date which appears on the title-page. These
+four plays, the Roberts Quartos of _The Merchant of Venice_ and _A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream_ of 1600, the third Quarto of _Henry V_, 1608,
+the second Quarto of _King Lear_, 1608, along with the 1619 Quartos of
+_The Merry Wives_ and _Pericles_, an undated Quarto of _The Whole
+Contention_ (the earlier form of _2_ and _3 Henry VI_), the Quarto of
+_Sir John Oldcastle_, dated 1600, and the Quarto of _A Yorkshire
+Tragedie_, dated 1619, have been shown by Mr. A. W. Pollard, with the
+coöperation of Mr. W. W. Greg, to have been put on the market at the
+same time, and Mr. W. J. Neidig has proved from typographical evidence
+that the title-pages of all nine were set up in succession in 1619. A
+very curious problem is thus presented, and the motives for the
+deception practised, apparently by the printers Pavier and Jaggard, have
+not been satisfactorily cleared up; but at present it appears likely
+that in the case of these nine Quartos the correct date of publication
+should be 1619, and that, in the case of the first two mentioned, the
+question of the comparative authority of the Heyes and Fisher Quartos
+respectively as against that of the Roberts Quartos should be settled
+against the latter. This last point is the only part of this remarkable
+discovery which is of importance in determining the text, as the Quartos
+dated 1608 and 1619 were already known to be mere reprints of earlier
+ones.
+
+[Page Heading: The First Folio]
+
+We come now to the publication of the First Folio, the most important
+single volume in the history of the text of Shakespeare. On November 8,
+1623, the following entry occurs in the Stationers' Register:
+
+    Mr. Blount: Isaak Jaggard. Entred for their copie under the hands of
+    M^r Doctor Worrall and M^r Cole, Warden, M^r William Shakspeers
+    Comedyes, Histories and Tragedyes, soe manie of the said copyes as
+    are not formerly entred to other men viz^t, Comedyes. The Tempest.
+    The two gentlemen of Verona. Measure for Measure. The Comedy of
+    Errors. As you like it. All's well that ends well. Twelft Night. The
+    winters tale. Histories. The thirde part of Henry the sixt. Henry
+    the eight. Tragedies. Coriolanus. Timon of Athens. Julius Cæsar.
+    Mackbeth. Anthonie and Cleopatra. Cymbeline.
+
+One notes here the omission of _1_ and _2 Henry VI_, _King John_, and
+_The Taming of the Shrew_, which had neither been previously entered nor
+issued in Quarto. This is probably due to the fact that three of these
+are based on older plays of which Quartos exist, which may have seemed
+to the publishers reason enough to save their sixpences. If we assume
+that "The thirde part of Henry the sixt" is a misprint for "The first
+part," the explanation covers the whole case. The registration of
+_Antony and Cleopatra_ was superfluous, as it had been entered, though
+not printed, so far as we know, on May 20, 1608.
+
+There are thus in the First Folio, the publication of which immediately
+followed this entry in 1623, twenty plays not before issued, for which
+the text of this volume is our sole authority. The emphasis so commonly
+placed on the supreme value of the text of the First Folio is justified
+with regard to these twenty plays; as for the remaining seventeen, its
+importance is shared, in proportions varying from play to play, with the
+texts of the Quartos. The sources from which the compilers of the Folio
+obtained their new material were in all probability playhouse copies, as
+in the case of the better Quartos. Heminge and Condell, Shakespeare's
+actor colleagues and friends, who sign the Address to the Readers,[9]
+would obviously be the instruments for obtaining such copies. As for the
+so-called "private transcripts" which some have postulated as a source
+of material, there is no evidence that at this date any such existed.
+Whether any of the playhouse manuscripts provided by Heminge and Condell
+were in Shakespeare's autograph we can neither affirm nor deny, but it
+is well to be cautious in accepting at its face value the implication
+contained in their words that they had "scarce received from him a blot
+in his papers."
+
+[9] For this and other prefatory matter from the First Folio, see
+Appendix A.
+
+[Illustration: THE TITLE PAGE OF THE FIRST FOLIO
+
+(_From the copy in the New York Public Library._)]
+
+[Page Heading: The First Folio]
+
+The First Folio is a large volume of 908 pages, measuring in the tallest
+extant copy 13-3/8 x 8-1/2 inches. A reduced facsimile of the title page
+with the familiar wood-cut portrait appears on the opposite page. The
+text is printed in two columns with sixty-six lines to a column. The
+typography is only fairly good, and many mistakes occur in the
+pagination. Extant copies, of which there are at least 156, vary in some
+respects, on account of the practice of making corrections while the
+sheets were being printed. The printer was William Jaggard, and his
+associates in the publishing enterprise were his son Isaac and the
+booksellers, William Aspley, John Smethwick, and Edward Blount.
+Estimates of the size of the edition vary from five to six hundred.
+
+Many of the causes which made the text of these early editions
+inaccurate are common to all the plays, while some are peculiar to those
+obtained by reporters in the theater. Of the first, the most fundamental
+is, of course, the illegibility or ambiguity of the author's original
+manuscript. Such flaws were perpetuated and multiplied with each
+successive transcript, and when the manuscript copy came into the
+printer's hands, the errors of the compositor--confusion of words
+sounding alike, of words looking alike, unconscious substitution of
+synonyms, mere manual slips, and the like--were added to those already
+existing. The absence of any uniform spelling, and carelessness in
+punctuation, which led to these being freely modified by the printer,
+increased the risk of corruption. The punctuation of both Quartos and
+Folio, though by no means without weight, cannot be regarded as having
+the author's sanction, and all modernized editions re-punctuate with
+greater or less freedom. Most nineteenth-century editors carry on with
+minor modifications the punctuation of Pope, so that their texts show a
+composite of sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth century
+methods; the text used in the Tudor edition is frankly punctuated, as
+far as the syntax permits, according to modern methods, with, it is
+believed, no loss in authority. There is no clear evidence that, in such
+productions as plays, proof was read outside of the printing-office. The
+theory, insisted on by Dr. Furness in successive volumes of the _New
+Variorum Shakespeare_, that the Elizabethan compositor set type to
+dictation is without foundation, the phenomena which he seeks to explain
+by it occurring commonly to-day when there is no question of such a
+practice.
+
+Another class of variation in text arose from the treatment of the
+manuscript in the playhouse. Cuts, additions, and alterations were made
+for acting purposes, stage directions were added with or without the
+assistance of the author, revivals of the play called for revision by
+the original writer or another. The majority of stage directions in
+modern editions, except exits and entrances, are due to editors from
+Rowe onwards, and these unauthorized additions are distinguished in the
+Tudor edition by brackets. Almost all notes of place at the beginnings
+of scenes belong to this class.
+
+[Page Heading: Corruptions of Text]
+
+The defects to which the texts of the surreptitiously obtained Quartos
+are particularly subject include omissions and alterations due to lapse
+of memory on the part of the actors, additions due to the tendency to
+improvise which Shakespeare censures in _Hamlet_, omissions due to the
+reporter's failure to hear or to write quickly enough, garbled
+paraphrases made up to supply such omissions, and the writing of prose
+as verse and verse as prose.
+
+Such are the most important of the causes of the corruptions which the
+long series of editors of Shakespeare have devoted their study and their
+ingenuity to remedying. The series really begins with the second Folio
+of 1632 and is continued with but slight improvements in the third Folio
+of 1663, reprinted with the addition of _Pericles_ and six spurious
+plays in 1664, and in the fourth Folio of 1685. The emendations made in
+the seventeenth-century editions are mainly modernizations in spelling
+and such minor changes as occurred to members of the printing staff. In
+no case do they have any authority except such as may be supposed to
+belong to a man not far removed from Shakespeare in date; and they add
+about as many mistakes as they remove.
+
+The difficulty of the task of the modern editor varies greatly from play
+to play. It is least in the twenty plays for which the First Folio is
+the sole authority, greater in the eight in which the Folio reprints a
+Quarto with some variations, greatest in the nine in which Folio and
+Quarto represent rival versions. In these last cases, it is the duty of
+the editor to decide from all the accessible data which version has the
+best claim to represent the author's intention, and to make that a basis
+to be departed from only in clear cases of corruption. The temptation,
+which no editor has completely resisted, is naturally towards an
+eclecticism which adopts the reading that seems most plausible in
+itself, without giving due weight to the general authority of the text
+chosen as a basis. If carried far, such eclecticism results in a
+patchwork quite distinct from any version that Shakespeare can have
+known.
+
+The first editor of Shakespeare, in the modern sense, was Nicholas Rowe,
+poet laureate under Queen Anne. He published in 1709 an edition of the
+plays in six octavo volumes, preceded by the first formal memoir of the
+dramatist, and furnished with notes. The poems were issued in the
+following year in similar form, with essays by Gildon. Rowe based his
+text upon that of the fourth Folio, with hardly any collation of
+previous editions. He corrected a large number of the more obvious
+corruptions, the most notable of his emendations being perhaps the
+phrase in _Twelfth Night_, "Some are become great," which he changed to
+"Some are born great." On the external aspect of the plays Rowe has left
+a deeper mark than any subsequent editor. In the Folios only eight of
+the plays had lists of _dramatis personæ_; Rowe supplied them for the
+rest. In the Folios the division into acts and scenes is carried out
+completely in only seventeen cases, it is partially done in thirteen,
+and in six it is not attempted at all. Rowe again completed the work,
+and though some of his divisions have been modified and others should
+be, he performed this task with care and intelligence. He modernized the
+spelling and the punctuation, completed the exits and entrances,
+corrected many corrupt speech-tags, and arranged many passages where the
+verse was disordered. In virtue of these services, he must, in spite of
+his leaving much undone, be regarded as one of the most important agents
+in the formation of our modern text.
+
+[Page Heading: Rowe and Pope]
+
+A second edition of Rowe's Shakespeare was published in 1714, and in
+1725 appeared a splendid quarto edition in six volumes, edited by
+Alexander Pope. In his preface Pope made strong professions of his good
+faith in dealing with the text. "I have discharged," he said, "the dull
+duty of an editor to my best judgment, with more labor than I expect
+thanks, with a religious abhorrence of all innovation, and without any
+indulgence to my private sense or conjecture.... The various readings
+are fairly put in the margin, so that anyone may compare 'em; and those
+I have preferred into the text are constantly _ex fide codicum_, upon
+authority.... The more obsolete or unusual words are explained." Hardly
+one of these statements is entirely true. Pope possessed copies of the
+first and second Folios, and at least one Quarto of each play that had
+been printed before 1623, except _Much Ado_, but these he consulted only
+occasionally, and seldom registered the variants as he said he had done.
+When he did, he gave no clue to their source. He constantly inserted his
+private conjectures without notice, and his explanations of difficult
+expressions are few and frequently wrong. Passages considered by him
+inferior or spurious he relegated to the foot of the pages; others he
+merely omitted without notice. His ear was often jarred by the freedom
+of Shakespeare's verse, and he did his best to make it "regular" by
+eighteenth-century standards. Yet Pope spent much ingenuity in striving
+to better the text, and no small number of restorations and emendations
+are to be credited to him, especially in connection with the arrangement
+of the verse. He is to be credited also with discernment in rejecting
+the seven plays added to the Shakespearean canon in the third Folio, of
+which only _Pericles_ has since been restored.
+
+The weaknesses of Pope's edition did not long remain hidden. In the
+spring of 1726 appeared "Shakespeare Restored: or, a Specimen of the
+many Errors, as well committed, as unamended, by Mr. Pope in his late
+edition of this Poet. Designed not only to correct the said edition, but
+to restore the True Reading of Shakespeare in all the Editions ever yet
+publish'd." Lewis Theobald, the author, was a translator and scholar,
+much better equipped than Pope for the work of editing, and his
+merciless exposure of Pope's defects gave a foretaste of the critical
+ability later displayed in the edition of Shakespeare which he published
+in 1734. Lovers of Shakespeare discerned at the time the service
+performed by Theobald in this attack on Pope, but the publication in
+1728 of the first edition of the _Dunciad_, with Theobald as hero, gave
+Pope his revenge, and cast over the reputation of his critic a cloud
+which is only now dispersing. Modern scholarship, however, has come to
+recognize the primacy of Theobald among emendators of Shakespeare's
+text, and the most famous of his contributions, his correction of "a
+table of green fields" to "'a babled of green fields," in Quickly's
+account of the death of Falstaff in _Henry V_, II. iii. 17, is only a
+specially brilliant example of the combination of acuteness, learning,
+and sympathy which made his edition a landmark in the history of the
+text. For many of his troubles, however, Theobald was himself to blame;
+he attacked his opponents with unnecessary vehemence, as he expressed
+his appreciation of his own work with unnecessary emphasis; he was not
+always candid as to what he owed to others, even to the despised edition
+of Pope, from which he printed; and he indulged his appetite for
+conjecture at times beyond reasonable bounds.
+
+[Page Heading: Theobald and Hanmer]
+
+Theobald's edition was followed in 1744 by that of Sir Thomas Hanmer in
+six beautifully printed volumes. This edition is based on that of Pope,
+and even goes farther than Pope's in relegating to the foot of the page
+passages supposed unworthy. Hanmer performed no collating worth
+mentioning, but made some acute conjectures.
+
+The student is apt to be prejudiced against the work of William
+Warburton on account of the extravagance of his claims and his
+ungenerous treatment of predecessors to whom he was greatly indebted.
+"The Genuine Text," he announced, "(collated with all former editions
+and then corrected and emended) is here settled: Being restored from the
+Blunders of the first editors and the Interpolations of the two Last";
+yet he based his text on Theobald's and joined Pope's name with his own
+on the title-page. Whatever value belongs to Warburton's edition (1747)
+lies in a number of probable conjectural emendations, some of which he
+had previously allowed Theobald to use, and in the amusing bombast and
+arrogance of many of his notes. The feeble support that lay behind the
+pretensions of this editor was exposed by a number of critics such as
+John Upton, Zachary Grey, Benjamin Heath, and Thomas Edwards, who did
+not issue new editions, but contributed a considerable number of
+corrections and interpretations.
+
+The value of Dr. Johnson's edition (1765) does not lie in his
+emendations, which are usually, though not always, poor, or in his
+collation of older editions, for which he was too indolent, but in the
+sturdy common-sense of his interpretations and the consummate skill
+frequently shown in paraphrases of obscure passages. His Preface to the
+edition was the most weighty general estimate of Shakespeare so far
+produced, and remains a valuable piece of criticism. In scientific
+treatment of the text, involving full use of all the Quartos and Folios
+then accessible, Johnson and his predecessors were far surpassed by
+Edward Capell, who issued his edition in ten volumes in 1768.
+Unfortunately, the enormous labor Capell underwent did not bear its full
+fruit, for he suppressed much of his textual material in the interests
+of a well-printed page, and his preface and notes are written in a
+crabbed style that obscures the acuteness of his editorial intelligence.
+He elaborated stage directions, and carried farther the correction of
+disarranged meter; but, like most of his fellow-editors in that century,
+he did less than justice to his predecessors and was too indulgent to
+his own conjectures. This edition was supplemented by volumes of notes
+published in 1775 (1 vol.) and 1779-1783 (3 vols.).
+
+[Page Heading: Johnson and Capell]
+
+Before the publication of Capell's text, the antiquary George Steevens
+had issued in 1766 reprints of twenty of the early Quartos; and in 1773
+he produced, in association with Johnson, an edition with a good text in
+which he benefited from Capell's labors (though he denies this). Through
+his knowledge of Elizabethan literature he made substantial
+contributions to the interpretation of difficult passages. He restored
+_Pericles_ to a place in the canon, but excluded the _Poems_, because
+"the strongest Act of Parliament that could be framed would fail to
+compel readers into their service." To the second edition of Johnson and
+Steevens's text (1778) Edmund Malone contributed his famous "Essay on
+the Chronology of Shakespeare's Plays," which began modern investigation
+of this subject. The third edition was revised in 1785 by Isaac Reed;
+and this was succeeded by the edition of Malone in 1790, in which the
+vast learning and conscientious care of that scholar combined to produce
+the most trustworthy text so far published. Malone was not brilliant,
+but he was extremely erudite and candid, and his so-called "Third
+Variorum" edition in twenty-one volumes, brought out after his death by
+James Boswell in 1821, is a mine of information on theatrical history
+and cognate matters, which will probably always be of value to students
+of the period. The name of "First Variorum Edition" is given to the
+fifth edition of Johnson and Steevens, revised by Reed in 1803, and
+"Second Variorum" to the sixth edition of the same, 1813. Meantime
+occasional critiques of complete editions contributed something to the
+text. Johnson's edition called forth comment by Kendrick in 1765 and
+Tyrwhitt in 1766, and the Johnson and Steevens text was criticized by
+Joseph Ritson in 1783 and 1788, and by J. Monck Mason in 1785. The first
+American edition was published in Philadelphia in 1795-1796 from
+Johnson's text; the first continental edition at Brunswick in 1797-1801
+by C. Wagner.
+
+[Page Heading: Nineteenth-Century Editors]
+
+The editions of the nineteenth century are too numerous for detailed
+mention here. Passing by the "family" Shakespeare of T. Bowdler, 1807
+and 1820, and the editions of Harness, 1825, and Singer, 1826, we note
+the editions of 1838-1842, and 1842-1844 in which Charles Knight
+resorted to the text of the First Folio as an exclusive authority. J. P.
+Collier in his edition of 1844 leaned, on the other hand, to the side of
+the Quartos, but later became a clever if somewhat rash emendator, who
+spoiled his reputation by seeking to obtain authority for his guesses by
+forging them in a seventeenth-century hand in a copy of the second
+Folio. The colossal volumes of J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps's edition,
+1853-1865, contain stores of antiquarian illustration; and in the
+edition of Delius, 1854-1861, we have the chief contribution of Germany
+to the text of Shakespeare. Delius, like Knight, though not to the same
+extreme, exaggerated the authority of the First Folio; but for the plays
+for which that is the sole source, his text has earned high respect.
+Alexander Dyce, wisest of Elizabethan scholars, produced in 1857 a
+characteristically sane text, on the whole the best to this date; while
+in America in 1857-1860 and 1859-1865 the brilliant but erratic Richard
+Grant White produced editions which show a commendable if puzzling
+openness to conviction in successive changes of opinion.
+
+From 1863 to 1866 appeared the first issue of the Cambridge Shakespeare,
+edited originally by W. G. Clark, J. Glover, and W. A. Wright. The
+responsibility for the later revised edition of 1891-3 is Dr. Wright's.
+The exceedingly careful and exhaustive collation of all previous textual
+readings in the notes of this edition make it indispensable for the
+serious student, and its text, substantially reprinted in the Globe
+edition, is the most widely accepted form of the works of Shakespeare
+which has ever been circulated. The over-emphasis on the First Folio
+which has been noted in Knight and Delius is no longer found here, and
+in general the comparative value of Quarto and Folio is weighed in the
+case of each play. Occasionally, in cases like that of _Richard III_,
+where both Quarto and Folio are good but vary widely, the Cambridge
+editors seem more eclectic than their general theory warrants, and the
+punctuation is still archaic, clinging to the eighteenth-century
+tradition. But the acceptance of this careful and conservative text has
+been a wholesome influence in Shakespearean study.
+
+The only completely reëdited texts which have been issued since the
+revised Cambridge edition are that of the Oxford Shakespeare, by W. J.
+Craig, on principles very similar to the Cambridge, and the Neilson
+text, originally published in one volume in 1906 and revised and
+reprinted in the Tudor Shakespeare. The massive volumes of Dr. H. H.
+Furness's _New Variorum Shakespeare_, begun in 1871 (17 volumes issued),
+now reprint the text of the First Folio, and show marked traces of the
+tendency to follow this authority without due discrimination. This
+monumental abstract of all previous criticism is of great value to the
+professional student of Shakespeare, and its textual apparatus has the
+advantage over the Cambridge edition of recording not only the first
+occurrence of a reading, but the names of the chief editors who have
+adopted it. It thus gives a compendious history of editorial judgment on
+all disputed points.
+
+[Page Heading: Recent Editors]
+
+The conjectural emendation of Shakespeare still goes on, but since Dyce,
+comparatively few suggestions find general acceptance. More progress has
+been made in interpretation through the greater accessibility of
+contemporary documents and the advance in recent years in our knowledge
+of Elizabethan theatrical conditions. But, in view of the circumstances
+under which the original editions were printed, there will always be
+room for variations of individual opinion in many cases, both as to what
+Shakespeare wrote and as to what he meant.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+QUESTIONS OF AUTHENTICITY
+
+
+Owing to the conditions of publication described in Chapter VII there
+are questions as to the authenticity of a number of the poems and plays
+ascribed to Shakespeare. Of the poems, "The Phœnix and the Turtle" and
+"A Lover's Complaint" have been sometimes rejected as unworthy, but
+there is no other evidence against the ascription to him by the original
+publishers. The case of _The Passionate Pilgrim_ is different and is
+interesting as illustrating the methods of piracy practised by
+booksellers and as affording the only record of a protest by Shakespeare
+against the free use which they made of his name. This anthology was
+published by W. Jaggard in 1599 as "by W. Shakespeare." The third
+edition in 1612 added two pieces by Thomas Heywood. Heywood immediately
+protested and in the postscript to his _Apologie for Actors_, 1612,
+declared that Shakespeare was "much offended with M. Jaggard that
+(altogether unknown to him) presumed to make so bold with his name." Of
+the twenty poems that made up the volume, only five are certainly by
+Shakespeare, two appearing also in _The Sonnets_ and three in _Love's
+Labour's Lost_. Six others can be assigned to contemporary poets. The
+authorship of the remaining nine is unknown, but probably only one or
+two are by Shakespeare.
+
+[Page Heading: The Shakespeare Apocrypha]
+
+In addition to the thirty-seven plays now included in all editions of
+Shakespeare, some forty others have been, for one reason or another,
+attributed to him. The First Folio contained thirty-six plays; and it is
+a strong evidence of the honesty and information of its editors, Heming
+and Condell, that subsequent criticism has been satisfied to retain the
+plays of their choice and to make but one addition, _Pericles_. Of these
+plays, however, it is now generally agreed that a number are not
+entirely the work of Shakespeare, but were written by him in part in
+collaboration with other writers, _e.g._, _Titus Andronicus_, _1_, _2_,
+and _3 Henry VI_, _Timon of Athens_, _Pericles_, and _Henry VIII_. Of two
+of these, _Titus Andronicus_ and _1 Henry VI_, some students refuse to
+give Shakespeare any share. Of the forty doubtful plays, there is not
+one which in its entirety is now credited to Shakespeare; and only three
+or four in which any number of competent critics see traces of his hand.
+Only in the case of _The Two Noble Kinsmen_ is there any weight of
+evidence or opinion that he had a considerable share.
+
+The second Folio kept to the thirty-six plays of the First Folio; but
+the second printing of the third Folio (1664) added seven plays:
+_Pericles Prince of Tyre_, _The London Prodigal_, _The History of Thomas
+Lord Cromwell_, _Sir John Oldcastle_, _Lord Cobham_, _The Puritan
+Widow_, _A Yorkshire Tragedy_, _The Tragedy of Locrine_. These seven
+plays were also included in the fourth Folio, and as supplementary
+volumes to Rowe's, Pope's, and some later editions. They were all
+originally published in quarto as by W. S., or William Shakespeare, but
+except in the case of _Pericles_, this has been regarded as a
+bookseller's mistake or deception without warrant. _Locrine_, "newly set
+forth, overseen, and corrected by W. S., 1595," is a play of about the
+date of _Titus Andronicus_, and is probably by Greene, Peele, or some
+imitator of Marlowe and Kyd. _Sir John Oldcastle_ appeared in 1600 in
+two quartos, one of which ascribed it to William Shakespeare, but it was
+clearly composed for the Admiral's men as a rival to the Falstaff plays
+which the Chamberlain's men had been acting. _Thomas Lord Cromwell_
+(1602) and _The Puritan_ (1607) were ascribed to W. S., on their
+title-pages, but offer no possible resemblances to Shakespeare. _The
+London Prodigal_ (1605) and _A Yorkshire Tragedy_ (1608) were both acted
+by Shakespeare's company, and bore his name on their first editions, and
+the latter also on a second edition, 1619. The external evidence for his
+authorship is virtually the same as in the case of _Pericles_, which
+also was acted by his company, appeared under his name during his
+lifetime, but was rejected by the editors of the First Folio. No one,
+however, can discover any suggestion of Shakespeare in _The London
+Prodigal_. _A Yorkshire Tragedy_ is a domestic tragedy in one act,
+dealing with a contemporary murder. It gives the conclusion of a story
+also treated in a play, _The Miseries of Enforced Marriage_ (1607) by
+George Wilkins, the author of a novel _The Painful Adventures of
+Pericles_, and sometimes suggested as a collaborator on the play
+_Pericles_. _A Yorkshire Tragedy_ is very unlike Shakespeare, but it has
+a few passages of extraordinarily vivid prose, which might conceivably
+owe something to him.
+
+[Page Heading: The Two Noble Kinsmen]
+
+_The Two Noble Kinsmen_ was registered April 8, 1634, and appeared in
+the same year with the following title-page "The Two Noble Kinsmen:
+Presented at the Blackfriars by the Kings Maiesties servants, with great
+applause: Written by the memorable Worthies of their time;
+
+    Mr. John Fletcher, and }
+                           } Gent.
+    Mr. William Shakespeare}
+
+Printed at London by the Tho. Cotes for Iohn Waterson; and are to be
+sold at the signe of the Crowne in Paul's Church-yard. 1634." The
+exclusion of the play from the First Folio may be explained on the same
+basis as the exclusion of _Pericles_; for in each play Shakespeare wrote
+the minor part. There is now general agreement that _The Two Noble
+Kinsmen_ was written by two authors with distinct styles, and that the
+author of the larger portion is Fletcher. The attribution of the
+non-Fletcherian part to Shakespeare has been upheld by Lamb, Coleridge,
+De Quincey, Spalding (in a notable Letter on Shakespeare's Authorship of
+_The Two Noble Kinsmen_, 1833), Furness, and Littledale (who edited the
+play for _The New Shakespeare Society_, Series II, 1, 8, 15, London,
+1876-1885); but there are still many critics who do not believe that
+Shakespeare had any part in the play. This question will probably always
+remain a matter of opinion; but the evidence of various verse tests
+confirms esthetic judgment in assigning about two fifths of the verse to
+Shakespeare. The Shakespearean portion, here and there possibly touched
+by Fletcher, includes, I. i; I. ii; I. iii; I. iv. 1-28; III. i; III.
+ii; V. i. 17-73; V. iii. 1-104; V. iv, and perhaps the prose II. i and
+IV. iii.
+
+The dance in the play is borrowed from an anti-masque in Beaumont's
+_Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn_, presented at court,
+February 20, 1613. This fixes the date of composition for the play in
+1613, the same year as _Henry VIII_, on which it is now generally agreed
+that Shakespeare and Fletcher collaborated. On both of the plays the
+collaboration seems to have been direct; _i.e._, after making a fairly
+detailed outline, each writer took certain scenes, and, to all intents,
+completed these scenes after his own fashion.
+
+One other play must be mentioned in connection with _The Two Noble
+Kinsmen_. _Cardenio_, entered on the Stationers' Register, 1653, was
+described as "by Fletcher and Shakespeare." It seems probably identical
+with a _Cardenno_ acted at court by the King's men in May, 1613, and a
+_Cardenna_ in June, 1613. Attempts have been made to connect it with
+_Double Falsehood_, assigned to Shakespeare by Theobald on its
+publication in 1728.
+
+[Page Heading: Last Ascriptions]
+
+Other non-extant plays ascribed to Shakespeare after 1642 require no
+attention, nor do a number of Elizabethan plays assigned to him in
+certain of their later quartos. Among these are _The Troublesome Reign
+of King John_, on which Shakespeare's _King John_ was based; _The First
+Part of The Contention_, and (the Second Part) _The True Tragedy of
+Richard Duke of York_ (versions of _2 Henry VI_ and _3 Henry VI_); and
+_The Taming of a Shrew_, the basis of Shakespeare's play. The relation
+of Shakespeare's plays to these earlier versions is discussed in the
+introductions to the respective volumes of the Tudor Shakespeare. Other
+plays assigned, without grounds, to Shakespeare by late
+seventeenth-century booksellers are _The Merry Devil of Edmonton, The
+Arraignment of Paris, Fair Em, Mucedorus_, and _The Birth of Merlin_.
+
+A few other anonymous plays have been ascribed to Shakespeare by modern
+critics. Of chief note are _Arden of Feversham_, 1592, first attributed
+to Shakespeare by Edward Jacob in 1770; _Edward III_, 1596, included
+with other false attributions to Shakespeare in a bookseller's list of
+1659, and edited and assigned to Shakespeare by Capell in 1760; _Sir
+Thomas More_, an old play of about 1587, preserved in manuscript until
+edited by Dyce in 1844 and assigned to Shakespeare by Richard Simpson in
+1871. There is no evidence for the ascription of various portions of
+these plays to Shakespeare, except that certain passages seem to some
+critics characteristic of him. But at the date when the three plays
+were written his style had not attained its characteristic
+individuality; and the assignment of these anonymous plays to any
+particular author neglects the obvious fact that many writers of that
+period present similar traits of versification and imagery. The
+attribution to Shakespeare of the Countess of Salisbury episode in
+_Edward III_, parts of the insurrection scenes in _Sir Thomas More_, and
+a few passages in _Arden of Feversham_ has scarcely any warrant beyond
+the enthusiastic admiration of certain critics for these passages.
+
+Thus only one play of the Shakespeare Apocrypha has any considerable
+claim to admission into the canon. The evidence for his participation in
+_The Two Noble Kinsmen_ is about as strong as in _Pericles_, and the
+part assigned to him is fairly comparable with his contribution to
+_Henry VIII_.
+
+An account of the Shakespeare Apocrypha is, however, incomplete without
+reference to the forgeries of documents or plays. Theobald published
+_Double Falsehood_ in 1728, as based on a seventeenth-century manuscript
+which he conjectured to be by Shakespeare. John Jordan, a resident of
+Stratford, forged the will of Shakespeare's father, and probably some
+other papers in his _Collections_, 1780; William Henry Ireland, with the
+aid of his father, produced in 1796 a volume of forged papers purporting
+to relate to Shakespeare's career, and on April 2, 1796, Sheridan and
+Kemble presented at Drury Lane the tragedy of _Vortigern_, really by
+Ireland, but said by him to have been found among Shakespeare's
+manuscripts. Ireland was exposed by Malone, and he published a
+confession of his forgeries in 1805. More skilful and far more
+disturbing to Shakespearean scholarship are the forgeries of John Payne
+Collier, extending over a period from 1835 to 1849. These included
+manuscript corrections in a copy of the second Folio, and many documents
+concerning the biography of Shakespeare and the history of the
+Elizabethan theater. These forgeries have vitiated many of Collier's
+most important publications, as his _Memoirs of Edward Alleyn_, and
+_History of English Dramatic Poetry_.
+
+[Page Heading: Forgeries]
+
+We turn now from attempts to increase Shakespeare's writings to an
+extraordinary effort to deny him the authorship of all his plays. Doubts
+on this score seem to have been raised by Joseph C. Hart in his _Romance
+of Yachting_, 1848, and by an article in _Chambers' Journal_, August 7,
+1852. In 1856, Mr. W. H. Smith first proposed Bacon's authorship in a
+letter to Lord Ellesmere, "Was Lord Bacon the author of Shakespeare's
+plays?" These were followed by an article by Miss Delia Bacon in
+_Putnam's Monthly_, 1856, and a volume, _The Philosophy of the Plays of
+Shakespeare unfolded by Delia Bacon_. Since Miss Bacon's book, her
+hypothesis has resulted in the publication of hundreds of volumes and
+pamphlets supporting many variations of the theory. Some are content to
+view the authorship as a mystery, assigning the plays to an unknown
+author. Others attribute the authorship to a club of distinguished men,
+or to Sir Anthony Shirley, or the Earl of Rutland, or another. Others
+give Bacon only a portion of the plays, as those containing many legal
+terms. The majority, however, are thoroughgoing "Baconians," and the
+most prodigious cases of misapplied ingenuity have been the efforts to
+find in the First Folio a cipher, by which certain letters are selected
+which proclaim Bacon's authorship; as _The Great Cryptogram_, 1887, by
+Ignatius Donnelly, and _The Bi-Literal Cypher of Francis Bacon_, 1900,
+by Mrs. Gallup. Such cyphers are mutually destructive, and their
+absurdity has been repeatedly demonstrated. Either they will not work
+without much arbitrary manipulation, or they work too well and are found
+to indicate Bacon's authorship of literature written before his birth
+and after his death. Yet similar 'discoveries' continue to be announced.
+
+The evidences supporting Shakespeare's authorship have been set forth
+sufficiently in this volume and offer no basis for an attitude of
+skepticism. A few considerations may be recalled as correctives for a
+partial or mistaken reading of the evidence. (1) Though the records of
+Shakespeare's life are meager, they are fuller than for any other
+Elizabethan dramatist. Indeed we know little of the biography of any men
+of the sixteenth century unless their lives affected church or politics
+and hence found preservation in the records. There is no 'mystery' about
+Shakespeare. (2) Records amply establish the identity between
+Shakespeare the actor and the writer. Moreover, the plays contain many
+words and phrases natural to an actor, many references to the actor's
+art, and show a wide and detailed knowledge of the ways and
+peculiarities of the theater. (3) The extent of observation and
+knowledge in the plays is, indeed, remarkable, but it is not accompanied
+by any indication of thorough scholarship, or a detailed connection with
+any profession outside of the theater, or a profound knowledge of the
+science or philosophy of the time. (4) The law terms are numerous, and
+usually correct, but do not establish any great knowledge of the law.
+Elizabethan London was full of law students who were among frequent
+patrons of the theater. Through acquaintance with these gentlemen
+Shakespeare might have readily acquired all the law that he displays.
+Moreover Shakespeare had an opportunity to gain a considerable
+familiarity with the law through the frequent litigations in which he
+and his father were concerned. (5) The dedication, commendatory poems,
+and address to the readers prefixed to the First Folio ought in
+themselves to be sufficient to remove the skepticism as to Shakespeare's
+authorship.
+
+[Page Heading: The "Baconian" Question]
+
+The following considerations apply to the attribution to Bacon, so far
+as that rests on any tangible basis: (1) Sir Tobie Matthews writes in a
+letter to Bacon, written some time later than January, 1621, "The most
+prodigious wit that ever I knew of my nation and of this side of the sea
+is of your Lordship's name, though he be known by another." The
+sentence probably refers to Father Thomas Southwell, a Jesuit, whose
+real surname was Bacon. There is nothing to connect it with Shakespeare.
+(2) The parallelisms between passages in Shakespeare and Bacon deal with
+phrases in common use and fail to establish any connection between the
+two men. (3) The few surviving examples of Bacon's verse suggest no
+ability as a poet. (4) Bacon's life is well known, and it offers no hint
+of connection with the theaters and no space in its crowded annals for
+the production of Shakespeare's plays. In fact, if we had to find an
+author for Shakespeare's plays among writers of the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, Bacon would be about the last person
+conceivable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+SHAKESPEARE SINCE 1616
+
+
+During Shakespeare's lifetime, his plays were mentioned and imitated as
+often as those of any of his contemporaries. The more important
+documents bearing on his growing reputation have already been noted in
+this volume. This popularity, however, was confined to theater-goers and
+the readers of the sixteen plays that had appeared before 1616. There
+was no opportunity for a full estimate of his plays as literature until
+their publication in the Folio of 1623. This is given full and worthy
+expression in the fine verses which Ben Jonson contributed as a preface
+to the Folio. He had girded at several of Shakespeare's plays, and his
+own views of the principles and practices of the dramatic art were
+largely opposed to Shakespeare's, but he took this opportunity to
+express unstinted appreciation of Shakespeare's greatness. He notes with
+discrimination that Shakespeare learned his art in an earlier day, but
+far outshone Kyd, Lyly, and Marlowe.
+
+                    Soul of the Age
+    The applause! delight! the wonder of our Stage!
+
+He may challenge comparison with the great Greek tragedians, or in
+comedies
+
+    Of all that insolent Greece or haughty Rome
+    Sent forth, or since did from their ashes come.
+
+    He was not of an age but for all time!
+
+The magnitude of Shakespeare's achievement was thus enthusiastically
+proclaimed by the literary dictator of the time.
+
+From 1623, until the closing of the theaters, the plays continued
+favorites on the stage, though they yielded somewhat in the current
+taste to the theatrical successes of Fletcher and Massinger. After 1623,
+they continued to be read and admired, as is shown by the publication of
+the second and third folios in 1632 and 1663-1664, and by many
+appreciations, including those of D'Avenant, Suckling, the Duchess of
+Newcastle, and Milton. At the Restoration many of the plays were at once
+revived on the stage, and Dryden's essay _Of Dramatick Poesie_ (1668)
+summed up in a masterly fashion contemporary opinion on Shakespeare. He
+is compared with other great dramatists, and is declared less correct
+than Jonson and less popular and modern than Beaumont and Fletcher, yet
+is "the man who of all Moderns, and perhaps Ancient Poets, had the
+largest and most comprehensive soul."
+
+[Page Heading: The Seventeenth Century]
+
+The Restoration was in some doubt about Shakespeare, for while it found
+in him much to admire, it also found much to condemn. His plays now had
+the advantage of women actors for the female parts, but they
+encountered changed fashions in the theater. The romantic comedies were
+not to the taste of the time, and disappeared from the stage until
+toward the middle of the eighteenth century. Meanwhile, _The Merry Wives
+of Windsor_ was the most popular and most highly esteemed of his
+comedies. The tragedies attracted the genius of Betterton and were
+constantly acted, but these were subject to revision of various kinds.
+_Hamlet_ and _Othello_ held their places without alterations, but Nahum
+Tate's tame version of _King Lear_ and Cibber's version of _Richard III_
+superseded the originals for many years. _Romeo and Juliet_, too, gave
+way to Otway's _Caius Marius_, 1692, which kept large portions of
+Shakespeare's play; and _Antony and Cleopatra_ yielded place on the
+stage to Dryden's fine _All for Love_ (1678), in the style of which he
+professes to imitate the "divine Shakespeare." By 1692, adaptations had
+also been made of _Troilus and Cressida_, _The Tempest_, _Macbeth_, _The
+Two Noble Kinsmen_, _Timon_, _Richard II_, _Coriolanus_, _Henry VI_,
+_Cymbeline_, _Titus Andronicus_, _Julius Cæsar_. A great deal of
+contempt has been visited upon these revisions of Shakespeare, and their
+attempts to improve on him are usually feeble enough; but sufficient
+recognition has not been given to the testimony that these revisors bear
+to a great appreciation and admiration of Shakespeare. They tried to
+adapt him to current metrical conventions, to current literary fashions,
+to an idea of art quite foreign to his, but they made these efforts
+because they admired his genius. If they did not admire everything in
+his thirty-seven plays, they admired a great deal.
+
+Further, these revisions are the outcome of critical strictures on the
+plays which were then common and, in essence, have been frequently
+repeated. Critics objected to the irregularity and confusion of their
+structure, to their disregard of the unities of action, their mixture of
+tragic and comic, their obscurity and archaism of diction, their mixed
+and confused figures, their occasional puns and bombast. These are
+substantially the criticisms that Dryden offers when under the influence
+of Rymer. Rymer himself (_A Short View of Tragedy_, 1693) goes much
+farther. He desires tragedy to give a rationalized view of life, dealing
+poetic justice to various typical persons, and consequently condemns
+Shakespeare's persons as too individual, his plots as too irregular, and
+the total effect of his plays as insufficiently didactic and moral. This
+view of tragedy was mainly due to the rationalistic and classical ideas
+which continued for a century to dominate European criticism. But before
+the seventeenth century was over, Shakespeare's growing reputation had
+proved itself a rock against which the tendencies in criticism had
+broken like unavailing waves. However much they might insist on rules in
+art, critics were generally willing to hail Shakespeare as the great
+exception. Champions were ready to answer Rymer and to defend
+Shakespeare. _Othello_, selected by Rymer for special analysis and
+condemnation, continued to hold its place on the stage and to incite
+dramatists to emulation. The plays continued to be read, and new
+editions were demanded. In the forty years from 1660 to 1700, in spite
+of great changes in theatrical conditions, in spite of changes of taste
+in readers that relegated most of Elizabethan drama to neglect, and in
+spite of the formation of a criticism doubtful or neglectful of the very
+qualities in literature that his plays present, Shakespeare continued to
+win admirers. By 1700 he was recognized as a dramatist and poet who was
+one of the great possessions of the English race.
+
+[Page Heading: Widening Influence]
+
+In the two centuries since, Shakespeare's fame and influence have spread
+and multiplied to an extent difficult to characterize justly in a brief
+summary. Some important evidences of this growth may indeed be collected
+and analyzed. The position and importance of his plays on the stage, the
+ever increasing number of editions, the changing attitudes of critics
+and men of letters--on these matters it is not difficult to draw
+conclusions as to Shakespeare's influence at home and abroad. But it is
+not so easy to say what his influence was on the literature of any
+generation, and still less easy to summarize with certainty the effects
+on thought and feeling and conduct which made up his continuing power
+over generation after generation of readers. This much is clear, that a
+study of Shakespeare's influence is in part a study of changing ideas
+and ideals in literature--that as he survived the Restoration taste, so
+he survived the new classicism of the eighteenth and the romanticism of
+the early nineteenth century. It is also clear that a full record of the
+influence of Shakespeare on English-speaking readers would touch on
+almost all the varied changes of thought and conduct that have entered
+into the history of two centuries.
+
+The most important of the successive editions of Shakespeare from that
+of Nicholas Rowe, 1709, to the present time, have been noted in the
+history of the text in Chapter VII. It must be observed that these
+various publications indicate not only progress toward establishing a
+sound text, but also a constantly increasing number of readers. The
+multiplication of editions kept pace with the vast extension of the
+middle-class interest in literature. By the end of the eighteenth
+century, the works of Shakespeare were in the possession of everyone who
+had a library, and with a text and notes that left few difficulties for
+a person of any education.
+
+The nineteenth century well maintained the tradition of earlier
+scholarship. Malone's extensive antiquarian knowledge of Elizabethan
+drama and theater served as the basis for further research in these
+fields by Dyce, Ward, Fleay, and others. The chronological order of the
+plays, which Malone was the first to investigate, was determined with
+considerable certainty and gave a new significance to the study of
+Shakespeare's work as a whole. Dyce, Sidney Walker, and Wright, Delius
+of the Germans, Richard Grant White of the Americans, are a few among
+the long list of scholars who have added notable emendations and
+illustrative notes. Editions of the collected works indeed soon became
+almost too numerous for record, and the number of readings, notes, and
+illustrations too great for collection even in the largest variorum.
+To-day the task of scholarship may lie in the restriction,
+simplification, and final determination of certain varying editorial
+practices rather than in the accumulation of further illustrative and
+appreciative comment. But to the work of adding new editions there can
+be no end so long as the number of readers increases. Volumes of all
+sizes, for many classes, following various editorial methods, are likely
+to continue to meet the changing but ever increasing demands of
+English-speaking readers. At the end of the nineteenth century
+Shakespeare's works were not merely a household possession, they were to
+be had in every possible form to suit every possible taste or
+convenience.
+
+[Page Heading: On the Stage]
+
+The extension of Shakespeare's popularity on the stage was concurrent
+with this widening range of readers. In the first thirty years of the
+eighteenth century, which marked a revolution in the nature of the drama
+and the taste of the audiences, Shakespeare's tragedies continued to be
+among the most frequently acted stock plays at the two patented
+theaters. The middle of the century saw the revival of most of the
+romantic comedies and the appearance of David Garrick. Some of the
+adaptations continued, but others were displaced by genuine
+Shakespeare, as in _Macbeth_, _The Merchant of Venice_, and _Romeo and
+Juliet_. _All's Well That Ends Well_, _As You Like It_, _Cymbeline_,
+_Much Ado_, _Twelfth Night_, _The Winter's Tale_, were all revived. In
+fact, if we include adaptations, every play of Shakespeare was seen on
+the stage during the eighteenth century, with the exceptions of _2_ and
+_3 Henry VI_, only parts of these appearing, and of _Love's Labour's
+Lost_, of which a version prepared for acting was published in 1762 but
+not produced.
+
+The traditions of Betterton had been carried on by Wilks (1670-1732),
+Barton Booth (1681-1733), Colley Cibber (1671-1757), and others. But the
+prevailing manner was condemned as stiff and lifeless in comparison with
+the energy of Garrick's presentation. From his first triumph in Richard
+III in 1741, to his farewell performance of Lear in 1776, he won a
+series of signal successes in both tragedy and comedy, in Hamlet, Lear,
+Macbeth, Richard III, Falconbridge, Romeo, Hotspur, Iago, Leontes,
+Posthumus, Benedick, and Antony. Garrick's services to Shakespeare
+extended beyond the parts which he impersonated. He revived many plays,
+and though he garbled the texts freely, yet in comparison with earlier
+practice he really had some right to boast that he had restored the text
+of Shakespeare to the stage. Further, his example led to an increased
+popularity of Shakespeare in the theater and afforded new incentives for
+other actors. Mrs. Clive, Mrs. Cibber, and Mrs. Pritchard were among
+the women who acted with Garrick. Macklin, by his revival of Shylock as
+a tragic character, Henderson by his impersonation of Falstaff, and John
+Palmer in secondary characters, as Iago, Mercutio, Touchstone, and Sir
+Toby, were his contemporaries most famous in their day.
+
+[Page Heading: Kemble and Kean]
+
+Garrick's place at the head of the English stage was taken by John
+Philip Kemble (1757-1823), an actor of great dignity of presence and
+manner, who won general admiration in the great tragic parts, especially
+those offering opportunities for declamation. His sister, Mrs. Sarah
+Siddons, was doubtless the greatest of English actresses; her Lady
+Macbeth, Queen Katherine, and Constance overwhelmed her audiences by
+their majesty and passion. Kemble's reputation was surpassed by Edmund
+Kean, whose appearance as Shylock in 1819, at Drury Lane, was the first
+of a series of great successes in most of the tragic parts, including
+Hamlet, Lear, Othello, and Richard III. In contrast to Kemble's
+declamation, Kean's acting was vehement and passionate. Coleridge
+declared that to see him was "reading Shakespeare by flashes of
+lightning." Readers of the dramatic criticism of Hazlitt and Lamb will
+recall tributes to Kean and to other favorite actors, especially perhaps
+their praise of Mrs. Jordan's Viola and Rosalind. Macready for forty
+years maintained the great traditions of English acting, and during his
+managements of Drury Lane sought to retain for Shakespeare's plays their
+preëminence on the stage. Associated with his many impersonations were
+those of Mrs. Warner and Helen Faucit (Lady Martin). From Garrick's
+début to the retirement of Macready (1851) is a century of great actors
+and actresses who brought to the interpretation of the many characters
+of the plays a skill and intelligence that satisfied the most critical
+theater-goers and extended vastly the appreciation and knowledge of
+Shakespeare's men and women.
+
+Shakespeare's position on the stage was, however, maintained only with
+difficulty against the melodramas, musical farces, and spectacles that
+absorbed the theaters. Yet from 1844 to 1862, Samuel Phelps, at Sadler's
+Wells, presented thirty-one of the plays. Since then the stage has
+hardly seen an equally important revival; but the great traditions of
+acting have been carried on by many eminent actors: Sir Henry Irving,
+Ellen Terry, Forbes Robertson, in England; Edwin Forrest, Edwin Booth,
+Junius Brutus Booth, Charlotte Cushman, Ada Rehan, Julia Marlowe, and
+Edward Sothern in America. Lately, successful attempts have been made to
+perform plays in the Elizabethan manner, and perhaps there is a tendency
+to pay less attention to elaborate scenic presentation than was the
+habit during the last of the nineteenth century. In one respect, at
+least, the present offers a decided improvement on the past, for there
+is now a strong sentiment in favor of as close an adherence as possible
+to an authorized text of the plays.
+
+[Page Heading: The Eighteenth Century]
+
+Shakespeare has held his place on the stage in spite of many and great
+changes in theatrical conditions and dramatic taste. He will probably
+survive changes greater than those which separate the picture stage with
+its electric lights from the projecting open-air platform of his own
+day, or than those which separate the dramas of Ibsen, Shaw, and Barrie
+from those of Marlowe and Fletcher, or the cinematograph and comic opera
+from the bear-baiting and jugglery which rivaled the Globe. The visitor
+who scans, in the Stratford Museum, the curious collection of portraits
+of actors and actresses in Shakespearean parts may wonder what
+peculiarities of costume, manner, and expression will be devised for the
+admired interpretations of the centuries to come. But it hardly seems
+possible that any actor of the future will influence as greatly the
+appreciation of Shakespeare's characters and speeches as did Garrick and
+Mrs. Siddons in England or Edwin Booth in America.
+
+Shakespearean criticism in the eighteenth century was, as has been
+noted, largely textual, but there was also a considerable discussion of
+Shakespeare's learning, his art, and its violations of neo-classical
+theory. John Dennis, in his _Letters_, 1711, proved a sturdy admirer,
+and the consensus of opinion of following writers was that of Sedley's
+couplet which described Shakespeare as
+
+    The pride of Nature, and the shame of Schools,
+    Born to Create, and not to Learn from Rules.
+
+Voltaire's attacks brought rejoinders from Mrs. Elizabeth Montagu in
+1769 and from Dr. Johnson in the preface to his edition, 1765. In fact,
+admiration for Shakespeare was a powerful factor in forcing the
+rejection of rules and standards of French criticism. Johnson's Preface
+finds fault with Shakespeare's neglect of poetic justice and dwells at
+length on the faults in plots and diction, but Johnson defends the
+violation of the unities, and his praise is a discriminating summary of
+the merits that the eighteenth century had found in Shakespeare. It is
+praise that is likely to endure.
+
+Within another generation, however, reverence for Shakespeare had
+increased to an intensity that made Johnson's admiration seem feeble and
+niggardly. This transformation was due to many causes, but in the main
+it was a part of the vast changes in European literature known as the
+Romantic movement. This resulted in a rejection of the rules and models
+of neo-classicism, a new interest in the literature and manners of the
+Middle Ages, a conception of poetry as the expression of individuality,
+attention to the individual man in all orders of society, a fresh
+concern for external nature, an emphasis on the emotions rather than
+mere reason, a desire for wonder and mystery, and an exaltation of
+natural instincts and intuitions as opposed to general truths or social
+conventions. In each of these particulars, Shakespeare seemed the
+complete fulfilment of the new tendencies--which indeed his growing
+influence had undoubtedly encouraged. More than Spenser or Milton or
+the old ballads, he was the inspiration and guide for new endeavors in
+literature. It seemed to the new age of critics and poets that they had
+rediscovered him, and they hastened to raise him from neglect to the
+throne of omniscience. He was no longer a wayward genius, he was the
+model from whom art and wisdom were to be learned.
+
+[Page Heading: Appreciative Criticism]
+
+This new criticism was esthetic and appreciative. It did not try to
+balance Shakespeare's merits and faults, or to test him by codes of arts
+or morals. It recognized him as supreme, and its discipleship was
+devoted to reverent interpretation and enthusiastic admiration.
+Believing in the importance of the poetic imagination in the affairs of
+men, it found in him a gospel and an example for its creed. Its
+delightful task was to find new beauties and to search out the
+hiding-places that revealed the god of its idolatry. If the genius of
+the master-poet was the source of art and wisdom, the personality of the
+critic gained a new refulgence through its service of reflecting the
+rays of glory. The interest in the study of individual characters had
+resulted, even in Johnson's day, in some notable interpretive essays, as
+Maurice Morgann's on Falstaff (1777). In the next generation, Coleridge,
+Lamb, and Hazlitt in England, and Schlegel and Goethe in Germany,
+brought the keenest intelligence and most sympathetic taste to a
+criticism that aspired to reveal the full range and height of
+Shakespeare's creative faculty.
+
+The results of this criticism may be more specifically summarized. (1)
+It viewed the individual characters of the plays as if they were real
+persons, analyzing their motives and elaborating or repainting their
+portraits, as in the analyses of Hamlet by Goethe and Coleridge, or in
+the brilliant sketches of Hazlitt. The few hundred lines spoken by a
+leading character have thus been expanded by the impressions made on
+successive critics into volumes of biography. (2) Shakespeare's works
+were studied as a whole in an effort to study the development of his art
+and mind. Schlegel and Coleridge gave a unity to the phenomena of the
+thirty-seven plays that had not been recognized hitherto; but they and
+their followers naturally tended to make of their author a sort of
+nineteenth-century romanticist. (3) Exalting the services of poetry and
+the creative imagination, they viewed Shakespeare's exhibition of human
+nature and his incidental wisdom as profound, consistent, and immensely
+valuable for the human race. Hence they were ever seeking in his work
+for a philosophy, a synthetic ethics, and making the widest applications
+of his words to conduct. Believing that he could do no wrong, they
+inevitably came to attribute to him ideas and morals that were of their
+own creation.
+
+The defects of this criticism are most apparent in critics like Ulrici
+and Gervinus who carry its methods to extremes. Personal, fanciful,
+unhistorical, idolatrous, it is yet a tremendous tribute and an amazing
+record of the sway that Shakespeare has exerted on the human mind. The
+writings of no other man have been studied so intimately by so many
+sympathetic readers, or have excited such different impressions.
+Throughout the nineteenth century this appreciative criticism has
+continued, and Shakespeare has been interpreted through the personality
+of many critics, German and American, as well as British, more recently
+through the delicate sensibility of Professor Dowden, and the
+penetrating reflection of Professor A. C. Bradley.
+
+[Page Heading: The Nineteenth Century]
+
+At the end of the nineteenth century, Shakespearean criticism has become
+too varied for a brief survey. Textual and esthetic criticism both
+continue. The biography has been established on a sound basis of fact by
+Halliwell-Phillipps and Sidney Lee; and still new facts reward patient
+investigators of the legal and court documents, almost the only records
+preserved that can possibly bear on Shakespeare's life. Special studies
+of all sorts have been numerous, as to his reading, religion, folk-lore,
+and so on. More significant in its effect on our general view have been
+the efforts of historical criticism. As our knowledge of Elizabethan
+literature, drama, theater, have increased, it has been possible to see
+Shakespeare in relation to his time and environment. The study of
+Shakespeare as a sixteenth-century dramatist aims not merely at a better
+appreciation of his work, but also to explain his development and to
+account for some of the qualities of his achievement. Its attitude is
+that of the scientific historian examining the records of any great
+human activity, and trying to understand its causes, results, and
+meaning. Somewhat allied to this has been technical dramatic criticism,
+which is uniting knowledge of the Elizabethan theater with interest in
+drama as a peculiar form, and thereby studying Shakespeare as a
+dramatist rather than as a poet or philosopher. In fact, Shakespeare is
+no longer merely man, poet, dramatist, philosopher, or genius. Jonson's
+tribute, Dryden's summary, Johnson's judicial essay, or Coleridge's
+admiring studies, all seem hopelessly inadequate to express the range of
+his dominion. He has become the source of the most various and extensive
+interests, a continent that ever expands its fields for exploration, an
+epoch that ever extends the years of its duration, a race that never
+dies, though its progeny ever multiplies.
+
+[Page Heading: In Germany]
+
+It is in the nineteenth century that Shakespeare's dominance becomes
+international. Four of his plays were acted at Dresden and elsewhere
+early in the seventeenth century, but there seems to have been no
+literary acquaintance with the plays in Germany until about the middle
+of the eighteenth century, when two poor translations of _Julius Cæsar_
+and _Romeo and Juliet_ appeared, and J. C. Gottsched severely criticized
+Shakespeare's art. In 1759, in a journal, "Litteraturbriefe," Lessing
+began a warm defense of Shakespeare and declared his superiority to
+Racine and Corneille. His _Hamburgische Dramaturgie_ (1767) went far in
+directing the change of taste from French classicism and in
+establishing Shakespeare in German thought as the greatest of poets,
+whether ancient or modern. A prose translation was begun by Wieland in
+1762 and completed by Eschenburg in 1789. What is perhaps the best
+translation of Shakespeare into any foreign tongue was begun in 1797 by
+A. W. von Schlegel and Ludwig Tieck, two leaders of German romanticism,
+and finally completed in 1853. Schlegel's lectures on _Shakespeare and
+the Drama_ were delivered in Vienna in 1808, and present both the
+romanticist's idolizing of Shakespeare and a new kind of esthetic
+criticism destined to exercise great influence on Coleridge and the
+English critics. Meanwhile Goethe was adapting _Romeo and Juliet_ for
+the Weimar theater (1801) and Schiller was arranging _Macbeth_ for
+presentation at Stuttgart (1801). Goethe indeed was, throughout his
+life, an enthusiastic admirer of Shakespeare, and his works are full of
+discriminating criticism, of which perhaps the most famous passage is
+the analysis of Hamlet in _Wilhelm Meister_. Since Lessing and Herder,
+German poetry and drama have felt Shakespeare's influence, and in both
+textual and esthetic criticism, Germany has rivaled England and the
+United States. Delius and Schmidt, whose _Shakespeare-Lexicon_ (1874) is
+one of the great monuments of Shakespeare scholarship, are perhaps first
+among textual students; since 1865 the German Shakespeare Society has
+published yearly contributions of all kinds to Shakespeare criticism,
+and especially an excellent bibliography. On the stage Shakespeare has
+been constantly acted since the beginning of the century, and has
+engaged the services of some of the greatest actors, as Schroeder, the
+two Devrients, and Barnay. At present a large number of his plays are
+performed annually, in the smaller as well as the larger cities, and
+more frequently than in Britain or America. Twenty-six of the plays were
+acted in 1911, _Othello_ leading with 158 performances. For the years
+1909, 1910, 1911, _Hamlet_, _Othello_, _The Merchant of Venice_ have
+been the favorites, with _The Taming of the Shrew_ and _A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream_ the most popular of the comedies. For over a
+century Shakespeare has profoundly influenced German life and letters.
+Rarely, if ever, has a great people been so powerfully affected by a
+writer in a foreign tongue.
+
+In France, during the eighteenth century, Shakespeare's reputation was
+both aided and hindered by Voltaire. Though there are a few earlier
+notices of the English dramatist, Voltaire, after his visit to England,
+1720-1729, was virtually the first to win attention for Shakespeare. He
+admired Shakespeare, acknowledged his influence, but deplored his
+deficiencies in taste and art, "le Corneille de Londres, grand fou
+d'ailleurs, mais il a des morceaux admirables." Voltaire's criticism
+provoked replies in England and a defense from Diderot, who shared with
+Lessing the effort to emancipate the drama from some of its
+neo-classical restriction. Translations of twelve plays by La Place
+(1745-1748) and all of the plays by Le Tourneur (1776-1782) gave an
+opportunity for greater acquaintance with his work. A version of
+_Hamlet_ by Ducis was acted at Paris in 1769. But even at the end of the
+century, French literary opinion, though partly won by Le Tourneur's
+praise of Shakespeare, still sympathized with Voltaire, now engaged in
+an attack on Englishmen and their favorite. His last opinion (1778)
+declares, "Shakespeare est un sauvage avec des étincelles de génie qui
+brillent dans une nuit horrible."
+
+[Page Heading: In France]
+
+The nineteenth century saw a reaction from this criticism, indicated by
+the praise of Madame de Staël (_De la Litterature_, 1804), by Guizot's
+essay accompanying a revision of Le Tourneur's translation (1821), and
+later in the appreciation of Mézières's _Shakespeare ses Œuvres et ses
+Critiques_ (1860), in several translations, and in Victor Hugo's eulogy
+(1869). The best of the translations is by the poet's son, François
+Victor Hugo in prose (1859-1866). On the Paris stage, the leading
+English actors have appeared from time to time, and French versions of
+_Hamlet_, _Macbeth_, and _Othello_ have made a permanent place. M.
+Jusserand is the chief authority for the history of Shakespeare in
+France and an ambassador of peace between the conflicting literary
+tastes of the two nations.
+
+In Italy, Holland, Russia, Poland, and Hungary, during the nineteenth
+century, many of the plays have been regularly acted, and from Italy
+have come great actors and actresses, as Ristori, Salvini, and Rossi.
+Complete translations have been published in these countries and in
+Bohemian, Swedish, Danish, Finnish, and Spanish; and separate plays have
+been translated and acted in many other languages including those of
+India, Japan, and China.
+
+In music and painting Shakespeare's influence has also been
+international. Books have been devoted to the history of Shakespeare's
+music, and such surveys include nearly every English composer of note,
+and also Schubert, Schumann, Mendelssohn, Berlioz, Ambroise Thomas,
+Saint Saëns, Rossini, and Verdi. In painting as well, the persons and
+scenes of the play have excited the efforts of English, German, and
+American artists.
+
+In America, as has already been indicated, the interest in Shakespeare
+is hardly separable from that in Great Britain. Editors, critics,
+scholars, have been numerous and their contributions important, and the
+plays have been acted constantly and widely through the country.
+Probably there is no part of the world to-day where the study of
+Shakespeare is so active and where the interest in his work is so
+widespread. In one respect, at least, the United States in recent years
+has carried this study and interest beyond England, in the fields of
+education. As the study of the mother tongue has become the basis of
+American education, so Shakespeare has come to play a more and more
+important part in the training of youth. The universities offer training
+in the various departments of Shakespearean scholarship, every college
+offers courses on his plays, a number of them are prescribed for reading
+and study in the high schools; a few of them are read and extracts
+memorized in the primary schools. The child begins his education with
+Ariel and the fairies, and until his schooling is completed is kept in
+almost daily intercourse with the poetry and persons of the dramas.
+Homer was not better known in Athens. In a democracy still young and
+widely separated from older nations and cultures, Shakespeare has become
+one of the links that bind the American public not only to the common
+inheritances of the English-speaking races, but to the traditional
+culture of Europe.
+
+[Page Heading: In the United States]
+
+Known in the literature and theater of every civilized nation, the
+subject of a vast and increasing amount of discussion and criticism, the
+source of a scholarship rivaling that devoted to the writers of
+antiquity, the familiar theme for music and painting, the household
+possession of Great Britain, Germany, and America, influencing thought
+and conduct as few books have ever influenced them, and now an important
+element in the education of a great democracy,--the plays of Shakespeare
+occupy a position whence imagination "can not pierce a wink beyond, but
+doubt discovery there." His reputation and influence must change greatly
+in the years to come; but this at least is secure--three hundred years
+of an ever increasing sway over the human mind.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+The purpose of this volume has been to summarize what we know about
+Shakespeare. The documentary records and early traditions of his life
+have been supplemented by information in regard to the times and places
+in which he lived, the literature which he read, and the theaters for
+which he worked. The evolution of the drama that grew up in those
+theaters has been reviewed, and its manifest connections with
+Shakespeare's own development have been indicated. That development has
+been traced by means of a careful determination of the chronology of the
+plays; and the recognition of this growth of his powers has been shown
+to be a necessary basis for a just estimate of their achievement.
+
+If, now, in conclusion, we attempt to define our general impression of
+the man and his work, this must inevitably take into account
+considerations of environment and development. The man belonged to his
+era, his city, and his profession. The documents make it plain that he
+did not live apart, but in close contact with the affairs of his day and
+generation. The plays make it clear that few men ever became so
+intimately familiar with the manners, morals, and ideas of their own
+time. There is no doubt that he drank deeply of the experience that
+Elizabethan London offered him. Still more, the plays make it clear that
+his life was one of constant and extraordinary intellectual and
+spiritual growth. Though, from the objective nature of the dramas, it is
+impossible to translate them into terms of personal experience or into
+exact stages of mental growth, yet it is none the less evident that the
+progress from the author of _Love's Labour's Lost_ to the author of _The
+Tempest_, from the creator of Richard III and Valentine to the creator
+of Iago and Antony, was marked, not only by a widening experience, but
+also by a development of personal character.
+
+[Page Heading: The Sonnets]
+
+To understand a man's surroundings does not, however, reveal the man;
+and to measure the growth of genius does not interpret its quality.
+Lovers of the plays are likely always to query: What manner of man was
+this? Taken out of his London, at any time in his career, how would he
+seem if we could know him as a man? Of what nature is this companion and
+friend whose presence we have felt through all his verses and in all of
+his characters? The few clues offered by records or tradition, and the
+difficulties in separating the creator from the thousand men and women
+of his creation, have driven many to seek answers to these questions in
+the sonnets. There he speaks in the first person, and there are revealed
+not merely some dubious hints of actual incidents, but the surer
+indications of emotional conflicts that went to the heart of the man's
+nature. At their worst, the sonnets may have been only literary
+exercises on conventional themes, but at their best they are surely both
+superb poetry and the result of genuine emotion. Can we doubt that the
+poet knew the pitfalls that beset the course of human passion or that he
+had faith in the triumphant beauty of love and friendship? Yet the most
+splendid of these lyrical declarations of faith add little to what we
+knew of the creator of the lovers and friends of the dramas. The
+trivialities and the sublimities, the sin and the idealism of the
+sonnets coalesce with the emotional effects of the comedies and
+tragedies. In forming our impression of the man, whatever we may derive
+from the sonnets does not contradict and does not largely affect the
+impressions made by the poetry and humanity of the plays. For the
+conception which each one forms of Shakespeare the man must be derived
+in the main from the impressions of personality implied by the plays.
+Such a conception is bound to be individual and without validity that
+can rest on proofs, but in the main it has not varied greatly from
+individual to individual or from generation to generation. From Jonson
+and Dryden to Goethe and Tennyson, there has been no great difference in
+the essentials of this estimate of the man.
+
+[Page Heading: Personality of Shakespeare]
+
+If the plays do not throw a clear light on matters of conduct and
+exercise of the will, they certainly tell of no lack of self-control
+and no weakness or feverishness of action. The traditions of
+conviviality and the records of a life of constant industry that secured
+wealth and social position are both in accord with the impressions
+derived from the plays of an eagerness for experience controlled by a
+self-mastery and a serenity of purpose. If one were to search for a
+modern writer most like Shakespeare, one would select Scott, rather than
+Shelley, or Byron, or Wordsworth. As to the intellectual quality of the
+author of the plays, it is clear that he was not a Galileo or a Bacon.
+If we judge intellectual power by its creation of system or synthesis,
+we shall probably estimate Shakespeare less highly than if we remember
+that intellect of the highest order is often displayed by maintaining
+openness and largeness of view in face of the solicitations of theory or
+prejudice. No one can read the plays in connection with the literature
+of the time, or of any time, without marveling at their freedom from
+vulgarity, pettiness, or narrowness of mental attitude. If they do not
+afford evidences of a profound culture in philosophy, letters, or
+science, they offer no trace of intellectual blindness or conceit, and
+they leave no doubt that their author had thought greatly and freely.
+Even more certain is their assurance of the range and intensity of his
+emotional life. In these respects again, no one can compare his work
+with that of other writers without feeling the effect of his
+personality. Fletcher, perhaps next to him among the Elizabethans in a
+versatile expression of a wide range of emotions, gives no sign of the
+sincere, profound, and searching interest in humankind which we are sure
+was Shakespeare's. Bacon, surpassing him perhaps in intellectual
+curiosity and thoroughness, manifestly gives no evidence in his writings
+of the warmth of sympathy, the quickness of emotional response, the fire
+of passion which we find in the author of Shakespeare's plays. It is
+difficult to disbelieve that their imaginative participation in the
+height and breadth of human feeling was the creation of a man who united
+intellectual greatness with an emotional susceptibility of extraordinary
+range and delicacy, and with a sympathy, genial, wide, tolerant, but
+also heartfelt, deep, and passionate. Such is the ineffaceable
+impression of the man which has been shared by many generations of
+readers, and which found expression two hundred and fifty years ago in
+Dryden's carefully considered estimate, "The man who of all Moderns, and
+perhaps Ancient Poets, had the largest and most comprehensive soul."
+
+What of the plays themselves? Is there any fixed and universal estimate
+of their quality and significance as literature? In this volume we have
+been concerned in reviewing our knowledge about them rather than in
+their interpretation or evaluation. We have noted the sources from which
+their plots were drawn, the conditions under which they were produced in
+the playhouses, the influences at work in the contemporary drama which
+determined in some measure their subjects and treatment. Starting with
+the probable dates of their composition, we have traced them from the
+theater to the printer, through the hands of many editors, and through
+the long history of their effects on theatergoers and readers. In their
+history they have played a part in the changes of taste and opinion of
+three centuries, and if they have grown greatly in men's estimation,
+this has not been without much variability of appreciation and
+uncertainty as to their value. What, then, are the qualities of the
+plays that raised them at once above the measure of contemporary
+influence and rivalry? Are these the qualities that have continued to
+win the most general appreciation? Despite all the stress we are to-day
+taught to place on change, growth, evolution, are there qualities in
+these plays which insure them a continued preëminence in literature?
+
+[Page Heading: Qualities of the Plays]
+
+Differences of opinion testify, indeed, to the comprehensive appeal of
+the plays to different minds, nations, or epochs, but they have not
+greatly affected the essential elements in men's admiration. If some
+critic brings into new prominence a quality that has partly escaped
+attention, his discovery is not likely to affect the more permanent
+elements of their reputation. If for a time attention is turned to the
+plays as plays rather than as poems and to the merits of Shakespeare as
+a dramatist, this criticism does not lead to any lasting disregard of
+their poetic quality or to the permanent acceptance of skill in dramatic
+structure as a chief element in their literary preëminence. Nor is such
+an element discoverable in their philosophical synthesis or their
+incidental wisdom, although some of the most brilliant criticism has
+exalted that wisdom or sought to formulate and expound their view of
+life. Concerning the essential elements of their greatness no real
+difference of opinion has arisen from the time they were written down to
+the present day. They were lifted at once above the level of
+contemporary endeavor, and they have continued to grow in reputation
+chiefly because of their poetry and their characterization.
+
+Concerning the nature and quality of these there is little difference of
+opinion, though critics may vary in estimating their beauty or value.
+One may prefer the verse of Homer or of Milton, but he will not deny the
+traits that distinguish Shakespeare's. Another may prefer the
+well-ordered study of human motives in Sophocles, or the realistic
+analysis of a modern realist like Turgenieff, but he will recognize the
+qualities in Shakespeare's characterization that are the basis of
+general admiration. Still another may condemn that admiration, but he
+will not differ from us as to the chief sources of its existence.
+
+These two sources are hardly to be separated, for the persons are
+revealed through the beauty of the verse, and the poetry is ever adapted
+to the speakers. In the early plays the poet's fancy often refuses to be
+bound by the requirements of his characters and escapes in lyric or
+descriptive excursions; but as his art becomes more masterly, the
+poetry adapts itself with increasing devotion to the dramatic task,
+discarding the limitations of the verse form and even at times
+sacrificing clarity and harmony of expression in its effort to make a
+few lines significant of the thought and emotion of some individual. An
+enormous vocabulary is treated with daring freedom; words are coined,
+changed, or restamped in order to let nothing of significance escape.
+The effect is not primarily that of finished workmanship or elaborate
+harmony, though these may be found in many passages and notably in the
+greatest of the sonnets. Broken rather than completed images, richness
+of suggestion rather than unity of impressiveness, surprise and novelty
+in words rather than their delicate adjustment, make up an effect of
+bewildering enchantment rather than of perfected form. This is true even
+in an early play like _Romeo and Juliet_, where the verse becomes
+undramatic in order to make the most of every opportunity for fancy or
+melody, and it is true also in _Othello_, where poetry and
+characterization are wedded with consummate art. The reader's pleasure
+is not in finding each idea finally developed or each motive given full
+elaboration. It is rather in the flow of words which endow each person
+and moment with their wealth of color and suggestion, and somehow carry
+on to the reader both their impression of life and the transforming
+power of their dignity and splendor.
+
+[Page Heading: Poetry of the Plays]
+
+In a last analysis the quality of the poetry is less dependent on the
+music of line or passage than on the imagery of the words themselves. It
+seems as if the imagination had hurried on Ariel's wing around the
+universe in order to freight each phrase with a fresh trope and an
+unexpected meaning. Sometimes, to be sure, there results an excess or
+mixture of figures; but restrained to character and situation, bound by
+the measure of the pentameter, the carnival of words becomes a gorgeous
+yet ordered pageant, the very spectacle of beauty.
+
+Let us take but one passage, not from the great crises of passion, nor
+from those unsurpassable revelations of the tortured spirit, but from
+the opening of a play where the purpose is chiefly expository, and where
+indeed the language is not free from that mixture of figures which some
+condemn. The wonderful first scene of _Antony and Cleopatra_, which
+within the compass of its sixty-two lines presents the two protagonists
+and their background of empire and war, opens thus in the speech of a
+subordinate.
+
+    Nay, but this dotage of our general's
+    O'erflows the measure. Those his goodly eyes,
+    That o'er the files and musters of the war
+    Have glow'd like plated Mars, now bend, now turn
+    The office and devotion of their view
+    Upon a tawny front; his captain's heart,
+    Which in the scuffles of great fights hath burst
+    The buckles on his breast, reneges all temper,
+    And is become the bellows and the fan
+    To cool a gipsy's lust.
+
+[Page Heading: Characterization]
+
+A few lines further on Antony speaks thus, as he embraces Cleopatra.
+
+    Let Rome in Tiber melt, and the wide arch
+    Of the rang'd Empire fall! Here is my space.
+    Kingdoms are clay; our dungy earth alike
+    Feeds beast as man; the nobleness of life
+    Is to do thus, when such a mutual pair
+    And such a twain can do't, in which I bind,
+    On pain of punishment, the world to wit
+    We stand up peerless.
+
+No other man ever wrote verse like this; and it is hard to believe that
+words will ever again respond to such a magician.
+
+This poetry is the fitting accompaniment of a characterization, the
+range and vitality of which, the world to wit, stand up peerless. While
+these are in general qualities of the Elizabethan drama, it is
+noteworthy that almost from the beginning Shakespeare outstripped his
+rivals. Launce, Richard III, Shylock, Juliet, were enough to establish a
+supremacy. The years that followed with their maturing thought and
+experience gave an amazing development to what was manifestly the native
+bent of his genius. Whatever else one may find in the plays, indeed
+whatever one finds there of wisdom or beauty, truth or art, it cannot be
+separated from their revelation of human nature.
+
+It is this primarily that makes the dramas great and lasting. The
+histories, with all their pomp and movement and patriotism, reveal kings
+and lords and peasants as alike the subjects of changing fortune, alike
+human beings for our pity, admiration, or laughter. The comedies with
+their fancy and sentiment and fun, and their perennial sunshine on the
+self-deceived and selfish, are ruled by the most charming and refined of
+womankind. The tragedies with their presentation of the waste and
+suffering of life, though here depravity may seem to fill the scene and
+innocence share in the punishment and ruin, yet redeem us from the
+terror of their devastation by their assurances of both the majesty and
+the loveliness of men and women.
+
+Shakespeare's methods in characterization have seemed to some haphazard
+and bewildering. He does not fit his men and women into an analysis of
+the constitution of society or into an obvious view of man's relations
+in the universe. Nor does he use his characters to illustrate fixed
+conceptions or processes of cause and effect. He usually started with an
+old story, with certain types of character, and he was not forgetful of
+theatrical necessities or dramatic construction. But as he went on he
+brought all his astounding interest in human nature to focus on the old
+plot and the stock type. Hamlet, the hesitating avenger, becomes the
+sentimentalist, the idealist, the thinker at war with himself, the
+embodiment of that conflict between circumstance and a nature unfitted
+to its task, which in some measure we have all encountered in life. An
+arrogant and doting old man, by the force of creative imagination,
+transcends the nursery tale from which he came, and carries to us all
+the implications of suffering and love that surround the aging of
+parents and the growth of children. Cleopatra is a wanton, but no
+analysis can explain the subtleties with which the idealism and
+animalism, the sacrifice and frivolity--and how much else--of human
+passion are bound together in the few hundred lines which she speaks. It
+is impossible to affirm that each of the great characters is thoroughly
+consistent or offers a strictly accurate motivation. Rather, they are
+magnificent portraits--like the Mona Lisa--crowded with a penetrating
+but question-provoking psychology. Into such parts and situations as the
+drama could afford are impressed every possible revelation of our
+motives; but his model was always reality and he never yielded truth to
+whim or prepossession.
+
+[Page Heading: Human Nature]
+
+Human nature, at its best or worst, droll or tragic, is thus given
+magnitude and potency. This idealization, rendered still more effective
+by the verse, persuades us as we read that here are our own attributes
+and conflicts exalted, now into serene beauty, again into torment and
+horror, and again into the Olympic warfare of unknown supermen. No doubt
+there is confusion because of the complexity of motives depicted and the
+multiplicity of impressions created, but there is also a final message
+of the greatness and comprehensiveness of human souls. In this world of
+sin and weakness and death, it is human beings, however mocked or
+maltreated by circumstance or by themselves, that are still triumphant
+and interesting. Out of his strifes and failures, the individual man yet
+emerges, the object of our contemplation and the assurance of our faith.
+
+In periods or persons when interest in the individual gives way to
+thought about class or system or some form of organization, it is likely
+that admiration for Shakespeare's plays will suffer a decline. In
+periods or persons when the individual assumes a larger place in thought
+and his power to affect and dominate the world is emphasized, the plays
+are likely to acquire a new regard. As long, however, as the study of
+human nature is a chief occupation of mankind and as long as we believe
+that a great purpose of imaginative literature is to enlarge our
+knowledge and sympathy for our fellows, so long, we may be sure, these
+dramas will not lose their preëminence in literature.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICES
+
+
+
+
+Appendix A
+
+BIOGRAPHICAL DOCUMENTS AND AUTHORITIES
+
+
+I. REPOSITORIES OF DOCUMENTS
+
+L. refers to Lambert's _Shakespeare Documents_ and H.-P. to
+Halliwell-Phillipps's _Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare_. 7th ed.
+
+
+1
+
+THE PARISH REGISTERS OF STRATFORD-ON-AVON are the authority for the
+baptisms of John Shakespeare's seven children (L. 1-7); for the burials
+of Anne and Edmund (L. 10); for the baptisms of William Shakespeare's
+daughter Susanna (L. 13) and the twins, Hamnet and Judith (L. 14); for
+the burials of Hamnet (L. 28), of the poet's father, John (L. 75), of
+his mother, Mary (L. 110), of the poet himself (L. 146), and of his
+widow (L. 159). These Registers have been edited for the Parish
+Registers Society, by R. Savage, 1898-9.
+
+
+2
+
+THE CORPORATION RECORDS OF STRATFORD-ON-AVON contain the Quiney-Sturley
+correspondence (L. 39, 43, 44; H.-P. II. 57-60); a return of the
+quantities of corn and malt held by the inhabitants of the ward in which
+New Place was situated, "Wm. Shackespere" being down for ten quarters
+(L. 53); a Bill of Complaint presented by R. Lane, T. Green, and William
+Shakespeare respecting the tithes of Stratford-upon-Avon (L. 125); the
+answer of William Combe to the foregoing Bill (L. 126).
+
+[Page Heading: Biographical Documents]
+
+
+3
+
+THE PUBLIC RECORD OFFICE IN LONDON preserves the following: record of
+the purchase by John Shakespeare of two houses on Henley Street,
+Stratford-on-Avon (L. 8); record of a mortgage on an estate at "Awston
+Cawntlett" given to Edmund Lambert by John and Mary Shakespeare (L. 9);
+Bill of Complaint brought by John Shakespeare against John, son of
+Edmund Lambert, respecting an estate at Wilmecote, near Stratford (L.
+15); Ms. accounts of the Treasurer of the Chamber, "To Willm. Kempe,
+Willm. Shakespeare & Richarde Burbage, servaunts to the Lord
+Chamberleyne, upon the Councelles warrant dated at Whitehall xv^to
+Marcij 1594 for twoe severall Comedies or enterludes shewed by them
+before her Majestic in Christmas tyme laste paste, viz: upon St.
+Stephens daye and Innocentes daye xiij.li. vj.s. viijd., and by waye of
+her Majesties rewarde vj.li. xiii.s. iiijd. in all xx.li." (L. 25);
+record of the purchase of New Place by Shakespeare (L. 32); papers in a
+Chancery suit relating to the estate at Wilmecote mortgaged to Edmund
+Lambert, and consisting of a Bill of Complaint by John and Mary
+Shakespeare against John Lambert for his refusal to accept £40 and
+reconvey the property to the complainants, John Lambert's answer, and
+the replication of John and Mary Shakespeare to the answer (L. 35); a
+subsidy roll showing William Shakespeare as a defaulter in respect of a
+tax of five shillings, October, 1596, and of thirteen shillings and four
+pence, October, 1598, based on an assessment made about 1598 or 1594,
+when the poet was living in St. Helen's, Bishopsgate, and paid after he
+had moved to Southwark (_Athenæum_, March 16, 1906, and L. 42); Royal
+Warrant for a Patent and the Patent itself (May 19, 1603) licensing the
+company of actors, "Laurence Fletcher, William Shakespeare, Richard
+Burbage, Augustine Phillippes, John Hemmings, Henrie Condell, William
+Sly, Robert Armyn, Richard Cowly and the rest of their associates" as
+the King's Servants (L. 87, 88); the Accounts of the Revels at Court in
+the reigns of Elizabeth and James, containing entries showing
+performances at Court of "The Moor of Venis," "The Merry Wives of
+Winsor," "Mesur for Mesur" by "Shaxberd," "the plaie of Errors" by
+"Shaxberd," "Loves Labours lost," "Henry the fift," and "the Martchant
+of Venis" by "Shaxberd" (twice, being "againe commanded by the Kings
+Ma^tie"), all in 1604 (O.S.), of "the Tempest" and "y^e winters nightes
+Tayle" in 1611, all by the King's men, and of the performance before the
+Court at Wilton, Dec. 2, 1603 (L. 96, 133, _Notes in the History of the
+Revels Office under the Tudors_, ed. by E. K. Chambers, and _Supposed
+Shakespeare Forgeries_, by Ernest Law); record of the purchase in 1610
+of an estate in Old Stratford and Stratford-on-Avon by Shakespeare from
+William and John Combe (L. 127); three documents in a Chancery suit
+relating to the ownership of property in Blackfriars, April 26, May 15,
+May 22, 1615 (C. W. Wallace in _Englische Studien_, April, 1906, and
+Preface to New Edition of Lee's _Life_, xxii ff.); the grant for cloaks
+for the King's entry into London, March 15, 1604 (Ld. Chamberlain's
+Papers, No. 600); the documents in the law suit among the heirs of
+Richard Burbage (1635), relating to the ownership of the Globe and the
+Blackfriars theaters, and giving much information on the value of
+theatrical shares, actors' salaries, etc. (H.-P. i. 312-319); and the
+documents in the lawsuit of Bellots _vs._ Mountjoy (1612), including
+Shakespeare's deposition (_New Shakespeare Discoveries_, C. W. Wallace,
+_Harper's Magazine_, March, 1910).
+
+
+4
+
+THE SHAKESPEARE'S BIRTHPLACE MUSEUM IN STRATFORD-ON-AVON contains
+several documents of importance: record of the conveyance in 1602 of an
+estate in Old Stratford from William and John Combe to William
+Shakespeare (L. 79, H.-P. II, 17-19); extract from the Court Rolls of
+the Manor of Rowington, transferring from Walter Getley to William
+Shakespeare certain premises in Chapel Lane, Stratford-on-Avon (L. 81);
+the conveyance to Shakespeare from Ralph Hubande of the residue of a
+lease of a moiety of the tithes of Stratford-on-Avon, Old Stratford,
+Welcombe, and Bishopton (L. 99); the diary of one Thomas Greene,
+containing a reference to the dispute as to the inclosing of common
+lands (reproduced in facsimile in C. M. Ingleby's _Shakespeare and the
+Enclosure of Common Fields at Welcombe_, 1885).
+
+
+5
+
+THE BRITISH MUSEUM possesses the Ms. diary of John Manningham of the
+Middle Temple, which, under the date of Feb. 2, 1601, records a
+performance of _Twelfth Night_, and the anecdote recorded above, p. 44
+(L. 77; Ms. Harl. 5353, ed. Camden Soc., p. 39); also the Mortgage Deed
+from Shakespeare to Henry Walker on the property in Blackfriars conveyed
+to Shakespeare and others on the day previous, March 10, 1612/13.
+
+
+6
+
+THE BODLEIAN LIBRARY AT OXFORD has the Ms. diary of Dr. Simon Forman
+describing performances of _Winter's Tale, Cymbeline_, and _Macbeth_ in
+1610 and 1611 (L. 128; Ms. Ashmol. 208, fol. 201_b_); and the Accounts
+of Lord Stanhope of Harrington, Treasurer of the Chamber to James I,
+containing the following entry: "1613, May 20. Item paid to John
+Heminges uppon the cowncells warrant dated att Whitehall xx^o die Maii
+1613 for presentinge before the Princes highnes the La: Elizabeth and
+the Prince Pallatyne Elector fowerteene severall playes viz ... Much
+adoe abowte nothinge ... The Tempest ... The Winters Tale, S^r John
+Falstafe, The Moore of Venice ... Cæsars Tragedye ... All w^ch Playes
+weare played within the tyme of this Accompte, viz p^d the some of iiij.
+(xx.) xiij.li. vj.s. viij.d.
+
+[Page Heading: Biographical Documents]
+
+"Item paid to the said John Heminges uppon the lyke warrant dated att
+Whitehall xx^o die Maij 1613 for presenting sixe severall playes viz.
+one playe called ... And one other called Benidicte and Betteris all
+played within the tyme of this Accompte viz p^d ffortie powndes And by
+waye of his Ma^tis rewarde twentie powndes In all ... lx li." (L. 138;
+Ms. Rawl. A. 239).
+
+
+7
+
+THE EPISCOPAL REGISTER OF THE DIOCESE OF WORCESTER contains the bond
+given by Sandells and others for the marriage of Shakespeare and Anne
+Hathaway (L. 12).
+
+
+8
+
+THE LIBRARY OF THE GUILDHALL IN LONDON has the indenture prepared for
+the purchaser in the sale of the house in Blackfriars on March 10, 1613,
+by Henry Walker to William Shakespeare and others (L. 136). The
+indenture held by the seller is in the library of Mr. Marsden J. Perry,
+Providence, R. I.
+
+
+9
+
+THE PRINCIPAL PROBATE REGISTRY, Somerset House, London, contains
+Shakespeare's Will, which runs as follows:
+
+[Page Heading: Shakespeare's Will]
+
+    [10]VICESIMO quinto die [Januarii] _Martii_, anno regni domini
+    nostri Jacobi, nunc regis Angliæ, &c., decimo quarto, et Scotiæ
+    xlix^o, annoque Domini 1616.
+
+    --T. WMI. SHACKSPEARE
+
+    In the name of God, Amen! I William Shackspeare, of Stratford upon
+    Avon in the countie of Warr., gent., in perfect health and memorie,
+    God be praysed, doe make and ordayne this my last will and testament
+    in manner and forme followeing, that ys to saye, ffirst, I comend my
+    soule into the handes of God my Creator, hoping and assuredlie
+    beleeving, through thonelie merittes, of Jesus Christe my Saviour,
+    to be made partaker of lyfe everlastinge, and my bodye to the earth
+    whereof yt ys made. Item, I gyve and bequeath unto my [sonne
+    and][11] daughter Judyth one hundred and fyftie poundes of lawfull
+    English money, to be paied unto her in the manner and forme
+    foloweng, that ys to saye, one hundred poundes _in discharge of her
+    marriage porcion_ within one yeare after my deceas, with
+    consideracion after the rate of twoe shillinges in the pound for soe
+    long tyme as the same shalbe unpaied unto her after my deceas, and
+    the fyftie poundes residwe thereof upon her surrendring _of_, or
+    gyving of such sufficient securitie as the overseers of this my will
+    shall like of, to surrender or graunte all her estate and right that
+    shall discend or come unto her after my deceas, or _that shee_ nowe
+    hath, of, in, or to, one copiehold tenemente, with thappurtenaunces,
+    lyeing and being in Stratford upon Avon aforesaied in the saied
+    countye of Warr., being parcell or holden of the mannour of
+    Rowington, unto my daughter Susanna Hall and her heires for ever.
+    Item, I gyveand bequeath unto my saied daughter Judith one hundred
+    and fyftie poundes more, if shee or anie issue of her bodie be
+    lyvinge att thend of three yeares next ensueing the daie of the date
+    of this my will, during which tyme my executours are to paie her
+    consideracion from my deceas according to the rate aforesaied; and
+    if she dye within the saied tearme without issue of her bodye, then
+    my will ys, and I doe gyve and bequeath one hundred poundes thereof
+    to my neece Elizabeth Hall, and the fiftie poundes to be sett fourth
+    by my executours during the lief of my sister Johane Harte, and the
+    use and proffitt thereof cominge shalbe payed to my saied sister
+    Jone, and after her deceas the saied l.^_li._ shall remaine amongst
+    the children of my saied sister, equallie to be divided amongst
+    them; but if my saied daughter Judith be lyving att thend of the
+    saied three yeares, or anie yssue of her bodye, then my will ys, and
+    soe I devise and bequeath the saied hundred and fyftie poundes to be
+    sett out _by my executours and overseers_ for the best benefitt of
+    her and her issue, and _the stock_ not _to be_ paied unto her soe
+    long as she shalbe marryed and covert baron [by my executours and
+    overseers]; but my will ys, that she shall have the consideracion
+    yearelie paied unto her during her lief, and, after her deceas, the
+    saied stock and consideracion to bee paied to her children, if she
+    have anie, and if not, to her executours or assignes, she lyving the
+    saied terme after my deceas. Provided that yf suche husbond as she
+    shall att thend of the saied three years be marryed unto, or att
+    anie after (_sic_), doe sufficientlie assure unto her and thissue of
+    her bodie landes awnswereable to the porcion by this my will gyven
+    unto her, and to be adjudged soe by my executours and overseers,
+    then my will ys, that the said cl.^_li._ shalbe paied to such
+    husbond as shall make such assurance, to his owne use. Item, I gyve
+    and bequeath unto my saied sister Jone xx.^_li_ and all my wearing
+    apparrell, to be paied and delivered within one yeare after my
+    deceas; and I doe will and devise unto her _the house_ with
+    thappurtenaunces in Stratford, wherein she dwelleth, for her
+    naturall lief, under the yearlie rent of xij.^_d._ Item, I gyve and
+    bequeath unto her three sonnes, William Harte, ... Hart, and
+    Michaell Harte, fyve pounds a peece, to be paied within one yeare
+    after my deceas [to be sett out for her within one yeare after my
+    deceas by my executours, with thadvise and direccions of my
+    overseers, for her best profitt, untill her mariage, and then the
+    same with the increase thereof to be paied unto her]. Item, I gyve
+    and bequeath unto [her] _the saied Elizabeth Hall_, all my plate,
+    _except my brod silver and gilt bole_, that I now have att the date
+    of this my will. Item, I gyve and bequeath unto the poore of
+    Stratford aforesaied tenn poundes; to Mr. Thomas Combe my sword; to
+    Thomas Russell esquier fyve poundes; and to Frauncis Collins, of the
+    borough of Warr. in the countie of Warr. gentleman, thirteene
+    poundes, sixe shillinges, and eight pence, to be paied within one
+    yeare after my deceas. Item, I gyve and bequeath to [Mr. Richard
+    Tyler thelder] _Hamlett Sadler_ xxvj.^_s._ viij.^_d._ to buy him a
+    ringe; to _William Raynoldes gent., xxvj.^s. viij.^d. to buy him a
+    ringe_; to my godson William Walker xx^_s._ in gold; to Anthonye
+    Nashe gent., xxvj.^_s._ viij.^_d._; and to Mr. John Nashe xxvj.^_s._
+    _viij.^d._ [in gold]; _and to my fellowes John Hemynges, Richard
+    Burbage, and Henry Cundell, xxvj.^s. viij.^d. a peece to buy them
+    ringes_. Item, I gyve, will, bequeath, and devise, unto my daughter
+    Susanna Hall, _for better enabling of her to performe this my will,
+    and towards the performans thereof_, all that capitall messuage or
+    tenemente with thappurtenaunces, _in Stratford aforesaid_, called
+    the New Place, wherein I nowe dwell, and two messuages or tenementes
+    with thappurtenaunces, scituat, lyeing, and being in Henley
+    streete, within the borough of Stratford aforesaied; and all my
+    barnes, stables, orchardes, gardens, landes, tenementes, and
+    hereditamentes, whatsoever, scituat, lyeing, and being, or to be
+    had, receyved, perceyved, or taken, within the townes, hamletes,
+    villages, fieldes, and groundes, of Stratford upon Avon,
+    Oldstratford, Bushopton, and Welcombe, or in anie of them in the
+    saied countie of Warr. And alsoe all that messuage or tenemente with
+    thappurtenaunces, wherein one John Robinson dwelleth, scituat,
+    lyeing and being, in the Blackfriers in London, nere the Wardrobe;
+    and all my other landes, tenementes, and hereditamentes whatsoever,
+    To have and to hold all and singuler the saied premisses, with
+    theire appurtenaunces, unto the saied Susanna Hall, for and during
+    the terme of her naturall lief, and after her deceas, to the first
+    sonne of her bodie lawfullie yssueing, and to the heires males of
+    the bodie of the saied first sonne lawfullie yssueinge; and for
+    defalt of such issue, to the second sonne of her bodie, lawfullie
+    issueinge, and [of] to the heires males of the bodie of the saied
+    second sonne lawfullie yssueinge; and for defalt of such heires, to
+    the third sonne of the bodie of the saied Susanna lawfullie
+    yssueing, and of the heires males of the bodie of the saied third
+    sonne lawfullie yssueing; and for defalt of such issue, the same soe
+    to be and remaine to the ffourth [sonne], ffyfth, sixte, and
+    seaventh sonnes of her bodie lawfullie issueing, one after another,
+    and to the heires males of the bodies of the saied fourth, fifth,
+    sixte, and seaventh sonnes lawfullie yssueing, in such manner as yt
+    ys before lymitted to be and remaine to the first, second, and third
+    sonns of her bodie, and to theire heires males; and for defalt of
+    such issue, the said premisses to be and remaine to my sayed neece
+    Hall, and the heires males of her bodie lawfullie yssueinge; and for
+    defalt of such issue, to my daughter Judith, and the heires males
+    of her bodie lawfullie issueinge; and for defalt of such issue, to
+    the right heires of me the saied William Shakspeare for ever. _Item,
+    I gyve unto my wief my second best bed with the furniture._ Item, I
+    gyve and bequeath to my saied daughter Judith my broad silver gilt
+    bole. All the rest of my goodes, chattels, leases, plate, jewels,
+    and household stuffe whatsoever, after my dettes and legasies paied,
+    and my funerall expenses dischardged, I give, devise, and bequeath
+    to my sonne in lawe, John Hall gent., and my daughter Susanna, his
+    wief, whom I ordaine and make executours of this my last will and
+    testament. And I doe intreat and appoint _the saied_ Thomas Russell
+    esquier and Frauncis Collins gent, to be overseers hereof, and doe
+    revoke all former wills, and publishe this to be my last will and
+    testament. In witness whereof I have hereunto put my [seale] _hand_,
+    the daie and yeare first abovewritten.
+
+                                            By me WILLIAM SHAKSPEARE.
+
+      Witnes to the publyshing hereof,
+        FRA: COLLYNS,[12]
+        JULYUS SHAWE,
+        JOHN ROBINSON,
+        HAMNET SADLER,
+        ROBERT WHATTCOTT.
+
+    Probatum coram magistro Willielmo Byrde, legum doctore comiss. &c.
+    xxij^do. die mensis Junii anno Domini 1616, juramento Johannis Hall,
+    unius executorum, &c. cui &c. de bene &c. jurat. reservat. potestate
+    &c. Susannæ Hall, alteri executorum &c. cum venerit petitur, &c.
+    (Inv. ex.)
+
+[10] The words which have been erased are put between brackets; those
+which have been interlined are printed in italics.
+
+[11] So Lambert, Halliwell-Phillipps reads "sonne in L."
+
+[12] Francis Collyns was the lawyer at Warwick who prepared the will, of
+which the draft only was executed, no time being possible for an
+engrossed copy.--Note by Lambert.
+
+[Page Heading: Biographical Documents]
+
+
+10
+
+THE HERALDS' COLLEGE has the two drafts of a grant of arms to John
+Shakespeare in 1596 (Ms. Vincent. Coll. Arm. 157, arts. 23, 24); and the
+confirmation of the grant in 1599 (L. 30, 55). For further details on
+the matter of the coat of arms, see _Herald and Genealogist_, i. 510,
+and for facsimiles, _Miscellanea Genealogica et Heraldica_, 2d ser.
+1886, i. 109. On the criticism of the herald's complaisance in the
+matter of the Shakespeare and similar grants, see Preface to New Edition
+(1909) of Lee's _Life_, pp. xi-xv.
+
+
+11
+
+THE STATIONERS' REGISTER, accessible in the _Transcript_ edited by E.
+Arber, 5 vols. 1875-94, contains the records of the entries of those of
+Shakespeare's works which were registered either with or without his
+name. The Shakespearean entries are gathered out of the great mass
+contained in these volumes by Lambert, Fleay, Stokes, H. P.,
+_Chronological Order of Shakespeare's Plays_, 1878, Appendix V, and
+others.
+
+
+12. MISCELLANEOUS
+
+The literary allusions to Shakespeare in the sixteenth and earlier
+seventeenth centuries have been collected in _Shakespeare's Century of
+Praise_, revised and reëdited by J. Munro as _The Shakespeare Allusion
+Books_, London, 1909.
+
+Greene's attack in _Greenes Groatsworth_ will be found in its context in
+his works, ed. A. B. Grosart, 1881-1886, and Chettle's Apology in his
+_Kind Hartes Dreame_, Percy Society, 1874.
+
+_The Historical MSS. Commission's Report on the Historical MSS. of
+Belvoir Castle_, IV. 494, contains the entry from the Belvoir Household
+Book as to Rutland's "impresa." See also _Times_, December 27, 1905,
+and Preface to New Edition of Lee's _Life_, pp. xvi-xxii.
+
+
+13. EXTRACTS FROM MERES'S _PALLADIS TAMIA_, 1598
+
+As the Greeke tongue is made famous and eloquent by _Homer_, _Hesiod_,
+_Euripedes_, _Æschilus_, _Sophocles_, _Pindarus_, _Phocylides_ and
+_Aristophanes_; and the Latine tongue by _Virgill_, _Ovid_, _Horace_,
+_Silius Italicus_, _Lucanus_, _Lucretius_, _Ausonius_ and _Claudianus_:
+so the English tongue is mightily enriched, and gorgeouslie invested in
+rare ornaments and resplendent abiliments by sir _Philip Sidney_,
+_Spencer_, _Daniel_, _Drayton_, _Warner_, _Shakespeare_, _Marlow_ and
+_Chapman_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+As the soule of _Euphorbus_ was thought to live in _Pythagoras_: so the
+sweete wittie soule of _Ovid_ lives in mellifluous & hony-tongued
+Shakespeare, witnes his _Venus_ and _Adonis_, his _Lucrece_, his sugred
+Sonnets among his private friends, &c.
+
+As _Plautus_ and _Seneca_ are accounted the best for Comedy and Tragedy
+among the Latines, so _Shakespeare_ among y^e English is the most
+excellent in both kinds for the stage; for Comedy, witnes his _Gẽtlemẽ
+of Verona_, his _Errors_, his _Love labors lost_, his _Love labours
+wonne_, his _Midsummers night dreame_, & his _Merchant of Venice_: for
+Tragedy, his _Richard the 2, Richard the 3, Henry the 4, King Iohn,
+Titus Andronicus_, and his _Romeo_ and _Iuliet_.
+
+As _Epius Stolo_ said, that the Muses would speake with _Plautus_
+tongue, if they would speak Latin: so I say that the Muses would speak
+with _Shakespeares_ fine filed phrase, if they would speake English.
+
+As _Ovid_ saith of his worke:
+
+    Iamque opus exegi, quod nec Iovis ira, nec ignis,
+    Nec poterit ferrum, nec edax abolere vetustas.
+
+[Page Heading: Extracts from Meres]
+
+And as _Horace_ saith of his; _Exegi monumentum ære perennius;
+Regalique; situ pyramidum altius; Quod non imber edax; Non Aquilo
+impotens possit diruere; aut innumerabilis annorum feries &c fuga
+temporum_: so say I severally of sir _Philip Sidneys_, _Spencers_,
+_Daniels_, _Draytons_, _Shakespeares_, and _Warners workes_;
+
+As _Pindarus_, _Anacreon_ and _Callimachus_ among the Greekes; and
+_Horace_ and _Catullus_ among the Latines are the best Lyrick Poets: so
+in this faculty the best among our Poets are _Spencer_ (who excelleth in
+all kinds) _Daniel_, _Drayton_, _Shakespeare_, _Bretton_.
+
+As ... so these are our best for Tragedie, the Lorde _Buckhurst_, Doctor
+_Leg_ of Cambridge, Doctor _Edes_ of Oxforde, maister _Edward Ferris_,
+the Authour of the _Mirrour for Magistrates_, _Marlow_, _Peele_,
+_Watson_, _Kid_, _Shakespeare_, _Drayton_, _Chapman_, _Decker_, and
+_Benjamin Johnson_.
+
+... so the best for Comedy amongst us bee, _Edward_ Earle of Oxforde,
+Doctor _Gager_ of Oxforde, Maister _Rowley_ once a rare Scholler of
+learned Pembroke Hall in Cambridge, Maister _Edwardes_ one of her
+Maiesties Chappell, eloquent and wittie _John Lilly_, _Lodge_,
+_Gascoyne_, _Greene_, _Shakespeare_, _Thomas Nash_, _Thomas Heywood_,
+_Anthony Mundye_ our best plotter, _Chapman_, _Porter_, _Wilson_,
+_Hathway_, and _Henry Chettle._
+
+... so these are the most passionate among us to bewaile and bemoane the
+perplexities of Love, _Henrie Howard_ Earle of Surrey, sir _Thomas Wyat_
+the elder, sir _Francis Brian_, sir _Philip Sidney_, sir _Walter
+Rawley_, sir _Edward Dyer_, _Spencer_, _Daniel_, _Drayton_,
+_Shakespeare_, _Whetstone_, _Gascoyne_, _Samuell Page_ sometimes fellowe
+of _Corpus Christi_ Colledge in Oxford, _Churchyard, Bretton_.
+
+
+14. THE INSCRIPTION ON SHAKESPEARE'S MONUMENT IN THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY
+TRINITY, STRATFORD-ON-AVON
+
+        Judicio Pylium, genio Socratem, arte Maronem
+          Terra tegit, populus mæret, Olympus habet.
+
+    Stay, passenger, why goest thou by so fast?
+    Read, if thou canst, whom envious death hath plast
+    Within this monument: Shakespeare with whome
+    Quick nature dide; whose name doth deck ys tombe
+    Far more than cost; sith all yt he hath writt
+    Leaves living art but page to serve his witt.
+
+                    Obiit ano. doi 1616. Ætatis 53. Die 23 Ap.
+
+[Page Heading: The First Folio]
+
+
+15. THE INTRODUCTORY MATTER IN THE FIRST FOLIO
+
+                        TO THE MOST NOBLE
+                               AND
+                  INCOMPARABLE PAIRE OF BRETHREN.
+                             WILLIAM
+         Earle of Pembroke, &c.  Lord Chamberlaine to the
+                  _Kings most Excellent Maiesty_.
+                               AND
+                              PHILIP
+Earle of Montgomery, &c. Gentleman of his Maiesties Bed-Chamber.
+       Both Knights of the most Noble Order of the Garter,
+                   and our singular good LORDS.
+
+    Right Honourable,
+
+Whilst we studie to be thankful in our particular, for the many fauors
+we haue receiued from your L. L. we are falne vpon the ill fortune, to
+mingle two the most diuerse things that can bee, feare, and rashnesse;
+rashnesse in the enterprize, and feare of the successe. For, when we
+valew the places your H. H. sustaine, we cannot but know their dignity
+greater, then to descend to the reading of these trifles: and, while we
+name them trifles, we haue depriu'd our selues of the defence of our
+Dedication. But since your L. L. haue beene pleas'd to thinke these
+trifles some-thing, heeretofore; and haue prosequuted both them, and
+their Authour liuing, with so much fauour: we hope, that (they
+out-liuing him, and he not hauing the fate, common with some, to be
+exequutor to his owne writings) you will vse the like indulgence toward
+them, you haue done vnto their parent. There is a great difference,
+whether any Booke choose his Patrones, or finde them: This hath done
+both. For, so much were your L. L. likings of the seuerall parts, when
+they were acted, as before they were published, the Volume ask'd to be
+yours. We haue but collected them, and done an office to the dead, to
+procure his Orphanes, Guardians: without ambition either of
+selfe-profit, or fame: onely to keepe the memory of so worthy a Friend,
+& Fellow aliue, as was our SHAKESPEARE, by humble offer of his playes,
+to your most noble patronage. Wherein, as we haue iustly obserued, no
+man to come neere your L. L. but with a kind of religious addresse; it
+hath bin the height of our care, who are the Presenters, to make the
+present worthy of your H. H. by the perfection. But, there we must also
+craue our abilities to be considerd, my Lords. We cannot go beyond our
+owne powers. Country hands reach foorth milke, creame, fruites, or what
+they haue: and many Nations (we haue heard) that had not gummes &
+incense, obtained their requests with a leauened Cake. It was no fault
+to approch their Gods, by what meanes they could: And the most, though
+meanest, of things are made more precious, when they are dedicated to
+Temples. In that name therefore, we most humbly consecrate to your H. H.
+these remaines of your seruant SHAKESPEARE; that what delight is in
+them, may be euer your L. L. the reputation his, & the faults ours, if
+any be committed, by a payre so carefull to shew their gratitude both to
+the liuing, and the dead, as is
+
+                                        Your Lordshippes most bounden,
+                                                  IOHN HEMINGE.
+                                                  HENRY CONDELL.
+
+
+_To the Great Variety of Readers._--From the most able to him that can
+but spell;--there you are number'd. We had rather you were weighd,
+especially when the fate of all bookes depends upon your capacities, and
+not of your heads alone, but of your purses. Well! It is now publique,
+and you will stand for your privileges wee know; to read and censure. Do
+so, but buy it first. That doth best commend a booke, the stationer
+saies. Then, how odde soever your braines be, or your wisedomes, make
+your licence the same and spare not. Judge your sixe-pen'orth, your
+shillings worth, your five shillings worth at a time, or higher, so you
+rise to the just rates, and welcome. But, whatever you do, buy. Censure
+will not drive a trade or make the jacke go. And though you be a
+magistrate of wit, and sit on the stage at Black-Friers or the Cock-pit
+to arraigne playes dailie, know, these playes have had their triall
+alreadie, and stood out all appeales, and do now come forth quitted
+rather by a Decree of Court than any purchas'd letters of commendation.
+
+It had bene a thing, we confesse, worthie to have bene wished, that the
+author himselfe had liv'd to have set forth and overseen his owne
+writings; but since it hath bin ordain'd otherwise, and he by death
+departed from that right, we pray you do not envie his friends the
+office of their care and paine to have collected and publish'd them; and
+so to have publish'd them, as where (before) you were abus'd with
+diverse stolne and surreptitious copies, maimed and deformed by the
+frauds and stealthes of injurious impostors that expos'd them; even
+those are now offer'd to your view cur'd and perfect of their limbes,
+and all the rest absolute in their numbers as he conceived them; who, as
+he was a happie imitator of Nature, was a most gentle expresser of it.
+His mind and hand went together; and what he thought, he uttered with
+that easinesse that wee have scarse received from him a blot in his
+papers. But it is not our province, who onely gather his works and give
+them you, to praise him. It is yours that reade him. And there we hope,
+to your divers capacities, you will finde enough both to draw and hold
+you; for his wit can no more lie hid then it could be lost. Reade him,
+therefore; and againe and againe; and if then you doe not like him,
+surely you are in some manifest danger not to understand him. And so we
+leave you to other of his friends, whom, if you need, can bee your
+guides. If you neede them not, you can leade yourselves and others; and
+such readers we wish him.--_Iohn Heminge._--_Henrie Condell._
+
+
+[Page Heading: Ben Jonson's Eulogy]
+
+              TO THE MEMORY OF MY BELOUED,
+
+                       THE AVTHOR
+
+                MR. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE:
+                          AND
+                 what he hath left vs.
+
+    To draw no enuy (_Shakespeare_) on thy name,
+      Am I thus ample to thy Booke, and Fame:
+    While I confesse thy writings to be such,
+      As neither _Man_, nor _Muse_, can praise too much.
+    'Tis true, and all mens suffrage. But these wayes
+      Were not the paths I meant vnto thy praise:
+    For seeliest Ignorance on these may light,
+      Which, when it sounds at best, but eccho's right;
+    Or blinde Affection, which doth ne're aduance
+      The truth, but gropes, and vrgeth all by chance;
+    Or crafty Malice, might pretend this praise,
+      And thinke to ruine, where it seem'd to raise.
+    These are, as some infamous Baud, or Whore,
+      Should praise a Matron. What could hurt her more?
+    But thou art proofe against them, and indeed
+      Aboue th' ill fortune of them, or the need.
+    I, therefore will begin. Soule of the Age!
+      The applause! delight! the wonder of our Stage!
+    My _Shakespeare_, rise; I will not lodge thee by
+      _Chaucer_, or _Spenser_, or bid _Beaumont_ lye
+    A little further, to make thee a roome:
+      Thou art a Moniment, without a tombe,
+    And art aliue still, while thy Booke doth liue,
+      And we haue wits to read, and praise to giue.
+    That I not mixe thee so, my braine excuses;
+      I meane with great, but disproportion'd _Muses_:
+    For, if I thought my iudgement were of yeeres,
+      I should commit thee surely with thy peeres,
+    And tell, how farre thou didstst our _Lily_ out-shine,
+      Or sporting _Kid_, or _Marlowes_ mighty line.
+    And though thou hadst small _Latine_, and lesse _Greeke_,
+      From thence to honour thee, I would not seeke
+    For names; but call forth thund'ring _Æschilus_,
+      _Euripides_, and _Sophocles_ to vs,
+    _Paccuuius_, _Accius_, him of _Cordoua_ dead,
+      To life againe, to heare thy Buskin tread,
+    And shake a Stage: Or, when thy Sockes were on,
+      Leaue thee alone, for the comparison
+    Of all, that insolent _Greece_, or haughtie _Rome_
+      Sent forth, or since did from their ashes come.
+    Triumph, my _Britaine_, thou hast one to showe,
+      To whom all Scenes of _Europe_ homage owe.
+    He was not of an age, but for all time!
+      And all the _Muses_ still were in their prime,
+    When like _Apollo_ he came forth to warme
+      Our eares, or like a _Mercury_ to charme!
+    Nature her selfe was proud of his designes,
+      And ioy'd to weare the dressing of his lines!
+    Which were so richly spun, and wouen so fit,
+      As, since, she will vouchsafe no other Wit.
+    The merry _Greeke_, tart _Aristophanes_,
+      Neat _Terence_, witty _Plautus_, now not please;
+    But antiquated, and deserted lye
+      As they were not of Natures family.
+    Yet must I not giue Nature all: Thy Art,
+      My gentle _Shakespeare_, must enioy a part.
+    For though the _Poets_ matter, Nature be,
+      His Art doth giue the fashion. And, that he,
+    Who casts to write a liuing line, must sweat,
+      (Such as thine are) and strike the second heat
+    Vpon the _Muses_ anuile: turne the same,
+      (And himselfe with it) that he thinkes to frame;
+    Or for the lawrell, he may gaine a scorne,
+      For a good _Poet's_ made, as well as borne.
+    And such wert thou. Looke how the fathers face
+      Liues in his issue, euen so, the race
+    Of _Shakespeares_ minde, and manners brightly shines
+      In his well torned, and true-filed lines:
+    In each of which, he seemes to shake a Lance,
+      As brandish't at the eyes of Ignorance.
+    Sweet Swan of _Auon_! what a sight it were
+      To see thee in our waters yet appeare,
+    And make those flights vpon the bankes of _Thames_,
+      That so did take _Eliza_, and our _Iames_!
+    But stay, I see thee in the _Hemisphere_
+      Aduanc'd, and made a Constellation there!
+    Shine forth, thou Starre of _Poets_, and with rage,
+      Or influence, chide, or cheere the drooping Stage;
+    Which, since thy flight fro hence, hath mourn'd like night,
+      And despaires day, but for thy Volumes light.
+
+                                                  BEN: IONSON.
+
+
+VPON THE LINES AND LIFE OF THE FAMOUS
+
+Scenicke Poet, Master WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
+
+    Those hands, which you so clapt, go now, and wring
+    You _Britaines_ braue; for done are _Shakespeares_ dayes:
+    His dayes are done, that made the dainty Playes,
+    Which made the Globe of heau'n and earth to ring.
+    Dry'de is that veine, dry'd is the _Thespian_ Spring,
+    Turn'd all to teares, and _Phœbus_ clouds his rayes:
+    That corp's, that coffin now besticke those bayes,
+    Which crown'd him _Poet_ first, then _Poets_ King.
+    If _Tragedies_ might any _Prologue_ haue,
+    All those he made, would scarse make one to this:
+    Where _Fame_, now that he gone is to the graue
+    (Deaths publique tyring-house) the _Nuncius_ is.
+      For though his line of life went soone about,
+      The life yet of his lines shall neuer out.
+
+                                                  HVGH HOLLAND.
+
+
+[Page Heading: The First Folio]
+
+                        TO THE MEMORIE
+
+                of the deceased Authour Maister
+
+                        W. SHAKESPEARE
+
+    _Shake-speare_, at length thy pious fellowes giue
+    The world thy Workes: thy Workes, by which, out-liue
+    Thy Tombe, thy name must: when that stone is rent,
+    And Time dissolues thy _Stratford_ Moniment,
+    Here we aliue shall view thee still. This Booke,
+    When Brasse and Marble fade, shall make thee looke
+    Fresh to all Ages: when Posteritie
+    Shall loath what's new, thinke all is prodegie
+    That is not _Shake-speares_ eu'ry Line, each Verse
+    Here shall reuiue, redeeme thee from thy Herse.
+    Nor Fire, nor cankring Age, as _Naso_ said,
+    Of his, thy wit-fraught Booke shall once inuade.
+    Nor shall I e're beleeue, or thinke thee dead
+    (Though mist) vntill our bankrout Stage be sped
+    (Jmpossible) with some new straine t'out-do
+    Passions of _Iuliet_, and her _Romeo_;
+    Or till J heare a Scene more nobly take,
+    Then when thy half-Sword parlying _Romans_ spake.
+    Till these, till any of thy Volumes rest
+    Shall with more fire, more feeling be exprest,
+    Be sure, our _Shake-speare_, thou canst neuer dye,
+    But crown'd with Lawrell, liue eternally.
+
+                                                  L. DIGGES.
+
+
+To the memorie of M. _W. Shake-speare_.
+
+    WEE wondred (_Shake-speare_) that thou went'st so soone
+    From the Worlds-Stage, to the Graues-Tyring-roome.
+    Wee thought thee dead, but this thy printed worth,
+    Tels thy Spectators, that thou went'st but forth
+    To enter with applause. An Actors Art,
+    Can dye, and liue, to acte a second part.
+    That's but an _Exit_ of Mortalitie;
+    This, a Re-entrance to a Plaudite.
+
+                                                  I. M.
+
+
+_The Workes of William Shakespeare, containing all his Comedies,
+Histories, and Tragedies; truely set forth according to their first
+Originall._--_The names of the Principall Actors in all these
+playes._--William Shakespeare; Richard Burbadge; John Hemmings;
+Augustine Phillips; William Kempt; Thomas Poope; George Bryan; Henry
+Condell; William Slye; Richard Cowly; John Lowine; Samuell Crosse;
+Alexander Cooke; Samuel Gilburne; Robert Armin; William Ostler; Nathan
+Field; John Underwood; Nicholas Tooley; William Ecclestone; Joseph
+Taylor; Robert Benfeld; Robert Goughe; Richard Robinson; John Shancke;
+John Rice.
+
+_A Catalogue of the severall Comedies, Histories, and Tragedies
+contained in this Volume._--COMEDIES. The Tempest, folio 1; The Two
+Gentlemen of Verona, 20; The Merry Wives of Windsor, 38; Measure for
+Measure, 61; The Comedy of Errours, 85; Much adoo about Nothing, 101;
+Loves Labour lost, 122; Midsommer Nights Dreame, 145; The Merchant of
+Venice, 163; As You Like it, 185; The Taming of the Shrew, 208; All is
+well that Ends well, 230; Twelfe-Night, or what you will, 255; The
+Winters Tale, 304.--HISTORIES. The Life and Death of King John, fol. 1;
+The Life and Death of Richard the Second, 23; The First Part of King
+Henry the Fourth, 46; The Second Part of K. Henry the fourth, 74; The
+Life of King Henry the Fift, 69; The First part of King Henry the Sixt,
+96; The Second part of King Hen. the Sixt, 120; The Third part of King
+Henry the Sixt, 147; The Life and Death of Richard the Third, 173; The
+Life of King Henry the Eight, 205.--TRAGEDIES. The Tragedy of
+Coriolanus, fol. 1; Titus Andronicus, 31; Romeo and Juliet, 53; Timon of
+Athens, 80; The Life and death of Julius Cæsar, 109; The Tragedy of
+Macbeth, 131; The Tragedy of Hamlet, 152; King Lear, 283; Othello, the
+Moore of Venice, 310; Anthony and Cleopater, 346; Cymbeline King of
+Britaine, 369.
+
+
+[Page Heading: Traditional Material]
+
+II. SOURCES OF TRADITIONAL MATERIAL
+
+Fuller's Worthies of England. 1662.
+
+Aubrey's Lives of Eminent Men, 2 vols. Ed. A. Clark. Oxford, 1895.
+
+Diary of Rev. John Ward (1661-1663). Ed. C. A. Severn, 1839.
+
+Rev. William Fulman's and Rev. Richard Davies's Mss. Corpus Christi
+College, Oxford.
+
+John Dowdall's Travels in Warwickshire (1693). London, 1838.
+
+William Hall (1694), Letter in Bodleian Mss. London, 1884.
+
+William Oldys, Ms. Adversaria in British Museum, printed in Appendix to
+Yeowell's Memoir of Oldys, 1862.
+
+Archdeacon Plume's Ms. memoranda at Maldon, Essex. See Lee, _Nineteenth
+Century_, May, 1906, and Preface to New Edition (1909) of _Life_.
+
+For the anecdote of the Bidford Drinkers, see H.-P. and Greene's Legend
+of the Crab Tree, 1857.
+
+Antony Wood. Athenæ Oxonienses, 1692.
+
+
+
+
+Appendix B
+
+INDEX TO THE CHARACTERS IN SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS
+
+
+[Page Heading: Index to Characters]
+
+This Index records the act and scene in which each character first
+speaks, not necessarily the same as that in which he first appears. Only
+persons who speak are included, except a few marked with asterisk.
+
+
+Aaron. TA. II. i.
+
+Abbess, Lady. CofE. V. i.
+
+Abergavenny, Lord. H8. I. i.
+
+Abhorson. Meas. IV. ii.
+
+Abraham. R&J. I. i.
+
+Achilles. T&C. II. i.
+
+Adam. AYLI. I. i.
+
+Adrian. Tmp. II. i.
+
+Adriana. CofE. II. i.
+
+Ædile, an. Cor. III. i.
+
+Ægeon. CofE. I. i.
+
+Æmilia. CofE. V. i.
+
+Æmilius. TA. IV. iv.
+
+Æneas. T&C. I. i.
+
+Agamemnon. T&C. I. iii.
+
+Agrippa. A&C. II. ii.
+
+Aguecheek, Sir Andrew. TwN. I. iii.
+
+Ajax. T&C. II. i.
+
+Alarbus. TA.*
+
+Albany, Duke of. Lear I. i.
+
+Alcibiades. Tim. I. i.
+
+Alençon, Duke of. 1H6. I. ii.
+
+Alexander. T&C. I. ii.
+
+Alexas. A&C. I. ii.
+
+Alice. H5. III. iv.
+
+Alonso. Tmp. I. i.
+
+Ambassadors:
+  Hml. V. ii;
+  H5. I. ii;
+  1H6. V. i.
+
+Amiens. AYLI. II. i. v.
+
+Andromache. T&C. V. iii.
+
+Andronicus. _See_ Titus, Marcus.
+
+Angelo. CofE. III. i.
+
+Angelo. Meas. I. i.
+
+Angus. Mcb. I. ii.
+
+Anne Bullen, Queen. H8. I. iv.
+
+Anne, Lady. R3. I. ii.
+
+Anne Page. MWW. I. i.
+
+Antigonus. WT. II. i.
+
+Antiochus, King of Antioch. Per. I. i.
+
+Antipholus of Ephesus. CofE. III. i.
+
+Antipholus of Syracuse. CofE. I. ii.
+
+Antonio. Merch. I. i.
+
+Antonio. MAdo. I. ii.
+
+Antonio. Tmp. I. i.
+
+Antonio. TGV. I. iii.
+
+Antonio. TwN. II. i.
+
+Antony.
+  JC. I. ii;
+  A&C. I. i.
+
+Apemantus. Tim. I. i.
+
+Apothecary. R&J. V. i.
+
+Apparitions. Mcb. IV. i.
+
+Archbishop. _See_ York, Canterbury.
+
+Archidamus. WT. I. i.
+
+Ariel. Tmp. I. ii.
+
+Armado, Don. LLL. I. ii.
+
+Arragon, Prince of. Merch. II. ix.
+
+Artemidorus. JC. II. iii.
+
+Arthur, Duke of Bretagne. John II. i.
+
+Arviragus. Cym. III. iii.
+
+Astringer, Gentle. AWEW. V. i.
+
+Attendants.
+  A&C. I. ii;
+  Hml. IV. vi. _See_ Servants.
+
+Audrey. AYLI. III. iii.
+
+Aufidius, Tullus. Cor. I. ii.
+
+Aumerle, Duke of. R2. I. iii.
+
+Austria, Archduke of.
+  John II. i.
+  _See_ Lymoges.
+
+Autolycus. WT. IV. iii.
+
+Auvergne, Countess of. 1H6. II. iii.
+
+
+Bagot. R2. II. ii.
+
+Balthasar. MAdo. II. iii.
+
+Balthazar. CofE. III. i.
+
+Balthazar. Merch. III. iv.
+
+Balthazar. R&J. I. i.
+
+Banditti. Tim. IV. iii.
+
+Banquo. Mcb. I. iii.
+
+Baptista. TofS. I. i.
+
+Bardolph.
+  1H4. II. ii;
+  2H4. II. i;
+  H5. II. i;
+  MWW. I. i.
+
+Bardolph, Lord. 2H4. I. i.
+
+Barnardine. Meas. IV. iii.
+
+Bassanio. Merch. I. i.
+
+Bassanius. TA. I. i.
+
+Basset. 1H6. III. iv.
+
+Bastard of Orleans. 1H6. I. ii.
+
+Bastard. _See_ Edmund, Faulconbridge, and Margarelon.
+
+Bates. H5. IV. i.
+
+Bawd.
+  Per. IV. ii.
+  _See_ Overdone.
+
+Beadles.
+  2H4. V. iv;
+  2H6. II. i.
+
+Beatrice. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Beaufort, Henry, Bishop of Winchester, and Cardinal.
+  1H6. I. i;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Beaufort, John, Duke of Somerset.
+  1H6. II. iv;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Beaufort, Thomas, Duke of Exeter.
+  H5. I. ii;
+  1H6. I. i.
+
+Bedford, Duke of. H5. II. ii.
+
+Bedford, Duke of. 1H6. I. i.
+
+Belarius. Cym. III. iii.
+
+Belch, Sir Toby. TwN. I. iii.
+
+Benedick. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Benvolio. R&J. I. i.
+
+Berkeley. R3. I. iii.*
+
+Berkeley, Lord. R2. II. iii.
+
+Bernardo. Hml. I i.*
+
+Bertram, Count of Rousillon. AWEW. I. i.
+
+Bevis, George. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Bianca. Oth. III. iv.
+
+Bianca. TofS. I. i.
+
+Bigot, Lord. John IV. iii.
+
+Biondello. TofS. I. i.
+
+Biron. LLL. I. i.
+
+Blanche of Spain. John II. i.
+
+Blunt, Sir James. R3. V. ii.
+
+Blunt, Sir Walter. 1H4. I. iii.
+
+Boatswain. Tmp. I. i.
+
+Bolingbroke, Roger. 2H6. I. iv.
+
+Bolingbroke, afterwards King Henry IV. R2. I. i.
+
+Bona. 3H6. III. iii.
+
+Borachio. MAdo. I. iii.
+
+Bottom. MND. I. ii.
+
+Boult. Per. IV. ii.
+
+Bourbon, Duke of. H5. III. v.
+
+Bourchier, Cardinal. R3. III. i.
+
+Boyet. LLL. II. i.
+
+Boys:
+  H5. II. i;
+  1H6. I. iv;
+  H8. V. i;
+  Mcb. IV. ii;
+  Meas. IV. i;
+  MAdo. II. iii;
+  R3. II. ii;
+  T&C. I. ii.
+  _See_ Pages.
+
+Brabantio. Oth. I. i.
+
+Brakenbury, Sir Robert. R3. I. i.
+
+Brandon. H8. I. i.
+
+Brothers, to Posthumus, ghosts. Cym. V. iv.
+
+Brutus, Decius. JC. II. i.
+
+Brutus, Junius. Cor. I. i.
+
+Brutus, Marcus. JC. I. ii.
+
+Buckingham, Duke of.
+  2H6. I. i;
+  R3. I. iii.
+
+Buckingham, Duke of. H8. I. i.
+
+Bullcalf. 2H4. III. ii.
+
+Bullen, Anne. H8. I. iv.
+
+Burgundy, Duke of. H5. V. ii.
+
+Burgundy, Duke of. 1H6. II. i.
+
+Burgundy, Duke of. Lear I. i.
+
+Bushy. R2. I. iv.
+
+Butts, Doctor. H8. V. ii.
+
+
+Cade, John. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Cæsar. _See_ Julius _and_ Octavius.
+
+Caithness. Mcb. V. ii.
+
+Caius. TA.*
+
+Caius, Doctor. MWW. I. iv.
+
+Caius Ligarius. JC. II. i.
+
+Caius Lucius. Cym. III. i.
+
+Caius Marcius (Coriolanus). Cor. I. i.
+
+Calchas. T&C. III. iii.
+
+Caliban. Tmp. I. ii.
+
+Calpurnia. JC. I. ii.
+
+Cambridge, Earl of. H5. II. ii.
+
+Camillo. WT. I. i.
+
+Campeius, Cardinal. H8. II. ii.
+
+Canidius. A&C. III. x.
+
+Canterbury, Archbishop of.
+  H5. I. i.
+  _See_ Bourchier, Cranmer.
+
+Caphis. Tim. II. i.
+
+Captains:
+  A&C. IV. iv;
+  Cym. IV. ii, V. iii;
+  Hml. IV. iv;
+  1H6. II. ii;
+  Lear V. iii;
+  Mcb. I. ii;
+  R2. II. iv;
+  TA. I. i.
+  _See_ Sea Captain.
+
+Capucius. H8. IV. ii.
+
+Capulet. R&J. I. i.
+
+Capulet, Lady. R&J. I. i.
+
+Capulet, second. R&J. I. v.
+
+Cardinal. _See_ Bourchier, Winchester.
+
+Carlisle, Bishop of. R2. III. ii.
+
+Carpenter. JC. I. i.
+
+Carriers. 1H4. II. i.
+
+Casca. JC. I. ii.
+
+Cassandra. T&C. II. ii.
+
+Cassio. Oth. I. ii.
+
+Cassius. JC. I. ii.
+
+Catesby, Sir William. R3. I. iii.
+
+Cato, young. JC. V. iii.
+
+Celia. AYLI. I. ii.
+
+Ceres. Tmp. IV. i.
+
+Cerimon. Per. III. ii.
+
+Chamberlain. 1H4. II. i.
+
+Chamberlain, Lord. H8. I. iii.
+
+Chancellor, Lord. H8. V. iii.
+
+Charles, a wrestler. AYLI. I. i.
+
+Charles, the dauphin, later King of France. 1H6. I. ii.
+
+Charles VI, King of France. H5. II. iv.
+
+Charmian. A&C. I. ii.
+
+Chatillon, ambassador. John I. i.
+
+Chief Justice. 2H4. I. ii.
+
+Chiron. TA. I. i.
+
+Chorus.
+  H5;
+  Per;
+  R&J;
+  WT.
+
+Cicero. JC. I. iii.
+
+Cimber, Metellus. JC. II. i.
+
+Cinna, a conspirator. JC. I. iii.
+
+Cinna, a poet. JC. III. iii.
+
+Citizens.
+  Cor. I. i;
+  2H6. IV. v;
+  John II. i;
+  R3. II. iii;
+  R&J. III. i.
+
+Clarence, George, Duke of.
+  3H6. II. ii;
+  R3. I. i.
+
+Clarence, Thomas, Duke of. 2H4. IV. iv.
+
+Clarence, son and daughter of. R3. II. ii.
+
+Claudio. Meas. I. ii.
+
+Claudio. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Claudius, King of Denmark. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Claudius. JC. IV. iii.
+
+Cleomenes. WT. III. i.
+
+Cleon. Per. I. iv.
+
+Cleopatra. A&C. I. i.
+
+Clerk. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Clifford, Lord.
+  2H6. IV. viii;
+  3H6. I. i.
+
+Clifford, young, son of preceding. 2H6. V. i.
+
+Clitus. JC. V. v.
+
+Cloten. Cym. I. ii.
+
+Clowns:
+  A&C. V. ii;
+  AWEW. I. iii;
+  Hml. V. ii;
+  LLL. I. ii;
+  Oth. III. i;
+  TA. IV. iii;
+  WT. IV. iii.
+  _See_ Feste, Peter, Pompey, etc.
+
+Cobbler. JC. I. i.
+
+Cobweb. MND. III. i.
+
+Colville, Sir John. 2H4. IV. iii.
+
+Cominius. Cor. I. i.
+
+Commons. 2H6. III. ii.
+
+Conrade. MAdo. I. iii.
+
+Conspirators. Cor. V. vi.
+
+Constable (Dull). LLL. I. i.
+
+Constable of France. H5. II. iv.
+
+Constance. John II. i.
+
+Cordelia. Lear I. i.
+
+Corin. AYLI. II. iv.
+
+Coriolanus. Cor. I. i.
+
+Cornelius, a physician. Cym. I. v.
+
+Cornelius. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Cornwall, Duke of. Lear I. i.
+
+Costard. LLL. I. i.
+
+Court. H5. IV. i.
+
+Courtesan. CofE. IV. iii.
+
+Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury. H8. V. i.
+
+Cressida. T&C. I. ii.
+
+Crier. H8. II. iv.
+
+Cromwell. H8. III. ii.
+
+Cupid. Tim. I. ii.
+
+Curan. Lear II. i.
+
+Curio. TwN. I. i.
+
+Curtis. TofS. IV. i.
+
+Cymbeline, King. Cym. I. i.
+
+
+Dancer, A. 2H4. Epi.
+
+Dardanius. JC. V. v.
+
+Daughter of Antiochus. Per. I. iv.
+
+Dauphin. H5. II. iv.
+
+Davy. 2H4. V. i.
+
+Deiphobus. T&C. IV. i.
+
+Demetrius. A&C. I. i.
+
+Demetrius. MND. I. i.
+
+Demetrius. TA. I. i.
+
+Dennis. AYLI. I. i.
+
+Denny, Sir Anthony. H8. V. i.
+
+Derby, Earl of. R3. I. iii.
+
+Dercetas. A&C. IV. xiv.
+
+Desdemona. Oth. I. iii.
+
+Diana. Per.*
+
+Diana. AWEW. III. v.
+
+Dick, butcher. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Diomedes. T&C. II. iii.
+
+Diomedes. A&C. IV. xiv.
+
+Dion. WT. III. i.
+
+Dionyza. Per. I. iv.
+
+Doctor. Lear IV. iv.
+
+Doctor, English Mcb. IV. iii.
+
+Doctor, Scotch. Mcb. V. i.
+
+Dogberry. MAdo. III. iii.
+
+Dolabella. A&C. III. xii.
+
+Doll Tearsheet. 2H4. II. iv.
+
+Don Adriano de Armado. LLL. I. ii.
+
+Donalbain. Mcb. II. iii.
+
+Don John. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Don Pedro. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Dorcas. WT. IV. iv.
+
+Dorset, Marquis of. R3. I. iii.
+
+Douglas Archibald, Earl of. 1H4. IV. i.
+
+Drawers. 2H4. II. iv.
+
+Dromio of Ephesus. CofE. I. ii.
+
+Dromio of Syracuse. CofE. I. ii.
+
+Duke, in banishment. AYLI. II. i.
+
+Duke Frederick. AYLI. I. ii.
+
+Duke of Milan. TGV. II. iv.
+
+Dull. LLL. I. i.
+
+Dumain. LLL. I. i.
+
+Duncan, King. Mcb. I. ii.
+
+
+Edgar. Lear I. ii.
+
+Edmund. Lear I. i.
+
+Edmund, Earl of Rutland. 3H6. I. iii.
+
+Edward, Earl of March, later Edward IV.
+  3H6. I. i;
+  R3. II. i.
+
+Edward IV, King.
+  3H6. I. i;
+  R3. II. i.
+
+Edward V, King. R3. III. i.
+
+Edward, Prince of Wales, afterwards Edward V. R3. III. i.
+
+Edward Plantagenet, Prince of Wales. 3H6. I. i.
+
+Egeus. MND. I. i.
+
+Eglamour. TGV. IV. iii.
+
+Egyptian. A&C. V. i.
+
+Elbow. Meas. II. i.
+
+Eleanor, Duchess of Gloucester. 2H6. I. ii.
+
+Eleanor, Queen. John I. i.
+
+Elizabeth, Queen (as L. Grey).
+  3H6. III. ii;
+  R3. I. iii.
+
+Ely, Bishop of. H5. I. i.
+
+Ely, Bishop of. R3. III. iv.
+
+Emilia. Oth. II. ii.
+
+Emilia. WT. II. ii.
+
+Enobarbus. A&C. I. ii.
+
+Eros. A&C. III. v.
+
+Erpingham, Sir Thomas. H5. IV. i.
+
+Escalus, Prince. R&J. I. i.
+
+Escalus. Meas. I. i.
+
+Escanes. Per. II. iv.
+
+Essex, Earl of. John I. i.
+
+Euphronius. A&C. III. xii.
+
+Evans, Sir Hugh. MWW. I. i
+
+Executioners. John IV. i.
+
+Exeter (Beaufort), Duke of.
+  H5. I. ii;
+  1H6. I. i.
+
+Exeter, Duke of. 3H6. I. i.
+
+Exton, Sir Pierce of. R2. V. iv.
+
+
+Fabian. TwN. II. v.
+
+Fairies.
+  MND. II. i;
+  MWW. V. iv.
+
+Falstaff, Sir John.
+  1H4. I. ii;
+  2H4. I. ii;
+  MWW. I. i.
+
+Fang. 2H4. II. i.
+
+Fastolfe, Sir John. 1H6. III. ii.
+
+Father that hath killed his son. 3H6. II. v.
+
+Faulconbridge, Lady. John I. i.
+
+Faulconbridge, Philip the Bastard. John I. i.
+
+Faulconbridge, Robert. John I. i.
+
+Feeble. 2H4. III. ii.
+
+Fenton. MWW. I. iv.
+
+Ferdinand. Tmp. I. ii.
+
+Ferdinand, King of Navarre. LLL. I. i.
+
+Feste. TwN. I. v.
+
+Fisherman. Per. II. i.
+
+Fitzwater, Lord. R2. IV. i.
+
+Flaminius. Tim. III. i.
+
+Flavius. JC. I. i.
+
+Flavius. Tim. I. ii.
+
+Fleance. Mcb. II. i.
+
+Florence, Duke of. AWEW. III. i.
+
+Florizel. WT. IV. iv.
+
+Fluellen. H5. III. ii.
+
+Flute. MND. I. ii.
+
+Fool.
+  Lear I. iv;
+  Tim. II. ii.
+
+Ford. MWW. II. i.
+
+Ford, Mistress. MWW. II. i.
+
+Forester.
+  AYLI. IV. ii;
+  LLL. IV. i.
+
+Fortinbras. Hml. IV. iv.
+
+France, King of. AWEW. I. ii.
+
+France, King of. Lear I. i.
+
+France, Princess of. LLL. II. i.
+
+Francis. 1H4. II. iv.
+
+Francisca. Meas. I. iv.
+
+Francisco. Hml. I. i.
+
+Francisco. Tmp. II. i.
+
+Frederick, Duke. AYLI. I. ii.
+
+Frenchman, A. Cym. I. iv.
+
+Friar Francis. MAdo. IV. i.
+
+Friar John. R&J. V. 2.
+
+Friar Lawrence. R&J. II. 3.
+
+Friar Peter. Meas. IV. vi.
+
+Friar Thomas. Meas. I. iii.
+
+Froth. Meas. II. i.
+
+
+Gadshill. 1H4. II. i.
+
+Gaolers:
+  CofE. I. i;
+  Cym. V. iv;
+  1H6. II. v;
+  Merch. III. iii;
+  WT. II. ii.
+
+Gallus. A&C. V. i.
+
+Gardener. R2. III. iv.
+
+Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester. H8. V. i.
+
+Gargrave, Sir Thomas. 1H6. I. iv.
+
+Gaunt, John, Duke of Lancaster. R2. I. i.
+
+Gentleman Usher. H8. II. iv.
+
+Gentlemen:
+  AWEW. V. iii;
+  Cym. I. i;
+  Hml. IV. v;
+  2H6. IV. i;
+  H8. II. i;
+  Lear I. v;
+  Meas. I. ii;
+  Per. III. ii;
+  Oth. II. i;
+  WT. V. ii.
+
+Gentlewomen.
+  Cor. I. iii;
+  Mcb. V. i.
+
+George, Duke of Clarence.
+  3H6. II. ii;
+  R3. I. i.
+
+Gertrude, Queen of Denmark. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Ghosts of:
+  Cæsar, JC. IV. iii;
+  of Hamlet's father, Hml. I. v;
+  Sicilius Leonatus, wife, two sons, Cym. V. iv;
+  Banquo,* Mcb. III. iv;
+  Prince Edward, Henry VI, Clarence, Rivers, Grey, Vaughan, Hastings,
+      two young princes, Lady Anne, and Buckingham, R3. V. iii.
+
+Glansdale, Sir William. 1H6. I. iv.
+
+Glendower, Owen. 1H4. III.
+
+Gloucester, Humphrey, Duke of.
+  2H4. IV. iv;
+  H5. III. vii;
+  1H6. I. i;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Gloucester, Richard, Duke of.
+  3H6. I. i;
+  R3. I. i.
+
+Gloucester, Duchess of. 2H6. I. ii.
+
+Gloucester, Duchess of. R2. I. ii.
+
+Gloucester, Earl of. Lear I. i.
+
+Gobbo, Launcelot. Merch. II. ii.
+
+Gobbo, Old, father of Launcelot. Merch. II. ii.
+
+Goffe, Matthew. 2H6.*
+
+Goneril. Lear I. i.
+
+Gonzalo. Tmp. I. i.
+
+Goths. TA. V. i.
+
+Governor of Harfleur. H5. III. iii.
+
+Governor of Paris. 1H6. IV. i.
+
+Gower.
+  2H4. II. i;
+  H5. III. ii.
+
+Gower, chorus. Per.
+
+Grandpré. H5. IV. ii.
+
+Gratiano. Merch. I. i.
+
+Gratiano. Oth. V. ii.
+
+Gravediggers. Hml. V. i.
+
+Green. R2. I. iv.
+
+Gregory. R&J. I. i.
+
+Gremio. TofS. I. i.
+
+Grey, Lady, later Queen Elizabeth.
+  3H6. III. ii;
+  R3. I. iii.
+
+Grey, Lord. R3. I. iii.
+
+Grey, Sir Thomas. H5. II. ii.
+
+Griffith. H8. IV. ii.
+
+Grooms.
+  2H4. V. v;
+  R2. V. v.
+
+Grumio. TofS. I. i.
+
+Guard. A&C. IV. xiv.
+
+Guiderius. Cym. III. iii.
+
+Guildenstern. Hml. II. ii.
+
+Guildford, Sir Henry. H8. I. iv.
+
+Gurney, James. John I. i.
+
+
+Haberdasher. TofS. IV. iii.
+
+Hamlet. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Harcourt. 2H4. IV. iv.
+
+Hastings, Lord. 2H4. I. iii.
+
+Hastings, Lord.
+  3H6. IV. i;
+  R3. I. i.
+
+Hecate. Mcb. III. v.
+
+Hector. T&C. II. ii.
+
+Helen, an attendant. Cym. II. ii.
+
+Helen. T&C. III. i.
+
+Helena. AWEW. I. i.
+
+Helena. MND. I. i.
+
+Helenus. T&C. II. ii.
+
+Helicanus. Per. I. ii.
+
+Henry IV, King (Bolingbroke).
+  1H4. I. i;
+  2H4. III. i;
+  R2. I. i.
+
+Henry V, King (first, Henry, Prince of Wales).
+  1H4. I. ii;
+  2H4. II. ii;
+  H5. I. ii.
+
+Henry, Prince.
+  1H4. I. ii;
+  2H4. II. ii.
+
+Henry, Prince, son of King John. John V. vii.
+
+Henry VI, King.
+  1H6. III. i;
+  2H6. I. i;
+  3H6. I. i.
+
+Henry VII, King, first Earl of Richmond.
+  3H6.*
+  R3. V. iii.
+
+Henry VIII, King. H8. I. ii.
+
+Heralds.
+  Cor. II. i;
+  H5. III. vi, IV. viii;
+  2H6. II. iv;
+  John II. i;
+  Lear V. iii;
+  Oth. II. ii;
+  R2. I. iii.
+
+Herbert, Sir Walter. R3. V. ii.
+
+Hereford, Duke of.
+  _See_ Henry IV.
+  R2. I. i.
+
+Hermia. MND. I. i.
+
+Hermione. WT. I. ii.
+
+Hero. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Hippolyta. MND. I. i.
+
+Holland, John. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Holofernes. LLL. IV. ii.
+
+Horatio. Hml. I. i.
+
+Horner, Roger. 2H6. I. iii.
+
+Hortensio. TofS. I. i.
+
+Hortensius. Tim. III. iv.
+
+Host. TGV. IV. ii.
+
+Host of the Garter Inn. MWW. I. iii.
+
+Hostess.
+  H5. II. i.
+  _See_ Quickly.
+
+Hostess. TofS. Ind.
+
+Hotspur.
+  1H4. I. iii.
+  _See_ Percy.
+
+Hubert de Burgh. John III. iii.
+
+Hume, John. 2H6. I. ii.
+
+Humphrey of Gloucester.
+  2H4. IV. iv;
+  H5. III. vii;
+  1H6. I. i;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Huntsmen.
+  3H6. IV. v;
+  TofS. Ind.
+
+Hymen. AYLI. V. iv.
+
+
+Iachimo. Cym. I. iv.
+
+Iago. Oth. I. i.
+
+Iden, Alexander. 2H6. IV. x.
+
+Imogen. Cym. I. i.
+
+Interpreter. AWEW. IV. iii.
+
+Iras. A&C. I. ii.
+
+Iris. Tmp. IV. i.
+
+Isabel, Queen of France. H5. V. ii.
+
+Isabella. Meas. I. iv.
+
+Isadore, servant. Tim. II. ii.
+
+
+Jamy. H5. III. ii.
+
+Jaquenetta. LLL. I. ii.
+
+Jaques. AYLI. II. v.
+
+Jaques, son of Sir Roland de Boys. AYLI.*
+
+Jessica. Merch. II. iii.
+
+Jeweller. Tim. I. i.
+
+Joan la Pucelle (Joan of Arc). 1H6. I. ii.
+
+John, King. John I. i.
+
+John of Lancaster.
+  1H4. V. iv;
+  2H4. IV. ii.
+
+Jordan, Margery. 2H6. I. iv.
+
+Julia. TGV. I. ii.
+
+Juliet. Meas. I. ii.
+
+Juliet. R&J. I. iii.
+
+Julius Cæsar. JC. I. ii.
+
+Juno. Tmp. IV. i.
+
+Jupiter. Cym. V. iv.
+
+
+Katherina. TofS. I. i.
+
+Katherine. LLL. II. i.
+
+Katherine, Princess of France. H5. III. iv.
+
+Katherine, Queen. H8. I. ii.
+
+Keepers:
+  3H6. III. i;
+  H8. V. ii; R2. V. v;
+  R3. I. iv.
+  _See_ Gaolers.
+
+Kent, Earl of. Lear I. i.
+
+Knights:
+  Lear I. iv;
+  Per. II. iii.
+
+
+Ladies:
+  Cor. II. i;
+  Cym. I. v;
+  R2. III. iv;
+  Tim. I. ii;
+  WT. II. i.
+
+Laertes. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Lafeu, Lord. AWEW. I. i.
+
+Lamprius. A&C. I. ii.
+
+Launce. TGV. II. iii.
+
+Launcelot Gobbo. Merch. II. ii.
+
+Lavache, a clown. AWEW. I. iii.
+
+Lavinia. TA. I. i.
+
+Lawyer, a. 1H6. II. iv.
+
+Lear, King. Lear I. i.
+
+Le Beau. AYLI. I. ii.
+
+Legate. 1H6. V. i.
+
+Lennox. Mcb. I. ii.
+
+Leonardo. Merch. II. ii.
+
+Leonato. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Leonatus, Posthumus. Cym. I. i.
+
+Leonine. Per. IV. i.
+
+Leontes. WT. I. ii.
+
+Lepidus.
+  JC. IV. i;
+  A&C. I. iv.
+
+Lewis, the Dauphin. H5. II. iv.
+
+Lewis, the Dauphin. John II. i.
+
+Lewis XI, King of France. 3H6. III. iii.
+
+Lieutenant:
+  Cor. IV. vii;
+  2H6. IV. i;
+  3H6. IV. vi.
+
+Ligarius. JC. II. i.
+
+Lincoln, Bishop of. H8. II. iv.
+
+Lion. MND. V. i.
+
+Longaville. LLL. I. i.
+
+Lords:
+  AWEW. I. ii, III. i;
+  AYLI. II. i;
+  Cor. V. vi;
+  Cym. I. ii;
+  Hml. V. ii;
+  LLL. II. i;
+  Mcb. III. iv;
+  Per. I. ii;
+  R3. V. iii;
+  TofS. Ind.;
+  Tim. I. i;
+  WT. II. ii.
+
+Lorenzo. Merch. I. i.
+
+Lovel, Lord. R3. III. iv.
+
+Lovell, Sir Thomas. H8. I. iii.
+
+Luce. CofE. III. i.
+
+Lucentio. TofS. I. i.
+
+Lucetta. TGV. I. ii.
+
+Luciana. CofE. II. i.
+
+Lucianus. Hml. III. ii.
+
+Lucilius. JC. IV. ii.
+
+Lucilius. Tim. I. i.
+
+Lucio. Meas. I. ii.
+
+Lucius, Caius. Cym. III. i.
+
+Lucius. JC. II. i.
+
+Lucius. TA. I. i.
+
+Lucius, young. TA. III. ii.
+
+Lucius. Tim. III. ii;
+  servant. Tim. III. iv.
+
+Lucullus. Tim. III. i.
+
+Lucy, Sir William. 1H6. IV. iii.
+
+Ludovico. Oth. IV. i.
+
+Lychorida. Per. III. i.
+
+Lymoges, Duke of Austria. John II. i.
+
+Lysander. MND. I. i.
+
+Lysimachus. Per. IV. vi.
+
+
+Macbeth. Mcb. I. iii.
+
+Macbeth, Lady. Mcb. I. v.
+
+Macduff. Mcb. II. iii.
+
+Macduff, Lady. Mcb. IV. ii.
+
+Macduff's son. Mcb. IV. ii.
+
+Macmorris. H5. III. ii.
+
+Mæcenas. A&C. II. ii.
+
+Malcolm. Mcb. I. ii.
+
+Malvolio. TwN. I. v.
+
+Mamillius. WT. I. ii.
+
+Marcellus. Hml. I. i.
+
+Marcus Andronicus. TA. I. i.
+
+Marcus Antonius (Antony).
+  JC. I. ii;
+  A&C. I. i.
+
+Mardian. A&C. I. v.
+
+Margarelon. T&C. V. vi.
+
+Margaret. MAdo. II. i.
+
+Margaret, Queen.
+  1H6. V. iii;
+  2H6. I. i;
+  3H6. I. i;
+  R3. I. iii.
+
+Margaret Plantagenet, daughter of Clarence. R3. II. ii.
+
+Maria. LLL. II. i.
+
+Maria. TwN. I. iii.
+
+Mariana. AWEW. III. v.
+
+Mariana. Meas. IV. i.
+
+Marina. Per. IV. i.
+
+Mariner.
+  WT. III. iii;
+  Tmp. I. i.
+
+Marshal. Per. II. iii.
+
+Marshal, Lord. R2. I. iii.
+
+Martext, Sir Oliver. AYLI. III. iii.
+
+Martius. TA. I. i.
+
+Marullus. JC. I. i.
+
+Master. 2H6. IV. i.
+
+Master gunner. 1H6. I. iv.
+
+Master, of a ship.
+  Tmp. I. i;
+  2H6. IV. i.
+
+Master's Mate. 2H6. IV. i.
+
+Mayor of London.
+  1H6. III. i;
+  R3. III. i.
+
+Mayor of St. Albans. 2H6. II. i.
+
+Mayor of York. 3H6. IV. vii.
+
+Melun. John V. iv.
+
+Menas. A&C. II. i.
+
+Menecrates. A&C. II. i.
+
+Menelaus. T&C. I. iii.
+
+Menenius Agrippa. Cor. I. i.
+
+Menteith. Mcb. V. ii.
+
+Mercade. LLL. V. ii.
+
+Merchants:
+  CofE. I. ii;
+  Tim. I. i.
+
+Mercutio. R&J. I. iv.
+
+Messala. JC. IV. iii.
+
+Messengers:
+  A&C. I. i;
+  AWEW. IV. iii;
+  CofE. V. i;
+  Cor. I. i;
+  Cym. V. iv;
+  Hml. IV. v;
+  1H4. IV. i;
+  2H4. IV. i;
+  H5. II. v;
+  1H6. I. i;
+  2H6. I. ii;
+  3H6. I. ii;
+  H8. IV. ii;
+  John IV. ii;
+  JC. IV. iii;
+  Lear IV. ii;
+  LLL. V. ii;
+  Mcb. I. v;
+  Meas. IV. ii;
+  Merch. II. ix;
+  MAdo. I. i;
+  Oth. I. iii;
+  Per. I. i;
+  R3. III. ii;
+  TofS. III. i;
+  Tim. I. i;
+  TA. III. i.
+
+Metellus Cimber. JC. II. i.
+
+Michael. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Michael, Sir. 1H4. IV. iv.
+
+Milan, Duke of. TGV. II. iv.
+
+Miranda. Tmp. I. ii.
+
+Montague. R&J. I. i.
+
+Montague, Lady. R&J. I. i.
+
+Montague, Marquess of. 3H6. I. i.
+
+Montano. Oth. II. i.
+
+Montgomery, Sir John. 3H6. IV. vii.
+
+Montjoy. H5. III. vi.
+
+Moonshine. MND. V. i.
+
+Mopsa. WT. IV. iv.
+
+Morocco, Prince of. Merch. II. i.
+
+Mortimer, Edmund, Earl of March. 1H4. III. i.
+
+Mortimer, Edmund, Earl of March. 1H6. II. v.
+
+Mortimer, Lady. 1H4. III. i.
+
+Mortimer, Sir Hugh.* 3H6. I. ii.
+
+Mortimer, Sir John. 3H6. I. ii.
+
+Morton. 2H4. I. i.
+
+Morton, John, Bishop of Ely. R3. III. iv.
+
+Moth. LLL. I. ii.
+
+Moth. MND. III. i.
+
+Mother to Posthumus, a ghost. Cym. V. iv.
+
+Mouldy. 2H4. III. ii.
+
+Mowbray, Lord. 2H4. I. iii.
+
+Mowbray, Thomas, Duke of Norfolk. R2. I. i.
+
+Murderers:
+  2H6. III. ii;
+  Mcb. III. i;
+  R3. I. iii.
+
+Musicians:
+  Merch. V. i;
+  Oth. III. i;
+  R&J. IV. v;
+  TGV. IV. ii.
+
+Mustardseed. MND. III. i.
+
+Mutius. TA. I. i.
+
+
+Nathaniel, Sir. LLL. IV. ii.
+
+Neighbors. 2H6. II. iii.
+
+Nerissa. Merch. I. ii.
+
+Nestor. T&C. I. iii.
+
+Noble, a. Cor. III. ii.
+
+Nobleman, a. 3H6. III. ii.
+
+Norfolk, Duke of.
+  3H6. I. i;
+  R3. V. iii.
+
+Norfolk, Duke of, Thomas Mowbray. R2. I. i.
+
+Norfolk, Duke of. H8. I. i.
+
+Northumberland. _See_ Percy.
+
+Northumberland, Earl of. 3H6. I. i.
+
+Northumberland, Lady. 2H4. II. iii.
+
+Nurse. R&J. I. 3.
+
+Nurse. TA. IV. ii.
+
+Nym.
+  H5. II. i;
+  MWW. I. i.
+
+
+Oberon. MND. II. i.
+
+Octavia. A&C. III. ii.
+
+Octavius Cæsar (Augustus).
+  JC. IV. i;
+  A&C. I. iv.
+
+Officers:
+  CofE. IV. i;
+  Cor. II. ii;
+  Oth. I. iii;
+  R&J. I. i;
+  TwN. III. iv;
+  WT. III. ii.
+
+Old Athenian. Tim. I. i.
+
+Old Lady. H8. II. iii.
+
+Old Man.
+  Lear IV. i;
+  Mcb. II. iv.
+
+Oliver. AYLI. I. i.
+
+Oliver Martext, Sir. AYLI. III. iii.
+
+Olivia. TwN. I. v.
+
+Ophelia. Hml. I. iii.
+
+Orlando. AYLI. I. i.
+
+Orleans, bastard of. 1H6. I. ii.
+
+Orleans, Duke of. H5. III. vii.
+
+Orsino, Duke of Illyria. TwN. I. i.
+
+Osric. Hml. V. ii.
+
+Ostler. 1H4. II. i.
+
+Oswald. Lear I. iii.
+
+Othello. Oth. I. ii.
+
+Outlaws. TGV. IV. i.
+
+Overdone, Mrs. Meas. I. ii.
+
+Oxford, Earl of. 3H6. III. iii.
+
+Oxford, Earl of. R3. V. ii.
+
+
+Page. MWW. I. i.
+
+Page, Mistress. MWW. II. i.
+
+Page, Mistress Anne, a daughter. MWW. I. i.
+
+Page, William, a son. MWW. IV. i.
+
+Pages:
+  AWEW. I. i;
+  AYLI. V. iii;
+  2H4. I. ii;
+  H8. V. i;
+  R3. IV. ii;
+  R&J. V. ii;
+  Tim. II. ii.
+  _See_ Boys.
+
+Painter. Tim. I. i.
+
+Pandar. Per. IV. ii.
+
+Pandarus. T&C. I. i.
+
+Pandulph, Cardinal. John III. i.
+
+Panthino. TGV. I. iii.
+
+Paris. R&J. I. ii.
+
+Paris. T&C. II. ii.
+
+Parolles. AWEW. I. i.
+
+Patience. H8. IV. ii.
+
+Patrician. Cor. III. i.
+
+Patroclus. T&C. II. i.
+
+Paulina. WT. II. ii.
+
+Peaseblossom. MND. III. i.
+
+Pedant. TofS. IV. ii.
+
+Pedro, Don. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Pembroke, Earl of. 3H6. IV. i.
+
+Pembroke, Earl of. John IV. ii.
+
+Percy, Henry, Earl of Northumberland.
+  1H4. I. iii;
+  2H4. I. i;
+  R2. III. i.
+
+Percy, Henry (Hotspur).
+  1H4. I. iii;
+  R2. II. iii.
+
+Percy, Lady (wife of Hotspur).
+  1H4. II. iii;
+  2H4. II. iii.
+
+Percy, Thomas, Earl of Worcester. 1H4. I. iii.
+
+Perdita. WT. IV. iv.
+
+Pericles. Per. I. i.
+
+Peter. 2H6. I. iii.
+
+Peter. R&J. II. iv.
+
+Peter of Pomfret. John IV. ii.
+
+Petitioners. 2H6. I. iii.
+
+Peto.
+  1H4. II. ii;
+  2H4. II. iv.
+
+Petruchio. TofS. I. i.
+
+Phebe. AYLI. III. v.
+
+Philario. Cym. I. iv.
+
+Philemon. Per. III. ii.
+
+Philip, King of France. John II. i.
+
+Philo. A&C. I. i.
+
+Philostrate. MND. V. i.
+
+Philotus. Tim. III. iv.
+
+Phrynia. Tim. IV. iii.
+
+Physicians:
+  Cym. I. v;
+  Lear IV. iv;
+  Mcb. IV. iii.
+
+Pierce, Sir, of Exton. R2. V. iv.
+
+Pinch. CofE. IV. iv.
+
+Pindarus. JC. IV. ii.
+
+Pirates. Per. IV. i.
+
+Pisanio. Cym. I. i.
+
+Pistol.
+  2H4. II. iv;
+  H5. II. i;
+  MWW. I. i.
+
+Plantagenet. _See_ Richard.
+
+Player King. Hml. III. ii.
+
+Player Queen. Hml. III. ii.
+
+Players.
+  Hml. II. ii;
+  TofS. Ind.
+
+Plebeians.
+  JC. III. ii.
+  _See_ Citizens.
+
+Poet. Tim. I. i.
+
+Poet. JC. IV. iii.
+
+Poins.
+  1H4. I. ii;
+  2H4. II. ii.
+
+Polixenes. WT. I. ii.
+
+Polonius. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Pompeius, Sextus. A&C. II. i.
+
+Pompey. Meas. I. ii.
+
+Popilius. JC. III. i.
+
+Porters:
+  2H4. I. i;
+  1H6. II. iii;
+  H8. V. iv;
+  Mcb. II. iii.
+
+Porter's Man. H8. V. iv.
+
+Portia. JC. II. i.
+
+Portia. Merch. I. ii.
+
+Post.
+  2H6. III. i;
+  3H6. III. iii.
+
+Posthumus Leonatus. Cym. I. i.
+
+Prentices. 2H6. II. iii.
+
+Priam, King of Troy. T&C. II. ii.
+
+Priests:
+  Hml. V. i;
+  R3. III. ii;
+  TwN. V. i.
+
+Princess of France. LLL. II. i.
+
+Proculeius. A&C. V. i.
+
+Prologue.
+  R&J;
+  H5;
+  MND;
+  Hml. III, ii;
+  H8;
+  T&C.
+
+Prospero. Tmp. I. ii.
+
+Proteus. TGV. I. i.
+
+Provost. Meas. I. ii.
+
+Publius. JC. II. ii.
+
+Publius. TA. IV. iii.
+
+Puck, Robin Goodfellow. MND. II. i.
+
+Pursuivant. R3. III. ii.
+
+Pyramus. MND. V. i.
+
+
+Queen, wife of Cymbeline. Cym. I. i.
+
+Queen, wife of Richard II. R2. II. i.
+
+Quickly, Mrs.
+  1H4. II. iv;
+  2H4. II. i;
+  H5. II. i;
+  MWW. I. iv.
+
+Quince. MND. I. ii.
+
+Quintus. TA. I. i.
+
+
+Rambures. H5. III. vii.
+
+Ratcliff, Sir Richard. R3. III. iii.
+
+Regan. Lear I. i.
+
+Reignier, Duke of Anjou. 1H6. I. ii.
+
+Reynaldo. Hml. II. i.
+
+Richard II, King. R2. I. i.
+
+Richard II, Queen to. R2. II. i.
+
+Richard III, King (at first Gloucester).
+  3H6. I. i;
+  R3. I. i.
+
+Richard, Duke of York, son of Edward IV. R3. II. iv.
+
+Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York.
+  1H6. II. iv;
+  2H6. I. i;
+  3H6. I. i.
+
+Richard Plantagenet, son of preceding.
+  2H6*;
+  3H6. I. i.
+
+Richmond, Earl of, later Henry VII.
+  3H6*;
+  R3. V. iii.
+
+Rivers, Lord.
+  3H6. IV. iv;
+  R3. I. iii.
+
+Robin. MWW. I. iii.
+
+Robin Goodfellow. MND. II. i.
+
+Roderigo. Oth. I. i.
+
+Roman, a.
+  Cor. IV. iii.
+  _See_ Citizens.
+
+Romeo. R&J. I. i.
+
+Rosalind. AYLI. I. ii.
+
+Rosaline. LLL. II. i.
+
+Rosencrantz. Hml. II. ii.
+
+Ross. Mcb. I. ii.
+
+Ross, Lord. R2. II. i.
+
+Rotherham, Thomas. Archbishop of York. R3. II. iv.
+
+Rousillon, Count. _See_ Bertram.
+
+Rousillon, Countess. AWEW. I. i.
+
+Rugby, John. MWW. I. iv.
+
+Rumour. 2H4. Ind.
+
+Rutland, Edmund, Earl of. 3H6. I. iii.
+
+
+Sailors:
+  Hml. IV. vi;
+  Oth. I. iii;
+  Per. III. i.
+
+Salanio. Merch. I. i.
+
+Salarino. Merch. I. i.
+
+Salerio. Merch. III. ii.
+
+Salisbury, Earl of.
+  H5. IV. iii;
+  1H6. I. iv.
+
+Salisbury, Earl of. 2H6. I. i.
+
+Salisbury, Earl of. John III. i.
+
+Salisbury, Earl of. R2. II. iv.
+
+Sampson. R&J. I. i.
+
+Sandys, William (Lord). H8. I. iii.
+
+Saturninus. TA. I. i.
+
+Say, Lord. 2H6. IV. iv.
+
+Scales, Lord. 2H6. IV. v.
+
+Scarus. A&C. III. x.
+
+Scout. 1H6. V. ii.
+
+Scribe. H8. II. iv.
+
+Scrivener. R3. III. vi.
+
+Scroop, Lord. H5. II. ii.
+
+Scroop, Richard, Archbishop of York.
+  1H4. IV. iv;
+  2H4. I. iii.
+
+Scroop, Sir Stephen. R2. III. ii.
+
+Sea-Captain (Lieut.).
+  2H6. IV. i;
+  TwN. I. ii.
+
+Sebastian. Tmp. I. i.
+
+Sebastian. TwN. II. i.
+
+Secretary. H8. I i.
+
+Seleucus. A&C. V. ii.
+
+Sempronius. TA.*
+
+Sempronius. Tim. III. iii.
+
+Senators,
+  Roman.
+    Cor. I. i;
+    Cym. III. vii;
+  Venetian. Oth. I. iii;
+  Athenian. Tim. II. i;
+  Coriolanian. Cor. I. ii.
+
+Sentinels. 1H6. II. i.
+
+Sentry. A&C. IV. ix.
+
+Sergeant. 1H6. II. i;
+  (at arms) H8. I. i.
+
+Servants:
+  A&C. II. vii;
+  Hml. IV. vi;
+  1H4. II. iii;
+  2H4. I. ii;
+  H8. I. iv;
+  JC. II. ii;
+  Lear III. vii;
+  Mcb. III. i;
+  Meas. II. ii;
+  Merch. III. i;
+  Per. III. ii;
+  R2. II. ii;
+  TofS. IV. i;
+  Tim. I. ii;
+  T&C. III. i;
+  TwN. III. iv;
+  WT. II. iii.
+
+Servilius. Tim. III. ii.
+
+Servingmen:
+  Cor. IV. v;
+  1H6. I. iii;
+  2H6. II. iv;
+  Merch. I. ii;
+  TofS. Ind.
+
+Seyton. Mcb. V. iii.
+
+Sexton. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Sextus Pompeius. A&C. II. i.
+
+Shadow. 2H4. III. ii.
+
+Shallow, Justice.
+  2H4. III. ii;
+  MWW. I. i.
+
+Shepherd. 1H6. V. iv.
+
+Shepherd, Old. WT. III. iii.
+
+Sheriff.
+  1H4. II. iv;
+  2H6. II. iv;
+  R3. V. i.
+
+Shrewsbury, Talbot, Earl of. 1H6. I. iv.
+
+Shylock. Merch. I. iii.
+
+Sicilius Leonatus, a ghost. Cym. V. iv.
+
+Sicinius Velutus. Cor. I. i.
+
+Silence. 2H4. III. ii.
+
+Silius. A&C. III. i.
+
+Silvia. TGV. II. i.
+
+Silvius. AYLI. II. iv.
+
+Simonides, King of Pentapolis. Per. II. ii.
+
+Simpcox. 2H6. II. i.
+
+Simpcox's wife. 2H6. II. i.
+
+Simple, Peter. MWW. I. i.
+
+Siward. Mcb. V. iv.
+
+Siward, young. Mcb. V. vii.
+
+Slender, Abraham. MWW. I. i.
+
+Sly, Christopher. TofS. Ind.
+
+Smith. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Snare. 2H4. II. i.
+
+Snout. MND. I. ii.
+
+Snug. MND. I. ii.
+
+Soldiers:
+  A&C. III. vii;
+  AWEW. IV. i;
+  Cor. I. iv;
+  H5. IV. iv;
+  1H6. II. i;
+  2H6. IV. vi;
+  3H6. IV. viii;
+  JC. IV. ii;
+  Mcb. V. iv;
+  Tim. V. iv;
+  T&C. V. ix.
+
+Solinus, Duke of Ephesus. CofE. I. i.
+
+Somerset, Duke of.
+  1H6. II. iv;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Somerset, Duke of. 3H6. IV. i.
+
+Somerville, Sir John. 3H6. V. i.
+
+Son that hath killed his father. 3H6. II. v.
+
+Soothsayers.
+  A&C. I. ii;
+  Cym. IV. ii;
+  JC. I. ii.
+
+Southwell, John. 2H6. I. iv.
+
+Speed. TGV. I. i.
+
+Spirits. 2H6. I. iv.
+
+Spring (Ver). LLL. V. ii.
+
+Stafford, Lord. 3H6.*
+
+Stafford, Sir Humphrey. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Stafford, William. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Stanley, Lord, Earl of Derby. R3. I. iii.
+
+Stanley, Sir John. 2H6. II. iv.
+
+Stanley, Sir William. 3H6. IV. v.*
+
+Starveling. MND. I. ii.
+
+Stephano. Merch.*
+
+Stephano. Tmp. II. ii.
+
+Steward. AWEW. I. iii.
+
+Strangers. Tim. III. ii.
+
+Strato. JC. V. v.
+
+Suffolk, Earl and Duke of.
+  1H6. II. iv;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Suffolk, Duke of. H8. II. ii.
+
+Surrey, Earl of. 2H4.*
+
+Surrey, Earl of. R2. IV. i.
+
+Surrey, Earl of. R3. V. iii.
+
+Surrey, Lord. H8. III. ii.
+
+Surveyor. H8. I. ii.
+
+
+Tailor. TofS. IV. ii.
+
+Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury. 1H6. I. iv.
+
+Talbot, John. 1H6. I. iv.
+
+Tamora, Queen of Goths. TA. I. i.
+
+Taurus. A&C. III. viii.
+
+Thaisa. Per. II. ii.
+
+Thaliard. Per. I. i.
+
+Thersites. T&C. II. i.
+
+Theseus. MND. I. i.
+
+Thieves. 1H4. II. ii.
+
+Thisbe. MND. V. i.
+
+Thomas, Friar. Meas. I. iii.
+
+Thurio. TGV. II. iv.
+
+Thyreus (Thidias). A&C. III. xii.
+
+Timandra. Tim. IV. iii.
+
+Time (chorus). WT. IV. i.
+
+Timon. Tim. I. i.
+
+Titania. MND. II. i.
+
+Titinius. JC. IV. iii.
+
+Titus. Tim. III. iv.
+
+Titus Andronicus. TA. I. i.
+
+Titus Lartius. Cor. I. i.
+
+Touchstone. AYLI. I. ii.
+
+Townsmen of St. Albans. 2H6. II. i.
+
+Tranio. TofS. I. i.
+
+Travellers. 1H4. II. ii.
+
+Travers. 2H4. I. i.
+
+Trebonius. JC. II. i.
+
+Tressel. R3. I. iii.*
+
+Tribunes, Roman:
+  Cym. III. vii;
+  TA. I. i.
+
+Trinculo. Tmp. II. ii.
+
+Troilus. T&C. I. i.
+
+Tubal. Merch. III. i.
+
+Tullus Aufidius. Cor. I. ii.
+
+Tutor. 3H6. I. iii.
+
+Tybalt. R&J. I. i.
+
+Tyrrel, Sir James. R3. IV. ii.
+
+
+Ulysses. T&C. I. iii.
+
+Ursula. MAdo. II. i.
+
+Urswick, Christopher. R3. IV. v.
+
+
+Valentine. TwN. I. iv.
+
+Valentine. TGV. I. i.
+
+Valentine. TA.*
+
+Valeria. Cor. I. iii.
+
+Varrius. A&C. II. i.
+
+Varro, servant. Tim. II. ii.
+
+Varro. JC. IV. iii.
+
+Vaughan, Sir Thomas. R3. III. iii.
+
+Vaux. 2H6. III. ii.
+
+Vaux, Sir Nicholas. H8. II. i.
+
+Venice, Duke of. Merch. IV. i.
+
+Venice, Duke of. Oth. I. iii.
+
+Ventidius. A&C. III. i.
+
+Ventidius. Tim. I. ii.
+
+Verges. MAdo. III. iii.
+
+Vernon. 1H6. II. iv.
+
+Vernon, Sir Richard. 1H4. IV. i.
+
+Vincentio. TofS. IV. v.
+
+Vincentio, Duke. Meas. I. i.
+
+Vintner. 1H4. II. iv.
+
+Viola. TwN. I. ii.
+
+Violenta. AWEW. III. v.
+
+Virgilia. Cor. I. iii.
+
+Volsce, a. Cor. IV. iii.
+
+Voltimand. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Volumnia. Cor. I. iii.
+
+Volumnius. JC. V. v.
+
+
+Wall, MND. V. i.
+
+Warders. 1H6. I. iii.
+
+Wart. 2H4. III. ii.
+
+Warwick (Beauchamp), Earl of.
+  2H4. III. i;
+  H5. IV. viii;
+  1H6. II. iv.
+
+Warwick (Nevil), Earl of.
+  2H6. I. i;
+  3H6. I. i.
+
+Watchmen:
+  Cor. V. ii;
+  3H6. IV. iii;
+  MAdo. III. iii;
+  R&J. V. iii.
+
+Westminster, Abbot of. R2. IV. i.
+
+Westmoreland, Earl of.
+  1H4. I. i;
+  2H4. IV. i;
+  H5. I. ii.
+
+Westmoreland, Earl of. 3H6. I. i.
+
+Whitmore, Walter. 2H6. IV. i.
+
+Widow. TofS. V. ii.
+
+Widow, of Florence. AWEW. III. v.
+
+William. AYLI. V. i.
+
+Williams. H5. IV. i.
+
+Willoughby, Lord. R2. II. i.
+
+Winchester, Bishop of.
+  1H6. I. i;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Winchester (Gardiner), Bishop of. H8. V. i.
+
+Witches. Mcb. I. i.
+
+Wolsey, Cardinal. H8. I. i.
+
+Woodville. 1H6. I. iii.
+
+Worcester, Earl of. 1H4. I. iii.
+
+
+York, Archbishop of. _See_ Rotherham and Scroop.
+
+York, Duchess of. R2. V. ii.
+
+York, Duchess of. R3. II. ii.
+
+York, Duke of. H5. IV. iii.
+
+York, Duke of. _See_ Richard.
+
+York, Duke of. _See_ Richard, son of Edward IV.
+
+York, Edmund Langley, Duke of. R2. II. i.
+
+Young Marcius. Cor. V. iii.
+
+
+
+
+Appendix C
+
+INDEX OF THE SONGS IN SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS
+
+
+[Page Heading: Index of Songs]
+
+The first lines are given. In a few cases it is doubtful whether the
+verses were sung or spoken.
+
+
+A cup of wine that's brisk and fine, 2H4. V. iii.
+
+And let me the canakin clink, clink; Oth. II. iii.
+
+And will he not come again? Hml. IV. v.
+
+An old hare hoar, R&J. II. iv.
+
+
+Be merry, be merry, my wife has all; 2H4. V. iii.
+
+Blow, blow, thou winter wind. AYLI. II. vii.
+
+By gis, and by Saint Charity, Hml. IV. v.
+
+
+Come away, come away, Mcb. III. v.
+
+Come away, come away, death, TN. II. iv.
+
+Come, thou monarch of the vine, A&C. II. vii.
+
+Come unto these yellow sands, Tmp. I. ii.
+
+
+Do me right, 2H4. V. iii.
+
+Do nothing but eat, and make good cheer, 2H4. V. iii.
+
+
+Farewell, master; farewell, farewell! Tmp. II. iii.
+
+Fear no more the heat o' the sun, Cym. IV. ii.
+
+Fie on sinful fantasy! MWW. V. v.
+
+Fill the cup, and let it come; 2H4. V. iii.
+
+Flout 'em and scout 'em. Tmp. III. ii.
+
+Fools had ne'er less grace in a year; Lear I. iv.
+
+For bonny sweet Robin is all my joy. Hml. IV. v.
+
+Full fathom five thy father lies; Tmp. I. ii.
+
+
+Get you hence, for I must go. WT. IV. iv.
+
+
+Hark, hark! the lark at heaven's gate sings, Cym. II. iii.
+
+He that has and a little tiny wit,-- Lear. III. ii.
+
+Honour, riches, marriage-blessing, Tmp. IV. i.
+
+How should I your true love know. Hml. IV. v.
+
+
+I am gone, sir, TN. IV. ii.
+
+If it do come to pass, AYLI. II. vi.
+
+In youth, when I did love, did love, Hml. V. i.
+
+I shall no more to sea, to sea, Tmp. II. ii.
+
+It was a lover and his lass, AYLI. V. iii.
+
+
+Jog, jog on, the foot-path way, WT. IV. iii.
+
+
+King Stephen was and a worthy peer, Oth. II. iii.
+
+
+Lawn as white as driven snow; WT. IV. iv.
+
+Love, love, nothing but love, still more! T&C. III. i.
+
+
+No more dams I'll make for fish; Tmp, II. ii.
+
+No more, thou thunder-master, show. Cym. V. iv.
+
+
+Oh mistress mine, where are you roaming? TN. II. iii.
+
+On the ground, MND. IV. i.
+
+Orpheus with his lute made trees. (Fletcher?) H8. III. i.
+
+Over hill, over dale, MND. II. i.
+
+
+Pardon, goddess of the night, MAdo. V. iv.
+
+
+Round about the cauldron go; Mcb. IV. i.
+
+
+Sigh no more, ladies, sigh no more, MAdo. II. iii.
+
+
+Take, O, take those lips away, Meas. IV. i.
+
+Tell me where is fancy bred, Merch. III. ii.
+
+The god of love, MAdo. V. ii.
+
+The master, the swabber, the boatswain, and I, Tmp. II. ii.
+
+The ousel cock so black of hue, MND. III. ii.
+
+The poor soul sat sighing by a sycamore tree, Oth. IV. iii.
+
+They bore him barefac'd on the bier; Hml. IV. v.
+
+To-morrow is Saint Valentine's day, Hml. IV. v.
+
+To shallow rivers, to whose falls. MWW. III. i.
+
+
+Under the greenwood tree, AYLI. II. vi.
+
+
+Was this fair face the cause, quoth she, AWEW. I. iii.
+
+Wedding is great Juno's crown. AYLI. V. iv.
+
+What shall he have that killed the deer? AYLI. IV. ii.
+
+When daffodils begin to peer, WT. IV. i.
+
+When daisies pied and violets blue. LLL. V. ii.
+
+When that I was and a little tiny boy, TN. V. i.
+
+Where the bee sucks, there suck I. Tmp. V. i.
+
+While you here do snoring lie, Tmp. II. i.
+
+Who doth ambition shun, AYLI. II. vi.
+
+Who is Silvia? What is she, TGV. IV. iii.
+
+Will you buy any tape, WT. IV. iv.
+
+
+You spotted snakes with double tongue, MND. II. ii.
+
+
+
+
+Appendix D
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+[Page Heading: Bibliography]
+
+This Bibliography is arranged in divisions corresponding to the chapters
+of this volume. It aims to include those books most important for the
+student, and to furnish guidance for those interested in more
+specialized fields of study.
+
+The following are the chief general bibliographies:
+
+Shakespeare Bibliography, by William Jaggard, Stratford-on-Avon, 1911.
+This is the most important and useful attempt that has yet been made
+toward a complete bibliography of works in the English language; but it
+is far from being exhaustive or accurate.
+
+Catalogue of the Barton Collection of the Boston Public Library, part i,
+Shakespeare's Works and Shakesperiana, 1878-1888. Probably the best
+bibliography up to the date of its publication.
+
+Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakespeare-Gesellschaft. Weimar, 1865-. The
+bibliographies, with indexes, issued in this annual provide the best
+bibliography of all recent Shakespearean literature in all languages.
+They include references to periodicals and to book reviews.
+
+The Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. v, chaps. viii-xii.
+Cambridge, 1910. The best recent short selected bibliography.
+
+Other useful bibliographical aids are: the article on Shakespeare
+Encycl. Brit., Eleventh ed., 1911; the British Museum Catalogue of
+Printed Books, 1897; the Catalogue of the Lenox Library, New York, 1880;
+and the Index to the Shakespeare Memorial Library, Birmingham, 1900.
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+SHAKESPEARE'S ENGLAND AND LONDON
+
+See bibliographies in the Cambridge Modern History, vol. iii, chap. x,
+and the Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. v, chap. xiv. The
+two most accessible and important works on the subject are: William
+Harrison's _Description of Britaine and England_, in Holinshed's
+Chronicle, 1577, reprinted in the Shaks. Soc. Publ. 1877-1888, in the
+Scott Library, 1899, and in Everyman's Library; and John Stow's _Survey
+of London_, 1st ed., 1598, reprinted in Everyman's Library. J. D.
+Wilson's _Life in Shakespeare's England_ (Cambridge, 1911) is an
+excellent anthology drawn from Elizabethan publications.
+
+The following list includes only more important and more recent books.
+
+Aiken, L. Memoirs of the Court of James I. 2d ed., 1822.
+
+Ashton, J. Humour, Wit, and Society in the Seventeenth Century. 1883.
+
+Besant, Sir W. London. 1892.
+
+---- London in the Times of the Tudors. 1908.
+
+Creighton, M. The Age of Elizabeth. 1892.
+
+Creizenach, W. Geschichte des neueren Dramas, Halle, 1893. See vol. iv,
+part i, book iii, Religios-sittliche und politisch-soziale Anschauungen
+der Theaterdichter.
+
+Douce, F. Illustrations of Shakespeare and of Ancient Manners. 1839.
+
+An English Garner. New ed., 1903. See vols.: Social England Illustrated;
+Tudor Tracts, 1532-1582; Stuart Tracts, 1603-1693.
+
+Froude, J. A. History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat
+of the Armada. 1856-1870. Reprinted in Everyman's Library.
+
+Gildersleeve, V. Government Regulation of the Elizabethan Drama. New
+York, 1908.
+
+Hall, H. Society in the Elizabethan Age. 4th ed., 1901.
+
+Jusserand, J. J. Histoire litteraire du peuple Anglais. Paris, 1904.
+English trans., 1909. See especially vol. ii, book v, chap. i.
+
+Lee, S. Stratford-on-Avon from the Earliest Times to the Death of
+Shakespeare. 1907.
+
+---- An Account of Shakespeare's England, a survey of social life and
+conditions in the Elizabethan age (in preparation).
+
+Nicholls, J. The Progresses and Processions of Queen Elizabeth. New ed.,
+3 vols., 1823.
+
+---- The Progresses, Processions, and Festivities of King James I. 4
+vols., 1828.
+
+Stephenson, H. T. Shakespeare's London. New York, 1905.
+
+---- The Elizabethan People. New York, 1910.
+
+Strutt, J. Sports and Pastimes of the People of England. 1801. New ed.,
+1903.
+
+Thompson, E. N. S. The Controversy between the Puritans and the Stage.
+Yale Studies in English, vol. xx. New York, 1903.
+
+Traill, H. D. Social England. 3d ed., 1904. See vols. iii and iv.
+
+Wakeman, H. O. The Church and the Puritans, 1570-1660. New ed., 1902.
+
+Wheatley, H. B. London Past and Present. 3 vols. 1891.
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+BIOGRAPHICAL FACTS AND TRADITIONS
+
+Halliwell-Phillipps, J. O. Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare. 2 vols.
+7th ed., 1887. Later eds. are reprints. With illustrations, facsimiles,
+and a full collection of documents.
+
+Lambert, D. H. Shakespeare Documents. (Published originally as Cartæ
+Shakespeareanæ, 1904.) A chronological catalogue of extant evidence.
+
+Lee, Sidney. A Life of William Shakespeare, London and New York, 1898.
+New and revised ed., 1909.
+
+---- Shakespeare in Oral Tradition, Chap. III in Shakespeare and the
+Modern Stage, 1906.
+
+The preceding are the most important books, but the following are useful
+in various ways: William Shakespeare. K. Elze. Halle, 1876. Eng. trans,
+by L. D. Schmitz, 1888. A Chronicle History of the Life and Works of
+Shakspere. F. G. Fleay. London, 1886. Shakespeare's Marriage. J. W.
+Gray. 1905. Shakespeare's Family. C. C. Stopes. 1901. Shakespeare's
+Warwickshire Contemporaries. C. C. Stopes. 1907. New Shakespeare
+Discoveries. C. W. Wallace. Harper's Magazine, March, 1910. Catalogues
+of the books, manuscripts, works of art, antiquities, and relics at
+present exhibited in Shakespeare's birthplace, Stratford-on-Avon, 1910.
+For discussion of portraits of Shakespeare, see Portraits of
+Shakespeare, J. P. Norris, Philadelphia, 1885; M. R. Spielmann in
+Stratford-Town Shakespeare, vol. x; and in Encycl. Brit., 11th ed.,
+article on Shakespeare. On a Portrait of Shakespeare in the Shakespeare
+Memorial at Stratford-on-Avon, L. Cust, Proc. Soc. Antiq., 1895.
+
+See also Sources of Traditional Material, Appendix A, p. 225.
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+SHAKESPEARE'S READING
+
+Shakespeare's Books: A dissertation on Shakespeare's reading and the
+immediate sources of his works. By H. R. D. Anders. Berlin, 1904. The
+best book on the subject.
+
+Shakespeare's Studies, T. S. Baynes, 1893.
+
+Shakespeare's Holinshed. Ed. W. G. Boswell-Stone. 1896. New ed., 1907. A
+reprint of the passages in Holinshed's Chronicles which Shakespeare
+used.
+
+Shakespeare's Plutarch. Ed. W. W. Skeat. 1875.
+
+The English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare. J. J. Jusserand, trans. E.
+Lee. 1890.
+
+The Shakespeare Classics, gen. ed. L. Gollancz (in progress, 1907-),
+reprints the chief sources of the plays: Lodge's Rosalynde, Greene's
+Pandosto, Brooke's Romeo and Juliet, the Chronicle History of King Leir,
+The Taming of a Shrew, The Sources and Analogues of A Mid-summer-Night's
+Dream, Shakespeare's Plutarch. Most of these, with other valuable
+material, are found also in W. C. Hazlitt's revision of Collier's
+Shakespeare Library. 6 vols. 1875 (out of print).
+
+Many translations which Shakespeare may have known are included in the
+long series of the Tudor Translations, ed. W. E. Henley and Charles
+Whibley (mostly out of print).
+
+For drama see Bibliography, chap. vi; for contemporary literature see
+bibliography in Cambridge History of English Literature; or any short
+manual, as Saintsbury's Elizabethan Literature, or Seccombe and Allen's
+Age of Shakespeare. 2 vols.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CHRONOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT
+
+The first thorough attempt to determine the chronology of Shakespeare's
+plays was made in Malone's "Attempt to ascertain the order in which the
+plays attributed to Shakespeare were written," published in Steevens's
+edition of 1778. His final conclusions on the subject are to be found in
+the preliminary volumes of the 1821 Variorum. Since then, discussions of
+chronology and development have appeared in almost every edition of
+Shakespeare's Works and in many volumes discussing his life and art.
+(See Bibliography for Chaps. II and VIII.) The following are the most
+important contributions to the general question of the chronology.
+
+Hertzberg, W. G. Preface to Cymbeline in Ulrici's ed. of Schlegel and
+Tieck's trans. of Shakespeare, 1871.
+
+---- Metrisches, grammatisches, chronologisches zu Shakespeares Dramen.
+Jahrbuch, xiii, 1878.
+
+Fleay, F. G. Shakspere Manual, 1878.
+
+New Shakspere Society. Publications for 1874 contain Fleay's tests as
+originally proposed with discussions by Furnivall, Ingram, et al.
+Publications for 1877-9 contain F. S. Pulling's essay on The
+Speech-ending test, p. 457.
+
+Ingram, J. K. On the weak endings of Shakspere with some account of the
+verse-tests in general. N. S. S. Publ. 1874.
+
+König, G. Der Vers in Shaksperes Dramen. Quellen und Forschungen vol.
+61, 1888. The fullest presentation of numerical results for various
+verse tests.
+
+Furnivall, F. J. Preface to the Leopold Shakespeare, 1876.
+
+Hales, J. W. The Succession of Shakespeare's plays. 1874.
+
+Stokes, H. P. Attempt to determine the chronological order of
+Shakespeare's plays, 1878.
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE ELIZABETHAN DRAMA
+
+Full bibliographies of both plays and critical works are to be found in
+Schelling's Elizabethan Drama and in the Cambridge History of English
+Literature, vols. v and vi.
+
+
+1. EDITIONS OF PLAYS
+
+Convenient collections, often with valuable introductions and notes,
+are: Dodsley's Old English Plays, ed. W. C. Hazlitt, 15 vols.,
+1874-1876; Manly's Pre-Shaksperean Drama, 2 vols., Boston; Neilson's
+Chief Elizabethan Dramatists, Boston, 1911 (30 plays in one volume); the
+Mermaid Series of the Old Dramatists (4 or 5 plays by one author in each
+vol.); the Belles Lettres Edition (with excellent bibliographies),
+Boston; Masterpieces of the English Drama, New York; Temple Dramatists.
+Valuable reprints of old plays and documents are found in the following
+series now in progress: The Tudor Facsimile Texts, ed. J. S. Farmer, 43
+vols., 1907; Materialien zur Kunde des älteren englischen Dramas, ed. W.
+Bang, Louvain, 1902; Publications of the Malone Society, 1906.
+
+Collected editions of the chief dramatists include those of Greene,
+Peele, Webster, Ford, Beaumont and Fletcher, and Shirley, ed. by
+Alexander Dyce; of Middleton, Marston, Marlowe, and Webster, by A. H.
+Bullen, and the more recent editions from the Clarendon Press,--Greene,
+ed. J. Churton Collins; Kyd, by F. S. Boas; Lyly, by W. Bond; Nash, by
+McKerrow; Marlowe, by Tucker Brooke. Massinger and Jonson exist only in
+the early nineteenth-century editions of Gifford. There are also recent
+editions of Beaumont and Fletcher by A. R. Waller, Cambridge, and by A.
+H. Bullen _et al._ (in progress), and an edition of Chapman by T.
+Parrott.
+
+
+2. CRITICAL AND HISTORICAL
+
+Die Geschichte des neueren Dramas. W. Creizenach (in progress). Halle,
+1893-. This is the standard history of the modern drama, vol. iv dealing
+in a masterly fashion with the Shakespearean period. There is no English
+translation.
+
+History of English Dramatic Literature to the Death of Queen Anne. A. W.
+Ward. 2d ed. 3 vols. 1899.
+
+Elizabethan Drama. F. E. Schelling. 2 vols. Boston, 1902. This contains
+valuable bibliographies and a finding list for the plays.
+
+The Mediæval Stage. E. K. Chambers. 2 vols. Oxford, 1903. Authoritative
+for the pre-Elizabethan drama, with valuable bibliography and
+appendices.
+
+A Bibliographical Chronicle of the English Drama. F. G. Fleay.
+1559-1642. A work of great value to scholars, but not of much service to
+the general reader.
+
+Other works less comprehensive in scope, but dealing with special
+aspects or divisions of the drama, are: Tragedy, A. H. Thorndike,
+Boston, 1908; Shakespeare and his Predecessors, F. S. Boas, 1896; Tudor
+Drama, C. F. Tucker Brooke, Boston, 1912.
+
+Special treatises which have also been drawn upon for this chapter are:
+F. E. Schelling's English Chronicle Play, New York, 1902; A. H.
+Thorndike's Influence of Beaumont and Fletcher on Shakspere, Lemcke and
+Buechner, N. Y., 1901; and Hamlet and the Revenge Plays, Publ. Mod.
+Lang. Assn., 1902; E. E. Stoll's John Webster, 1905; F. H. Ristine's
+English Tragi-Comedy, 1910; Reyher's Les Masques Anglais, Paris, 1909;
+W. W. Greg's Pastoral Poetry and Pastoral Drama, 1906.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE ELIZABETHAN THEATER
+
+None of the books here listed gives a comprehensive account of the
+theater. Greg's admirable edition of Henslowe's Diary, Fleay's
+researches, and Murray's supplements to them are all valuable for
+students. The account of the stage and the method of performance given
+in this chapter are based in part on Albright. During the last ten years
+there has been much controversy on this subject; and those interested
+should consult the bibliographies in the Shakespeare Jahrbuch under
+Albright, Brodmeier, Archer, Chambers, Corbin, Lawrence, Reynolds,
+Wegener. For contemporary documents, see the Bibliography to chap, x,
+vol. vi, of the Cambridge History of English Literature.
+
+Albright, V. E. The Shakespearian Stage. New York, 1909.
+
+Archer, W. The Elizabethan Stage. Quarterly Review, April, 1908.
+
+Brodmeier, C. Die Shakespeare-Bühne nach der alten Bühnenanweisungen.
+Weimar, 1904.
+
+Chambers, E. K. The Stage of the Globe. Stratford Ed. Shakespeare's
+Works, vol. x.
+
+Collier, J. P. Memoirs of the Principal Actors in the Plays of
+Shakespeare. Shaks. Soc., 1846.
+
+Feuillerat, A. Documents relating to the Office of the Revels in the
+time of Queen Elizabeth. Louvain, 1908.
+
+Fleay, F. G. A Chronicle History of the London Stage. 1890.
+
+---- A Biographical Chronicle of the English Drama, 1559-1642. 2 vols.,
+1891.
+
+Gildersleeve, V. Government Regulation of the Elizabethan Theater. New
+York, 1908.
+
+Greg, W. W., ed. Henslowe's Diary, 2 parts. London, 1907-1908.
+
+---- Henslowe Papers. 1907.
+
+Lawrence, W. J. The Elizabethan Playhouse and other studies. Stratford.
+1912.
+
+Mantzius, R. A History of Theatrical Art in Ancient and Modern Times.
+1904. Cf. vol. iii.
+
+Murray, J. T. English Dramatic Companies, 1558-1642. 1910.
+
+Ordish, T. F. Early London Theaters. 1894.
+
+Rendle, W. Old Southwark and its People. 1878.
+
+Reynolds, G. F. Some Principles of Elizabethan Staging. Reprinted from
+Modern Philology. Chicago, 1905.
+
+---- What we know of the Elizabethan Stage, Modern Philology, July,
+1911. With bibliography of recent discussions.
+
+Wallace, C. W. The Children of the Chapel at Blackfriars, 1597-1603.
+Univ. of Nebraska, 1908.
+
+---- Evolution of the English drama up to Shakespeare: with a history of
+the first Blackfriars theatre. Stechert. 1912.
+
+These two volumes contain some newly discovered material, but their
+discussions of theatrical history are not valuable.
+
+Wegener, R. Die Bühneneinrichtung des Shakespeareschen Theaters nach der
+zeitgenössischen Dramen. Halle, 1907.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+HISTORY OF THE TEXT
+
+
+1. COMPLETE EDITIONS
+
+
+_In one volume._
+
+The Globe Edition, ed. W. G. Clark and W. Aldis Wright 1864.
+
+The 'Oxford' Edition, ed. W. J. Craig. Oxford, 1904.
+
+The 'Cambridge Poets' Edition, ed. with introductions to each play, ed.
+W. A. Neilson. Boston, 1906 (the text used in the Tudor Shakespeare).
+
+
+_Annotated Library Editions._
+
+The Cambridge Shakespeare, ed. W. Aldis Wright. 9 vols. 1863-1866. 2d
+ed., 1891-1893. The text known as the Cambridge text is very near to
+that of the Globe ed., and these have been generally used in recent
+editions.
+
+A new Variorum Edition, ed. H. Howard Furness and H. H. Furness, Jr. (in
+progress). Philadelphia, 1871. This ed. prints (latterly) the First
+Folio text with exhaustive variants and annotations. The appendices
+supply much illustrative matter. The following plays have appeared:
+Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth (2d ed.), Hamlet (2 vols.), Lear, Othello,
+Merchant of Venice, As You Like It, The Tempest, A Midsummer-Night's
+Dream, A Winter's Tale, Much Ado About Nothing, Twelfth Night, Love's
+Labour's Lost, Antony and Cleopatra, Richard III, Julius Cæsar.
+
+The Arden Shakespeare, general ed. W. J. Craig, in progress, 1899. Publ.
+in the U. S. without special title by Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis.
+
+The Eversley Edition, ed. by C. H. Herford. 10 vols., 1901-1907.
+
+Among other recent editions are the Rolfe ed., 40 vols., 1871, revised
+1896; Temple, ed. I. Gollancz, 40 vols., 1894, 1895; First Folio, ed. C.
+Porter and H. Clarke (following and defending the text of the First
+Folio). New York, 1903; Caxton, general ed. S. Lee, 1910.
+
+
+_Historical Editions._
+
+The most valuable is the Third Variorum, Boswell and Malone, 21 vols.,
+1821. The other principal editions are discussed in this volume, and
+include: Rowe, 1709, 1714; Pope, 1723-1725; Theobald, 1733; Hanmer,
+1744; Warburton, 1747; Johnson, 1765; Steevens (20 plays), 1766; Capell,
+1768; Steevens (and Johnson), 1773; Malone, 1790; Reed (Steevens and
+Johnson), 1st Variorum, 1803; 2d Variorum, 1813; Knight, 1838-1842,
+second ed., 1842-1844; Hudson, 1851-1856; Delius, 1854-1861; Dyce, 1857,
+second ed., 1864-1867; White, 1857-1860, second ed., 1859-1865.
+
+
+2. FACSIMILE REPRINTS
+
+For a discussion of conditions of publication of early editions, see A.
+W. Pollard's Shakespeare's Folios and Quartos. 1909.
+
+The First Folio, With introd. by Sidney Lee. Oxford, 1902.
+
+The First, Second, Third, and Fourth Folios. Methuen, 1904-1910.
+
+The First Folio, reprint, L. Booth, 1869.
+
+The First Folio, in reduced facsimile, J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, 1876.
+Very small type.
+
+Quarto Facsimiles. E. W. Ashbee. 48 vols. 1862-1871.
+
+Quarto Facsimiles reproduced by photographic process, J. W. Griggs,
+under the superintendence of F. J. Furnivall. 43 vols. 1883-1889.
+
+Shakespeare's Poems and Pericles, with introduction by Sidney Lee. 5
+vols. Oxford, 1905.
+
+
+3. GLOSSARIES, GRAMMARS, ETC.
+
+The standard concordance is Bartlett's _New and Complete Concordance_,
+1894. The standard dictionary and one of the great monuments of
+Shakespeare scholarship is Alexander Schmidt's _Shakespeare-Lexikon_. 2
+vols. Berlin, 1894, 1895. 3d ed., 1902. This contains valuable
+appendices on syntax. The most recent brief glossary is C. T. Onion's
+_Shakespeare Glossary_. Oxford, 1911. It makes partial use of the
+valuable material in the New English Dictionary. The best grammar in
+English, though now somewhat out of date, is F. A. Abbott's
+_Shakespearian Grammar_, 1869, often reprinted.
+
+The following are also of value:
+
+Cunliffe, R. J. A New Shakespearean Dictionary. 1910.
+
+Dyce, A. A Glossary to the Works of Shakespeare. 1867. Revised by H.
+Littledale, 1902.
+
+Ellis, A. J. On Early English Pronunciation, with especial reference to
+Shakspere and Chaucer. 5 parts. E. E. T. S., 1869-1889.
+
+Franz, W. Shakespeare-Grammatik. 2 parts. Halle, 1898-1900. 2d ed.,
+Heidelberg, 1905. No English translation.
+
+Vietor, W. A Shakespeare Phonology, Marburg and London, 1906.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+QUESTIONS OF AUTHENTICITY
+
+
+1. THE DOUBTFUL PLAYS
+
+The Shakespeare Apocrypha. Ed. C. F. T. Brooke. Oxford, 1908. This
+contains texts of fourteen of the plays discussed in this chapter.
+
+Pseudo-Shakespearean Plays. Ed. K. Warnke and L. Proescholdt. 5 vols.
+Halle, 1883, 1888. Contains only 5 plays.
+
+The Two Noble Kinsmen. Ed. H. Littledale. New Shaks. Soc. Publ., 1876.
+
+Doubtful Plays of William Shakespeare. Ed. M. Moltke. Leipsig, 1869.
+Contains 6 plays.
+
+A good bibliography for the critical matter on these plays is to be
+found in the Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. v, pp.
+442-444. As to Cardenio, connected with Double Falsehood, see Bradford,
+G., Jr., Mod. Lang. Notes, February, 1910.
+
+
+2. FORGERIES
+
+Ingleby, C. M. The Shakespeare Fabrications. 1859. A complete review of
+the Collier forgeries, with bibliography.
+
+Ireland, W. H. Confessions containing the particulars of his fabrication
+of the Shakespeare manuscripts. 1808.
+
+Malone, E. Inquiry into the Authenticity (of the Ireland Ms.). 1796.
+
+Law, E. Some Supposed Shakespeare Forgeries. 1911.
+
+Wheatley, H. B. Notes on the life of John Payne Collier. 1884. Gives a
+list and account of the spurious documents.
+
+
+3. THE BACON CONTROVERSY
+
+Allen, C. Notes on the Bacon-Shakespeare question. Boston, 1900. An
+account of Shakespeare's legal phrases.
+
+Bacon, Delia. The Philosophy of the Plays of Shakespeare Unfolded. 1857.
+
+Bacon, Francis. Life and Letters. Ed. J. Spedding. 7 vols. 1861-1872.
+
+Beeching, H. C. William Shakespeare: Player, Play maker and Poet. A
+reply to Mr. George Greenwood. 1908.
+
+Bompas, G. C. The Problem of Shakespeare's Plays. 1902.
+
+Booth, W. S. Some Acrostic Signatures of Francis Bacon. Boston, 1909.
+
+Donnelly, I. The Great Cryptogram. 2 vols. Chicago, 1887.
+
+Fiske, John. Forty Years of Bacon-Shakespeare Folly. Atlantic Monthly,
+1897; reprinted in Century of Science, 1899.
+
+Gallup, E. W. The Bi-literal Cypher of Francis Bacon.
+
+Greenwood, G. G. The Shakespeare Problem restated. Lane, 1908.
+
+---- In re Shakespeare Beeching _v._ Greenwood. Lane, 1909.
+
+Lang, A. Shakespeare, Bacon, and the Great Unknown. 1912.
+
+Pott, Mrs. H. Did Francis Bacon write Shakespeare? Chicago, 1891.
+
+Robertson, J. M. The Baconian heresy, 1913.
+
+Wyman, W. H. Bibliography of the Shakespeare-Baconian controversy.
+Cincinnati, 1884. Continued in Shakespeariana. Philadelphia.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+SHAKESPEARE SINCE 1616
+
+
+1. THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+The Shakespeare Allusion Books. Ed. J. Munro. 2 vols. This reprints
+references to Shakespeare before 1700.
+
+Eighteenth Century Essays on Shakespeare. Ed. D. Nichol Smith. Glasgow.
+Contains Rowe's, Pope's, Theobald's, Johnson's prefaces, Farmer's essay
+on Shakespeare's learning, Morgann's essay on Falstaff, etc.
+
+Shakespearian Wars. T. R. Lounsbury. i. Shakespeare as a Dramatic
+Artist, ii. Shakespeare and Voltaire. 2 vols. Yale Univ., 1901.
+
+First Editors of Shakespeare or The Text of Shakespeare (Pope and
+Theobald). T. R. Lounsbury. 1906.
+
+Shakespeare en France sous l'ancien régime. J. J. Jusserand. Paris.
+1898. Eng. trans. London, 1899.
+
+Considerable matter in the following volumes from the Clarendon Press
+bears on the early criticism of Shakespeare: Elizabethan Critical
+Essays, ed. Gregory Smith, 2 vols.; Seventeenth Century Critical Essays,
+ed. J. E. Spingarn, 3 vols.; Dryden's Essays, ed. W. P. Ker, 2 vols.
+
+
+2. THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES
+
+Baker, G. P. The Development of Shakespeare as a Dramatist. Macmillan,
+1907.
+
+Boas, F. S. Shakespeare and his Predecessors. 1895.
+
+Bradley, A. C. Shakespearean Tragedy. Macmillan, 1904.
+
+---- Oxford Lectures on Poetry. Macmillan, 1909.
+
+Brandes, G. William Shakespeare. Copenhagen, 1896. Eng. trans. 2 vols.,
+1898.
+
+Coleridge, S. T. Notes and Lectures on Shakespeare, etc. 2 vols. 1849.
+Reprinted in Everyman's Library, the New Universal Library, and Bohn's
+Library.
+
+Collins, J. C. Studies in Shakespeare. 1904.
+
+Dowden, E. Shakspeare: His Mind and Art. 1874.
+
+---- A Shakspere Primer. 1877.
+
+---- Introduction to Shakespeare. 1893.
+
+Elze, K. William Shakespeare. Halle, 1876. Eng. trans., 1888.
+
+Goethe. Wilhelm Meister, book IV, chaps. 13-16, contains an analysis of
+Hamlet.
+
+---- Wahrheit und Dichtung, and Eckermann's Reports of Goethe's
+conversations contain references. An essay "Shakespeare und kein Ende"
+appears in his collected works.
+
+Hazlitt, W. Characters of Shakespeare's plays, 1817. Reprinted in
+Everyman's Library, New Universal Library, Bohn's Library.
+
+Heine, Heinrich. Shakespeare's Maidens and Women, in Works. Eng. trans.
+Heinemann, 1851.
+
+Jameson, Mrs. Shakespeare's Heroines. Temple Classics.
+
+Kreyssig, F. S. T. Vorlesungen über Shakespeare. 2 vols. 3d ed. Berlin,
+1876.
+
+Lamb, Charles. On Some of the Old Actors (Essays of Elia). Reprinted in
+Everyman's Library.
+
+---- On the Tragedies of Shakespeare (Misc. essays). Reprinted in Temple
+Classics.
+
+Lee, Sidney. Shakespeare and the Modern Stage. 1906.
+
+Lessing, G. E. Laokoön, and Dramatic Notes. Eng. trans., Bohn's
+Library.
+
+MacCallum, M. W. Shakespeare's Roman Plays and their Background. 1910.
+
+Martin, Lady (Helen Faucit). On Some of Shakespeare's Female Characters.
+1885.
+
+Matthews, Brander. Shakespeare as a Playwright. In preparation.
+
+Moulton, R. G. Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist. Oxford, 1885.
+
+---- The Moral System of Shakespeare. 1903.
+
+Raleigh, W. Shakespeare (English Men of Letters). 1907.
+
+Schlegel, A. W. von. Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature. Reprinted
+in Bohn's Library.
+
+Swinburne, A. C. A Study of Shakespeare. 1880.
+
+Thorndike, A. H. The Influence of Beaumont and Fletcher on Shakespeare.
+Lemcke and Buechner, N. Y., 1901.
+
+Wendell, B. William Shakspere. 1894.
+
+White, R. G. Studies in Shakespeare. 9th ed. 1896.
+
+---- Shakespeare's Scholar. 1854.
+
+Important critical and interpretative aids will also be found in the
+bibliographies for earlier chapters, as in the complete editions of
+Shakespeare's works, in histories of literature and the drama, or in
+special studies, as Anders's Shakespeare's Books, and Madden's Diary of
+Master William Silence.
+
+For a handy bibliography of studies of botany, folk-lore, law, medicine,
+the supernatural in Shakespeare, etc., see the Cambridge History of
+English Literature, vol. v, pp. 450, 451, to which may be added Freytag,
+G., Technique of the Drama, Eng. trans. 1891; Matthew, B., A Study of
+the Drama, 1910; Arnold, M. E., Soliloquies of Shakespeare, New York,
+1911; Fansler, H. E., Evolution of Technic in Elizabethan Tragedy, 1914;
+Archer, W., Play Making, 1912.
+
+In the New Variorum Furness gives a summary of the interpretation and
+criticism for each play; but he is often quite neglectful of recent
+tendencies in criticism.
+
+
+3. STAGE HISTORY
+
+The standard work for the English stage is _Some Account of the English
+Stage, from the Restoration in 1660 to 1830_, by J. Genest, 10 vols.,
+Bath, 1832. There is no authoritative history of the stage since 1832.
+Information in regard to the Shakespearean plays may be had in the lives
+of the actors, as Colley Cibber's Apology; Davies's Memoirs of Garrick,
+1790; Murphy's Life of Garrick, 1801; Boaden's Memoirs of Mrs. Siddons,
+1827, and Memoirs of Kemble, 1825; Cumberland's Memoir, 1806; Boaden's
+Memoirs of Mrs. Inchbald; Private Correspondence of David Garrick,
+1831-1832; Cooke's Memoirs of Charles Macklin, 1808; Macready's
+Reminiscences, 1878; Archer's Life of Macready, 1890; Molloy's Life of
+Edmund Kean, 1888; Winter's Life and Art of Edwin Booth, 1893;
+Brereton's Life of Sir Henry Irving, London, 1908.
+
+Baker, H. B. The London Stage, 1576-1903. 1904.
+
+Brown, J. S. A History of the New York Stage, 1732-1901. 3 vols. New
+York, 1903.
+
+Doran, J. Their Majesties' Servants. 1888. Ed. R. W. Lowe.
+
+Dunlap, W. A History of the American Theater. 1832.
+
+Fitzgerald, P. A New History of the English Stage. 2 vols. London, 1882.
+
+Hazlitt, W. A View of the English Stage. 1818.
+
+Home, R. H. New Spirit of the Age. 1884.
+
+Lowe, R. W. Thomas Betterton, New York, 1891.
+
+Lowe, R. W. Bibliographical Account of English Dramatic Literature.
+1888.
+
+Phelps, W. M., and Forbes Robertson, J. Life and Works of Samuel Phelps.
+London, 1886.
+
+Seilhamer, G. O. A History of the American Theater, 3 vols.
+Philadelphia, 1891.
+
+
+4. SHAKESPEARE ON THE CONTINENT
+
+A good selected bibliography is to be found in the Cambridge History of
+English Literature, vol. v, pp. 456-472, and a full bibliography
+annually in the Shakespeare Jahrbuch. Only a few of the most important
+titles are given here, including some already noted.
+
+Böhtling, A. R. A. Goethe und Shakespeare. Leipzig, 1909.
+
+Burckhardt, C. A. H. Das Repertoire des Weimarischen Theaters unter
+Goethes Leitung. Hamburg, 1901.
+
+Chateaubriand, F. R. de. Shakespeare. 1801.
+
+Cohn, A. Shakespeare in Germany in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth
+Centuries. Berlin, 1865.
+
+Creizenach, W. Die Schauspiele der englischen Komödianten. Stuttgart,
+1889.
+
+Delius, N. Sämmtliche Werke, Kritische Ausgabe. 1854-1861. 5th ed.,
+1882.
+
+Elze, K. William Shakespeare. Halle, 1876.
+
+Genée, R. Geschichte der Shakespeareschen Dramen in Deutschland.
+Leipzig, 1870.
+
+Guizot, F. De Shakespeare et de la Poésie dramatique. Paris, 1822.
+
+Heine, H. Shakespeares Mädchen und Frauen, in sämmtliche Werke. vol. v,
+1839. Eng. trans., 1895.
+
+Hugo, F. V. Œuvres complètes de Shakespeare, traduites. 18 vols. Paris,
+1856-1867.
+
+Hugo, Victor. Cromwell, Preface. Paris, 1827.
+
+---- William Shakespeare. Paris, 1864.
+
+Jusserand, J. J. Shakespeare en France sous l'ancien régime. Paris,
+1898. Eng. trans. London, 1899.
+
+Koeppel, E. Studien über Shakespeare's Wirkung auf zeitgenössische
+Dramatiker. Louvain, 1905.
+
+Kreyssig, F. Vorlesungen über Shakespeare und seine Werke. 1858. 3d ed.,
+1877.
+
+Lee, Sidney. Shakespeare in France. In Shakespeare and the Modern Stage.
+
+Lessing, G. E. Hamburgische Dramaturgie. Nos. 12, 15, 73. 1767, 1768.
+
+Lounsbury, T. R. Shakespeare and Voltaire. 1902.
+
+Mézières, A. Shakespeare, ses œuvres et ses critiques. Paris, 1860.
+
+Renan, E. Caliban, Suite de la Tempête. Paris, 1878.
+
+Schlegel, A. W. Ueber dramatische Kunst und Literatur. Heidelberg,
+1809-1811.
+
+---- Shakespeare's Dramatische Werke, übersetzt. 1797-1810. Neue
+Ausgabe, ergänzt und erläutert von L. Tieck. 9 vols. 1825, 1880-1883.
+Revised by Ulrici, 1867-1871, by Grandl, 1897-1899, by H. Conrad, 1905.
+
+Stendhal (Henri Bergh) Racine et Shakespeare. Paris, 1823.
+
+Taine, H. Histoire de la litterature anglaise. Paris, 1844. Eng. trans.,
+rev. ed., 1873.
+
+Ten Brink, B. Shakespeare. Strassburg, 1893.
+
+Tolstoi, L. N. Shakespeare. 1906.
+
+Ward, A. W. History of English Dramatic Literature. vol. i, pp. 534
+ff.
+
+
+
+
+Index
+
+
+[Page Heading: Index]
+
+_Adversaria_, 45.
+
+_Æsop's Fables_, 52.
+
+_Æthiopica_ of Heliodorus, 56.
+
+Albright, V. E., 116, 122.
+
+_Alchemist_, 33, 95, 105.
+
+Alden, R. M., 48, 88.
+
+Alleyn, Edward, 117, 119, 120.
+
+_All for Love_, 169.
+
+_All's Well that Ends Well_, 52, 57, 73, 74, 82, 174.
+
+_Amores_, 53.
+
+_Amphitruo_, 54.
+
+_Andria_, 96.
+
+_Antonio's Revenge_, 106.
+
+_Antony and Cleopatra_, 75, 82, 105, 142, 169, 196, 197.
+
+_Apollonius of Tyre_, 60.
+
+_Apologie for Actors_, 156.
+
+_Apolonius and Silla_, 58.
+
+_Appius and Virginia_, 98.
+
+_Arcadia_, 61.
+
+Archbishop of Canterbury, 136.
+
+_Arden of Feversham_, 109, 161, 162.
+
+Ariosto, 57, 58, 95.
+
+Aristophanes, 91, 104.
+
+_Arraignment of Paris_, 161.
+
+Aspley, William, 143.
+
+_As You Like It_, 46, 52, 57, 62, 68, 73, 80, 113, 127, 136, 174.
+
+Aubrey, John, 38, 39, 43, 44.
+
+Autographs, facsimiles of, 36.
+
+
+Bacon, Delia, 163.
+
+Bacon, Francis, 2, 13, 16, 61, 163-166, 191, 192.
+
+Bacon, Matthew, 26.
+
+"Baconians," 163-166.
+
+Bandello, 57, 58.
+
+Bankside, 7, 117, 120.
+
+Barnay, L., 184.
+
+Barnes, Barnabe, 61.
+
+_Barons' Wars_, 62.
+
+Barrie, J. M., 177.
+
+_Bartholomew Fair_, 105.
+
+_Batman upon Bartholome_, 64.
+
+Beaumont and Fletcher, 64, 91, 109, 110, 112, 113, 168.
+
+Beaumont, Francis, 31, 110.
+  _See_ Beaumont and Fletcher.
+
+Belleforest, 57.
+
+Beeston, Christopher, 29, 39.
+
+Betterton, Thomas, 43, 130, 169, 174.
+
+_Bevis of Hampton_, 59.
+
+Bible, the, 1, 64.
+
+Bidford, 40, 41.
+
+_Bi-Literal Cypher of Francis Bacon_, 164.
+
+_Biron_, 108.
+
+_Birth of Merlin_, 161.
+
+Blackfriars,
+  property in, 26;
+  theater, 12, 26, 32, 118, 120, 159.
+
+Blount, Edward, 143.
+
+Boccaccio, 57, 96.
+
+Booth, Barton, 174.
+
+Booth, Edwin, 176, 177.
+
+Booth, Junius Brutus, 176.
+
+Boswell, J., 152.
+
+Bowdler, T., 153.
+
+Bradley, A. C., 5, 181.
+
+_Broken Heart_, 112.
+
+Brome, R., 112.
+
+Brooke, Arthur, 60.
+
+Buckinghamshire, Duke of, 44.
+
+Burbage, Cuthbert, 32, 117, 118, 119.
+
+Burbage, James, 117.
+
+Burbage, Richard, 24, 29, 32, 34, 44, 117, 118, 119, 124, 130.
+
+_Bussy d'Ambois_, 108.
+
+Byron, Lord, 191.
+
+
+Cæsar, Julius 55, 124.
+
+_Cambridge Shakespeare_, 153, 154, 155.
+
+_Cambyses_, 63, 92, 98.
+
+Capell, Edward, 151, 161.
+
+_Cardenio_, 160.
+
+Cartwright, W., 112.
+
+_Catiline_, 33, 108.
+
+Caxton, 60.
+
+_Chambers' Journal_, 163.
+
+Chandos portrait, 38.
+
+_Changeling_, 111.
+
+Chapman, George, 31, 56, 91, 103, 105, 108.
+
+Chaucer, 31, 53, 60.
+
+Chettle, Henry, 22, 23, 103, 107.
+
+Cibber, Colley, 130, 169, 174.
+
+Cibber, Mrs., 174.
+
+Cicero, 52.
+
+Cinthio, Giraldi, 57, 58.
+
+_City Madam_, 112.
+
+Clark, W. G., 154.
+
+Clive, Mrs., 174.
+
+Cockpit theater, 39, 118.
+
+Coleridge, S. T., 159, 175, 179, 180, 182.
+
+_Colin Clout_, 61.
+
+Collier, J. P., 153, 163.
+
+Collins, Francis, 35.
+
+Combe, John, 25, 26, 40.
+
+Combe, William, 25.
+
+_Comedy of Errors_, 54, 68, 74, 78, 95.
+
+Condell Henry, 29, 32, 35, 142, 157.
+
+_Confessio Amantis_, 60.
+
+Congreve, William, 111.
+
+Constable, Henry, 61.
+
+_Contention of York and Lancaster_, 161.
+
+_Coriolanus_, 52, 82, 169.
+
+Corneille, 182.
+
+_Cornelia_, 99.
+
+Covent Garden theater, 118.
+
+Craig, W. J., 154.
+
+Curtain theater, 117, 122.
+
+Cushman, Charlotte, 176.
+
+_Cymbeline_, 57, 63, 68, 73, 110, 169, 174.
+
+
+Daniel, Samuel, 61, 62, 113.
+
+D'Avenant, Sir William, 43, 44, 45, 112, 168.
+
+Davies, Rev. R., 41.
+
+_Decameron_, 57.
+
+Dekker, T., 31, 103, 104, 105, 109, 111.
+
+_De la Litterature_, 185.
+
+Delius, N., 153, 154, 172.
+
+Dennis, John, 177.
+
+_De proprietatibus rerum_, 64.
+
+De Quincey, T., 159.
+
+Derby's men, 120.
+
+Devrients, the, 184.
+
+De Witt drawing of Swan theater, 120, 121.
+
+_Diana_ of Montemayor, 58.
+
+Diderot, D., 184.
+
+_Discovery of Guiana_, 64.
+
+_Distichs of Cato_, 52.
+
+Donnelly, I., 164.
+
+_Double Falsehood_, 160, 162.
+
+Dowdall, John, 42.
+
+Dowden, E., 84, 181.
+
+Downes, John, 43.
+
+_Downfall and Death of Huntington_, 103.
+
+Drake, Sir F., 96.
+
+Drayton, Michael, 40, 61.
+
+Droeshout, Martin, 37, 38 n.
+
+Drummond, W., 46.
+
+Drury Lane theater, 118, 175.
+
+Dryden, John, 111, 168, 169, 170, 182, 190, 192.
+
+Ducis, J. F., 185.
+
+_Dunciad_, 149.
+
+Dyce, A., 153, 155, 161, 172.
+
+Dyke, John, 29.
+
+
+Earl of Leicester's men, 119, 120.
+
+Earl of Worcester's men, 119.
+
+Eden's _History of Travayle_, 64.
+
+_Edward III_, 161, 162.
+
+Edwards, Richard, 60.
+
+Edwards, T., 150.
+
+Elizabeth, Queen, 1, 2, 9, 10, 11, 32, 79, 119, 133.
+
+Ellesmere, Lord, 163.
+
+Ely Palace portrait, 37, 38 n.
+
+_English Dramatic Poets_, 38.
+
+_English Traveller_, quoted, 133.
+
+_Epicene_, 95.
+
+_Essay of Dramatic Poesie_, 168.
+
+Essex, Earl of, 68, 124.
+
+_Euphues_, 62.
+
+Euripides, 90, 91.
+
+Evans, Sir Hugh, 51.
+
+_Everyman in His Humour_, 39, 103.
+
+
+Fables in Shakespeare, 52.
+
+Fabyan's _Chronicles_, 63.
+
+_Faerie Queen_, 61.
+
+_Fair Em_, 161.
+
+_Fair Quarrel_, 111.
+
+_Faithful Shepherdess_, 113.
+
+_Fasti_, 53.
+
+Faucit, Helen, 176.
+
+Field, Richard, 23.
+
+First Folio, 167;
+  described, 141-143;
+  facsimile of title-page, 143;
+  introductory matter in, _see_ APPENDIX A.
+
+Fisher Quarto, 141 n.
+
+Fleay, F. G., 72 n, 172.
+
+Fletcher, John, 9, 91, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 168, 177, 191;
+  collaboration on _Two Noble Kinsman_, 159, 160.
+  _See_ Beaumont and Fletcher.
+
+Fletcher, Lawrence, 32.
+
+Florio, John, 57.
+  _See_ Montaigne.
+
+Flower, Mrs. Charles, 37.
+
+Folios, Second, Third, Fourth, 145, 157.
+
+Ford, John, 91, 109, 112, 113.
+
+Forman, Dr. Simon, 68.
+
+Forrest, Edwin, 176.
+
+Fortune theater, 11, 117, 119, 121, 122;
+  diagram of, 123.
+
+Foxe, John, _Book of Martyrs_, 63.
+
+_Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay_, 97.
+
+Fuller, Thomas, 38.
+
+Fulman, Rev. W., 41.
+
+Furness, H. H., 144, 154, 159.
+
+
+Galileo, 191.
+
+Gallup, Mrs., 164.
+
+_Gammer Gurton's Needle_, 94.
+
+Garrick Club bust, 38.
+
+Garrick, David, 130, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177.
+
+Gascoigne, George, 5, 58, 63.
+
+Gervinus, 180.
+
+_Gesta Romanorum_, 57.
+
+Getley, Walter, 25.
+
+Gildon, C., 146.
+
+Goethe, 179, 180, 183, 190.
+
+_Globe Shakespeare_, 154.
+
+Globe theater, 11, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 124, 177.
+
+Glover, J., 154.
+
+Golding, Arthur, 53.
+
+_Gorboduc_, 98.
+
+Gottsched, J. C., 182.
+
+Gower, 31.
+
+Grafton's _Chronicles_, 63.
+
+_Great Cryptogram_, 164.
+
+Greene, Robert, 62, 63, 90, 96, 97, 101, 102, 158;
+  attack on S., 20-23.
+
+_Greene's Funeralls_, 21, 22.
+
+Greene's _Groatsworth of Wit_, 20-22.
+
+Greg, W. W., 140 n.
+
+Gresham, Sir Thomas, 10.
+
+Grey, Z., 150.
+
+Guarini, G. B., 113.
+
+Guizot, F., 185.
+
+_Guy of Warwick_, 59.
+
+
+Hakluyt, Richard, 64.
+
+Hall, John, 25, 34.
+
+Hall, Susanna, 25, 34.
+
+Hall, William, 35, 42.
+
+Halliwell-Phillipps, J. O., 153, 181.
+
+Hall's _Union of Lancaster and York_, 63, 101.
+
+_Hamburgische Dramaturgie_, 182.
+
+_Hamlet_, 43, 45, 47, 49, 54, 63, 73, 75, 81, 87, 100, 106, 107, 119,
+    135, 136, 137, 145, 169, 184, 185.
+
+_Hamlet_, the lost, 100, 106, 107.
+
+Hanmer, Sir T., 149, 150.
+
+Harness, W., 153.
+
+Harsnett's _Popish Impostures_, 62.
+
+Hart, J. C., 163.
+
+Hazlitt, William, 175, 179, 180.
+
+Heath, B., 150.
+
+_Hecatommithi_, 58.
+
+Heliodorus, 56.
+
+Heminge, John, 29, 32, 35, 142, 157.
+
+Henderson, J., 175.
+
+_1 Henry IV_, 30, 62, 73, 137.
+
+_2 Henry IV_, 30, 62, 69.
+
+_Henry V_, 52, 56, 63, 68, 79, 135, 136, 149.
+
+_1 Henry VI_, 63, 77, 102, 120, 141, 157.
+
+_2 Henry VI_, 52, 54, 63, 77, 99, 102, 141, 157, 161.
+
+_3 Henry VI_, 21, 63, 77, 99, 102, 157, 161, 169.
+
+_Henry VIII_, 34, 63, 74, 124, 157, 160, 162.
+
+Henry VIII, 10, 11, 43, 79.
+
+Henryson, Robert, 60.
+
+Henslowe, P., 117, 119.
+
+Herder, J. G., 183.
+
+_Hero and Leander_, 62.
+
+Heyes Quarto, 141 n.
+
+Heywood, Thomas, 31, 95, 105, 111, 131;
+  quoted in publishing, 132-134, 135, 156.
+
+_History of English Dramatic Poetry_, 163.
+
+_Hoffman_, 107.
+
+Hollar, W., 120.
+
+Hollinshed's _Chronicles_, 63, 65, 101.
+
+Homer, 56, 96, 187, 194.
+
+_Honest Whore_, 105.
+
+Hooker, Richard, 2, 61.
+
+Hope theater, 117, 119.
+
+Horace, 51, 54.
+
+_Horestes_, 98.
+
+Hugo, F. V., 185.
+
+Hugo, Victor, 185.
+
+Hunsdon's men, 120.
+
+_Huon of Bordeaux_, 59.
+
+
+Ibsen, H., 177.
+
+_If you know not me you know nobodie_, quoted, 133, 134.
+
+Ingram, J. K., 72 n.
+
+Ireland, W. H., 162, 163.
+
+Irving, Sir Henry, 176.
+
+
+Jacob, E., 161.
+
+Jaggard, Isaac, 143.
+
+Jaggard, William, 140 n, 143, 156.
+
+James I, 9, 12, 32, 44, 69, 119, 120.
+
+_James IV_, 98.
+
+Janssen, Gerard, 37.
+
+_Jocasta_, 98.
+
+Johnson, Samuel, 150, 151, 152, 178, 179, 182.
+
+John, King, 78.
+
+Jonson, Ben, 13, 29, 30, 31, 33, 39, 40, 45, 46, 50, 63, 91, 95, 103,
+    105, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 114, 131, 182, 190;
+  eulogy of S., 167, 168.
+
+Jordan's _Collections_, 162.
+
+Jordan, Mrs., 175.
+
+_Julius Cæsar_, 81, 105, 108, 169, 182.
+
+Jusserand, J. J., 185.
+
+Juvenal, 54.
+
+
+Kean, Edmund, 175.
+
+Kemble, J. P., 162, 175.
+
+Kempe, Will., 24.
+
+Kendrick, 152.
+
+Kesselstadt, death-mask, 38.
+
+_Kind-Heart's Dream_, 22.
+
+_King and No King_, 109.
+
+_King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid_, 59.
+
+_King John_, 30, 52, 63, 78, 141, 161.
+
+King's men, 120.
+
+Kipling, Rudyard, 51.
+
+Kirkman's _Drolls_, 120.
+
+Knight, Charles, 153, 154.
+
+_Knight's Tale_, 60.
+
+König, G., 72 n, 75.
+
+Kyd, Thomas, 63, 90, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 105, 106, 107, 158, 167.
+
+
+Lacy, John, 39.
+
+Lamb, Charles, 159, 175, 179.
+
+Langbaine, G., 38.
+
+La Place's translation, 184.
+
+_Lear_, 47, 49, 61, 62, 63, 75, 81, 85, 99, 114, 135, 140, 140 n, 169.
+
+Lee, Sidney, 181.
+
+_Legend of Good Women_, 60.
+
+Leicester, Earl of, 5, 119.
+
+Lessing, G. E., 182.
+
+Le Tourneur, P., 184, 185.
+
+Lily's Grammar, 51, 54.
+
+Littledale, H., 159.
+
+_Lives of eminent men_, 38.
+
+Livy, 55, 60.
+
+_Locrine_, 100, 157, 158.
+
+Lodge, Thomas, 62.
+
+_Londinopolis_, 120.
+
+London, described, 6-12.
+
+_London Prodigal_, 157, 158.
+
+Lope de Vega, 95.
+
+Lord Admiral's men, 119, 120.
+
+Lord Chamberlain's men, 120.
+
+_Lover's Complaint, A_, 62, 156.
+
+_Love's Labour's Lost_, 29, 30, 51, 52, 74, 78, 88, 97, 137, 156, 189.
+
+_Love's Labour's Won_, 30.
+
+Lowin, John, 43, 130.
+
+Lucan, 55.
+
+Lucian, 56.
+
+_Lucrece_, 23, 29, 30, 53, 54, 62, 87, 131.
+
+Lucy, Sir T., 41.
+
+Lyly, John, 63, 90, 95, 96, 97, 102, 113, 167.
+
+
+_Macbeth_, 68, 74, 75, 81, 99, 169, 174, 183, 185.
+
+Macklin, C., 175.
+
+Macready, W., 176.
+
+_Maid's Tragedy_, 109.
+
+_Malcontent_, 104;
+  quoted, 134.
+
+Malone, Edmund, 152, 163, 172.
+
+Malory, Sir T., 96.
+
+Mannering, Arthur, 26.
+
+Manningham, John, 44.
+
+Mantuan's _Eclogues_, 52.
+
+Marlowe, Christopher, 13, 16, 62, 63, 68, 72, 90, 98, 99, 101, 102, 104,
+    105, 106, 158, 167, 177.
+
+Marlowe, Julia, 176.
+
+Marston, J., 103, 104, 106, 107, 134.
+
+Mason, J. M., 152.
+
+_Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn_, 160.
+
+Massinger, Philip, 91, 92, 111, 112, 168.
+
+Matthews, Sir T., 165.
+
+_Measure for Measure_, 58, 63, 82, 83, 104.
+
+_Memoirs of Edward Alleyn_, 163.
+
+Mennes, Sir John, 41.
+
+_Menæchmi_, 54.
+
+_Merchant of Venice_, 30, 57, 58, 80, 85, 99, 137, 140 n, 174, 184.
+
+Meres, Francis, _Palladis Tamia_, 27, 68.
+
+_Merry Devil of Edmonton_, 161.
+
+_Merry Wives of Windsor_, 51, 58, 60, 73, 80, 95, 135, 136, 140 n, 169.
+
+_Messalina_, 120, 121, 122.
+
+_Metamorphoses_, 53.
+
+Mézières, A., 185.
+
+Middleton, Sir Hugh, 10.
+
+Middleton, T., 103, 104, 107, 109.
+
+_Midsummer Night's Dream_, 30, 40, 53, 58, 59, 60, 61, 73, 80, 97, 124,
+    137, 140 n, 184.
+
+Milton, John, 114, 168, 194.
+
+Miracle plays, 5, 93.
+
+_Miseries of Enforced Marriage_, 159.
+
+_Misfortunes of Arthur_, 98.
+
+Molière, 91, 95.
+
+Montagu, Mrs. Elizabeth, 178.
+
+Montaigne, 56.
+
+Montemayor, George of, 58.
+
+Morality plays, 93, 94.
+
+More, Sir Thomas, life of, 17.
+
+Morgann, M., 179.
+
+_Mother Bombie_, 95, 97.
+
+Mountjoy, Christopher, 27.
+
+_Much Ado About Nothing_, 51, 57, 80, 137, 148, 174.
+
+_Mucedorus_, 103, 161.
+
+Munday, A., 95, 103.
+
+Music, Shakespeare in, 186.
+
+
+Neidig, W. J., 140 n.
+
+Neilson Text, 154.
+
+Newcastle, Duchess of, 168.
+
+Newington Butts theater, 120.
+
+_New Variorum_, 144, 154.
+
+_New Way to Pay Old Debts_, 112.
+
+_Nice Wanton_, 92.
+
+North, Sir Thomas, 56.
+  _See_ Plutarch.
+
+
+_Oldcastle, Sir John_, 140 n.
+
+_Old Fortunatus_, 103.
+
+Oldys, William, 45.
+
+_Othello_, 58, 64, 75, 81, 85, 99, 114, 169, 170, 184, 185, 195.
+
+Otway, T., 169.
+
+Ovid, 53, 60, 65, 87, 96.
+
+_Oxford Shakespeare_, 154.
+
+
+_Painful Adventures of Pericles_, 159.
+
+Painter's _Palace of Pleasure_, 57, 61.
+
+Palmer, J., 175.
+
+_Palladis Tamia_, 29, 30, 68.
+
+_Pandosto_, 62.
+
+_Passionate Pilgrim_, 30, 156.
+
+_Pastor Fido_, 113.
+
+Pavier, T., 140 n.
+
+_Pecorone, Il._, 58.
+
+Peele, George, 63, 90, 113, 158.
+
+_Pericles_, 60, 75, 83, 114, 135, 136, 140, 140 n, 145, 148, 151, 157, 158.
+
+Persius, 54.
+
+Petrarch, 58.
+
+Phelps, S., 176.
+
+_Philaster_, 109, 110, 113.
+
+Philip, Augustus, 29, 32.
+
+Phillips, Edward, 38.
+
+_Philosophy of the Plays of S._, 163.
+
+_Phœnix and the Turtle_, 156.
+
+_Piacevoli Notti_, 58.
+
+Plautus, 54, 93, 95.
+
+_Pleasant Dialogues and Dramas_, 133.
+
+Pliny, 55, 64.
+
+Plume, Archdeacon, 41.
+
+_Plutarch's Lives_, 52, 55, 56.
+
+_Poetaster_, 104.
+
+Pollard, A. W., 140 n.
+
+Pope, Alexander, 144, 147, 148, 149, 158.
+
+Pope, Thomas, 29.
+
+Preston, T., 63.
+
+Pritchard, Mrs., 174.
+
+Prince's men, 119.
+
+_Puritan, the_ 158.
+
+_Puritan Widow_, 157.
+
+_Putnam's Monthly_, 163.
+
+
+Quartos, 135-140;
+  table of, 138, 139;
+  of apocryphal plays, 158.
+
+_Queen's Arcadia_, 113.
+
+Queen's Chapel boys, 118.
+
+Queen's men, 119.
+
+Quiney, Richard, 28.
+
+Quiney, Thomas, son-in-law of S., 28.
+
+
+Rabelais, 57.
+
+Racine, 91, 182.
+
+Raleigh, Sir Walter, 13, 16, 64.
+
+_Ralph Royster Doyster_, 95.
+
+_Rape of Lucrece_, quoted, 132.
+
+_Recuyell of Troy_, 60.
+
+Red Bull theater, 117, 120.
+
+Reed, I., 152.
+
+Rehan, Ada, 176.
+
+_Return from Parnassus_, 30.
+
+_Revenger's Tragedy_, 107.
+
+_Richard II_, 29, 36, 52, 62, 79, 99, 106, 169.
+
+_Richard III_, 36, 54, 63, 77, 99, 102, 135, 140, 154, 169.
+
+Riche, Barnaby, 58, 61.
+
+Ristori, Madame, 185.
+
+Ritson, T., 152.
+
+Roberts Quartos, 140 n, 141 n.
+
+Robertson, Sir Forbes, 176.
+
+Robin Hood, 159.
+
+Robin Hood plays, 103.
+
+_Romance of Yachting_, 163.
+
+_Romeo and Juliet_, 30, 60, 73, 74, 77, 106, 135, 136, 137, 169, 174,
+    182, 183, 195.
+
+_Romeus and Juliet_, 60.
+
+Ronsard, 57.
+
+_Rosalynde_, 62.
+
+_Rosamond_, 62.
+
+Rose theater, 117, 119, 120.
+
+Rossi, 185.
+
+Rowe, Nicholas, 42, 43, 45, 146, 147, 158, 172.
+
+Rowley, W., 111.
+
+_Roxana_, 120, 121.
+
+Rutland, Earl of, 164.
+
+Rymer, T., 170.
+
+
+Sadler's Wells, 176.
+
+Salisbury Court theater, 118.
+
+Salvini, T., 185.
+
+Sanazzaro, 96.
+
+Schlegel, A. W., 180, 183.
+
+Schmidt's _Lexicon_, 183.
+
+Schroeder, F., 184.
+
+Scott, Sir Walter, 191.
+
+_Sejanus_, 33, 108.
+
+Seneca, 54, 93, 99, 100, 105.
+
+_Sententiæ Pueriles_, 52.
+
+Shakespeare, Anna, 18.
+
+Shakespeare, Anne (Hathaway), 19.
+
+Shakespeare, Edmund, 18.
+
+Shakespeare, Gilbert, 18, 46.
+
+Shakespeare, Hamnet, 20, 85.
+
+Shakespeare, Joan, 18.
+
+Shakespeare, John, 4, 5, 18, 24, 40, 41.
+
+Shakespeare, Judith, 20, 35.
+
+Shakespeare, Mary Arden, 18, 24, 35.
+
+Shakespeare, Richard, 18.
+
+Shakespeare, Susanna, 25, 34.
+
+Shakespeare, William. _See_ CONTENTS.
+  Monument of, frontispiece;
+  facsimile autographs of, 36;
+  portrait of in First Folio, 143.
+
+_Shakespeare and the Drama_, Schlegel's, 183.
+
+_Shakespeare Restored_, 148.
+
+Shakespeare Society, New, 160.
+
+Shaw, G. B., 177.
+
+Shelley, P. B. 191.
+
+Sheridan, T., 162.
+
+Shirley, James, 91, 92, 112, 113.
+
+Shirley, Sir A., 164.
+
+_Short View of Tragedy_, 170.
+
+Siddons, Mrs. Sarah, 175, 177.
+
+Sidney, Sir Philip, 13, 16, 61.
+
+Simpson, R., 161.
+
+Singer, S. W., 153.
+
+_Sir Thomas More_, 161, 162.
+
+_Sir Thomas Oldcastle_, 157, 158.
+
+Slye, William, 29.
+
+Smethwick, John, 143.
+
+Smith, W. H., 163.
+
+_Soliman and Perseda_, 100.
+
+Somers, Sir George, 68.
+
+_Sonnets_, 57, 58;
+  date of, 87, 156;
+  evidence of, 47-49;
+  personality in, 189, 190.
+
+Sophocles, 184.
+
+Sothern, Edward, 176.
+
+Southampton, Earl of, 23, 47.
+
+Southwell, T., 166.
+
+Spalding, William, 159.
+
+Spenser, Edmund, 2, 16, 61, 178.
+
+_Spanish Tragedy_, 99, 100, 106, 107.
+
+_Squire of Low Degree_, 59.
+
+St. Paul's, 7, 8, 90, 118, 159.
+
+Staël, Madame de, 185.
+
+Stage, typical Shakespearean, illustration, 116.
+
+Stationers' Company, 68, 135, 136.
+
+Steevens, G., 151, 152.
+
+Stowe, John, _Annals_, 63.
+
+Strange's men, 120.
+
+Stratford, described, 4, 6;
+  Shakespeare at, 18-35.
+
+Sturley, Abraham, 28.
+
+Suckling, Sir John, 112, 168.
+
+_Supposoti, I_, 58, 95.
+
+Surrey, Earl of, 13.
+
+Swan theater, 117, 119, 120.
+
+
+Tables of metrical tests, 71, 72;
+  of chronology of plays, 76;
+  of quarto editions, 138, 139.
+
+_Tamburlaine_, 98.
+
+_Taming of a Shrew_, 161.
+
+_Taming of the Shrew_, 51, 58, 60, 63, 80, 85, 141, 184.
+
+Taylor, Joseph, 43, 130.
+
+_Tears of the Muses_, 61.
+
+_Tempest, The_, 53, 57, 64, 68, 73, 74, 83, 110, 114, 169, 189.
+
+Tennyson, A., 190.
+
+Terence, 51, 54, 93, 95, 96.
+
+Terry, Ellen, 176.
+
+_Testament of Cressid_, 60.
+
+Theater, in Shoreditch, 117, 118, 119, 120.
+
+_Theatrum Poetarum_, 38
+
+Theobald L., 148, 149, 150, 162.
+
+Theocritus, 96.
+
+_Thomas Lord Cromwell_, 157, 158.
+
+Thorpe, Thomas, 47.
+
+Tieck, L., 183.
+
+_Timber_, 46.
+
+_Timon of Athens_, 56, 157, 169.
+
+_'Tis Pity She's a Whore_, 112.
+
+_Titus Andronicus_, 30, 51, 53, 54, 77, 100, 140, 157, 158, 169.
+
+Tourgenieff, 194.
+
+Tourneur, C., 107, 112.
+
+Troilus and Cressida, 56, 60, 82, 104, 114, 169.
+
+_Troilus and Cressida_, (Chaucer's), 60.
+
+_Troublesome Reign of King John_, 161.
+
+_True Tragedy of Richard III_, 100.
+
+_True Tragedy of Richard Duke of York_, 21, 161.
+
+_Tudor Shakespeare_, 38 n, 154, 161.
+
+_Twelfth Night_, 51, 56, 57, 58, 73, 80, 114, 120, 146, 174.
+
+_Two Gentlemen of Verona_, 30, 58, 78, 98.
+
+_Two Italian Gentlemen_, 95.
+
+_Two Noble Kinsmen, The_, 34, 60, 110, 157, 159, 160, 162, 169.
+
+Tyrwhitt, T., 152.
+
+
+Udall, N., 95.
+
+Ulrici, 180.
+
+Upton, J., 150.
+
+
+_Venus and Adonis_, 23, 29, 30, 53, 62, 87, 131.
+
+Virgil, 53, 96.
+
+_Volpone_, 33, 105.
+
+Voltaire, 178, 184, 185.
+
+_Vortigern_, 162.
+
+
+Wagner, C., 152.
+
+Walker, Henry, 26.
+
+Walker, Sidney, 172.
+
+Wallace, C. W., 26, 27.
+
+Walton's _Lives_, 17.
+
+Warburton, W., 150.
+
+Ward, Rev. J., 40.
+
+Ward, W. A., 172
+
+Warner, Mrs., 176.
+
+Watson, Thomas, 61.
+
+Webster, John, 31, 91, 104, 107, 109, 111, 112.
+
+Weever, John, 30.
+
+Whetstone, George, 58, 60, 63.
+
+_White Devil_ 31, 107.
+
+White, R. G., 153, 172.
+
+Wieland, 183.
+
+_Wilhelm Meister_, 183.
+
+Wilson, Robert, 94.
+
+Winchester, Bishop of, 7.
+
+_Winter's Tale_, 62, 85, 110, 174.
+
+_Wise Woman of Hogsdon_, 95.
+
+Wolsey, life of, 17.
+
+_Woman Killed with Kindness_, 105.
+
+Wood, Anthony, 43.
+
+Wordsworth, 191.
+
+_Worthies of England_, 38.
+
+Wright, W. A., 154, 172.
+
+Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 13.
+
+Wycherley, W., 111.
+
+
+_Yorkshire Tragedy_, 128, 140 n, 157, 158, 159.
+
+
+
+Printed in the United States of America.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Endnotes
+
+
+Corrections:
+
+    Page 41. Chapter II. "certains" corrected to _certain_.
+      "... contains certain notes made before 1688 by the ..."
+
+    Page 72. Table 2. "LINES" corrected to _LINE_.
+      "... ENDING WITHIN THE LINE ..."
+
+    Page 89. Chapter V. "comedy These" corrected to _comedy. These_.
+      "... of classical tragedy and comedy. These new forms ..."
+
+    Page 234. Appendix B. "St. Alban's" corrected to _St. Albans_.
+      "... Mayor of St. Albans. 2H6. II. i."
+
+    Page 265. Index entry. "Bi-Lateral" corrected to _Bi-Literal_.
+      "... Bi-Literal Cypher of Francis Bacon ..."
+
+    Page 268. Index Hamlet entry. "160" corrected to _106_.
+      "... 87, 100, 106, 107, 119 ..."
+
+
+Re-sequenced Index entries:
+
+    First Folio, described, 141-143; facsimile of title-page, 143; 167;
+    introductory matter in, _see_ Appendix A.
+
+    Fletcher, John, 9, 91, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114; collaboration on
+    _Two Noble Kinsman_, 159, 160; 168, 177, 191. _See_ Beaumont and
+    Fletcher.
+
+    Florio, John. _See_ Montaigne, 57.
+
+    Greene, Robert, attack on S., 20-23: 62, 63, 90, 96, 97, 101, 102,
+    158.
+
+    Jonson, Ben, 13, 29, 30, 31, 33, 39, 40, 45, 46, 50, 63, 91, 95,
+    103, 105, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 114, 131; eulogy of S., 167, 168;
+    182, 190.
+
+    _Sonnets_, evidence of, 47-49; 57, 58; date of, 87, 156; personality
+    in, 189, 190.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Facts About Shakespeare, by 
+William Allan Nielson and Ashley Horace Thorndike
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Facts About Shakespeare, by 
+William Allan Nielson and Ashley Horace Thorndike
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Facts About Shakespeare
+
+Author: William Allan Nielson
+        Ashley Horace Thorndike
+
+Release Date: August 8, 2007 [EBook #22281]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FACTS ABOUT SHAKESPEARE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Stephen Blundell and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: The Shakespeare Monument in the Parish Church,
+Stratford-on-Avon.]
+
+
+
+
+              THE FACTS ABOUT
+                SHAKESPEARE
+
+
+                    BY
+
+       WILLIAM ALLAN NEILSON, PH.D.
+PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY
+
+                    AND
+
+  ASHLEY HORACE THORNDIKE, PH.D., L.H.D.
+PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
+
+
+              [Illustration]
+
+
+                 New York
+           THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                   1927
+
+           _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1913,
+BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1913. Reprinted April,
+1914; July, 1915; May, November, 1916; January, 1918; February,
+September, 1920; September, 1921; March, 1922; February, December, 1923;
+October, 1924; June, 1926; January, December, 1927.
+
+
+
+PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY
+THE BERWICK & SMITH CO.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+    Unique page headings have been retained, marked as [Page Heading:],
+    and positioned at the first available paragraph break of the page or
+    the preceding page.
+
+    Many spelling inconsistencies exist due to the historical period of
+    the quoted sources. These, in addition to the original punctuation,
+    have been retained.
+
+    Obvious typesetting errors have been corrected and noted in the
+    Transcriber's Endnotes at the end of the text.
+
+    Some index entries have been re-sequenced to allow for clarity of
+    sub-entries. These changes are recorded in the Transcriber's
+    Endnotes along with a copy of the original text.
+
+    The following non-standard characters have been represented as
+    follows:
+
+      [oe] oe ligature
+      [OE] OE ligature
+      [~e] tilde over e. A contraction of en.
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+CHAPTER                                                        PAGE
+
+   I. SHAKESPEARE'S ENGLAND AND LONDON                            1
+
+  II. BIOGRAPHICAL FACTS AND TRADITIONS                          17
+
+ III. SHAKESPEARE'S READING                                      50
+
+  IV. CHRONOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT                                 67
+
+   V. THE ELIZABETHAN DRAMA                                      89
+
+  VI. THE ELIZABETHAN THEATER                                   117
+
+ VII. THE TEXT OF SHAKESPEARE                                   131
+
+VIII. QUESTIONS OF AUTHENTICITY                                 156
+
+  IX. SHAKESPEARE SINCE 1616                                    167
+
+   X. CONCLUSION                                                188
+
+APPENDIX A. BIOGRAPHICAL DOCUMENTS AND AUTHORITIES              203
+
+APPENDIX B. INDEX OF THE CHARACTERS IN SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS      226
+
+APPENDIX C. INDEX OF THE SONGS                                  241
+
+APPENDIX D. BIBLIOGRAPHY                                        243
+
+INDEX                                                           265
+
+
+
+
+THE FACTS ABOUT SHAKESPEARE
+
+
+
+
+The Facts about Shakespeare
+
+[Illustration]
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+SHAKESPEARE'S ENGLAND AND LONDON
+
+
+Shakespeare lived in a period of change. In religion, politics,
+literature, and commerce, in the habits of daily living, in the world of
+ideas, his lifetime witnessed continual change and movement. When
+Elizabeth came to the throne, six years before he was born, England was
+still largely Catholic, as it had been for nine centuries; when she died
+England was Protestant, and by the date of Shakespeare's death it was
+well on the way to becoming Puritan. The Protestant Reformation had
+worked nearly its full course of revolution in ideas, habits, and
+beliefs. The authority of the church had been replaced by that of the
+Bible, of the English Bible, superbly translated by Shakespeare's
+contemporaries. Within his lifetime, again, England had attained a
+national unity and an international importance heretofore unknown. The
+Spanish Armada had been defeated, the kingdoms of England and Scotland
+united, and the first colony established in America. Even more
+revolutionary had been the assertion of national greatness in literature
+and thought. The Italian Renaissance, following the rediscovery of Greek
+and Roman literature, had extended its influence to England early in the
+century, but only after the accession of Elizabeth did it bring full
+harvest. The names that crowd the next fifty years represent fine native
+endowments, boundless aspiration, and also novelty,--as Spenser in
+poetry, Bacon in philosophy, Hooker in theology. In commerce as well as
+in letters there was this same activity and innovation. It was a time of
+commercial prosperity, of increase in comfort and luxury, of the growth
+of a powerful commercial class, of large fortunes and large
+benefactions. Whatever your status, your birth, trade, profession,
+residence, religion, education, or property, in the year 1564 you had a
+better chance to change these than any of your ancestors had; and there
+was more chance than there had ever been that your son would improve his
+inheritance. The individual man had long been boxed up in guild, church,
+or the feudal system; now the covers were opened, and the new
+opportunity bred daring, initiative, and ambition. The exploits of the
+Elizabethan sea rovers still stir us with the thrill of adventure; but
+adventure and vicissitude were hardly less the share of merchant,
+priest, poet, or politician. The individual has had no such opportunity
+for fame in England before or since. The nineteenth century, which saw
+the industrial revolution, the triumphs of steam and electricity, and
+the discoveries of natural science, is the only period that equalled the
+Elizabethan in the rapidity of its changes in ideas and in the
+conditions of living; and even that era of change offered relatively
+fewer new impulses to individual greatness than the fifty years of
+Shakespeare's life.
+
+[Page Heading: Tudor England]
+
+Shakespeare's England was an agricultural country of four or five
+million inhabitants. It fed itself, except when poor harvests compelled
+the importation of grain, and it supplemented agriculture by grazing,
+fishing, and commerce, chiefly with the Netherlands, but growing in many
+directions. The forests were becoming thin, but the houses were still of
+timber; the roads were poor, the large towns mostly seaports. The
+dialects spoken were various, but the speech of the midland counties had
+become established in London, at the universities, and in printed books,
+and was rapidly increasing its dominance. The monasteries and religious
+orders were gone, but feudalism still held sway, and the people were
+divided into classes,--the various ranks of the nobility, the gentry,
+the yeomen, the burgesses, and the common people. But changes from one
+class to another were numerous; for many lords were losing their
+inheritances by extravagance, while many business men were putting their
+profits into land. In spite of persecutions, occasional insurrections,
+and the plague which devastated the unsanitary towns, it was a time of
+peace and prosperity. The coinage was reformed, roads were improved,
+taxes were not burdensome, and life in the country was more comfortable
+and secure than it had been. Books and education were spreading.
+Numerous grammar schools taught Latin, the universities made provision
+for poor students, and there were now many careers besides that of the
+church open to the educated man.
+
+Stratford, then a village of some two thousand inhabitants, somewhat off
+the main route of traffic, was far more removed from the world than most
+towns of similar size in this day of railways, newspapers, and the
+telegraph. With the nearby country, it made up an independent community
+that attended to its own affairs with great thoroughness. The
+corporation, itself the outgrowth of a medieval religious guild,
+regulated the affairs of every one with little regard for personal
+liberty. It was especially severe on rebellious servants, idle
+apprentices, shrewish women, the pigs that ran loose in the streets, and
+(after 1605) persons guilty of profanity. Regular church attendance and
+fixed hours of work were required. The corporation frequently punished
+with fines (the poet's father on one occasion) those who did not clean
+the street before their houses; and it was much occupied in regulating
+the ale-houses, of which the village possessed some thirty. Like all
+towns of this period, Stratford suffered frequently from fire and the
+plague. Trade was dependent mainly on the weekly markets and semi-annual
+fairs, and Stratford was by no means isolated, being not far from the
+great market town of Coventry, near Kenilworth and Warwick, and only
+eighty miles from London.
+
+[Page Heading: Sports and Plays]
+
+Shakespeare's England was merry England. At least, it was probably as
+near to deserving that adjective as at any time before or since. There
+was plenty of time for amusement. There were public bowling-greens and
+archery butts in Stratford, though the corporation was very strict in
+regard to the hours when these could be used. Every one enjoyed hunting,
+hawking, cock-fighting, bull-baiting, dancing, until the Puritans found
+such enjoyments immoral. The youthful Shakespeare acquired an intimate
+knowledge of dogs and horses, hunting and falconry, though this was a
+gentleman's sport. The highways were full of ballad singers, beggars,
+acrobats, and wandering players. Play-acting of one kind or another had
+long been common over most of rural England. Miracle plays were given at
+Coventry up to 1580, and bands of professional actors came to Stratford
+frequently, and on their first recorded appearance received their
+permission to act from the bailiff, John Shakespeare (1568-1569). There
+was many a Holofernes or Bottom to marshal his pupils or
+fellow-mechanics for an amateur performance; and Shakespeare may have
+seen the most famous of the royal entertainments, that at Kenilworth in
+1575, when Gascoigne recited poetry, and Leicester, impersonating Deep
+Desire, addressed Elizabeth from a bush, and a minstrel represented
+Arion on a dolphin's back. The tradition may be right which declares
+that it was the trumpets of the comedians that summoned Shakespeare to
+London.
+
+In the main, life in the country was not so very different from what it
+is now in the remoter places. Many a secluded English village, as
+recently as fifty years ago, jogged on much as in the sixteenth century.
+Opportunity then as now dwelt mostly in the cities, but the city of the
+sixteenth century bore slight resemblance to a city of to-day.
+
+London, with less than 200,000 inhabitants, was still a medieval city in
+appearance, surrounded by a defensive wall, guarded by the Tower, and
+crowned by the cathedral. The city proper lay on the north of the
+Thames, and the wall made a semicircle of some two miles, from the Tower
+on the east to the Fleet ditch and Blackfriars on the west. Seven gates
+pierced the wall to the north, and the roads passing through them into
+the fields were lined with houses. Westward along the river were great
+palaces, behind which the building was practically continuous along the
+muddy road that led to the separate city of Westminster. The Thames,
+noted for its fish and swans, was the great thoroughfare, crowded with
+many kinds of boats and spanned by the famous London Bridge. By one of
+the many rowboats that carried passengers hither and thither, or on foot
+over the arches of the bridge, between the rows of houses that lined it,
+and under the heads of criminals which decorated its entrance, you
+might cross the Thames to Southwark. Turning west, past St. Saviour's
+and the palace of the Bishop of Winchester, you were soon on the
+Bankside, a locality long given over to houses of ill fame and rings for
+the baiting of bulls and bears. The theaters, forbidden in the city
+proper, were built either in the fields to the north of the walls, or
+across the river close by the kennels and rings. Here, as Shakespeare
+waited for a boatman to ferry him across to Blackfriars, the whole city
+was spread before his eyes, in the foreground the panorama of the
+beautiful river, beyond it the crowded houses, the spires of many
+churches, and the great tower of old St. Paul's.
+
+[Page Heading: Tudor London]
+
+It was a city of narrow streets, open sewers, wooden houses, without an
+adequate water supply or sanitation, in constant danger from fire and
+plague. But dirt and disease were no more prevalent than they had been
+for centuries; in spite of them, there was no lack of life in the
+crowded lanes. The great palaces were outside the city proper, and there
+were few notable buildings within its precincts except the churches. The
+dismantled monasteries still occupied large areas, but were being made
+over to strange uses, the theaters eventually finding a place in
+Blackfriars and Whitefriars. The Strand was an ill-paved street running
+behind the river palaces, past the village of Charing Cross, on to the
+royal palace of Whitehall and to the Abbey and Hall at Westminster. The
+walls and surrounding moat had ceased to be of use for defense, and
+building constantly spread into the fields without. These fields were
+favorite places for recreation and served the purpose of city parks. The
+Elizabethans were fond of outdoor sports and spent little daytime
+indoors. The shops were open to the street, and the clear spaces at
+Cheapside and St. Paul's Church-yard seem to have been always crowded.
+St. Paul's, although still used for religious services, had become a
+sort of city club or general meeting place. Mules and horses were no
+longer to be found there as in the reign of Mary, but the nave was in
+constant use as a place for gossip and business. The churchyard was the
+usual place for holding lotteries, and here were the shops of a majority
+of the London booksellers. In its northeast corner was Paul's Cross, the
+famous pulpit whence the wishes of the government were announced and
+popularized by the Sunday preachers. And here the variety of London life
+was most fully exhibited. The processions and entertainments at court,
+the ambassadors from afar, the law students from the Temple, the old
+soldiers destitute after service in Flanders, the seamen returned from
+plundering the Spanish gold fleet, the youths from the university come
+to the city to earn their living by their wits, the bishop and the
+puritan, who looked at each other askance, the young squire come to be
+gulled of his lands by the roarers of the tavern, the solid merchant
+with his chain of gold, the wives who aped the court ladies with their
+enormous farthingales and ruffs, the court gallant with his dyed beard
+and huge breeches, the idle apprentices quick to riot, the poor poets in
+prison for debt--these and how many more are familiar to every reader of
+the Elizabethan drama. As often in periods of commercial prosperity,
+luxury became fantastic. Men sold their acres to put costly garments on
+their backs. Clothing was absurd and ran to extreme sizes of ruffs,
+farthingales, and breeches, or to gaudy colors and jewels. Enormous sums
+were spent on feasts, entertainments, and masques, especially in the
+reign of James I. Cleanliness did not thrive, perfumes took the place of
+baths, and rushes, seldom renewed, covered the floor even of the
+presence chamber of Elizabeth. But the comforts and luxuries of life
+increased and spread to all classes. Tobacco, potatoes, and forks were
+first introduced in Shakespeare's time. Building improved, streets were
+widened, and coaches became so common as to excite much animadversion
+and complaint. If some poets spent much time in the debtors' prison,
+others lived well, and some actors gained large fortunes.
+
+[Page Heading: Commercial Prosperity]
+
+The industrious apprentice who refused the allurements of pageants,
+theaters, tailors, and taverns, was sure to have his reward. It was a
+time of commercial expansion, such as the last generation has witnessed
+in Germany and the United States. Bankers, brokers, and merchants gained
+great fortunes and managed to protect them. Industry, thrift, and
+shrewdness were likely to win enough to buy a knighthood. The trade of
+the old East and the new West came to the London wharves, and every one
+was ready to take a risk. The merchants of London had furnished support
+to the policies of Henry VIII and were rich enough to fit out the
+expedition against Flanders and to pay for a third of the fleet that met
+the Armada. It was a time, too, for great enterprises and benefactions
+to charity. Sir Thomas Gresham built the Exchange, Sir Hugh Middleton
+paid for the New River water supply, and there were many gifts to
+hospitals. With all this increase in wealth, the various professions
+prospered, especially that of law. The inns of court were crowded with
+students, not a few of whom forsook the courts for the drama. The age of
+chivalry was over, that of commerce begun. No one gained much glory by a
+military career in the days of Elizabeth. The church, the law, banking,
+commerce, even politics and literature, offered better roads to wealth
+or fame.
+
+The importance of the court in Elizabethan London is not easy to realize
+to-day. It dominated the life of the small city. Its nobles and their
+retainers, its courtiers and hangers-on, made up a considerable portion
+of the population; its shows supplied the entertainment, its gossip the
+politics of the hour. It was the seat of pageantry, the mirror of
+manners, the patron or the oppressor of every one. No one could be so
+humble as to escape coming somehow within its sway, and some of the
+greatest wrecked their lives in efforts to secure its approval. It is no
+wonder that the plays of Shakespeare deal so largely with kings,
+queens, and their courts. Under the Tudors, and still more under the
+Stuarts, the court aimed at increasing the central authority so as to
+bring every affair of its subjects under its direct control. In London,
+however, this effort at centralization met with strong opposition. The
+government was in the hands of the guilds representative of the wealth
+of the city, and was coming face to face with many of the problems of
+modern municipalities. The corporation was in constant clash with the
+court; and in the end the city, which had supported Henry VIII and
+Elizabeth against powerful nobles, became the Puritan London that aided
+in ousting the Stuarts.
+
+[Page Heading: The City and the Court]
+
+This conflict between city and court is illustrated in the regulation of
+the theaters and companies of actors. The actors had a legal status only
+as the license of some nobleman enrolled them as his servants, and they
+relied on the protection of their patron and the court against the
+opposition of the city authorities. The fact that they were employed to
+give plays before the Queen was, indeed, about the only argument that
+won any consideration from the corporation. This opposition was based in
+part on moral or puritan grounds, but was determined still more by the
+fear of three menaces, fire, sedition, and the plague. Wooden buildings
+were already discouraged by statute, and the danger of fire from the
+wooden theaters is shown by the burning of the Globe and the Fortune.
+The gathering of crowds was feared by every property holder, and the
+theaters were frequently the scenes of outbreaks of the apprentices. The
+danger of the plague from the crowd at plays was the greatest of all.
+London was hardly ever free from it, and suffered terrible devastation
+in the years 1593 and 1603. For these reasons the theaters were
+forbidden within the city's jurisdiction, and were driven into the
+outskirts. The best companies appeared frequently at court, and on the
+accession of James I they were licensed directly as servants of various
+members of the royal family. The actors were thereafter under the
+immediate control of the court, and certain "private" theaters were
+established within the city. But this triumph of the court over the long
+opposition of the city was not an unmixed blessing for the drama.
+
+The theaters in 1590 represented the public on which they depended for
+support; by 1616 they were far less representative of the nation or
+London, and more dependent on the court and its following. The
+Blackfriars theater, before which gathered the crowd of coaches that
+annoyed the puritans of the neighborhood, was a symptom of the growth of
+wealth and luxury, and of the increased power of the monarchy; the
+protests of the puritan neighborhood were an indication of the growth of
+a large class hostile alike to an arbitrary court, luxury, and the
+theater.
+
+Shakespeare's lifetime, however, saw little of this sharp division into
+parties or of that narrow moral consistency which Puritanism came to
+require. Looking back on his age in contrast with our own, we are
+perhaps most impressed by its striking incongruities. This London of
+dirt and disease was also the arena for extravagant fashion and princely
+display. This populace that watched with joy the cruel torment of a bear
+or the execution of a Catholic also delighted in the romantic comedies
+of Shakespeare. This people, so appallingly credulous and ignorant, so
+brutal, childish, so mercurial compared with Englishmen of to-day, yet
+set the standard of national greatness. This absurdly decorated gallant
+could stab a rival in the back or write a penitential lyric. Each man
+presents strange, almost inexplicable, contrasts in character, as Bacon
+or Raleigh, or Elizabeth herself. The drama mingles its sentiment and
+fancy with horrors and bloodshed; and no wonder, for poetry was no
+occupation of the cloister. Read the lives of the poets--Surrey, Wyatt,
+Sidney, Spenser, Raleigh, Marlowe, Jonson--and of these, only Spenser
+and Jonson died in their beds, and Ben had killed his man in a duel. The
+student of Elizabethan history and biography will find stranger
+contrasts than in the lives of these poets, for crime, meanness, and
+sexual depravity often appear in the closest juxtaposition with
+imaginative idealism, intellectual freedom, and moral grandeur.
+
+[Page Heading: Elizabethan Incongruities]
+
+The Italian Renaissance, with its mingled passions for beauty, art,
+blood, lust, and intellect, seems for a time transferred to London and
+dwelling alongside of commerce and Puritanism. Yet these incongruities
+of character, manners, and motives that seem so striking to us to-day
+may probably be explained by conditions already described. The
+opportunities created by the changes in church and religion, the new
+education and prosperity, the new America, and the revived classics, all
+tended to create a new thirst for experience. This thirst for experience
+led to excess and incongruity, but it also furnished an unparalleled
+range of human motive for a poet's observation and imitation.
+
+In the wide range of our poet's survey, there is, however, one notable
+omission. The reign of Elizabeth, like those of her three predecessors,
+was one of religious controversy, change, and persecution. But all this
+strife, all this debate, repression, persecution, and all of this great
+turmoil working in the minds of Englishmen, find little reflection in
+Shakespeare's plays, and little in the whole Elizabethan drama.
+Religious controversy had played a part in the drama of the reign of
+Edward and Mary, but it rarely enters the Elizabethan drama, and then
+mainly in the form of ridicule for the puritan. Shakespeare's plays seem
+almost to ignore the most momentous facts of his time. They treat pagan,
+Catholic, and Protestant with cordiality and only smile at the puritan
+or Brownist. His England of the merry wives or Falstaff's justices seems
+strangely untroubled by questions of faith or ritual. There is, to be
+sure, plenty of religion and controversy in the literature of the time,
+but the drama as a whole is singularly non-religious. It reflects
+rather that freedom from restraint, that buoyancy of spirit, that lively
+interest in experience, which had their full course in the few years
+when the old garment was off and the new not quite fitted. The immense
+intellectual and imaginative activity of the period consists precisely
+in this freedom from restrictions, partisanship, dogmas, or caste.
+Things had lost their labels and some time and argument were required to
+find new ones. Ideas were free and not bound to any school, party, or
+cause. You grasped an idea without knowing whether it made you realist,
+romanticist, or classicist; papist, puritan, or pagan. After centuries
+of imprisonment, individuality had its full chance in the world of ideas
+as elsewhere.
+
+[Page Heading: An Age of Freedom]
+
+In a few years this was all over, and your sphere of life and the ideas
+proper to that sphere were prescribed for you. By another century,
+England had fought out the issues of creed and government with expense
+of blood and spirit, and had settled down to the compromise of 1688. In
+Shakespeare's day there was also, of course, some movement toward fixity
+of ideas, and there were great men who strove to convert others to their
+ideas and to dictate belief and conduct. But there was a breathing spell
+in which, comparatively speaking, men were not alike, but individual,
+and in which their motives and ideas revelled in a freedom from ancient
+precedent. In this era of flux the modern drama found its panorama of
+novel and varied experience making and marring character.
+
+Shakespeare lived peaceably in the heyday of this change, nearly of an
+age with Sidney, Raleigh, Spenser, Bacon, Marlowe. Like Marlowe in the
+soliloquies of Barabbas and Faust, he recognized the new possibilities
+that the age opened through money or ideas. He made much out of the
+commercial prosperity of the day, gained such profits as were possible
+from his profession, raised his estate, and acquired wealth. He gave his
+mind not to any cause or party but to the study of men. The drunkards of
+the London inn, the yokels of Warwickshire, and the finest gentlewomen
+of the land alike came under the scrutiny of the creator of Falstaff,
+Dogberry, and Rosalind. And like his great contemporaries, he triumphed
+over incongruities, for he translated his studies of the human mind into
+verse of immortal beauty that yet delighted the public stage which was
+located halfway between the bear dens and the brothels.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+BIOGRAPHICAL FACTS AND TRADITIONS
+
+
+In the time of Shakespeare, the fashion of writing lives of men of
+letters had not yet arisen. The art of biography could hardly be said to
+be even in its infancy, for the most notable early examples, such as the
+lives of Wolsey by Cavendish and of Sir Thomas More by his son-in-law in
+the sixteenth century, and Walton's handful in the seventeenth, are far
+from what the present age regards as scientific biography. The
+preservation of official records makes it possible for the modern
+scholar to reconstruct with considerable fullness the careers of public
+men; but in the case of Shakespeare, as of others of his profession, we
+must needs be content with a few scrappy documents, supplemented by oral
+traditions of varying degrees of authenticity. About Shakespeare himself
+it must be allowed that we have been able to learn more than about most
+of his fellow dramatists and actors.
+
+In a matter which has been the subject of so much controversy, it may
+be an aid to clearness if the facts established by contemporary
+documents be first related, and the less trustworthy reports added
+later. The first indubitable item is trivial and unsavory enough. In
+April, 1552, a certain John Shakespeare, residing in Henley Street,
+Stratford-on-Avon, in the county of Warwick, was fined twelvepence for
+failing to remove a heap of filth from before his door. This John, who
+shared his surname with a multitude of other Shakespeares in the England
+and especially in the Warwickshire of his time, appears, without
+reasonable doubt, to have been the father of the poet. He is described
+in later tradition as a glover and as a butcher; the truth seems to be
+that he did a miscellaneous business in farm products. For twenty years
+or more after this first record he prospered, rising through various
+petty municipal offices to the position of bailiff, or mayor, of the
+town in 1568. His fortunes must have been notably improved by his
+marriage, for the Mary Arden whom he wedded in 1557 was the daughter of
+a well-to-do farmer, Robert Arden, who bequeathed her £6 13_s._ 4_d._ in
+money and a house with fifty acres of land.
+
+To John and Mary Shakespeare was born a son William, whose baptism was
+registered in the Church of the Holy Trinity in Stratford on April 26,
+1564. He was their eldest son, two daughters previously born being
+already dead. Their other children were Gilbert, Joan, Anna, Richard,
+and Edmund. The precise day of William's birth is unknown. The monument
+over his grave states that at his death on April 23, 1616, he was
+"Ætatis 53," which would seem to indicate that he must have been born at
+least as early as April 22; and, since in those days baptism usually
+took place within a very few days of birth, there is no reason for
+pushing the date farther back.
+
+[Page Heading: Marriage]
+
+Of the education of the poet we have no record. Stratford had a free
+grammar school, to which such a boy as the bailiff's son would be sure
+to be sent; and the inference that William Shakespeare was a pupil there
+and studied the usual Latin authors is entirely reasonable. About 1577
+his father began to get into financial difficulties, and it is reported
+that about this time the boy was withdrawn from school to help in his
+father's business. We know nothing certainly, however, until we learn
+from the registry of the Bishop of Worcester that on November 28, 1582,
+two husbandmen of Stratford gave bonds "to defend and save harmless" the
+bishop and his officers for licensing the marriage of William
+Shakespeare and Anne Hathaway. Of the actual marriage there is no
+record. Anne is probably to be identified with Agnes or Anne, the
+daughter of Richard Hathaway of the neighboring hamlet of Shottery, who
+had died in the previous July, and had owned the house of which a part
+still survives and is shown to visitors as "Anne Hathaway's cottage."
+The date on Anne's tombstone indicates that she was eight years older
+than the poet.
+
+A comparison of the bond just mentioned with other documents of the kind
+indicates it to be exceptional in the absence of any mention of consent
+by the bridegroom's parents, a circumstance rendered still more
+remarkable by the fact that he was a minor. The bondsmen were from
+Shottery, and this, along with the considerations already advanced, has
+naturally led to the inference that the marriage was hurried by the
+bride's friends, and to the finding of a motive for their haste in the
+birth within six months of "Susanna, daughter to William Shakespere,"
+who was baptized on May 26, 1583.
+
+[Page Heading: "The only Shake-scene"]
+
+The record of the baptism of Shakespeare's only other children, the
+twins Hamnet and Judith, in February, 1585, practically exhausts the
+documentary evidence concerning the poet in Stratford until 1596. It is
+conjectured, but not known, that about 1586 he found his way to London
+and soon became connected with the theater, according to one tradition,
+as call-boy, to another, as holder of the horses of theatergoers. But by
+1592 we are assured that he had entered the ranks of the playwrights,
+and had achieved enough success to rouse the jealous resentment of a
+rival. Robert Greene, who died on the third of September in that year,
+left unpublished a pamphlet, _Greenes Groatsworth of Witte: bought with
+a Million of Repentaunce_, in which he warned three of his fellows
+against certain plagiarists, "those puppits, I meane, that speake from
+our mouths, those anticks garnisht in our colours." "Yes, trust them
+not," he goes on; "for there is an upstart crow, beautified with our
+feathers, that with his _Tygers heart wrapt in a Players hide_, supposes
+he is as well able to bumbast out a blanke verse as the best of you; and
+being an absolute _Johannes Factotum_, is in his owne conceit the only
+Shake-scene in a countrie. O that I might intreate your rare wits to be
+imployed in more profitable courses, and let those apes imitate your
+past excellence, and never more acquaint them with your admired
+inventions! I know the best husband of you all will never prove an
+usurer, and the kindest of them all wil never proove a kinde nurse; yet,
+whilst you may, seeke you better maisters, for it is pittie men of such
+rare wits should be subject to the pleasures of such rude groomes." The
+phrase about the "tyger's heart" is an obvious parody on the line,
+
+    Oh Tiger's heart wrapt in a woman's hide!
+
+which occurs both in _The True Tragedie of Richard Duke of Yorke_, and
+in the variant of that play which is included in the First Folio as the
+third part of _Henry VI_. "The only Shake-scene" has naturally been
+taken as an allusion to Shakespeare's name; and it is scarcely possible
+to doubt the reference to him throughout the passage. This being so, we
+may infer that by this date Shakespeare had written, with whatever else,
+his share in the three parts of _Henry VI_, and was successful enough to
+seem formidable to the dying Greene. It is noteworthy, too, that thus
+early we have allusion to his double profession: as an actor in the
+words "player's hide" and "Shake-scene," and as an author in the charge
+of plagiarism. That the reference in "beautified with our feathers" is
+to literary plagiarism is confirmed by the following lines from
+_Greene's Funeralls_, by R. B., 1594, which seem to have been suggested
+by Greene's phrase:
+
+    Greene is the ground of everie painters die;
+    Greene gave the ground to all that wrote upon him.
+    Nay, more, the men that so eclipst his fame,
+    _Purloynde his plumes_: can they deny the same?
+
+Somewhat less certain is the allusion in a document closely connected
+with the foregoing. _Greenes Groatsworth_ had been prepared for the
+press by his friend Henry Chettle, and in the address "To the Gentlemen
+Readers" prefixed to his _Kind-Harts Dreame_ (registered December 8,
+1592), Chettle regrets that he has not struck out from Greene's book the
+passages that have been "offensively by one or two of them taken." "With
+neither of them that take offence was I acquainted, and with one of them
+I care not if I never be. The other, whome at that time I did not so
+much spare as since I wish I had, for that as I have moderated the heate
+of living writers, and might have usde my owne discretion,--especially
+in such a case, the Author beeing dead,--that I did not, I am as sory,
+as if the originall fault had beene my fault, because myselfe have seene
+his demeanor no lesse civill, than he exelent in the qualitie[1] he
+professes: Besides, divers of worship have reported his uprightnes of
+dealing, which argues his honesty, and his facetious grace in writing,
+that aprooves his Art." This characterization so well fits in with the
+tone of later contemporary allusions to Shakespeare that it is
+regrettable that Chettle did not make its reference to him beyond a
+doubt.
+
+[1] _I.e._, profession, used especially at that time of the profession
+of acting.
+
+[Page Heading: First Publications]
+
+Within a few months after the disturbance caused by Greene's charges,
+Shakespeare appeared in the field of authorship in quite unambiguous
+fashion. On April 18, 1593, Richard Field, himself a Stratford man,
+entered at Stationers' Hall a book entitled _Venus and Adonis_. The
+dedication, which is to the Earl of Southampton, is signed by "William
+Shakespeare," and the state of the text confirms the inference that the
+poet himself oversaw the publication. The terms of the dedication, read
+in the light of contemporary examples of this kind of writing, do not
+imply any close relation between poet and patron; and the phrase "the
+first heyre of my invention," applied to the poem, need not be taken as
+placing its composition earlier than any of the plays, since writing for
+the stage was then scarcely regarded as practising the art of letters.
+_Lucrece_ was registered May 9, 1594, and appeared likewise without a
+name on the title-page, but with Shakespeare's full signature attached
+to a dedication, somewhat more warmly personal than before, to the same
+nobleman. The frequency of complimentary references to these poems, and
+the number of editions issued during the poet's lifetime (seven of
+_Venus_, and five of _Lucrece_), indicate that it was through them that
+he first obtained literary distinction.
+
+Meanwhile he was gaining a footing as an actor. The accounts of the
+Treasurer of the Chamber for March 15, 1594-5, bear record of
+Shakespeare's having been summoned, along with Kempe and Burbage, as a
+member of the Lord Chamberlain's Company, to present two comedies before
+the Queen at Greenwich Palace in the Christmas season of 1594. This is
+the earliest mention of the poet as sharing with his company a kind of
+recognition as honorable as it was profitable.
+
+The records now take us back to his family. On August 11, 1596, his only
+son Hamnet was buried. In the same year John Shakespeare applied to the
+College of Heralds for a grant of arms, basing the claim on services of
+his ancestors to Henry VII, the continued good reputation of the family,
+and John's marriage to "Mary, daughter and heiress of Robert Arden, of
+Wilmcote, gent." Since there is evidence to show that the financial
+difficulties that had beset John Shakespeare before his son went to
+London had continued, and since the attempts of actors to obtain
+gentility by grants of arms were not uncommon, it is likely that the
+poet was the moving force in this matter. Though a draft granting this
+request was drawn up, it was not executed; but in 1599 a renewed
+application was successful, the heralds giving an exemplification of the
+coat which the applicants claimed had been assigned them in 1568, "Gold,
+on a bend sable, a spear of the first, and for his crest or cognizance a
+falcon, his wings displayed argent, standing on a wreath of his
+colours, supporting a spear gold steeled as aforesaid." The motto is
+"Non Sans Droit." These arms appear on the monument over Shakespeare's
+grave in Trinity Church in Stratford, and, impaled with the Hall arms,
+on the tombstone of his daughter Susanna and her husband John Hall.
+
+[Page Heading: The Purchase of New Place]
+
+A more substantial step towards restoring the standing of the family was
+taken when the poet bought on May 4, 1597, for sixty pounds, New Place,
+the largest house in Stratford. This was only the beginning of a
+considerable series of investments of the profits of his professional
+life in landed and other property in his native district. On his
+father's death in 1601 he inherited the two houses in Henley Street, the
+only real property of which the elder Shakespeare had retained
+possession; and in one of these the poet's mother lived until her death
+in 1608. About a hundred and seven acres of arable land with common
+pasture appertaining to it was conveyed to the poet on May 1, 1602, by
+William and John Combe, of Warwick and Old Stratford respectively, in
+consideration of £320; and twenty acres of pasture land were acquired
+from the same owners in 1610. On September 28, 1602, the Court Rolls of
+the Manor of Rowington record the transfer to Shakespeare from Walter
+Getley of a cottage and garden in Chapel Lane, Stratford. In 1605 he
+paid £440 for the thirty-one years remaining of a lease of the Stratford
+tithes, a purchase which involved him in a considerable amount of
+litigation. It was through this acquisition that he became involved in
+the dispute over the attempted inclosure of certain common fields
+belonging to the town of Stratford. John Combe, who died in July, 1614,
+bequeathing Shakespeare £5, left as heir a son, William, who with Arthur
+Mannering, sought to annex to their respective estates the aforesaid
+common lands. After having secured a deed safeguarding himself as part
+owner of the tithes from any loss that might result from the inclosure,
+Shakespeare seems to have lent his influence to Combe, in spite of the
+requests of the corporation for aid. The inclosure was not carried out.
+
+His investments were not confined to his native county. A deed of sale
+has come down to us concerning the purchase of a house near the
+Blackfriars Theater in London, in March, 1613. The price was £140; but
+on the following day, March 11, Shakespeare gave the previous owner,
+Henry Walker, a mortgage deed for £60, which he never seems to have paid
+off. There is evidence of his ownership of other property in Blackfriars
+in three documents, recently discovered by Professor C. W. Wallace,
+dealing with a suit in Chancery, and dated April 26, May 15, and May 22,
+1615, in which Shakespeare and others sought to obtain from one Matthew
+Bacon possession of certain deeds pertaining to their property within
+the precinct of Blackfriars.
+
+[Page Heading: Litigation]
+
+Other traces of Shakespeare's business transactions suggest that he was
+by no means averse to going to law. After his resumption of relations
+with Stratford in 1596, we find his parents engaged (November, 1597) in
+a lawsuit, the outcome of which does not appear to recover the mortgaged
+estate of Asbies, which had formed part of his mother's inheritance. The
+years 1600, 1604, 1608, and 1609 all contain records of suits by the
+poet to recover small sums of money; and, on the other hand, we find tax
+collectors in London seeking payment of taxes incurred on his goods
+while he lived in the parish of St. Helen's, Bishopgate, in 1593 or
+1594. These claims Shakespeare satisfied some years later when he was
+living across the river in Southwark. The documents of a law case of
+1612, recently discovered by Professor C. W. Wallace in the Public
+Record office, include Shakespeare's deposition as a witness and add
+some interesting information. It appears that, possibly from 1598 to
+1604, he lodged in the house of Christopher Mountjoy, a wigmaker, at the
+corner of Muggle and Silver streets near Cripplegate. In 1604 he had
+aided in arranging the marriage of Mary Mountjoy to her father's
+apprentice, Stephen Bellott. The lawsuit was brought by Bellott against
+his father-in-law to secure the dowry and promise of inheritance.
+Shakespeare's negotiations in regard to the marriage play an important
+part in the various depositions, as the question whether a dowry of £50
+had been promised was crucial to the case. Shakespeare himself was
+examined on September 11, but the poet failed to remember that a
+definite sum had been agreed upon for the dowry.
+
+Further evidence relating to Shakespeare as a man of substance is to be
+found in letters in the Stratford archives, written by prominent
+townsmen. One, from Abraham Sturley to a relative in London on the
+business of the town of Stratford, dated January 24, 1597-8, contains a
+reference to "Mr. Shaksper" as "willing to disburse some money upon some
+odd yard-land or other at Shottery or near about us," and suggests
+urging upon Shakespeare the purchase of the tithes. It seems fairly
+certain from other letters of Sturley's that this one was addressed to
+Richard Quiney, father of Shakespeare's future son-in-law, Thomas
+Quiney. On October 25 of the same year, this Richard Quiney wrote from
+the Bell in Carter Lane, London, "to my loving friend and countryman,
+Mr. Wm. Shackespere," asking for his help with £30. From a letter from
+Abraham Sturley to Richard Quiney on the following fourth of November it
+appears that Quiney was seeking an enlargement of the charter of
+Stratford, with a view to an increase of revenue. In Sturley's previous
+letter reference had been made to an attempt to gain "an ease and
+discharge of such taxes and subsidies wherewith our town is like to be
+charged, and I assure you I am in great fear and doubt by no means able
+to pay." In this extreme condition of affairs Sturley heard with
+satisfaction "that our countryman Mr. Wm. Shak. would procure us money,
+which I will like of as I shall here when, and where, and how; and I
+pray let not go that occasion if it may sort to any indifferent
+conditions." The poet is probably referred to in still another letter,
+of about the same period, to Richard Quiney, this time from his father
+Adrian: "If you bargain with Wm. Sha., or receive money therefor, bring
+your money home that you may." All of these documents carry the
+unmistakable implication that William Shakespeare in London was regarded
+by his fellow-townsmen as a person of resources, likely to be of service
+to his friends in financial stress.
+
+[Page Heading: Professional Progress]
+
+If we return now to the evidences of Shakespeare's professional
+progress, we shall see whence these resources were derived. Confining
+ourselves still to explicit and unambiguous records, we find the year
+1598 marking Shakespeare's emergence as actor and dramatist into a
+somewhat opener publicity. The quarto editions of _Richard II_ and
+_Love's Labour's Lost_, issued that year, are the first plays to exhibit
+his name on the title-page; and in the 1616 folio edition of Ben
+Jonson's works, attached to _Every Man in His Humour_, is the statement:
+"This Comedie was first Acted in the yeere 1598 by the then L.
+Chamberleyne his servants. The principal Comedians were Will.
+Shakespeare, Aug. Philips, Hen. Condel, Will. Slye, Will. Kempe, Ric.
+Burbadge, Joh. Hemings, Tho. Pope, Chr. Beeston, Joh. Dyke." These
+evidences of prominence are more than corroborated by the famous passage
+in the _Palladis Tamia_ (1598) of Francis Meres, in which he not only
+compares the "mellifluous and honey-tongued Shakespeare" with Ovid for
+his _Venus and Adonis_, his _Lucrece_, "his sugred sonnets among his
+private friends," but with Plautus and Seneca for his excellence "in
+both kinds for the stage; for comedy, witness his Gentlemen of Verona,
+his Errors, his Love Labors Lost, his Love Labours Wonne, his Midsummers
+Night Dreame, and his Merchant of Venice; for tragedy, his Richard the
+2, Richard the 3, Henry the 4, King John, Titus Andronicus, and his
+Romeo and Juliet." Barnfield in the same year harps on the
+"honey-flowing vein" of the author of _Venus_ and _Lucrece_, and
+"honey-tongued" is again the opening epithet of John Weever's epigram
+"Ad Gulielmum Shakespeare" (1599), in which "_Romeo_" and "_Richard_"
+share the praises with the narrative poems. From this time on,
+publishers of the plays recognize Shakespeare's reputation by generally
+placing his name on the title-page: a form of compliment which the
+author probably did not appreciate when it was extended, as in the case
+of _The Passionate Pilgrim_ (1599), to pirated works, some of which were
+meant to be private, and others were not by him at all.
+
+Reminiscences or references to his works are frequent in contemporary
+literature. Among these are several passages in two plays, _The Return
+from Parnassus_, acted in St. John's College, Cambridge, about 1601. In
+one passage, Kempe, the famous actor, speaks slightingly of the acting
+qualities of the plays by university pens and continues, "Why here's our
+fellow Shakespeare puts them all down, ay, and Ben Jonson
+too,"--another identification of the actor and the dramatist
+Shakespeare. Another character in these plays prefers Shakespeare to
+Chaucer, Gower, and Spenser. Less enthusiastic though sincerely
+appreciative is John Webster, who, in the address to the Reader prefixed
+to _The White Devil_, 1612, acknowledges his indebtedness to his
+predecessors, Chapman, Jonson, Beaumont, and Fletcher and to "the right
+happy and copious industry of Master Shakespeare, Master Dekker, and
+Master Heywood." Though of widely varying significance and interest, the
+numerous allusions to Shakespeare or to his plays give further testimony
+to his growing reputation.
+
+[Page Heading: Contemporary Allusions]
+
+While it is probable that the sale of Shakespeare's poems brought him in
+some financial return, he is not likely to have profited from the
+publication of his plays. The playwright at that time sold his product
+to the manager or company, and thereby gave up all rights. To the end of
+the sixteenth century managers usually paid from £5 to £11 for a new
+play, adding a bonus in the case of success, and sometimes a share of
+the proceeds of the second performance. During the first decade of
+Shakespeare's activity as a dramatist, then, we may calculate that he
+obtained for about twenty-one plays an average of about £10 each, which,
+making the usual allowance for the greater purchasing power of money,
+would be equivalent to about $400, or an annual income of about $800.
+During his second decade the prices for plays had so risen that he may
+be estimated to have received about twice as much from this source as
+in the early half of his career.
+
+More profitable than playwriting was acting. Lee estimates Shakespeare's
+salary as an actor before 1599 at £100 a year at least, exclusive of
+special rewards for court performances, and we know that by 1635 an
+actor-shareholder, such as Shakespeare latterly was, had a salary of
+£180. Besides this, he became about 1599 a sharer, with Heming, Condell,
+Philips, and others, in the receipts of the Globe Theater, erected in
+1597-8 by Richard and Cuthbert Burbage. The annual income from a single
+share was over £200, and Shakespeare may have had more than one. In 1610
+he became a sharer also in the smaller Blackfriars Theater, after it had
+been acquired by the Burbages.
+
+The evidence thus accumulated of Shakespeare's having acquired a
+substantial fortune is corroborated by what we know of the earnings of
+other members of his profession, and it leaves no mystery about the
+source of the capital which he invested in real property in Stratford
+and London.
+
+The death of Elizabeth and the accession of James I improved rather than
+impaired Shakespeare's prospects. A patent, dated May 19, 1603,
+authorizes the King's servants, "Lawrence Fletcher, William Shakespeare,
+Richard Burbage ... and the rest of their associats freely to use and
+exercise the arte and faculty of playing comedies, tragedies, histories,
+interludes, moralls, pastorals, stage-plaies, and such other like as
+they have already studied, or hereafter shall use or studie, as well
+for the recreation of our lovinge subjects, as for our solace and
+pleasure when we shall thinke good to see them, duringe our pleasure."
+By this document the Lord Chamberlain's Company became the King's, and
+so remained during the rest of Shakespeare's connection with the stage.
+At least a dozen instances are recorded in the Revels Accounts of the
+Company's having acted before his Majesty, and on the occasion of a
+performance before the court at the Earl of Pembroke's mansion of Wilton
+House, £30 was given them "by way of his majesty's reward."
+Shakespeare's name stands first in a list of nine actors who walked in a
+procession on the occasion of James's entry into London, March 15, 1604,
+when each actor was granted four yards and a half of scarlet cloth for
+cloaks for the occasion.
+
+[Page Heading: Growing Prosperity]
+
+This recognition by the court is the latest evidence we have of
+Shakespeare's belonging to the profession of acting. He is mentioned in
+the Jonson Folio of 1616 as playing a part in _Sejanus_ in 1603; but his
+name is absent from the list of the King's servants, as his company had
+now become, when they performed _Volpone_ in 1605, _The Alchemist_ in
+1610, and _Catiline_ in 1611. It would thus seem that he gave up acting
+shortly after the death of Elizabeth.
+
+The date of his withdrawal from London to Stratford is less precisely
+indicated. The likelihood is that the transference was gradual; for
+after 1611, the date usually conjectured for his retirement from the
+metropolis, we have indications of at least occasional activities there,
+as in the collaboration with Fletcher, now generally admitted, in _Henry
+VIII_ and _The Two Noble Kinsmen_, and in the business dealings in
+Blackfriars already described. On the other hand, he had disposed of his
+shares in the theaters before his death; as we have seen, he appears
+frequently in his last years in connection with municipal affairs in
+Stratford; and later formal references are usually to "William
+Shakespeare, gent., of Stratford-on-Avon." It was during this period
+that we find record of the poet serving in a new capacity. There has
+recently been discovered in the Household Book at Belvoir Castle the
+following entry: "Item 31 Martij (1613) to Mr. Shakspeare in gold about
+my Lordes Impreso xiiij s. To Richard Burbadge for paynting and making
+yt in gold xliiij s. (Total) iiij^li viij^s." This means that the Earl
+of Rutland, who took part in a tournament at Whitehall on March 24,
+1613, had the heraldic device for his shield made by Shakespeare and
+Burbage,--Burbage, whose skill as painter is well known, being probably
+responsible for the design and Shakespeare for the motto. Rutland was a
+friend and associate of that Earl of Southampton to whom Shakespeare had
+dedicated his two narrative poems.
+
+The remaining documents are chiefly domestic. On June 5, 1607, his elder
+daughter Susanna married John Hall, a physician of Stratford, who
+succeeded the poet in the occupancy of New Place; and on September 9,
+1608, the Stratford Register records the burial of his mother, "Mayry
+Shaxspere, wydowe." His younger daughter, Judith, married Thomas Quiney
+on February 10, 1616, with such haste and informality as led to the
+imposition of a fine by the ecclesiastical court at Worcester. In the
+previous month Shakespeare had a draft of his will drawn up by Francis
+Collins, a solicitor of Warwick, and after certain changes this was
+signed in March. On the twenty-fifth of April the Registers show the
+burial of "Will. Shakespeare gent." The monument over his grave gives
+the day of his death as April 23 (Old Style). He was buried in the
+chancel of Stratford Church, and on the grave may still be read the much
+discussed lines:
+
+    Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbeare
+    To dig the dust enclosed heare;
+    Bleste be the man that spares these stones,
+    And curst be he that moves my bones.
+
+William Hall, who visited Stratford in 1694, records the tradition that
+the poet himself composed the lines in a style calculated to impress
+sextons and prevent them from digging up his bones and throwing them
+into the adjacent charnel house. However this may be, the grave has
+remained unopened.
+
+[Page Heading: Death and Burial]
+
+Seven years later, thirty-six of Shakespeare's plays were collected by
+two of his former colleagues of the theater, Heming and Condell, whom he
+had remembered in his will, and published in the famous First Folio.
+The preliminary documents in this volume, printed in our appendix, close
+significantly the contemporary records of the man, and bind together the
+burgess of Stratford with the actor of London and the dramatist of the
+world.
+
+Of Shakespeare's handwriting nothing that can be called his with
+complete assurance has survived except six signatures; one to the
+deposition in the matter of the Mountjoy marriage; one to the deed of
+the house he bought in Blackfriars in 1613, one to the mortgage-deed on
+the same house, executed on the day after the purchase, and one on each
+of the three sheets of paper containing his will, the last of which has
+in addition the words "By me." All six are somewhat crabbed specimens of
+the old English style of handwriting, which is the character he would
+naturally acquire in such a school as that at Stratford in the sixteenth
+century, as we learn from surviving examples of the copy-books of the
+period. The manuscripts of his plays have gone the way of all, or almost
+all, the autographs of the men of letters of his time, nor is it likely
+that future research will add materially to what we have. The exact
+signatures, though it is difficult to be certain of all the letters,
+seem to show a variation in spelling--Shakspere, Shakespere, or
+Shakspeare. His father's name appears in the records of the town in
+sixteen different forms, an illustration of the inconsistency in the
+orthography of proper names, as of other words, which was common with
+people of that time of greater worldly consequence and education than
+the poet or his father. The form of the name used in the present edition
+is that which generally appears on the title-pages of plays ascribed to
+him; it is that which he himself used in signing the dedications of his
+two poems to the Earl of Southampton; it is that which occurs in the
+legal documents having to do with his property; and it is the common
+spelling in the literary allusions of the seventeenth century.
+
+[Page Heading: Signatures and Portraits]
+
+[Illustration: THREE AUTOGRAPH SIGNATURES WRITTEN BY SHAKESPEARE ON
+THREE SHEETS OF HIS WILL
+
+From the document now at Somerset House, London]
+
+Our knowledge of Shakespeare's personal appearance is also far from
+being definite. The bust on the monument in the church at Stratford was
+cut apparently before 1623 by a Dutch stone cutter called Gerard
+Janssen. It was originally colored; probably the eyes light hazel, and
+the hair auburn. Its crude workmanship renders it unreliable as a
+likeness. The frontispiece to the First Folio was engraved for that work
+by Martin Droeshout, who was only twenty-two years old at the time, so
+that he is more likely to have made it from a portrait than from memory.
+No portrait has been found that seems actually to have served this
+purpose, though there are resemblances between the engraving and the
+portrait, dated 1609, presented to the Memorial Picture Gallery at
+Stratford by Mrs. Charles Flower. The numerous other portraits that have
+been claimed as likenesses of the dramatist have varying degrees of
+probability, but none has a pedigree without a flaw. Those with most
+claim to interest are the Ely Palace portrait, the Chandos portrait,
+the Garrick Club bust, and the Kesselstadt death-mask.[2]
+
+[2] See frontispieces in the Tudor Shakespeare to editions of _Henry V_
+(Droeshout original), _King Lear_ (Ely Palace), _Romeo and Juliet_
+(Chandos), _Pericles_ (Garrick Club bust), and _The Tempest_
+(Death-mask). The Stratford Monument and the Droeshout engraving are
+reproduced in the present volume.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Such is the very considerable body of authenticated facts about the life
+of Shakespeare. Lacking though they are in intimate and personal
+touches, they can hardly be said to leave the main outlines of his
+career shadowy or mysterious. But they do not by any means exhaust the
+data at our disposal for forming an impression of the poet's
+personality. A large mass of tradition, of less than legal validity but
+much of it of a high degree of probability, has come down to us, the
+sources of which may now be detailed.
+
+In the seventeenth century we have several biographical and critical
+collections in which Shakespeare figures, the most important being
+these: Fuller's _Worthies of England_ (1662), Aubrey's _Lives of Eminent
+Men_ (compiled 1669-1696), Phillips's _Theatrum Poetarum_ (1675), and
+Langbaine's _English Dramatic Poets_ (1691). The two last are for
+strictly biographical purposes negligible, though interesting as early
+criticism. Fuller began his work in 1643, so that he may be supposed to
+have had access to oral tradition from men who actually knew
+Shakespeare. He gives few facts, but some hints as to temperament.
+"Though his genius generally was jocular and inclining him to
+festivity, yet he could, when so disposed, be solemn and serious....
+Many were the wit-combats betwixt him and Ben Jonson; which two I beheld
+like a Spanish great galleon and an English man-of-war; master Jonson
+(like the former) was built far higher in learning; solid, but slow, in
+his performances. Shakespeare, with the English man-of-war, lesser in
+bulk, but lighter in sailing, could turn with all tides, tack about, and
+take advantage of all winds, by the quickness of his wit and invention."
+
+[Page Heading: Sources of Traditions]
+
+Among the actors who, with Shakespeare, took part in the first
+production of Jonson's _Every Man in His Humour_ was Christopher
+Beeston, who when he died in 1637 was manager of the Cockpit Theater in
+Drury Lane. He was succeeded in this office by his son William, who
+became in his old age the revered transmitter to Restoration players and
+playwrights of the traditions of the great age in which he had spent his
+youth. From him, and from another actor of the same period, John Lacy,
+as well as from other sources, the antiquary John Aubrey collected
+fragments of gossip for his lives of the English poets. According to
+Aubrey's notes, confused and unequal in value, Shakespeare "did act
+exceeding well"; "understood Latin pretty well, for he had been in his
+younger years a schoolmaster in the country"; "was a handsome,
+well-shaped man, very good company, and of a very ready and pleasant
+smooth wit." It is Aubrey, too, that reports that John Shakespeare was
+a butcher, and he adds, "I have been told heretofore by some of the
+neighbours that when he was a boy he exercised his father's trade....
+When he killed a calf, he would doe it in a high style and make a
+speech. There was at that time another butcher's son in this towne, that
+was held not at all inferior to him for a naturall wit, his
+acquaintance, and coetanean, but dyed young." The same writer is
+authority for the statement that it was at Grendon, near Oxford, on the
+road from Stratford to London, that the dramatist "happened to take the
+humour of the constable in Midsummer Night's Dream"--a remark that may
+refer loosely either to Bottom and his friends, or to Dogberry and
+Verges. He also ascribes to the poet an apocryphal epigram on a
+Stratford usurer, John Combe.
+
+The Rev. John Ward, vicar of Stratford-on-Avon for 1662 to 1668, kept
+about the time of his coming to this charge a diary in which he relates
+certain echoes of the conversation of the town at a time when the poet's
+nephews were still living there. From him we hear that in his elder days
+Shakespeare retired to Stratford; that in his most active period he
+wrote two plays a year; that he spent at the rate of £1000 a year; and
+that his death was due to a fever following a "merry meeting" in
+Stratford with Jonson and Drayton.
+
+An additional reference to the tradition of Shakespeare's convivial
+tendencies is to be found in the legend of his visit to Bidford, six
+miles from Stratford, with a group of cronies to compare capacities
+with the Bidford Drinkers. According to the earliest version of this
+somewhat widespread tale, that of a visitor to Stratford in 1762, "he
+enquired of a shepherd for the Bidford Drinkers, who replied they were
+absent but the Bidford sippers were at home, and, I suppose, continued
+the sheepkeeper, they will be sufficient for you; and so, indeed, they
+were; he was forced to take up his lodging under that tree [the
+crab-tree, long pointed out] for some hours."
+
+[Page Heading: Traditions]
+
+The earliest description of Shakespeare as "a glover's son" is found in
+the memoranda of Archdeacon Plume of Rochester, written about 1656.
+Plume adds, "Sir John Mennes saw once his old father in his shop--a
+merry cheeked old man that said, 'Will was a good honest fellow, but he
+darest have crackt a jeast with him at any time.'" No Sir John Mennes
+who could have seen John Shakespeare is known, but the saying may well
+be the echo of contemporary gossip.
+
+A manuscript preserved at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, contains
+certain notes made before 1688 by the Rev. William Fulman. Among them
+are interpolated others (given here in italics) by the Rev. Richard
+Davies previously to 1708. "William Shakespeare was born at
+Stratford-on-Avon in Warwickshire about 1563-4. _Much given to all
+unluckinesse in stealing venison and rabbits, particularly from Sr. ...
+Lucy, who had him whipt and sometimes imprisoned, and at last made him
+fly his native country to his great advancement; but his reveng was so
+sweet that he is his Justice Clodpate, and calls him a great man, and
+that in allusion to his name bore three lowses rampant for his arms._
+From an actor of playes he became a composer. He dyed Apr. 23, 1616,
+ætat 53, probably at Stratford, for there he is buried, and hath a
+monument (Dugd. p. 520), _on which he lays a heavy curse upon any one
+who shall remove his bones. He dyed a papist."_ The inaccuracy of
+Davies's version of facts otherwise known warns us against too great a
+reliance on his individual contribution.
+
+A certain John Dowdall left a short account of places he visited in
+Warwickshire in 1693. He describes the monument and tombstone, giving
+inscriptions, and adds, "The clarke that shew'd me this church is above
+80 years old; he says that this Shakespeare was formerly in this towne
+bound apprentice to a butcher, but that he run from his master to
+London, and there was received into the play-house as a serviture, and
+by this means had an opportunity to be what he afterwards prov'd. He was
+the best of his family, but the male line is extinguished. Not one for
+feare of the curse abovesaid dare touch his gravestone, tho his wife and
+daughters did earnestly desire to be leyd in the same grave with him."
+The traditional explanation of the curse as reported by William Hall,
+has already been given (p. 35).
+
+[Page Heading: Rowe's Biography]
+
+The first regular biography of Shakespeare is that by Nicholas Rowe,
+written as a preface to his edition of the plays which, issued in 1709,
+stands at the beginning of modern Shakespearean interpretation. Though
+compiled nearly a century after the poet's death, Rowe's life has claims
+upon our credit more substantial than might be expected. His chief
+source of information was the great actor Betterton, a Shakespeare
+enthusiast, who had himself taken pains to accumulate facts concerning
+his hero. Much of Betterton's material came to him through John Lowin
+and Joseph Taylor, two actors who had been colleagues of Shakespeare's
+and who lived into the Restoration period. According to John Downes, a
+theatrical prompter in the end of the seventeenth century, these
+veterans brought to the new generation the actual instruction they had
+received from the dramatist himself on the playing of the parts
+respectively of Henry VIII and Hamlet. Theatrical and other traditions
+reached Rowe also through Sir William D'Avenant, the leading figure in
+the revival of the stage after 1660. D'Avenant's father was host of the
+Crown Inn at Oxford, where, according to the statements of Aubrey and of
+Anthony Wood in 1692, Shakespeare was accustomed to put up on his
+journeys between London and Stratford. Wood reports that the elder
+D'Avenant was a "man of grave and saturnine disposition, yet an admirer
+of plays and play-makers, especially Shakespeare," and that Mrs.
+D'Avenant was "a very beautiful woman, of a good wit and conversation."
+William D'Avenant was generally reputed to be Shakespeare's godson, and
+Aubrey, whose gossip must be accepted with great hesitation, says that
+he was not averse to being taken as his son. In spite of the fact of
+this scandal's appearance in various seventeenth century anecdotes, the
+more careful account of the D'Avenants by Wood points to its rejection.
+The story is usually linked with another recorded by the lawyer
+Manningham in his Diary, March 13, 1602, that Burbage, who had been
+playing Richard III, was overheard by Shakespeare making an appointment
+with a lady in the audience. When the tragedian arrived at the
+rendez-vous, he found Shakespeare in possession; and on knocking was
+answered that "William the Conqueror was before Richard the Third."
+
+To return to the D'Avenants, the elder son, Robert, used to tell that
+when he was a child Shakespeare had given him "a hundred kisses." Sir
+William was Rowe's authority for the statement that the Earl of
+Southampton once gave the poet £1000 "to enable him to go through with a
+purchase which he heard he had a mind to"; but no purchase of this
+magnitude by Shakespeare is recorded. D'Avenant himself was said to own
+a complimentary letter written to Shakespeare by James I, and the
+publisher Lintot says that the Duke of Buckinghamshire claimed to have
+examined the document. The story about Shakespeare's first connection
+with the theater consisting in his holding horses outside, told first in
+a manuscript note preserved in the Library of the University of
+Edinburgh, 1748, is also credited to D'Avenant. According to this
+tradition, frequently repeated, the future dramatist organized a regular
+corps of boys and monopolized the business, so that "as long as the
+practice of riding to the play-house continued the waiters that held the
+horses retained the appellation of Shakespeare's Boys."
+
+[Page Heading: Further Traditions]
+
+Many of the natural inferences to be drawn from the data in the first
+part of the chapter are given by Rowe as facts. Thus he states
+positively that Shakespeare attended a free school, from which he was
+withdrawn owing to "the narrowness of his circumstances, and the want of
+assistance at home." He repeats the deer-stealing anecdote, with further
+detail. As to his acting, Rowe reports, "Tho' I have inquir'd, I could
+never meet with any further account of him this way than that the top of
+his performance was the ghost in his own Hamlet." He corroborates the
+general contemporary opinion of Shakespeare's fluency and spontaneity in
+composition. As to his personality, he says, "Besides the advantages of
+his wit, he was in himself a good-natur'd man, of great sweetness in his
+manners and a most agreeable companion." Rowe credits Shakespeare with
+having prevented his company from rejecting one of Jonson's plays at a
+time when Jonson was altogether unknown, and is inclined to consider the
+latter ungenerous in his critical remarks on Shakespeare.
+
+William Oldys, in his manuscript _Adversaria_, now in the British
+Museum, reports a few further fragments of gossip, the chief of which
+is that Shakespeare's brother Gilbert was discovered still living about
+1660 and was questioned by some actors as to his memory of William. All
+he could give them was a vague recollection of his having played the
+part of Adam in _As You Like It_.
+
+Such are the most significant details which tradition, unauthenticated
+but often plausible, has added to our knowledge of the documents. There
+exists also a very considerable amount of literary allusion to
+Shakespeare's productions from 1594 onwards, which is easily accessible
+in collected form. The most notable of these are the comments of his
+friend and contemporary, Ben Jonson. Besides the splendid eulogy
+prefixed to the First Folio, Jonson talked of Shakespeare's lack of art
+to Drummond of Hawthornden, and expressed himself with affection and
+discrimination in the famous passage in _Timber_.
+
+After all allowances have been made for the inaccuracies of oral
+tradition, we may safely gather from those concerning Shakespeare some
+inferences which help to clothe the naked skeleton of the documented
+facts. It is clear that, within a generation after Shakespeare's death,
+common opinion both in Stratford and London recognized that in the actor
+and dramatist a great man had passed away, that he had been in a worldly
+sense highly successful, though starting from unpropitious beginnings,
+that he wrote with great swiftness and ease, and that in his personal
+relations he was gentle, kindly, genial, and witty. That the bailiff's
+son who returned to his native town as a prosperous gentleman, is to be
+identified with the actor and shareholder of the London theaters, and
+with the author of the plays and poems, it is difficult to see how there
+can remain any reasonable doubt; and, though the facts which prove this
+identity contain little to illuminate the vast intellect and soaring
+imagination which created Hamlet and Lear, they contain nothing
+irreconcilable with the personality, which these creations imply rather
+than reveal.
+
+[Page Heading: Evidence of the Sonnets]
+
+One further source of information about Shakespeare's personality has
+figured largely in some biographies. The _Sonnets_ were published in
+1609, evidently without Shakespeare's coöperation or consent, with a
+dedication by the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, to a Mr. W. H., "the onlie
+begetter of these insuing sonnets." All attempts to identify this Mr. W.
+H. have failed. He may have been merely the person who procured the
+manuscript for Thorpe, though the language of the dedication seems to
+imply that he was the young gentleman who is the subject of a
+considerable number of the poems. Of this young gentleman and of a dark
+lady who seems to have been the occasion of other of the sonnets, much
+has been written, but no facts of Shakespeare's life have been
+established beyond those which are obvious to every reader: that
+Shakespeare wrote admiring and flattering sonnets to a young man who is
+urged to marry (and who may have been the Earl of Southampton, or an
+unknown Mr. W. H., or another); and that he treats of an intrigue with
+some unknown woman. The identification of the young man of the first
+seventeen sonnets with other friends who are praised in later sonnets is
+not certain, though in some cases probable; and much research and
+conjecture have entirely failed to make clear the relations between the
+poet, the rival poet, the lady, and the friend. The _Sonnets_ furnish us
+with no knowledge of Shakespeare's personal affairs, and only a meager
+basis even for gossip as to some of his experiences with men and women.
+
+Another kind of inquiry has sought to discover in the sonnets not facts
+or incidents of Shakespeare's life, but indications of his emotional
+experiences. The results of such inquiry are manifestly outside the
+scope of this chapter. For their discussion, the reader must be referred
+to Professor Alden's introduction to the Tudor edition of the _Sonnets_.
+Shakespeare's personality as it is reflected from his works will also be
+considered in the concluding chapter of this volume. So much stress,
+however, has been placed on interpretations of the sonnets, and these
+have so often occupied an exaggerated place in his biography, that it
+may be worth while to remark that whether these lyrical poems are
+genuine and personal or are conventional and literary, and whether they
+make the poet more clearly discernible or not, they must certainly be
+taken not alone by themselves, but in connection with the dramas as
+affording us an impression of the man who wrote them. Of the sonnets,
+it may be said in almost the same words just now used of the documents
+and traditions, that whether they contain much or little to illuminate
+the vast intellect and soaring imagination which created Hamlet and
+Lear, they contain nothing irreconcilable with the personality which
+these creations imply rather than reveal.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+SHAKESPEARE'S READING
+
+
+We have called the present chapter "Shakespeare's Reading" rather than
+"The Learning of Shakespeare," because, apart from the famous line in
+which Ben Jonson stated that the poet had "small Latin and less Greek,"
+it is evident from the allusions throughout the plays that Shakespeare
+was a reader rather than a scholar. In other words, he used books for
+what interested him; he did not study them for complete mastery; and
+many and varied as are the traces of his literary interests, they have
+the air of being detached fragments that have stuck in a plastic and
+retentive mind, not pieces of systematic erudition. It is true that many
+books have been written to show that Shakespeare had the knowledge of a
+professional in law, medicine, navigation, theology, conveyancing,
+hunting and hawking, horsemanship, politics, and other fields; but such
+works are usually the products of enthusiasts in single subjects, who
+are apt to forget how much a man of acute mind and keen observation can
+pick up of a technical matter that interests him for the time, and how
+intelligently he can use it. The cross-examination of an expert witness
+by an able lawyer is an everyday illustration; and in the literature of
+our own day this kind of versatility is strikingly exemplified in the
+work of such a writer as Mr. Kipling.
+
+[Page Heading: School-Books]
+
+How Shakespeare learned to read and write his own tongue we do not know;
+that he did learn hardly needs to be argued. The free grammar school at
+Stratford-on-Avon, like other schools of its type, was named from its
+function of teaching Latin grammar; and we may make what is known of the
+curricula of such schools in the sixteenth century the basis for our
+inferences as to what Shakespeare learned there.
+
+The accidence, with which the course began, was studied in Lily's
+Grammar, and clear echoes of this well-known work are heard in the
+conversation between Sir Hugh Evans and William Page in _The Merry Wives
+of Windsor_, IV. i, in _1 Henry IV_, II. i. 104, in _Much Ado_, IV. i.
+22, in _Love's Labour's Lost_, IV. ii. 82 (and perhaps, V. i. 10 and
+84), in _Twelfth Night_, II. iii. 2, in _The Taming of the Shrew_, I. i.
+167,--a line of Terence altered by Lily,--and in _Titus Andronicus_, IV.
+ii. 20-23, where Demetrius reads two lines from Horace, and Chiron says,
+
+    O, 'tis a verse in Horace; I know it well.
+    I read it in the grammar long ago.
+
+Such fragments of Latin as we find in the dialogue between Holofernes
+and Nathaniel in _Love's Labour's Lost_, IV. ii, and V. i, are probably
+due to some elementary phrase-book no longer to be identified. It is to
+be noted how prominently this early comedy figures in the list of
+evidences of his school-day memories.
+
+Among the first pieces of connected Latin prose read in the Elizabethan
+schools was _Æsop's Fables_, a collection which, after centuries of
+rewriting and re-compiling for adults, had come in the sixteenth century
+to be regarded chiefly as a school-book, but allusions to which are
+everywhere to be found in the literature of the day. In _2 Henry VI_,
+III. i. 343, and _Richard II_, III. ii. 129, we find references to the
+fable of "The Countryman and a Snake"; in _2 Henry VI_, III. i. 69, and
+_Timon of Athens_, II. i. 28, to "The Crow in Borrowed Feathers"; in _2
+Henry VI_, III. i. 77, to "The Wolf in the Sheep's Skin"; in _King
+John_, II. i. 139, to "The Ass in the Lion's Skin"; in _Henry V_, IV.
+iii. 91, to "The Hunter and the Bear"; in _As You Like It_, I. i. 87, to
+"The Dog that Lost his Teeth"; in _All's Well_, II. i. 71, to "The Fox
+and the Grapes"; besides a number of slighter and less definite
+allusions. The most detailed fable in Shakespeare, that of "The Belly
+and the Members," in _Coriolanus_, I. i. 99, is derived, not from
+_Æsop_, but from Plutarch's _Life of Coriolanus_.
+
+The traces of the well-known collection of sayings from various writers
+called _Sententiæ Pueriles_, and of the so-called _Distichs of Cato_,
+both of which were commonly read in the second and third years, are only
+slight. Battista Spagnuoli Mantuanus, whose _Eclogues_, written about
+1500, had become a text-book, is honored with explicit mention as well
+as quotation in _Love's Labour's Lost_, IV. ii. 95. Cicero, who was read
+from the fourth year, has left his mark on only a phrase or two, in
+spite of his importance in Renaissance culture; but Ovid is much more
+important. The motto on the title-page of _Venus and Adonis_ is from the
+_Amores_, and the matter of the poem is from _Metamorphoses_, X. 519
+ff., with features from the stories of Hermaphroditus and Salmacis
+(_Meta._ IV. 285 ff.), and the hunting in Calydon (_Meta._ VIII. 270
+ff.). Ovid is quoted in Latin in three early plays; and even where a
+translation was available, the phrasing of Shakespeare's allusions
+sometimes shows knowledge of the original. Most of Ovid had been
+translated into English before Shakespeare began to write, and Golding's
+version of the _Metamorphoses_ (1567) was used for the references to the
+Actæon myth in _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_, IV. i. 107 ff., and for a
+famous passage in _The Tempest_, V. i. 33. Livy, who had been translated
+in 1545 according to Malone, seems to have been the chief source of
+_Lucrece_, with some aid from Ovid's _Fasti_, II. 721 ff. Among other
+Ovidian allusions are those to the story of Philomela, so pervasive in
+_Titus Andronicus_; to the Medea myth in four or five passages; to
+Narcissus and Echo, Phaeton, Niobe, Hercules, and a score more of the
+familiar names of classical mythology. Pyramus and Thisbe Shakespeare
+may have read about in Chaucer as well as in Ovid, but Bottom's
+treatment of this story in _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_ gives but a
+slight basis for proving literary relations.
+
+[Page Heading: Ovid]
+
+Virgil followed Ovid in the fifth year, and with Virgil, Terence. Of
+direct knowledge of the latter the plays bear no trace, but of the
+former there seems to be an influence in the description of the painting
+of Troy in _Lucrece_, 1366 ff., and in two short Latin sentences in _2
+Henry VI_, II. i. 24, and IV. i. 117. Horace, Plautus, Juvenal, Persius,
+and Seneca were the new authors taken up in the last years in school.
+All the Horace in the plays may have been taken from other works, like
+the passage already quoted from Lily's Grammar. Juvenal and Persius have
+left no mark. The _Menæchmi_ and _Amphitruo_ of Plautus furnish the
+basis for _The Comedy of Errors_, and no English translation of either
+of these is known before that of the _Menæchmi_ in 1595, which some
+critics think Shakespeare may have seen in manuscript. But no verbal
+similarities confirm this conjecture, and there is no reason why the
+dramatist should not have known both plays at first hand.
+
+The influence of Seneca is dramatically the most important among the
+classical authors. All the plays that go by his name had been translated
+into English in the first part of Elizabeth's reign; he was the main
+channel through which the forms of classical tragedy reached the
+Renaissance; and when Shakespeare began to write he was the dominant
+force in the field of tragedy. This makes it hard to say whether the
+Senecan features in _Titus Andronicus_, _Richard III_, and even
+_Hamlet_, are due to Seneca directly, or to the tradition already well
+established among Shakespeare's earlier contemporaries.
+
+[Page Heading: Results of Schooling]
+
+The impression which the evidence from the textbooks as a whole leaves
+on one is that Shakespeare took from school enough Latin to handle an
+occasional quotation[3] and to extract the plot of a play, but that he
+probably preferred to use a translation when one was to be had. The
+slight acquaintance shown with authors not always read at school,
+Caesar, Livy, Lucan, and Pliny, does not materially alter this
+impression. Much more conclusive as to the effect of his Latin training
+than the literary allusions are the numerous words of Latin origin
+either coined by Shakespeare, or used in such a way as to imply a
+knowledge of their derivation. The discovery of a lost translation may
+modify our views as to whether a particular author was used by him in
+the original, but the evidence from his use of Romance words gives clear
+proof that his schooling was no unimportant element in his mastery of
+speech.
+
+[3] See the list in the appendix to Schmidt's _Lexicon_.
+
+Greek was occasionally begun in the Elizabethan grammar school, but we
+do not know whether this was the case in Stratford. Certainly we have no
+reason to believe that Shakespeare could read Greek, as all his
+knowledge of Greek authors could have been obtained from translations,
+and only two Greek words, _misanthropos_ and _threnos_, occur in his
+writings. Yet no single author was so important in providing material
+for the plays as the Greek Plutarch. His _Lives of Julius Cæsar, Marcus
+Brutus, Marcus Antonius_, and _Caius Martius Coriolanus_, in Sir Thomas
+North's translation, are the direct sources of the great Roman
+tragedies, and in a less important way the _Lives of Antonius_ and
+_Alcibiades_ were used in _Timon of Athens_. Homeric elements are
+discoverable in _Troilus and Cressida_, which derives mainly from the
+medieval tradition. As the Trojan story was already familiar on the
+stage, these need not have come from Chapman's Homer. The knowledge of
+Lucian which seems implied in _Timon_ was probably not gained from the
+Greek original. The late Greek romances, which were popular in
+translation, may have been read by Shakespeare, since the reference to
+the "Egyptian thief" in _Twelfth Night_, V. i. 120, is from the
+_Æthiopica_ of Heliodorus, translated in 1569. Attempts have been made
+by the assembling of parallel passages to prove a knowledge of Greek
+tragedy on the part of Shakespeare, but such parallelisms are more
+naturally explained as coincidences arising from the treatment of
+analogous themes and situations.
+
+Of modern languages, French was the easiest for an Elizabethan
+Englishman to acquire, and the French passages and scenes in _Henry V_
+make it fairly certain that Shakespeare had a working knowledge of this
+tongue. Yet, as in the case of Latin, he seems to have preferred a
+translation to an original when he could find it. Montaigne, whose
+influence some have found pervasive in Shakespeare, he certainly used in
+Gonzalo's account of his ideal commonwealth in _The Tempest_, II. i.
+143 ff., but it seems that he employed Florio's translation here.
+Rabelais's Gargantua is explicitly mentioned in _As You Like It_, III,
+ii. 238, and the great humorist is possibly the inspirer of some of Sir
+Andrew's nonsense in _Twelfth Night_, II. iii. 23. Many of the Sonnets
+contain reminiscences of the French sonneteers of the sixteenth century,
+and it is thought that in some cases Shakespeare shows direct
+acquaintance with Ronsard. He was thus acquainted with the three
+greatest French writers of his century, and French may well have been
+the medium through which he reached authors in other languages.
+
+[Page Heading: French and Italian]
+
+The class of Italian literature with which Shakespeare shows most
+acquaintance is that of the _novelle_, though there is no proof that he
+could read the language. The _Decameron_ of Boccaccio contains the
+love-story of _Cymbeline_, though there may have been an intermediary;
+the plot of _All's Well_ came from the same collection, but had been
+translated by Painter in his _Palace of Pleasure_; and the story of the
+caskets in _The Merchant of Venice_ is found in a form closer to
+Shakespeare's in the English translation of the _Gesta Romanorum_ than
+in the _Decameron_. Thus we cannot conclude that the poet knew this work
+as a whole. Similarly with Bandello and Cinthio. The plot of _Much Ado_
+is found in the former, and is translated by Belleforest into French,
+but at least one detail seems to come from Ariosto, and here again an
+intermediary is commonly conjectured. The novel from Cinthio's
+_Hecatommithi_ which formed the basis of _Othello_ existed in a French
+translation; and his form of the plot of _Measure for Measure_ came to
+Shakespeare through the English dramatic version of George Whetstone.
+The version of the bond story in _The Merchant of Venice_ closest to the
+play is in _Il Pecorone_ of Sir Giovanni Fiorentino, but the tale is
+widespread. Incidents in _The Merry Wives_ have sources or parallels in
+the same work, in Straparola's _Piacevoli Notti_, and in Bandello, but
+in both cases English versions were available. A mass of Italian and
+French prototypes lies behind the plot of _Twelfth Night_, but most of
+the details are to be found in the English _Apolonius and Silla_ of
+Barnabe Riche, and there is reason to conjecture a lost English play on
+the subject. _The Taming of the Shrew_, based on an extant older play,
+draws also on Gascoigne's version of Ariosto's _I Suppositi_; and the
+echoes of Petrarch in the Sonnets may well have come through French and
+English imitators. The introduction of stock types from the Italian
+drama, such as the pedant and the braggart-soldier, can be accounted for
+by the previous knowledge of these in England, and does not imply a
+first-hand reading of Italian literature. The negative position is still
+stronger in the case of Spanish, where the use of episodes from George
+of Montemayor's _Diana_ in _The Two Gentlemen_, _Twelfth Night_, and _A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream_, can be supposed to be due to the author's
+having access to Yonge's translation in manuscript, especially since
+there is no other trace of Spanish influence.
+
+[Page Heading: Early English]
+
+The conclusion with regard to Italian and Spanish, then, seems to be
+that Shakespeare in his search for plots was aware of the riches of the
+_novelle_, but that he found what he wanted as a rule in English or
+French versions; and that we have no evidence of his knowledge of
+anything but fiction from these literatures.
+
+Turning now to English, we find Shakespeare's knowledge of books in his
+own tongue beginning after the Conquest. The romances of the Middle Ages
+were in the Elizabethan time rapidly undergoing the process of
+degradation that was soon to end in the chap-books, but the material was
+still widely known. The particular versions read by the dramatist can
+rarely be determined on account of the slight nature of most of the
+references, but we find allusions to the Arthurian romances, to _Guy of
+Warwick_, _Bevis of Hampton_, _The Squire of Low Degree_, Roland and
+Oliver, and to _Huon of Bordeaux_, from which last came the name of
+Oberon as king of the fairies. Among popular ballads, those of Robin
+Hood are frequently alluded to; the story of _King Cophetua and the
+Beggar Maid_ appears in no fewer than five plays; Hamlet knew a ballad
+on Jephtha's daughter, and Sir Toby one on the chaste Susanna. A large
+number of popular songs appear in fragments; and rimes and spells,
+current jests and anecdotes, combine with the fairy-lore of _A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream_, _Romeo and Juliet_, and _The Merry Wives_ to
+assure us that Shakespeare was thoroughly versed in the literature and
+traditions of the people.
+
+His acquaintance with more formal letters begins with Chaucer, whose
+_Knight's Tale_ contributed some details to _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_,
+and the main plot of _The Two Noble Kinsmen_, in which Shakespeare is
+now usually supposed to have had a hand. This story had, however, been
+already dramatized by Richard Edwardes. More certainly direct is his
+knowledge of Chaucer's _Troilus_, which, with Caxton's _Recuyell of the
+Historyes of Troye_, is the main source of _Troilus and Cressida_. The
+references to the leprosy of Cressida are due to Henryson's _Testament
+of Creseide_, a Scots sequel to Chaucer's poem, printed in the sixteenth
+century editions of the older poet's works. In the _Legend of Good
+Women_ he may have found the story of Pyramus, and a version of the
+tragedy of Lucrece, to supplement his main sources in Livy and Ovid.
+Chaucer's contemporary Gower contributed to his stock the story of
+Florent (_Taming of the Shrew_, I. ii. 69) from the _Confessio Amantis_,
+and from the same collection a version of the tale of _Apollonius of
+Tyre_, dramatized by Shakespeare and another in _Pericles_.
+
+[Page Heading: Contemporary Literature]
+
+With the non-dramatic literature produced by Shakespeare's
+contemporaries, we naturally find most evidence of his acquaintance in
+the case of those books which provided material for his plays. Thus the
+otherwise obscure Arthur Brooke, whose poem _Romeus and Juliet_ is the
+chief source of the tragedy, is much more prominent in such an
+enumeration as the present than he probably was in Shakespeare's view of
+the literature of the day. Painter, whose version of the same story in
+his _Palace of Pleasure_ cannot be shown to have been used much, if at
+all, by the dramatist, seems nevertheless to have been known to him; and
+we hardly need evidence that Shakespeare must have kept a watchful eye
+on similar collections of stories, such as Whetstone's, Riche's, and
+Pettie's. Of the greater writers of imaginative literature there is none
+missing from the list of those he knew, though, as has been implied, the
+evidence is not always proportionate to the greatness; and some
+prominent figures in other fields, such as Hooker and Bacon, do not
+appear. Spenser, who is supposed to have alluded to Shakespeare in
+_Colin Clout's come home again_ and, less probably, in _The Teares of
+the Muses_, is in turn alluded to in _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_, V. i.
+52; and his version of the story of Lear in _The Faerie Queene_, II. x,
+is believed to have given Shakespeare his form of the name Cordelia.
+Evidence is more abundant in the case of Sir Philip Sidney. The
+under-plot of _King Lear_ is based on the story of the blind king of
+Paphlagonia in the _Arcadia_, and Sidney's sonnets, along with those of
+Daniel, Drayton, Constable, Watson, and Barnes, formed the main channel
+through which the French and Italian influences reached Shakespeare's.
+However we may estimate the original element in his sonnets, and in our
+opinion it is very great, there is no question of the author's having
+had a thorough familiarity with contemporary sonnetteers.
+
+Similarly we can be certain that he had read many of the elaborate
+narrative poems then in vogue, a class to which he contributed _Venus
+and Adonis_, _Lucrece_, and _A Lover's Complaint_. Daniel's _Rosamond_
+and Marlowe's _Hero and Leander_ especially have left many traces, and
+Daniel's _Barons' Wars_ is intimately related to _Richard II_ and _Henry
+IV_. The longer prose fictions of the time he also watched, and Lyly's
+_Euphues_ contributed the germ of a number of passages, as Lodge's
+_Rosalynde_ and Greene's _Pandosto_ supplied the plots of _As You Like
+It_ and _The Winter's Tale_ respectively.
+
+Reference has already been made to his knowledge of folk beliefs about
+fairies. To this should be added other supernatural beliefs, especially
+as to ghosts, devils, and witches, evidence of his familiarity with
+which will occur to every one. Matters of this sort were much discussed
+in his time, the frequency of ghosts in Senecan plays having made them
+conspicuous in Elizabethan imitations, and religious controversy having
+stimulated interest in demonology. Several important books appeared on
+the subject, and one of these at least Shakespeare read, Harsnett's
+_Declaration of Egregious Popish Impostures_, for from it Edgar, as Poor
+Tom in _King Lear_, derived many of the names and phrases which occur in
+his pretended ravings.
+
+The most useful book in all his reading, if we judge by the amount of
+his work that is based on it, was the second edition of the _Chronicles
+of England, Scotland, and Ireland_, compiled by Raphael Holinshed. With
+it he used the work by Hall on _The Union of Lancaster and York_, the
+_Chronicles_ of Grafton and of Fabyan, and the _Annals_ of John Stowe.
+On these were based the greater number of the historical plays,
+_Macbeth_, and the political part of _Cymbeline_. In the case of _Henry
+VIII_ there should be added the _Acts and Monuments_, better known as
+the _Book of Martyrs_, of John Foxe.
+
+[Page Heading: Contemporary Drama]
+
+To deal adequately with Shakespeare's reading in the plays of his time
+would be to write a history of the Elizabethan drama. Older dramatists,
+like Preston, Gascoigne, and Whetstone, he knew, for he quotes
+_Cambyses_, and from the two last he derives material for the plots of
+_The Taming of the Shrew_ and _Measure for Measure_. Anonymous writers
+supplied the older plays on which he based _King John, King Lear_, and
+_Hamlet_, parts of _Henry V_ and _VI_, and of _Richard III_, and
+probably others. Allusions prove a familiarity with all of Marlowe's
+dramas; _Hamlet_ is indebted to the tradition of which Kyd was one of
+the founders; Lyly taught him much in the handling of light comic
+dialogue; and he quotes lines from Peele. Greene's contribution is less
+specifically marked; but Shakespeare's profession of acting, as well as
+that of play-writing, of necessity made him acquainted with the whole
+dramatic production of the time. Thus, as has been stated in a previous
+chapter, he acted in several of Jonson's plays, and a good case has been
+made out for his modelling his last comedies on the new successes of
+Beaumont and Fletcher.
+
+No Englishman of that day was insensible to what was going on in
+exploration and conquest of the Western World; and in _The Tempest_,
+_Othello_, and other plays we have clear ground for stating that
+Shakespeare shared this interest, and read books like Eden's _History of
+Travayle in the West and East Indies_, Raleigh's _Discoverie of Guiana_,
+and such pamphlets as were used in the vast compilation of Richard
+Hakluyt. The scientific knowledge implied in the plays reflects current
+beliefs, and must have been derived from such works as Pliny, _Batman
+uppon Bartholome his Booke De Proprietatibus Rerum_, and from
+conversation.
+
+Finally, Shakespeare knew his Bible. Several volumes have been written
+to exhibit the extent of this knowledge, and it has been shown by Anders
+that he knew both the Genevan and the Great Bible, as well as the Prayer
+Book.
+
+Taken all together, the amount of literature indicated by this summary
+account of the evidences in the plays and poems abundantly proves the
+statement that Shakespeare, if not a scholar, was a man of wide and
+varied reading. When it is further considered that only a fraction of
+what any author reads leaves a mark that can be identified on what he
+writes, we shall readily allow that in the matter of study Shakespeare
+showed an activity and receptivity of mind that harmonizes with the
+impression received from his creative work.
+
+[Page Heading: His Reading Typical]
+
+It agrees with our impressions of him derived from other sources also,
+that his reading reflects not so much idiosyncrasies of taste as the
+prevalent literary interests of the day. Thus in Latin literature the
+most conspicuous author among general readers, as distinguished from
+scholars, was Ovid, whose romantic narratives appealed to a time which
+reveled in tales gathered from all quarters; and this same prominence of
+Ovid has been shown to exist among the classical authors known to the
+dramatist. Similarly his use of chronicles like that of Holinshed merely
+reflects a widespread interest in national history; and Shakespeare
+shared the popular interest in the translations of _novelle_ and the
+like that poured in from the Continent. The age of Elizabeth was an age
+of great expansion in reading--especially in the literature of
+entertainment. For the first time since the introduction of printing the
+people were free to indulge in books as a recreation, and the enormous
+growth of publishing in this era indicates the response to the new
+demand. In all this Shakespeare took part, and the evidences appear in
+his works so far as the nature of their themes permitted it. But the
+drama gave no opportunity for anything but passing allusions to
+scientific, philosophical, and religious matters, so that direct
+evidence is lacking as to how far Shakespeare was acquainted with what
+was being written in these fields. On the other hand, the profundity of
+his insight into human motive and behavior, the evidences of prolonged
+and severe meditation on human life and the ways of the world, and the
+richness of the philosophical generalizations that lie just below the
+surface of his greater plays, make it difficult to believe that in these
+fields also he did not join in the intellectual activity of his day.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CHRONOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT
+
+
+The value of a knowledge of the order in which an author's works were
+composed no longer needs to be argued. The development of power and
+skill which such knowledge reveals is an important part of biography,
+and an individual work is more surely interpreted when we know the
+period and the circumstances of the author's life in which it was
+written, and what other works, by himself and his fellows, lie nearest
+in point of time. Without a knowledge of chronology, the indebtedness of
+contemporary authors to one another and the growth of literary forms
+cannot be determined.
+
+The fact, so often to be insisted upon, that at the beginning of
+Shakespeare's career stage plays were hardly regarded as literature at
+all and were not published by their authors, deprives us of the evidence
+usually afforded by date of publication. We are thus forced to have
+recourse to a variety of more or less casually recorded data, and to
+indications of differences of maturity in style and matter which are
+often much less clear than could be wished. Before giving the results of
+the research that has been pursued for a century and a half, it will be
+worth while to enumerate the most fruitful methods which have been
+employed, and the sorts of evidence available.
+
+Of purely external evidence, the chief kinds are these: records of the
+performance of plays in letters, diaries, accounts, and the like;
+quotation, allusion, imitation, or parody in other works; entries in the
+books of the Master of the Revels at Court, and in the Register of the
+Stationers' Company; dates on the title-pages of the plays themselves;
+facts and traditions about the life of the author; dates in the lives of
+actors and in the careers of companies known to have performed the
+plays, and in the histories of theaters in which they were presented.
+Instances of some of these are the manuscript which tells of a
+performance of _The Comedy of Errors_ at Gray's Inn in 1594; the diary
+of the quack, Dr. Simon Forman, who witnessed performances of _Macbeth,
+Cymbeline_, and _The Winter's Tale_ at the Globe in 1610 and 1611; the
+appreciation of Shakespeare, with a list of a dozen plays by him, in the
+_Palladis Tamia_[4] of Francis Meres, 1598; and the pamphlets on
+Somers's voyage to Virginia, which offered suggestions for _The
+Tempest_.
+
+[4] See Appendix A, 13.
+
+Partly external and partly internal are the evidences derived from
+allusions in the plays to current events, personal or political, such as
+the reference in the Prologue to _Henry V_ to the expedition of Essex to
+Ireland in 1599; references to other books, like the quotation from
+Marlowe in _As You Like It_, III. v. 82; references from one play of
+Shakespeare's to another, like the promise in the Epilogue to _2 Henry
+IV_ to "continue the story, with Sir John in it, and make you merry with
+fair Katherine of France."
+
+[Page Heading: Kinds of Evidence]
+
+The purely internal evidence is seldom as specific as the external, and
+requires to be handled with much judgment and caution. Most difficult in
+this class is the weighing of considerations of a moral or esthetic
+nature; for, though these are often powerful in their effect on the
+individual reader, they are usually incapable of proof to another person
+with different tastes and a different point of view. Of such tests,
+those afforded by a study of the methods used in the treatment of plot
+and in the development of character are perhaps the least subjective.
+Somewhat more palpable are the changing characteristics of style. The
+number and nature of classical allusions and Latin words and quotations;
+the kind and degree of elaboration of figures of speech, puns, conceits,
+and the like; diffuseness or concentration in the expression of thought;
+artificiality or lifelikeness in the treatment of dialogue; the use of
+prose or verse; the employment of oaths, checked by statute shortly
+after the accession of James I: these are the main aspects of style
+which can be used in determining, not exact dates, but the period of
+Shakespeare's activity within which a given work falls. More capable of
+mechanical calculation than the tests of either matter or style are
+those derived from changes in versification, though here too there is
+often a subjective element in the reckoning. The more important metrical
+tests include the following: the frequency of rhyme, whether in the
+heroic couplet or, as not uncommonly occurs in early plays, in
+alternates and even such elaborate arrangements as the sonnet; doggerel
+lines; alexandrines, or lines of twelve syllables; the presence of an
+extra syllable before a pause within the line; short lines, especially
+at the end of speeches; the substitution of other feet for the regular
+iambic movement of blank verse; weak and light endings; and, most
+valuable, the position of the pause in the line ("end-stopped" or "run
+on"), and feminine endings or hypermetrical lines, such as
+
+    "These many summers in a sea of glor-y."
+
+Many of these variable features were not consciously manipulated by the
+author; and, even when a general drift in a certain direction is clearly
+observable in his practice with regard to them, it is not to be assumed
+that his progress was perfectly regular, without leaps forward and
+occasional returns to an earlier usage. It is to be noted also that the
+subject and atmosphere of a particular play might induce a metrical
+treatment of a special kind, in which case the verse tests would yield
+evidence not primarily chronological at all. Nevertheless, when all
+allowances have been made and all due caution exercised, it will be
+found that the indications of the versification corroborate and
+supplement the external evidences in a valuable way.
+
+[Page Heading: Metrical Tests]
+
+
+TABLE I
+
+=========================================================================
+            |      |      |      |      |   %   |      |   %    |
+            |      |      |      |      |BLANK  |      |SPEECHES|NO. OF
+            |TOTAL |      |      |PENTA-|VERSE  |  %   |ENDING  |LIGHT
+            |NO. OF|      |BLANK |METER |W. FEM.|RUN-ON|WITHIN  |AND WEAK
+            |LINES |PROSE |VERSE |RHYMES|ENDINGS|LINES |THE LINE|ENDINGS
+------------+------+------+------+------+-------+------+--------+--------
+L. L. L.    | 2789 | 1086 |  579 | 1028 |   7.7 | 18.4 |  10.0  |    3
+C. of E.    | 1770 |  240 | 1150 |  380 |  16.6 | 12.9 |   0.6  |    0
+T. G. V.    | 2060 |  409 | 1510 |  116 |  18.4 | 12.4 |   5.8  |    0
+R. III      | 3599 |   55 | 3374 |  170 |  19.5 | 13.1 |   2.9  |    4
+K. J.       | 2553 |    0 | 2403 |  150 |   6.3 | 17.7 |  12.7  |    7
+R. & J.     | 3002 |  405 | 2111 |  486 |   8.2 | 14.2 |  14.9  |    7
+M. N. D.    | 2251 |  441 |  878 |  731 |   7.3 | 13.2 |  17.3  |    1
+R. II       | 2644 |    0 | 2107 |  537 |  11.0 | 19.9 |   7.3  |    4
+Merch.      | 2705 |  673 | 1896 |   93 |  17.6 | 21.5 |  22.2  |    7
+1 Hy. IV    | 3170 | 1464 | 1622 |   84 |   5.1 | 22.8 |  14.2  |    7
+2 Hy. IV    | 3437 | 1860 | 1417 |   74 |  16.3 | 21.4 |  16.8  |    1
+M. W. W.    | 3018 | 2703 |  227 |   69 |  27.2 | 20.1 |  20.5  |    1
+Hy. V       | 3320 | 1531 | 1678 |  101 |  20.5 | 21.8 |  18.3  |    2
+M. Ado.     | 2823 | 2106 |  643 |   40 |  22.9 | 19.3 |  20.7  |    2
+J. C.       | 2440 |  165 | 2241 |   34 |  19.7 | 19.3 |  20.3  |   10
+A. Y. L. I. | 2904 | 1681 |  925 |   71 |  25.5 | 17.1 |  21.6  |    2
+T. N.       | 2684 | 1741 |  763 |  120 |  25.6 | 14.7 |  36.3  |    4
+T. & C.     | 3423 | 1186 | 2025 |  196 |  23.8 | 27.4 |  31.3  |    6
+A. W. W.    | 2981 | 1453 | 1234 |  280 |  29.4 | 28.4 |  74.0  |   13
+Hml.        | 3924 | 1208 | 2490 |   81 |  22.6 | 23.1 |  51.6  |    8
+Meas.       | 2809 | 1134 | 1574 |   73 |  26.1 | 23.0 |  51.4  |    7
+Oth.        | 3324 |  541 | 2672 |   86 |  28.1 | 19.5 |  41.4  |    2
+Lear.       | 3298 |  903 | 2238 |   74 |  28.5 | 29.3 |  60.9  |    6
+Mcb.        | 1993 |  158 | 1588 |  118 |  26.3 | 36.6 |  77.2  |   23
+A. & C.     | 3064 |  255 | 2761 |   42 |  26.5 | 43.3 |  77.5  |   99
+Cor.        | 3392 |  829 | 2521 |   42 |  28.4 | 45.9 |  79.0  |  104
+Cym.        | 3448 |  638 | 2505 |  107 |  30.7 | 46.0 |  85.0  |  130
+W. T.       | 2750 |  844 | 1825 |    0 |  32.9 | 37.5 |  87.6  |  100
+Tmp.        | 2068 |  458 | 1458 |    2 |  35.4 | 41.5 |  84.5  |   67
+=========================================================================
+
+
+TABLE II
+
+COLLABORATED PLAYS
+
+=========================================================================
+            |      |      |      |      |   %   |      |   %    |
+            |      |      |      |      |BLANK  |      |SPEECHES|NO. OF
+            |TOTAL |      |      |PENTA-|VERSE  |  %   |ENDING  |LIGHT
+            |NO. OF|      |BLANK |METER |W. FEM.|RUN-ON|WITHIN  |AND WEAK
+            |LINES |PROSE |VERSE |RHYMES|ENDINGS|LINES |THE LINE|ENDINGS
+------------+------+------+------+------+-------+------+--------+--------
+1 Hy. VI    | 2693 |    0 | 2379 |  314 |   8.2 | 10.4 |   0.5  |  4
+2 Hy. VI    | 3032 |  448 | 2562 |  122 |  13.7 | 11.4 |   1.1  |  3
+3 Hy. VI    | 2904 |    0 | 2749 |  155 |  13.7 |  9.5 |   0.9  |  3
+T. And.     | 2525 |   43 | 2338 |  144 |   8.6 | 12.0 |   2.5  |  5
+T. of S.    | 2671 |  516 | 1971 |  169 |  17.7 |  8.1 |   3.6  | 14
+T. of A.    | 2358 |  596 | 1560 |  184 |  24.7 | 32.5 |  62.8  | 30 (S)
+Per.        | 2386 |  418 | 1436 |  225 |  20.2 | 18.2 |  71.0  | 82 (S)
+Hy. VIII    | 2754 |   67 | 2613 |   16 |  47.3 | 46.3 |  72.4  | 84 (S)
+T. N. K.    | 2734 |  179 | 2468 |   54 |  43.7 |      |        |
+=========================================================================
+
+The accompanying Tables[5] give the detailed results of investigations
+along these lines, and a study of the data therein contained will reveal
+both their possibilities and their limitations. In Tables I and II the
+order of the plays is approximately that of the dates of their
+composition (virtually the same as the dates of first performance). The
+second and third columns cannot be regarded as giving any clue to
+chronology, except that they show that in the dramas written under the
+influence of Marlowe prose is comparatively rare. Elsewhere Shakespeare
+employed prose for a variety of purposes: for low comedy, as in the
+tavern scenes in _Henry IV_, and the scenes in which Sir Toby figures in
+_Twelfth Night_; for repartee, as in the wit-combats of Beatrice and
+Benedick; for purely intellectual and moralizing speeches, such as
+Hamlet's over the skull of Yorick. On the other hand, highly emotional
+scenes are usually in verse, as are romantic passages like the
+conversation of Lorenzo and Jessica in the moonlight at Belmont, or the
+dialogues of Fenton and Anne Page, which contrast with the realistic
+prose of the rest of the _Merry Wives_ and also the artificial
+pastoralism of Silvius and Ph[oe]be in _As You Like It_. Few absolute
+rules can be laid down in the matter, but study of Shakespeare's
+practice reveals an admirable tact in his choice of medium.
+
+[5] The figures here given are based in columns 1, 2, 3, and 4 on the
+calculations of Fleay; in 5, 6, and 7 on those of König; and in 8 on
+those of Ingram. (S) = Shakespeare's scenes.
+
+[Page Heading: Metrical Tests]
+
+The frequency of rhyme, as shown in the fourth column, has more relation
+to date. While there is no very steady gradation, it is clear that in
+his earlier plays he used rhyme freely, while at the close of his career
+he had practically abandoned it. The large number of rhymes in _A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream_ and _Romeo and Juliet_ is accounted for mainly
+by the prevailing lyrical tone of a great part of these plays, while, on
+the other hand, in _All's Well_ it probably points to survivals of an
+earlier first form of this comedy. It ought to be noted that, in the
+figures given here, the rhyming lines in the play scene in _Hamlet_, the
+vision in _Cymbeline_, the masque in _The Tempest_, and the Prologue
+and Epilogue of _Henry VIII_ are not reckoned.
+
+More significant are the percentages in columns five, six, and seven.
+Before 1598, feminine endings never reach twenty per cent of the total
+number of pentameter lines; after that date they are practically always
+above that number, and show a fairly steady increase to the thirty-five
+per cent of _The Tempest_. The variations of run-on lines (which, of
+course, carry with them the frequency of pauses within the line, and
+inversely the growing rarity of end-stopped lines) are closely parallel
+to those of the feminine endings; while the increase in the proportion
+of speeches ending within the line is still more striking. In _The
+Comedy of Errors_ this phenomenon hardly occurs at all; in _The Tempest_
+it happens in over eighty-four per cent of the speeches, the increase
+being especially regular after 1598. Yet in some cases other causes are
+operative. Thus cuts and revisions of plays were apt to leave broken
+lines at the ends of speeches, and the comparatively high percentages in
+_Love's Labour's Lost_, _Romeo and Juliet_, and _All's Well_ are
+probably in part due to these causes.
+
+The phenomena recorded in the last column are peculiar. Previous to the
+date of _Macbeth_ it appears that Shakespeare practically avoided ending
+a line with light or weak words such as prepositions, conjunctions, and
+auxiliary verbs, but that from about 1606 to the end he employed them in
+proportions ranging from 3.53 per cent in _Antony and Cleopatra_ to
+7.14 per cent in his part of _Henry VIII_.
+
+[Page Heading: Risks of Error]
+
+The figures for plays not wholly written by Shakespeare are naturally
+less significant, and have therefore been given separately; yet, on the
+whole, they show the same general tendencies in the use of meter.
+
+It will be observed that while the developments suggested by the
+different columns are fairly consistent, they do not absolutely agree in
+any two cases, and can obviously be used, as has been said, only to
+corroborate other evidence in placing a play in a period, not to fix a
+precise year. Further, in the calculations involved, there are many
+doubtful cases calling for the exercise of individual judgment,
+especially as to what constitutes a run-on line, or a light or weak
+ending. Thus Professor Bradley differs from König in several cases as to
+the figures given in the seventh column, counting the percentage of
+speeches ending within the line as 57 for _Hamlet_, 54 for _Othello_, 69
+for _King Lear_, and 75 for _Macbeth_. For Acts III, IV, and V of
+_Pericles_, the 71 per cent is Bradley's, for which König's 17.1 is
+clearly a mistake. Serious as are such discrepancies, and suggestive of
+a need for a general re-counting of all the more significant phenomena,
+they are not so great as to shake the faith of any scholar who has
+seriously studied the matter in the usefulness of metrical tests as an
+aid in the settling of the chronology.
+
+
+TABLE III
+
+==========================================================================
+ PERIODS |       COMEDIES        |    HISTORIES    |       TRAGEDIES
+---------+-----------------------+-----------------+----------------------
+         | L. L. L.    1591      | 1 Hy. VI 1590-1 |
+         | C. of E.    1591      | 2 Hy. VI 1590-2 |
+    I    | T. G. of V. 1591-2    | 3 Hy. VI 1590-2 |
+         |                       | R. III   1593   |
+         |                       | K. J.    1593   | T. And.    1593-4
+---------+-----------------------+-----------------+----------------------
+         | M. N. D.    1594-5    | R. II    1595   | R. and J.  1594-5
+         | M. of V.    1595-6    |                 |
+         | T. of S.    1596-7    | 1 Hy. IV 1597   |
+   II    | M. W. of W. 1598      | 2 Hy. IV 1598   |
+         | M. Ado      1599      | Hy. V    1599   | J. Cæs.    1599
+         | A. Y. L. I. 1599-1600 |                 |
+         | Tw. N.      1601      |                 |
+---------+-----------------------+-----------------+----------------------
+         | T. & C.     1601-2    |                 |
+         | A. Well     1602      |                 |
+         | Meas.       1603      |                 | Ham.       1602, 1603
+         |                       |                 | Oth.       1604
+   III   |                       |                 | Lear       1605-6
+         |                       |                 | Mach.      1606
+         |                       |                 | T. of Ath. 1607
+         | Per.        1607-8    |                 | A. & Cl.   1607-8
+         |                       |                 | Cor.       1609
+---------+-----------------------+-----------------+----------------------
+         | Cymb.       1610      |                 |
+         | W. Tale     1611      |                 |
+   IV    | Temp.       1611      |                 |
+         | T. N. K.    1612-13   | Hy. VIII 1612   |
+         |                       |                 |
+==========================================================================
+
+[Page Heading: First Period]
+
+Table III gives a summary of the results of all the kinds of evidence
+available as recorded in the introduction to individual plays in the
+Tudor Shakespeare. The classification into Comedies, Histories, and
+Tragedies draws attention at once to the changes in the type of drama on
+which Shakespeare concentrated his main attention, and suggests the
+usual division of his activity into four periods. In the first of these,
+extending from the beginning of his writing (perhaps earlier than 1590)
+to the end of 1593, he attempted practically all the forms of drama then
+in vogue. Plays which were given him to revise, or in which he was
+invited to collaborate, may naturally be supposed to have preceded
+independent efforts, and his still undetermined share in _Henry VI_ is
+usually regarded as his earliest dramatic production. What he learned in
+this field of tragic history from his more experienced fellows may be
+seen in _Richard III_, in which he can be observed following in the
+footsteps of Marlowe in the treatment of meter, in the rhetorical and
+lyrical nature of the dialogue, and in the conception of the central
+character. Even less of his individual quality is to be discerned in the
+field of tragedy, for the most that can be claimed for him in _Titus
+Andronicus_ is the re-combination of the repellent episodes of that
+crude specimen of the tragedy of blood, and the rewriting of the lines
+which occasionally cloak the horrors with passages of poetry. If, as is
+unlikely, the first form of _Romeo and Juliet_ was written in this
+period, the extant form must show it so radically revised that it leaves
+us little ground for generalization as to his power in tragedy in this
+first period.
+
+It was in comedy that Shakespeare first showed originality. _Love's
+Labour's Lost_ is one of the few plays whose plots seem to have been due
+to his own invention; and full of sparkle and grace as it is, it bears
+obvious marks of the _tour de force_, the young writer's conscious
+testing of his powers in social satire, in comic situation, and most of
+all in verbal mastery and the manipulation of dialogue. In _The Comedy
+of Errors_ he had the advantage of a definite model in the well-defined
+type of the Plautian comedy; but here again in the doubling of the twins
+and the elaboration of the entanglements there are traces of the
+beginner's delight in technic for its own sake. The clearly contrasted
+types in the two pairs of heroes and heroines of _The Two Gentlemen of
+Verona_ point to a conscious effort in characterization, as the author's
+attention had been concentrated on dialogue and on situation in the
+other two comedies of this group. Thus, regarding the variety of kind
+and the nature of his achievement in these first eight or nine plays, we
+can hardly fail to acquiesce in the general opinion that views the first
+period as one of experiment.
+
+[Page Heading: Second Period]
+
+The chronicle history was the Elizabethan dramatic form whose
+possibilities were first exhausted. _King John_ had been only a making
+over of an earlier work, and perhaps the most significant single change
+Shakespeare made was the excision of the anti-Romanist bias which in the
+older play had made John a Protestant hero. Yet this history voices,
+too, in the speeches of Faulconbridge, that patriotic enthusiasm which
+finds fuller expression in the dying Gaunt's eulogy of England in
+_Richard II_, and culminates in the triumphant heroics of _Henry V_.
+This national enthusiasm, especially ebullient in the years following
+the Great Armada, is justly to be regarded as an important condition of
+the flourishing of these plays on English history; and it is natural to
+suppose that the ebbing of this spirit in the closing years of
+Elizabeth's reign is not unconnected with the decline of this dramatic
+type. There are, however, other causes clearly perceptible. The material
+was nearly exhausted. Almost every prominent national figure for the
+three hundred years before the founding of the Tudor dynasty had been
+put upon the stage; and to come down to more recent times was to meddle
+with matters of controversy, the ashes of which were not yet cold. The
+reign of Henry VIII was not touched till after the death of Elizabeth,
+and the nature of the treatment given to the court of her father by
+Shakespeare and Fletcher corroborates our view. Further, the growing
+mastery of technic which is so clearly perceptible in the comedies of
+the second period must have been accompanied by a restlessness under the
+hampering conditions as to the manipulation of character and plot which
+were imposed by the less plastic material of the chronicles. Some effort
+towards greater freedom the dramatist made in the later histories. The
+earlier plays of this class had been prevailingly tragic; but now he
+supplemented and enlivened the political element with the comic scenes
+which gave us Falstaff; yet these scenes, brilliant as they are in
+dialogue and superb in characterization, are of necessity little more
+than episodes. The form had served its purpose as an outlet for national
+feeling, but it was now outgrown. So distinguished, however, is
+Shakespeare's achievement in this kind that we might be almost justified
+in calling this second period that of the culmination of the chronicle
+history.
+
+The main objection to this title lies in his contemporary
+accomplishment in comedy. _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_ and _The Merchant
+of Venice_, the one in its graceful poetic fancy and dainty lyricism,
+the other in its balanced treatment of all the elements of dramatic
+effectiveness--action, character, and dialogue,--exhibit the dramatist
+in complete control of his technical instruments, the creator of
+masterpieces of romantic comedy. _The Taming of the Shrew_ is a more or
+less perfunctory revision, probably in collaboration, of an older farce
+comedy; _The Merry Wives of Windsor_ bears on its face corroboration of
+the tradition that it was written to order in a fortnight. The power in
+high comedy first fully shown in _The Merchant of Venice_ reaches its
+supreme pitch in the three plays composed at the turn of the century,
+_Much Ado about Nothing_, _As You Like It_, and _Twelfth Night_. In each
+of these a romantic love-tale, laid in some remote holiday world, is
+taken up, given a specific atmosphere, acted out by a group of
+delightful creations who are endowed with intellect, wit, and natural
+affection, bathed in poetic imagination, and yet handled with sufficient
+naturalism to awaken and hold our human sympathies. No more purely
+delightful form of dramatic art has ever been contrived; none has ever
+been treated so as to yield more fully its appropriate charm; so that in
+view of the completeness of the artist's success we are bound to call
+the period which closed with the first year of the seventeenth century
+the triumph of comedy.
+
+[Page Heading: Third Period]
+
+_Julius Cæsar_, the first of the plays dealing with Roman history, may
+have been written before 1600, but, whether it preceded _Hamlet_ by one
+year or three, it forms a gradual introduction to the group of the great
+tragedies. Masterly as it is in its delineation of types, rich in
+political wisdom and the knowledge of human nature, splendid in
+rhetoric, it still fails to rise to the intensity of passion that marks
+the succeeding dramas. In _Hamlet_, _Othello_, _King Lear_, and
+_Macbeth_, Shakespeare at length faced the great fundamental forces that
+operate in individual, family, and social life, realized especially
+those that make for moral and physical disaster, took account alike of
+the deepest tendencies in character and of the mystery of external fate
+or accident, exhibited these in action and reaction, in their simplicity
+and their complexity, and wrought out a series of spectacles of the pity
+and terror of human suffering and human sin without parallel in the
+modern world. In these stupendous tragedies he availed himself of all
+the powers with which he was endowed and all the skill which he had
+acquired. His verse has liberated itself from the formalism and monotony
+that had marked it in the earlier plays, and is now free, varied,
+responsive to every mood and every type of passion; the language is
+laden almost to the breaking point with the weight of thought; the
+dialogue ranges from the lightest irony to heart-rending pathos and
+intolerable denunciation; the characters lose all semblance of
+artificial creations and challenge criticism and analysis like any
+personage in history; the action is pregnant with the profoundest
+significance. Hardly, if at all, less powerful are the later tragedies
+of the Roman group. _Antony and Cleopatra_ is unsurpassed for the
+intensity of its picture of passion, for its superb mastery of language,
+for its relentless truth. The more somber scenes of _Coriolanus_ convey
+a tragedy which either on its personal or its political side scarcely
+yields to its predecessors in poignancy and gloom. Whatever else he may
+have written in these years, here is surely the period of tragedy.
+
+Nor do the plays classed as comedies and falling in the first three
+years of the new century seriously modify this impression of the
+prevailing tone of the period. _Troilus and Cressida_, _All's Well that
+Ends Well_, and _Measure for Measure_ present a marked contrast to the
+romantic comedy of the preceding stage. The love-story of the first
+deals with a coquette and ends sordidly; while in the political plot,
+though it gives occasion for speeches full of weighty thinking, jealousy
+and intrigue overwhelm the heroic element. The second, alone of
+Shakespeare's comedies, has a hero who is a rake; and, skilful as is the
+delineation of Helena, it needs all the dramatist's power to hold our
+sympathy and to force us to an unwilling assent to the title. _Measure
+for Measure_ has its scene laid in a city seething in moral corruption:
+out of this rises the central situation of the play; and the presence of
+the most idealistic of Shakespeare's heroines does not avail to
+counterbalance the atmosphere of sin and death that mocks the
+conventional happy ending, and makes this play, even more than the two
+others, seem more in place among the tragedies than among the comedies.
+
+[Page Heading: Fourth Period]
+
+The plays of the last period are, in the Folio, classed with comedies,
+and such no doubt they are if judged merely by the nature of their
+dénouements. But if we consider their characteristic note, and the fact
+that through the greater part of each play the forces and passions
+involved are rather those operative in tragedy than in comedy, we easily
+perceive why they have been classed as tragi-comedies or dramatic
+romances. _Pericles_ in many respects stands apart from the other three
+in nature as well as in date, for it is a dramatization of an old Greek
+romance, and in it the hand of another than Shakespeare is only too
+evident. Yet it shares with the others certain common features: like
+_The Tempest_ it has scenes at sea; all four deal with the separation
+and reuniting of families; all show us sympathetic figures deeply
+wronged and finally overcoming their injurers by forgiveness. The
+abounding high spirits of the earlier comedies are here replaced by a
+mood of calm assurance of the ultimate triumph of good and a placid
+faith that survives a rude acquaintance with the evil that is in men's
+hearts. No period has a more distinctive quality than this of the
+dramatic romances, in which the dramatist, on the eve of his retirement
+from London, gave his imagination free play, and in both character and
+action stamped his last creations with the mark of a lofty idealism.
+
+[Page Heading: Interpretation of Periods]
+
+The obvious fitness of this fourfold division into periods inevitably
+raises the question of its causes, and attempts at an answer have run
+along two main lines. One of these has been followed out with much
+eloquence and persuasiveness by Professor Dowden, whose phrases "In the
+Workshop," "In the World," "In the Depths," "On the Heights," to
+describe the four periods, point clearly enough to the kind of
+significance which he finds in the changes in mood and type of play.
+With the first of these phrases few will be disposed to quarrel. In his
+period of experiment Shakespeare's style was as yet comparatively
+unformed, and his attention was so much occupied with problems of
+technic that even the most psychological of critics finds here little
+revelation of personality, and must be content to describe the stage as
+one of professional apprenticeship. In the terms used of the three later
+periods, however, there is an implication that the tone and mood of the
+plays in each are the direct reflection of the emotional experiences
+through which the poet himself was passing at the period of their
+composition. But this is to take for granted a theory of the relation
+between artist and production which has against it the general testimony
+of creator and critic alike. It is not at the pitch of an emotional
+experience that an artist successfully transmutes his life into art, but
+in retrospect, when his recollective imagination reproduces his mood in
+a form capable of being expressed without being dissipated. Of course,
+Shakespeare must have lived and enjoyed and suffered intensely; but this
+does not commit us to a belief in an immediate turning to account of
+personal experience in the writing of drama. His boy, Hamnet, died in
+1596, about the time that he was writing _The Merchant of Venice_ and
+the rollicking farce of _The Taming of the Shrew_, and just before he
+conceived Falstaff; it was fourteen years later that he gave us the
+pathetic figure of the young Mamillius in _The Winter's Tale_. From all
+we know of his personal life, the years of _King Lear_ and _Othello_
+were years of abounding prosperity. The _lacrimæ rerum_ that touch the
+mind in these stupendous tragedies are the outcome of profound
+meditation and vivid imagination, not the accompaniment of a cry of
+instant pain. However we are to reconstruct the spiritual biography of
+Shakespeare, it is clear that it is by no such simple reading of his
+life in terms of his treatment of comic or tragic themes.
+
+The other line of explanation will suggest itself to any thoughtful
+student who contemplates the facts summed up in Chapter V on the
+Elizabethan drama. Whatever Shakespeare's preëminence in the quality of
+his work, he was not singular for innovations in kind. Not only are the
+plays of his experimental stage preceded by models easily discerned, but
+throughout his career one can see him eagerly taking up and developing
+varieties of drama on which less capable men had stumbled and for which
+the public had shown relish. Chronicle history, romantic comedy,
+tragedies of blood and revenge, dramatic romance, had all been invented
+by others, and Shakespeare never hesitated to follow their trail when it
+promised to lead to popular success. This does not mean that he did not
+put conscience into his work, but only that the change in type of play
+perceptible from period to period is more safely to be explained by
+changes of theatrical fashion and public taste than by conjectures as to
+the inner life of the dramatist. Nor are we prevented from finding here
+too that great good fortune as to occasion and opportunity that is
+needed, along with whatever natural endowment, to explain the
+achievement of Shakespeare. The return of the vogue of tragedy after he
+had attained maturity and seen life was indeed happy for him and for us;
+as was the rise of the imaginative type of dramatic romance when the
+storm and stress of his youth had gone by. Had the theatrical demand
+called for tragedy when Shakespeare was in the early thirties and light
+comedy when he was in the forties, it seems likely that he would have
+responded to the demand, though we can hardly suppose that the result
+would have been as fortunate as in the existing state of things it
+proved to be.
+
+[Page Heading: Dates of the Poems]
+
+The foregoing discussion has been confined to Shakespeare's plays; the
+poems present problems of their own. _Venus and Adonis_ (1593) and
+_Lucrece_ (1594), indeed, resemble the plays of the first period, with
+which they are contemporary, both in conforming to a familiar type then
+much in vogue, the re-telling in ornate style of classical legends drawn
+chiefly from Ovid, and in exhibiting marks of the conscious exercise of
+technical dexterity. They show the Shakespeare of the dramas mainly in
+their revelation of a remarkable power of detailed observation and their
+richness of phrase and fluency of versification. Vivid and eloquent
+though they are, they can hardly be regarded as affording a sure
+prophecy of the passion and power of characterization that mark his
+mature dramatic production.
+
+The case of the _Sonnets_ is very different. From Meres's mention of
+them in 1598 we know that some had been written and were being
+circulated in manuscript by that date, and certain critics have sought
+to assign the main body of them to the first half of the last decade of
+the sixteenth century. But they were not published till 1609, and many
+of the greatest strike a note of emotion more profound than can be heard
+before the date of _Hamlet_. In writing them, Shakespeare was, to be
+sure, following a vogue, but as Professor Alden has pointed out in his
+introduction to them in the Tudor Shakespeare, they stand apart in
+important respects from the ordinary sonnet sequences of the time. All
+our researches have failed to tell us to whom they were addressed, if,
+indeed, they were addressed to any actual person at all; it is hardly
+necessary to urge that Shakespeare was capable of profound and
+passionate utterance under the impulse of imagination alone. The
+probability is that they were produced at intervals over a period of
+perhaps a dozen years, and that they represent a great variety of moods,
+impulses, and suggestions. While some of them betray signs of youth and
+remind us of the apprentice workman of _Loves Labour's Lost_, others
+display in their depth of thought, intensity of feeling, and superb
+power of incisive and concentrated expression, the full maturity of the
+man and the artist. Hardly in the great tragedies themselves is there
+clearer proof of Shakespeare's supremacy in thought and language.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE ELIZABETHAN DRAMA
+
+
+Shakespeare's lifetime was coincident with a period of extraordinary
+activity and achievement in the drama. By the date of his birth Europe
+was witnessing the passing of the religious drama that had held its
+course for some five centuries, and the creation of new and mixed forms
+under the incentive of classical tragedy and comedy. These new forms
+were at first mainly written by scholars and performed by amateurs, but
+in England, as everywhere else in western Europe, the growth of a class
+of professional actors was threatening to make the drama popular,
+whether it should be new or old, classical or medieval, literary or
+farcical. Court, school, organizations of amateurs, and the strolling
+actors were all rivals in supplying a widespread desire for dramatic
+entertainment; and no boy who went to a grammar school could be ignorant
+that the drama was a form of literature which gave glory to Greece and
+Rome and might yet bestow its laurels on England.
+
+When Shakespeare was twelve years old the first public playhouse was
+built in London. For a time literature held aloof from this public
+stage. Plays aiming at literary distinction were written for schools or
+court, or for the choir boys of St. Paul's and the royal chapel, who,
+however, gave plays in public as well as at court. But the professional
+companies prospered in their permanent theaters, and university men with
+literary ambitions were quick to turn to these theaters as offering a
+means of livelihood. By the time that Shakespeare was twenty-five, Lyly,
+Peele, and Greene had made comedies that were at once popular and
+literary; Kyd had written a tragedy that crowded the pit; and Marlowe
+had brought poetry and genius to triumph on the common stage--where they
+had played no part since the death of Euripides. A native literary drama
+had been created, its alliance with the public playhouses established,
+and at least some of its great traditions had been begun.
+
+The development of the Elizabethan drama for the next twenty-five years
+is of exceptional interest to students of literary history, for in this
+brief period, in connection with the half-dozen theaters of a growing
+city and the demands of its varied population, we may trace the
+beginning, growth, florescence, and decay of many kinds of plays, and of
+many great careers. Actors, audiences, and dramatists all contributed to
+changes in taste and practice and to a development of unexampled
+rapidity and variety. In every detail of dramatic art there was change
+and improvement, a constant addition of new subject-matter, a mastery of
+new methods of technic, and an invention of new kinds of plays. The
+popular successes of Marlowe and Kyd and the early plays of Shakespeare
+himself seemed old-fashioned and crude to the taste of twenty years
+after, yet the triumphs of Shakespeare's maturity failed to exhaust the
+opportunities for innovation and advance. We are amazed to-day at the
+mere number of plays produced, as well as by the number of dramatists
+writing at the same time for this London of two hundred thousand
+inhabitants. To realize how great was the dramatic activity, we must
+remember further that hosts of plays have been lost, and that probably
+there is no author of note whose entire work has survived. By the time,
+however, that Shakespeare withdrew from London to Stratford the drama
+had reached its height. The dozen years from 1600 to 1612 included not
+only Shakespeare's great tragedies, but the best plays of Jonson,
+Chapman, and Webster, and the entire collaboration of Beaumont and
+Fletcher. The only other decades comparable with this in the history of
+the drama are that which heard plays by Sophocles, Euripides, and
+Aristophanes and that other which saw the masterpieces of Racine and
+Molière.
+
+[Page Heading: Elizabethan Drama]
+
+The greatness of the drama, however, by no means ended with the
+retirement and death of Shakespeare. Some of those who had been his
+early associates continued to write for the stage, and younger men, as
+Fletcher, Massinger, Ford, and Shirley, carried on the traditions of
+their predecessors. If, as in other forms of literature, there was
+decline and decadence during the next twenty-five years, the drama also
+retained initiative, poetry, and intellectual force until the end. It
+was not dead or dying when the outbreak of the Civil War cut short its
+course; in fact, its plays, its traditions, even some of its theaters,
+actors, and dramatists survived the suppression of twenty years and
+helped to start the drama of the Restoration. Had Shakespeare lived to
+the age of seventy-eight he would have seen the closing of the theaters,
+and his lifetime would have covered the crowded history of the drama's
+development from such semi-moralities as _Cambises_ and _The Nice
+Wanton_ to the last plays of Massinger and Shirley.
+
+For nearly a quarter of a century he was a sharer in this dramatic
+movement, working in London as actor, manager, and playwright. While no
+playwright was more desirous than he to find in the stage full
+opportunity for his genius, he was as keen as any in gauging the
+immediate theatrical demand and in meeting the varying conditions of a
+highly competitive profession. As we have already noted, he began by
+imitating those who had won success, and to the end he was adroit in
+taking advantage of a new dramatic fashion or discovery. Like his
+fellows, he often took his plots from novels, histories, or other
+narratives; but his very choice of stories might be determined by the
+theatrical taste of the moment, and in his treatment of those stories he
+shows in person, situation, or scene, a consideration of current
+practices, traditions, and conventions. In every field of literature, a
+writer is conditioned by the work of his predecessors and
+contemporaries, and this dependence on current taste is especially
+important in the drama, where practice tends to fix itself in
+convention, and where innovation to be successful requires coöperation
+from the actors and approval from the audience as well as genius from
+the author. Though Shakespeare is for all time, he is part and parcel of
+the Elizabethan drama. If his plays are Elizabethan in their defects and
+limitations, such as their trivial puns and word-play, their overcrowded
+imagery, their loose and broken structure, their paucity of female
+rôles, their mixture of comic and tragic, their reliance on disguise and
+mistaken identity as motives, their use of improbable or absurd stories;
+they are Elizabethan also in the qualities of their greatness, their
+variety of subject, their intense interest in the portrayal of
+character, the flexibility and audacity of their language, their noble
+and opulent verse, the exquisite idealism of their romantic love, and
+their profound analysis of the sources of human tragedy.
+
+[Page Heading: Beginnings of the Drama]
+
+The Elizabethan drama was a continuation of the medieval drama
+transformed by the influence of classical models, especially the
+comedies of Terence and Plautus and the tragedies of Seneca. In England,
+by the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Miracle and Mystery plays
+were declining and were soon to disappear. The most common type of drama
+for the next sixty years was the Morality, which symbolized life as a
+conflict of vices and virtues or of the body and the soul. The drama was
+rapidly changing from long out-door performances to brief plays that
+could be given almost anywhere by a few actors. The term Interludes
+became common for all such entertainments, and allegorical frameworks
+served to contain a wide variety of matter, farce, pedagogy, politics,
+religion, history, or pageant. Close imitations of the classical forms
+were soon attempted by scholars and men of letters; but as the
+professional actors grew in importance the development of a national
+comedy and tragedy went on without much direction from critics or
+theorists, but rather in response to the demands of actors and audiences
+and to the initiative of authors.
+
+The developments of comedy were numerous. Allegory gradually
+disappeared, and the Morality ceased to exist as a definite type, though
+its symbolization of life and its concern with conduct were handed along
+to the later drama. The plays of Robert Wilson, about 1580, show an
+interesting use of allegory for the purposes of social satire, and
+realism and satire long continued to characterize Elizabethan comedy,
+though for a time confined mostly to incidental scenes. Common and
+incidental also was farce, which is found in most plays of the century
+whether tragic, comic, or moral in their main purpose. Further, it was
+soon discovered that the Plautian scheme of comedy was well suited to
+farcical incident, as in _Gammer Gurton's Needle_ (1552).[6] The
+classical models or their Italian imitations also produced other and
+less domestic imitations, as in Gascoigne's translation of Ariosto's _I
+Suppositi_ (pr. 1566) and Udall's _Ralph Roister Doister_ (1540); a
+little later, Lyly's _Mother Bombie_, Munday's _Two Italian Gentlemen_,
+and Shakespeare's _Comedy of Errors_. Indeed such adaptations continued
+much later and resulted in some of the best farces, or realistic
+comedies of intrigue, as Shakespeare's _Merry Wives of Windsor_ (1598),
+Heywood's _Wise Woman of Hogsdon_ (1604), Jonson's _Epicene_ (1609) and
+_Alchemist_ (1610).
+
+[6] In this chapter the dates appended to the plays indicate the
+conjectured year of presentation. Dates of publication are prefixed by
+_pr_.
+
+[Page Heading: Influence of Plautus]
+
+The Plautian model, however, was far more influential than can be
+indicated by these close adaptations or by any list of direct imitations
+or borrowings. For the Elizabethan it offered a standard of comedy, and
+its plots, persons, and devices were freely used in all kinds of plays,
+romantic as well as realistic, sentimental as well as satirical or
+farcical. The plots of Plautus and Terence offer a series of tricks in
+which the complications are often increased by having the trickster
+tricked. Certain fixed types of character play the parts of gulls or
+gullers, as the old parents, the young lovers, the parasite, the
+braggart soldier, and the clever slave. The intrigue is forwarded by the
+use of disguise, mistaken identity, and most surprising coincidences;
+and it is accomplished by dialogue, often gross and abusive, but usually
+lively. This model served every nation of western Europe, reappearing
+with prolonged vitality in the inventions of Lope de Vega, the "commedia
+del arte" of Italy, and in the masterpieces of Molière. Much in its
+scheme that seems artificial and theatrical to-day was, we must
+remember, accepted without question by Europe of the sixteenth century
+as essential and desirable in comedy, especially in realistic comedy of
+intrigue or manners.
+
+The plots of Terence, notably that of the _Andria_, also gave some
+encouragement to the modern fondness for adventure and sentimental love,
+and some classical sanction to the abundant romantic material that was
+knocking at the doors of comedy. If by romantic we mean what is strange
+and removed from ordinary experience and what has the attractions of
+wonder, thrill, and idealization, then for the Elizabethan the world of
+romance was a wide one. It included the medieval stories of knights and
+their gests, and also the fresher tales of classical mythology; the
+Americas and Indies of contemporary adventure and the artificial
+Arcadias of humanist imitators of Virgil and Theocritus. Ovid and
+Malory, Homer and Boccaccio, Drake and Sanazzaro, were all contributors.
+The union of this romance with comedy on the stage began in two ways,
+and principally under the innovation of two writers, Lyly and Greene.
+
+The taste for pageants, processions, and tableaux grew and flourished
+under the patronage of the court; and music, dancing, and spectacle were
+combined with dialogue in various court exhibitions and plays given by
+the child actors. John Lyly, writing for these choir boys, developed
+this type of entertainment into a distinct species of comedy. Of his
+eight plays, written at intervals from 1580 to 1593, all but one were in
+prose, and all except the Plautian _Mother Bombie_ adhere loosely to a
+common formula. Classical myth or story, with pastoral elements, and
+occasionally an allegory of contemporary politics, furnish the basis of
+plots with similar love complications. Gods, goddesses, nymphs, fairies,
+and many others add to the spectacle and mingle in the love intrigue,
+and all rise to a graceful dialogue, which quickens to brisk repartee
+when the pages or servants appear. The witty page supersedes the rude
+buffoon of earlier plays, and everything is graceful and ingenious,
+slight in serious interest, but relieved by movement and song.
+
+[Page Heading: Lyly and Greene]
+
+This is the form of comedy which Shakespeare adopted for _Love's
+Labour's Lost_ and perfected in _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_. But Lyly's
+contribution should not be defined merely by this type of drama,
+original as it is in its departure from medieval or classical
+precedents. He showed how comedy might be a courtly and literary
+entertainment and also the playground of fancy and wit.
+
+The second development of romantic comedy came through the dramatization
+of stories of love, adventure, and marvels. To such stories Robert
+Greene gave a heightened charm through the idealization of his heroines.
+His _Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay_ (1590) is a magic play with an
+historical setting; but the interest gathers and centers on the love
+story of Margaret, the Keeper's daughter. In _James IV_ (_c._ 1591) the
+pseudo-historical setting frames the stories of the noble Ida and the
+wronged but faithful Dorothea. In the incidents of the plot, with its
+woman disguised as a page, the faithless lover, and the final
+reconciliation, and also in the sweetness, modesty, and loyalty of the
+heroine, the play reminds us of Shakespeare's comedies and is indeed
+very close to _The Two Gentlemen of Verona_, in which he was clearly
+adopting Greene's formula.
+
+Tragedy naturally lagged somewhat behind comedy as a form of popular
+entertainment. So far as we can judge from the extant plays, there was
+until the appearance of Kyd and Marlowe no real union between Senecan
+imitations like _Gorboduc_ (1562), _Jocasta_ (1566), and _The
+Misfortunes of Arthur_ (1588), on the one hand, and popular medleys of
+morality, tragedy, and farce like _Cambises_ (1565), _Horestes_ (_pr._
+1567), and _Appius and Virginia_ (1563), on the other. Marlowe's
+_Tamburlaine_ (1587) was an epoch-making play because it brought to the
+popular drama true poetry and genuine passion; but it and its successors
+also established a new type of tragedy. Marlowe made no effort to retain
+the structure or themes of classical tragedy; on the contrary, he made
+his plays loosely connected series of scenes dealing with the life and
+death of the hero, crowded with persons and with startling action. In
+this he was conforming to the method of the dramatic narratives that
+pleased the theaters. But each play centers its dramatic interest on a
+mighty protagonist battling with his overweening desires and their
+inevitable disappointment. With the spectacle and sensation, the rant
+and absurdity, there is also dramatic structure and tragic significance
+in the revelation of these protagonists, their volitional struggles, and
+their direful catastrophes. These plays set the key for all Elizabethan
+tragedy, including Shakespeare's _Lear_, _Othello_, and _Macbeth_. They
+were immediately followed by dozens of imitators. All blank verse echoed
+Marlowe's mighty line, and tragedy was filled with ranting conquerors
+like Tamburlaine, monstrous villains like Barabbas, and murders like
+that of Edward II. Shakespeare was his pupil in the _2_ and _3 Henry
+VI_, mastered his methods in _Richard III_, and still wrote in
+emulation, though no longer in imitation, in _Richard II_ and _The
+Merchant of Venice_.
+
+[Page Heading: Marlowe and Kyd]
+
+Within a few months of _Tamburlaine_, appeared a play of almost equal
+influence on subsequent drama, Kyd's _Spanish Tragedy_. Kyd was a
+student of Seneca, a translator of Garnier's _Cornelia_, a Senecan
+imitation; and he adapted some elements of classical tragedy to the
+English stage. The ten plays ascribed to Seneca were the accepted models
+of tragedy in the Renaissance. Their presentation of the more horrible
+stories of Greek tragedy, their rhetorical and aphoristic style, their
+moralizing and their psychology, were all greatly admired. They were
+believed by the Elizabethans to have been acted, and their murders and
+violence seemed to warrant such action on the modern stage; though the
+Elizabethans found less adaptable their use of the chorus, the
+restriction of the number of persons speaking, their long monologues,
+and the limitation of the action to the last phase of a story. Kyd
+modeled his rhetoric on Seneca and retained a vestige of the chorus,
+long soliloquies, and some other traits of Senecan structure; but his
+main borrowing was the essential story of a crime and its punishment. He
+thus brought to the Elizabethan stage the classical theme of
+retribution. In his _Spanish Tragedy_, a murder is avenged under the
+direction of a ghost, by a hesitating and soliloquizing protagonist, who
+is driven through doubt and speculation almost to madness, and then to
+craft, with which he outwits the wily villain and brings all the leading
+_dramatis personæ_ to a final slaughter.
+
+Blood revenge was established as the favorite motive of tragedy; the
+conflict of craft between protagonist and villain made up the action,
+and the speculations of the avenger gave a chance for wisdom and
+eloquence. One other play, probably by Kyd, the lost _Hamlet_, also
+presented these features and later formed the basis for Shakespeare's
+tragedy. Other plays, as _Soliman and Perseda_, _The True Tragedy of
+Richard III_, and _Locrine_ immediately adopted Kyd's theme and technic;
+indeed the stage for half a dozen years abounded in avenging heroes,
+diabolical villains, shrieking ghosts, and long soliloquies on fate,
+death, retribution, and kindred themes. _Titus Andronicus_ is quite in
+the Kydian vein. Many plays combined the salient traits of Marlowe and
+Kyd, and henceforth no one wrote tragedy without paying homage to their
+inventions.
+
+[Page Heading: English History Plays]
+
+We have now noticed the most important developments in comedy and
+tragedy made by the time that Shakespeare began writing for the
+theaters; and he made quick use of the progress accomplished by Plautian
+and Lylyan comedy, by Greene's romances, and by the tragedies of Kyd and
+Marlowe. There were other plays not easily classified under these names
+and of less service to Shakespeare. But to the critical playgoer of 1590
+few plays would have seemed either 'right comedies' or 'right
+tragedies.' The majority were mere dramatizations of story without close
+construction or selection of material, seeking merely varied and
+abundant action. They drew their material from all kinds of narrative
+sources, Italian _novelle_, current pamphlets, Latin historians, or
+English chronicles; and, whether historical or fictitious, were usually
+known as Histories, _i.e._, stories.
+
+The patriotic interest in English history fostered the presentation of
+its scenes upon the stage. The chronicles of Halle and Holinshed
+furnished abundant material; and embassies, processions, and pitched
+battles filled the stage with movement. Historical plays might, indeed,
+draw from classical history or from current foreign history, but from
+1590 to 1603 a very large number of plays give scenic representation to
+the reigns of English kings.
+
+Some of these form a distinct class, since, however mixed with comic
+matter, they imitate Kyd or Marlowe and recast the chronicle of a reign
+to fit the accepted subjects of tragedy, the downfall of a prince, the
+revenge for a crime, the overthrow of a tyrant, or the retribution
+brought upon a conspirator or usurper. Conceived under Marlowe's
+influence, and perhaps owing something to his hand, is the tetralogy
+that includes the three parts of _Henry VI_ and _Richard III_.
+
+Those history plays, however, that do not follow the formulas for
+tragedy, are a heterogeneous group not easily classified. They usually
+keep to the loose chronicle method that presented a series of scenes
+without much regard to unity or coherence. Farce, comedy, magic,
+spectacle, heroics, and everything that might have happened was
+permissible in these plays, and perhaps the only thing indispensable was
+a pitched field with opposing armies. Biographical, comic, popular,
+patriotic, or what not, these plays brought a variety of scenes to the
+theaters, but offered only a loose and flexible form rather than any
+dramatic direction or model to the creator of Falstaff.
+
+The early deaths of Greene and Marlowe and the retirement of Lyly left
+Shakespeare the heir of their inventions. Though his plays were at first
+imitative, he soon surpassed his predecessors in gift of expression, in
+depiction of character, and in deftness of dramatic technic. The years
+from 1593 to near the turn of the century are particularly lacking in
+records of plays or theaters; but it seems clear that the main
+developments of the drama were in romantic comedy and chronicle history;
+and it is also clear that Shakespeare was the unquestioned leader in
+both of these forms.
+
+[Page Heading: Shakespeare's Leadership]
+
+In comparison with his associates, he was now the master, relying on his
+own experience rather than on their innovations. Neither the crude but
+popular _Mucedorus_ (1595) nor Dekker's poetical extravagance, _Old
+Fortunatus_ (1596), could contribute to his development of romantic
+comedy; and domestic comedy could not instruct the inventor of Launce
+and Launcelot. Incidental relationships may indeed be noted. _As You
+Like It_, for example, dramatizes a pastoral novel with the addition of
+scenes that recall Robin Hood's forest life, and may owe something to
+the suggestion of two Robin Hood plays by Chettle and Munday, _The
+Downfall and Death of Robert Earl of Huntingdon_ (1598). But, on the
+whole, the indebtedness was on the other side, and imitations indicate
+that men of Shakespeare's day realized that romantic comedy and history
+could not be carried farther.
+
+In fact, a certain reaction set in against these forms of drama. Near
+the close of the century new tendencies became manifest. Comedy tended
+to become more realistic and satiric. Chapman, Marston, Middleton, and
+Jonson, all began writing romantic comedy, but changed shortly to
+realistic. Jonson, in his _Every Man in His Humour_ (1598), announced
+his opposition to the lawless drama which had preceded--whether
+romantic comedy or chronicle history--and proposed the creation of a new
+satirical comedy of manners. He was moved partly by a desire to break
+from past methods in order to bring comedy closer to classical example,
+and partly by a desire for realism, a faithful presentation, analysis,
+and criticism of current manners. The growth of London and the increase
+in luxury and immorality seem to have encouraged such a movement, and
+for the decade after 1598 there were many comedies of London life,
+mostly satiric, and nearly all realistic. Many varieties are to be
+found, from gross representation of the seamy side of city life to
+serious discussion of social questions, and from sympathetic picturing
+of certain trades to satiric exposure of the evils of society.
+
+Jonson's emulation of Aristophanes led him into arrogant personal satire
+in the _Poetaster_ (1601), and there ensued the so-called war of the
+theaters, in which Marston, Dekker, and, according to report,
+Shakespeare were Jonson's opponents. If Shakespeare, indeed, had a share
+in this war, he showed only slight interest in the prevailing comedy.
+_Measure for Measure_ uses the device of a spying duke employed in
+Marston's _Malcontent_, and discusses sexual relationships somewhat in
+the tone of the time, while the scenes dealing with houses of ill fame
+are not unlike similar scenes in the contemporary plays of Middleton,
+Webster, and others. _Troilus and Cressida_, also, show more of a
+satiric temper than is usual in Shakespeare. But neither of these plays
+partakes to any extent of the prevailing satire on contemporary London.
+Wide as was the range of Shakespeare's genius, it seems to have avoided
+the field of satire.
+
+[Page Heading: Realistic Comedy]
+
+A review of the drama must, however, at least remark the importance of
+this development of realistic comedy which flourished in the decade
+after 1598 and continued to the end. Jonson's comedy of 'humors'
+includes _Volpone_ (1605), which overstepped the bounds of comedy in its
+denunciation of evil, the _Alchemist_ (1611), perhaps the best English
+play on the Latin model, and _Bartholomew Fair_ (1614), most original
+and English of them all. Dekker's fine drama of middle class life, _The
+Honest Whore_ (1604), and Heywood's masterpiece, _A Woman Killed with
+Kindness_ (1603), a play suggesting both the sentimental comedy of the
+eighteenth century and the problem play of to-day, also belong to this
+very remarkable era of domestic themes and serious realism.
+
+If Shakespeare did not turn to satire or realism or current social
+problems, he did turn away from chronicle history plays and romantic
+comedies. As we saw in the last chapter, for a period of eight or nine
+years, from _Julius Cæsar_ to _Antony and Cleopatra_, he gave his best
+efforts of his maturity to tragedy. The day for mere imitation of
+Seneca, Kyd, or Marlowe, was past; and scholars like Jonson and Chapman
+as well as Shakespeare sought in the tragedy of the public theater, an
+opportunity for wisdom and poetry and a criticism of life.
+
+For models, Shakespeare did not need to go back farther than his own
+_Romeo and Juliet_ and _Richard II_, nor to imitate any other than
+himself. Yet his great plays may have seemed to his contemporaries to
+adopt rather than to depart from current dramatic practices. They belong
+to the Elizabethan 'tragedy of blood'; against a background of courts
+and battles they present the downfall of princes; they rest on
+improbable stories that end in fearful slaughter; they invariably set
+forth great crimes, compact of murder, lust, villainous intrigue, and
+ferocious cruelty. Some of them follow Kyd in recounting a story of
+blood vengeance presided over by ghosts, or discover the retribution due
+for crime in physical torments. Nearly all follow Marlowe in centering
+the tragic interest in the fate of a supernormal protagonist who is
+swayed by an overpowering emotion, and in elevating these human desires
+and passions into tremendous forces that work their waste of devastation
+and ruin on character and life.
+
+[Page Heading: Tragedy]
+
+The contemporary tragedy is brought closest to Shakespeare in the
+relations of the revenge plays to _Hamlet_. The type, introduced by Kyd
+in _The Spanish Tragedy_ and the original _Hamlet_, underwent a special
+development in Marston's _Antonio's Revenge_ (1598) and several other
+plays appearing from 1598 to 1603, that dealt with the blood vengeance
+of a son for a father. At the same time Shakespeare turned to the
+remaking of the old _Hamlet_ and to a new treatment of the old theme,
+yet retained many of the old accessories. Marston reproduces the
+essential story of blood vengeance, presided over by a ghost, crossed by
+both lust and sentimental love, commented on by long soliloquies, and
+accompanied by pretended madness. Chettle, in _Hoffman_, amplifies the
+horrors and villainy and brings the story of the mad girl into closer
+juncture with the main plot than is the case in _Hamlet_. Tourneur,
+writing independently of Shakespeare, introduces, among all sorts of
+horrors, a Christian ghost who forbids blood vengeance and commands
+submission to Providence. Ben Jonson, in his additions to the old
+_Spanish Tragedy_, gives fine imaginative interpretation of the wavering
+moods of meditation, irony, and frenzy with which Kyd had dealt only
+crudely. The later development of this type proceeded without much
+regard to Shakespeare's _Hamlet_, but rather in the direction started by
+Marston's tragedies and his influential tragi-comedy, _The Malcontent_.
+While _Hamlet_ may be described as centering attention on a meditative
+and high-minded avenger, Tourneur, Webster, Middleton, and later
+dramatists found greater interest in the study of villainy and intrigue.
+Revenge is born of depravity rather than duty, and given a setting of
+physical horrors and unnatural lust. Tourneur's _Revenger's Tragedy_
+(1606) and Webster's _White Devil_ (1610) and _Duchess of Malfi_ (1611)
+represent the culmination of this play of revenge, lust, and horror, and
+supply a sort of standard for tragedy until the Civil War. Webster, it
+must be added, was hardly less interested than Shakespeare in character
+and motive, though he chose to study these in a chamber of horrors.
+
+Shakespeare's Roman tragedies also suggest comparison with contemporary
+plays, those either on Roman or on contemporary foreign history.
+Tragedies dealing with Roman history had preceded _Julius Cæsar_, but
+that play doubtless stimulated Jonson's _Sejanus_ (1603) and _Catiline_
+(1611). Both these plays attempted an approach to classical structure
+and a thorough study and digest of classical history. This effort to
+make tragedy a serious and authoritative interpretation of history was
+also shared by Chapman in his plays dealing with contemporary French
+history, _1_ and _2 Bussy D'Ambois_ (1601-1607) and _1_ and _2 Biron_
+(1608). While Jonson strove to free his style from the abundance of
+conceits, figures, and passages of description that had characterized
+earlier drama, Chapman used every chance to crowd his verse with
+far-stretched figure and weighty apothegm. At its worst it is peculiarly
+representative of Elizabethan confusion and bombast; at its best it is
+closest of all in its resemblance to Shakespeare's. Like Jonson and
+Chapman, Shakespeare sought historical backgrounds for his characters
+and found a fascination in the interpretation of the motives of the
+great protagonists of the world of antiquity. It is worthy of note,
+however, that he seems to have taken no interest in another class of
+subjects much favored by his contemporaries. Contemporary crimes
+treated with an excess of realism and didactic conclusions are common in
+drama from _Arden of Feversham_ (1590) on, and engaged the services of
+Jonson, Webster, Ford, Dekker, and others.
+
+[Page Heading: Beaumont and Fletcher]
+
+About 1607 a new departure appeared in the work of the dramatic
+collaborators, Beaumont and Fletcher. After some experiments, they won,
+in their tragi-comedies, _Philaster_ (1608) and _A King and No King_
+(1610), and their tragedy, _The Maid's Tragedy_ (1609), great theatrical
+successes, and in these and similar plays established a new kind of
+dramatic romance. The realistic comedies of Jonson and Middleton, which,
+along with the great tragedies of Shakespeare, crowd the stage history
+of the preceding ten years, had offered nothing similar to these
+romances which joined tragic and idyllic material in scenes of brilliant
+theatrical effectiveness, abounding in transitions from suspense to
+surprise, and culminating in telling dénouements. This new realm of
+romance is an artificial one, contrasting pure love with horrid
+entanglements of lust, and ever bringing love in conflict with duty,
+friendship, or the code of honor. In its intriguing courts, or in nearby
+forests where the idyls are placed, love of one kind or another is the
+ruling and vehement passion, riding high-handed over tottering thrones,
+rebellious subjects, usurping tyrants, and checked, if checked at all,
+only by the unexampled force of honor. Romance, in short, depends on
+situation, on the artificial but skilful juxtaposition of emotions and
+persons, and on the new technic that sacrifices consistency of
+characterization for surprise. Characterization tends to become typical,
+and motives tend to be based on fixed conventions, such as the code of
+honor might dictate to a seventeenth-century gentleman; but the lack of
+individuality in character is counterbalanced by the vividness with
+which the lovers, tyrants, faithful friends, evil women, and sentimental
+heroines are presented, and by the fluent and lucid style which varies
+to any emotional requirement and rises to the demands of the most
+sensational situations.
+
+_Cymbeline_ in its plot bears some close resemblances to _Philaster_,
+and it seems likely that Shakespeare was adopting the methods and
+materials of the new romance. At all events, he turned from tragedy to
+romance, and in _Cymbeline_ and the far more original and successful
+_Winter's Tale_ and _Tempest_ produced tragi-comedies that, like
+Beaumont and Fletcher's, rely on a contrast of tragic and idyllic and on
+surprising plots and idealized heroines. After Beaumont's retirement in
+1611 or 1612, it seems probable that Fletcher and Shakespeare
+collaborated together on _Henry VIII_ and _The Two Noble Kinsmen_.
+
+There is ample evidence that the plays of Beaumont and Fletcher won a
+great popular renown, surpassing for a time those of Shakespeare and all
+others. Beaumont did not live long after he ceased to write for the
+stage, dying at thirty, in the same year as Shakespeare. Jonson had
+given up dramatic writing for the time, and Fletcher was left the chief
+writer for Shakespeare's old company and the undoubted leader of the
+theater. Including the plays written in collaboration with Beaumont,
+Shakespeare, and later with Massinger, he left some sixty dramas of many
+kinds, varying from farcical comedy of manners to the most extreme
+tragedy. The comedies of manners present the affairs of women, and spice
+their lively conversation and surprising situations with a wit that
+often reminds one of the Restoration; indeed they carry the development
+of comedy nearly to the point where Wycherley and Congreve began. The
+tragi-comedies, which display the qualities already noted as belonging
+to the romances, have the technical advantage that the disentanglement
+of their rapid plots and sub-plots is left hanging in the balance until
+the very end. The happy ending to tragic entanglements won a favor it
+has never lost on the English stage, and tragi-comedy of the Fletcherian
+type continued the most popular form of the drama until Dryden.
+
+[Page Heading: Tragi-Comedy]
+
+It is unnecessary here to dwell long over the drama after Shakespeare's
+death. Jonson, Dekker, Heywood, and Webster wrote from time to time, and
+Middleton devoted his versatile talent to whatever kind of play was in
+vogue, now rather to Websterian tragedy and Fletcherian tragi-comedy
+than to realistic comedy. Yet, in collaboration with Rowley, he produced
+the powerful tragedy, _The Changeling_, and the much-admired
+tragi-comedy, _A Fair Quarrel_. After Fletcher's death in 1625,
+Massinger took his place as leader of the stage, and his work, with that
+of Ford and Shirley, carry on the great traditions of the drama to the
+very end. A host of minor writers, as Brome, D'Avenant, Suckling,
+Cartwright, offer little that is new; but no survey of the drama,
+however brief, can neglect to mention the skilful exposition, admirable
+psychology, and sound structural principles that characterized the best
+of Massinger's many plays, the unique and amazing dramatic genius shown
+in Ford's masterpieces, _The Broken Heart_ and _'Tis Pity She's a
+Whore_, and the ingenuity in plot, adroitness in characterization, and
+genuine poetic gifts of Shirley.
+
+Comedies from 1616 to 1642 reveal two chief influences; they are
+realistic and satiric, following Jonson, or they are light-hearted,
+lively combinations of manners and intrigue, after Fletcher. In the
+former class are Massinger's two great comedies, _The City Madam_ and _A
+New Way to Pay Old Debts_. To the latter class belong most of the
+comedies of Shirley. Tragi-comedies follow Fletcher with the variations
+due to the authors' ingenuity, and include perhaps the most attractive
+plays of Massinger and Shirley. Tragedies usually mingle lust, devilish
+intrigue, physical horror, after the fashion of Webster and Tourneur,
+but now often with romantic variation on the theme of love, and a
+technic of suspense and surprise similar to Beaumont and Fletcher. These
+are the main tendencies in the last twenty years of the drama, and
+characterize in the large the work of the greater men as well as of the
+less. Shakespeare's influence is widespread, but appears incidentally in
+particular scene, situation, character, or phrase, rather than as
+affecting the main course and fashions of the drama. After the
+publication of his plays in 1623, this incidental influence increased,
+and is distinctly noticeable in the plays of Ford and Shirley.
+
+[Page Heading: Pastoral and Masque]
+
+A glance must suffice for two dramatic forms that had only slight
+connection with the public theaters, the Pastoral Play and the Court
+Masque. Pastoral elements are found in many early entertainments and in
+the plays of Lyly and Peele. Later, in imitation of Guarini's _Il Pastor
+Fido_, attempts were made to inaugurate a pastoral drama, presenting a
+full-fledged dramatic exposition of the golden age. Daniel's _Queen's
+Arcadia_ (1605) and Fletcher's _Faithful Shepherdess_ (1609) had many
+later followers, but the form won no permanent hold on the popular
+taste. Traces of its influence, however, may often be seen, as in
+Shakespeare's _As You Like It_, or Beaumont and Fletcher's _Philaster_.
+The masque, originally only a masquerade, soon acquired some dramatic
+accompaniment, and in the court of James I developed into an elaborate
+form of entertainment. The masked dance of the ladies and gentlemen of
+the court was merely the focus for dialogue, elaborate setting,
+spectacle, music, and grotesque dances by professionals. These shows,
+costing vast sums for staging, costumes, and music, depended for their
+success mainly on the architect Inigo Jones, but in some degree also on
+Ben Jonson, who was the creator of the Court Masque as a literary form.
+Such expensive spectacles were far beyond the reach of the public
+theater, but provoked considerable imitation, as in Shakespeare's
+_Tempest_, or several of Beaumont and Fletcher's plays. Later Milton
+immortalized the form in _Comus_.
+
+The most hasty review of the Elizabethan drama must suggest how
+constantly Shakespeare responded to its prevailing conditions. There
+are, of course, great variations in the signs which different plays
+offer of contemporary influence and peculiarity. So it is with most of
+his fellow dramatists. _Lear_ and _Othello_ were perhaps written within
+the same year, yet _Othello_, in its unity, its technical excellence,
+and its depiction of character, is the most modern of the tragedies,
+while _Lear_, with its impossible story, its horrors, its treatment of
+madness, its likeness to the chronicle plays, its prolonged passage from
+crisis to catastrophe, in its very conception, is the most Elizabethan,
+though perhaps the most impressive of the tragedies. _Twelfth Night_ is
+suited to any stage, but _Troilus and Cressida_ and _Pericles_ are
+hardly conceivable except on the Elizabethan. Despite such variations,
+however, Shakespeare's relations to the contemporary drama were
+manifestly constant and immediate. If it was rarely a question with him
+what the ancients had written, it was always a question what was being
+acted and what was successful at the moment. His own growth in dramatic
+power goes step by step with the rapid and varied development of the
+drama, and the measure for comparison must be, not by decades, but by
+years or months.
+
+[Page Heading: Shakespeare and His Contemporaries]
+
+A study of the Elizabethan drama may help to excuse some of the faults
+and limitations of Shakespeare, but it also enforces his merits. Both
+faults and merits are often to be understood in the efforts of lesser
+men to do what he did. We admire his triumphs the more as we consider
+their failures. Yet they often had admirable success, and their triumphs
+as well as his are due in part to the dramatic conditions which gave the
+freest opportunity for individual initiative in language, verse, story,
+and construction. Noble bursts of poetry, richness and variety of life,
+an intense interest in human nature, comic or tragic--these are the
+great merits of that drama. That in a superlative degree they are also
+the characteristics of Shakespeare is not due solely to his exceptional
+genius, but to the fact that his genius worked in a favorable
+environment.
+
+[Illustration: A TYPICAL SHAKESPEREAN STAGE
+
+From Albright's _Shaksperian Stage_]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE ELIZABETHAN THEATER
+
+
+In 1576, James Burbage, father of the great actor, Richard Burbage, and
+himself a member of the Earl of Leicester's company, built the first
+London playhouse, the Theater in Shoreditch. In the next year a second
+playhouse, the Curtain, was erected nearby, and these seem to have
+remained the only theaters until 1587-1588, when probably the Rose, on
+the Bankside, was built by Henslowe. In 1599 Richard and Cuthbert
+Burbage, after some difficulty over their lease, demolished the old
+Theater and used the timber for the Globe, near the Rose, on the
+Bankside. The Swan, another theater, had been built there in 1594,
+somewhat to the west; and in 1614 the Hope was erected hard by the old
+Rose and the new Globe, which in 1613 had replaced the old Globe.
+Meantime the Fortune had been built by Henslowe and Alleyn in 1600 in
+Golden Lane to the north of Cripplegate, on the model of the Globe, and
+the Red Bull was erected in the upper end of St. John's Street about
+1603-1607. These were all public theaters, open to the air, built of
+wood, outside the city limits and the jurisdiction of the city
+corporation.
+
+Before the Theater, plays had been acted in various places about the
+city, and especially in inn-yards, some of which long continued to be
+used for dramatic performances. At an early date also, the companies of
+children actors connected with the choirs of St. Paul's and the Queen's
+Chapel had given public performances, probably indoors, at places near
+St. Paul's and in Blackfriars. When the Burbages were in difficulties
+about the Theater, they had leased certain rooms in the dismantled
+monastery of Blackfriars, but had then released these to a company of
+children which acted there for some years. In 1608 the Burbages regained
+possession of this property, and Shakespeare's company began acting
+there. This Blackfriars theater was known as a private theater in order
+to avoid the application of certain statutes directed against the public
+theaters, but it differed from them merely in being indoors, with
+artificial lights, and higher prices. It was used by Shakespeare's
+company as a winter theater, while the Globe served for summer
+performances, and it was the model for various other private theaters,
+two of which survived the Protectorate and became in turn the models for
+the Restoration Theater. Drury Lane and Covent Garden, indeed, trace
+their ancestry back directly to the Blackfriars through the Cockpit and
+the Salisbury Court playhouses.
+
+The companies of actors which occupied these theaters were coöperative
+organizations. Eight or ten actors formed a company, leased a theater,
+hired supernumeraries, bought plays, and shared in the profits. In
+Elizabeth's reign they secured a legal position by obtaining a license
+from some nobleman, and so were known as the Earl of Leicester's men,
+Lord Admiral's men, and so on. On the accession of James I, the leading
+London companies were taken directly under patronage of members of the
+royal family. During Shakespeare's time there were innumerable
+companies, but the tendency was for the best actors to become associated
+in a few companies, and for each company to keep to a particular
+theater; so that at the accession of James I, there were only five adult
+companies in London with permanent theaters. The best companies were
+frequently employed to act at court, and during the summer or when the
+plague was raging in London, they often toured the country. The
+children's companies flourished from time to time, and especially from
+1599-1607 they were, as we learn from _Hamlet_, formidable rivals of the
+men.
+
+[Page Heading: Companies of Actors]
+
+The history of the adult companies shows the growth of two distinct
+interests, that of Henslowe and Alleyn, and that of the Burbages.
+Henslowe, whose diary is one of the chief documents for the history of
+the theater, built the Rose, and in partnership with his son-in-law, the
+famous actor Alleyn, controlled the Fortune and the Hope, and the
+companies known as the Admiral's and the Earl of Worcester's men, and
+later on the Queen's and the Prince's men. The Burbages owned the
+Theater, the Globe, and the Blackfriars, and were in control of
+Shakespeare's company. This company, at first the Earl of Leicester's
+men, was known by the names of its various patrons, Strange's, Derby's,
+Hunsdon's, and the Lord Chamberlain's, until in 1603 it became the
+King's men. For a short time, as Lord Strange's men, it acted at the
+Rose, and apparently later at the playhouse in Newington Butts, but its
+regular theaters were the Theater, the Globe, and Blackfriars. With this
+company Shakespeare was connected from the beginning, and he aided in
+making it the chief London company. For a time, Alleyn and the Admiral's
+men were its close rivals, but even before the accession of James I,
+Shakespeare and Burbage had given it a supremacy that it maintained to
+the closing of the theaters.
+
+There are various pictures of the exterior of Elizabethan theaters in
+the contemporary maps or views of London, the best representation of the
+four Bankside theaters being the engraving of Hollar printed in the
+Tudor edition of _Twelfth Night_. This was first published in
+_Londinopolis_, 1657, but represents the Bankside as it was about 1620.
+Four pictures of interiors have been preserved, that from Kirkman's
+_Drolls_, those from the title-pages of _Roxana_ and _Messalina_, and
+the DeWitt drawing of the Swan, reproduced in the Tudor Shakespeare, _1
+Henry VI_. The drawing from Kirkman's _Drolls_ is usually known as the
+Red Bull stage, but it was not issued until 1679, and does not seem to
+have anything to do with the Red Bull or with any other regular
+theater. The _Messalina_ and _Roxana_ pictures are small, and both show
+a rear curtain and a projecting stage. The DeWitt drawing was done from
+hearsay evidence, is inaccurate in details, and represents a theater
+with a movable stage, probably not long regularly used for plays; it
+gives little idea of the stage, but does afford a good general notion of
+the interior of a public theater. The contract for the Fortune theater,
+built on the model of the Globe, except that it was square instead of
+octagonal, has been preserved and enables us to complete this view of
+the interior in detail.
+
+[Page Heading: Public Theaters]
+
+The public theaters were usually round, or nearly round, wooden
+buildings of three stories. These stories were occupied by tiers of
+galleries encircling the pit, which was open to the air. The stage
+projected halfway into the pit, and was provided with dressing rooms in
+the rear, and a protecting roof overhead, supported in some cases by
+pillars. At the top was the 'hut', a room used to provide apparatus for
+raising and lowering persons or properties from the stage, Light when
+needed was provided by torches. Admission to standing room in the pit
+was usually only a penny, but seats in the gallery or boxes or on the
+stage cost much more, rising as high as half a crown. Performances were
+given on every fair day except Sunday, and a flag flying from the hut
+indicated that a play was to be performed. Some of the public playhouses
+were used for acrobats, fencing, or even bear-baiting as well as for
+plays; but the better theaters, as the Globe and Fortune, seem to have
+been limited to dramatic performances.
+
+The size and arrangement of the stage doubtless varied somewhat with the
+different theaters, and considerable changes seem to have been
+introduced by the indoor private theaters. But the Curtain was used from
+1577 to 1642, some new theaters were modeled closely on the old, and the
+same plays were acted on different stages, so it is apparent that in all
+the stage was the same in its main features. For clearness these may be
+again enumerated. The stage was a platform projecting into the pit, open
+on three sides, and without any front curtain. In the rear were two
+doors, and between them, an alcove, or inner stage, separated from the
+front stage by curtains. Above the inner stage was a gallery, also
+provided with curtains, and over the doors were windows or balconies.
+The arrangement of doors, inner stage, gallery, and curtain may have
+varied somewhat, but the essential elements are a curtained space at the
+rear, and a gallery above. Trap-doors were also provided, and the hut
+overhead supplied the machinery for ascents and descents of gods and
+goddesses.
+
+[Page Heading: The Fortune Theater]
+
+Our diagram for the ground floor of the Fortune shows a square-cornered
+stage with doors flat on the rear, while the perspective drawing from
+Dr. Albright's _Shaksperian Stage_ shows a tapering stage, as in the
+_Messalina_ picture, with doors on the bias. Some stages may have had
+rounded corners with doors in the side. The pillars were not necessary
+in the private theaters; or in some public houses where other means were
+found for supporting the roof.
+
+[Illustration: GROUND PLAN OF THE FORTUNE THEATER
+
+Dimensions: 80 ft. square on the outside; 55 ft. square on the inside,
+the stage 43 ft. wide and extending to the middle of the pit.]
+
+The performance of a play differed in many ways from one to-day. There
+was no scenery and there were no women actors. Though scenes were used
+in court performances as early as 1604, they do not seem to have been
+employed by the professional companies to any extent until after the
+Restoration. Female parts were taken by boys, and, except in plays acted
+by the children's companies, there were rarely more than two important
+female characters in a play. Though without scenery, the Elizabethan
+stage was by no means devoid of spectacle. Processions, battles, all
+kinds of mythological beings, ascents to heaven, descents to hell,
+fire-works, and elaborate properties, were employed. Numerous
+contemporary plays indicate that neither the fairyland of _A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream_, nor the magnificent court of _Henry VIII_, was
+devised without an eye to the resources of the stage. Large sums of
+money were lavished on costumes, the cost of a coat often exceeding the
+price paid an author for a play. Costume was anachronistic; Cleopatra
+was impersonated by a boy in stays and farthingale; and Cæsar, probably
+by Burbage, in a costume much like that worn by the Earl of Essex. Some
+attention, however, was paid to appropriateness. Shepherds were clothed
+in white, hunters in green; and doubtless mermaids, fairies, Venuses,
+and satyrs were given as appropriate a dress as fancy could devise. The
+action of a play seems usually to have been completed in two hours.
+There was sometimes music between the acts, but there were no long
+waits, and little stage business.
+
+[Page Heading: Stage Presentation]
+
+The peculiarities in the presentation of a play due to the arrangement
+of the stage were considerable, and have been the subject of much
+discussion and misunderstanding among investigators. There is, however,
+no doubt that the action was largely on the front stage, and that most
+of the scenes, at least in Shakespeare's lifetime, were designed for
+presentation on this projecting platform. Since there was no
+drop-curtain, actors had some distance to traverse, on entrances and
+exits, between the doors and the front. At the end of a scene or a play,
+all must retire, and the bodies of the dead must be carried out. Hence a
+tragedy often ends with a funeral procession, a comedy with a dance. The
+indications of scene supplied by modern editors for Shakespeare's plays
+help to visualize a modern presentation, but are misleading as to
+Shakespeare's intentions or an Elizabethan performance. The majority of
+scenes in his plays differ strikingly from those in a modern play in
+that they offer no hints as to the exact locality. Often it is not clear
+from the text whether the scene is conceived as indoors or outdoors, in
+the palace, or the courtyard, or before the entrance. Even when the
+scene is presumably within a room, there is often no indication of the
+nature of the furnishings, never any of the elaborate attention to
+details of setting, such as we find in a play by Pinero or Shaw.
+Sometimes placards were hung up indicating the scene of a play, but
+apparently these merely gave the general scene, as "Venice" or "Verona,"
+and did not often designate localities more closely. In fact the
+majority of the scenes were probably written with no precise conception
+of their setting. They were written to be acted on a front stage, bare
+of scenery, projecting out into the audience. This did not represent a
+particular locality, but rather any locality whatever.
+
+The inner stage and the gallery above, and to some extent the doors and
+the windows, were used to indicate specific localities when these were
+necessary. The gallery represented the wall of a town, an upper story of
+a house, or any elevated locality. The doors represented doors to houses
+or gates to a city, and the windows or balconies over them were often
+used for the windows of the houses. The inner stage was used in various
+ways to indicate a specific locality requiring properties, and this use
+apparently increased as time went on, and especially in the indoor,
+artificially lighted private theaters. In any case, however, when the
+curtains were opened, the inner stage became a part of the main stage,
+and while action might take place there, it might also serve as a
+background for action proceeding in the front. Properties could be
+brought on and off the inner stage, behind the closed curtains, hence
+large properties were confined to its precincts. Furniture, as chairs,
+tables, or even beds, could, however, be pushed or carried out from the
+inner to the outer stage. A play might be given on the front stage
+without using the curtained recess at all, but numerous references to
+curtains make it clear that the inner stage was used from the early days
+of the theater.
+
+[Page Heading: Inner Stage]
+
+The uses of the inner stage have been much discussed and are still in
+dispute, but they may be summarized briefly. _First_, the inner stage
+was used for a specific, restricted, and usually propertied locality--a
+cave, a study, a shop, a prison. _Second_, the inner stage was used for
+scenes requiring discovery or tableaux. Numerous stage directions
+indicate the drawing of the curtains to present a scene set on the inner
+stage, as Bethsabe at her bath, Friar Bungay in bed with his magical
+apparatus about him, Ferdinand and Miranda playing chess. _Third_, the
+use of the inner stage was extended so that it represented any
+propertied background, especially for scenes in a forest, church, or
+temple. In _As You Like It_, for example, the last four acts are located
+in the Forest of Arden. "This is the Forest of Arden," says Rosalind as
+soon as she arrives there; and even before this, Duke senior alludes to
+"these woods," and later we learn that there are practicable trees on
+which Orlando hangs his verses. The forest setting, consisting of trees
+and rocks, was placed on the inner stage and served to give a scenic
+background. Of course, different places in the forest are to be
+presumed, but one forest background would be sufficient for all. In the
+course of the four acts, however, there are three scenes (II. ii; II.
+iii; III. i) that are not in the forest, but at unspecified and
+unpropertied places about the palace and Oliver's house. For these
+scenes the curtain would be closed, shutting off the forest background
+and transferring the spectators to the unspecified localities of Act I,
+_i.e._, to the bare front stage. _Fourth._ An extension of this last use
+made it possible to employ the curtain to indicate change of scene.
+Several scenes, where no heavy properties were required, might succeed
+one another on the front stage with the curtains closed; but the opening
+of the curtains would reveal a special background and a manifest change
+of scene. One instance of this use of the inner stage is seen in the
+immediate change from an outdoor to an indoor scene, or _vice versa_.
+The scene is in the street, _i.e._, on the front stage; the person
+knocks at one of the doors and is admitted to a house; when he
+reappears, it is through the inner stage, the curtains of which have
+been drawn, disclosing the setting of a room. Or this process is
+reversed. In _A Yorkshire Tragedy_, there is an interesting case of such
+an alternation from indoors to outdoors, with one character remaining on
+the stage all of the time. A more extensive use of this "alternation"
+could be employed to indicate marked changes of place. As long as the
+action remains in Venice, the bare front stage will do, but a transfer
+to Portia's house at Belmont can be made by means of the curtains and
+the inner stage. In the later plays at the private theaters this use of
+the inner stage, then better lighted, seems to have increased,
+especially in the change from a street or general hall to special
+apartments.
+
+[Page Heading: Evolution of the Theater]
+
+These uses of the inner stage, together with that of the upper stage or
+gallery, gave a chance for considerable variety in the action, and
+rendered the rapid succession of scenes less bewildering than one would
+at first suppose. Shakespeare's stage was the outcome of the peculiar
+conditions of acting by professionals in the sixteenth century, but it
+was also a natural step in the evolution from the medieval to the modern
+stage. On the medieval stage there was a neutral place or _platea_ and
+special localized and propertied places called _sedes_, _domus_, _loca_.
+On the Elizabethan stage the front stage is the _platea_, the inner and
+upper stages the _domus_ or _loca_. In the Restoration theater the
+scenery was placed on the inner stage and shut off from the outer stage
+by a curtain. With the use of scenery, the inner stage became more
+important, and the projecting apron of the front stage was gradually cut
+down. The proscenium doors in front of the curtain long survived their
+original use as entrances, but, as a rule, they have now finally
+disappeared with the front stage. The modern picture-frame stage of
+to-day is the evolution of the inner stage of the Elizabethans.
+Similarly the method of stage presentation has changed only gradually
+from Shakespeare's day to ours. The alternation from outer to inner
+stage was very common in the Restoration theaters, where flat scenes
+were used instead of a curtain, and it may still be seen in the
+production of melodrama or of Shakespeare's plays. A painted drop shuts
+off a few feet of the stage, which becomes a street or a hall, while
+properties and scenery are being arranged in the rear. When the drop
+goes up, we pass from the street or the court of the wicked Duke to the
+Forest of Arden, just as the Elizabethans did.
+
+The Elizabethan stage affected Shakespeare's dramatic art in many ways.
+The absence of scenery, of women actors, and of a front curtain, the use
+of a bare stage that served for neutral or unspecified localities,
+naturally influenced the composition of every play. But the theatrical
+presentation was by no means as crude or as medieval as these
+differences from modern practice seem to indicate. The intimacy
+established between actors and audience by the projecting stage, the
+rapidity of action hastened by the lack of scenery or furniture, the
+possibilities of rapid changes of scene rendered intelligible by the use
+of the inner stage, were all manifest advantages in encouraging dramatic
+invention. The traditions formed in this theater for the presentation of
+_Hamlet_, _Romeo and Juliet_, and the other plays, were handed on from
+Shakespeare and Burbage to Lowin and Taylor, to Betterton, Cibber, and
+Garrick, down to the present day; and have perhaps been less
+revolutionized by scenery and electric lights than we might imagine.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE TEXT OF SHAKESPEARE
+
+
+The main difficulties that stand in the way of determining the actual
+form in which Shakespeare left his plays are due, first, to the total
+absence of manuscripts, and, secondly, to the fact that he, like his
+contemporaries, regarded dramatic literature as material for performance
+on the stage, not as something to be read in the library. The most
+obvious evidence of this lies in his having himself issued with every
+appearance of personal attention his poems of _Venus and Adonis_ and
+_Lucrece_, while he permitted his plays to find their way into print
+without any trace of supervision and, in some cases, apparently without
+his consent. When the author sold a play to the theatrical company which
+was to perform it, he appears to have regarded himself as having no
+longer any rights in it; and when a play was published, we are in
+general justified in supposing either that it had been obtained
+surreptitiously, or that it had been disposed of by the company.
+Exceptions to this begin to appear in the first half of the seventeenth
+century, notably in the case of Heywood, who defended his action on the
+plea of protecting the text from mutilation, and in that of Ben Jonson,
+who issued in 1616, in the face of ridicule for his presumption, a
+folio volume of his "Works." But, though Shakespeare is reported to have
+felt annoyance at the pirating of his productions, there is no evidence
+of his having been led to protect himself or the integrity of his
+writings by departing from the usual practice in his profession.
+
+Among the various documents which make us aware of this situation, so
+general then, but so strongly in contrast with modern methods, three
+explicit statements by Heywood are so illuminating that they deserve
+quotation. One occurs in the preface to his _Rape of Lucrece_, 1630:
+
+    To the Reader.--It hath beene no custome in mee of all other men
+    (courteous Reader) to commit my plaies to the presse: the reason
+    though some may attribute to my owne insufficiencie, I had rather
+    subscribe in that to their seuare censure then by seeking to auoide
+    the imputation of weaknes to incurre greater suspition of honestie:
+    for though some haue vsed a double sale of their labours, first to
+    the Stage, and after to the presse, For my owne part I heere
+    proclaime my selfe euer faithfull in the first, and neuer guiltie of
+    the last: yet since some of my plaies haue (vnknowne to me, and
+    without any of my direction) accidentally come into the Printers
+    hands, and therefore so corrupt and mangled, (coppied only by the
+    eare) that I have bin as vnable to know them, as ashamed to chalenge
+    them, This therefore, I was the willinger to furnish out in his
+    natiue habit: first being by consent, next because the rest haue
+    beene so wronged in being publisht in such sauadge and ragged
+    ornaments: accept it courteous Gentlemen, and prooue as fauorable
+    Readers as we haue found you gratious Auditors. Yours T. H.
+
+[Page Heading: The Right to Print]
+
+The second is in Heywood's _Pleasant Dialogues and Dramas_, 1637, the
+prologue to _If you know not me, you know no bodie; Or, The troubles of
+Queen Elizabeth_. It is as follows:
+
+    A Prologve to the Play of Queene Elizabeth as it was last revived at
+    the Cock-pit, in which the Author taxeth the most corrupted copy now
+    imprinted, which was published without his consent.
+
+    PROLOGUE
+
+    Playes have a fate in their conception lent,
+    Some so short liv'd, no sooner shew'd than spent;
+    But borne to-day, to morrow buried, and
+    Though taught to speake, neither to goe nor stand.
+    This: (by what fate I know not) sure no merit,
+    That it disclaimes, may for the age inherit.
+    Writing 'bove one and twenty: but ill nurst,
+    And yet receiv'd as well performed at first,
+    Grac't and frequented, for the cradle age,
+    Did throng the Seates, the Boxes, and the Stage
+    So much: that some by Stenography drew
+    The plot: put it in print: (scarce one word trew:)
+    And in that lamenesse it hath limp't so long,
+    The Author now to vindicate that wrong
+    Hath tooke the paines, upright upon its feete
+    To teache it walke, so please you sit, and see't.
+
+The third passage occurs in the address to the reader prefixed to _The
+English Traveller_, 1633:
+
+    True it is that my plays are not exposed to the world in volumes, to
+    bear the titles of Works (as others). One reason is that many of
+    them by shifting and changing of companies have been negligently
+    lost; others of them are still retained in the hands of some actors
+    who think it against their peculiar profit to have them come in
+    print; and a third that it was never any great ambition in me in
+    this kind to be voluminously read.
+
+From these passages we gather that Heywood considered it dishonest to
+sell the same play to the stage and to the press; that some of his plays
+were stolen through stenographic reports taken in the theater and were
+printed in corrupt forms; that, in order to counteract this, he obtained
+the consent of the theatrical owners to his publication of a correct
+edition; that some actors considered the printing of plays against their
+interest (presumably because they thought that if a man could read a
+play, he would not care to see it acted); and that many plays were lost
+through negligence and the changes in the theatrical companies. That we
+are here dealing with the conditions of Shakespeare's time is clear
+enough, since the edition of _If you know not me_ on which Heywood casts
+reflections was published in 1605, and in 1604 Marston supplies
+corroboration in the preface to his _Malcontent_:
+
+    I would fain leave the paper; only one thing afflicts me, to think
+    that scenes, invented merely to be spoken, should be enforcively
+    published to be read, and that the least hurt I can receive is to do
+    myself the wrong. But since others otherwise would do me more, the
+    least inconvenience is to be accepted. I have myself, therefore, set
+    forth this comedy; but so, that my enforced absence must much rely
+    upon the printer's discretion: but I shall entreat slight errors in
+    orthography may be as slightly overpassed, and that the unhandsome
+    shape which this trifle in reading presents, may be pardoned for
+    the pleasure it once afforded you when it was presented with the
+    soul of lively action.
+
+[Page Heading: Pirated Editions]
+
+The only form in which any of Shakespeare's plays found their way into
+print during his lifetime was that of small pamphlets, called Quartos,
+which were sold at sixpence each.[7] In the case of five of these there
+is general agreement that they came to the press by the surreptitious
+method of reporting described by Heywood: the first Quarto versions of
+_Romeo and Juliet_, _Henry V_, _The Merry Wives_, _Hamlet_, and
+_Pericles_. All of these bear clear traces of the effects of such
+mutilation as would naturally result from the attempt to write down the
+dialogue during the performance, and patch up the gaps later. The first
+Quartos of _Richard III_ and _King Lear_, though much superior to the
+five mentioned, yet contain so many variants from the text of the Folio
+which seem to be due to mistakes of the ear and to slips of memory on
+the part of the actors, that probably they should also be included in
+the list of those surreptitiously obtained.
+
+[7] For facsimile reproductions see Bibliography, Appendix D.
+
+Redress for such pirating as is implied in these publications was
+difficult on account of the absence of a law of copyright. The chief
+pieces of legislation affecting the book trade were the law of licensing
+and the charter of the Stationers' Company. According to the first, all
+books, with a few exceptions, such as academic publications, had to be
+licensed before publication by the Bishop of London or the Archbishop
+of Canterbury. This was an unworkable provision, and in fact the
+responsibility for all books not likely to raise political or
+theological controversy was left to the Stationers' Company. This close
+corporation of printers and publishers exercised its powers for the
+protection of its members rather than of authors. A publisher wishing to
+establish a monopoly in a book he had acquired entered it on the
+Stationers' Register, paying a fee of sixpence, and was thereby
+protected against piracy. When the copy so registered was improperly
+acquired, the state of the case is not so clear. At times the officials
+showed hesitation about registering a book until the applicant "hath
+gotten sufficient authoritye for yt," and _As You Like It_, for example,
+appears in the Register only "to be staied," which it was until the
+publication of the first Folio. Further, the pirated _Romeo and Juliet_
+and _Henry V_ were never entered at all; the pirated _Hamlet_ and
+_Pericles_ were entered, but to other publishers, who in the case of
+_Hamlet_ brought out a more correct text in the following year; the
+pirated _Merry Wives_ was transferred from one publisher to another on
+the day of entry, and actually issued by the second. Thus this group of
+plays does not support the view that the Stationers' Company stood ready
+to give perpetual copyright to their members even for obviously stolen
+goods. It is to be noted, too, that the previous publication of these
+surreptitious copies formed no hindrance to the later issue of an
+authentic copy. The second Quarto of _Hamlet_, printed from a complete
+manuscript, followed, as has been said, the first the next year, and the
+same thing happened in the case of _Romeo and Juliet_.
+
+[Page Heading: Publisher's Copyright]
+
+On the other hand, the great majority of the Quartos printed from
+playhouse copies of the plays were regularly entered, and the rights of
+the original publisher preserved to him. The appearance of groups of
+plays in the market following interference with theatrical activity such
+as came from the plague in 1594, from the breaking up of companies, or
+from Puritan attempts at restriction, confirm the belief that these
+better Quartos were honorably acquired by the publishers from the
+companies owning them, when the actors thought that there was more to
+gain than to lose by giving them to the press.
+
+[Page Heading: Table of Quarto Editions]
+
+The accompanying "Table of Quarto Editions" gives the names of all the
+Shakespearean plays issued in this form before the publication of the
+collected edition in 1623, known as the First Folio. In the cases of
+_Romeo and Juliet_, _1 Henry IV_, _Love's Labour's Lost_, _Merchant of
+Venice_, _Much Ado_, _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_, and _Richard II_, a
+Quarto, usually the most recent, provided the text from which the
+version in the Folio was printed. Hence, though in several cases the
+copy of the Quarto thus employed seems to have been one used by the
+actors and containing corrections of some value, the extant Quarto
+rather than the Folio is the prime authority for the text to-day. The
+same is true of _Titus Andronicus_, except that in this case the Folio
+restores from some manuscript source a scene which had been dropped from
+the Quarto. If, as some hold, the Folio texts of _Richard III_ and _King
+Lear_ were printed from Quartos, there must have been available also a
+manuscript version, which is so heavily drawn upon that the Folio text
+virtually represents an independent source, as it does in the case of
+four of the five plays acknowledged to be due to surreptitious
+reporting. _Pericles_, the fifth of these, was first admitted to the
+collected works in the third Folio, and is the only "reported" text
+forming our sole authority.[8]
+
+
+TABLE OF QUARTO EDITIONS BEFORE 1623
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+  The following abbreviations are used in the "SOURCE OF Q TEXT" column:
+  D--Disputed;
+  P--Playhouse;
+  R--Reported.
+
+==========================================================================
+      |              |           DATES OF             |      |
+      | ENTRIES IN   |--------------------------------|SOURCE|
+      | STATIONERS'  |    |      |     |    |    |    | OF Q | SOURCE OF
+      |  REGISTER    |Q1  | Q2   |Q3   |Q4  |Q5  |Q6  | TEXT |  F1 TEXT
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+------+--------------+----+------+-----+----+----+----+------+------------
+T.A.  |Feb. 6, 1594  |1594|  1600| 1611|    |    |    |P     |Q3 completed
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      | & corrected
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+R. II |Aug. 29, 1597 |1597|  1598| 1608|1615|    |    |P     |Q4 corrected
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+R. III|Oct. 19, 1597 |1597|  1598| 1602|1605|1612|1622|D     |Disputed
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+R.J.  |No entry      |1597|  1599| 1609|n.d.|    |    |{Q1 R |Q3 from Q2
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |{Q2 P |
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+1 H.IV|Feb. 25, 1598 |1598|  1599| 1604|1608|1613|1622|P     |Q5 corrected
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+L.L.L.|No entry      |1598|      |     |    |    |    |P     |Q1
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+Merch.|July 22, 1598 |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |(conditional) |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    | {1600|     |    |    |    |      |
+      |Oct. 28, 1600 |1600| { or |     |    |    |    |P     |Q1 (Heyes)
+      |              |    | {1619|     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    |      |{1608|    |    |    |      |
+H.V.  |[Aug. 4, 1600]|1600|  1602|{ or |    |    |    |R     |Independent
+      |"to be stayed"|    |      |{1619|    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+M.Ado |[Aug. 4, 1600]|    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |"to be stayed"|    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |Aug. 23, 1600 |1600|      |     |    |    |    |P     |Q1 corrected
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+2 H.IV|Aug. 23, 1600 |1600|      |     |    |    |    |P     |Independent
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    | {1600|     |    |    |    |      |
+M.N.D.|Oct. 8, 1600  |1600| {or  |     |    |    |    |P     |Q2 corrected
+      |              |    | {1619|     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+M.W.  |Jan. 18, 1602 |1602|  1619|     |    |    |    |R     |Independent
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+Hml.  |July 26, 1602 |1603|1604,5| 1611|    |    |    |{Q1 R |Independent
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |{Q2 P |
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    | {1608|     |    |    |    |      |Disputed (Q1
+Lear  |Nov. 26, 1607 |1608| { or |     |    |    |    |D     | in several
+      |              |    | {1619|     |    |    |    |      | states)
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+T.C.  |Feb. 7, 1603 }|    |      |     |    |    |    |      |Independent
+      |(conditional)}|1609|      |     |    |    |    |P     | (Q1 in two
+      |Jan. 28, 1609}|    |      |     |    |    |    |      | issues)
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+Per.  |May 20, 1608  |1609|  1609| 1611|1619|    |    |R     |Not in F1
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |F3 from Q4
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+Oth.  |Oct. 6, 1621  |1622|      |     |    |    |    |P     |Independent
+==========================================================================
+
+[8] In the table of Quarto editions may be noted four entries with the
+words "or 1619" added to the date which appears on the title-page. These
+four plays, the Roberts Quartos of _The Merchant of Venice_ and _A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream_ of 1600, the third Quarto of _Henry V_, 1608,
+the second Quarto of _King Lear_, 1608, along with the 1619 Quartos of
+_The Merry Wives_ and _Pericles_, an undated Quarto of _The Whole
+Contention_ (the earlier form of _2_ and _3 Henry VI_), the Quarto of
+_Sir John Oldcastle_, dated 1600, and the Quarto of _A Yorkshire
+Tragedie_, dated 1619, have been shown by Mr. A. W. Pollard, with the
+coöperation of Mr. W. W. Greg, to have been put on the market at the
+same time, and Mr. W. J. Neidig has proved from typographical evidence
+that the title-pages of all nine were set up in succession in 1619. A
+very curious problem is thus presented, and the motives for the
+deception practised, apparently by the printers Pavier and Jaggard, have
+not been satisfactorily cleared up; but at present it appears likely
+that in the case of these nine Quartos the correct date of publication
+should be 1619, and that, in the case of the first two mentioned, the
+question of the comparative authority of the Heyes and Fisher Quartos
+respectively as against that of the Roberts Quartos should be settled
+against the latter. This last point is the only part of this remarkable
+discovery which is of importance in determining the text, as the Quartos
+dated 1608 and 1619 were already known to be mere reprints of earlier
+ones.
+
+[Page Heading: The First Folio]
+
+We come now to the publication of the First Folio, the most important
+single volume in the history of the text of Shakespeare. On November 8,
+1623, the following entry occurs in the Stationers' Register:
+
+    Mr. Blount: Isaak Jaggard. Entred for their copie under the hands of
+    M^r Doctor Worrall and M^r Cole, Warden, M^r William Shakspeers
+    Comedyes, Histories and Tragedyes, soe manie of the said copyes as
+    are not formerly entred to other men viz^t, Comedyes. The Tempest.
+    The two gentlemen of Verona. Measure for Measure. The Comedy of
+    Errors. As you like it. All's well that ends well. Twelft Night. The
+    winters tale. Histories. The thirde part of Henry the sixt. Henry
+    the eight. Tragedies. Coriolanus. Timon of Athens. Julius Cæsar.
+    Mackbeth. Anthonie and Cleopatra. Cymbeline.
+
+One notes here the omission of _1_ and _2 Henry VI_, _King John_, and
+_The Taming of the Shrew_, which had neither been previously entered nor
+issued in Quarto. This is probably due to the fact that three of these
+are based on older plays of which Quartos exist, which may have seemed
+to the publishers reason enough to save their sixpences. If we assume
+that "The thirde part of Henry the sixt" is a misprint for "The first
+part," the explanation covers the whole case. The registration of
+_Antony and Cleopatra_ was superfluous, as it had been entered, though
+not printed, so far as we know, on May 20, 1608.
+
+There are thus in the First Folio, the publication of which immediately
+followed this entry in 1623, twenty plays not before issued, for which
+the text of this volume is our sole authority. The emphasis so commonly
+placed on the supreme value of the text of the First Folio is justified
+with regard to these twenty plays; as for the remaining seventeen, its
+importance is shared, in proportions varying from play to play, with the
+texts of the Quartos. The sources from which the compilers of the Folio
+obtained their new material were in all probability playhouse copies, as
+in the case of the better Quartos. Heminge and Condell, Shakespeare's
+actor colleagues and friends, who sign the Address to the Readers,[9]
+would obviously be the instruments for obtaining such copies. As for the
+so-called "private transcripts" which some have postulated as a source
+of material, there is no evidence that at this date any such existed.
+Whether any of the playhouse manuscripts provided by Heminge and Condell
+were in Shakespeare's autograph we can neither affirm nor deny, but it
+is well to be cautious in accepting at its face value the implication
+contained in their words that they had "scarce received from him a blot
+in his papers."
+
+[9] For this and other prefatory matter from the First Folio, see
+Appendix A.
+
+[Illustration: THE TITLE PAGE OF THE FIRST FOLIO
+
+(_From the copy in the New York Public Library._)]
+
+[Page Heading: The First Folio]
+
+The First Folio is a large volume of 908 pages, measuring in the tallest
+extant copy 13-3/8 x 8-1/2 inches. A reduced facsimile of the title page
+with the familiar wood-cut portrait appears on the opposite page. The
+text is printed in two columns with sixty-six lines to a column. The
+typography is only fairly good, and many mistakes occur in the
+pagination. Extant copies, of which there are at least 156, vary in some
+respects, on account of the practice of making corrections while the
+sheets were being printed. The printer was William Jaggard, and his
+associates in the publishing enterprise were his son Isaac and the
+booksellers, William Aspley, John Smethwick, and Edward Blount.
+Estimates of the size of the edition vary from five to six hundred.
+
+Many of the causes which made the text of these early editions
+inaccurate are common to all the plays, while some are peculiar to those
+obtained by reporters in the theater. Of the first, the most fundamental
+is, of course, the illegibility or ambiguity of the author's original
+manuscript. Such flaws were perpetuated and multiplied with each
+successive transcript, and when the manuscript copy came into the
+printer's hands, the errors of the compositor--confusion of words
+sounding alike, of words looking alike, unconscious substitution of
+synonyms, mere manual slips, and the like--were added to those already
+existing. The absence of any uniform spelling, and carelessness in
+punctuation, which led to these being freely modified by the printer,
+increased the risk of corruption. The punctuation of both Quartos and
+Folio, though by no means without weight, cannot be regarded as having
+the author's sanction, and all modernized editions re-punctuate with
+greater or less freedom. Most nineteenth-century editors carry on with
+minor modifications the punctuation of Pope, so that their texts show a
+composite of sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth century
+methods; the text used in the Tudor edition is frankly punctuated, as
+far as the syntax permits, according to modern methods, with, it is
+believed, no loss in authority. There is no clear evidence that, in such
+productions as plays, proof was read outside of the printing-office. The
+theory, insisted on by Dr. Furness in successive volumes of the _New
+Variorum Shakespeare_, that the Elizabethan compositor set type to
+dictation is without foundation, the phenomena which he seeks to explain
+by it occurring commonly to-day when there is no question of such a
+practice.
+
+Another class of variation in text arose from the treatment of the
+manuscript in the playhouse. Cuts, additions, and alterations were made
+for acting purposes, stage directions were added with or without the
+assistance of the author, revivals of the play called for revision by
+the original writer or another. The majority of stage directions in
+modern editions, except exits and entrances, are due to editors from
+Rowe onwards, and these unauthorized additions are distinguished in the
+Tudor edition by brackets. Almost all notes of place at the beginnings
+of scenes belong to this class.
+
+[Page Heading: Corruptions of Text]
+
+The defects to which the texts of the surreptitiously obtained Quartos
+are particularly subject include omissions and alterations due to lapse
+of memory on the part of the actors, additions due to the tendency to
+improvise which Shakespeare censures in _Hamlet_, omissions due to the
+reporter's failure to hear or to write quickly enough, garbled
+paraphrases made up to supply such omissions, and the writing of prose
+as verse and verse as prose.
+
+Such are the most important of the causes of the corruptions which the
+long series of editors of Shakespeare have devoted their study and their
+ingenuity to remedying. The series really begins with the second Folio
+of 1632 and is continued with but slight improvements in the third Folio
+of 1663, reprinted with the addition of _Pericles_ and six spurious
+plays in 1664, and in the fourth Folio of 1685. The emendations made in
+the seventeenth-century editions are mainly modernizations in spelling
+and such minor changes as occurred to members of the printing staff. In
+no case do they have any authority except such as may be supposed to
+belong to a man not far removed from Shakespeare in date; and they add
+about as many mistakes as they remove.
+
+The difficulty of the task of the modern editor varies greatly from play
+to play. It is least in the twenty plays for which the First Folio is
+the sole authority, greater in the eight in which the Folio reprints a
+Quarto with some variations, greatest in the nine in which Folio and
+Quarto represent rival versions. In these last cases, it is the duty of
+the editor to decide from all the accessible data which version has the
+best claim to represent the author's intention, and to make that a basis
+to be departed from only in clear cases of corruption. The temptation,
+which no editor has completely resisted, is naturally towards an
+eclecticism which adopts the reading that seems most plausible in
+itself, without giving due weight to the general authority of the text
+chosen as a basis. If carried far, such eclecticism results in a
+patchwork quite distinct from any version that Shakespeare can have
+known.
+
+The first editor of Shakespeare, in the modern sense, was Nicholas Rowe,
+poet laureate under Queen Anne. He published in 1709 an edition of the
+plays in six octavo volumes, preceded by the first formal memoir of the
+dramatist, and furnished with notes. The poems were issued in the
+following year in similar form, with essays by Gildon. Rowe based his
+text upon that of the fourth Folio, with hardly any collation of
+previous editions. He corrected a large number of the more obvious
+corruptions, the most notable of his emendations being perhaps the
+phrase in _Twelfth Night_, "Some are become great," which he changed to
+"Some are born great." On the external aspect of the plays Rowe has left
+a deeper mark than any subsequent editor. In the Folios only eight of
+the plays had lists of _dramatis personæ_; Rowe supplied them for the
+rest. In the Folios the division into acts and scenes is carried out
+completely in only seventeen cases, it is partially done in thirteen,
+and in six it is not attempted at all. Rowe again completed the work,
+and though some of his divisions have been modified and others should
+be, he performed this task with care and intelligence. He modernized the
+spelling and the punctuation, completed the exits and entrances,
+corrected many corrupt speech-tags, and arranged many passages where the
+verse was disordered. In virtue of these services, he must, in spite of
+his leaving much undone, be regarded as one of the most important agents
+in the formation of our modern text.
+
+[Page Heading: Rowe and Pope]
+
+A second edition of Rowe's Shakespeare was published in 1714, and in
+1725 appeared a splendid quarto edition in six volumes, edited by
+Alexander Pope. In his preface Pope made strong professions of his good
+faith in dealing with the text. "I have discharged," he said, "the dull
+duty of an editor to my best judgment, with more labor than I expect
+thanks, with a religious abhorrence of all innovation, and without any
+indulgence to my private sense or conjecture.... The various readings
+are fairly put in the margin, so that anyone may compare 'em; and those
+I have preferred into the text are constantly _ex fide codicum_, upon
+authority.... The more obsolete or unusual words are explained." Hardly
+one of these statements is entirely true. Pope possessed copies of the
+first and second Folios, and at least one Quarto of each play that had
+been printed before 1623, except _Much Ado_, but these he consulted only
+occasionally, and seldom registered the variants as he said he had done.
+When he did, he gave no clue to their source. He constantly inserted his
+private conjectures without notice, and his explanations of difficult
+expressions are few and frequently wrong. Passages considered by him
+inferior or spurious he relegated to the foot of the pages; others he
+merely omitted without notice. His ear was often jarred by the freedom
+of Shakespeare's verse, and he did his best to make it "regular" by
+eighteenth-century standards. Yet Pope spent much ingenuity in striving
+to better the text, and no small number of restorations and emendations
+are to be credited to him, especially in connection with the arrangement
+of the verse. He is to be credited also with discernment in rejecting
+the seven plays added to the Shakespearean canon in the third Folio, of
+which only _Pericles_ has since been restored.
+
+The weaknesses of Pope's edition did not long remain hidden. In the
+spring of 1726 appeared "Shakespeare Restored: or, a Specimen of the
+many Errors, as well committed, as unamended, by Mr. Pope in his late
+edition of this Poet. Designed not only to correct the said edition, but
+to restore the True Reading of Shakespeare in all the Editions ever yet
+publish'd." Lewis Theobald, the author, was a translator and scholar,
+much better equipped than Pope for the work of editing, and his
+merciless exposure of Pope's defects gave a foretaste of the critical
+ability later displayed in the edition of Shakespeare which he published
+in 1734. Lovers of Shakespeare discerned at the time the service
+performed by Theobald in this attack on Pope, but the publication in
+1728 of the first edition of the _Dunciad_, with Theobald as hero, gave
+Pope his revenge, and cast over the reputation of his critic a cloud
+which is only now dispersing. Modern scholarship, however, has come to
+recognize the primacy of Theobald among emendators of Shakespeare's
+text, and the most famous of his contributions, his correction of "a
+table of green fields" to "'a babled of green fields," in Quickly's
+account of the death of Falstaff in _Henry V_, II. iii. 17, is only a
+specially brilliant example of the combination of acuteness, learning,
+and sympathy which made his edition a landmark in the history of the
+text. For many of his troubles, however, Theobald was himself to blame;
+he attacked his opponents with unnecessary vehemence, as he expressed
+his appreciation of his own work with unnecessary emphasis; he was not
+always candid as to what he owed to others, even to the despised edition
+of Pope, from which he printed; and he indulged his appetite for
+conjecture at times beyond reasonable bounds.
+
+[Page Heading: Theobald and Hanmer]
+
+Theobald's edition was followed in 1744 by that of Sir Thomas Hanmer in
+six beautifully printed volumes. This edition is based on that of Pope,
+and even goes farther than Pope's in relegating to the foot of the page
+passages supposed unworthy. Hanmer performed no collating worth
+mentioning, but made some acute conjectures.
+
+The student is apt to be prejudiced against the work of William
+Warburton on account of the extravagance of his claims and his
+ungenerous treatment of predecessors to whom he was greatly indebted.
+"The Genuine Text," he announced, "(collated with all former editions
+and then corrected and emended) is here settled: Being restored from the
+Blunders of the first editors and the Interpolations of the two Last";
+yet he based his text on Theobald's and joined Pope's name with his own
+on the title-page. Whatever value belongs to Warburton's edition (1747)
+lies in a number of probable conjectural emendations, some of which he
+had previously allowed Theobald to use, and in the amusing bombast and
+arrogance of many of his notes. The feeble support that lay behind the
+pretensions of this editor was exposed by a number of critics such as
+John Upton, Zachary Grey, Benjamin Heath, and Thomas Edwards, who did
+not issue new editions, but contributed a considerable number of
+corrections and interpretations.
+
+The value of Dr. Johnson's edition (1765) does not lie in his
+emendations, which are usually, though not always, poor, or in his
+collation of older editions, for which he was too indolent, but in the
+sturdy common-sense of his interpretations and the consummate skill
+frequently shown in paraphrases of obscure passages. His Preface to the
+edition was the most weighty general estimate of Shakespeare so far
+produced, and remains a valuable piece of criticism. In scientific
+treatment of the text, involving full use of all the Quartos and Folios
+then accessible, Johnson and his predecessors were far surpassed by
+Edward Capell, who issued his edition in ten volumes in 1768.
+Unfortunately, the enormous labor Capell underwent did not bear its full
+fruit, for he suppressed much of his textual material in the interests
+of a well-printed page, and his preface and notes are written in a
+crabbed style that obscures the acuteness of his editorial intelligence.
+He elaborated stage directions, and carried farther the correction of
+disarranged meter; but, like most of his fellow-editors in that century,
+he did less than justice to his predecessors and was too indulgent to
+his own conjectures. This edition was supplemented by volumes of notes
+published in 1775 (1 vol.) and 1779-1783 (3 vols.).
+
+[Page Heading: Johnson and Capell]
+
+Before the publication of Capell's text, the antiquary George Steevens
+had issued in 1766 reprints of twenty of the early Quartos; and in 1773
+he produced, in association with Johnson, an edition with a good text in
+which he benefited from Capell's labors (though he denies this). Through
+his knowledge of Elizabethan literature he made substantial
+contributions to the interpretation of difficult passages. He restored
+_Pericles_ to a place in the canon, but excluded the _Poems_, because
+"the strongest Act of Parliament that could be framed would fail to
+compel readers into their service." To the second edition of Johnson and
+Steevens's text (1778) Edmund Malone contributed his famous "Essay on
+the Chronology of Shakespeare's Plays," which began modern investigation
+of this subject. The third edition was revised in 1785 by Isaac Reed;
+and this was succeeded by the edition of Malone in 1790, in which the
+vast learning and conscientious care of that scholar combined to produce
+the most trustworthy text so far published. Malone was not brilliant,
+but he was extremely erudite and candid, and his so-called "Third
+Variorum" edition in twenty-one volumes, brought out after his death by
+James Boswell in 1821, is a mine of information on theatrical history
+and cognate matters, which will probably always be of value to students
+of the period. The name of "First Variorum Edition" is given to the
+fifth edition of Johnson and Steevens, revised by Reed in 1803, and
+"Second Variorum" to the sixth edition of the same, 1813. Meantime
+occasional critiques of complete editions contributed something to the
+text. Johnson's edition called forth comment by Kendrick in 1765 and
+Tyrwhitt in 1766, and the Johnson and Steevens text was criticized by
+Joseph Ritson in 1783 and 1788, and by J. Monck Mason in 1785. The first
+American edition was published in Philadelphia in 1795-1796 from
+Johnson's text; the first continental edition at Brunswick in 1797-1801
+by C. Wagner.
+
+[Page Heading: Nineteenth-Century Editors]
+
+The editions of the nineteenth century are too numerous for detailed
+mention here. Passing by the "family" Shakespeare of T. Bowdler, 1807
+and 1820, and the editions of Harness, 1825, and Singer, 1826, we note
+the editions of 1838-1842, and 1842-1844 in which Charles Knight
+resorted to the text of the First Folio as an exclusive authority. J. P.
+Collier in his edition of 1844 leaned, on the other hand, to the side of
+the Quartos, but later became a clever if somewhat rash emendator, who
+spoiled his reputation by seeking to obtain authority for his guesses by
+forging them in a seventeenth-century hand in a copy of the second
+Folio. The colossal volumes of J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps's edition,
+1853-1865, contain stores of antiquarian illustration; and in the
+edition of Delius, 1854-1861, we have the chief contribution of Germany
+to the text of Shakespeare. Delius, like Knight, though not to the same
+extreme, exaggerated the authority of the First Folio; but for the plays
+for which that is the sole source, his text has earned high respect.
+Alexander Dyce, wisest of Elizabethan scholars, produced in 1857 a
+characteristically sane text, on the whole the best to this date; while
+in America in 1857-1860 and 1859-1865 the brilliant but erratic Richard
+Grant White produced editions which show a commendable if puzzling
+openness to conviction in successive changes of opinion.
+
+From 1863 to 1866 appeared the first issue of the Cambridge Shakespeare,
+edited originally by W. G. Clark, J. Glover, and W. A. Wright. The
+responsibility for the later revised edition of 1891-3 is Dr. Wright's.
+The exceedingly careful and exhaustive collation of all previous textual
+readings in the notes of this edition make it indispensable for the
+serious student, and its text, substantially reprinted in the Globe
+edition, is the most widely accepted form of the works of Shakespeare
+which has ever been circulated. The over-emphasis on the First Folio
+which has been noted in Knight and Delius is no longer found here, and
+in general the comparative value of Quarto and Folio is weighed in the
+case of each play. Occasionally, in cases like that of _Richard III_,
+where both Quarto and Folio are good but vary widely, the Cambridge
+editors seem more eclectic than their general theory warrants, and the
+punctuation is still archaic, clinging to the eighteenth-century
+tradition. But the acceptance of this careful and conservative text has
+been a wholesome influence in Shakespearean study.
+
+The only completely reëdited texts which have been issued since the
+revised Cambridge edition are that of the Oxford Shakespeare, by W. J.
+Craig, on principles very similar to the Cambridge, and the Neilson
+text, originally published in one volume in 1906 and revised and
+reprinted in the Tudor Shakespeare. The massive volumes of Dr. H. H.
+Furness's _New Variorum Shakespeare_, begun in 1871 (17 volumes issued),
+now reprint the text of the First Folio, and show marked traces of the
+tendency to follow this authority without due discrimination. This
+monumental abstract of all previous criticism is of great value to the
+professional student of Shakespeare, and its textual apparatus has the
+advantage over the Cambridge edition of recording not only the first
+occurrence of a reading, but the names of the chief editors who have
+adopted it. It thus gives a compendious history of editorial judgment on
+all disputed points.
+
+[Page Heading: Recent Editors]
+
+The conjectural emendation of Shakespeare still goes on, but since Dyce,
+comparatively few suggestions find general acceptance. More progress has
+been made in interpretation through the greater accessibility of
+contemporary documents and the advance in recent years in our knowledge
+of Elizabethan theatrical conditions. But, in view of the circumstances
+under which the original editions were printed, there will always be
+room for variations of individual opinion in many cases, both as to what
+Shakespeare wrote and as to what he meant.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+QUESTIONS OF AUTHENTICITY
+
+
+Owing to the conditions of publication described in Chapter VII there
+are questions as to the authenticity of a number of the poems and plays
+ascribed to Shakespeare. Of the poems, "The Ph[oe]nix and the Turtle"
+and "A Lover's Complaint" have been sometimes rejected as unworthy, but
+there is no other evidence against the ascription to him by the original
+publishers. The case of _The Passionate Pilgrim_ is different and is
+interesting as illustrating the methods of piracy practised by
+booksellers and as affording the only record of a protest by Shakespeare
+against the free use which they made of his name. This anthology was
+published by W. Jaggard in 1599 as "by W. Shakespeare." The third
+edition in 1612 added two pieces by Thomas Heywood. Heywood immediately
+protested and in the postscript to his _Apologie for Actors_, 1612,
+declared that Shakespeare was "much offended with M. Jaggard that
+(altogether unknown to him) presumed to make so bold with his name." Of
+the twenty poems that made up the volume, only five are certainly by
+Shakespeare, two appearing also in _The Sonnets_ and three in _Love's
+Labour's Lost_. Six others can be assigned to contemporary poets. The
+authorship of the remaining nine is unknown, but probably only one or
+two are by Shakespeare.
+
+[Page Heading: The Shakespeare Apocrypha]
+
+In addition to the thirty-seven plays now included in all editions of
+Shakespeare, some forty others have been, for one reason or another,
+attributed to him. The First Folio contained thirty-six plays; and it is
+a strong evidence of the honesty and information of its editors, Heming
+and Condell, that subsequent criticism has been satisfied to retain the
+plays of their choice and to make but one addition, _Pericles_. Of these
+plays, however, it is now generally agreed that a number are not
+entirely the work of Shakespeare, but were written by him in part in
+collaboration with other writers, _e.g._, _Titus Andronicus_, _1_, _2_,
+and, _3 Henry VI_, _Timon of Athens_, _Pericles_, and _Henry VIII_. Of two
+of these, _Titus Andronicus_ and _1 Henry VI_, some students refuse to
+give Shakespeare any share. Of the forty doubtful plays, there is not
+one which in its entirety is now credited to Shakespeare; and only three
+or four in which any number of competent critics see traces of his hand.
+Only in the case of _The Two Noble Kinsmen_ is there any weight of
+evidence or opinion that he had a considerable share.
+
+The second Folio kept to the thirty-six plays of the First Folio; but
+the second printing of the third Folio (1664) added seven plays:
+_Pericles Prince of Tyre_, _The London Prodigal_, _The History of Thomas
+Lord Cromwell_, _Sir John Oldcastle_, _Lord Cobham_, _The Puritan
+Widow_, _A Yorkshire Tragedy_, _The Tragedy of Locrine_. These seven
+plays were also included in the fourth Folio, and as supplementary
+volumes to Rowe's, Pope's, and some later editions. They were all
+originally published in quarto as by W. S., or William Shakespeare, but
+except in the case of _Pericles_, this has been regarded as a
+bookseller's mistake or deception without warrant. _Locrine_, "newly set
+forth, overseen, and corrected by W. S., 1595," is a play of about the
+date of _Titus Andronicus_, and is probably by Greene, Peele, or some
+imitator of Marlowe and Kyd. _Sir John Oldcastle_ appeared in 1600 in
+two quartos, one of which ascribed it to William Shakespeare, but it was
+clearly composed for the Admiral's men as a rival to the Falstaff plays
+which the Chamberlain's men had been acting. _Thomas Lord Cromwell_
+(1602) and _The Puritan_ (1607) were ascribed to W. S., on their
+title-pages, but offer no possible resemblances to Shakespeare. _The
+London Prodigal_ (1605) and _A Yorkshire Tragedy_ (1608) were both acted
+by Shakespeare's company, and bore his name on their first editions, and
+the latter also on a second edition, 1619. The external evidence for his
+authorship is virtually the same as in the case of _Pericles_, which
+also was acted by his company, appeared under his name during his
+lifetime, but was rejected by the editors of the First Folio. No one,
+however, can discover any suggestion of Shakespeare in _The London
+Prodigal_. _A Yorkshire Tragedy_ is a domestic tragedy in one act,
+dealing with a contemporary murder. It gives the conclusion of a story
+also treated in a play, _The Miseries of Enforced Marriage_ (1607) by
+George Wilkins, the author of a novel _The Painful Adventures of
+Pericles_, and sometimes suggested as a collaborator on the play
+_Pericles_. _A Yorkshire Tragedy_ is very unlike Shakespeare, but it has
+a few passages of extraordinarily vivid prose, which might conceivably
+owe something to him.
+
+[Page Heading: The Two Noble Kinsmen]
+
+_The Two Noble Kinsmen_ was registered April 8, 1634, and appeared in
+the same year with the following title-page "The Two Noble Kinsmen:
+Presented at the Blackfriars by the Kings Maiesties servants, with great
+applause: Written by the memorable Worthies of their time;
+
+    Mr. John Fletcher, and }
+                           } Gent.
+    Mr. William Shakespeare}
+
+Printed at London by the Tho. Cotes for Iohn Waterson; and are to be
+sold at the signe of the Crowne in Paul's Church-yard. 1634." The
+exclusion of the play from the First Folio may be explained on the same
+basis as the exclusion of _Pericles_; for in each play Shakespeare wrote
+the minor part. There is now general agreement that _The Two Noble
+Kinsmen_ was written by two authors with distinct styles, and that the
+author of the larger portion is Fletcher. The attribution of the
+non-Fletcherian part to Shakespeare has been upheld by Lamb, Coleridge,
+De Quincey, Spalding (in a notable Letter on Shakespeare's Authorship of
+_The Two Noble Kinsmen_, 1833), Furness, and Littledale (who edited the
+play for _The New Shakespeare Society_, Series II, 1, 8, 15, London,
+1876-1885); but there are still many critics who do not believe that
+Shakespeare had any part in the play. This question will probably always
+remain a matter of opinion; but the evidence of various verse tests
+confirms esthetic judgment in assigning about two fifths of the verse to
+Shakespeare. The Shakespearean portion, here and there possibly touched
+by Fletcher, includes, I. i; I. ii; I. iii; I. iv. 1-28; III. i; III.
+ii; V. i. 17-73; V. iii. 1-104; V. iv, and perhaps the prose II. i and
+IV. iii.
+
+The dance in the play is borrowed from an anti-masque in Beaumont's
+_Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn_, presented at court,
+February 20, 1613. This fixes the date of composition for the play in
+1613, the same year as _Henry VIII_, on which it is now generally agreed
+that Shakespeare and Fletcher collaborated. On both of the plays the
+collaboration seems to have been direct; _i.e._, after making a fairly
+detailed outline, each writer took certain scenes, and, to all intents,
+completed these scenes after his own fashion.
+
+One other play must be mentioned in connection with _The Two Noble
+Kinsmen_. _Cardenio_, entered on the Stationers' Register, 1653, was
+described as "by Fletcher and Shakespeare." It seems probably identical
+with a _Cardenno_ acted at court by the King's men in May, 1613, and a
+_Cardenna_ in June, 1613. Attempts have been made to connect it with
+_Double Falsehood_, assigned to Shakespeare by Theobald on its
+publication in 1728.
+
+[Page Heading: Last Ascriptions]
+
+Other non-extant plays ascribed to Shakespeare after 1642 require no
+attention, nor do a number of Elizabethan plays assigned to him in
+certain of their later quartos. Among these are _The Troublesome Reign
+of King John_, on which Shakespeare's _King John_ was based; _The First
+Part of The Contention_, and (the Second Part) _The True Tragedy of
+Richard Duke of York_ (versions of _2 Henry VI_ and _3 Henry VI_); and
+_The Taming of a Shrew_, the basis of Shakespeare's play. The relation
+of Shakespeare's plays to these earlier versions is discussed in the
+introductions to the respective volumes of the Tudor Shakespeare. Other
+plays assigned, without grounds, to Shakespeare by late
+seventeenth-century booksellers are _The Merry Devil of Edmonton, The
+Arraignment of Paris, Fair Em, Mucedorus_, and _The Birth of Merlin_.
+
+A few other anonymous plays have been ascribed to Shakespeare by modern
+critics. Of chief note are _Arden of Feversham_, 1592, first attributed
+to Shakespeare by Edward Jacob in 1770; _Edward III_, 1596, included
+with other false attributions to Shakespeare in a bookseller's list of
+1659, and edited and assigned to Shakespeare by Capell in 1760; _Sir
+Thomas More_, an old play of about 1587, preserved in manuscript until
+edited by Dyce in 1844 and assigned to Shakespeare by Richard Simpson in
+1871. There is no evidence for the ascription of various portions of
+these plays to Shakespeare, except that certain passages seem to some
+critics characteristic of him. But at the date when the three plays
+were written his style had not attained its characteristic
+individuality; and the assignment of these anonymous plays to any
+particular author neglects the obvious fact that many writers of that
+period present similar traits of versification and imagery. The
+attribution to Shakespeare of the Countess of Salisbury episode in
+_Edward III_, parts of the insurrection scenes in _Sir Thomas More_, and
+a few passages in _Arden of Feversham_ has scarcely any warrant beyond
+the enthusiastic admiration of certain critics for these passages.
+
+Thus only one play of the Shakespeare Apocrypha has any considerable
+claim to admission into the canon. The evidence for his participation in
+_The Two Noble Kinsmen_ is about as strong as in _Pericles_, and the
+part assigned to him is fairly comparable with his contribution to
+_Henry VIII_.
+
+An account of the Shakespeare Apocrypha is, however, incomplete without
+reference to the forgeries of documents or plays. Theobald published
+_Double Falsehood_ in 1728, as based on a seventeenth-century manuscript
+which he conjectured to be by Shakespeare. John Jordan, a resident of
+Stratford, forged the will of Shakespeare's father, and probably some
+other papers in his _Collections_, 1780; William Henry Ireland, with the
+aid of his father, produced in 1796 a volume of forged papers purporting
+to relate to Shakespeare's career, and on April 2, 1796, Sheridan and
+Kemble presented at Drury Lane the tragedy of _Vortigern_, really by
+Ireland, but said by him to have been found among Shakespeare's
+manuscripts. Ireland was exposed by Malone, and he published a
+confession of his forgeries in 1805. More skilful and far more
+disturbing to Shakespearean scholarship are the forgeries of John Payne
+Collier, extending over a period from 1835 to 1849. These included
+manuscript corrections in a copy of the second Folio, and many documents
+concerning the biography of Shakespeare and the history of the
+Elizabethan theater. These forgeries have vitiated many of Collier's
+most important publications, as his _Memoirs of Edward Alleyn_, and
+_History of English Dramatic Poetry_.
+
+[Page Heading: Forgeries]
+
+We turn now from attempts to increase Shakespeare's writings to an
+extraordinary effort to deny him the authorship of all his plays. Doubts
+on this score seem to have been raised by Joseph C. Hart in his _Romance
+of Yachting_, 1848, and by an article in _Chambers' Journal_, August 7,
+1852. In 1856, Mr. W. H. Smith first proposed Bacon's authorship in a
+letter to Lord Ellesmere, "Was Lord Bacon the author of Shakespeare's
+plays?" These were followed by an article by Miss Delia Bacon in
+_Putnam's Monthly_, 1856, and a volume, _The Philosophy of the Plays of
+Shakespeare unfolded by Delia Bacon_. Since Miss Bacon's book, her
+hypothesis has resulted in the publication of hundreds of volumes and
+pamphlets supporting many variations of the theory. Some are content to
+view the authorship as a mystery, assigning the plays to an unknown
+author. Others attribute the authorship to a club of distinguished men,
+or to Sir Anthony Shirley, or the Earl of Rutland, or another. Others
+give Bacon only a portion of the plays, as those containing many legal
+terms. The majority, however, are thoroughgoing "Baconians," and the
+most prodigious cases of misapplied ingenuity have been the efforts to
+find in the First Folio a cipher, by which certain letters are selected
+which proclaim Bacon's authorship; as _The Great Cryptogram_, 1887, by
+Ignatius Donnelly, and _The Bi-Literal Cypher of Francis Bacon_, 1900,
+by Mrs. Gallup. Such cyphers are mutually destructive, and their
+absurdity has been repeatedly demonstrated. Either they will not work
+without much arbitrary manipulation, or they work too well and are found
+to indicate Bacon's authorship of literature written before his birth
+and after his death. Yet similar 'discoveries' continue to be announced.
+
+The evidences supporting Shakespeare's authorship have been set forth
+sufficiently in this volume and offer no basis for an attitude of
+skepticism. A few considerations may be recalled as correctives for a
+partial or mistaken reading of the evidence. (1) Though the records of
+Shakespeare's life are meager, they are fuller than for any other
+Elizabethan dramatist. Indeed we know little of the biography of any men
+of the sixteenth century unless their lives affected church or politics
+and hence found preservation in the records. There is no 'mystery' about
+Shakespeare. (2) Records amply establish the identity between
+Shakespeare the actor and the writer. Moreover, the plays contain many
+words and phrases natural to an actor, many references to the actor's
+art, and show a wide and detailed knowledge of the ways and
+peculiarities of the theater. (3) The extent of observation and
+knowledge in the plays is, indeed, remarkable, but it is not accompanied
+by any indication of thorough scholarship, or a detailed connection with
+any profession outside of the theater, or a profound knowledge of the
+science or philosophy of the time. (4) The law terms are numerous, and
+usually correct, but do not establish any great knowledge of the law.
+Elizabethan London was full of law students who were among frequent
+patrons of the theater. Through acquaintance with these gentlemen
+Shakespeare might have readily acquired all the law that he displays.
+Moreover Shakespeare had an opportunity to gain a considerable
+familiarity with the law through the frequent litigations in which he
+and his father were concerned. (5) The dedication, commendatory poems,
+and address to the readers prefixed to the First Folio ought in
+themselves to be sufficient to remove the skepticism as to Shakespeare's
+authorship.
+
+[Page Heading: The "Baconian" Question]
+
+The following considerations apply to the attribution to Bacon, so far
+as that rests on any tangible basis: (1) Sir Tobie Matthews writes in a
+letter to Bacon, written some time later than January, 1621, "The most
+prodigious wit that ever I knew of my nation and of this side of the sea
+is of your Lordship's name, though he be known by another." The
+sentence probably refers to Father Thomas Southwell, a Jesuit, whose
+real surname was Bacon. There is nothing to connect it with Shakespeare.
+(2) The parallelisms between passages in Shakespeare and Bacon deal with
+phrases in common use and fail to establish any connection between the
+two men. (3) The few surviving examples of Bacon's verse suggest no
+ability as a poet. (4) Bacon's life is well known, and it offers no hint
+of connection with the theaters and no space in its crowded annals for
+the production of Shakespeare's plays. In fact, if we had to find an
+author for Shakespeare's plays among writers of the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, Bacon would be about the last person
+conceivable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+SHAKESPEARE SINCE 1616
+
+
+During Shakespeare's lifetime, his plays were mentioned and imitated as
+often as those of any of his contemporaries. The more important
+documents bearing on his growing reputation have already been noted in
+this volume. This popularity, however, was confined to theater-goers and
+the readers of the sixteen plays that had appeared before 1616. There
+was no opportunity for a full estimate of his plays as literature until
+their publication in the Folio of 1623. This is given full and worthy
+expression in the fine verses which Ben Jonson contributed as a preface
+to the Folio. He had girded at several of Shakespeare's plays, and his
+own views of the principles and practices of the dramatic art were
+largely opposed to Shakespeare's, but he took this opportunity to
+express unstinted appreciation of Shakespeare's greatness. He notes with
+discrimination that Shakespeare learned his art in an earlier day, but
+far outshone Kyd, Lyly, and Marlowe.
+
+                    Soul of the Age
+    The applause! delight! the wonder of our Stage!
+
+He may challenge comparison with the great Greek tragedians, or in
+comedies
+
+    Of all that insolent Greece or haughty Rome
+    Sent forth, or since did from their ashes come.
+
+    He was not of an age but for all time!
+
+The magnitude of Shakespeare's achievement was thus enthusiastically
+proclaimed by the literary dictator of the time.
+
+From 1623, until the closing of the theaters, the plays continued
+favorites on the stage, though they yielded somewhat in the current
+taste to the theatrical successes of Fletcher and Massinger. After 1623,
+they continued to be read and admired, as is shown by the publication of
+the second and third folios in 1632 and 1663-1664, and by many
+appreciations, including those of D'Avenant, Suckling, the Duchess of
+Newcastle, and Milton. At the Restoration many of the plays were at once
+revived on the stage, and Dryden's essay _Of Dramatick Poesie_ (1668)
+summed up in a masterly fashion contemporary opinion on Shakespeare. He
+is compared with other great dramatists, and is declared less correct
+than Jonson and less popular and modern than Beaumont and Fletcher, yet
+is "the man who of all Moderns, and perhaps Ancient Poets, had the
+largest and most comprehensive soul."
+
+[Page Heading: The Seventeenth Century]
+
+The Restoration was in some doubt about Shakespeare, for while it found
+in him much to admire, it also found much to condemn. His plays now had
+the advantage of women actors for the female parts, but they
+encountered changed fashions in the theater. The romantic comedies were
+not to the taste of the time, and disappeared from the stage until
+toward the middle of the eighteenth century. Meanwhile, _The Merry Wives
+of Windsor_ was the most popular and most highly esteemed of his
+comedies. The tragedies attracted the genius of Betterton and were
+constantly acted, but these were subject to revision of various kinds.
+_Hamlet_ and _Othello_ held their places without alterations, but Nahum
+Tate's tame version of _King Lear_ and Cibber's version of _Richard III_
+superseded the originals for many years. _Romeo and Juliet_, too, gave
+way to Otway's _Caius Marius_, 1692, which kept large portions of
+Shakespeare's play; and _Antony and Cleopatra_ yielded place on the
+stage to Dryden's fine _All for Love_ (1678), in the style of which he
+professes to imitate the "divine Shakespeare." By 1692, adaptations had
+also been made of _Troilus and Cressida_, _The Tempest_, _Macbeth_, _The
+Two Noble Kinsmen_, _Timon_, _Richard II_, _Coriolanus_, _Henry VI_,
+_Cymbeline_, _Titus Andronicus_, _Julius Cæsar_. A great deal of
+contempt has been visited upon these revisions of Shakespeare, and their
+attempts to improve on him are usually feeble enough; but sufficient
+recognition has not been given to the testimony that these revisors bear
+to a great appreciation and admiration of Shakespeare. They tried to
+adapt him to current metrical conventions, to current literary fashions,
+to an idea of art quite foreign to his, but they made these efforts
+because they admired his genius. If they did not admire everything in
+his thirty-seven plays, they admired a great deal.
+
+Further, these revisions are the outcome of critical strictures on the
+plays which were then common and, in essence, have been frequently
+repeated. Critics objected to the irregularity and confusion of their
+structure, to their disregard of the unities of action, their mixture of
+tragic and comic, their obscurity and archaism of diction, their mixed
+and confused figures, their occasional puns and bombast. These are
+substantially the criticisms that Dryden offers when under the influence
+of Rymer. Rymer himself (_A Short View of Tragedy_, 1693) goes much
+farther. He desires tragedy to give a rationalized view of life, dealing
+poetic justice to various typical persons, and consequently condemns
+Shakespeare's persons as too individual, his plots as too irregular, and
+the total effect of his plays as insufficiently didactic and moral. This
+view of tragedy was mainly due to the rationalistic and classical ideas
+which continued for a century to dominate European criticism. But before
+the seventeenth century was over, Shakespeare's growing reputation had
+proved itself a rock against which the tendencies in criticism had
+broken like unavailing waves. However much they might insist on rules in
+art, critics were generally willing to hail Shakespeare as the great
+exception. Champions were ready to answer Rymer and to defend
+Shakespeare. _Othello_, selected by Rymer for special analysis and
+condemnation, continued to hold its place on the stage and to incite
+dramatists to emulation. The plays continued to be read, and new
+editions were demanded. In the forty years from 1660 to 1700, in spite
+of great changes in theatrical conditions, in spite of changes of taste
+in readers that relegated most of Elizabethan drama to neglect, and in
+spite of the formation of a criticism doubtful or neglectful of the very
+qualities in literature that his plays present, Shakespeare continued to
+win admirers. By 1700 he was recognized as a dramatist and poet who was
+one of the great possessions of the English race.
+
+[Page Heading: Widening Influence]
+
+In the two centuries since, Shakespeare's fame and influence have spread
+and multiplied to an extent difficult to characterize justly in a brief
+summary. Some important evidences of this growth may indeed be collected
+and analyzed. The position and importance of his plays on the stage, the
+ever increasing number of editions, the changing attitudes of critics
+and men of letters--on these matters it is not difficult to draw
+conclusions as to Shakespeare's influence at home and abroad. But it is
+not so easy to say what his influence was on the literature of any
+generation, and still less easy to summarize with certainty the effects
+on thought and feeling and conduct which made up his continuing power
+over generation after generation of readers. This much is clear, that a
+study of Shakespeare's influence is in part a study of changing ideas
+and ideals in literature--that as he survived the Restoration taste, so
+he survived the new classicism of the eighteenth and the romanticism of
+the early nineteenth century. It is also clear that a full record of the
+influence of Shakespeare on English-speaking readers would touch on
+almost all the varied changes of thought and conduct that have entered
+into the history of two centuries.
+
+The most important of the successive editions of Shakespeare from that
+of Nicholas Rowe, 1709, to the present time, have been noted in the
+history of the text in Chapter VII. It must be observed that these
+various publications indicate not only progress toward establishing a
+sound text, but also a constantly increasing number of readers. The
+multiplication of editions kept pace with the vast extension of the
+middle-class interest in literature. By the end of the eighteenth
+century, the works of Shakespeare were in the possession of everyone who
+had a library, and with a text and notes that left few difficulties for
+a person of any education.
+
+The nineteenth century well maintained the tradition of earlier
+scholarship. Malone's extensive antiquarian knowledge of Elizabethan
+drama and theater served as the basis for further research in these
+fields by Dyce, Ward, Fleay, and others. The chronological order of the
+plays, which Malone was the first to investigate, was determined with
+considerable certainty and gave a new significance to the study of
+Shakespeare's work as a whole. Dyce, Sidney Walker, and Wright, Delius
+of the Germans, Richard Grant White of the Americans, are a few among
+the long list of scholars who have added notable emendations and
+illustrative notes. Editions of the collected works indeed soon became
+almost too numerous for record, and the number of readings, notes, and
+illustrations too great for collection even in the largest variorum.
+To-day the task of scholarship may lie in the restriction,
+simplification, and final determination of certain varying editorial
+practices rather than in the accumulation of further illustrative and
+appreciative comment. But to the work of adding new editions there can
+be no end so long as the number of readers increases. Volumes of all
+sizes, for many classes, following various editorial methods, are likely
+to continue to meet the changing but ever increasing demands of
+English-speaking readers. At the end of the nineteenth century
+Shakespeare's works were not merely a household possession, they were to
+be had in every possible form to suit every possible taste or
+convenience.
+
+[Page Heading: On the Stage]
+
+The extension of Shakespeare's popularity on the stage was concurrent
+with this widening range of readers. In the first thirty years of the
+eighteenth century, which marked a revolution in the nature of the drama
+and the taste of the audiences, Shakespeare's tragedies continued to be
+among the most frequently acted stock plays at the two patented
+theaters. The middle of the century saw the revival of most of the
+romantic comedies and the appearance of David Garrick. Some of the
+adaptations continued, but others were displaced by genuine
+Shakespeare, as in _Macbeth_, _The Merchant of Venice_, and _Romeo and
+Juliet_. _All's Well That Ends Well_, _As You Like It_, _Cymbeline_,
+_Much Ado_, _Twelfth Night_, _The Winter's Tale_, were all revived. In
+fact, if we include adaptations, every play of Shakespeare was seen on
+the stage during the eighteenth century, with the exceptions of _2_ and
+_3 Henry VI_, only parts of these appearing, and of _Love's Labour's
+Lost_, of which a version prepared for acting was published in 1762 but
+not produced.
+
+The traditions of Betterton had been carried on by Wilks (1670-1732),
+Barton Booth (1681-1733), Colley Cibber (1671-1757), and others. But the
+prevailing manner was condemned as stiff and lifeless in comparison with
+the energy of Garrick's presentation. From his first triumph in Richard
+III in 1741, to his farewell performance of Lear in 1776, he won a
+series of signal successes in both tragedy and comedy, in Hamlet, Lear,
+Macbeth, Richard III, Falconbridge, Romeo, Hotspur, Iago, Leontes,
+Posthumus, Benedick, and Antony. Garrick's services to Shakespeare
+extended beyond the parts which he impersonated. He revived many plays,
+and though he garbled the texts freely, yet in comparison with earlier
+practice he really had some right to boast that he had restored the text
+of Shakespeare to the stage. Further, his example led to an increased
+popularity of Shakespeare in the theater and afforded new incentives for
+other actors. Mrs. Clive, Mrs. Cibber, and Mrs. Pritchard were among
+the women who acted with Garrick. Macklin, by his revival of Shylock as
+a tragic character, Henderson by his impersonation of Falstaff, and John
+Palmer in secondary characters, as Iago, Mercutio, Touchstone, and Sir
+Toby, were his contemporaries most famous in their day.
+
+[Page Heading: Kemble and Kean]
+
+Garrick's place at the head of the English stage was taken by John
+Philip Kemble (1757-1823), an actor of great dignity of presence and
+manner, who won general admiration in the great tragic parts, especially
+those offering opportunities for declamation. His sister, Mrs. Sarah
+Siddons, was doubtless the greatest of English actresses; her Lady
+Macbeth, Queen Katherine, and Constance overwhelmed her audiences by
+their majesty and passion. Kemble's reputation was surpassed by Edmund
+Kean, whose appearance as Shylock in 1819, at Drury Lane, was the first
+of a series of great successes in most of the tragic parts, including
+Hamlet, Lear, Othello, and Richard III. In contrast to Kemble's
+declamation, Kean's acting was vehement and passionate. Coleridge
+declared that to see him was "reading Shakespeare by flashes of
+lightning." Readers of the dramatic criticism of Hazlitt and Lamb will
+recall tributes to Kean and to other favorite actors, especially perhaps
+their praise of Mrs. Jordan's Viola and Rosalind. Macready for forty
+years maintained the great traditions of English acting, and during his
+managements of Drury Lane sought to retain for Shakespeare's plays their
+preëminence on the stage. Associated with his many impersonations were
+those of Mrs. Warner and Helen Faucit (Lady Martin). From Garrick's
+début to the retirement of Macready (1851) is a century of great actors
+and actresses who brought to the interpretation of the many characters
+of the plays a skill and intelligence that satisfied the most critical
+theater-goers and extended vastly the appreciation and knowledge of
+Shakespeare's men and women.
+
+Shakespeare's position on the stage was, however, maintained only with
+difficulty against the melodramas, musical farces, and spectacles that
+absorbed the theaters. Yet from 1844 to 1862, Samuel Phelps, at Sadler's
+Wells, presented thirty-one of the plays. Since then the stage has
+hardly seen an equally important revival; but the great traditions of
+acting have been carried on by many eminent actors: Sir Henry Irving,
+Ellen Terry, Forbes Robertson, in England; Edwin Forrest, Edwin Booth,
+Junius Brutus Booth, Charlotte Cushman, Ada Rehan, Julia Marlowe, and
+Edward Sothern in America. Lately, successful attempts have been made to
+perform plays in the Elizabethan manner, and perhaps there is a tendency
+to pay less attention to elaborate scenic presentation than was the
+habit during the last of the nineteenth century. In one respect, at
+least, the present offers a decided improvement on the past, for there
+is now a strong sentiment in favor of as close an adherence as possible
+to an authorized text of the plays.
+
+[Page Heading: The Eighteenth Century]
+
+Shakespeare has held his place on the stage in spite of many and great
+changes in theatrical conditions and dramatic taste. He will probably
+survive changes greater than those which separate the picture stage with
+its electric lights from the projecting open-air platform of his own
+day, or than those which separate the dramas of Ibsen, Shaw, and Barrie
+from those of Marlowe and Fletcher, or the cinematograph and comic opera
+from the bear-baiting and jugglery which rivaled the Globe. The visitor
+who scans, in the Stratford Museum, the curious collection of portraits
+of actors and actresses in Shakespearean parts may wonder what
+peculiarities of costume, manner, and expression will be devised for the
+admired interpretations of the centuries to come. But it hardly seems
+possible that any actor of the future will influence as greatly the
+appreciation of Shakespeare's characters and speeches as did Garrick and
+Mrs. Siddons in England or Edwin Booth in America.
+
+Shakespearean criticism in the eighteenth century was, as has been
+noted, largely textual, but there was also a considerable discussion of
+Shakespeare's learning, his art, and its violations of neo-classical
+theory. John Dennis, in his _Letters_, 1711, proved a sturdy admirer,
+and the consensus of opinion of following writers was that of Sedley's
+couplet which described Shakespeare as
+
+    The pride of Nature, and the shame of Schools,
+    Born to Create, and not to Learn from Rules.
+
+Voltaire's attacks brought rejoinders from Mrs. Elizabeth Montagu in
+1769 and from Dr. Johnson in the preface to his edition, 1765. In fact,
+admiration for Shakespeare was a powerful factor in forcing the
+rejection of rules and standards of French criticism. Johnson's Preface
+finds fault with Shakespeare's neglect of poetic justice and dwells at
+length on the faults in plots and diction, but Johnson defends the
+violation of the unities, and his praise is a discriminating summary of
+the merits that the eighteenth century had found in Shakespeare. It is
+praise that is likely to endure.
+
+Within another generation, however, reverence for Shakespeare had
+increased to an intensity that made Johnson's admiration seem feeble and
+niggardly. This transformation was due to many causes, but in the main
+it was a part of the vast changes in European literature known as the
+Romantic movement. This resulted in a rejection of the rules and models
+of neo-classicism, a new interest in the literature and manners of the
+Middle Ages, a conception of poetry as the expression of individuality,
+attention to the individual man in all orders of society, a fresh
+concern for external nature, an emphasis on the emotions rather than
+mere reason, a desire for wonder and mystery, and an exaltation of
+natural instincts and intuitions as opposed to general truths or social
+conventions. In each of these particulars, Shakespeare seemed the
+complete fulfilment of the new tendencies--which indeed his growing
+influence had undoubtedly encouraged. More than Spenser or Milton or
+the old ballads, he was the inspiration and guide for new endeavors in
+literature. It seemed to the new age of critics and poets that they had
+rediscovered him, and they hastened to raise him from neglect to the
+throne of omniscience. He was no longer a wayward genius, he was the
+model from whom art and wisdom were to be learned.
+
+[Page Heading: Appreciative Criticism]
+
+This new criticism was esthetic and appreciative. It did not try to
+balance Shakespeare's merits and faults, or to test him by codes of arts
+or morals. It recognized him as supreme, and its discipleship was
+devoted to reverent interpretation and enthusiastic admiration.
+Believing in the importance of the poetic imagination in the affairs of
+men, it found in him a gospel and an example for its creed. Its
+delightful task was to find new beauties and to search out the
+hiding-places that revealed the god of its idolatry. If the genius of
+the master-poet was the source of art and wisdom, the personality of the
+critic gained a new refulgence through its service of reflecting the
+rays of glory. The interest in the study of individual characters had
+resulted, even in Johnson's day, in some notable interpretive essays, as
+Maurice Morgann's on Falstaff (1777). In the next generation, Coleridge,
+Lamb, and Hazlitt in England, and Schlegel and Goethe in Germany,
+brought the keenest intelligence and most sympathetic taste to a
+criticism that aspired to reveal the full range and height of
+Shakespeare's creative faculty.
+
+The results of this criticism may be more specifically summarized. (1)
+It viewed the individual characters of the plays as if they were real
+persons, analyzing their motives and elaborating or repainting their
+portraits, as in the analyses of Hamlet by Goethe and Coleridge, or in
+the brilliant sketches of Hazlitt. The few hundred lines spoken by a
+leading character have thus been expanded by the impressions made on
+successive critics into volumes of biography. (2) Shakespeare's works
+were studied as a whole in an effort to study the development of his art
+and mind. Schlegel and Coleridge gave a unity to the phenomena of the
+thirty-seven plays that had not been recognized hitherto; but they and
+their followers naturally tended to make of their author a sort of
+nineteenth-century romanticist. (3) Exalting the services of poetry and
+the creative imagination, they viewed Shakespeare's exhibition of human
+nature and his incidental wisdom as profound, consistent, and immensely
+valuable for the human race. Hence they were ever seeking in his work
+for a philosophy, a synthetic ethics, and making the widest applications
+of his words to conduct. Believing that he could do no wrong, they
+inevitably came to attribute to him ideas and morals that were of their
+own creation.
+
+The defects of this criticism are most apparent in critics like Ulrici
+and Gervinus who carry its methods to extremes. Personal, fanciful,
+unhistorical, idolatrous, it is yet a tremendous tribute and an amazing
+record of the sway that Shakespeare has exerted on the human mind. The
+writings of no other man have been studied so intimately by so many
+sympathetic readers, or have excited such different impressions.
+Throughout the nineteenth century this appreciative criticism has
+continued, and Shakespeare has been interpreted through the personality
+of many critics, German and American, as well as British, more recently
+through the delicate sensibility of Professor Dowden, and the
+penetrating reflection of Professor A. C. Bradley.
+
+[Page Heading: The Nineteenth Century]
+
+At the end of the nineteenth century, Shakespearean criticism has become
+too varied for a brief survey. Textual and esthetic criticism both
+continue. The biography has been established on a sound basis of fact by
+Halliwell-Phillipps and Sidney Lee; and still new facts reward patient
+investigators of the legal and court documents, almost the only records
+preserved that can possibly bear on Shakespeare's life. Special studies
+of all sorts have been numerous, as to his reading, religion, folk-lore,
+and so on. More significant in its effect on our general view have been
+the efforts of historical criticism. As our knowledge of Elizabethan
+literature, drama, theater, have increased, it has been possible to see
+Shakespeare in relation to his time and environment. The study of
+Shakespeare as a sixteenth-century dramatist aims not merely at a better
+appreciation of his work, but also to explain his development and to
+account for some of the qualities of his achievement. Its attitude is
+that of the scientific historian examining the records of any great
+human activity, and trying to understand its causes, results, and
+meaning. Somewhat allied to this has been technical dramatic criticism,
+which is uniting knowledge of the Elizabethan theater with interest in
+drama as a peculiar form, and thereby studying Shakespeare as a
+dramatist rather than as a poet or philosopher. In fact, Shakespeare is
+no longer merely man, poet, dramatist, philosopher, or genius. Jonson's
+tribute, Dryden's summary, Johnson's judicial essay, or Coleridge's
+admiring studies, all seem hopelessly inadequate to express the range of
+his dominion. He has become the source of the most various and extensive
+interests, a continent that ever expands its fields for exploration, an
+epoch that ever extends the years of its duration, a race that never
+dies, though its progeny ever multiplies.
+
+[Page Heading: In Germany]
+
+It is in the nineteenth century that Shakespeare's dominance becomes
+international. Four of his plays were acted at Dresden and elsewhere
+early in the seventeenth century, but there seems to have been no
+literary acquaintance with the plays in Germany until about the middle
+of the eighteenth century, when two poor translations of _Julius Cæsar_
+and _Romeo and Juliet_ appeared, and J. C. Gottsched severely criticized
+Shakespeare's art. In 1759, in a journal, "Litteraturbriefe," Lessing
+began a warm defense of Shakespeare and declared his superiority to
+Racine and Corneille. His _Hamburgische Dramaturgie_ (1767) went far in
+directing the change of taste from French classicism and in
+establishing Shakespeare in German thought as the greatest of poets,
+whether ancient or modern. A prose translation was begun by Wieland in
+1762 and completed by Eschenburg in 1789. What is perhaps the best
+translation of Shakespeare into any foreign tongue was begun in 1797 by
+A. W. von Schlegel and Ludwig Tieck, two leaders of German romanticism,
+and finally completed in 1853. Schlegel's lectures on _Shakespeare and
+the Drama_ were delivered in Vienna in 1808, and present both the
+romanticist's idolizing of Shakespeare and a new kind of esthetic
+criticism destined to exercise great influence on Coleridge and the
+English critics. Meanwhile Goethe was adapting _Romeo and Juliet_ for
+the Weimar theater (1801) and Schiller was arranging _Macbeth_ for
+presentation at Stuttgart (1801). Goethe indeed was, throughout his
+life, an enthusiastic admirer of Shakespeare, and his works are full of
+discriminating criticism, of which perhaps the most famous passage is
+the analysis of Hamlet in _Wilhelm Meister_. Since Lessing and Herder,
+German poetry and drama have felt Shakespeare's influence, and in both
+textual and esthetic criticism, Germany has rivaled England and the
+United States. Delius and Schmidt, whose _Shakespeare-Lexicon_ (1874) is
+one of the great monuments of Shakespeare scholarship, are perhaps first
+among textual students; since 1865 the German Shakespeare Society has
+published yearly contributions of all kinds to Shakespeare criticism,
+and especially an excellent bibliography. On the stage Shakespeare has
+been constantly acted since the beginning of the century, and has
+engaged the services of some of the greatest actors, as Schroeder, the
+two Devrients, and Barnay. At present a large number of his plays are
+performed annually, in the smaller as well as the larger cities, and
+more frequently than in Britain or America. Twenty-six of the plays were
+acted in 1911, _Othello_ leading with 158 performances. For the years
+1909, 1910, 1911, _Hamlet_, _Othello_, _The Merchant of Venice_ have
+been the favorites, with _The Taming of the Shrew_ and _A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream_ the most popular of the comedies. For over a
+century Shakespeare has profoundly influenced German life and letters.
+Rarely, if ever, has a great people been so powerfully affected by a
+writer in a foreign tongue.
+
+In France, during the eighteenth century, Shakespeare's reputation was
+both aided and hindered by Voltaire. Though there are a few earlier
+notices of the English dramatist, Voltaire, after his visit to England,
+1720-1729, was virtually the first to win attention for Shakespeare. He
+admired Shakespeare, acknowledged his influence, but deplored his
+deficiencies in taste and art, "le Corneille de Londres, grand fou
+d'ailleurs, mais il a des morceaux admirables." Voltaire's criticism
+provoked replies in England and a defense from Diderot, who shared with
+Lessing the effort to emancipate the drama from some of its
+neo-classical restriction. Translations of twelve plays by La Place
+(1745-1748) and all of the plays by Le Tourneur (1776-1782) gave an
+opportunity for greater acquaintance with his work. A version of
+_Hamlet_ by Ducis was acted at Paris in 1769. But even at the end of the
+century, French literary opinion, though partly won by Le Tourneur's
+praise of Shakespeare, still sympathized with Voltaire, now engaged in
+an attack on Englishmen and their favorite. His last opinion (1778)
+declares, "Shakespeare est un sauvage avec des étincelles de génie qui
+brillent dans une nuit horrible."
+
+[Page Heading: In France]
+
+The nineteenth century saw a reaction from this criticism, indicated by
+the praise of Madame de Staël (_De la Litterature_, 1804), by Guizot's
+essay accompanying a revision of Le Tourneur's translation (1821), and
+later in the appreciation of Mézières's _Shakespeare ses [OE]uvres et
+ses Critiques_ (1860), in several translations, and in Victor Hugo's
+eulogy (1869). The best of the translations is by the poet's son,
+François Victor Hugo in prose (1859-1866). On the Paris stage, the
+leading English actors have appeared from time to time, and French
+versions of _Hamlet_, _Macbeth_, and _Othello_ have made a permanent
+place. M. Jusserand is the chief authority for the history of
+Shakespeare in France and an ambassador of peace between the conflicting
+literary tastes of the two nations.
+
+In Italy, Holland, Russia, Poland, and Hungary, during the nineteenth
+century, many of the plays have been regularly acted, and from Italy
+have come great actors and actresses, as Ristori, Salvini, and Rossi.
+Complete translations have been published in these countries and in
+Bohemian, Swedish, Danish, Finnish, and Spanish; and separate plays have
+been translated and acted in many other languages including those of
+India, Japan, and China.
+
+In music and painting Shakespeare's influence has also been
+international. Books have been devoted to the history of Shakespeare's
+music, and such surveys include nearly every English composer of note,
+and also Schubert, Schumann, Mendelssohn, Berlioz, Ambroise Thomas,
+Saint Saëns, Rossini, and Verdi. In painting as well, the persons and
+scenes of the play have excited the efforts of English, German, and
+American artists.
+
+In America, as has already been indicated, the interest in Shakespeare
+is hardly separable from that in Great Britain. Editors, critics,
+scholars, have been numerous and their contributions important, and the
+plays have been acted constantly and widely through the country.
+Probably there is no part of the world to-day where the study of
+Shakespeare is so active and where the interest in his work is so
+widespread. In one respect, at least, the United States in recent years
+has carried this study and interest beyond England, in the fields of
+education. As the study of the mother tongue has become the basis of
+American education, so Shakespeare has come to play a more and more
+important part in the training of youth. The universities offer training
+in the various departments of Shakespearean scholarship, every college
+offers courses on his plays, a number of them are prescribed for reading
+and study in the high schools; a few of them are read and extracts
+memorized in the primary schools. The child begins his education with
+Ariel and the fairies, and until his schooling is completed is kept in
+almost daily intercourse with the poetry and persons of the dramas.
+Homer was not better known in Athens. In a democracy still young and
+widely separated from older nations and cultures, Shakespeare has become
+one of the links that bind the American public not only to the common
+inheritances of the English-speaking races, but to the traditional
+culture of Europe.
+
+[Page Heading: In the United States]
+
+Known in the literature and theater of every civilized nation, the
+subject of a vast and increasing amount of discussion and criticism, the
+source of a scholarship rivaling that devoted to the writers of
+antiquity, the familiar theme for music and painting, the household
+possession of Great Britain, Germany, and America, influencing thought
+and conduct as few books have ever influenced them, and now an important
+element in the education of a great democracy,--the plays of Shakespeare
+occupy a position whence imagination "can not pierce a wink beyond, but
+doubt discovery there." His reputation and influence must change greatly
+in the years to come; but this at least is secure--three hundred years
+of an ever increasing sway over the human mind.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+The purpose of this volume has been to summarize what we know about
+Shakespeare. The documentary records and early traditions of his life
+have been supplemented by information in regard to the times and places
+in which he lived, the literature which he read, and the theaters for
+which he worked. The evolution of the drama that grew up in those
+theaters has been reviewed, and its manifest connections with
+Shakespeare's own development have been indicated. That development has
+been traced by means of a careful determination of the chronology of the
+plays; and the recognition of this growth of his powers has been shown
+to be a necessary basis for a just estimate of their achievement.
+
+If, now, in conclusion, we attempt to define our general impression of
+the man and his work, this must inevitably take into account
+considerations of environment and development. The man belonged to his
+era, his city, and his profession. The documents make it plain that he
+did not live apart, but in close contact with the affairs of his day and
+generation. The plays make it clear that few men ever became so
+intimately familiar with the manners, morals, and ideas of their own
+time. There is no doubt that he drank deeply of the experience that
+Elizabethan London offered him. Still more, the plays make it clear that
+his life was one of constant and extraordinary intellectual and
+spiritual growth. Though, from the objective nature of the dramas, it is
+impossible to translate them into terms of personal experience or into
+exact stages of mental growth, yet it is none the less evident that the
+progress from the author of _Love's Labour's Lost_ to the author of _The
+Tempest_, from the creator of Richard III and Valentine to the creator
+of Iago and Antony, was marked, not only by a widening experience, but
+also by a development of personal character.
+
+[Page Heading: The Sonnets]
+
+To understand a man's surroundings does not, however, reveal the man;
+and to measure the growth of genius does not interpret its quality.
+Lovers of the plays are likely always to query: What manner of man was
+this? Taken out of his London, at any time in his career, how would he
+seem if we could know him as a man? Of what nature is this companion and
+friend whose presence we have felt through all his verses and in all of
+his characters? The few clues offered by records or tradition, and the
+difficulties in separating the creator from the thousand men and women
+of his creation, have driven many to seek answers to these questions in
+the sonnets. There he speaks in the first person, and there are revealed
+not merely some dubious hints of actual incidents, but the surer
+indications of emotional conflicts that went to the heart of the man's
+nature. At their worst, the sonnets may have been only literary
+exercises on conventional themes, but at their best they are surely both
+superb poetry and the result of genuine emotion. Can we doubt that the
+poet knew the pitfalls that beset the course of human passion or that he
+had faith in the triumphant beauty of love and friendship? Yet the most
+splendid of these lyrical declarations of faith add little to what we
+knew of the creator of the lovers and friends of the dramas. The
+trivialities and the sublimities, the sin and the idealism of the
+sonnets coalesce with the emotional effects of the comedies and
+tragedies. In forming our impression of the man, whatever we may derive
+from the sonnets does not contradict and does not largely affect the
+impressions made by the poetry and humanity of the plays. For the
+conception which each one forms of Shakespeare the man must be derived
+in the main from the impressions of personality implied by the plays.
+Such a conception is bound to be individual and without validity that
+can rest on proofs, but in the main it has not varied greatly from
+individual to individual or from generation to generation. From Jonson
+and Dryden to Goethe and Tennyson, there has been no great difference in
+the essentials of this estimate of the man.
+
+[Page Heading: Personality of Shakespeare]
+
+If the plays do not throw a clear light on matters of conduct and
+exercise of the will, they certainly tell of no lack of self-control
+and no weakness or feverishness of action. The traditions of
+conviviality and the records of a life of constant industry that secured
+wealth and social position are both in accord with the impressions
+derived from the plays of an eagerness for experience controlled by a
+self-mastery and a serenity of purpose. If one were to search for a
+modern writer most like Shakespeare, one would select Scott, rather than
+Shelley, or Byron, or Wordsworth. As to the intellectual quality of the
+author of the plays, it is clear that he was not a Galileo or a Bacon.
+If we judge intellectual power by its creation of system or synthesis,
+we shall probably estimate Shakespeare less highly than if we remember
+that intellect of the highest order is often displayed by maintaining
+openness and largeness of view in face of the solicitations of theory or
+prejudice. No one can read the plays in connection with the literature
+of the time, or of any time, without marveling at their freedom from
+vulgarity, pettiness, or narrowness of mental attitude. If they do not
+afford evidences of a profound culture in philosophy, letters, or
+science, they offer no trace of intellectual blindness or conceit, and
+they leave no doubt that their author had thought greatly and freely.
+Even more certain is their assurance of the range and intensity of his
+emotional life. In these respects again, no one can compare his work
+with that of other writers without feeling the effect of his
+personality. Fletcher, perhaps next to him among the Elizabethans in a
+versatile expression of a wide range of emotions, gives no sign of the
+sincere, profound, and searching interest in humankind which we are sure
+was Shakespeare's. Bacon, surpassing him perhaps in intellectual
+curiosity and thoroughness, manifestly gives no evidence in his writings
+of the warmth of sympathy, the quickness of emotional response, the fire
+of passion which we find in the author of Shakespeare's plays. It is
+difficult to disbelieve that their imaginative participation in the
+height and breadth of human feeling was the creation of a man who united
+intellectual greatness with an emotional susceptibility of extraordinary
+range and delicacy, and with a sympathy, genial, wide, tolerant, but
+also heartfelt, deep, and passionate. Such is the ineffaceable
+impression of the man which has been shared by many generations of
+readers, and which found expression two hundred and fifty years ago in
+Dryden's carefully considered estimate, "The man who of all Moderns, and
+perhaps Ancient Poets, had the largest and most comprehensive soul."
+
+What of the plays themselves? Is there any fixed and universal estimate
+of their quality and significance as literature? In this volume we have
+been concerned in reviewing our knowledge about them rather than in
+their interpretation or evaluation. We have noted the sources from which
+their plots were drawn, the conditions under which they were produced in
+the playhouses, the influences at work in the contemporary drama which
+determined in some measure their subjects and treatment. Starting with
+the probable dates of their composition, we have traced them from the
+theater to the printer, through the hands of many editors, and through
+the long history of their effects on theatergoers and readers. In their
+history they have played a part in the changes of taste and opinion of
+three centuries, and if they have grown greatly in men's estimation,
+this has not been without much variability of appreciation and
+uncertainty as to their value. What, then, are the qualities of the
+plays that raised them at once above the measure of contemporary
+influence and rivalry? Are these the qualities that have continued to
+win the most general appreciation? Despite all the stress we are to-day
+taught to place on change, growth, evolution, are there qualities in
+these plays which insure them a continued preëminence in literature?
+
+[Page Heading: Qualities of the Plays]
+
+Differences of opinion testify, indeed, to the comprehensive appeal of
+the plays to different minds, nations, or epochs, but they have not
+greatly affected the essential elements in men's admiration. If some
+critic brings into new prominence a quality that has partly escaped
+attention, his discovery is not likely to affect the more permanent
+elements of their reputation. If for a time attention is turned to the
+plays as plays rather than as poems and to the merits of Shakespeare as
+a dramatist, this criticism does not lead to any lasting disregard of
+their poetic quality or to the permanent acceptance of skill in dramatic
+structure as a chief element in their literary preëminence. Nor is such
+an element discoverable in their philosophical synthesis or their
+incidental wisdom, although some of the most brilliant criticism has
+exalted that wisdom or sought to formulate and expound their view of
+life. Concerning the essential elements of their greatness no real
+difference of opinion has arisen from the time they were written down to
+the present day. They were lifted at once above the level of
+contemporary endeavor, and they have continued to grow in reputation
+chiefly because of their poetry and their characterization.
+
+Concerning the nature and quality of these there is little difference of
+opinion, though critics may vary in estimating their beauty or value.
+One may prefer the verse of Homer or of Milton, but he will not deny the
+traits that distinguish Shakespeare's. Another may prefer the
+well-ordered study of human motives in Sophocles, or the realistic
+analysis of a modern realist like Turgenieff, but he will recognize the
+qualities in Shakespeare's characterization that are the basis of
+general admiration. Still another may condemn that admiration, but he
+will not differ from us as to the chief sources of its existence.
+
+These two sources are hardly to be separated, for the persons are
+revealed through the beauty of the verse, and the poetry is ever adapted
+to the speakers. In the early plays the poet's fancy often refuses to be
+bound by the requirements of his characters and escapes in lyric or
+descriptive excursions; but as his art becomes more masterly, the
+poetry adapts itself with increasing devotion to the dramatic task,
+discarding the limitations of the verse form and even at times
+sacrificing clarity and harmony of expression in its effort to make a
+few lines significant of the thought and emotion of some individual. An
+enormous vocabulary is treated with daring freedom; words are coined,
+changed, or restamped in order to let nothing of significance escape.
+The effect is not primarily that of finished workmanship or elaborate
+harmony, though these may be found in many passages and notably in the
+greatest of the sonnets. Broken rather than completed images, richness
+of suggestion rather than unity of impressiveness, surprise and novelty
+in words rather than their delicate adjustment, make up an effect of
+bewildering enchantment rather than of perfected form. This is true even
+in an early play like _Romeo and Juliet_, where the verse becomes
+undramatic in order to make the most of every opportunity for fancy or
+melody, and it is true also in _Othello_, where poetry and
+characterization are wedded with consummate art. The reader's pleasure
+is not in finding each idea finally developed or each motive given full
+elaboration. It is rather in the flow of words which endow each person
+and moment with their wealth of color and suggestion, and somehow carry
+on to the reader both their impression of life and the transforming
+power of their dignity and splendor.
+
+[Page Heading: Poetry of the Plays]
+
+In a last analysis the quality of the poetry is less dependent on the
+music of line or passage than on the imagery of the words themselves. It
+seems as if the imagination had hurried on Ariel's wing around the
+universe in order to freight each phrase with a fresh trope and an
+unexpected meaning. Sometimes, to be sure, there results an excess or
+mixture of figures; but restrained to character and situation, bound by
+the measure of the pentameter, the carnival of words becomes a gorgeous
+yet ordered pageant, the very spectacle of beauty.
+
+Let us take but one passage, not from the great crises of passion, nor
+from those unsurpassable revelations of the tortured spirit, but from
+the opening of a play where the purpose is chiefly expository, and where
+indeed the language is not free from that mixture of figures which some
+condemn. The wonderful first scene of _Antony and Cleopatra_, which
+within the compass of its sixty-two lines presents the two protagonists
+and their background of empire and war, opens thus in the speech of a
+subordinate.
+
+    Nay, but this dotage of our general's
+    O'erflows the measure. Those his goodly eyes,
+    That o'er the files and musters of the war
+    Have glow'd like plated Mars, now bend, now turn
+    The office and devotion of their view
+    Upon a tawny front; his captain's heart,
+    Which in the scuffles of great fights hath burst
+    The buckles on his breast, reneges all temper,
+    And is become the bellows and the fan
+    To cool a gipsy's lust.
+
+[Page Heading: Characterization]
+
+A few lines further on Antony speaks thus, as he embraces Cleopatra.
+
+    Let Rome in Tiber melt, and the wide arch
+    Of the rang'd Empire fall! Here is my space.
+    Kingdoms are clay; our dungy earth alike
+    Feeds beast as man; the nobleness of life
+    Is to do thus, when such a mutual pair
+    And such a twain can do't, in which I bind,
+    On pain of punishment, the world to wit
+    We stand up peerless.
+
+No other man ever wrote verse like this; and it is hard to believe that
+words will ever again respond to such a magician.
+
+This poetry is the fitting accompaniment of a characterization, the
+range and vitality of which, the world to wit, stand up peerless. While
+these are in general qualities of the Elizabethan drama, it is
+noteworthy that almost from the beginning Shakespeare outstripped his
+rivals. Launce, Richard III, Shylock, Juliet, were enough to establish a
+supremacy. The years that followed with their maturing thought and
+experience gave an amazing development to what was manifestly the native
+bent of his genius. Whatever else one may find in the plays, indeed
+whatever one finds there of wisdom or beauty, truth or art, it cannot be
+separated from their revelation of human nature.
+
+It is this primarily that makes the dramas great and lasting. The
+histories, with all their pomp and movement and patriotism, reveal kings
+and lords and peasants as alike the subjects of changing fortune, alike
+human beings for our pity, admiration, or laughter. The comedies with
+their fancy and sentiment and fun, and their perennial sunshine on the
+self-deceived and selfish, are ruled by the most charming and refined of
+womankind. The tragedies with their presentation of the waste and
+suffering of life, though here depravity may seem to fill the scene and
+innocence share in the punishment and ruin, yet redeem us from the
+terror of their devastation by their assurances of both the majesty and
+the loveliness of men and women.
+
+Shakespeare's methods in characterization have seemed to some haphazard
+and bewildering. He does not fit his men and women into an analysis of
+the constitution of society or into an obvious view of man's relations
+in the universe. Nor does he use his characters to illustrate fixed
+conceptions or processes of cause and effect. He usually started with an
+old story, with certain types of character, and he was not forgetful of
+theatrical necessities or dramatic construction. But as he went on he
+brought all his astounding interest in human nature to focus on the old
+plot and the stock type. Hamlet, the hesitating avenger, becomes the
+sentimentalist, the idealist, the thinker at war with himself, the
+embodiment of that conflict between circumstance and a nature unfitted
+to its task, which in some measure we have all encountered in life. An
+arrogant and doting old man, by the force of creative imagination,
+transcends the nursery tale from which he came, and carries to us all
+the implications of suffering and love that surround the aging of
+parents and the growth of children. Cleopatra is a wanton, but no
+analysis can explain the subtleties with which the idealism and
+animalism, the sacrifice and frivolity--and how much else--of human
+passion are bound together in the few hundred lines which she speaks. It
+is impossible to affirm that each of the great characters is thoroughly
+consistent or offers a strictly accurate motivation. Rather, they are
+magnificent portraits--like the Mona Lisa--crowded with a penetrating
+but question-provoking psychology. Into such parts and situations as the
+drama could afford are impressed every possible revelation of our
+motives; but his model was always reality and he never yielded truth to
+whim or prepossession.
+
+[Page Heading: Human Nature]
+
+Human nature, at its best or worst, droll or tragic, is thus given
+magnitude and potency. This idealization, rendered still more effective
+by the verse, persuades us as we read that here are our own attributes
+and conflicts exalted, now into serene beauty, again into torment and
+horror, and again into the Olympic warfare of unknown supermen. No doubt
+there is confusion because of the complexity of motives depicted and the
+multiplicity of impressions created, but there is also a final message
+of the greatness and comprehensiveness of human souls. In this world of
+sin and weakness and death, it is human beings, however mocked or
+maltreated by circumstance or by themselves, that are still triumphant
+and interesting. Out of his strifes and failures, the individual man yet
+emerges, the object of our contemplation and the assurance of our faith.
+
+In periods or persons when interest in the individual gives way to
+thought about class or system or some form of organization, it is likely
+that admiration for Shakespeare's plays will suffer a decline. In
+periods or persons when the individual assumes a larger place in thought
+and his power to affect and dominate the world is emphasized, the plays
+are likely to acquire a new regard. As long, however, as the study of
+human nature is a chief occupation of mankind and as long as we believe
+that a great purpose of imaginative literature is to enlarge our
+knowledge and sympathy for our fellows, so long, we may be sure, these
+dramas will not lose their preëminence in literature.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICES
+
+
+
+
+Appendix A
+
+BIOGRAPHICAL DOCUMENTS AND AUTHORITIES
+
+
+I. REPOSITORIES OF DOCUMENTS
+
+L. refers to Lambert's _Shakespeare Documents_ and H.-P. to
+Halliwell-Phillipps's _Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare_. 7th ed.
+
+
+1
+
+THE PARISH REGISTERS OF STRATFORD-ON-AVON are the authority for the
+baptisms of John Shakespeare's seven children (L. 1-7); for the burials
+of Anne and Edmund (L. 10); for the baptisms of William Shakespeare's
+daughter Susanna (L. 13) and the twins, Hamnet and Judith (L. 14); for
+the burials of Hamnet (L. 28), of the poet's father, John (L. 75), of
+his mother, Mary (L. 110), of the poet himself (L. 146), and of his
+widow (L. 159). These Registers have been edited for the Parish
+Registers Society, by R. Savage, 1898-9.
+
+
+2
+
+THE CORPORATION RECORDS OF STRATFORD-ON-AVON contain the Quiney-Sturley
+correspondence (L. 39, 43, 44; H.-P. II. 57-60); a return of the
+quantities of corn and malt held by the inhabitants of the ward in which
+New Place was situated, "Wm. Shackespere" being down for ten quarters
+(L. 53); a Bill of Complaint presented by R. Lane, T. Green, and William
+Shakespeare respecting the tithes of Stratford-upon-Avon (L. 125); the
+answer of William Combe to the foregoing Bill (L. 126).
+
+[Page Heading: Biographical Documents]
+
+
+3
+
+THE PUBLIC RECORD OFFICE IN LONDON preserves the following: record of
+the purchase by John Shakespeare of two houses on Henley Street,
+Stratford-on-Avon (L. 8); record of a mortgage on an estate at "Awston
+Cawntlett" given to Edmund Lambert by John and Mary Shakespeare (L. 9);
+Bill of Complaint brought by John Shakespeare against John, son of
+Edmund Lambert, respecting an estate at Wilmecote, near Stratford (L.
+15); Ms. accounts of the Treasurer of the Chamber, "To Willm. Kempe,
+Willm. Shakespeare & Richarde Burbage, servaunts to the Lord
+Chamberleyne, upon the Councelles warrant dated at Whitehall xv^to
+Marcij 1594 for twoe severall Comedies or enterludes shewed by them
+before her Majestic in Christmas tyme laste paste, viz: upon St.
+Stephens daye and Innocentes daye xiij.li. vj.s. viijd., and by waye of
+her Majesties rewarde vj.li. xiii.s. iiijd. in all xx.li." (L. 25);
+record of the purchase of New Place by Shakespeare (L. 32); papers in a
+Chancery suit relating to the estate at Wilmecote mortgaged to Edmund
+Lambert, and consisting of a Bill of Complaint by John and Mary
+Shakespeare against John Lambert for his refusal to accept £40 and
+reconvey the property to the complainants, John Lambert's answer, and
+the replication of John and Mary Shakespeare to the answer (L. 35); a
+subsidy roll showing William Shakespeare as a defaulter in respect of a
+tax of five shillings, October, 1596, and of thirteen shillings and four
+pence, October, 1598, based on an assessment made about 1598 or 1594,
+when the poet was living in St. Helen's, Bishopsgate, and paid after he
+had moved to Southwark (_Athenæum_, March 16, 1906, and L. 42); Royal
+Warrant for a Patent and the Patent itself (May 19, 1603) licensing the
+company of actors, "Laurence Fletcher, William Shakespeare, Richard
+Burbage, Augustine Phillippes, John Hemmings, Henrie Condell, William
+Sly, Robert Armyn, Richard Cowly and the rest of their associates" as
+the King's Servants (L. 87, 88); the Accounts of the Revels at Court in
+the reigns of Elizabeth and James, containing entries showing
+performances at Court of "The Moor of Venis," "The Merry Wives of
+Winsor," "Mesur for Mesur" by "Shaxberd," "the plaie of Errors" by
+"Shaxberd," "Loves Labours lost," "Henry the fift," and "the Martchant
+of Venis" by "Shaxberd" (twice, being "againe commanded by the Kings
+Ma^tie"), all in 1604 (O.S.), of "the Tempest" and "y^e winters nightes
+Tayle" in 1611, all by the King's men, and of the performance before the
+Court at Wilton, Dec. 2, 1603 (L. 96, 133, _Notes in the History of the
+Revels Office under the Tudors_, ed. by E. K. Chambers, and _Supposed
+Shakespeare Forgeries_, by Ernest Law); record of the purchase in 1610
+of an estate in Old Stratford and Stratford-on-Avon by Shakespeare from
+William and John Combe (L. 127); three documents in a Chancery suit
+relating to the ownership of property in Blackfriars, April 26, May 15,
+May 22, 1615 (C. W. Wallace in _Englische Studien_, April, 1906, and
+Preface to New Edition of Lee's _Life_, xxii ff.); the grant for cloaks
+for the King's entry into London, March 15, 1604 (Ld. Chamberlain's
+Papers, No. 600); the documents in the law suit among the heirs of
+Richard Burbage (1635), relating to the ownership of the Globe and the
+Blackfriars theaters, and giving much information on the value of
+theatrical shares, actors' salaries, etc. (H.-P. i. 312-319); and the
+documents in the lawsuit of Bellots _vs._ Mountjoy (1612), including
+Shakespeare's deposition (_New Shakespeare Discoveries_, C. W. Wallace,
+_Harper's Magazine_, March, 1910).
+
+
+4
+
+THE SHAKESPEARE'S BIRTHPLACE MUSEUM IN STRATFORD-ON-AVON contains
+several documents of importance: record of the conveyance in 1602 of an
+estate in Old Stratford from William and John Combe to William
+Shakespeare (L. 79, H.-P. II, 17-19); extract from the Court Rolls of
+the Manor of Rowington, transferring from Walter Getley to William
+Shakespeare certain premises in Chapel Lane, Stratford-on-Avon (L. 81);
+the conveyance to Shakespeare from Ralph Hubande of the residue of a
+lease of a moiety of the tithes of Stratford-on-Avon, Old Stratford,
+Welcombe, and Bishopton (L. 99); the diary of one Thomas Greene,
+containing a reference to the dispute as to the inclosing of common
+lands (reproduced in facsimile in C. M. Ingleby's _Shakespeare and the
+Enclosure of Common Fields at Welcombe_, 1885).
+
+
+5
+
+THE BRITISH MUSEUM possesses the Ms. diary of John Manningham of the
+Middle Temple, which, under the date of Feb. 2, 1601, records a
+performance of _Twelfth Night_, and the anecdote recorded above, p. 44
+(L. 77; Ms. Harl. 5353, ed. Camden Soc., p. 39); also the Mortgage Deed
+from Shakespeare to Henry Walker on the property in Blackfriars conveyed
+to Shakespeare and others on the day previous, March 10, 1612/13.
+
+
+6
+
+THE BODLEIAN LIBRARY AT OXFORD has the Ms. diary of Dr. Simon Forman
+describing performances of _Winter's Tale, Cymbeline_, and _Macbeth_ in
+1610 and 1611 (L. 128; Ms. Ashmol. 208, fol. 201_b_); and the Accounts
+of Lord Stanhope of Harrington, Treasurer of the Chamber to James I,
+containing the following entry: "1613, May 20. Item paid to John
+Heminges uppon the cowncells warrant dated att Whitehall xx^o die Maii
+1613 for presentinge before the Princes highnes the La: Elizabeth and
+the Prince Pallatyne Elector fowerteene severall playes viz ... Much
+adoe abowte nothinge ... The Tempest ... The Winters Tale, S^r John
+Falstafe, The Moore of Venice ... Cæsars Tragedye ... All w^ch Playes
+weare played within the tyme of this Accompte, viz p^d the some of iiij.
+(xx.) xiij.li. vj.s. viij.d.
+
+[Page Heading: Biographical Documents]
+
+"Item paid to the said John Heminges uppon the lyke warrant dated att
+Whitehall xx^o die Maij 1613 for presenting sixe severall playes viz.
+one playe called ... And one other called Benidicte and Betteris all
+played within the tyme of this Accompte viz p^d ffortie powndes And by
+waye of his Ma^tis rewarde twentie powndes In all ... lx li." (L. 138;
+Ms. Rawl. A. 239).
+
+
+7
+
+THE EPISCOPAL REGISTER OF THE DIOCESE OF WORCESTER contains the bond
+given by Sandells and others for the marriage of Shakespeare and Anne
+Hathaway (L. 12).
+
+
+8
+
+THE LIBRARY OF THE GUILDHALL IN LONDON has the indenture prepared for
+the purchaser in the sale of the house in Blackfriars on March 10, 1613,
+by Henry Walker to William Shakespeare and others (L. 136). The
+indenture held by the seller is in the library of Mr. Marsden J. Perry,
+Providence, R. I.
+
+
+9
+
+THE PRINCIPAL PROBATE REGISTRY, Somerset House, London, contains
+Shakespeare's Will, which runs as follows:
+
+[Page Heading: Shakespeare's Will]
+
+    [10]VICESIMO quinto die [Januarii] _Martii_, anno regni domini
+    nostri Jacobi, nunc regis Angliæ, &c., decimo quarto, et Scotiæ
+    xlix^o, annoque Domini 1616.
+
+    --T. WMI. SHACKSPEARE
+
+    In the name of God, Amen! I William Shackspeare, of Stratford upon
+    Avon in the countie of Warr., gent., in perfect health and memorie,
+    God be praysed, doe make and ordayne this my last will and testament
+    in manner and forme followeing, that ys to saye, ffirst, I comend my
+    soule into the handes of God my Creator, hoping and assuredlie
+    beleeving, through thonelie merittes, of Jesus Christe my Saviour,
+    to be made partaker of lyfe everlastinge, and my bodye to the earth
+    whereof yt ys made. Item, I gyve and bequeath unto my [sonne
+    and][11] daughter Judyth one hundred and fyftie poundes of lawfull
+    English money, to be paied unto her in the manner and forme
+    foloweng, that ys to saye, one hundred poundes _in discharge of her
+    marriage porcion_ within one yeare after my deceas, with
+    consideracion after the rate of twoe shillinges in the pound for soe
+    long tyme as the same shalbe unpaied unto her after my deceas, and
+    the fyftie poundes residwe thereof upon her surrendring _of_, or
+    gyving of such sufficient securitie as the overseers of this my will
+    shall like of, to surrender or graunte all her estate and right that
+    shall discend or come unto her after my deceas, or _that shee_ nowe
+    hath, of, in, or to, one copiehold tenemente, with thappurtenaunces,
+    lyeing and being in Stratford upon Avon aforesaied in the saied
+    countye of Warr., being parcell or holden of the mannour of
+    Rowington, unto my daughter Susanna Hall and her heires for ever.
+    Item, I gyveand bequeath unto my saied daughter Judith one hundred
+    and fyftie poundes more, if shee or anie issue of her bodie be
+    lyvinge att thend of three yeares next ensueing the daie of the date
+    of this my will, during which tyme my executours are to paie her
+    consideracion from my deceas according to the rate aforesaied; and
+    if she dye within the saied tearme without issue of her bodye, then
+    my will ys, and I doe gyve and bequeath one hundred poundes thereof
+    to my neece Elizabeth Hall, and the fiftie poundes to be sett fourth
+    by my executours during the lief of my sister Johane Harte, and the
+    use and proffitt thereof cominge shalbe payed to my saied sister
+    Jone, and after her deceas the saied l.^_li._ shall remaine amongst
+    the children of my saied sister, equallie to be divided amongst
+    them; but if my saied daughter Judith be lyving att thend of the
+    saied three yeares, or anie yssue of her bodye, then my will ys, and
+    soe I devise and bequeath the saied hundred and fyftie poundes to be
+    sett out _by my executours and overseers_ for the best benefitt of
+    her and her issue, and _the stock_ not _to be_ paied unto her soe
+    long as she shalbe marryed and covert baron [by my executours and
+    overseers]; but my will ys, that she shall have the consideracion
+    yearelie paied unto her during her lief, and, after her deceas, the
+    saied stock and consideracion to bee paied to her children, if she
+    have anie, and if not, to her executours or assignes, she lyving the
+    saied terme after my deceas. Provided that yf suche husbond as she
+    shall att thend of the saied three years be marryed unto, or att
+    anie after (_sic_), doe sufficientlie assure unto her and thissue of
+    her bodie landes awnswereable to the porcion by this my will gyven
+    unto her, and to be adjudged soe by my executours and overseers,
+    then my will ys, that the said cl.^_li._ shalbe paied to such
+    husbond as shall make such assurance, to his owne use. Item, I gyve
+    and bequeath unto my saied sister Jone xx.^_li_ and all my wearing
+    apparrell, to be paied and delivered within one yeare after my
+    deceas; and I doe will and devise unto her _the house_ with
+    thappurtenaunces in Stratford, wherein she dwelleth, for her
+    naturall lief, under the yearlie rent of xij.^_d._ Item, I gyve and
+    bequeath unto her three sonnes, William Harte, ... Hart, and
+    Michaell Harte, fyve pounds a peece, to be paied within one yeare
+    after my deceas [to be sett out for her within one yeare after my
+    deceas by my executours, with thadvise and direccions of my
+    overseers, for her best profitt, untill her mariage, and then the
+    same with the increase thereof to be paied unto her]. Item, I gyve
+    and bequeath unto [her] _the saied Elizabeth Hall_, all my plate,
+    _except my brod silver and gilt bole_, that I now have att the date
+    of this my will. Item, I gyve and bequeath unto the poore of
+    Stratford aforesaied tenn poundes; to Mr. Thomas Combe my sword; to
+    Thomas Russell esquier fyve poundes; and to Frauncis Collins, of the
+    borough of Warr. in the countie of Warr. gentleman, thirteene
+    poundes, sixe shillinges, and eight pence, to be paied within one
+    yeare after my deceas. Item, I gyve and bequeath to [Mr. Richard
+    Tyler thelder] _Hamlett Sadler_ xxvj.^_s._ viij.^_d._ to buy him a
+    ringe; to _William Raynoldes gent., xxvj.^s. viij.^d. to buy him a
+    ringe_; to my godson William Walker xx^_s._ in gold; to Anthonye
+    Nashe gent., xxvj.^_s._ viij.^_d._; and to Mr. John Nashe xxvj.^_s._
+    _viij.^d._ [in gold]; _and to my fellowes John Hemynges, Richard
+    Burbage, and Henry Cundell, xxvj.^s. viij.^d. a peece to buy them
+    ringes_. Item, I gyve, will, bequeath, and devise, unto my daughter
+    Susanna Hall, _for better enabling of her to performe this my will,
+    and towards the performans thereof_, all that capitall messuage or
+    tenemente with thappurtenaunces, _in Stratford aforesaid_, called
+    the New Place, wherein I nowe dwell, and two messuages or tenementes
+    with thappurtenaunces, scituat, lyeing, and being in Henley
+    streete, within the borough of Stratford aforesaied; and all my
+    barnes, stables, orchardes, gardens, landes, tenementes, and
+    hereditamentes, whatsoever, scituat, lyeing, and being, or to be
+    had, receyved, perceyved, or taken, within the townes, hamletes,
+    villages, fieldes, and groundes, of Stratford upon Avon,
+    Oldstratford, Bushopton, and Welcombe, or in anie of them in the
+    saied countie of Warr. And alsoe all that messuage or tenemente with
+    thappurtenaunces, wherein one John Robinson dwelleth, scituat,
+    lyeing and being, in the Blackfriers in London, nere the Wardrobe;
+    and all my other landes, tenementes, and hereditamentes whatsoever,
+    To have and to hold all and singuler the saied premisses, with
+    theire appurtenaunces, unto the saied Susanna Hall, for and during
+    the terme of her naturall lief, and after her deceas, to the first
+    sonne of her bodie lawfullie yssueing, and to the heires males of
+    the bodie of the saied first sonne lawfullie yssueinge; and for
+    defalt of such issue, to the second sonne of her bodie, lawfullie
+    issueinge, and [of] to the heires males of the bodie of the saied
+    second sonne lawfullie yssueinge; and for defalt of such heires, to
+    the third sonne of the bodie of the saied Susanna lawfullie
+    yssueing, and of the heires males of the bodie of the saied third
+    sonne lawfullie yssueing; and for defalt of such issue, the same soe
+    to be and remaine to the ffourth [sonne], ffyfth, sixte, and
+    seaventh sonnes of her bodie lawfullie issueing, one after another,
+    and to the heires males of the bodies of the saied fourth, fifth,
+    sixte, and seaventh sonnes lawfullie yssueing, in such manner as yt
+    ys before lymitted to be and remaine to the first, second, and third
+    sonns of her bodie, and to theire heires males; and for defalt of
+    such issue, the said premisses to be and remaine to my sayed neece
+    Hall, and the heires males of her bodie lawfullie yssueinge; and for
+    defalt of such issue, to my daughter Judith, and the heires males
+    of her bodie lawfullie issueinge; and for defalt of such issue, to
+    the right heires of me the saied William Shakspeare for ever. _Item,
+    I gyve unto my wief my second best bed with the furniture._ Item, I
+    gyve and bequeath to my saied daughter Judith my broad silver gilt
+    bole. All the rest of my goodes, chattels, leases, plate, jewels,
+    and household stuffe whatsoever, after my dettes and legasies paied,
+    and my funerall expenses dischardged, I give, devise, and bequeath
+    to my sonne in lawe, John Hall gent., and my daughter Susanna, his
+    wief, whom I ordaine and make executours of this my last will and
+    testament. And I doe intreat and appoint _the saied_ Thomas Russell
+    esquier and Frauncis Collins gent, to be overseers hereof, and doe
+    revoke all former wills, and publishe this to be my last will and
+    testament. In witness whereof I have hereunto put my [seale] _hand_,
+    the daie and yeare first abovewritten.
+
+                                            By me WILLIAM SHAKSPEARE.
+
+      Witnes to the publyshing hereof,
+        FRA: COLLYNS,[12]
+        JULYUS SHAWE,
+        JOHN ROBINSON,
+        HAMNET SADLER,
+        ROBERT WHATTCOTT.
+
+    Probatum coram magistro Willielmo Byrde, legum doctore comiss. &c.
+    xxij^do. die mensis Junii anno Domini 1616, juramento Johannis Hall,
+    unius executorum, &c. cui &c. de bene &c. jurat. reservat. potestate
+    &c. Susannæ Hall, alteri executorum &c. cum venerit petitur, &c.
+    (Inv. ex.)
+
+[10] The words which have been erased are put between brackets; those
+which have been interlined are printed in italics.
+
+[11] So Lambert, Halliwell-Phillipps reads "sonne in L."
+
+[12] Francis Collyns was the lawyer at Warwick who prepared the will, of
+which the draft only was executed, no time being possible for an
+engrossed copy.--Note by Lambert.
+
+[Page Heading: Biographical Documents]
+
+
+10
+
+THE HERALDS' COLLEGE has the two drafts of a grant of arms to John
+Shakespeare in 1596 (Ms. Vincent. Coll. Arm. 157, arts. 23, 24); and the
+confirmation of the grant in 1599 (L. 30, 55). For further details on
+the matter of the coat of arms, see _Herald and Genealogist_, i. 510,
+and for facsimiles, _Miscellanea Genealogica et Heraldica_, 2d ser.
+1886, i. 109. On the criticism of the herald's complaisance in the
+matter of the Shakespeare and similar grants, see Preface to New Edition
+(1909) of Lee's _Life_, pp. xi-xv.
+
+
+11
+
+THE STATIONERS' REGISTER, accessible in the _Transcript_ edited by E.
+Arber, 5 vols. 1875-94, contains the records of the entries of those of
+Shakespeare's works which were registered either with or without his
+name. The Shakespearean entries are gathered out of the great mass
+contained in these volumes by Lambert, Fleay, Stokes, H. P.,
+_Chronological Order of Shakespeare's Plays_, 1878, Appendix V, and
+others.
+
+
+12. MISCELLANEOUS
+
+The literary allusions to Shakespeare in the sixteenth and earlier
+seventeenth centuries have been collected in _Shakespeare's Century of
+Praise_, revised and reëdited by J. Munro as _The Shakespeare Allusion
+Books_, London, 1909.
+
+Greene's attack in _Greenes Groatsworth_ will be found in its context in
+his works, ed. A. B. Grosart, 1881-1886, and Chettle's Apology in his
+_Kind Hartes Dreame_, Percy Society, 1874.
+
+_The Historical MSS. Commission's Report on the Historical MSS. of
+Belvoir Castle_, IV. 494, contains the entry from the Belvoir Household
+Book as to Rutland's "impresa." See also _Times_, December 27, 1905,
+and Preface to New Edition of Lee's _Life_, pp. xvi-xxii.
+
+
+13. EXTRACTS FROM MERES'S _PALLADIS TAMIA_, 1598
+
+As the Greeke tongue is made famous and eloquent by _Homer_, _Hesiod_,
+_Euripedes_, _Æschilus_, _Sophocles_, _Pindarus_, _Phocylides_ and
+_Aristophanes_; and the Latine tongue by _Virgill_, _Ovid_, _Horace_,
+_Silius Italicus_, _Lucanus_, _Lucretius_, _Ausonius_ and _Claudianus_:
+so the English tongue is mightily enriched, and gorgeouslie invested in
+rare ornaments and resplendent abiliments by sir _Philip Sidney_,
+_Spencer_, _Daniel_, _Drayton_, _Warner_, _Shakespeare_, _Marlow_ and
+_Chapman_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+As the soule of _Euphorbus_ was thought to live in _Pythagoras_: so the
+sweete wittie soule of _Ovid_ lives in mellifluous & hony-tongued
+Shakespeare, witnes his _Venus_ and _Adonis_, his _Lucrece_, his sugred
+Sonnets among his private friends, &c.
+
+As _Plautus_ and _Seneca_ are accounted the best for Comedy and Tragedy
+among the Latines, so _Shakespeare_ among y^e English is the most
+excellent in both kinds for the stage; for Comedy, witnes his
+_G[~e]tlem[~e] of Verona_, his _Errors_, his _Love labors lost_, his
+_Love labours wonne_, his _Midsummers night dreame_, & his _Merchant of
+Venice_: for Tragedy, his _Richard the 2, Richard the 3, Henry the 4,
+King Iohn, Titus Andronicus_, and his _Romeo_ and _Iuliet_.
+
+As _Epius Stolo_ said, that the Muses would speake with _Plautus_
+tongue, if they would speak Latin: so I say that the Muses would speak
+with _Shakespeares_ fine filed phrase, if they would speake English.
+
+As _Ovid_ saith of his worke:
+
+    Iamque opus exegi, quod nec Iovis ira, nec ignis,
+    Nec poterit ferrum, nec edax abolere vetustas.
+
+[Page Heading: Extracts from Meres]
+
+And as _Horace_ saith of his; _Exegi monumentum ære perennius;
+Regalique; situ pyramidum altius; Quod non imber edax; Non Aquilo
+impotens possit diruere; aut innumerabilis annorum feries &c fuga
+temporum_: so say I severally of sir _Philip Sidneys_, _Spencers_,
+_Daniels_, _Draytons_, _Shakespeares_, and _Warners workes_;
+
+As _Pindarus_, _Anacreon_ and _Callimachus_ among the Greekes; and
+_Horace_ and _Catullus_ among the Latines are the best Lyrick Poets: so
+in this faculty the best among our Poets are _Spencer_ (who excelleth in
+all kinds) _Daniel_, _Drayton_, _Shakespeare_, _Bretton_.
+
+As ... so these are our best for Tragedie, the Lorde _Buckhurst_, Doctor
+_Leg_ of Cambridge, Doctor _Edes_ of Oxforde, maister _Edward Ferris_,
+the Authour of the _Mirrour for Magistrates_, _Marlow_, _Peele_,
+_Watson_, _Kid_, _Shakespeare_, _Drayton_, _Chapman_, _Decker_, and
+_Benjamin Johnson_.
+
+... so the best for Comedy amongst us bee, _Edward_ Earle of Oxforde,
+Doctor _Gager_ of Oxforde, Maister _Rowley_ once a rare Scholler of
+learned Pembroke Hall in Cambridge, Maister _Edwardes_ one of her
+Maiesties Chappell, eloquent and wittie _John Lilly_, _Lodge_,
+_Gascoyne_, _Greene_, _Shakespeare_, _Thomas Nash_, _Thomas Heywood_,
+_Anthony Mundye_ our best plotter, _Chapman_, _Porter_, _Wilson_,
+_Hathway_, and _Henry Chettle._
+
+... so these are the most passionate among us to bewaile and bemoane the
+perplexities of Love, _Henrie Howard_ Earle of Surrey, sir _Thomas Wyat_
+the elder, sir _Francis Brian_, sir _Philip Sidney_, sir _Walter
+Rawley_, sir _Edward Dyer_, _Spencer_, _Daniel_, _Drayton_,
+_Shakespeare_, _Whetstone_, _Gascoyne_, _Samuell Page_ sometimes fellowe
+of _Corpus Christi_ Colledge in Oxford, _Churchyard, Bretton_.
+
+
+14. THE INSCRIPTION ON SHAKESPEARE'S MONUMENT IN THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY
+TRINITY, STRATFORD-ON-AVON
+
+        Judicio Pylium, genio Socratem, arte Maronem
+          Terra tegit, populus mæret, Olympus habet.
+
+    Stay, passenger, why goest thou by so fast?
+    Read, if thou canst, whom envious death hath plast
+    Within this monument: Shakespeare with whome
+    Quick nature dide; whose name doth deck ys tombe
+    Far more than cost; sith all yt he hath writt
+    Leaves living art but page to serve his witt.
+
+                    Obiit ano. doi 1616. Ætatis 53. Die 23 Ap.
+
+[Page Heading: The First Folio]
+
+
+15. THE INTRODUCTORY MATTER IN THE FIRST FOLIO
+
+                        TO THE MOST NOBLE
+                               AND
+                  INCOMPARABLE PAIRE OF BRETHREN.
+                             WILLIAM
+         Earle of Pembroke, &c.  Lord Chamberlaine to the
+                  _Kings most Excellent Maiesty_.
+                               AND
+                              PHILIP
+Earle of Montgomery, &c. Gentleman of his Maiesties Bed-Chamber.
+       Both Knights of the most Noble Order of the Garter,
+                   and our singular good LORDS.
+
+    Right Honourable,
+
+Whilst we studie to be thankful in our particular, for the many fauors
+we haue receiued from your L. L. we are falne vpon the ill fortune, to
+mingle two the most diuerse things that can bee, feare, and rashnesse;
+rashnesse in the enterprize, and feare of the successe. For, when we
+valew the places your H. H. sustaine, we cannot but know their dignity
+greater, then to descend to the reading of these trifles: and, while we
+name them trifles, we haue depriu'd our selues of the defence of our
+Dedication. But since your L. L. haue beene pleas'd to thinke these
+trifles some-thing, heeretofore; and haue prosequuted both them, and
+their Authour liuing, with so much fauour: we hope, that (they
+out-liuing him, and he not hauing the fate, common with some, to be
+exequutor to his owne writings) you will vse the like indulgence toward
+them, you haue done vnto their parent. There is a great difference,
+whether any Booke choose his Patrones, or finde them: This hath done
+both. For, so much were your L. L. likings of the seuerall parts, when
+they were acted, as before they were published, the Volume ask'd to be
+yours. We haue but collected them, and done an office to the dead, to
+procure his Orphanes, Guardians: without ambition either of
+selfe-profit, or fame: onely to keepe the memory of so worthy a Friend,
+& Fellow aliue, as was our SHAKESPEARE, by humble offer of his playes,
+to your most noble patronage. Wherein, as we haue iustly obserued, no
+man to come neere your L. L. but with a kind of religious addresse; it
+hath bin the height of our care, who are the Presenters, to make the
+present worthy of your H. H. by the perfection. But, there we must also
+craue our abilities to be considerd, my Lords. We cannot go beyond our
+owne powers. Country hands reach foorth milke, creame, fruites, or what
+they haue: and many Nations (we haue heard) that had not gummes &
+incense, obtained their requests with a leauened Cake. It was no fault
+to approch their Gods, by what meanes they could: And the most, though
+meanest, of things are made more precious, when they are dedicated to
+Temples. In that name therefore, we most humbly consecrate to your H. H.
+these remaines of your seruant SHAKESPEARE; that what delight is in
+them, may be euer your L. L. the reputation his, & the faults ours, if
+any be committed, by a payre so carefull to shew their gratitude both to
+the liuing, and the dead, as is
+
+                                        Your Lordshippes most bounden,
+                                                  IOHN HEMINGE.
+                                                  HENRY CONDELL.
+
+
+_To the Great Variety of Readers._--From the most able to him that can
+but spell;--there you are number'd. We had rather you were weighd,
+especially when the fate of all bookes depends upon your capacities, and
+not of your heads alone, but of your purses. Well! It is now publique,
+and you will stand for your privileges wee know; to read and censure. Do
+so, but buy it first. That doth best commend a booke, the stationer
+saies. Then, how odde soever your braines be, or your wisedomes, make
+your licence the same and spare not. Judge your sixe-pen'orth, your
+shillings worth, your five shillings worth at a time, or higher, so you
+rise to the just rates, and welcome. But, whatever you do, buy. Censure
+will not drive a trade or make the jacke go. And though you be a
+magistrate of wit, and sit on the stage at Black-Friers or the Cock-pit
+to arraigne playes dailie, know, these playes have had their triall
+alreadie, and stood out all appeales, and do now come forth quitted
+rather by a Decree of Court than any purchas'd letters of commendation.
+
+It had bene a thing, we confesse, worthie to have bene wished, that the
+author himselfe had liv'd to have set forth and overseen his owne
+writings; but since it hath bin ordain'd otherwise, and he by death
+departed from that right, we pray you do not envie his friends the
+office of their care and paine to have collected and publish'd them; and
+so to have publish'd them, as where (before) you were abus'd with
+diverse stolne and surreptitious copies, maimed and deformed by the
+frauds and stealthes of injurious impostors that expos'd them; even
+those are now offer'd to your view cur'd and perfect of their limbes,
+and all the rest absolute in their numbers as he conceived them; who, as
+he was a happie imitator of Nature, was a most gentle expresser of it.
+His mind and hand went together; and what he thought, he uttered with
+that easinesse that wee have scarse received from him a blot in his
+papers. But it is not our province, who onely gather his works and give
+them you, to praise him. It is yours that reade him. And there we hope,
+to your divers capacities, you will finde enough both to draw and hold
+you; for his wit can no more lie hid then it could be lost. Reade him,
+therefore; and againe and againe; and if then you doe not like him,
+surely you are in some manifest danger not to understand him. And so we
+leave you to other of his friends, whom, if you need, can bee your
+guides. If you neede them not, you can leade yourselves and others; and
+such readers we wish him.--_Iohn Heminge._--_Henrie Condell._
+
+
+[Page Heading: Ben Jonson's Eulogy]
+
+              TO THE MEMORY OF MY BELOUED,
+
+                       THE AVTHOR
+
+                MR. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE:
+                          AND
+                 what he hath left vs.
+
+    To draw no enuy (_Shakespeare_) on thy name,
+      Am I thus ample to thy Booke, and Fame:
+    While I confesse thy writings to be such,
+      As neither _Man_, nor _Muse_, can praise too much.
+    'Tis true, and all mens suffrage. But these wayes
+      Were not the paths I meant vnto thy praise:
+    For seeliest Ignorance on these may light,
+      Which, when it sounds at best, but eccho's right;
+    Or blinde Affection, which doth ne're aduance
+      The truth, but gropes, and vrgeth all by chance;
+    Or crafty Malice, might pretend this praise,
+      And thinke to ruine, where it seem'd to raise.
+    These are, as some infamous Baud, or Whore,
+      Should praise a Matron. What could hurt her more?
+    But thou art proofe against them, and indeed
+      Aboue th' ill fortune of them, or the need.
+    I, therefore will begin. Soule of the Age!
+      The applause! delight! the wonder of our Stage!
+    My _Shakespeare_, rise; I will not lodge thee by
+      _Chaucer_, or _Spenser_, or bid _Beaumont_ lye
+    A little further, to make thee a roome:
+      Thou art a Moniment, without a tombe,
+    And art aliue still, while thy Booke doth liue,
+      And we haue wits to read, and praise to giue.
+    That I not mixe thee so, my braine excuses;
+      I meane with great, but disproportion'd _Muses_:
+    For, if I thought my iudgement were of yeeres,
+      I should commit thee surely with thy peeres,
+    And tell, how farre thou didstst our _Lily_ out-shine,
+      Or sporting _Kid_, or _Marlowes_ mighty line.
+    And though thou hadst small _Latine_, and lesse _Greeke_,
+      From thence to honour thee, I would not seeke
+    For names; but call forth thund'ring _Æschilus_,
+      _Euripides_, and _Sophocles_ to vs,
+    _Paccuuius_, _Accius_, him of _Cordoua_ dead,
+      To life againe, to heare thy Buskin tread,
+    And shake a Stage: Or, when thy Sockes were on,
+      Leaue thee alone, for the comparison
+    Of all, that insolent _Greece_, or haughtie _Rome_
+      Sent forth, or since did from their ashes come.
+    Triumph, my _Britaine_, thou hast one to showe,
+      To whom all Scenes of _Europe_ homage owe.
+    He was not of an age, but for all time!
+      And all the _Muses_ still were in their prime,
+    When like _Apollo_ he came forth to warme
+      Our eares, or like a _Mercury_ to charme!
+    Nature her selfe was proud of his designes,
+      And ioy'd to weare the dressing of his lines!
+    Which were so richly spun, and wouen so fit,
+      As, since, she will vouchsafe no other Wit.
+    The merry _Greeke_, tart _Aristophanes_,
+      Neat _Terence_, witty _Plautus_, now not please;
+    But antiquated, and deserted lye
+      As they were not of Natures family.
+    Yet must I not giue Nature all: Thy Art,
+      My gentle _Shakespeare_, must enioy a part.
+    For though the _Poets_ matter, Nature be,
+      His Art doth giue the fashion. And, that he,
+    Who casts to write a liuing line, must sweat,
+      (Such as thine are) and strike the second heat
+    Vpon the _Muses_ anuile: turne the same,
+      (And himselfe with it) that he thinkes to frame;
+    Or for the lawrell, he may gaine a scorne,
+      For a good _Poet's_ made, as well as borne.
+    And such wert thou. Looke how the fathers face
+      Liues in his issue, euen so, the race
+    Of _Shakespeares_ minde, and manners brightly shines
+      In his well torned, and true-filed lines:
+    In each of which, he seemes to shake a Lance,
+      As brandish't at the eyes of Ignorance.
+    Sweet Swan of _Auon_! what a sight it were
+      To see thee in our waters yet appeare,
+    And make those flights vpon the bankes of _Thames_,
+      That so did take _Eliza_, and our _Iames_!
+    But stay, I see thee in the _Hemisphere_
+      Aduanc'd, and made a Constellation there!
+    Shine forth, thou Starre of _Poets_, and with rage,
+      Or influence, chide, or cheere the drooping Stage;
+    Which, since thy flight fro hence, hath mourn'd like night,
+      And despaires day, but for thy Volumes light.
+
+                                                  BEN: IONSON.
+
+
+VPON THE LINES AND LIFE OF THE FAMOUS
+
+Scenicke Poet, Master WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
+
+    Those hands, which you so clapt, go now, and wring
+    You _Britaines_ braue; for done are _Shakespeares_ dayes:
+    His dayes are done, that made the dainty Playes,
+    Which made the Globe of heau'n and earth to ring.
+    Dry'de is that veine, dry'd is the _Thespian_ Spring,
+    Turn'd all to teares, and _Ph[oe]bus_ clouds his rayes:
+    That corp's, that coffin now besticke those bayes,
+    Which crown'd him _Poet_ first, then _Poets_ King.
+    If _Tragedies_ might any _Prologue_ haue,
+    All those he made, would scarse make one to this:
+    Where _Fame_, now that he gone is to the graue
+    (Deaths publique tyring-house) the _Nuncius_ is.
+      For though his line of life went soone about,
+      The life yet of his lines shall neuer out.
+
+                                                  HVGH HOLLAND.
+
+
+[Page Heading: The First Folio]
+
+                        TO THE MEMORIE
+
+                of the deceased Authour Maister
+
+                        W. SHAKESPEARE
+
+    _Shake-speare_, at length thy pious fellowes giue
+    The world thy Workes: thy Workes, by which, out-liue
+    Thy Tombe, thy name must: when that stone is rent,
+    And Time dissolues thy _Stratford_ Moniment,
+    Here we aliue shall view thee still. This Booke,
+    When Brasse and Marble fade, shall make thee looke
+    Fresh to all Ages: when Posteritie
+    Shall loath what's new, thinke all is prodegie
+    That is not _Shake-speares_ eu'ry Line, each Verse
+    Here shall reuiue, redeeme thee from thy Herse.
+    Nor Fire, nor cankring Age, as _Naso_ said,
+    Of his, thy wit-fraught Booke shall once inuade.
+    Nor shall I e're beleeue, or thinke thee dead
+    (Though mist) vntill our bankrout Stage be sped
+    (Jmpossible) with some new straine t'out-do
+    Passions of _Iuliet_, and her _Romeo_;
+    Or till J heare a Scene more nobly take,
+    Then when thy half-Sword parlying _Romans_ spake.
+    Till these, till any of thy Volumes rest
+    Shall with more fire, more feeling be exprest,
+    Be sure, our _Shake-speare_, thou canst neuer dye,
+    But crown'd with Lawrell, liue eternally.
+
+                                                  L. DIGGES.
+
+
+To the memorie of M. _W. Shake-speare_.
+
+    WEE wondred (_Shake-speare_) that thou went'st so soone
+    From the Worlds-Stage, to the Graues-Tyring-roome.
+    Wee thought thee dead, but this thy printed worth,
+    Tels thy Spectators, that thou went'st but forth
+    To enter with applause. An Actors Art,
+    Can dye, and liue, to acte a second part.
+    That's but an _Exit_ of Mortalitie;
+    This, a Re-entrance to a Plaudite.
+
+                                                  I. M.
+
+
+_The Workes of William Shakespeare, containing all his Comedies,
+Histories, and Tragedies; truely set forth according to their first
+Originall._--_The names of the Principall Actors in all these
+playes._--William Shakespeare; Richard Burbadge; John Hemmings;
+Augustine Phillips; William Kempt; Thomas Poope; George Bryan; Henry
+Condell; William Slye; Richard Cowly; John Lowine; Samuell Crosse;
+Alexander Cooke; Samuel Gilburne; Robert Armin; William Ostler; Nathan
+Field; John Underwood; Nicholas Tooley; William Ecclestone; Joseph
+Taylor; Robert Benfeld; Robert Goughe; Richard Robinson; John Shancke;
+John Rice.
+
+_A Catalogue of the severall Comedies, Histories, and Tragedies
+contained in this Volume._--COMEDIES. The Tempest, folio 1; The Two
+Gentlemen of Verona, 20; The Merry Wives of Windsor, 38; Measure for
+Measure, 61; The Comedy of Errours, 85; Much adoo about Nothing, 101;
+Loves Labour lost, 122; Midsommer Nights Dreame, 145; The Merchant of
+Venice, 163; As You Like it, 185; The Taming of the Shrew, 208; All is
+well that Ends well, 230; Twelfe-Night, or what you will, 255; The
+Winters Tale, 304.--HISTORIES. The Life and Death of King John, fol. 1;
+The Life and Death of Richard the Second, 23; The First Part of King
+Henry the Fourth, 46; The Second Part of K. Henry the fourth, 74; The
+Life of King Henry the Fift, 69; The First part of King Henry the Sixt,
+96; The Second part of King Hen. the Sixt, 120; The Third part of King
+Henry the Sixt, 147; The Life and Death of Richard the Third, 173; The
+Life of King Henry the Eight, 205.--TRAGEDIES. The Tragedy of
+Coriolanus, fol. 1; Titus Andronicus, 31; Romeo and Juliet, 53; Timon of
+Athens, 80; The Life and death of Julius Cæsar, 109; The Tragedy of
+Macbeth, 131; The Tragedy of Hamlet, 152; King Lear, 283; Othello, the
+Moore of Venice, 310; Anthony and Cleopater, 346; Cymbeline King of
+Britaine, 369.
+
+
+[Page Heading: Traditional Material]
+
+II. SOURCES OF TRADITIONAL MATERIAL
+
+Fuller's Worthies of England. 1662.
+
+Aubrey's Lives of Eminent Men, 2 vols. Ed. A. Clark. Oxford, 1895.
+
+Diary of Rev. John Ward (1661-1663). Ed. C. A. Severn, 1839.
+
+Rev. William Fulman's and Rev. Richard Davies's Mss. Corpus Christi
+College, Oxford.
+
+John Dowdall's Travels in Warwickshire (1693). London, 1838.
+
+William Hall (1694), Letter in Bodleian Mss. London, 1884.
+
+William Oldys, Ms. Adversaria in British Museum, printed in Appendix to
+Yeowell's Memoir of Oldys, 1862.
+
+Archdeacon Plume's Ms. memoranda at Maldon, Essex. See Lee, _Nineteenth
+Century_, May, 1906, and Preface to New Edition (1909) of _Life_.
+
+For the anecdote of the Bidford Drinkers, see H.-P. and Greene's Legend
+of the Crab Tree, 1857.
+
+Antony Wood. Athenæ Oxonienses, 1692.
+
+
+
+
+Appendix B
+
+INDEX TO THE CHARACTERS IN SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS
+
+
+[Page Heading: Index to Characters]
+
+This Index records the act and scene in which each character first
+speaks, not necessarily the same as that in which he first appears. Only
+persons who speak are included, except a few marked with asterisk.
+
+
+Aaron. TA. II. i.
+
+Abbess, Lady. CofE. V. i.
+
+Abergavenny, Lord. H8. I. i.
+
+Abhorson. Meas. IV. ii.
+
+Abraham. R&J. I. i.
+
+Achilles. T&C. II. i.
+
+Adam. AYLI. I. i.
+
+Adrian. Tmp. II. i.
+
+Adriana. CofE. II. i.
+
+Ædile, an. Cor. III. i.
+
+Ægeon. CofE. I. i.
+
+Æmilia. CofE. V. i.
+
+Æmilius. TA. IV. iv.
+
+Æneas. T&C. I. i.
+
+Agamemnon. T&C. I. iii.
+
+Agrippa. A&C. II. ii.
+
+Aguecheek, Sir Andrew. TwN. I. iii.
+
+Ajax. T&C. II. i.
+
+Alarbus. TA.*
+
+Albany, Duke of. Lear I. i.
+
+Alcibiades. Tim. I. i.
+
+Alençon, Duke of. 1H6. I. ii.
+
+Alexander. T&C. I. ii.
+
+Alexas. A&C. I. ii.
+
+Alice. H5. III. iv.
+
+Alonso. Tmp. I. i.
+
+Ambassadors:
+  Hml. V. ii;
+  H5. I. ii;
+  1H6. V. i.
+
+Amiens. AYLI. II. i. v.
+
+Andromache. T&C. V. iii.
+
+Andronicus. _See_ Titus, Marcus.
+
+Angelo. CofE. III. i.
+
+Angelo. Meas. I. i.
+
+Angus. Mcb. I. ii.
+
+Anne Bullen, Queen. H8. I. iv.
+
+Anne, Lady. R3. I. ii.
+
+Anne Page. MWW. I. i.
+
+Antigonus. WT. II. i.
+
+Antiochus, King of Antioch. Per. I. i.
+
+Antipholus of Ephesus. CofE. III. i.
+
+Antipholus of Syracuse. CofE. I. ii.
+
+Antonio. Merch. I. i.
+
+Antonio. MAdo. I. ii.
+
+Antonio. Tmp. I. i.
+
+Antonio. TGV. I. iii.
+
+Antonio. TwN. II. i.
+
+Antony.
+  JC. I. ii;
+  A&C. I. i.
+
+Apemantus. Tim. I. i.
+
+Apothecary. R&J. V. i.
+
+Apparitions. Mcb. IV. i.
+
+Archbishop. _See_ York, Canterbury.
+
+Archidamus. WT. I. i.
+
+Ariel. Tmp. I. ii.
+
+Armado, Don. LLL. I. ii.
+
+Arragon, Prince of. Merch. II. ix.
+
+Artemidorus. JC. II. iii.
+
+Arthur, Duke of Bretagne. John II. i.
+
+Arviragus. Cym. III. iii.
+
+Astringer, Gentle. AWEW. V. i.
+
+Attendants.
+  A&C. I. ii;
+  Hml. IV. vi. _See_ Servants.
+
+Audrey. AYLI. III. iii.
+
+Aufidius, Tullus. Cor. I. ii.
+
+Aumerle, Duke of. R2. I. iii.
+
+Austria, Archduke of.
+  John II. i.
+  _See_ Lymoges.
+
+Autolycus. WT. IV. iii.
+
+Auvergne, Countess of. 1H6. II. iii.
+
+
+Bagot. R2. II. ii.
+
+Balthasar. MAdo. II. iii.
+
+Balthazar. CofE. III. i.
+
+Balthazar. Merch. III. iv.
+
+Balthazar. R&J. I. i.
+
+Banditti. Tim. IV. iii.
+
+Banquo. Mcb. I. iii.
+
+Baptista. TofS. I. i.
+
+Bardolph.
+  1H4. II. ii;
+  2H4. II. i;
+  H5. II. i;
+  MWW. I. i.
+
+Bardolph, Lord. 2H4. I. i.
+
+Barnardine. Meas. IV. iii.
+
+Bassanio. Merch. I. i.
+
+Bassanius. TA. I. i.
+
+Basset. 1H6. III. iv.
+
+Bastard of Orleans. 1H6. I. ii.
+
+Bastard. _See_ Edmund, Faulconbridge, and Margarelon.
+
+Bates. H5. IV. i.
+
+Bawd.
+  Per. IV. ii.
+  _See_ Overdone.
+
+Beadles.
+  2H4. V. iv;
+  2H6. II. i.
+
+Beatrice. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Beaufort, Henry, Bishop of Winchester, and Cardinal.
+  1H6. I. i;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Beaufort, John, Duke of Somerset.
+  1H6. II. iv;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Beaufort, Thomas, Duke of Exeter.
+  H5. I. ii;
+  1H6. I. i.
+
+Bedford, Duke of. H5. II. ii.
+
+Bedford, Duke of. 1H6. I. i.
+
+Belarius. Cym. III. iii.
+
+Belch, Sir Toby. TwN. I. iii.
+
+Benedick. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Benvolio. R&J. I. i.
+
+Berkeley. R3. I. iii.*
+
+Berkeley, Lord. R2. II. iii.
+
+Bernardo. Hml. I i.*
+
+Bertram, Count of Rousillon. AWEW. I. i.
+
+Bevis, George. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Bianca. Oth. III. iv.
+
+Bianca. TofS. I. i.
+
+Bigot, Lord. John IV. iii.
+
+Biondello. TofS. I. i.
+
+Biron. LLL. I. i.
+
+Blanche of Spain. John II. i.
+
+Blunt, Sir James. R3. V. ii.
+
+Blunt, Sir Walter. 1H4. I. iii.
+
+Boatswain. Tmp. I. i.
+
+Bolingbroke, Roger. 2H6. I. iv.
+
+Bolingbroke, afterwards King Henry IV. R2. I. i.
+
+Bona. 3H6. III. iii.
+
+Borachio. MAdo. I. iii.
+
+Bottom. MND. I. ii.
+
+Boult. Per. IV. ii.
+
+Bourbon, Duke of. H5. III. v.
+
+Bourchier, Cardinal. R3. III. i.
+
+Boyet. LLL. II. i.
+
+Boys:
+  H5. II. i;
+  1H6. I. iv;
+  H8. V. i;
+  Mcb. IV. ii;
+  Meas. IV. i;
+  MAdo. II. iii;
+  R3. II. ii;
+  T&C. I. ii.
+  _See_ Pages.
+
+Brabantio. Oth. I. i.
+
+Brakenbury, Sir Robert. R3. I. i.
+
+Brandon. H8. I. i.
+
+Brothers, to Posthumus, ghosts. Cym. V. iv.
+
+Brutus, Decius. JC. II. i.
+
+Brutus, Junius. Cor. I. i.
+
+Brutus, Marcus. JC. I. ii.
+
+Buckingham, Duke of.
+  2H6. I. i;
+  R3. I. iii.
+
+Buckingham, Duke of. H8. I. i.
+
+Bullcalf. 2H4. III. ii.
+
+Bullen, Anne. H8. I. iv.
+
+Burgundy, Duke of. H5. V. ii.
+
+Burgundy, Duke of. 1H6. II. i.
+
+Burgundy, Duke of. Lear I. i.
+
+Bushy. R2. I. iv.
+
+Butts, Doctor. H8. V. ii.
+
+
+Cade, John. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Cæsar. _See_ Julius _and_ Octavius.
+
+Caithness. Mcb. V. ii.
+
+Caius. TA.*
+
+Caius, Doctor. MWW. I. iv.
+
+Caius Ligarius. JC. II. i.
+
+Caius Lucius. Cym. III. i.
+
+Caius Marcius (Coriolanus). Cor. I. i.
+
+Calchas. T&C. III. iii.
+
+Caliban. Tmp. I. ii.
+
+Calpurnia. JC. I. ii.
+
+Cambridge, Earl of. H5. II. ii.
+
+Camillo. WT. I. i.
+
+Campeius, Cardinal. H8. II. ii.
+
+Canidius. A&C. III. x.
+
+Canterbury, Archbishop of.
+  H5. I. i.
+  _See_ Bourchier, Cranmer.
+
+Caphis. Tim. II. i.
+
+Captains:
+  A&C. IV. iv;
+  Cym. IV. ii, V. iii;
+  Hml. IV. iv;
+  1H6. II. ii;
+  Lear V. iii;
+  Mcb. I. ii;
+  R2. II. iv;
+  TA. I. i.
+  _See_ Sea Captain.
+
+Capucius. H8. IV. ii.
+
+Capulet. R&J. I. i.
+
+Capulet, Lady. R&J. I. i.
+
+Capulet, second. R&J. I. v.
+
+Cardinal. _See_ Bourchier, Winchester.
+
+Carlisle, Bishop of. R2. III. ii.
+
+Carpenter. JC. I. i.
+
+Carriers. 1H4. II. i.
+
+Casca. JC. I. ii.
+
+Cassandra. T&C. II. ii.
+
+Cassio. Oth. I. ii.
+
+Cassius. JC. I. ii.
+
+Catesby, Sir William. R3. I. iii.
+
+Cato, young. JC. V. iii.
+
+Celia. AYLI. I. ii.
+
+Ceres. Tmp. IV. i.
+
+Cerimon. Per. III. ii.
+
+Chamberlain. 1H4. II. i.
+
+Chamberlain, Lord. H8. I. iii.
+
+Chancellor, Lord. H8. V. iii.
+
+Charles, a wrestler. AYLI. I. i.
+
+Charles, the dauphin, later King of France. 1H6. I. ii.
+
+Charles VI, King of France. H5. II. iv.
+
+Charmian. A&C. I. ii.
+
+Chatillon, ambassador. John I. i.
+
+Chief Justice. 2H4. I. ii.
+
+Chiron. TA. I. i.
+
+Chorus.
+  H5;
+  Per;
+  R&J;
+  WT.
+
+Cicero. JC. I. iii.
+
+Cimber, Metellus. JC. II. i.
+
+Cinna, a conspirator. JC. I. iii.
+
+Cinna, a poet. JC. III. iii.
+
+Citizens.
+  Cor. I. i;
+  2H6. IV. v;
+  John II. i;
+  R3. II. iii;
+  R&J. III. i.
+
+Clarence, George, Duke of.
+  3H6. II. ii;
+  R3. I. i.
+
+Clarence, Thomas, Duke of. 2H4. IV. iv.
+
+Clarence, son and daughter of. R3. II. ii.
+
+Claudio. Meas. I. ii.
+
+Claudio. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Claudius, King of Denmark. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Claudius. JC. IV. iii.
+
+Cleomenes. WT. III. i.
+
+Cleon. Per. I. iv.
+
+Cleopatra. A&C. I. i.
+
+Clerk. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Clifford, Lord.
+  2H6. IV. viii;
+  3H6. I. i.
+
+Clifford, young, son of preceding. 2H6. V. i.
+
+Clitus. JC. V. v.
+
+Cloten. Cym. I. ii.
+
+Clowns:
+  A&C. V. ii;
+  AWEW. I. iii;
+  Hml. V. ii;
+  LLL. I. ii;
+  Oth. III. i;
+  TA. IV. iii;
+  WT. IV. iii.
+  _See_ Feste, Peter, Pompey, etc.
+
+Cobbler. JC. I. i.
+
+Cobweb. MND. III. i.
+
+Colville, Sir John. 2H4. IV. iii.
+
+Cominius. Cor. I. i.
+
+Commons. 2H6. III. ii.
+
+Conrade. MAdo. I. iii.
+
+Conspirators. Cor. V. vi.
+
+Constable (Dull). LLL. I. i.
+
+Constable of France. H5. II. iv.
+
+Constance. John II. i.
+
+Cordelia. Lear I. i.
+
+Corin. AYLI. II. iv.
+
+Coriolanus. Cor. I. i.
+
+Cornelius, a physician. Cym. I. v.
+
+Cornelius. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Cornwall, Duke of. Lear I. i.
+
+Costard. LLL. I. i.
+
+Court. H5. IV. i.
+
+Courtesan. CofE. IV. iii.
+
+Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury. H8. V. i.
+
+Cressida. T&C. I. ii.
+
+Crier. H8. II. iv.
+
+Cromwell. H8. III. ii.
+
+Cupid. Tim. I. ii.
+
+Curan. Lear II. i.
+
+Curio. TwN. I. i.
+
+Curtis. TofS. IV. i.
+
+Cymbeline, King. Cym. I. i.
+
+
+Dancer, A. 2H4. Epi.
+
+Dardanius. JC. V. v.
+
+Daughter of Antiochus. Per. I. iv.
+
+Dauphin. H5. II. iv.
+
+Davy. 2H4. V. i.
+
+Deiphobus. T&C. IV. i.
+
+Demetrius. A&C. I. i.
+
+Demetrius. MND. I. i.
+
+Demetrius. TA. I. i.
+
+Dennis. AYLI. I. i.
+
+Denny, Sir Anthony. H8. V. i.
+
+Derby, Earl of. R3. I. iii.
+
+Dercetas. A&C. IV. xiv.
+
+Desdemona. Oth. I. iii.
+
+Diana. Per.*
+
+Diana. AWEW. III. v.
+
+Dick, butcher. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Diomedes. T&C. II. iii.
+
+Diomedes. A&C. IV. xiv.
+
+Dion. WT. III. i.
+
+Dionyza. Per. I. iv.
+
+Doctor. Lear IV. iv.
+
+Doctor, English Mcb. IV. iii.
+
+Doctor, Scotch. Mcb. V. i.
+
+Dogberry. MAdo. III. iii.
+
+Dolabella. A&C. III. xii.
+
+Doll Tearsheet. 2H4. II. iv.
+
+Don Adriano de Armado. LLL. I. ii.
+
+Donalbain. Mcb. II. iii.
+
+Don John. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Don Pedro. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Dorcas. WT. IV. iv.
+
+Dorset, Marquis of. R3. I. iii.
+
+Douglas Archibald, Earl of. 1H4. IV. i.
+
+Drawers. 2H4. II. iv.
+
+Dromio of Ephesus. CofE. I. ii.
+
+Dromio of Syracuse. CofE. I. ii.
+
+Duke, in banishment. AYLI. II. i.
+
+Duke Frederick. AYLI. I. ii.
+
+Duke of Milan. TGV. II. iv.
+
+Dull. LLL. I. i.
+
+Dumain. LLL. I. i.
+
+Duncan, King. Mcb. I. ii.
+
+
+Edgar. Lear I. ii.
+
+Edmund. Lear I. i.
+
+Edmund, Earl of Rutland. 3H6. I. iii.
+
+Edward, Earl of March, later Edward IV.
+  3H6. I. i;
+  R3. II. i.
+
+Edward IV, King.
+  3H6. I. i;
+  R3. II. i.
+
+Edward V, King. R3. III. i.
+
+Edward, Prince of Wales, afterwards Edward V. R3. III. i.
+
+Edward Plantagenet, Prince of Wales. 3H6. I. i.
+
+Egeus. MND. I. i.
+
+Eglamour. TGV. IV. iii.
+
+Egyptian. A&C. V. i.
+
+Elbow. Meas. II. i.
+
+Eleanor, Duchess of Gloucester. 2H6. I. ii.
+
+Eleanor, Queen. John I. i.
+
+Elizabeth, Queen (as L. Grey).
+  3H6. III. ii;
+  R3. I. iii.
+
+Ely, Bishop of. H5. I. i.
+
+Ely, Bishop of. R3. III. iv.
+
+Emilia. Oth. II. ii.
+
+Emilia. WT. II. ii.
+
+Enobarbus. A&C. I. ii.
+
+Eros. A&C. III. v.
+
+Erpingham, Sir Thomas. H5. IV. i.
+
+Escalus, Prince. R&J. I. i.
+
+Escalus. Meas. I. i.
+
+Escanes. Per. II. iv.
+
+Essex, Earl of. John I. i.
+
+Euphronius. A&C. III. xii.
+
+Evans, Sir Hugh. MWW. I. i
+
+Executioners. John IV. i.
+
+Exeter (Beaufort), Duke of.
+  H5. I. ii;
+  1H6. I. i.
+
+Exeter, Duke of. 3H6. I. i.
+
+Exton, Sir Pierce of. R2. V. iv.
+
+
+Fabian. TwN. II. v.
+
+Fairies.
+  MND. II. i;
+  MWW. V. iv.
+
+Falstaff, Sir John.
+  1H4. I. ii;
+  2H4. I. ii;
+  MWW. I. i.
+
+Fang. 2H4. II. i.
+
+Fastolfe, Sir John. 1H6. III. ii.
+
+Father that hath killed his son. 3H6. II. v.
+
+Faulconbridge, Lady. John I. i.
+
+Faulconbridge, Philip the Bastard. John I. i.
+
+Faulconbridge, Robert. John I. i.
+
+Feeble. 2H4. III. ii.
+
+Fenton. MWW. I. iv.
+
+Ferdinand. Tmp. I. ii.
+
+Ferdinand, King of Navarre. LLL. I. i.
+
+Feste. TwN. I. v.
+
+Fisherman. Per. II. i.
+
+Fitzwater, Lord. R2. IV. i.
+
+Flaminius. Tim. III. i.
+
+Flavius. JC. I. i.
+
+Flavius. Tim. I. ii.
+
+Fleance. Mcb. II. i.
+
+Florence, Duke of. AWEW. III. i.
+
+Florizel. WT. IV. iv.
+
+Fluellen. H5. III. ii.
+
+Flute. MND. I. ii.
+
+Fool.
+  Lear I. iv;
+  Tim. II. ii.
+
+Ford. MWW. II. i.
+
+Ford, Mistress. MWW. II. i.
+
+Forester.
+  AYLI. IV. ii;
+  LLL. IV. i.
+
+Fortinbras. Hml. IV. iv.
+
+France, King of. AWEW. I. ii.
+
+France, King of. Lear I. i.
+
+France, Princess of. LLL. II. i.
+
+Francis. 1H4. II. iv.
+
+Francisca. Meas. I. iv.
+
+Francisco. Hml. I. i.
+
+Francisco. Tmp. II. i.
+
+Frederick, Duke. AYLI. I. ii.
+
+Frenchman, A. Cym. I. iv.
+
+Friar Francis. MAdo. IV. i.
+
+Friar John. R&J. V. 2.
+
+Friar Lawrence. R&J. II. 3.
+
+Friar Peter. Meas. IV. vi.
+
+Friar Thomas. Meas. I. iii.
+
+Froth. Meas. II. i.
+
+
+Gadshill. 1H4. II. i.
+
+Gaolers:
+  CofE. I. i;
+  Cym. V. iv;
+  1H6. II. v;
+  Merch. III. iii;
+  WT. II. ii.
+
+Gallus. A&C. V. i.
+
+Gardener. R2. III. iv.
+
+Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester. H8. V. i.
+
+Gargrave, Sir Thomas. 1H6. I. iv.
+
+Gaunt, John, Duke of Lancaster. R2. I. i.
+
+Gentleman Usher. H8. II. iv.
+
+Gentlemen:
+  AWEW. V. iii;
+  Cym. I. i;
+  Hml. IV. v;
+  2H6. IV. i;
+  H8. II. i;
+  Lear I. v;
+  Meas. I. ii;
+  Per. III. ii;
+  Oth. II. i;
+  WT. V. ii.
+
+Gentlewomen.
+  Cor. I. iii;
+  Mcb. V. i.
+
+George, Duke of Clarence.
+  3H6. II. ii;
+  R3. I. i.
+
+Gertrude, Queen of Denmark. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Ghosts of:
+  Cæsar, JC. IV. iii;
+  of Hamlet's father, Hml. I. v;
+  Sicilius Leonatus, wife, two sons, Cym. V. iv;
+  Banquo,* Mcb. III. iv;
+  Prince Edward, Henry VI, Clarence, Rivers, Grey, Vaughan, Hastings,
+      two young princes, Lady Anne, and Buckingham, R3. V. iii.
+
+Glansdale, Sir William. 1H6. I. iv.
+
+Glendower, Owen. 1H4. III.
+
+Gloucester, Humphrey, Duke of.
+  2H4. IV. iv;
+  H5. III. vii;
+  1H6. I. i;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Gloucester, Richard, Duke of.
+  3H6. I. i;
+  R3. I. i.
+
+Gloucester, Duchess of. 2H6. I. ii.
+
+Gloucester, Duchess of. R2. I. ii.
+
+Gloucester, Earl of. Lear I. i.
+
+Gobbo, Launcelot. Merch. II. ii.
+
+Gobbo, Old, father of Launcelot. Merch. II. ii.
+
+Goffe, Matthew. 2H6.*
+
+Goneril. Lear I. i.
+
+Gonzalo. Tmp. I. i.
+
+Goths. TA. V. i.
+
+Governor of Harfleur. H5. III. iii.
+
+Governor of Paris. 1H6. IV. i.
+
+Gower.
+  2H4. II. i;
+  H5. III. ii.
+
+Gower, chorus. Per.
+
+Grandpré. H5. IV. ii.
+
+Gratiano. Merch. I. i.
+
+Gratiano. Oth. V. ii.
+
+Gravediggers. Hml. V. i.
+
+Green. R2. I. iv.
+
+Gregory. R&J. I. i.
+
+Gremio. TofS. I. i.
+
+Grey, Lady, later Queen Elizabeth.
+  3H6. III. ii;
+  R3. I. iii.
+
+Grey, Lord. R3. I. iii.
+
+Grey, Sir Thomas. H5. II. ii.
+
+Griffith. H8. IV. ii.
+
+Grooms.
+  2H4. V. v;
+  R2. V. v.
+
+Grumio. TofS. I. i.
+
+Guard. A&C. IV. xiv.
+
+Guiderius. Cym. III. iii.
+
+Guildenstern. Hml. II. ii.
+
+Guildford, Sir Henry. H8. I. iv.
+
+Gurney, James. John I. i.
+
+
+Haberdasher. TofS. IV. iii.
+
+Hamlet. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Harcourt. 2H4. IV. iv.
+
+Hastings, Lord. 2H4. I. iii.
+
+Hastings, Lord.
+  3H6. IV. i;
+  R3. I. i.
+
+Hecate. Mcb. III. v.
+
+Hector. T&C. II. ii.
+
+Helen, an attendant. Cym. II. ii.
+
+Helen. T&C. III. i.
+
+Helena. AWEW. I. i.
+
+Helena. MND. I. i.
+
+Helenus. T&C. II. ii.
+
+Helicanus. Per. I. ii.
+
+Henry IV, King (Bolingbroke).
+  1H4. I. i;
+  2H4. III. i;
+  R2. I. i.
+
+Henry V, King (first, Henry, Prince of Wales).
+  1H4. I. ii;
+  2H4. II. ii;
+  H5. I. ii.
+
+Henry, Prince.
+  1H4. I. ii;
+  2H4. II. ii.
+
+Henry, Prince, son of King John. John V. vii.
+
+Henry VI, King.
+  1H6. III. i;
+  2H6. I. i;
+  3H6. I. i.
+
+Henry VII, King, first Earl of Richmond.
+  3H6.*
+  R3. V. iii.
+
+Henry VIII, King. H8. I. ii.
+
+Heralds.
+  Cor. II. i;
+  H5. III. vi, IV. viii;
+  2H6. II. iv;
+  John II. i;
+  Lear V. iii;
+  Oth. II. ii;
+  R2. I. iii.
+
+Herbert, Sir Walter. R3. V. ii.
+
+Hereford, Duke of.
+  _See_ Henry IV.
+  R2. I. i.
+
+Hermia. MND. I. i.
+
+Hermione. WT. I. ii.
+
+Hero. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Hippolyta. MND. I. i.
+
+Holland, John. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Holofernes. LLL. IV. ii.
+
+Horatio. Hml. I. i.
+
+Horner, Roger. 2H6. I. iii.
+
+Hortensio. TofS. I. i.
+
+Hortensius. Tim. III. iv.
+
+Host. TGV. IV. ii.
+
+Host of the Garter Inn. MWW. I. iii.
+
+Hostess.
+  H5. II. i.
+  _See_ Quickly.
+
+Hostess. TofS. Ind.
+
+Hotspur.
+  1H4. I. iii.
+  _See_ Percy.
+
+Hubert de Burgh. John III. iii.
+
+Hume, John. 2H6. I. ii.
+
+Humphrey of Gloucester.
+  2H4. IV. iv;
+  H5. III. vii;
+  1H6. I. i;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Huntsmen.
+  3H6. IV. v;
+  TofS. Ind.
+
+Hymen. AYLI. V. iv.
+
+
+Iachimo. Cym. I. iv.
+
+Iago. Oth. I. i.
+
+Iden, Alexander. 2H6. IV. x.
+
+Imogen. Cym. I. i.
+
+Interpreter. AWEW. IV. iii.
+
+Iras. A&C. I. ii.
+
+Iris. Tmp. IV. i.
+
+Isabel, Queen of France. H5. V. ii.
+
+Isabella. Meas. I. iv.
+
+Isadore, servant. Tim. II. ii.
+
+
+Jamy. H5. III. ii.
+
+Jaquenetta. LLL. I. ii.
+
+Jaques. AYLI. II. v.
+
+Jaques, son of Sir Roland de Boys. AYLI.*
+
+Jessica. Merch. II. iii.
+
+Jeweller. Tim. I. i.
+
+Joan la Pucelle (Joan of Arc). 1H6. I. ii.
+
+John, King. John I. i.
+
+John of Lancaster.
+  1H4. V. iv;
+  2H4. IV. ii.
+
+Jordan, Margery. 2H6. I. iv.
+
+Julia. TGV. I. ii.
+
+Juliet. Meas. I. ii.
+
+Juliet. R&J. I. iii.
+
+Julius Cæsar. JC. I. ii.
+
+Juno. Tmp. IV. i.
+
+Jupiter. Cym. V. iv.
+
+
+Katherina. TofS. I. i.
+
+Katherine. LLL. II. i.
+
+Katherine, Princess of France. H5. III. iv.
+
+Katherine, Queen. H8. I. ii.
+
+Keepers:
+  3H6. III. i;
+  H8. V. ii; R2. V. v;
+  R3. I. iv.
+  _See_ Gaolers.
+
+Kent, Earl of. Lear I. i.
+
+Knights:
+  Lear I. iv;
+  Per. II. iii.
+
+
+Ladies:
+  Cor. II. i;
+  Cym. I. v;
+  R2. III. iv;
+  Tim. I. ii;
+  WT. II. i.
+
+Laertes. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Lafeu, Lord. AWEW. I. i.
+
+Lamprius. A&C. I. ii.
+
+Launce. TGV. II. iii.
+
+Launcelot Gobbo. Merch. II. ii.
+
+Lavache, a clown. AWEW. I. iii.
+
+Lavinia. TA. I. i.
+
+Lawyer, a. 1H6. II. iv.
+
+Lear, King. Lear I. i.
+
+Le Beau. AYLI. I. ii.
+
+Legate. 1H6. V. i.
+
+Lennox. Mcb. I. ii.
+
+Leonardo. Merch. II. ii.
+
+Leonato. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Leonatus, Posthumus. Cym. I. i.
+
+Leonine. Per. IV. i.
+
+Leontes. WT. I. ii.
+
+Lepidus.
+  JC. IV. i;
+  A&C. I. iv.
+
+Lewis, the Dauphin. H5. II. iv.
+
+Lewis, the Dauphin. John II. i.
+
+Lewis XI, King of France. 3H6. III. iii.
+
+Lieutenant:
+  Cor. IV. vii;
+  2H6. IV. i;
+  3H6. IV. vi.
+
+Ligarius. JC. II. i.
+
+Lincoln, Bishop of. H8. II. iv.
+
+Lion. MND. V. i.
+
+Longaville. LLL. I. i.
+
+Lords:
+  AWEW. I. ii, III. i;
+  AYLI. II. i;
+  Cor. V. vi;
+  Cym. I. ii;
+  Hml. V. ii;
+  LLL. II. i;
+  Mcb. III. iv;
+  Per. I. ii;
+  R3. V. iii;
+  TofS. Ind.;
+  Tim. I. i;
+  WT. II. ii.
+
+Lorenzo. Merch. I. i.
+
+Lovel, Lord. R3. III. iv.
+
+Lovell, Sir Thomas. H8. I. iii.
+
+Luce. CofE. III. i.
+
+Lucentio. TofS. I. i.
+
+Lucetta. TGV. I. ii.
+
+Luciana. CofE. II. i.
+
+Lucianus. Hml. III. ii.
+
+Lucilius. JC. IV. ii.
+
+Lucilius. Tim. I. i.
+
+Lucio. Meas. I. ii.
+
+Lucius, Caius. Cym. III. i.
+
+Lucius. JC. II. i.
+
+Lucius. TA. I. i.
+
+Lucius, young. TA. III. ii.
+
+Lucius. Tim. III. ii;
+  servant. Tim. III. iv.
+
+Lucullus. Tim. III. i.
+
+Lucy, Sir William. 1H6. IV. iii.
+
+Ludovico. Oth. IV. i.
+
+Lychorida. Per. III. i.
+
+Lymoges, Duke of Austria. John II. i.
+
+Lysander. MND. I. i.
+
+Lysimachus. Per. IV. vi.
+
+
+Macbeth. Mcb. I. iii.
+
+Macbeth, Lady. Mcb. I. v.
+
+Macduff. Mcb. II. iii.
+
+Macduff, Lady. Mcb. IV. ii.
+
+Macduff's son. Mcb. IV. ii.
+
+Macmorris. H5. III. ii.
+
+Mæcenas. A&C. II. ii.
+
+Malcolm. Mcb. I. ii.
+
+Malvolio. TwN. I. v.
+
+Mamillius. WT. I. ii.
+
+Marcellus. Hml. I. i.
+
+Marcus Andronicus. TA. I. i.
+
+Marcus Antonius (Antony).
+  JC. I. ii;
+  A&C. I. i.
+
+Mardian. A&C. I. v.
+
+Margarelon. T&C. V. vi.
+
+Margaret. MAdo. II. i.
+
+Margaret, Queen.
+  1H6. V. iii;
+  2H6. I. i;
+  3H6. I. i;
+  R3. I. iii.
+
+Margaret Plantagenet, daughter of Clarence. R3. II. ii.
+
+Maria. LLL. II. i.
+
+Maria. TwN. I. iii.
+
+Mariana. AWEW. III. v.
+
+Mariana. Meas. IV. i.
+
+Marina. Per. IV. i.
+
+Mariner.
+  WT. III. iii;
+  Tmp. I. i.
+
+Marshal. Per. II. iii.
+
+Marshal, Lord. R2. I. iii.
+
+Martext, Sir Oliver. AYLI. III. iii.
+
+Martius. TA. I. i.
+
+Marullus. JC. I. i.
+
+Master. 2H6. IV. i.
+
+Master gunner. 1H6. I. iv.
+
+Master, of a ship.
+  Tmp. I. i;
+  2H6. IV. i.
+
+Master's Mate. 2H6. IV. i.
+
+Mayor of London.
+  1H6. III. i;
+  R3. III. i.
+
+Mayor of St. Albans. 2H6. II. i.
+
+Mayor of York. 3H6. IV. vii.
+
+Melun. John V. iv.
+
+Menas. A&C. II. i.
+
+Menecrates. A&C. II. i.
+
+Menelaus. T&C. I. iii.
+
+Menenius Agrippa. Cor. I. i.
+
+Menteith. Mcb. V. ii.
+
+Mercade. LLL. V. ii.
+
+Merchants:
+  CofE. I. ii;
+  Tim. I. i.
+
+Mercutio. R&J. I. iv.
+
+Messala. JC. IV. iii.
+
+Messengers:
+  A&C. I. i;
+  AWEW. IV. iii;
+  CofE. V. i;
+  Cor. I. i;
+  Cym. V. iv;
+  Hml. IV. v;
+  1H4. IV. i;
+  2H4. IV. i;
+  H5. II. v;
+  1H6. I. i;
+  2H6. I. ii;
+  3H6. I. ii;
+  H8. IV. ii;
+  John IV. ii;
+  JC. IV. iii;
+  Lear IV. ii;
+  LLL. V. ii;
+  Mcb. I. v;
+  Meas. IV. ii;
+  Merch. II. ix;
+  MAdo. I. i;
+  Oth. I. iii;
+  Per. I. i;
+  R3. III. ii;
+  TofS. III. i;
+  Tim. I. i;
+  TA. III. i.
+
+Metellus Cimber. JC. II. i.
+
+Michael. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Michael, Sir. 1H4. IV. iv.
+
+Milan, Duke of. TGV. II. iv.
+
+Miranda. Tmp. I. ii.
+
+Montague. R&J. I. i.
+
+Montague, Lady. R&J. I. i.
+
+Montague, Marquess of. 3H6. I. i.
+
+Montano. Oth. II. i.
+
+Montgomery, Sir John. 3H6. IV. vii.
+
+Montjoy. H5. III. vi.
+
+Moonshine. MND. V. i.
+
+Mopsa. WT. IV. iv.
+
+Morocco, Prince of. Merch. II. i.
+
+Mortimer, Edmund, Earl of March. 1H4. III. i.
+
+Mortimer, Edmund, Earl of March. 1H6. II. v.
+
+Mortimer, Lady. 1H4. III. i.
+
+Mortimer, Sir Hugh.* 3H6. I. ii.
+
+Mortimer, Sir John. 3H6. I. ii.
+
+Morton. 2H4. I. i.
+
+Morton, John, Bishop of Ely. R3. III. iv.
+
+Moth. LLL. I. ii.
+
+Moth. MND. III. i.
+
+Mother to Posthumus, a ghost. Cym. V. iv.
+
+Mouldy. 2H4. III. ii.
+
+Mowbray, Lord. 2H4. I. iii.
+
+Mowbray, Thomas, Duke of Norfolk. R2. I. i.
+
+Murderers:
+  2H6. III. ii;
+  Mcb. III. i;
+  R3. I. iii.
+
+Musicians:
+  Merch. V. i;
+  Oth. III. i;
+  R&J. IV. v;
+  TGV. IV. ii.
+
+Mustardseed. MND. III. i.
+
+Mutius. TA. I. i.
+
+
+Nathaniel, Sir. LLL. IV. ii.
+
+Neighbors. 2H6. II. iii.
+
+Nerissa. Merch. I. ii.
+
+Nestor. T&C. I. iii.
+
+Noble, a. Cor. III. ii.
+
+Nobleman, a. 3H6. III. ii.
+
+Norfolk, Duke of.
+  3H6. I. i;
+  R3. V. iii.
+
+Norfolk, Duke of, Thomas Mowbray. R2. I. i.
+
+Norfolk, Duke of. H8. I. i.
+
+Northumberland. _See_ Percy.
+
+Northumberland, Earl of. 3H6. I. i.
+
+Northumberland, Lady. 2H4. II. iii.
+
+Nurse. R&J. I. 3.
+
+Nurse. TA. IV. ii.
+
+Nym.
+  H5. II. i;
+  MWW. I. i.
+
+
+Oberon. MND. II. i.
+
+Octavia. A&C. III. ii.
+
+Octavius Cæsar (Augustus).
+  JC. IV. i;
+  A&C. I. iv.
+
+Officers:
+  CofE. IV. i;
+  Cor. II. ii;
+  Oth. I. iii;
+  R&J. I. i;
+  TwN. III. iv;
+  WT. III. ii.
+
+Old Athenian. Tim. I. i.
+
+Old Lady. H8. II. iii.
+
+Old Man.
+  Lear IV. i;
+  Mcb. II. iv.
+
+Oliver. AYLI. I. i.
+
+Oliver Martext, Sir. AYLI. III. iii.
+
+Olivia. TwN. I. v.
+
+Ophelia. Hml. I. iii.
+
+Orlando. AYLI. I. i.
+
+Orleans, bastard of. 1H6. I. ii.
+
+Orleans, Duke of. H5. III. vii.
+
+Orsino, Duke of Illyria. TwN. I. i.
+
+Osric. Hml. V. ii.
+
+Ostler. 1H4. II. i.
+
+Oswald. Lear I. iii.
+
+Othello. Oth. I. ii.
+
+Outlaws. TGV. IV. i.
+
+Overdone, Mrs. Meas. I. ii.
+
+Oxford, Earl of. 3H6. III. iii.
+
+Oxford, Earl of. R3. V. ii.
+
+
+Page. MWW. I. i.
+
+Page, Mistress. MWW. II. i.
+
+Page, Mistress Anne, a daughter. MWW. I. i.
+
+Page, William, a son. MWW. IV. i.
+
+Pages:
+  AWEW. I. i;
+  AYLI. V. iii;
+  2H4. I. ii;
+  H8. V. i;
+  R3. IV. ii;
+  R&J. V. ii;
+  Tim. II. ii.
+  _See_ Boys.
+
+Painter. Tim. I. i.
+
+Pandar. Per. IV. ii.
+
+Pandarus. T&C. I. i.
+
+Pandulph, Cardinal. John III. i.
+
+Panthino. TGV. I. iii.
+
+Paris. R&J. I. ii.
+
+Paris. T&C. II. ii.
+
+Parolles. AWEW. I. i.
+
+Patience. H8. IV. ii.
+
+Patrician. Cor. III. i.
+
+Patroclus. T&C. II. i.
+
+Paulina. WT. II. ii.
+
+Peaseblossom. MND. III. i.
+
+Pedant. TofS. IV. ii.
+
+Pedro, Don. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Pembroke, Earl of. 3H6. IV. i.
+
+Pembroke, Earl of. John IV. ii.
+
+Percy, Henry, Earl of Northumberland.
+  1H4. I. iii;
+  2H4. I. i;
+  R2. III. i.
+
+Percy, Henry (Hotspur).
+  1H4. I. iii;
+  R2. II. iii.
+
+Percy, Lady (wife of Hotspur).
+  1H4. II. iii;
+  2H4. II. iii.
+
+Percy, Thomas, Earl of Worcester. 1H4. I. iii.
+
+Perdita. WT. IV. iv.
+
+Pericles. Per. I. i.
+
+Peter. 2H6. I. iii.
+
+Peter. R&J. II. iv.
+
+Peter of Pomfret. John IV. ii.
+
+Petitioners. 2H6. I. iii.
+
+Peto.
+  1H4. II. ii;
+  2H4. II. iv.
+
+Petruchio. TofS. I. i.
+
+Phebe. AYLI. III. v.
+
+Philario. Cym. I. iv.
+
+Philemon. Per. III. ii.
+
+Philip, King of France. John II. i.
+
+Philo. A&C. I. i.
+
+Philostrate. MND. V. i.
+
+Philotus. Tim. III. iv.
+
+Phrynia. Tim. IV. iii.
+
+Physicians:
+  Cym. I. v;
+  Lear IV. iv;
+  Mcb. IV. iii.
+
+Pierce, Sir, of Exton. R2. V. iv.
+
+Pinch. CofE. IV. iv.
+
+Pindarus. JC. IV. ii.
+
+Pirates. Per. IV. i.
+
+Pisanio. Cym. I. i.
+
+Pistol.
+  2H4. II. iv;
+  H5. II. i;
+  MWW. I. i.
+
+Plantagenet. _See_ Richard.
+
+Player King. Hml. III. ii.
+
+Player Queen. Hml. III. ii.
+
+Players.
+  Hml. II. ii;
+  TofS. Ind.
+
+Plebeians.
+  JC. III. ii.
+  _See_ Citizens.
+
+Poet. Tim. I. i.
+
+Poet. JC. IV. iii.
+
+Poins.
+  1H4. I. ii;
+  2H4. II. ii.
+
+Polixenes. WT. I. ii.
+
+Polonius. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Pompeius, Sextus. A&C. II. i.
+
+Pompey. Meas. I. ii.
+
+Popilius. JC. III. i.
+
+Porters:
+  2H4. I. i;
+  1H6. II. iii;
+  H8. V. iv;
+  Mcb. II. iii.
+
+Porter's Man. H8. V. iv.
+
+Portia. JC. II. i.
+
+Portia. Merch. I. ii.
+
+Post.
+  2H6. III. i;
+  3H6. III. iii.
+
+Posthumus Leonatus. Cym. I. i.
+
+Prentices. 2H6. II. iii.
+
+Priam, King of Troy. T&C. II. ii.
+
+Priests:
+  Hml. V. i;
+  R3. III. ii;
+  TwN. V. i.
+
+Princess of France. LLL. II. i.
+
+Proculeius. A&C. V. i.
+
+Prologue.
+  R&J;
+  H5;
+  MND;
+  Hml. III, ii;
+  H8;
+  T&C.
+
+Prospero. Tmp. I. ii.
+
+Proteus. TGV. I. i.
+
+Provost. Meas. I. ii.
+
+Publius. JC. II. ii.
+
+Publius. TA. IV. iii.
+
+Puck, Robin Goodfellow. MND. II. i.
+
+Pursuivant. R3. III. ii.
+
+Pyramus. MND. V. i.
+
+
+Queen, wife of Cymbeline. Cym. I. i.
+
+Queen, wife of Richard II. R2. II. i.
+
+Quickly, Mrs.
+  1H4. II. iv;
+  2H4. II. i;
+  H5. II. i;
+  MWW. I. iv.
+
+Quince. MND. I. ii.
+
+Quintus. TA. I. i.
+
+
+Rambures. H5. III. vii.
+
+Ratcliff, Sir Richard. R3. III. iii.
+
+Regan. Lear I. i.
+
+Reignier, Duke of Anjou. 1H6. I. ii.
+
+Reynaldo. Hml. II. i.
+
+Richard II, King. R2. I. i.
+
+Richard II, Queen to. R2. II. i.
+
+Richard III, King (at first Gloucester).
+  3H6. I. i;
+  R3. I. i.
+
+Richard, Duke of York, son of Edward IV. R3. II. iv.
+
+Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York.
+  1H6. II. iv;
+  2H6. I. i;
+  3H6. I. i.
+
+Richard Plantagenet, son of preceding.
+  2H6*;
+  3H6. I. i.
+
+Richmond, Earl of, later Henry VII.
+  3H6*;
+  R3. V. iii.
+
+Rivers, Lord.
+  3H6. IV. iv;
+  R3. I. iii.
+
+Robin. MWW. I. iii.
+
+Robin Goodfellow. MND. II. i.
+
+Roderigo. Oth. I. i.
+
+Roman, a.
+  Cor. IV. iii.
+  _See_ Citizens.
+
+Romeo. R&J. I. i.
+
+Rosalind. AYLI. I. ii.
+
+Rosaline. LLL. II. i.
+
+Rosencrantz. Hml. II. ii.
+
+Ross. Mcb. I. ii.
+
+Ross, Lord. R2. II. i.
+
+Rotherham, Thomas. Archbishop of York. R3. II. iv.
+
+Rousillon, Count. _See_ Bertram.
+
+Rousillon, Countess. AWEW. I. i.
+
+Rugby, John. MWW. I. iv.
+
+Rumour. 2H4. Ind.
+
+Rutland, Edmund, Earl of. 3H6. I. iii.
+
+
+Sailors:
+  Hml. IV. vi;
+  Oth. I. iii;
+  Per. III. i.
+
+Salanio. Merch. I. i.
+
+Salarino. Merch. I. i.
+
+Salerio. Merch. III. ii.
+
+Salisbury, Earl of.
+  H5. IV. iii;
+  1H6. I. iv.
+
+Salisbury, Earl of. 2H6. I. i.
+
+Salisbury, Earl of. John III. i.
+
+Salisbury, Earl of. R2. II. iv.
+
+Sampson. R&J. I. i.
+
+Sandys, William (Lord). H8. I. iii.
+
+Saturninus. TA. I. i.
+
+Say, Lord. 2H6. IV. iv.
+
+Scales, Lord. 2H6. IV. v.
+
+Scarus. A&C. III. x.
+
+Scout. 1H6. V. ii.
+
+Scribe. H8. II. iv.
+
+Scrivener. R3. III. vi.
+
+Scroop, Lord. H5. II. ii.
+
+Scroop, Richard, Archbishop of York.
+  1H4. IV. iv;
+  2H4. I. iii.
+
+Scroop, Sir Stephen. R2. III. ii.
+
+Sea-Captain (Lieut.).
+  2H6. IV. i;
+  TwN. I. ii.
+
+Sebastian. Tmp. I. i.
+
+Sebastian. TwN. II. i.
+
+Secretary. H8. I i.
+
+Seleucus. A&C. V. ii.
+
+Sempronius. TA.*
+
+Sempronius. Tim. III. iii.
+
+Senators,
+  Roman.
+    Cor. I. i;
+    Cym. III. vii;
+  Venetian. Oth. I. iii;
+  Athenian. Tim. II. i;
+  Coriolanian. Cor. I. ii.
+
+Sentinels. 1H6. II. i.
+
+Sentry. A&C. IV. ix.
+
+Sergeant. 1H6. II. i;
+  (at arms) H8. I. i.
+
+Servants:
+  A&C. II. vii;
+  Hml. IV. vi;
+  1H4. II. iii;
+  2H4. I. ii;
+  H8. I. iv;
+  JC. II. ii;
+  Lear III. vii;
+  Mcb. III. i;
+  Meas. II. ii;
+  Merch. III. i;
+  Per. III. ii;
+  R2. II. ii;
+  TofS. IV. i;
+  Tim. I. ii;
+  T&C. III. i;
+  TwN. III. iv;
+  WT. II. iii.
+
+Servilius. Tim. III. ii.
+
+Servingmen:
+  Cor. IV. v;
+  1H6. I. iii;
+  2H6. II. iv;
+  Merch. I. ii;
+  TofS. Ind.
+
+Seyton. Mcb. V. iii.
+
+Sexton. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Sextus Pompeius. A&C. II. i.
+
+Shadow. 2H4. III. ii.
+
+Shallow, Justice.
+  2H4. III. ii;
+  MWW. I. i.
+
+Shepherd. 1H6. V. iv.
+
+Shepherd, Old. WT. III. iii.
+
+Sheriff.
+  1H4. II. iv;
+  2H6. II. iv;
+  R3. V. i.
+
+Shrewsbury, Talbot, Earl of. 1H6. I. iv.
+
+Shylock. Merch. I. iii.
+
+Sicilius Leonatus, a ghost. Cym. V. iv.
+
+Sicinius Velutus. Cor. I. i.
+
+Silence. 2H4. III. ii.
+
+Silius. A&C. III. i.
+
+Silvia. TGV. II. i.
+
+Silvius. AYLI. II. iv.
+
+Simonides, King of Pentapolis. Per. II. ii.
+
+Simpcox. 2H6. II. i.
+
+Simpcox's wife. 2H6. II. i.
+
+Simple, Peter. MWW. I. i.
+
+Siward. Mcb. V. iv.
+
+Siward, young. Mcb. V. vii.
+
+Slender, Abraham. MWW. I. i.
+
+Sly, Christopher. TofS. Ind.
+
+Smith. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Snare. 2H4. II. i.
+
+Snout. MND. I. ii.
+
+Snug. MND. I. ii.
+
+Soldiers:
+  A&C. III. vii;
+  AWEW. IV. i;
+  Cor. I. iv;
+  H5. IV. iv;
+  1H6. II. i;
+  2H6. IV. vi;
+  3H6. IV. viii;
+  JC. IV. ii;
+  Mcb. V. iv;
+  Tim. V. iv;
+  T&C. V. ix.
+
+Solinus, Duke of Ephesus. CofE. I. i.
+
+Somerset, Duke of.
+  1H6. II. iv;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Somerset, Duke of. 3H6. IV. i.
+
+Somerville, Sir John. 3H6. V. i.
+
+Son that hath killed his father. 3H6. II. v.
+
+Soothsayers.
+  A&C. I. ii;
+  Cym. IV. ii;
+  JC. I. ii.
+
+Southwell, John. 2H6. I. iv.
+
+Speed. TGV. I. i.
+
+Spirits. 2H6. I. iv.
+
+Spring (Ver). LLL. V. ii.
+
+Stafford, Lord. 3H6.*
+
+Stafford, Sir Humphrey. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Stafford, William. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Stanley, Lord, Earl of Derby. R3. I. iii.
+
+Stanley, Sir John. 2H6. II. iv.
+
+Stanley, Sir William. 3H6. IV. v.*
+
+Starveling. MND. I. ii.
+
+Stephano. Merch.*
+
+Stephano. Tmp. II. ii.
+
+Steward. AWEW. I. iii.
+
+Strangers. Tim. III. ii.
+
+Strato. JC. V. v.
+
+Suffolk, Earl and Duke of.
+  1H6. II. iv;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Suffolk, Duke of. H8. II. ii.
+
+Surrey, Earl of. 2H4.*
+
+Surrey, Earl of. R2. IV. i.
+
+Surrey, Earl of. R3. V. iii.
+
+Surrey, Lord. H8. III. ii.
+
+Surveyor. H8. I. ii.
+
+
+Tailor. TofS. IV. ii.
+
+Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury. 1H6. I. iv.
+
+Talbot, John. 1H6. I. iv.
+
+Tamora, Queen of Goths. TA. I. i.
+
+Taurus. A&C. III. viii.
+
+Thaisa. Per. II. ii.
+
+Thaliard. Per. I. i.
+
+Thersites. T&C. II. i.
+
+Theseus. MND. I. i.
+
+Thieves. 1H4. II. ii.
+
+Thisbe. MND. V. i.
+
+Thomas, Friar. Meas. I. iii.
+
+Thurio. TGV. II. iv.
+
+Thyreus (Thidias). A&C. III. xii.
+
+Timandra. Tim. IV. iii.
+
+Time (chorus). WT. IV. i.
+
+Timon. Tim. I. i.
+
+Titania. MND. II. i.
+
+Titinius. JC. IV. iii.
+
+Titus. Tim. III. iv.
+
+Titus Andronicus. TA. I. i.
+
+Titus Lartius. Cor. I. i.
+
+Touchstone. AYLI. I. ii.
+
+Townsmen of St. Albans. 2H6. II. i.
+
+Tranio. TofS. I. i.
+
+Travellers. 1H4. II. ii.
+
+Travers. 2H4. I. i.
+
+Trebonius. JC. II. i.
+
+Tressel. R3. I. iii.*
+
+Tribunes, Roman:
+  Cym. III. vii;
+  TA. I. i.
+
+Trinculo. Tmp. II. ii.
+
+Troilus. T&C. I. i.
+
+Tubal. Merch. III. i.
+
+Tullus Aufidius. Cor. I. ii.
+
+Tutor. 3H6. I. iii.
+
+Tybalt. R&J. I. i.
+
+Tyrrel, Sir James. R3. IV. ii.
+
+
+Ulysses. T&C. I. iii.
+
+Ursula. MAdo. II. i.
+
+Urswick, Christopher. R3. IV. v.
+
+
+Valentine. TwN. I. iv.
+
+Valentine. TGV. I. i.
+
+Valentine. TA.*
+
+Valeria. Cor. I. iii.
+
+Varrius. A&C. II. i.
+
+Varro, servant. Tim. II. ii.
+
+Varro. JC. IV. iii.
+
+Vaughan, Sir Thomas. R3. III. iii.
+
+Vaux. 2H6. III. ii.
+
+Vaux, Sir Nicholas. H8. II. i.
+
+Venice, Duke of. Merch. IV. i.
+
+Venice, Duke of. Oth. I. iii.
+
+Ventidius. A&C. III. i.
+
+Ventidius. Tim. I. ii.
+
+Verges. MAdo. III. iii.
+
+Vernon. 1H6. II. iv.
+
+Vernon, Sir Richard. 1H4. IV. i.
+
+Vincentio. TofS. IV. v.
+
+Vincentio, Duke. Meas. I. i.
+
+Vintner. 1H4. II. iv.
+
+Viola. TwN. I. ii.
+
+Violenta. AWEW. III. v.
+
+Virgilia. Cor. I. iii.
+
+Volsce, a. Cor. IV. iii.
+
+Voltimand. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Volumnia. Cor. I. iii.
+
+Volumnius. JC. V. v.
+
+
+Wall, MND. V. i.
+
+Warders. 1H6. I. iii.
+
+Wart. 2H4. III. ii.
+
+Warwick (Beauchamp), Earl of.
+  2H4. III. i;
+  H5. IV. viii;
+  1H6. II. iv.
+
+Warwick (Nevil), Earl of.
+  2H6. I. i;
+  3H6. I. i.
+
+Watchmen:
+  Cor. V. ii;
+  3H6. IV. iii;
+  MAdo. III. iii;
+  R&J. V. iii.
+
+Westminster, Abbot of. R2. IV. i.
+
+Westmoreland, Earl of.
+  1H4. I. i;
+  2H4. IV. i;
+  H5. I. ii.
+
+Westmoreland, Earl of. 3H6. I. i.
+
+Whitmore, Walter. 2H6. IV. i.
+
+Widow. TofS. V. ii.
+
+Widow, of Florence. AWEW. III. v.
+
+William. AYLI. V. i.
+
+Williams. H5. IV. i.
+
+Willoughby, Lord. R2. II. i.
+
+Winchester, Bishop of.
+  1H6. I. i;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Winchester (Gardiner), Bishop of. H8. V. i.
+
+Witches. Mcb. I. i.
+
+Wolsey, Cardinal. H8. I. i.
+
+Woodville. 1H6. I. iii.
+
+Worcester, Earl of. 1H4. I. iii.
+
+
+York, Archbishop of. _See_ Rotherham and Scroop.
+
+York, Duchess of. R2. V. ii.
+
+York, Duchess of. R3. II. ii.
+
+York, Duke of. H5. IV. iii.
+
+York, Duke of. _See_ Richard.
+
+York, Duke of. _See_ Richard, son of Edward IV.
+
+York, Edmund Langley, Duke of. R2. II. i.
+
+Young Marcius. Cor. V. iii.
+
+
+
+
+Appendix C
+
+INDEX OF THE SONGS IN SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS
+
+
+[Page Heading: Index of Songs]
+
+The first lines are given. In a few cases it is doubtful whether the
+verses were sung or spoken.
+
+
+A cup of wine that's brisk and fine, 2H4. V. iii.
+
+And let me the canakin clink, clink; Oth. II. iii.
+
+And will he not come again? Hml. IV. v.
+
+An old hare hoar, R&J. II. iv.
+
+
+Be merry, be merry, my wife has all; 2H4. V. iii.
+
+Blow, blow, thou winter wind. AYLI. II. vii.
+
+By gis, and by Saint Charity, Hml. IV. v.
+
+
+Come away, come away, Mcb. III. v.
+
+Come away, come away, death, TN. II. iv.
+
+Come, thou monarch of the vine, A&C. II. vii.
+
+Come unto these yellow sands, Tmp. I. ii.
+
+
+Do me right, 2H4. V. iii.
+
+Do nothing but eat, and make good cheer, 2H4. V. iii.
+
+
+Farewell, master; farewell, farewell! Tmp. II. iii.
+
+Fear no more the heat o' the sun, Cym. IV. ii.
+
+Fie on sinful fantasy! MWW. V. v.
+
+Fill the cup, and let it come; 2H4. V. iii.
+
+Flout 'em and scout 'em. Tmp. III. ii.
+
+Fools had ne'er less grace in a year; Lear I. iv.
+
+For bonny sweet Robin is all my joy. Hml. IV. v.
+
+Full fathom five thy father lies; Tmp. I. ii.
+
+
+Get you hence, for I must go. WT. IV. iv.
+
+
+Hark, hark! the lark at heaven's gate sings, Cym. II. iii.
+
+He that has and a little tiny wit,-- Lear. III. ii.
+
+Honour, riches, marriage-blessing, Tmp. IV. i.
+
+How should I your true love know. Hml. IV. v.
+
+
+I am gone, sir, TN. IV. ii.
+
+If it do come to pass, AYLI. II. vi.
+
+In youth, when I did love, did love, Hml. V. i.
+
+I shall no more to sea, to sea, Tmp. II. ii.
+
+It was a lover and his lass, AYLI. V. iii.
+
+
+Jog, jog on, the foot-path way, WT. IV. iii.
+
+
+King Stephen was and a worthy peer, Oth. II. iii.
+
+
+Lawn as white as driven snow; WT. IV. iv.
+
+Love, love, nothing but love, still more! T&C. III. i.
+
+
+No more dams I'll make for fish; Tmp, II. ii.
+
+No more, thou thunder-master, show. Cym. V. iv.
+
+
+Oh mistress mine, where are you roaming? TN. II. iii.
+
+On the ground, MND. IV. i.
+
+Orpheus with his lute made trees. (Fletcher?) H8. III. i.
+
+Over hill, over dale, MND. II. i.
+
+
+Pardon, goddess of the night, MAdo. V. iv.
+
+
+Round about the cauldron go; Mcb. IV. i.
+
+
+Sigh no more, ladies, sigh no more, MAdo. II. iii.
+
+
+Take, O, take those lips away, Meas. IV. i.
+
+Tell me where is fancy bred, Merch. III. ii.
+
+The god of love, MAdo. V. ii.
+
+The master, the swabber, the boatswain, and I, Tmp. II. ii.
+
+The ousel cock so black of hue, MND. III. ii.
+
+The poor soul sat sighing by a sycamore tree, Oth. IV. iii.
+
+They bore him barefac'd on the bier; Hml. IV. v.
+
+To-morrow is Saint Valentine's day, Hml. IV. v.
+
+To shallow rivers, to whose falls. MWW. III. i.
+
+
+Under the greenwood tree, AYLI. II. vi.
+
+
+Was this fair face the cause, quoth she, AWEW. I. iii.
+
+Wedding is great Juno's crown. AYLI. V. iv.
+
+What shall he have that killed the deer? AYLI. IV. ii.
+
+When daffodils begin to peer, WT. IV. i.
+
+When daisies pied and violets blue. LLL. V. ii.
+
+When that I was and a little tiny boy, TN. V. i.
+
+Where the bee sucks, there suck I. Tmp. V. i.
+
+While you here do snoring lie, Tmp. II. i.
+
+Who doth ambition shun, AYLI. II. vi.
+
+Who is Silvia? What is she, TGV. IV. iii.
+
+Will you buy any tape, WT. IV. iv.
+
+
+You spotted snakes with double tongue, MND. II. ii.
+
+
+
+
+Appendix D
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+[Page Heading: Bibliography]
+
+This Bibliography is arranged in divisions corresponding to the chapters
+of this volume. It aims to include those books most important for the
+student, and to furnish guidance for those interested in more
+specialized fields of study.
+
+The following are the chief general bibliographies:
+
+Shakespeare Bibliography, by William Jaggard, Stratford-on-Avon, 1911.
+This is the most important and useful attempt that has yet been made
+toward a complete bibliography of works in the English language; but it
+is far from being exhaustive or accurate.
+
+Catalogue of the Barton Collection of the Boston Public Library, part i,
+Shakespeare's Works and Shakesperiana, 1878-1888. Probably the best
+bibliography up to the date of its publication.
+
+Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakespeare-Gesellschaft. Weimar, 1865-. The
+bibliographies, with indexes, issued in this annual provide the best
+bibliography of all recent Shakespearean literature in all languages.
+They include references to periodicals and to book reviews.
+
+The Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. v, chaps. viii-xii.
+Cambridge, 1910. The best recent short selected bibliography.
+
+Other useful bibliographical aids are: the article on Shakespeare
+Encycl. Brit., Eleventh ed., 1911; the British Museum Catalogue of
+Printed Books, 1897; the Catalogue of the Lenox Library, New York, 1880;
+and the Index to the Shakespeare Memorial Library, Birmingham, 1900.
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+SHAKESPEARE'S ENGLAND AND LONDON
+
+See bibliographies in the Cambridge Modern History, vol. iii, chap. x,
+and the Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. v, chap. xiv. The
+two most accessible and important works on the subject are: William
+Harrison's _Description of Britaine and England_, in Holinshed's
+Chronicle, 1577, reprinted in the Shaks. Soc. Publ. 1877-1888, in the
+Scott Library, 1899, and in Everyman's Library; and John Stow's _Survey
+of London_, 1st ed., 1598, reprinted in Everyman's Library. J. D.
+Wilson's _Life in Shakespeare's England_ (Cambridge, 1911) is an
+excellent anthology drawn from Elizabethan publications.
+
+The following list includes only more important and more recent books.
+
+Aiken, L. Memoirs of the Court of James I. 2d ed., 1822.
+
+Ashton, J. Humour, Wit, and Society in the Seventeenth Century. 1883.
+
+Besant, Sir W. London. 1892.
+
+---- London in the Times of the Tudors. 1908.
+
+Creighton, M. The Age of Elizabeth. 1892.
+
+Creizenach, W. Geschichte des neueren Dramas, Halle, 1893. See vol. iv,
+part i, book iii, Religios-sittliche und politisch-soziale Anschauungen
+der Theaterdichter.
+
+Douce, F. Illustrations of Shakespeare and of Ancient Manners. 1839.
+
+An English Garner. New ed., 1903. See vols.: Social England Illustrated;
+Tudor Tracts, 1532-1582; Stuart Tracts, 1603-1693.
+
+Froude, J. A. History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat
+of the Armada. 1856-1870. Reprinted in Everyman's Library.
+
+Gildersleeve, V. Government Regulation of the Elizabethan Drama. New
+York, 1908.
+
+Hall, H. Society in the Elizabethan Age. 4th ed., 1901.
+
+Jusserand, J. J. Histoire litteraire du peuple Anglais. Paris, 1904.
+English trans., 1909. See especially vol. ii, book v, chap. i.
+
+Lee, S. Stratford-on-Avon from the Earliest Times to the Death of
+Shakespeare. 1907.
+
+---- An Account of Shakespeare's England, a survey of social life and
+conditions in the Elizabethan age (in preparation).
+
+Nicholls, J. The Progresses and Processions of Queen Elizabeth. New ed.,
+3 vols., 1823.
+
+---- The Progresses, Processions, and Festivities of King James I. 4
+vols., 1828.
+
+Stephenson, H. T. Shakespeare's London. New York, 1905.
+
+---- The Elizabethan People. New York, 1910.
+
+Strutt, J. Sports and Pastimes of the People of England. 1801. New ed.,
+1903.
+
+Thompson, E. N. S. The Controversy between the Puritans and the Stage.
+Yale Studies in English, vol. xx. New York, 1903.
+
+Traill, H. D. Social England. 3d ed., 1904. See vols. iii and iv.
+
+Wakeman, H. O. The Church and the Puritans, 1570-1660. New ed., 1902.
+
+Wheatley, H. B. London Past and Present. 3 vols. 1891.
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+BIOGRAPHICAL FACTS AND TRADITIONS
+
+Halliwell-Phillipps, J. O. Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare. 2 vols.
+7th ed., 1887. Later eds. are reprints. With illustrations, facsimiles,
+and a full collection of documents.
+
+Lambert, D. H. Shakespeare Documents. (Published originally as Cartæ
+Shakespeareanæ, 1904.) A chronological catalogue of extant evidence.
+
+Lee, Sidney. A Life of William Shakespeare, London and New York, 1898.
+New and revised ed., 1909.
+
+---- Shakespeare in Oral Tradition, Chap. III in Shakespeare and the
+Modern Stage, 1906.
+
+The preceding are the most important books, but the following are useful
+in various ways: William Shakespeare. K. Elze. Halle, 1876. Eng. trans,
+by L. D. Schmitz, 1888. A Chronicle History of the Life and Works of
+Shakspere. F. G. Fleay. London, 1886. Shakespeare's Marriage. J. W.
+Gray. 1905. Shakespeare's Family. C. C. Stopes. 1901. Shakespeare's
+Warwickshire Contemporaries. C. C. Stopes. 1907. New Shakespeare
+Discoveries. C. W. Wallace. Harper's Magazine, March, 1910. Catalogues
+of the books, manuscripts, works of art, antiquities, and relics at
+present exhibited in Shakespeare's birthplace, Stratford-on-Avon, 1910.
+For discussion of portraits of Shakespeare, see Portraits of
+Shakespeare, J. P. Norris, Philadelphia, 1885; M. R. Spielmann in
+Stratford-Town Shakespeare, vol. x; and in Encycl. Brit., 11th ed.,
+article on Shakespeare. On a Portrait of Shakespeare in the Shakespeare
+Memorial at Stratford-on-Avon, L. Cust, Proc. Soc. Antiq., 1895.
+
+See also Sources of Traditional Material, Appendix A, p. 225.
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+SHAKESPEARE'S READING
+
+Shakespeare's Books: A dissertation on Shakespeare's reading and the
+immediate sources of his works. By H. R. D. Anders. Berlin, 1904. The
+best book on the subject.
+
+Shakespeare's Studies, T. S. Baynes, 1893.
+
+Shakespeare's Holinshed. Ed. W. G. Boswell-Stone. 1896. New ed., 1907. A
+reprint of the passages in Holinshed's Chronicles which Shakespeare
+used.
+
+Shakespeare's Plutarch. Ed. W. W. Skeat. 1875.
+
+The English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare. J. J. Jusserand, trans. E.
+Lee. 1890.
+
+The Shakespeare Classics, gen. ed. L. Gollancz (in progress, 1907-),
+reprints the chief sources of the plays: Lodge's Rosalynde, Greene's
+Pandosto, Brooke's Romeo and Juliet, the Chronicle History of King Leir,
+The Taming of a Shrew, The Sources and Analogues of A Mid-summer-Night's
+Dream, Shakespeare's Plutarch. Most of these, with other valuable
+material, are found also in W. C. Hazlitt's revision of Collier's
+Shakespeare Library. 6 vols. 1875 (out of print).
+
+Many translations which Shakespeare may have known are included in the
+long series of the Tudor Translations, ed. W. E. Henley and Charles
+Whibley (mostly out of print).
+
+For drama see Bibliography, chap. vi; for contemporary literature see
+bibliography in Cambridge History of English Literature; or any short
+manual, as Saintsbury's Elizabethan Literature, or Seccombe and Allen's
+Age of Shakespeare. 2 vols.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CHRONOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT
+
+The first thorough attempt to determine the chronology of Shakespeare's
+plays was made in Malone's "Attempt to ascertain the order in which the
+plays attributed to Shakespeare were written," published in Steevens's
+edition of 1778. His final conclusions on the subject are to be found in
+the preliminary volumes of the 1821 Variorum. Since then, discussions of
+chronology and development have appeared in almost every edition of
+Shakespeare's Works and in many volumes discussing his life and art.
+(See Bibliography for Chaps. II and VIII.) The following are the most
+important contributions to the general question of the chronology.
+
+Hertzberg, W. G. Preface to Cymbeline in Ulrici's ed. of Schlegel and
+Tieck's trans. of Shakespeare, 1871.
+
+---- Metrisches, grammatisches, chronologisches zu Shakespeares Dramen.
+Jahrbuch, xiii, 1878.
+
+Fleay, F. G. Shakspere Manual, 1878.
+
+New Shakspere Society. Publications for 1874 contain Fleay's tests as
+originally proposed with discussions by Furnivall, Ingram, et al.
+Publications for 1877-9 contain F. S. Pulling's essay on The
+Speech-ending test, p. 457.
+
+Ingram, J. K. On the weak endings of Shakspere with some account of the
+verse-tests in general. N. S. S. Publ. 1874.
+
+König, G. Der Vers in Shaksperes Dramen. Quellen und Forschungen vol.
+61, 1888. The fullest presentation of numerical results for various
+verse tests.
+
+Furnivall, F. J. Preface to the Leopold Shakespeare, 1876.
+
+Hales, J. W. The Succession of Shakespeare's plays. 1874.
+
+Stokes, H. P. Attempt to determine the chronological order of
+Shakespeare's plays, 1878.
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE ELIZABETHAN DRAMA
+
+Full bibliographies of both plays and critical works are to be found in
+Schelling's Elizabethan Drama and in the Cambridge History of English
+Literature, vols. v and vi.
+
+
+1. EDITIONS OF PLAYS
+
+Convenient collections, often with valuable introductions and notes,
+are: Dodsley's Old English Plays, ed. W. C. Hazlitt, 15 vols.,
+1874-1876; Manly's Pre-Shaksperean Drama, 2 vols., Boston; Neilson's
+Chief Elizabethan Dramatists, Boston, 1911 (30 plays in one volume); the
+Mermaid Series of the Old Dramatists (4 or 5 plays by one author in each
+vol.); the Belles Lettres Edition (with excellent bibliographies),
+Boston; Masterpieces of the English Drama, New York; Temple Dramatists.
+Valuable reprints of old plays and documents are found in the following
+series now in progress: The Tudor Facsimile Texts, ed. J. S. Farmer, 43
+vols., 1907; Materialien zur Kunde des älteren englischen Dramas, ed. W.
+Bang, Louvain, 1902; Publications of the Malone Society, 1906.
+
+Collected editions of the chief dramatists include those of Greene,
+Peele, Webster, Ford, Beaumont and Fletcher, and Shirley, ed. by
+Alexander Dyce; of Middleton, Marston, Marlowe, and Webster, by A. H.
+Bullen, and the more recent editions from the Clarendon Press,--Greene,
+ed. J. Churton Collins; Kyd, by F. S. Boas; Lyly, by W. Bond; Nash, by
+McKerrow; Marlowe, by Tucker Brooke. Massinger and Jonson exist only in
+the early nineteenth-century editions of Gifford. There are also recent
+editions of Beaumont and Fletcher by A. R. Waller, Cambridge, and by A.
+H. Bullen _et al._ (in progress), and an edition of Chapman by T.
+Parrott.
+
+
+2. CRITICAL AND HISTORICAL
+
+Die Geschichte des neueren Dramas. W. Creizenach (in progress). Halle,
+1893-. This is the standard history of the modern drama, vol. iv dealing
+in a masterly fashion with the Shakespearean period. There is no English
+translation.
+
+History of English Dramatic Literature to the Death of Queen Anne. A. W.
+Ward. 2d ed. 3 vols. 1899.
+
+Elizabethan Drama. F. E. Schelling. 2 vols. Boston, 1902. This contains
+valuable bibliographies and a finding list for the plays.
+
+The Mediæval Stage. E. K. Chambers. 2 vols. Oxford, 1903. Authoritative
+for the pre-Elizabethan drama, with valuable bibliography and
+appendices.
+
+A Bibliographical Chronicle of the English Drama. F. G. Fleay.
+1559-1642. A work of great value to scholars, but not of much service to
+the general reader.
+
+Other works less comprehensive in scope, but dealing with special
+aspects or divisions of the drama, are: Tragedy, A. H. Thorndike,
+Boston, 1908; Shakespeare and his Predecessors, F. S. Boas, 1896; Tudor
+Drama, C. F. Tucker Brooke, Boston, 1912.
+
+Special treatises which have also been drawn upon for this chapter are:
+F. E. Schelling's English Chronicle Play, New York, 1902; A. H.
+Thorndike's Influence of Beaumont and Fletcher on Shakspere, Lemcke and
+Buechner, N. Y., 1901; and Hamlet and the Revenge Plays, Publ. Mod.
+Lang. Assn., 1902; E. E. Stoll's John Webster, 1905; F. H. Ristine's
+English Tragi-Comedy, 1910; Reyher's Les Masques Anglais, Paris, 1909;
+W. W. Greg's Pastoral Poetry and Pastoral Drama, 1906.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE ELIZABETHAN THEATER
+
+None of the books here listed gives a comprehensive account of the
+theater. Greg's admirable edition of Henslowe's Diary, Fleay's
+researches, and Murray's supplements to them are all valuable for
+students. The account of the stage and the method of performance given
+in this chapter are based in part on Albright. During the last ten years
+there has been much controversy on this subject; and those interested
+should consult the bibliographies in the Shakespeare Jahrbuch under
+Albright, Brodmeier, Archer, Chambers, Corbin, Lawrence, Reynolds,
+Wegener. For contemporary documents, see the Bibliography to chap, x,
+vol. vi, of the Cambridge History of English Literature.
+
+Albright, V. E. The Shakespearian Stage. New York, 1909.
+
+Archer, W. The Elizabethan Stage. Quarterly Review, April, 1908.
+
+Brodmeier, C. Die Shakespeare-Bühne nach der alten Bühnenanweisungen.
+Weimar, 1904.
+
+Chambers, E. K. The Stage of the Globe. Stratford Ed. Shakespeare's
+Works, vol. x.
+
+Collier, J. P. Memoirs of the Principal Actors in the Plays of
+Shakespeare. Shaks. Soc., 1846.
+
+Feuillerat, A. Documents relating to the Office of the Revels in the
+time of Queen Elizabeth. Louvain, 1908.
+
+Fleay, F. G. A Chronicle History of the London Stage. 1890.
+
+---- A Biographical Chronicle of the English Drama, 1559-1642. 2 vols.,
+1891.
+
+Gildersleeve, V. Government Regulation of the Elizabethan Theater. New
+York, 1908.
+
+Greg, W. W., ed. Henslowe's Diary, 2 parts. London, 1907-1908.
+
+---- Henslowe Papers. 1907.
+
+Lawrence, W. J. The Elizabethan Playhouse and other studies. Stratford.
+1912.
+
+Mantzius, R. A History of Theatrical Art in Ancient and Modern Times.
+1904. Cf. vol. iii.
+
+Murray, J. T. English Dramatic Companies, 1558-1642. 1910.
+
+Ordish, T. F. Early London Theaters. 1894.
+
+Rendle, W. Old Southwark and its People. 1878.
+
+Reynolds, G. F. Some Principles of Elizabethan Staging. Reprinted from
+Modern Philology. Chicago, 1905.
+
+---- What we know of the Elizabethan Stage, Modern Philology, July,
+1911. With bibliography of recent discussions.
+
+Wallace, C. W. The Children of the Chapel at Blackfriars, 1597-1603.
+Univ. of Nebraska, 1908.
+
+---- Evolution of the English drama up to Shakespeare: with a history of
+the first Blackfriars theatre. Stechert. 1912.
+
+These two volumes contain some newly discovered material, but their
+discussions of theatrical history are not valuable.
+
+Wegener, R. Die Bühneneinrichtung des Shakespeareschen Theaters nach der
+zeitgenössischen Dramen. Halle, 1907.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+HISTORY OF THE TEXT
+
+
+1. COMPLETE EDITIONS
+
+
+_In one volume._
+
+The Globe Edition, ed. W. G. Clark and W. Aldis Wright 1864.
+
+The 'Oxford' Edition, ed. W. J. Craig. Oxford, 1904.
+
+The 'Cambridge Poets' Edition, ed. with introductions to each play, ed.
+W. A. Neilson. Boston, 1906 (the text used in the Tudor Shakespeare).
+
+
+_Annotated Library Editions._
+
+The Cambridge Shakespeare, ed. W. Aldis Wright. 9 vols. 1863-1866. 2d
+ed., 1891-1893. The text known as the Cambridge text is very near to
+that of the Globe ed., and these have been generally used in recent
+editions.
+
+A new Variorum Edition, ed. H. Howard Furness and H. H. Furness, Jr. (in
+progress). Philadelphia, 1871. This ed. prints (latterly) the First
+Folio text with exhaustive variants and annotations. The appendices
+supply much illustrative matter. The following plays have appeared:
+Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth (2d ed.), Hamlet (2 vols.), Lear, Othello,
+Merchant of Venice, As You Like It, The Tempest, A Midsummer-Night's
+Dream, A Winter's Tale, Much Ado About Nothing, Twelfth Night, Love's
+Labour's Lost, Antony and Cleopatra, Richard III, Julius Cæsar.
+
+The Arden Shakespeare, general ed. W. J. Craig, in progress, 1899. Publ.
+in the U. S. without special title by Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis.
+
+The Eversley Edition, ed. by C. H. Herford. 10 vols., 1901-1907.
+
+Among other recent editions are the Rolfe ed., 40 vols., 1871, revised
+1896; Temple, ed. I. Gollancz, 40 vols., 1894, 1895; First Folio, ed. C.
+Porter and H. Clarke (following and defending the text of the First
+Folio). New York, 1903; Caxton, general ed. S. Lee, 1910.
+
+
+_Historical Editions._
+
+The most valuable is the Third Variorum, Boswell and Malone, 21 vols.,
+1821. The other principal editions are discussed in this volume, and
+include: Rowe, 1709, 1714; Pope, 1723-1725; Theobald, 1733; Hanmer,
+1744; Warburton, 1747; Johnson, 1765; Steevens (20 plays), 1766; Capell,
+1768; Steevens (and Johnson), 1773; Malone, 1790; Reed (Steevens and
+Johnson), 1st Variorum, 1803; 2d Variorum, 1813; Knight, 1838-1842,
+second ed., 1842-1844; Hudson, 1851-1856; Delius, 1854-1861; Dyce, 1857,
+second ed., 1864-1867; White, 1857-1860, second ed., 1859-1865.
+
+
+2. FACSIMILE REPRINTS
+
+For a discussion of conditions of publication of early editions, see A.
+W. Pollard's Shakespeare's Folios and Quartos. 1909.
+
+The First Folio, With introd. by Sidney Lee. Oxford, 1902.
+
+The First, Second, Third, and Fourth Folios. Methuen, 1904-1910.
+
+The First Folio, reprint, L. Booth, 1869.
+
+The First Folio, in reduced facsimile, J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, 1876.
+Very small type.
+
+Quarto Facsimiles. E. W. Ashbee. 48 vols. 1862-1871.
+
+Quarto Facsimiles reproduced by photographic process, J. W. Griggs,
+under the superintendence of F. J. Furnivall. 43 vols. 1883-1889.
+
+Shakespeare's Poems and Pericles, with introduction by Sidney Lee. 5
+vols. Oxford, 1905.
+
+
+3. GLOSSARIES, GRAMMARS, ETC.
+
+The standard concordance is Bartlett's _New and Complete Concordance_,
+1894. The standard dictionary and one of the great monuments of
+Shakespeare scholarship is Alexander Schmidt's _Shakespeare-Lexikon_. 2
+vols. Berlin, 1894, 1895. 3d ed., 1902. This contains valuable
+appendices on syntax. The most recent brief glossary is C. T. Onion's
+_Shakespeare Glossary_. Oxford, 1911. It makes partial use of the
+valuable material in the New English Dictionary. The best grammar in
+English, though now somewhat out of date, is F. A. Abbott's
+_Shakespearian Grammar_, 1869, often reprinted.
+
+The following are also of value:
+
+Cunliffe, R. J. A New Shakespearean Dictionary. 1910.
+
+Dyce, A. A Glossary to the Works of Shakespeare. 1867. Revised by H.
+Littledale, 1902.
+
+Ellis, A. J. On Early English Pronunciation, with especial reference to
+Shakspere and Chaucer. 5 parts. E. E. T. S., 1869-1889.
+
+Franz, W. Shakespeare-Grammatik. 2 parts. Halle, 1898-1900. 2d ed.,
+Heidelberg, 1905. No English translation.
+
+Vietor, W. A Shakespeare Phonology, Marburg and London, 1906.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+QUESTIONS OF AUTHENTICITY
+
+
+1. THE DOUBTFUL PLAYS
+
+The Shakespeare Apocrypha. Ed. C. F. T. Brooke. Oxford, 1908. This
+contains texts of fourteen of the plays discussed in this chapter.
+
+Pseudo-Shakespearean Plays. Ed. K. Warnke and L. Proescholdt. 5 vols.
+Halle, 1883, 1888. Contains only 5 plays.
+
+The Two Noble Kinsmen. Ed. H. Littledale. New Shaks. Soc. Publ., 1876.
+
+Doubtful Plays of William Shakespeare. Ed. M. Moltke. Leipsig, 1869.
+Contains 6 plays.
+
+A good bibliography for the critical matter on these plays is to be
+found in the Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. v, pp.
+442-444. As to Cardenio, connected with Double Falsehood, see Bradford,
+G., Jr., Mod. Lang. Notes, February, 1910.
+
+
+2. FORGERIES
+
+Ingleby, C. M. The Shakespeare Fabrications. 1859. A complete review of
+the Collier forgeries, with bibliography.
+
+Ireland, W. H. Confessions containing the particulars of his fabrication
+of the Shakespeare manuscripts. 1808.
+
+Malone, E. Inquiry into the Authenticity (of the Ireland Ms.). 1796.
+
+Law, E. Some Supposed Shakespeare Forgeries. 1911.
+
+Wheatley, H. B. Notes on the life of John Payne Collier. 1884. Gives a
+list and account of the spurious documents.
+
+
+3. THE BACON CONTROVERSY
+
+Allen, C. Notes on the Bacon-Shakespeare question. Boston, 1900. An
+account of Shakespeare's legal phrases.
+
+Bacon, Delia. The Philosophy of the Plays of Shakespeare Unfolded. 1857.
+
+Bacon, Francis. Life and Letters. Ed. J. Spedding. 7 vols. 1861-1872.
+
+Beeching, H. C. William Shakespeare: Player, Play maker and Poet. A
+reply to Mr. George Greenwood. 1908.
+
+Bompas, G. C. The Problem of Shakespeare's Plays. 1902.
+
+Booth, W. S. Some Acrostic Signatures of Francis Bacon. Boston, 1909.
+
+Donnelly, I. The Great Cryptogram. 2 vols. Chicago, 1887.
+
+Fiske, John. Forty Years of Bacon-Shakespeare Folly. Atlantic Monthly,
+1897; reprinted in Century of Science, 1899.
+
+Gallup, E. W. The Bi-literal Cypher of Francis Bacon.
+
+Greenwood, G. G. The Shakespeare Problem restated. Lane, 1908.
+
+---- In re Shakespeare Beeching _v._ Greenwood. Lane, 1909.
+
+Lang, A. Shakespeare, Bacon, and the Great Unknown. 1912.
+
+Pott, Mrs. H. Did Francis Bacon write Shakespeare? Chicago, 1891.
+
+Robertson, J. M. The Baconian heresy, 1913.
+
+Wyman, W. H. Bibliography of the Shakespeare-Baconian controversy.
+Cincinnati, 1884. Continued in Shakespeariana. Philadelphia.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+SHAKESPEARE SINCE 1616
+
+
+1. THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+The Shakespeare Allusion Books. Ed. J. Munro. 2 vols. This reprints
+references to Shakespeare before 1700.
+
+Eighteenth Century Essays on Shakespeare. Ed. D. Nichol Smith. Glasgow.
+Contains Rowe's, Pope's, Theobald's, Johnson's prefaces, Farmer's essay
+on Shakespeare's learning, Morgann's essay on Falstaff, etc.
+
+Shakespearian Wars. T. R. Lounsbury. i. Shakespeare as a Dramatic
+Artist, ii. Shakespeare and Voltaire. 2 vols. Yale Univ., 1901.
+
+First Editors of Shakespeare or The Text of Shakespeare (Pope and
+Theobald). T. R. Lounsbury. 1906.
+
+Shakespeare en France sous l'ancien régime. J. J. Jusserand. Paris.
+1898. Eng. trans. London, 1899.
+
+Considerable matter in the following volumes from the Clarendon Press
+bears on the early criticism of Shakespeare: Elizabethan Critical
+Essays, ed. Gregory Smith, 2 vols.; Seventeenth Century Critical Essays,
+ed. J. E. Spingarn, 3 vols.; Dryden's Essays, ed. W. P. Ker, 2 vols.
+
+
+2. THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES
+
+Baker, G. P. The Development of Shakespeare as a Dramatist. Macmillan,
+1907.
+
+Boas, F. S. Shakespeare and his Predecessors. 1895.
+
+Bradley, A. C. Shakespearean Tragedy. Macmillan, 1904.
+
+---- Oxford Lectures on Poetry. Macmillan, 1909.
+
+Brandes, G. William Shakespeare. Copenhagen, 1896. Eng. trans. 2 vols.,
+1898.
+
+Coleridge, S. T. Notes and Lectures on Shakespeare, etc. 2 vols. 1849.
+Reprinted in Everyman's Library, the New Universal Library, and Bohn's
+Library.
+
+Collins, J. C. Studies in Shakespeare. 1904.
+
+Dowden, E. Shakspeare: His Mind and Art. 1874.
+
+---- A Shakspere Primer. 1877.
+
+---- Introduction to Shakespeare. 1893.
+
+Elze, K. William Shakespeare. Halle, 1876. Eng. trans., 1888.
+
+Goethe. Wilhelm Meister, book IV, chaps. 13-16, contains an analysis of
+Hamlet.
+
+---- Wahrheit und Dichtung, and Eckermann's Reports of Goethe's
+conversations contain references. An essay "Shakespeare und kein Ende"
+appears in his collected works.
+
+Hazlitt, W. Characters of Shakespeare's plays, 1817. Reprinted in
+Everyman's Library, New Universal Library, Bohn's Library.
+
+Heine, Heinrich. Shakespeare's Maidens and Women, in Works. Eng. trans.
+Heinemann, 1851.
+
+Jameson, Mrs. Shakespeare's Heroines. Temple Classics.
+
+Kreyssig, F. S. T. Vorlesungen über Shakespeare. 2 vols. 3d ed. Berlin,
+1876.
+
+Lamb, Charles. On Some of the Old Actors (Essays of Elia). Reprinted in
+Everyman's Library.
+
+---- On the Tragedies of Shakespeare (Misc. essays). Reprinted in Temple
+Classics.
+
+Lee, Sidney. Shakespeare and the Modern Stage. 1906.
+
+Lessing, G. E. Laokoön, and Dramatic Notes. Eng. trans., Bohn's
+Library.
+
+MacCallum, M. W. Shakespeare's Roman Plays and their Background. 1910.
+
+Martin, Lady (Helen Faucit). On Some of Shakespeare's Female Characters.
+1885.
+
+Matthews, Brander. Shakespeare as a Playwright. In preparation.
+
+Moulton, R. G. Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist. Oxford, 1885.
+
+---- The Moral System of Shakespeare. 1903.
+
+Raleigh, W. Shakespeare (English Men of Letters). 1907.
+
+Schlegel, A. W. von. Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature. Reprinted
+in Bohn's Library.
+
+Swinburne, A. C. A Study of Shakespeare. 1880.
+
+Thorndike, A. H. The Influence of Beaumont and Fletcher on Shakespeare.
+Lemcke and Buechner, N. Y., 1901.
+
+Wendell, B. William Shakspere. 1894.
+
+White, R. G. Studies in Shakespeare. 9th ed. 1896.
+
+---- Shakespeare's Scholar. 1854.
+
+Important critical and interpretative aids will also be found in the
+bibliographies for earlier chapters, as in the complete editions of
+Shakespeare's works, in histories of literature and the drama, or in
+special studies, as Anders's Shakespeare's Books, and Madden's Diary of
+Master William Silence.
+
+For a handy bibliography of studies of botany, folk-lore, law, medicine,
+the supernatural in Shakespeare, etc., see the Cambridge History of
+English Literature, vol. v, pp. 450, 451, to which may be added Freytag,
+G., Technique of the Drama, Eng. trans. 1891; Matthew, B., A Study of
+the Drama, 1910; Arnold, M. E., Soliloquies of Shakespeare, New York,
+1911; Fansler, H. E., Evolution of Technic in Elizabethan Tragedy, 1914;
+Archer, W., Play Making, 1912.
+
+In the New Variorum Furness gives a summary of the interpretation and
+criticism for each play; but he is often quite neglectful of recent
+tendencies in criticism.
+
+
+3. STAGE HISTORY
+
+The standard work for the English stage is _Some Account of the English
+Stage, from the Restoration in 1660 to 1830_, by J. Genest, 10 vols.,
+Bath, 1832. There is no authoritative history of the stage since 1832.
+Information in regard to the Shakespearean plays may be had in the lives
+of the actors, as Colley Cibber's Apology; Davies's Memoirs of Garrick,
+1790; Murphy's Life of Garrick, 1801; Boaden's Memoirs of Mrs. Siddons,
+1827, and Memoirs of Kemble, 1825; Cumberland's Memoir, 1806; Boaden's
+Memoirs of Mrs. Inchbald; Private Correspondence of David Garrick,
+1831-1832; Cooke's Memoirs of Charles Macklin, 1808; Macready's
+Reminiscences, 1878; Archer's Life of Macready, 1890; Molloy's Life of
+Edmund Kean, 1888; Winter's Life and Art of Edwin Booth, 1893;
+Brereton's Life of Sir Henry Irving, London, 1908.
+
+Baker, H. B. The London Stage, 1576-1903. 1904.
+
+Brown, J. S. A History of the New York Stage, 1732-1901. 3 vols. New
+York, 1903.
+
+Doran, J. Their Majesties' Servants. 1888. Ed. R. W. Lowe.
+
+Dunlap, W. A History of the American Theater. 1832.
+
+Fitzgerald, P. A New History of the English Stage. 2 vols. London, 1882.
+
+Hazlitt, W. A View of the English Stage. 1818.
+
+Home, R. H. New Spirit of the Age. 1884.
+
+Lowe, R. W. Thomas Betterton, New York, 1891.
+
+Lowe, R. W. Bibliographical Account of English Dramatic Literature.
+1888.
+
+Phelps, W. M., and Forbes Robertson, J. Life and Works of Samuel Phelps.
+London, 1886.
+
+Seilhamer, G. O. A History of the American Theater, 3 vols.
+Philadelphia, 1891.
+
+
+4. SHAKESPEARE ON THE CONTINENT
+
+A good selected bibliography is to be found in the Cambridge History of
+English Literature, vol. v, pp. 456-472, and a full bibliography
+annually in the Shakespeare Jahrbuch. Only a few of the most important
+titles are given here, including some already noted.
+
+Böhtling, A. R. A. Goethe und Shakespeare. Leipzig, 1909.
+
+Burckhardt, C. A. H. Das Repertoire des Weimarischen Theaters unter
+Goethes Leitung. Hamburg, 1901.
+
+Chateaubriand, F. R. de. Shakespeare. 1801.
+
+Cohn, A. Shakespeare in Germany in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth
+Centuries. Berlin, 1865.
+
+Creizenach, W. Die Schauspiele der englischen Komödianten. Stuttgart,
+1889.
+
+Delius, N. Sämmtliche Werke, Kritische Ausgabe. 1854-1861. 5th ed.,
+1882.
+
+Elze, K. William Shakespeare. Halle, 1876.
+
+Genée, R. Geschichte der Shakespeareschen Dramen in Deutschland.
+Leipzig, 1870.
+
+Guizot, F. De Shakespeare et de la Poésie dramatique. Paris, 1822.
+
+Heine, H. Shakespeares Mädchen und Frauen, in sämmtliche Werke. vol. v,
+1839. Eng. trans., 1895.
+
+Hugo, F. V. [OE]uvres complètes de Shakespeare, traduites. 18 vols.
+Paris, 1856-1867.
+
+Hugo, Victor. Cromwell, Preface. Paris, 1827.
+
+---- William Shakespeare. Paris, 1864.
+
+Jusserand, J. J. Shakespeare en France sous l'ancien régime. Paris,
+1898. Eng. trans. London, 1899.
+
+Koeppel, E. Studien über Shakespeare's Wirkung auf zeitgenössische
+Dramatiker. Louvain, 1905.
+
+Kreyssig, F. Vorlesungen über Shakespeare und seine Werke. 1858. 3d ed.,
+1877.
+
+Lee, Sidney. Shakespeare in France. In Shakespeare and the Modern Stage.
+
+Lessing, G. E. Hamburgische Dramaturgie. Nos. 12, 15, 73. 1767, 1768.
+
+Lounsbury, T. R. Shakespeare and Voltaire. 1902.
+
+Mézières, A. Shakespeare, ses [oe]uvres et ses critiques. Paris, 1860.
+
+Renan, E. Caliban, Suite de la Tempête. Paris, 1878.
+
+Schlegel, A. W. Ueber dramatische Kunst und Literatur. Heidelberg,
+1809-1811.
+
+---- Shakespeare's Dramatische Werke, übersetzt. 1797-1810. Neue
+Ausgabe, ergänzt und erläutert von L. Tieck. 9 vols. 1825, 1880-1883.
+Revised by Ulrici, 1867-1871, by Grandl, 1897-1899, by H. Conrad, 1905.
+
+Stendhal (Henri Bergh) Racine et Shakespeare. Paris, 1823.
+
+Taine, H. Histoire de la litterature anglaise. Paris, 1844. Eng. trans.,
+rev. ed., 1873.
+
+Ten Brink, B. Shakespeare. Strassburg, 1893.
+
+Tolstoi, L. N. Shakespeare. 1906.
+
+Ward, A. W. History of English Dramatic Literature. vol. i, pp. 534
+ff.
+
+
+
+
+Index
+
+
+[Page Heading: Index]
+
+_Adversaria_, 45.
+
+_Æsop's Fables_, 52.
+
+_Æthiopica_ of Heliodorus, 56.
+
+Albright, V. E., 116, 122.
+
+_Alchemist_, 33, 95, 105.
+
+Alden, R. M., 48, 88.
+
+Alleyn, Edward, 117, 119, 120.
+
+_All for Love_, 169.
+
+_All's Well that Ends Well_, 52, 57, 73, 74, 82, 174.
+
+_Amores_, 53.
+
+_Amphitruo_, 54.
+
+_Andria_, 96.
+
+_Antonio's Revenge_, 106.
+
+_Antony and Cleopatra_, 75, 82, 105, 142, 169, 196, 197.
+
+_Apollonius of Tyre_, 60.
+
+_Apologie for Actors_, 156.
+
+_Apolonius and Silla_, 58.
+
+_Appius and Virginia_, 98.
+
+_Arcadia_, 61.
+
+Archbishop of Canterbury, 136.
+
+_Arden of Feversham_, 109, 161, 162.
+
+Ariosto, 57, 58, 95.
+
+Aristophanes, 91, 104.
+
+_Arraignment of Paris_, 161.
+
+Aspley, William, 143.
+
+_As You Like It_, 46, 52, 57, 62, 68, 73, 80, 113, 127, 136, 174.
+
+Aubrey, John, 38, 39, 43, 44.
+
+Autographs, facsimiles of, 36.
+
+
+Bacon, Delia, 163.
+
+Bacon, Francis, 2, 13, 16, 61, 163-166, 191, 192.
+
+Bacon, Matthew, 26.
+
+"Baconians," 163-166.
+
+Bandello, 57, 58.
+
+Bankside, 7, 117, 120.
+
+Barnay, L., 184.
+
+Barnes, Barnabe, 61.
+
+_Barons' Wars_, 62.
+
+Barrie, J. M., 177.
+
+_Bartholomew Fair_, 105.
+
+_Batman upon Bartholome_, 64.
+
+Beaumont and Fletcher, 64, 91, 109, 110, 112, 113, 168.
+
+Beaumont, Francis, 31, 110.
+  _See_ Beaumont and Fletcher.
+
+Belleforest, 57.
+
+Beeston, Christopher, 29, 39.
+
+Betterton, Thomas, 43, 130, 169, 174.
+
+_Bevis of Hampton_, 59.
+
+Bible, the, 1, 64.
+
+Bidford, 40, 41.
+
+_Bi-Literal Cypher of Francis Bacon_, 164.
+
+_Biron_, 108.
+
+_Birth of Merlin_, 161.
+
+Blackfriars,
+  property in, 26;
+  theater, 12, 26, 32, 118, 120, 159.
+
+Blount, Edward, 143.
+
+Boccaccio, 57, 96.
+
+Booth, Barton, 174.
+
+Booth, Edwin, 176, 177.
+
+Booth, Junius Brutus, 176.
+
+Boswell, J., 152.
+
+Bowdler, T., 153.
+
+Bradley, A. C., 5, 181.
+
+_Broken Heart_, 112.
+
+Brome, R., 112.
+
+Brooke, Arthur, 60.
+
+Buckinghamshire, Duke of, 44.
+
+Burbage, Cuthbert, 32, 117, 118, 119.
+
+Burbage, James, 117.
+
+Burbage, Richard, 24, 29, 32, 34, 44, 117, 118, 119, 124, 130.
+
+_Bussy d'Ambois_, 108.
+
+Byron, Lord, 191.
+
+
+Cæsar, Julius 55, 124.
+
+_Cambridge Shakespeare_, 153, 154, 155.
+
+_Cambyses_, 63, 92, 98.
+
+Capell, Edward, 151, 161.
+
+_Cardenio_, 160.
+
+Cartwright, W., 112.
+
+_Catiline_, 33, 108.
+
+Caxton, 60.
+
+_Chambers' Journal_, 163.
+
+Chandos portrait, 38.
+
+_Changeling_, 111.
+
+Chapman, George, 31, 56, 91, 103, 105, 108.
+
+Chaucer, 31, 53, 60.
+
+Chettle, Henry, 22, 23, 103, 107.
+
+Cibber, Colley, 130, 169, 174.
+
+Cibber, Mrs., 174.
+
+Cicero, 52.
+
+Cinthio, Giraldi, 57, 58.
+
+_City Madam_, 112.
+
+Clark, W. G., 154.
+
+Clive, Mrs., 174.
+
+Cockpit theater, 39, 118.
+
+Coleridge, S. T., 159, 175, 179, 180, 182.
+
+_Colin Clout_, 61.
+
+Collier, J. P., 153, 163.
+
+Collins, Francis, 35.
+
+Combe, John, 25, 26, 40.
+
+Combe, William, 25.
+
+_Comedy of Errors_, 54, 68, 74, 78, 95.
+
+Condell Henry, 29, 32, 35, 142, 157.
+
+_Confessio Amantis_, 60.
+
+Congreve, William, 111.
+
+Constable, Henry, 61.
+
+_Contention of York and Lancaster_, 161.
+
+_Coriolanus_, 52, 82, 169.
+
+Corneille, 182.
+
+_Cornelia_, 99.
+
+Covent Garden theater, 118.
+
+Craig, W. J., 154.
+
+Curtain theater, 117, 122.
+
+Cushman, Charlotte, 176.
+
+_Cymbeline_, 57, 63, 68, 73, 110, 169, 174.
+
+
+Daniel, Samuel, 61, 62, 113.
+
+D'Avenant, Sir William, 43, 44, 45, 112, 168.
+
+Davies, Rev. R., 41.
+
+_Decameron_, 57.
+
+Dekker, T., 31, 103, 104, 105, 109, 111.
+
+_De la Litterature_, 185.
+
+Delius, N., 153, 154, 172.
+
+Dennis, John, 177.
+
+_De proprietatibus rerum_, 64.
+
+De Quincey, T., 159.
+
+Derby's men, 120.
+
+Devrients, the, 184.
+
+De Witt drawing of Swan theater, 120, 121.
+
+_Diana_ of Montemayor, 58.
+
+Diderot, D., 184.
+
+_Discovery of Guiana_, 64.
+
+_Distichs of Cato_, 52.
+
+Donnelly, I., 164.
+
+_Double Falsehood_, 160, 162.
+
+Dowdall, John, 42.
+
+Dowden, E., 84, 181.
+
+Downes, John, 43.
+
+_Downfall and Death of Huntington_, 103.
+
+Drake, Sir F., 96.
+
+Drayton, Michael, 40, 61.
+
+Droeshout, Martin, 37, 38 n.
+
+Drummond, W., 46.
+
+Drury Lane theater, 118, 175.
+
+Dryden, John, 111, 168, 169, 170, 182, 190, 192.
+
+Ducis, J. F., 185.
+
+_Dunciad_, 149.
+
+Dyce, A., 153, 155, 161, 172.
+
+Dyke, John, 29.
+
+
+Earl of Leicester's men, 119, 120.
+
+Earl of Worcester's men, 119.
+
+Eden's _History of Travayle_, 64.
+
+_Edward III_, 161, 162.
+
+Edwards, Richard, 60.
+
+Edwards, T., 150.
+
+Elizabeth, Queen, 1, 2, 9, 10, 11, 32, 79, 119, 133.
+
+Ellesmere, Lord, 163.
+
+Ely Palace portrait, 37, 38 n.
+
+_English Dramatic Poets_, 38.
+
+_English Traveller_, quoted, 133.
+
+_Epicene_, 95.
+
+_Essay of Dramatic Poesie_, 168.
+
+Essex, Earl of, 68, 124.
+
+_Euphues_, 62.
+
+Euripides, 90, 91.
+
+Evans, Sir Hugh, 51.
+
+_Everyman in His Humour_, 39, 103.
+
+
+Fables in Shakespeare, 52.
+
+Fabyan's _Chronicles_, 63.
+
+_Faerie Queen_, 61.
+
+_Fair Em_, 161.
+
+_Fair Quarrel_, 111.
+
+_Faithful Shepherdess_, 113.
+
+_Fasti_, 53.
+
+Faucit, Helen, 176.
+
+Field, Richard, 23.
+
+First Folio, 167;
+  described, 141-143;
+  facsimile of title-page, 143;
+  introductory matter in, _see_ APPENDIX A.
+
+Fisher Quarto, 141 n.
+
+Fleay, F. G., 72 n, 172.
+
+Fletcher, John, 9, 91, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 168, 177, 191;
+  collaboration on _Two Noble Kinsman_, 159, 160.
+  _See_ Beaumont and Fletcher.
+
+Fletcher, Lawrence, 32.
+
+Florio, John, 57.
+  _See_ Montaigne.
+
+Flower, Mrs. Charles, 37.
+
+Folios, Second, Third, Fourth, 145, 157.
+
+Ford, John, 91, 109, 112, 113.
+
+Forman, Dr. Simon, 68.
+
+Forrest, Edwin, 176.
+
+Fortune theater, 11, 117, 119, 121, 122;
+  diagram of, 123.
+
+Foxe, John, _Book of Martyrs_, 63.
+
+_Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay_, 97.
+
+Fuller, Thomas, 38.
+
+Fulman, Rev. W., 41.
+
+Furness, H. H., 144, 154, 159.
+
+
+Galileo, 191.
+
+Gallup, Mrs., 164.
+
+_Gammer Gurton's Needle_, 94.
+
+Garrick Club bust, 38.
+
+Garrick, David, 130, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177.
+
+Gascoigne, George, 5, 58, 63.
+
+Gervinus, 180.
+
+_Gesta Romanorum_, 57.
+
+Getley, Walter, 25.
+
+Gildon, C., 146.
+
+Goethe, 179, 180, 183, 190.
+
+_Globe Shakespeare_, 154.
+
+Globe theater, 11, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 124, 177.
+
+Glover, J., 154.
+
+Golding, Arthur, 53.
+
+_Gorboduc_, 98.
+
+Gottsched, J. C., 182.
+
+Gower, 31.
+
+Grafton's _Chronicles_, 63.
+
+_Great Cryptogram_, 164.
+
+Greene, Robert, 62, 63, 90, 96, 97, 101, 102, 158;
+  attack on S., 20-23.
+
+_Greene's Funeralls_, 21, 22.
+
+Greene's _Groatsworth of Wit_, 20-22.
+
+Greg, W. W., 140 n.
+
+Gresham, Sir Thomas, 10.
+
+Grey, Z., 150.
+
+Guarini, G. B., 113.
+
+Guizot, F., 185.
+
+_Guy of Warwick_, 59.
+
+
+Hakluyt, Richard, 64.
+
+Hall, John, 25, 34.
+
+Hall, Susanna, 25, 34.
+
+Hall, William, 35, 42.
+
+Halliwell-Phillipps, J. O., 153, 181.
+
+Hall's _Union of Lancaster and York_, 63, 101.
+
+_Hamburgische Dramaturgie_, 182.
+
+_Hamlet_, 43, 45, 47, 49, 54, 63, 73, 75, 81, 87, 100, 106, 107, 119,
+    135, 136, 137, 145, 169, 184, 185.
+
+_Hamlet_, the lost, 100, 106, 107.
+
+Hanmer, Sir T., 149, 150.
+
+Harness, W., 153.
+
+Harsnett's _Popish Impostures_, 62.
+
+Hart, J. C., 163.
+
+Hazlitt, William, 175, 179, 180.
+
+Heath, B., 150.
+
+_Hecatommithi_, 58.
+
+Heliodorus, 56.
+
+Heminge, John, 29, 32, 35, 142, 157.
+
+Henderson, J., 175.
+
+_1 Henry IV_, 30, 62, 73, 137.
+
+_2 Henry IV_, 30, 62, 69.
+
+_Henry V_, 52, 56, 63, 68, 79, 135, 136, 149.
+
+_1 Henry VI_, 63, 77, 102, 120, 141, 157.
+
+_2 Henry VI_, 52, 54, 63, 77, 99, 102, 141, 157, 161.
+
+_3 Henry VI_, 21, 63, 77, 99, 102, 157, 161, 169.
+
+_Henry VIII_, 34, 63, 74, 124, 157, 160, 162.
+
+Henry VIII, 10, 11, 43, 79.
+
+Henryson, Robert, 60.
+
+Henslowe, P., 117, 119.
+
+Herder, J. G., 183.
+
+_Hero and Leander_, 62.
+
+Heyes Quarto, 141 n.
+
+Heywood, Thomas, 31, 95, 105, 111, 131;
+  quoted in publishing, 132-134, 135, 156.
+
+_History of English Dramatic Poetry_, 163.
+
+_Hoffman_, 107.
+
+Hollar, W., 120.
+
+Hollinshed's _Chronicles_, 63, 65, 101.
+
+Homer, 56, 96, 187, 194.
+
+_Honest Whore_, 105.
+
+Hooker, Richard, 2, 61.
+
+Hope theater, 117, 119.
+
+Horace, 51, 54.
+
+_Horestes_, 98.
+
+Hugo, F. V., 185.
+
+Hugo, Victor, 185.
+
+Hunsdon's men, 120.
+
+_Huon of Bordeaux_, 59.
+
+
+Ibsen, H., 177.
+
+_If you know not me you know nobodie_, quoted, 133, 134.
+
+Ingram, J. K., 72 n.
+
+Ireland, W. H., 162, 163.
+
+Irving, Sir Henry, 176.
+
+
+Jacob, E., 161.
+
+Jaggard, Isaac, 143.
+
+Jaggard, William, 140 n, 143, 156.
+
+James I, 9, 12, 32, 44, 69, 119, 120.
+
+_James IV_, 98.
+
+Janssen, Gerard, 37.
+
+_Jocasta_, 98.
+
+Johnson, Samuel, 150, 151, 152, 178, 179, 182.
+
+John, King, 78.
+
+Jonson, Ben, 13, 29, 30, 31, 33, 39, 40, 45, 46, 50, 63, 91, 95, 103,
+    105, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 114, 131, 182, 190;
+  eulogy of S., 167, 168.
+
+Jordan's _Collections_, 162.
+
+Jordan, Mrs., 175.
+
+_Julius Cæsar_, 81, 105, 108, 169, 182.
+
+Jusserand, J. J., 185.
+
+Juvenal, 54.
+
+
+Kean, Edmund, 175.
+
+Kemble, J. P., 162, 175.
+
+Kempe, Will., 24.
+
+Kendrick, 152.
+
+Kesselstadt, death-mask, 38.
+
+_Kind-Heart's Dream_, 22.
+
+_King and No King_, 109.
+
+_King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid_, 59.
+
+_King John_, 30, 52, 63, 78, 141, 161.
+
+King's men, 120.
+
+Kipling, Rudyard, 51.
+
+Kirkman's _Drolls_, 120.
+
+Knight, Charles, 153, 154.
+
+_Knight's Tale_, 60.
+
+König, G., 72 n, 75.
+
+Kyd, Thomas, 63, 90, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 105, 106, 107, 158, 167.
+
+
+Lacy, John, 39.
+
+Lamb, Charles, 159, 175, 179.
+
+Langbaine, G., 38.
+
+La Place's translation, 184.
+
+_Lear_, 47, 49, 61, 62, 63, 75, 81, 85, 99, 114, 135, 140, 140 n, 169.
+
+Lee, Sidney, 181.
+
+_Legend of Good Women_, 60.
+
+Leicester, Earl of, 5, 119.
+
+Lessing, G. E., 182.
+
+Le Tourneur, P., 184, 185.
+
+Lily's Grammar, 51, 54.
+
+Littledale, H., 159.
+
+_Lives of eminent men_, 38.
+
+Livy, 55, 60.
+
+_Locrine_, 100, 157, 158.
+
+Lodge, Thomas, 62.
+
+_Londinopolis_, 120.
+
+London, described, 6-12.
+
+_London Prodigal_, 157, 158.
+
+Lope de Vega, 95.
+
+Lord Admiral's men, 119, 120.
+
+Lord Chamberlain's men, 120.
+
+_Lover's Complaint, A_, 62, 156.
+
+_Love's Labour's Lost_, 29, 30, 51, 52, 74, 78, 88, 97, 137, 156, 189.
+
+_Love's Labour's Won_, 30.
+
+Lowin, John, 43, 130.
+
+Lucan, 55.
+
+Lucian, 56.
+
+_Lucrece_, 23, 29, 30, 53, 54, 62, 87, 131.
+
+Lucy, Sir T., 41.
+
+Lyly, John, 63, 90, 95, 96, 97, 102, 113, 167.
+
+
+_Macbeth_, 68, 74, 75, 81, 99, 169, 174, 183, 185.
+
+Macklin, C., 175.
+
+Macready, W., 176.
+
+_Maid's Tragedy_, 109.
+
+_Malcontent_, 104;
+  quoted, 134.
+
+Malone, Edmund, 152, 163, 172.
+
+Malory, Sir T., 96.
+
+Mannering, Arthur, 26.
+
+Manningham, John, 44.
+
+Mantuan's _Eclogues_, 52.
+
+Marlowe, Christopher, 13, 16, 62, 63, 68, 72, 90, 98, 99, 101, 102, 104,
+    105, 106, 158, 167, 177.
+
+Marlowe, Julia, 176.
+
+Marston, J., 103, 104, 106, 107, 134.
+
+Mason, J. M., 152.
+
+_Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn_, 160.
+
+Massinger, Philip, 91, 92, 111, 112, 168.
+
+Matthews, Sir T., 165.
+
+_Measure for Measure_, 58, 63, 82, 83, 104.
+
+_Memoirs of Edward Alleyn_, 163.
+
+Mennes, Sir John, 41.
+
+_Menæchmi_, 54.
+
+_Merchant of Venice_, 30, 57, 58, 80, 85, 99, 137, 140 n, 174, 184.
+
+Meres,  Francis,  _Palladis Tamia_, 27, 68.
+
+_Merry Devil of Edmonton_, 161.
+
+_Merry Wives of Windsor_, 51, 58, 60, 73, 80, 95, 135, 136, 140 n, 169.
+
+_Messalina_, 120, 121, 122.
+
+_Metamorphoses_, 53.
+
+Mézières, A., 185.
+
+Middleton, Sir Hugh, 10.
+
+Middleton, T., 103, 104, 107, 109.
+
+_Midsummer Night's Dream_, 30, 40, 53, 58, 59, 60, 61, 73, 80, 97, 124,
+    137, 140 n, 184.
+
+Milton, John, 114, 168, 194.
+
+Miracle plays, 5, 93.
+
+_Miseries of Enforced Marriage_, 159.
+
+_Misfortunes of Arthur_, 98.
+
+Molière, 91, 95.
+
+Montagu, Mrs. Elizabeth, 178.
+
+Montaigne, 56.
+
+Montemayor, George of, 58.
+
+Morality plays, 93, 94.
+
+More, Sir Thomas, life of, 17.
+
+Morgann, M., 179.
+
+_Mother Bombie_, 95, 97.
+
+Mountjoy, Christopher, 27.
+
+_Much Ado About Nothing_, 51, 57, 80, 137, 148, 174.
+
+_Mucedorus_, 103, 161.
+
+Munday, A., 95, 103.
+
+Music, Shakespeare in, 186.
+
+
+Neidig, W. J., 140 n.
+
+Neilson Text, 154.
+
+Newcastle, Duchess of, 168.
+
+Newington Butts theater, 120.
+
+_New Variorum_, 144, 154.
+
+_New Way to Pay Old Debts_, 112.
+
+_Nice Wanton_, 92.
+
+North, Sir Thomas, 56.
+  _See_ Plutarch.
+
+
+_Oldcastle, Sir John_, 140 n.
+
+_Old Fortunatus_, 103.
+
+Oldys, William, 45.
+
+_Othello_, 58, 64, 75, 81, 85, 99, 114, 169, 170, 184, 185, 195.
+
+Otway, T., 169.
+
+Ovid, 53, 60, 65, 87, 96.
+
+_Oxford Shakespeare_, 154.
+
+
+_Painful Adventures of Pericles_, 159.
+
+Painter's _Palace of Pleasure_, 57, 61.
+
+Palmer, J., 175.
+
+_Palladis Tamia_, 29, 30, 68.
+
+_Pandosto_, 62.
+
+_Passionate Pilgrim_, 30, 156.
+
+_Pastor Fido_, 113.
+
+Pavier, T., 140 n.
+
+_Pecorone, Il._, 58.
+
+Peele, George, 63, 90, 113, 158.
+
+_Pericles_, 60, 75, 83, 114, 135, 136, 140, 140 n, 145, 148, 151, 157, 158.
+
+Persius, 54.
+
+Petrarch, 58.
+
+Phelps, S., 176.
+
+_Philaster_, 109, 110, 113.
+
+Philip, Augustus, 29, 32.
+
+Phillips, Edward, 38.
+
+_Philosophy of the Plays of S._, 163.
+
+_Ph[oe]nix and the Turtle_, 156.
+
+_Piacevoli Notti_, 58.
+
+Plautus, 54, 93, 95.
+
+_Pleasant Dialogues and Dramas_, 133.
+
+Pliny, 55, 64.
+
+Plume, Archdeacon, 41.
+
+_Plutarch's Lives_, 52, 55, 56.
+
+_Poetaster_, 104.
+
+Pollard, A. W., 140 n.
+
+Pope, Alexander, 144, 147, 148, 149, 158.
+
+Pope, Thomas, 29.
+
+Preston, T., 63.
+
+Pritchard, Mrs., 174.
+
+Prince's men, 119.
+
+_Puritan, the_ 158.
+
+_Puritan Widow_, 157.
+
+_Putnam's Monthly_, 163.
+
+
+Quartos, 135-140;
+  table of, 138, 139;
+  of apocryphal plays, 158.
+
+_Queen's Arcadia_, 113.
+
+Queen's Chapel boys, 118.
+
+Queen's men, 119.
+
+Quiney, Richard, 28.
+
+Quiney, Thomas, son-in-law of S., 28.
+
+
+Rabelais, 57.
+
+Racine, 91, 182.
+
+Raleigh, Sir Walter, 13, 16, 64.
+
+_Ralph Royster Doyster_, 95.
+
+_Rape of Lucrece_, quoted, 132.
+
+_Recuyell of Troy_, 60.
+
+Red Bull theater, 117, 120.
+
+Reed, I., 152.
+
+Rehan, Ada, 176.
+
+_Return from Parnassus_, 30.
+
+_Revenger's Tragedy_, 107.
+
+_Richard II_, 29, 36, 52, 62, 79, 99, 106, 169.
+
+_Richard III_, 36, 54, 63, 77, 99, 102, 135, 140, 154, 169.
+
+Riche, Barnaby, 58, 61.
+
+Ristori, Madame, 185.
+
+Ritson, T., 152.
+
+Roberts Quartos, 140 n, 141 n.
+
+Robertson, Sir Forbes, 176.
+
+Robin Hood, 159.
+
+Robin Hood plays, 103.
+
+_Romance of Yachting_, 163.
+
+_Romeo and Juliet_, 30, 60, 73, 74, 77, 106, 135, 136, 137, 169, 174,
+    182, 183, 195.
+
+_Romeus and Juliet_, 60.
+
+Ronsard, 57.
+
+_Rosalynde_, 62.
+
+_Rosamond_, 62.
+
+Rose theater, 117, 119, 120.
+
+Rossi, 185.
+
+Rowe, Nicholas, 42, 43, 45, 146, 147, 158, 172.
+
+Rowley, W., 111.
+
+_Roxana_, 120, 121.
+
+Rutland, Earl of, 164.
+
+Rymer, T., 170.
+
+
+Sadler's Wells, 176.
+
+Salisbury Court theater, 118.
+
+Salvini, T., 185.
+
+Sanazzaro, 96.
+
+Schlegel, A. W., 180, 183.
+
+Schmidt's _Lexicon_, 183.
+
+Schroeder, F., 184.
+
+Scott, Sir Walter, 191.
+
+_Sejanus_, 33, 108.
+
+Seneca, 54, 93, 99, 100, 105.
+
+_Sententiæ Pueriles_, 52.
+
+Shakespeare, Anna, 18.
+
+Shakespeare, Anne (Hathaway), 19.
+
+Shakespeare, Edmund, 18.
+
+Shakespeare, Gilbert, 18, 46.
+
+Shakespeare, Hamnet, 20, 85.
+
+Shakespeare, Joan, 18.
+
+Shakespeare, John, 4, 5, 18, 24, 40, 41.
+
+Shakespeare, Judith, 20, 35.
+
+Shakespeare, Mary Arden, 18, 24, 35.
+
+Shakespeare, Richard, 18.
+
+Shakespeare, Susanna, 25, 34.
+
+Shakespeare, William. _See_ CONTENTS.
+  Monument of, frontispiece;
+  facsimile autographs of, 36;
+  portrait of in First Folio, 143.
+
+_Shakespeare and the Drama_, Schlegel's, 183.
+
+_Shakespeare Restored_, 148.
+
+Shakespeare Society, New, 160.
+
+Shaw, G. B., 177.
+
+Shelley, P. B. 191.
+
+Sheridan, T., 162.
+
+Shirley, James, 91, 92, 112, 113.
+
+Shirley, Sir A., 164.
+
+_Short View of Tragedy_, 170.
+
+Siddons, Mrs. Sarah, 175, 177.
+
+Sidney, Sir Philip, 13, 16, 61.
+
+Simpson, R., 161.
+
+Singer, S. W., 153.
+
+_Sir Thomas More_, 161, 162.
+
+_Sir Thomas Oldcastle_, 157, 158.
+
+Slye, William, 29.
+
+Smethwick, John, 143.
+
+Smith, W. H., 163.
+
+_Soliman and Perseda_, 100.
+
+Somers, Sir George, 68.
+
+_Sonnets_, 57, 58;
+  date of, 87, 156;
+  evidence of, 47-49;
+  personality in, 189, 190.
+
+Sophocles, 184.
+
+Sothern, Edward, 176.
+
+Southampton, Earl of, 23, 47.
+
+Southwell, T., 166.
+
+Spalding, William, 159.
+
+Spenser, Edmund, 2, 16, 61, 178.
+
+_Spanish Tragedy_, 99, 100, 106, 107.
+
+_Squire of Low Degree_, 59.
+
+St. Paul's, 7, 8, 90, 118, 159.
+
+Staël, Madame de, 185.
+
+Stage, typical Shakespearean, illustration, 116.
+
+Stationers' Company, 68, 135, 136.
+
+Steevens, G., 151, 152.
+
+Stowe, John, _Annals_, 63.
+
+Strange's men, 120.
+
+Stratford, described, 4, 6;
+  Shakespeare at, 18-35.
+
+Sturley, Abraham, 28.
+
+Suckling, Sir John, 112, 168.
+
+_Supposoti, I_, 58, 95.
+
+Surrey, Earl of, 13.
+
+Swan theater, 117, 119, 120.
+
+
+Tables of metrical tests, 71, 72;
+  of chronology of plays, 76;
+  of quarto editions, 138, 139.
+
+_Tamburlaine_, 98.
+
+_Taming of a Shrew_, 161.
+
+_Taming of the Shrew_, 51, 58, 60, 63, 80, 85, 141, 184.
+
+Taylor, Joseph, 43, 130.
+
+_Tears of the Muses_, 61.
+
+_Tempest, The_, 53, 57, 64, 68, 73, 74, 83, 110, 114, 169, 189.
+
+Tennyson, A., 190.
+
+Terence, 51, 54, 93, 95, 96.
+
+Terry, Ellen, 176.
+
+_Testament of Cressid_, 60.
+
+Theater, in Shoreditch, 117, 118, 119, 120.
+
+_Theatrum Poetarum_, 38
+
+Theobald L., 148, 149, 150, 162.
+
+Theocritus, 96.
+
+_Thomas Lord Cromwell_, 157, 158.
+
+Thorpe, Thomas, 47.
+
+Tieck, L., 183.
+
+_Timber_, 46.
+
+_Timon of Athens_, 56, 157, 169.
+
+_'Tis Pity She's a Whore_, 112.
+
+_Titus Andronicus_, 30, 51, 53, 54, 77, 100, 140, 157, 158, 169.
+
+Tourgenieff, 194.
+
+Tourneur, C., 107, 112.
+
+Troilus and Cressida, 56, 60, 82, 104, 114, 169.
+
+_Troilus and Cressida_, (Chaucer's), 60.
+
+_Troublesome Reign of King John_, 161.
+
+_True Tragedy of Richard III_, 100.
+
+_True Tragedy of Richard Duke of York_, 21, 161.
+
+_Tudor Shakespeare_, 38 n, 154, 161.
+
+_Twelfth Night_, 51, 56, 57, 58, 73, 80, 114, 120, 146, 174.
+
+_Two Gentlemen of Verona_, 30, 58, 78, 98.
+
+_Two Italian Gentlemen_, 95.
+
+_Two Noble Kinsmen, The_, 34, 60, 110, 157, 159, 160, 162, 169.
+
+Tyrwhitt, T., 152.
+
+
+Udall, N., 95.
+
+Ulrici, 180.
+
+Upton, J., 150.
+
+
+_Venus and Adonis_, 23, 29, 30, 53, 62, 87, 131.
+
+Virgil, 53, 96.
+
+_Volpone_, 33, 105.
+
+Voltaire, 178, 184, 185.
+
+_Vortigern_, 162.
+
+
+Wagner, C., 152.
+
+Walker, Henry, 26.
+
+Walker, Sidney, 172.
+
+Wallace, C. W., 26, 27.
+
+Walton's _Lives_, 17.
+
+Warburton, W., 150.
+
+Ward, Rev. J., 40.
+
+Ward, W. A., 172
+
+Warner, Mrs., 176.
+
+Watson, Thomas, 61.
+
+Webster, John, 31, 91, 104, 107, 109, 111, 112.
+
+Weever, John, 30.
+
+Whetstone, George, 58, 60, 63.
+
+_White Devil_ 31, 107.
+
+White, R. G., 153, 172.
+
+Wieland, 183.
+
+_Wilhelm Meister_, 183.
+
+Wilson, Robert, 94.
+
+Winchester, Bishop of, 7.
+
+_Winter's Tale_, 62, 85, 110, 174.
+
+_Wise Woman of Hogsdon_, 95.
+
+Wolsey, life of, 17.
+
+_Woman Killed with Kindness_, 105.
+
+Wood, Anthony, 43.
+
+Wordsworth, 191.
+
+_Worthies of England_, 38.
+
+Wright, W. A., 154, 172.
+
+Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 13.
+
+Wycherley, W., 111.
+
+
+_Yorkshire Tragedy_, 128, 140 n, 157, 158, 159.
+
+
+
+Printed in the United States of America.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Endnotes
+
+
+Corrections:
+
+    Page 41. Chapter II. "certains" corrected to _certain_.
+      "... contains certain notes made before 1688 by the ..."
+
+    Page 72. Table 2. "LINES" corrected to _LINE_.
+      "... ENDING WITHIN THE LINE ..."
+
+    Page 89. Chapter V. "comedy These" corrected to _comedy. These_.
+      "... of classical tragedy and comedy. These new forms ..."
+
+    Page 234. Appendix B. "St. Alban's" corrected to _St. Albans_.
+      "... Mayor of St. Albans. 2H6. II. i."
+
+    Page 265. Index entry. "Bi-Lateral" corrected to _Bi-Literal_.
+      "... Bi-Literal Cypher of Francis Bacon ..."
+
+    Page 268. Index Hamlet entry. "160" corrected to _106_.
+      "... 87, 100, 106, 107, 119 ..."
+
+
+Re-sequenced Index entries:
+
+    First Folio, described, 141-143; facsimile of title-page, 143; 167;
+    introductory matter in, _see_ Appendix A.
+
+    Fletcher, John, 9, 91, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114; collaboration on
+    _Two Noble Kinsman_, 159, 160; 168, 177, 191. _See_ Beaumont and
+    Fletcher.
+
+    Florio, John. _See_ Montaigne, 57.
+
+    Greene, Robert, attack on S., 20-23: 62, 63, 90, 96, 97, 101, 102,
+    158.
+
+    Jonson, Ben, 13, 29, 30, 31, 33, 39, 40, 45, 46, 50, 63, 91, 95,
+    103, 105, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 114, 131; eulogy of S., 167, 168;
+    182, 190.
+
+    _Sonnets_, evidence of, 47-49; 57, 58; date of, 87, 156; personality
+    in, 189, 190.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Facts About Shakespeare, by 
+William Allan Nielson and Ashley Horace Thorndike
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Facts About Shakespeare, by 
+William Allan Nielson and Ashley Horace Thorndike
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Facts About Shakespeare
+
+Author: William Allan Nielson
+        Ashley Horace Thorndike
+
+Release Date: August 8, 2007 [EBook #22281]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FACTS ABOUT SHAKESPEARE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Stephen Blundell and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 213px;"><a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a>
+<img src="images/001.jpg" width="213" height="500" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="captionn">The Shakespeare Monument in the Parish Church, Stratford-on-Avon.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<h1>THE FACTS ABOUT<br />
+SHAKESPEARE</h1>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="ooh">BY</p>
+
+<h2>WILLIAM ALLAN NEILSON, <span class="smcap">Ph.D.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="oh">PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY</p>
+
+<p class="ooh">AND</p>
+
+<h2>ASHLEY HORACE THORNDIKE, <span class="smcap">Ph.D., L.H.D.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="oh">PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 69px;">
+<img src="images/002.png" width="69" height="68" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="oh">New York</p>
+
+<p class="ooh">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</p>
+<p class="ooh">1927</p>
+
+<p class="oh"><i>All rights reserved</i></p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1913,</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.</span></p>
+
+<hr class="zerop" style='width: 10%;' />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1913. Reprinted
+April, 1914; July, 1915; May, November, 1916; January, 1918;
+February, September, 1920; September, 1921; March, 1922;
+February, December, 1923; October, 1924; June, 1926; January,
+December, 1927.</p></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><small>
+PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY<br />
+THE BERWICK &amp; SMITH CO.<br />
+</small></p>
+
+<div class="trans2"><p class="ooh">Transcriber's Notes</p>
+
+<p>Unique page headings have been retained and displayed in the left-hand margin.</p>
+
+<p>Many spelling inconsistencies exist due to the historical period of
+the quoted sources. These, in addition to the original punctuation,
+have been retained.</p>
+
+<p>Obvious typesetting errors have been corrected and noted in the <a href="#Transcriber_Corrections">Transcriber's Endnotes</a> at the end
+of the text.</p>
+
+<p>Some index entries have been re-sequenced to allow for clarity of sub-entries. These changes are recorded in the <a href="#Transcriber_Corrections">Transcriber's Endnotes</a> along
+with a copy of the original text.</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Contents" id="Contents"></a>Contents</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="toc" colspan="2">CHAPTER</td><td class="nor">PAGE</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nor">I.</td><td class="toc">Shakespeare's England and London</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nor">II.</td><td class="toc">Biographical Facts and Traditions</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nor">III.</td><td class="toc">Shakespeare's Reading</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nor">IV.</td><td class="toc">Chronology and Development</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nor">V.</td><td class="toc">The Elizabethan Drama</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nor">VI.</td><td class="toc">The Elizabethan Theater</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nor">VII.</td><td class="toc">The Text of Shakespeare</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nor">VIII.</td><td class="toc">Questions of Authenticity</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nor">IX.</td><td class="toc">Shakespeare since 1616</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nor">X.</td><td class="toc">Conclusion</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="toc">Appendix A. Biographical Documents and Authorities</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="toc">Appendix B. Index of the Characters in Shakespeare's Plays</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="toc">Appendix C. Index of the Songs</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="toc">Appendix D. Bibliography</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="toc">INDEX</td><td class="nor"><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>THE FACTS ABOUT SHAKESPEARE</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="The_Facts_about_Shakespeare" id="The_Facts_about_Shakespeare"></a>The Facts about Shakespeare</h2>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 69px;">
+<img src="images/008.png" width="69" height="68" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Shakespeare's England and London</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>Shakespeare lived in a period of change. In
+religion, politics, literature, and commerce, in the
+habits of daily living, in the world of ideas, his lifetime
+witnessed continual change and movement.
+When Elizabeth came to the throne, six years before
+he was born, England was still largely Catholic, as it
+had been for nine centuries; when she died England
+was Protestant, and by the date of Shakespeare's
+death it was well on the way to becoming Puritan.
+The Protestant Reformation had worked nearly its
+full course of revolution in ideas, habits, and beliefs.
+The authority of the church had been replaced by that
+of the Bible, of the English Bible, superbly translated
+by Shakespeare's contemporaries. Within his lifetime,
+again, England had attained a national unity
+and an international importance heretofore unknown.
+The Spanish Armada had been defeated, the kingdoms<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>
+of England and Scotland united, and the first colony
+established in America. Even more revolutionary had
+been the assertion of national greatness in literature
+and thought. The Italian Renaissance, following the
+rediscovery of Greek and Roman literature, had
+extended its influence to England early in the century,
+but only after the accession of Elizabeth did it bring
+full harvest. The names that crowd the next fifty
+years represent fine native endowments, boundless
+aspiration, and also novelty,&mdash;as Spenser in poetry,
+Bacon in philosophy, Hooker in theology. In commerce
+as well as in letters there was this same activity
+and innovation. It was a time of commercial prosperity,
+of increase in comfort and luxury, of the
+growth of a powerful commercial class, of large fortunes
+and large benefactions. Whatever your status, your
+birth, trade, profession, residence, religion, education,
+or property, in the year 1564 you had a better chance
+to change these than any of your ancestors had; and
+there was more chance than there had ever been that
+your son would improve his inheritance. The individual
+man had long been boxed up in guild, church,
+or the feudal system; now the covers were opened,
+and the new opportunity bred daring, initiative, and
+ambition. The exploits of the Elizabethan sea rovers
+still stir us with the thrill of adventure; but adventure
+and vicissitude were hardly less the share of merchant,
+priest, poet, or politician. The individual has had no
+such opportunity for fame in England before or since.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Tudor England</span>The nineteenth century, which saw the industrial revolution,
+the triumphs of steam and electricity, and the
+discoveries of natural science, is the only period that
+equalled the Elizabethan in the rapidity of its changes
+in ideas and in the conditions of living; and even that
+era of change offered relatively fewer new impulses to
+individual greatness than the fifty years of Shakespeare's
+life.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p>Shakespeare's England was an agricultural country
+of four or five million inhabitants. It fed itself, except
+when poor harvests compelled the importation of grain,
+and it supplemented agriculture by grazing, fishing,
+and commerce, chiefly with the Netherlands, but
+growing in many directions. The forests were becoming
+thin, but the houses were still of timber; the roads
+were poor, the large towns mostly seaports. The
+dialects spoken were various, but the speech of the midland
+counties had become established in London, at the
+universities, and in printed books, and was rapidly
+increasing its dominance. The monasteries and religious
+orders were gone, but feudalism still held sway,
+and the people were divided into classes,&mdash;the various
+ranks of the nobility, the gentry, the yeomen, the burgesses,
+and the common people. But changes from
+one class to another were numerous; for many lords
+were losing their inheritances by extravagance, while
+many business men were putting their profits into land.
+In spite of persecutions, occasional insurrections, and
+the plague which devastated the unsanitary towns, it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+was a time of peace and prosperity. The coinage was
+reformed, roads were improved, taxes were not burdensome,
+and life in the country was more comfortable and
+secure than it had been. Books and education were
+spreading. Numerous grammar schools taught Latin,
+the universities made provision for poor students, and
+there were now many careers besides that of the church
+open to the educated man.</p>
+
+<p>Stratford, then a village of some two thousand
+inhabitants, somewhat off the main route of traffic,
+was far more removed from the world than most towns
+of similar size in this day of railways, newspapers, and
+the telegraph. With the nearby country, it made up
+an independent community that attended to its own
+affairs with great thoroughness. The corporation,
+itself the outgrowth of a medieval religious guild,
+regulated the affairs of every one with little regard for
+personal liberty. It was especially severe on rebellious
+servants, idle apprentices, shrewish women, the pigs that
+ran loose in the streets, and (after 1605) persons guilty
+of profanity. Regular church attendance and fixed
+hours of work were required. The corporation frequently
+punished with fines (the poet's father on one
+occasion) those who did not clean the street before their
+houses; and it was much occupied in regulating the
+ale-houses, of which the village possessed some thirty.
+Like all towns of this period, Stratford suffered frequently
+from fire and the plague. Trade was dependent
+mainly on the weekly markets and semi-annual fairs,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Sports and Plays</span>and Stratford was by no means isolated, being not far
+from the great market town of Coventry, near Kenilworth
+and Warwick, and only eighty miles from
+London.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Shakespeare's England was merry England. At
+least, it was probably as near to deserving that adjective
+as at any time before or since. There was plenty
+of time for amusement. There were public bowling-greens
+and archery butts in Stratford, though the corporation
+was very strict in regard to the hours when
+these could be used. Every one enjoyed hunting,
+hawking, cock-fighting, bull-baiting, dancing, until the
+Puritans found such enjoyments immoral. The youthful
+Shakespeare acquired an intimate knowledge of
+dogs and horses, hunting and falconry, though this
+was a gentleman's sport. The highways were full of
+ballad singers, beggars, acrobats, and wandering
+players. Play-acting of one kind or another had long
+been common over most of rural England. Miracle
+plays were given at Coventry up to 1580, and bands of
+professional actors came to Stratford frequently, and
+on their first recorded appearance received their permission
+to act from the bailiff, John Shakespeare (1568-1569).
+There was many a Holofernes or Bottom to
+marshal his pupils or fellow-mechanics for an amateur
+performance; and Shakespeare may have seen the
+most famous of the royal entertainments, that at
+Kenilworth in 1575, when Gascoigne recited poetry,
+and Leicester, impersonating Deep Desire, addressed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+Elizabeth from a bush, and a minstrel represented
+Arion on a dolphin's back. The tradition may be right
+which declares that it was the trumpets of the comedians
+that summoned Shakespeare to London.</p>
+
+<p>In the main, life in the country was not so very different
+from what it is now in the remoter places. Many
+a secluded English village, as recently as fifty years ago,
+jogged on much as in the sixteenth century. Opportunity
+then as now dwelt mostly in the cities, but the
+city of the sixteenth century bore slight resemblance
+to a city of to-day.</p>
+
+<p>London, with less than 200,000 inhabitants, was
+still a medieval city in appearance, surrounded by a
+defensive wall, guarded by the Tower, and crowned by
+the cathedral. The city proper lay on the north of the
+Thames, and the wall made a semicircle of some two
+miles, from the Tower on the east to the Fleet ditch
+and Blackfriars on the west. Seven gates pierced
+the wall to the north, and the roads passing through
+them into the fields were lined with houses. Westward
+along the river were great palaces, behind which
+the building was practically continuous along the
+muddy road that led to the separate city of Westminster.
+The Thames, noted for its fish and swans, was the
+great thoroughfare, crowded with many kinds of boats
+and spanned by the famous London Bridge. By one
+of the many rowboats that carried passengers hither
+and thither, or on foot over the arches of the bridge,
+between the rows of houses that lined it, and under the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Tudor London</span>heads of criminals which decorated its entrance, you
+might cross the Thames to Southwark. Turning west,
+past St. Saviour's and the palace of the Bishop of
+Winchester, you were soon on the Bankside, a locality
+long given over to houses of ill fame and rings for the
+baiting of bulls and bears. The theaters, forbidden in
+the city proper, were built either in the fields to the
+north of the walls, or across the river close by the kennels
+and rings. Here, as Shakespeare waited for a boatman
+to ferry him across to Blackfriars, the whole city
+was spread before his eyes, in the foreground the
+panorama of the beautiful river, beyond it the crowded
+houses, the spires of many churches, and the great
+tower of old St. Paul's.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>It was a city of narrow streets, open sewers, wooden
+houses, without an adequate water supply or sanitation,
+in constant danger from fire and plague. But dirt and
+disease were no more prevalent than they had been for
+centuries; in spite of them, there was no lack of life
+in the crowded lanes. The great palaces were outside
+the city proper, and there were few notable buildings
+within its precincts except the churches. The dismantled
+monasteries still occupied large areas, but
+were being made over to strange uses, the theaters
+eventually finding a place in Blackfriars and Whitefriars.
+The Strand was an ill-paved street running
+behind the river palaces, past the village of Charing
+Cross, on to the royal palace of Whitehall and to the
+Abbey and Hall at Westminster. The walls and surrounding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
+moat had ceased to be of use for defense, and
+building constantly spread into the fields without.
+These fields were favorite places for recreation and
+served the purpose of city parks. The Elizabethans
+were fond of outdoor sports and spent little daytime
+indoors. The shops were open to the street, and
+the clear spaces at Cheapside and St. Paul's Church-yard
+seem to have been always crowded. St. Paul's,
+although still used for religious services, had become a
+sort of city club or general meeting place. Mules and
+horses were no longer to be found there as in the reign of
+Mary, but the nave was in constant use as a place for
+gossip and business. The churchyard was the usual
+place for holding lotteries, and here were the shops of
+a majority of the London booksellers. In its northeast
+corner was Paul's Cross, the famous pulpit whence the
+wishes of the government were announced and popularized
+by the Sunday preachers. And here the variety
+of London life was most fully exhibited. The processions
+and entertainments at court, the ambassadors
+from afar, the law students from the Temple, the old
+soldiers destitute after service in Flanders, the seamen
+returned from plundering the Spanish gold fleet, the
+youths from the university come to the city to earn their
+living by their wits, the bishop and the puritan, who
+looked at each other askance, the young squire come to
+be gulled of his lands by the roarers of the tavern, the
+solid merchant with his chain of gold, the wives who
+aped the court ladies with their enormous farthingales<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Commercial Prosperity</span>and ruffs, the court gallant with his dyed beard and
+huge breeches, the idle apprentices quick to riot, the
+poor poets in prison for debt&mdash;these and how many
+more are familiar to every reader of the Elizabethan
+drama. As often in periods of commercial prosperity,
+luxury became fantastic. Men sold their acres to
+put costly garments on their backs. Clothing was absurd
+and ran to extreme sizes of ruffs, farthingales,
+and breeches, or to gaudy colors and jewels. Enormous
+sums were spent on feasts, entertainments, and
+masques, especially in the reign of James I. Cleanliness
+did not thrive, perfumes took the place of baths,
+and rushes, seldom renewed, covered the floor even of
+the presence chamber of Elizabeth. But the comforts
+and luxuries of life increased and spread to all classes.
+Tobacco, potatoes, and forks were first introduced in
+Shakespeare's time. Building improved, streets were
+widened, and coaches became so common as to excite
+much animadversion and complaint. If some poets
+spent much time in the debtors' prison, others lived well,
+and some actors gained large fortunes.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The industrious apprentice who refused the allurements
+of pageants, theaters, tailors, and taverns, was
+sure to have his reward. It was a time of commercial
+expansion, such as the last generation has witnessed in
+Germany and the United States. Bankers, brokers,
+and merchants gained great fortunes and managed to
+protect them. Industry, thrift, and shrewdness were
+likely to win enough to buy a knighthood. The trade<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+of the old East and the new West came to the London
+wharves, and every one was ready to take a risk. The
+merchants of London had furnished support to the policies
+of Henry VIII and were rich enough to fit out the
+expedition against Flanders and to pay for a third of the
+fleet that met the Armada. It was a time, too, for great
+enterprises and benefactions to charity. Sir Thomas
+Gresham built the Exchange, Sir Hugh Middleton paid
+for the New River water supply, and there were many
+gifts to hospitals. With all this increase in wealth, the
+various professions prospered, especially that of law.
+The inns of court were crowded with students, not a
+few of whom forsook the courts for the drama. The
+age of chivalry was over, that of commerce begun. No
+one gained much glory by a military career in the days
+of Elizabeth. The church, the law, banking, commerce,
+even politics and literature, offered better roads to
+wealth or fame.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of the court in Elizabethan London
+is not easy to realize to-day. It dominated the life of
+the small city. Its nobles and their retainers, its courtiers
+and hangers-on, made up a considerable portion of
+the population; its shows supplied the entertainment,
+its gossip the politics of the hour. It was the seat of
+pageantry, the mirror of manners, the patron or the
+oppressor of every one. No one could be so humble
+as to escape coming somehow within its sway, and
+some of the greatest wrecked their lives in efforts to
+secure its approval. It is no wonder that the plays of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">The City and the Court</span>Shakespeare deal so largely with kings, queens, and
+their courts. Under the Tudors, and still more under
+the Stuarts, the court aimed at increasing the central
+authority so as to bring every affair of its subjects under
+its direct control. In London, however, this effort
+at centralization met with strong opposition. The
+government was in the hands of the guilds representative
+of the wealth of the city, and was coming face to
+face with many of the problems of modern municipalities.
+The corporation was in constant clash with
+the court; and in the end the city, which had supported
+Henry VIII and Elizabeth against powerful
+nobles, became the Puritan London that aided in ousting
+the Stuarts.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>This conflict between city and court is illustrated in
+the regulation of the theaters and companies of actors.
+The actors had a legal status only as the license of some
+nobleman enrolled them as his servants, and they relied
+on the protection of their patron and the court against
+the opposition of the city authorities. The fact that
+they were employed to give plays before the Queen
+was, indeed, about the only argument that won any
+consideration from the corporation. This opposition
+was based in part on moral or puritan grounds, but was
+determined still more by the fear of three menaces,
+fire, sedition, and the plague. Wooden buildings were
+already discouraged by statute, and the danger of fire
+from the wooden theaters is shown by the burning of
+the Globe and the Fortune. The gathering of crowds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+was feared by every property holder, and the theaters
+were frequently the scenes of outbreaks of the apprentices.
+The danger of the plague from the crowd at
+plays was the greatest of all. London was hardly ever
+free from it, and suffered terrible devastation in the
+years 1593 and 1603. For these reasons the theaters
+were forbidden within the city's jurisdiction, and were
+driven into the outskirts. The best companies appeared
+frequently at court, and on the accession of
+James I they were licensed directly as servants of
+various members of the royal family. The actors
+were thereafter under the immediate control of the
+court, and certain "private" theaters were established
+within the city. But this triumph of the court over
+the long opposition of the city was not an unmixed
+blessing for the drama.</p>
+
+<p>The theaters in 1590 represented the public on which
+they depended for support; by 1616 they were far less
+representative of the nation or London, and more dependent
+on the court and its following. The Blackfriars
+theater, before which gathered the crowd of coaches
+that annoyed the puritans of the neighborhood, was a
+symptom of the growth of wealth and luxury, and
+of the increased power of the monarchy; the protests
+of the puritan neighborhood were an indication of the
+growth of a large class hostile alike to an arbitrary
+court, luxury, and the theater.</p>
+
+<p>Shakespeare's lifetime, however, saw little of this
+sharp division into parties or of that narrow moral<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Elizabethan Incongruities</span>consistency which Puritanism came to require. Looking
+back on his age in contrast with our own, we are
+perhaps most impressed by its striking incongruities.
+This London of dirt and disease was also the arena for
+extravagant fashion and princely display. This populace
+that watched with joy the cruel torment of a bear
+or the execution of a Catholic also delighted in the
+romantic comedies of Shakespeare. This people, so
+appallingly credulous and ignorant, so brutal, childish,
+so mercurial compared with Englishmen of to-day,
+yet set the standard of national greatness. This
+absurdly decorated gallant could stab a rival in the
+back or write a penitential lyric. Each man presents
+strange, almost inexplicable, contrasts in character,
+as Bacon or Raleigh, or Elizabeth herself. The drama
+mingles its sentiment and fancy with horrors and
+bloodshed; and no wonder, for poetry was no occupation
+of the cloister. Read the lives of the poets&mdash;Surrey,
+Wyatt, Sidney, Spenser, Raleigh, Marlowe,
+Jonson&mdash;and of these, only Spenser and Jonson died
+in their beds, and Ben had killed his man in a duel.
+The student of Elizabethan history and biography will
+find stranger contrasts than in the lives of these poets,
+for crime, meanness, and sexual depravity often appear
+in the closest juxtaposition with imaginative idealism,
+intellectual freedom, and moral grandeur.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The Italian Renaissance, with its mingled passions
+for beauty, art, blood, lust, and intellect, seems for a
+time transferred to London and dwelling alongside<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+of commerce and Puritanism. Yet these incongruities
+of character, manners, and motives that seem so striking
+to us to-day may probably be explained by conditions
+already described. The opportunities created by the
+changes in church and religion, the new education and
+prosperity, the new America, and the revived classics,
+all tended to create a new thirst for experience. This
+thirst for experience led to excess and incongruity, but
+it also furnished an unparalleled range of human
+motive for a poet's observation and imitation.</p>
+
+<p>In the wide range of our poet's survey, there is, however,
+one notable omission. The reign of Elizabeth,
+like those of her three predecessors, was one of religious
+controversy, change, and persecution. But all this
+strife, all this debate, repression, persecution, and all
+of this great turmoil working in the minds of Englishmen,
+find little reflection in Shakespeare's plays, and
+little in the whole Elizabethan drama. Religious controversy
+had played a part in the drama of the reign
+of Edward and Mary, but it rarely enters the Elizabethan
+drama, and then mainly in the form of ridicule
+for the puritan. Shakespeare's plays seem almost to
+ignore the most momentous facts of his time. They
+treat pagan, Catholic, and Protestant with cordiality and
+only smile at the puritan or Brownist. His England of
+the merry wives or Falstaff's justices seems strangely
+untroubled by questions of faith or ritual. There is,
+to be sure, plenty of religion and controversy in the
+literature of the time, but the drama as a whole is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">An Age of Freedom</span>singularly non-religious. It reflects rather that freedom
+from restraint, that buoyancy of spirit, that lively
+interest in experience, which had their full course in the
+few years when the old garment was off and the new
+not quite fitted. The immense intellectual and imaginative
+activity of the period consists precisely in this
+freedom from restrictions, partisanship, dogmas, or
+caste. Things had lost their labels and some time
+and argument were required to find new ones. Ideas
+were free and not bound to any school, party, or cause.
+You grasped an idea without knowing whether it made
+you realist, romanticist, or classicist; papist, puritan,
+or pagan. After centuries of imprisonment, individuality
+had its full chance in the world of ideas as elsewhere.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>In a few years this was all over, and your sphere of
+life and the ideas proper to that sphere were prescribed
+for you. By another century, England had fought out
+the issues of creed and government with expense of
+blood and spirit, and had settled down to the compromise
+of 1688. In Shakespeare's day there was also,
+of course, some movement toward fixity of ideas, and
+there were great men who strove to convert others to
+their ideas and to dictate belief and conduct. But
+there was a breathing spell in which, comparatively
+speaking, men were not alike, but individual, and in
+which their motives and ideas revelled in a freedom
+from ancient precedent. In this era of flux the modern
+drama found its panorama of novel and varied experience
+making and marring character.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Shakespeare lived peaceably in the heyday of this
+change, nearly of an age with Sidney, Raleigh, Spenser,
+Bacon, Marlowe. Like Marlowe in the soliloquies of
+Barabbas and Faust, he recognized the new possibilities
+that the age opened through money or ideas. He made
+much out of the commercial prosperity of the day,
+gained such profits as were possible from his profession,
+raised his estate, and acquired wealth. He gave his
+mind not to any cause or party but to the study of men.
+The drunkards of the London inn, the yokels of Warwickshire,
+and the finest gentlewomen of the land alike
+came under the scrutiny of the creator of Falstaff,
+Dogberry, and Rosalind. And like his great contemporaries,
+he triumphed over incongruities, for he translated
+his studies of the human mind into verse of
+immortal beauty that yet delighted the public stage
+which was located halfway between the bear dens and
+the brothels.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Biographical Facts and Traditions</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>In the time of Shakespeare, the fashion of writing
+lives of men of letters had not yet arisen. The art of
+biography could hardly be said to be even in its infancy,
+for the most notable early examples, such as the lives
+of Wolsey by Cavendish and of Sir Thomas More by
+his son-in-law in the sixteenth century, and Walton's
+handful in the seventeenth, are far from what the
+present age regards as scientific biography. The preservation
+of official records makes it possible for the
+modern scholar to reconstruct with considerable fullness
+the careers of public men; but in the case of Shakespeare,
+as of others of his profession, we must needs be
+content with a few scrappy documents, supplemented
+by oral traditions of varying degrees of authenticity.
+About Shakespeare himself it must be allowed that we
+have been able to learn more than about most of his
+fellow dramatists and actors.</p>
+
+<p>In a matter which has been the subject of so much
+controversy, it may be an aid to clearness if the facts
+established by contemporary documents be first related,
+and the less trustworthy reports added later. The first
+indubitable item is trivial and unsavory enough. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+April, 1552, a certain John Shakespeare, residing in
+Henley Street, Stratford-on-Avon, in the county of
+Warwick, was fined twelvepence for failing to remove
+a heap of filth from before his door. This John, who
+shared his surname with a multitude of other Shakespeares
+in the England and especially in the Warwickshire
+of his time, appears, without reasonable doubt,
+to have been the father of the poet. He is described
+in later tradition as a glover and as a butcher; the
+truth seems to be that he did a miscellaneous business in
+farm products. For twenty years or more after this
+first record he prospered, rising through various petty
+municipal offices to the position of bailiff, or mayor, of
+the town in 1568. His fortunes must have been notably
+improved by his marriage, for the Mary Arden whom
+he wedded in 1557 was the daughter of a well-to-do
+farmer, Robert Arden, who bequeathed her &pound;6 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>
+in money and a house with fifty acres of land.</p>
+
+<p>To John and Mary Shakespeare was born a son
+William, whose baptism was registered in the Church
+of the Holy Trinity in Stratford on April 26, 1564.
+He was their eldest son, two daughters previously born
+being already dead. Their other children were Gilbert,
+Joan, Anna, Richard, and Edmund. The precise day
+of William's birth is unknown. The monument over
+his grave states that at his death on April 23, 1616, he
+was "&AElig;tatis 53," which would seem to indicate that
+he must have been born at least as early as April 22;
+and, since in those days baptism usually took place<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Marriage</span>within a very few days of birth, there is no reason for
+pushing the date farther back.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Of the education of the poet we have no record.
+Stratford had a free grammar school, to which such
+a boy as the bailiff's son would be sure to be sent; and
+the inference that William Shakespeare was a pupil
+there and studied the usual Latin authors is entirely
+reasonable. About 1577 his father began to get into
+financial difficulties, and it is reported that about
+this time the boy was withdrawn from school to help
+in his father's business. We know nothing certainly,
+however, until we learn from the registry of the Bishop
+of Worcester that on November 28, 1582, two husbandmen
+of Stratford gave bonds "to defend and save harmless"
+the bishop and his officers for licensing the marriage
+of William Shakespeare and Anne Hathaway.
+Of the actual marriage there is no record. Anne is
+probably to be identified with Agnes or Anne, the
+daughter of Richard Hathaway of the neighboring
+hamlet of Shottery, who had died in the previous July,
+and had owned the house of which a part still survives
+and is shown to visitors as "Anne Hathaway's cottage."
+The date on Anne's tombstone indicates that she was
+eight years older than the poet.</p>
+
+<p>A comparison of the bond just mentioned with other
+documents of the kind indicates it to be exceptional in the
+absence of any mention of consent by the bridegroom's
+parents, a circumstance rendered still more remarkable
+by the fact that he was a minor. The bondsmen were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+from Shottery, and this, along with the considerations
+already advanced, has naturally led to the inference
+that the marriage was hurried by the bride's friends,
+and to the finding of a motive for their haste in the
+birth within six months of "Susanna, daughter to
+William Shakespere," who was baptized on May 26,
+1583.</p>
+
+<p>The record of the baptism of Shakespeare's only
+other children, the twins Hamnet and Judith, in
+February, 1585, practically exhausts the documentary
+evidence concerning the poet in Stratford until 1596.
+It is conjectured, but not known, that about 1586 he
+found his way to London and soon became connected
+with the theater, according to one tradition, as call-boy,
+to another, as holder of the horses of theatergoers.
+But by 1592 we are assured that he had entered the
+ranks of the playwrights, and had achieved enough
+success to rouse the jealous resentment of a rival.
+Robert Greene, who died on the third of September in
+that year, left unpublished a pamphlet, <i>Greenes Groatsworth
+of Witte: bought with a Million of Repentaunce</i>,
+in which he warned three of his fellows against certain
+plagiarists, "those puppits, I meane, that speake from
+our mouths, those anticks garnisht in our colours."
+"Yes, trust them not," he goes on; "for there is an
+upstart crow, beautified with our feathers, that with
+his <i>Tygers heart wrapt in a Players hide</i>, supposes he is
+as well able to bumbast out a blanke verse as the best
+of you; and being an absolute <i>Johannes Factotum</i>, is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">"The only Shake-scene"</span>in his owne conceit the only Shake-scene in a countrie.
+O that I might intreate your rare wits to be imployed
+in more profitable courses, and let those apes imitate
+your past excellence, and never more acquaint them
+with your admired inventions! I know the best
+husband of you all will never prove an usurer, and the
+kindest of them all wil never proove a kinde nurse; yet,
+whilst you may, seeke you better maisters, for it is pittie
+men of such rare wits should be subject to the pleasures
+of such rude groomes." The phrase about the
+"tyger's heart" is an obvious parody on the line,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Oh Tiger's heart wrapt in a woman's hide!<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>which occurs both in <i>The True Tragedie of Richard Duke
+of Yorke</i>, and in the variant of that play which is
+included in the First Folio as the third part of <i>Henry VI</i>.
+"The only Shake-scene" has naturally been taken as
+an allusion to Shakespeare's name; and it is scarcely
+possible to doubt the reference to him throughout the
+passage. This being so, we may infer that by this date
+Shakespeare had written, with whatever else, his share
+in the three parts of <i>Henry VI</i>, and was successful
+enough to seem formidable to the dying Greene. It
+is noteworthy, too, that thus early we have allusion
+to his double profession: as an actor in the words
+"player's hide" and "Shake-scene," and as an author
+in the charge of plagiarism. That the reference in
+"beautified with our feathers" is to literary plagiarism
+is confirmed by the following lines from <i>Greene's Funeralls</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+by R. B., 1594, which seem to have been suggested
+by Greene's phrase:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Greene is the ground of everie painters die;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Greene gave the ground to all that wrote upon him.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nay, more, the men that so eclipst his fame,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Purloynde his plumes</i>: can they deny the same?<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Somewhat less certain is the allusion in a document
+closely connected with the foregoing. <i>Greenes Groatsworth</i>
+had been prepared for the press by his friend
+Henry Chettle, and in the address "To the Gentlemen
+Readers" prefixed to his <i>Kind-Harts Dreame</i> (registered
+December 8, 1592), Chettle regrets that he has not
+struck out from Greene's book the passages that have
+been "offensively by one or two of them taken." "With
+neither of them that take offence was I acquainted,
+and with one of them I care not if I never be. The
+other, whome at that time I did not so much spare as
+since I wish I had, for that as I have moderated the
+heate of living writers, and might have usde my owne
+discretion,&mdash;especially in such a case, the Author
+beeing dead,&mdash;that I did not, I am as sory, as if the
+originall fault had beene my fault, because myselfe have
+seene his demeanor no lesse civill, than he exelent in
+the qualitie<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> he professes: Besides, divers of worship
+have reported his uprightnes of dealing, which argues
+his honesty, and his facetious grace in writing, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">First Publications</span>aprooves his Art." This characterization so well fits
+in with the tone of later contemporary allusions to
+Shakespeare that it is regrettable that Chettle did not
+make its reference to him beyond a doubt.</p>
+
+<p>Within a few months after the disturbance caused
+by Greene's charges, Shakespeare appeared in the field
+of authorship in quite unambiguous fashion. On
+April 18, 1593, Richard Field, himself a Stratford man,
+entered at Stationers' Hall a book entitled <i>Venus and
+Adonis</i>. The dedication, which is to the Earl of Southampton,
+is signed by "William Shakespeare," and the
+state of the text confirms the inference that the poet
+himself oversaw the publication. The terms of the
+dedication, read in the light of contemporary examples
+of this kind of writing, do not imply any close relation
+between poet and patron; and the phrase "the first
+heyre of my invention," applied to the poem, need not
+be taken as placing its composition earlier than any
+of the plays, since writing for the stage was then scarcely
+regarded as practising the art of letters. <i>Lucrece</i> was
+registered May 9, 1594, and appeared likewise without
+a name on the title-page, but with Shakespeare's full
+signature attached to a dedication, somewhat more
+warmly personal than before, to the same nobleman.
+The frequency of complimentary references to these
+poems, and the number of editions issued during the
+poet's lifetime (seven of <i>Venus</i>, and five of <i>Lucrece</i>),
+indicate that it was through them that he first obtained
+literary distinction.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile he was gaining a footing as an actor.
+The accounts of the Treasurer of the Chamber for
+March 15, 1594-5, bear record of Shakespeare's having
+been summoned, along with Kempe and Burbage,
+as a member of the Lord Chamberlain's Company, to
+present two comedies before the Queen at Greenwich
+Palace in the Christmas season of 1594. This is the
+earliest mention of the poet as sharing with his company
+a kind of recognition as honorable as it was profitable.</p>
+
+<p>The records now take us back to his family. On
+August 11, 1596, his only son Hamnet was buried. In
+the same year John Shakespeare applied to the College
+of Heralds for a grant of arms, basing the claim on
+services of his ancestors to Henry VII, the continued
+good reputation of the family, and John's marriage to
+"Mary, daughter and heiress of Robert Arden, of Wilmcote,
+gent." Since there is evidence to show that the
+financial difficulties that had beset John Shakespeare
+before his son went to London had continued, and since
+the attempts of actors to obtain gentility by grants of
+arms were not uncommon, it is likely that the poet
+was the moving force in this matter. Though a draft
+granting this request was drawn up, it was not executed;
+but in 1599 a renewed application was successful,
+the heralds giving an exemplification of the coat
+which the applicants claimed had been assigned them
+in 1568, "Gold, on a bend sable, a spear of the first,
+and for his crest or cognizance a falcon, his wings
+displayed argent, standing on a wreath of his colours,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">The Purchase of New Place</span>supporting a spear gold steeled as aforesaid." The
+motto is "Non Sans Droit." These arms appear on
+the monument over Shakespeare's grave in Trinity
+Church in Stratford, and, impaled with the Hall arms,
+on the tombstone of his daughter Susanna and her husband
+John Hall.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>A more substantial step towards restoring the
+standing of the family was taken when the poet bought
+on May 4, 1597, for sixty pounds, New Place, the
+largest house in Stratford. This was only the beginning
+of a considerable series of investments of the profits of
+his professional life in landed and other property in his
+native district. On his father's death in 1601 he inherited
+the two houses in Henley Street, the only real
+property of which the elder Shakespeare had retained
+possession; and in one of these the poet's mother lived
+until her death in 1608. About a hundred and seven
+acres of arable land with common pasture appertaining
+to it was conveyed to the poet on May 1, 1602, by William
+and John Combe, of Warwick and Old Stratford
+respectively, in consideration of &pound;320; and twenty
+acres of pasture land were acquired from the same
+owners in 1610. On September 28, 1602, the Court
+Rolls of the Manor of Rowington record the transfer to
+Shakespeare from Walter Getley of a cottage and
+garden in Chapel Lane, Stratford. In 1605 he paid
+&pound;440 for the thirty-one years remaining of a lease of
+the Stratford tithes, a purchase which involved him in
+a considerable amount of litigation. It was through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+this acquisition that he became involved in the dispute
+over the attempted inclosure of certain common fields
+belonging to the town of Stratford. John Combe, who
+died in July, 1614, bequeathing Shakespeare &pound;5, left
+as heir a son, William, who with Arthur Mannering,
+sought to annex to their respective estates the aforesaid
+common lands. After having secured a deed safeguarding
+himself as part owner of the tithes from any
+loss that might result from the inclosure, Shakespeare
+seems to have lent his influence to Combe, in spite of
+the requests of the corporation for aid. The inclosure
+was not carried out.</p>
+
+<p>His investments were not confined to his native
+county. A deed of sale has come down to us concerning
+the purchase of a house near the Blackfriars Theater
+in London, in March, 1613. The price was &pound;140;
+but on the following day, March 11, Shakespeare gave
+the previous owner, Henry Walker, a mortgage deed
+for &pound;60, which he never seems to have paid off. There
+is evidence of his ownership of other property in
+Blackfriars in three documents, recently discovered by
+Professor C. W. Wallace, dealing with a suit in Chancery,
+and dated April 26, May 15, and May 22, 1615, in which
+Shakespeare and others sought to obtain from one
+Matthew Bacon possession of certain deeds pertaining
+to their property within the precinct of Blackfriars.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Other traces of Shakespeare's business transactions
+suggest that he was by no means averse to going to law.
+After his resumption of relations with Stratford in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Litigation</span>1596, we find his parents engaged (November, 1597)
+in a lawsuit, the outcome of which does not appear to
+recover the mortgaged estate of Asbies, which had
+formed part of his mother's inheritance. The years
+1600, 1604, 1608, and 1609 all contain records of suits
+by the poet to recover small sums of money; and, on
+the other hand, we find tax collectors in London seeking
+payment of taxes incurred on his goods while he
+lived in the parish of St. Helen's, Bishopgate, in 1593
+or 1594. These claims Shakespeare satisfied some
+years later when he was living across the river in Southwark.
+The documents of a law case of 1612, recently
+discovered by Professor C. W. Wallace in the Public
+Record office, include Shakespeare's deposition as a
+witness and add some interesting information. It
+appears that, possibly from 1598 to 1604, he lodged in
+the house of Christopher Mountjoy, a wigmaker, at
+the corner of Muggle and Silver streets near Cripplegate.
+In 1604 he had aided in arranging the marriage
+of Mary Mountjoy to her father's apprentice, Stephen
+Bellott. The lawsuit was brought by Bellott against
+his father-in-law to secure the dowry and promise of
+inheritance. Shakespeare's negotiations in regard to
+the marriage play an important part in the various
+depositions, as the question whether a dowry of &pound;50
+had been promised was crucial to the case. Shakespeare
+himself was examined on September 11, but the
+poet failed to remember that a definite sum had been
+agreed upon for the dowry.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Further evidence relating to Shakespeare as a man
+of substance is to be found in letters in the Stratford
+archives, written by prominent townsmen. One, from
+Abraham Sturley to a relative in London on the business
+of the town of Stratford, dated January 24,
+1597-8, contains a reference to "Mr. Shaksper" as
+"willing to disburse some money upon some odd yard-land
+or other at Shottery or near about us," and suggests
+urging upon Shakespeare the purchase of the
+tithes. It seems fairly certain from other letters of
+Sturley's that this one was addressed to Richard Quiney,
+father of Shakespeare's future son-in-law, Thomas
+Quiney. On October 25 of the same year, this Richard
+Quiney wrote from the Bell in Carter Lane, London,
+"to my loving friend and countryman, Mr. Wm.
+Shackespere," asking for his help with &pound;30. From a
+letter from Abraham Sturley to Richard Quiney on the
+following fourth of November it appears that Quiney
+was seeking an enlargement of the charter of Stratford,
+with a view to an increase of revenue. In Sturley's
+previous letter reference had been made to an attempt
+to gain "an ease and discharge of such taxes and subsidies
+wherewith our town is like to be charged, and I
+assure you I am in great fear and doubt by no means
+able to pay." In this extreme condition of affairs
+Sturley heard with satisfaction "that our countryman
+Mr. Wm. Shak. would procure us money, which I will
+like of as I shall here when, and where, and how; and
+I pray let not go that occasion if it may sort to any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Professional Progress</span>indifferent conditions." The poet is probably referred
+to in still another letter, of about the same period, to
+Richard Quiney, this time from his father Adrian:
+"If you bargain with Wm. Sha., or receive money
+therefor, bring your money home that you may."
+All of these documents carry the unmistakable implication
+that William Shakespeare in London was regarded
+by his fellow-townsmen as a person of resources,
+likely to be of service to his friends in financial stress.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>If we return now to the evidences of Shakespeare's
+professional progress, we shall see whence these resources
+were derived. Confining ourselves still to
+explicit and unambiguous records, we find the year
+1598 marking Shakespeare's emergence as actor and
+dramatist into a somewhat opener publicity. The
+quarto editions of <i>Richard II</i> and <i>Love's Labour's Lost</i>,
+issued that year, are the first plays to exhibit his name
+on the title-page; and in the 1616 folio edition of
+Ben Jonson's works, attached to <i>Every Man in His
+Humour</i>, is the statement: "This Comedie was first
+Acted in the yeere 1598 by the then L. Chamberleyne
+his servants. The principal Comedians were Will.
+Shakespeare, Aug. Philips, Hen. Condel, Will. Slye,
+Will. Kempe, Ric. Burbadge, Joh. Hemings, Tho.
+Pope, Chr. Beeston, Joh. Dyke." These evidences of
+prominence are more than corroborated by the famous
+passage in the <i>Palladis Tamia</i> (1598) of Francis Meres,
+in which he not only compares the "mellifluous and
+honey-tongued Shakespeare" with Ovid for his <i>Venus</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+<i>and Adonis</i>, his <i>Lucrece</i>, "his sugred sonnets among his
+private friends," but with Plautus and Seneca for his
+excellence "in both kinds for the stage; for comedy,
+witness his Gentlemen of Verona, his Errors, his Love
+Labors Lost, his Love Labours Wonne, his Midsummers
+Night Dreame, and his Merchant of Venice; for tragedy,
+his Richard the 2, Richard the 3, Henry the 4, King
+John, Titus Andronicus, and his Romeo and Juliet."
+Barnfield in the same year harps on the "honey-flowing
+vein" of the author of <i>Venus</i> and <i>Lucrece</i>, and "honey-tongued"
+is again the opening epithet of John Weever's
+epigram "Ad Gulielmum Shakespeare" (1599), in
+which "<i>Romeo</i>" and "<i>Richard</i>" share the praises with the
+narrative poems. From this time on, publishers of the
+plays recognize Shakespeare's reputation by generally
+placing his name on the title-page: a form of compliment
+which the author probably did not appreciate
+when it was extended, as in the case of <i>The Passionate
+Pilgrim</i> (1599), to pirated works, some of which
+were meant to be private, and others were not by
+him at all.</p>
+
+<p>Reminiscences or references to his works are frequent
+in contemporary literature. Among these are several
+passages in two plays, <i>The Return from Parnassus</i>, acted
+in St. John's College, Cambridge, about 1601. In one
+passage, Kempe, the famous actor, speaks slightingly
+of the acting qualities of the plays by university pens
+and continues, "Why here's our fellow Shakespeare
+puts them all down, ay, and Ben Jonson too,"&mdash;<span class="sidenote">Contemporary Allusions</span>another<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+identification of the actor and the dramatist
+Shakespeare. Another character in these plays prefers
+Shakespeare to Chaucer, Gower, and Spenser. Less
+enthusiastic though sincerely appreciative is John
+Webster, who, in the address to the Reader prefixed
+to <i>The White Devil</i>, 1612, acknowledges his indebtedness
+to his predecessors, Chapman, Jonson, Beaumont, and
+Fletcher and to "the right happy and copious industry
+of Master Shakespeare, Master Dekker, and Master
+Heywood." Though of widely varying significance
+and interest, the numerous allusions to Shakespeare
+or to his plays give further testimony to his growing
+reputation.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>While it is probable that the sale of Shakespeare's
+poems brought him in some financial return, he is not
+likely to have profited from the publication of his
+plays. The playwright at that time sold his product to
+the manager or company, and thereby gave up all rights.
+To the end of the sixteenth century managers usually
+paid from &pound;5 to &pound;11 for a new play, adding a bonus
+in the case of success, and sometimes a share of the proceeds
+of the second performance. During the first decade
+of Shakespeare's activity as a dramatist, then, we
+may calculate that he obtained for about twenty-one
+plays an average of about &pound;10 each, which, making the
+usual allowance for the greater purchasing power of
+money, would be equivalent to about $400, or an annual
+income of about $800. During his second decade the
+prices for plays had so risen that he may be estimated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+to have received about twice as much from this source
+as in the early half of his career.</p>
+
+<p>More profitable than playwriting was acting. Lee
+estimates Shakespeare's salary as an actor before 1599
+at &pound;100 a year at least, exclusive of special rewards
+for court performances, and we know that by 1635 an
+actor-shareholder, such as Shakespeare latterly was,
+had a salary of &pound;180. Besides this, he became about
+1599 a sharer, with Heming, Condell, Philips, and
+others, in the receipts of the Globe Theater, erected
+in 1597-8 by Richard and Cuthbert Burbage. The
+annual income from a single share was over &pound;200,
+and Shakespeare may have had more than one. In
+1610 he became a sharer also in the smaller Blackfriars
+Theater, after it had been acquired by the Burbages.</p>
+
+<p>The evidence thus accumulated of Shakespeare's
+having acquired a substantial fortune is corroborated
+by what we know of the earnings of other members of his
+profession, and it leaves no mystery about the source
+of the capital which he invested in real property in
+Stratford and London.</p>
+
+<p>The death of Elizabeth and the accession of James I
+improved rather than impaired Shakespeare's prospects.
+A patent, dated May 19, 1603, authorizes the King's
+servants, "Lawrence Fletcher, William Shakespeare,
+Richard Burbage ... and the rest of their associats
+freely to use and exercise the arte and faculty of playing
+comedies, tragedies, histories, interludes, moralls,
+pastorals, stage-plaies, and such other like as they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Growing Prosperity</span>have already studied, or hereafter shall use or studie,
+as well for the recreation of our lovinge subjects, as for
+our solace and pleasure when we shall thinke good to
+see them, duringe our pleasure." By this document
+the Lord Chamberlain's Company became the King's,
+and so remained during the rest of Shakespeare's
+connection with the stage. At least a dozen instances
+are recorded in the Revels Accounts of the Company's
+having acted before his Majesty, and on the occasion
+of a performance before the court at the Earl of Pembroke's
+mansion of Wilton House, &pound;30 was given them
+"by way of his majesty's reward." Shakespeare's
+name stands first in a list of nine actors who walked in
+a procession on the occasion of James's entry into
+London, March 15, 1604, when each actor was granted
+four yards and a half of scarlet cloth for cloaks for the
+occasion.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>This recognition by the court is the latest evidence
+we have of Shakespeare's belonging to the profession of
+acting. He is mentioned in the Jonson Folio of 1616
+as playing a part in <i>Sejanus</i> in 1603; but his name
+is absent from the list of the King's servants, as his
+company had now become, when they performed
+<i>Volpone</i> in 1605, <i>The Alchemist</i> in 1610, and <i>Catiline</i>
+in 1611. It would thus seem that he gave up acting
+shortly after the death of Elizabeth.</p>
+
+<p>The date of his withdrawal from London to Stratford
+is less precisely indicated. The likelihood is that the
+transference was gradual; for after 1611, the date<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+usually conjectured for his retirement from the metropolis,
+we have indications of at least occasional activities
+there, as in the collaboration with Fletcher, now
+generally admitted, in <i>Henry VIII</i> and <i>The Two Noble
+Kinsmen</i>, and in the business dealings in Blackfriars
+already described. On the other hand, he had disposed
+of his shares in the theaters before his death; as we
+have seen, he appears frequently in his last years
+in connection with municipal affairs in Stratford;
+and later formal references are usually to "William
+Shakespeare, gent., of Stratford-on-Avon." It was
+during this period that we find record of the poet serving
+in a new capacity. There has recently been discovered
+in the Household Book at Belvoir Castle the
+following entry: "Item 31 Martij (1613) to Mr. Shakspeare
+in gold about my Lordes Impreso xiiij s. To
+Richard Burbadge for paynting and making yt in gold
+xliiij s. (Total) iiij<sup>li</sup> viij<sup>s</sup>." This means that the
+Earl of Rutland, who took part in a tournament at
+Whitehall on March 24, 1613, had the heraldic device
+for his shield made by Shakespeare and Burbage,&mdash;Burbage,
+whose skill as painter is well known, being
+probably responsible for the design and Shakespeare
+for the motto. Rutland was a friend and associate
+of that Earl of Southampton to whom Shakespeare had
+dedicated his two narrative poems.</p>
+
+<p>The remaining documents are chiefly domestic.
+On June 5, 1607, his elder daughter Susanna married
+John Hall, a physician of Stratford, who succeeded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Death and Burial</span>the poet in the occupancy of New Place; and on September
+9, 1608, the Stratford Register records the burial of
+his mother, "Mayry Shaxspere, wydowe." His younger
+daughter, Judith, married Thomas Quiney on February
+10, 1616, with such haste and informality as led to
+the imposition of a fine by the ecclesiastical court at
+Worcester. In the previous month Shakespeare had a
+draft of his will drawn up by Francis Collins, a solicitor
+of Warwick, and after certain changes this was signed
+in March. On the twenty-fifth of April the Registers
+show the burial of "Will. Shakespeare gent." The
+monument over his grave gives the day of his death as
+April 23 (Old Style). He was buried in the chancel
+of Stratford Church, and on the grave may still be
+read the much discussed lines:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbeare<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To dig the dust enclosed heare;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Bleste be the man that spares these stones,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And curst be he that moves my bones.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>William Hall, who visited Stratford in 1694, records
+the tradition that the poet himself composed the
+lines in a style calculated to impress sextons and prevent
+them from digging up his bones and throwing them
+into the adjacent charnel house. However this may
+be, the grave has remained unopened.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Seven years later, thirty-six of Shakespeare's plays
+were collected by two of his former colleagues of the
+theater, Heming and Condell, whom he had remembered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+in his will, and published in the famous First Folio.
+The preliminary documents in this volume, printed in
+our appendix, close significantly the contemporary
+records of the man, and bind together the burgess of
+Stratford with the actor of London and the dramatist of
+the world.</p>
+
+<p>Of Shakespeare's handwriting nothing that can be
+called his with complete assurance has survived except
+six signatures; one to the deposition in the matter
+of the Mountjoy marriage; one to the deed of the house
+he bought in Blackfriars in 1613, one to the mortgage-deed
+on the same house, executed on the day after the
+purchase, and one on each of the three sheets of paper
+containing his will, the last of which has in addition the
+words "By me." All six are somewhat crabbed specimens
+of the old English style of handwriting, which is
+the character he would naturally acquire in such a school
+as that at Stratford in the sixteenth century, as we
+learn from surviving examples of the copy-books of the
+period. The manuscripts of his plays have gone the
+way of all, or almost all, the autographs of the men
+of letters of his time, nor is it likely that future research
+will add materially to what we have. The exact signatures,
+though it is difficult to be certain of all the letters,
+seem to show a variation in spelling&mdash;Shakspere, Shakespere,
+or Shakspeare. His father's name appears in
+the records of the town in sixteen different forms, an
+illustration of the inconsistency in the orthography of
+proper names, as of other words, which was common<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Signatures and Portraits</span>with people of that time of greater worldly consequence
+and education than the poet or his father. The form
+of the name used in the present edition is that which
+generally appears on the title-pages of plays ascribed
+to him; it is that which he himself used in signing the
+dedications of his two poems to the Earl of Southampton;
+it is that which occurs in the legal documents
+having to do with his property; and it is the common
+spelling in the literary allusions of the seventeenth
+century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 254px;"><a name="signatures" id="signatures"></a>
+<img src="images/044-1.jpg" width="254" height="105" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 686px; margin-top: 1em;">
+<img src="images/044-2.jpg" width="686" height="136" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 634px; margin-top: 1em;">
+<img src="images/044-3.jpg" width="634" height="157" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="captionn">THREE AUTOGRAPH SIGNATURES WRITTEN BY SHAKESPEARE ON
+THREE SHEETS OF HIS WILL</p>
+<p><small>From the document now at Somerset House, London</small></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Our knowledge of Shakespeare's personal appearance
+is also far from being definite. The bust on the
+monument in the church at Stratford was cut apparently
+before 1623 by a Dutch stone cutter called
+Gerard Janssen. It was originally colored; probably
+the eyes light hazel, and the hair auburn. Its crude
+workmanship renders it unreliable as a likeness. The
+frontispiece to the First Folio was engraved for that
+work by Martin Droeshout, who was only twenty-two
+years old at the time, so that he is more likely to have
+made it from a portrait than from memory. No portrait
+has been found that seems actually to have served
+this purpose, though there are resemblances between
+the engraving and the portrait, dated 1609, presented
+to the Memorial Picture Gallery at Stratford by Mrs.
+Charles Flower. The numerous other portraits that have
+been claimed as likenesses of the dramatist have varying
+degrees of probability, but none has a pedigree without
+a flaw. Those with most claim to interest are the Ely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+Palace portrait, the Chandos portrait, the Garrick Club
+bust, and the Kesselstadt death-mask.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Such is the very considerable body of authenticated
+facts about the life of Shakespeare. Lacking though
+they are in intimate and personal touches, they can
+hardly be said to leave the main outlines of his career
+shadowy or mysterious. But they do not by any means
+exhaust the data at our disposal for forming an impression
+of the poet's personality. A large mass of tradition,
+of less than legal validity but much of it of a high degree
+of probability, has come down to us, the sources
+of which may now be detailed.</p>
+
+<p>In the seventeenth century we have several biographical
+and critical collections in which Shakespeare
+figures, the most important being these: Fuller's
+<i>Worthies of England</i> (1662), Aubrey's <i>Lives of Eminent
+Men</i> (compiled 1669-1696), Phillips's <i>Theatrum Poetarum</i>
+(1675), and Langbaine's <i>English Dramatic Poets</i>
+(1691). The two last are for strictly biographical purposes
+negligible, though interesting as early criticism.
+Fuller began his work in 1643, so that he may be supposed
+to have had access to oral tradition from men
+who actually knew Shakespeare. He gives few facts,
+but some hints as to temperament. "Though his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Sources of Traditions</span>genius generally was jocular and inclining him to
+festivity, yet he could, when so disposed, be solemn and
+serious.... Many were the wit-combats betwixt
+him and Ben Jonson; which two I beheld like a Spanish
+great galleon and an English man-of-war; master
+Jonson (like the former) was built far higher in learning;
+solid, but slow, in his performances. Shakespeare,
+with the English man-of-war, lesser in bulk, but lighter
+in sailing, could turn with all tides, tack about, and
+take advantage of all winds, by the quickness of his
+wit and invention."</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Among the actors who, with Shakespeare, took part
+in the first production of Jonson's <i>Every Man in His
+Humour</i> was Christopher Beeston, who when he died
+in 1637 was manager of the Cockpit Theater in Drury
+Lane. He was succeeded in this office by his son
+William, who became in his old age the revered transmitter
+to Restoration players and playwrights of the
+traditions of the great age in which he had spent his
+youth. From him, and from another actor of the same
+period, John Lacy, as well as from other sources, the
+antiquary John Aubrey collected fragments of gossip for
+his lives of the English poets. According to Aubrey's
+notes, confused and unequal in value, Shakespeare
+"did act exceeding well"; "understood Latin pretty
+well, for he had been in his younger years a schoolmaster
+in the country"; "was a handsome, well-shaped
+man, very good company, and of a very ready and
+pleasant smooth wit." It is Aubrey, too, that reports<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+that John Shakespeare was a butcher, and he adds, "I
+have been told heretofore by some of the neighbours that
+when he was a boy he exercised his father's trade....
+When he killed a calf, he would doe it in a high style
+and make a speech. There was at that time another
+butcher's son in this towne, that was held not at all
+inferior to him for a naturall wit, his acquaintance, and
+coetanean, but dyed young." The same writer is
+authority for the statement that it was at Grendon, near
+Oxford, on the road from Stratford to London, that the
+dramatist "happened to take the humour of the constable
+in Midsummer Night's Dream"&mdash;a remark
+that may refer loosely either to Bottom and his friends,
+or to Dogberry and Verges. He also ascribes to the
+poet an apocryphal epigram on a Stratford usurer,
+John Combe.</p>
+
+<p>The Rev. John Ward, vicar of Stratford-on-Avon for
+1662 to 1668, kept about the time of his coming to
+this charge a diary in which he relates certain echoes
+of the conversation of the town at a time when the
+poet's nephews were still living there. From him we
+hear that in his elder days Shakespeare retired to
+Stratford; that in his most active period he wrote two
+plays a year; that he spent at the rate of &pound;1000 a year;
+and that his death was due to a fever following a "merry
+meeting" in Stratford with Jonson and Drayton.</p>
+
+<p>An additional reference to the tradition of Shakespeare's
+convivial tendencies is to be found in the
+legend of his visit to Bidford, six miles from Stratford,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Traditions</span>with a group of cronies to compare capacities with the
+Bidford Drinkers. According to the earliest version
+of this somewhat widespread tale, that of a visitor
+to Stratford in 1762, "he enquired of a shepherd for
+the Bidford Drinkers, who replied they were absent
+but the Bidford sippers were at home, and, I suppose,
+continued the sheepkeeper, they will be sufficient for
+you; and so, indeed, they were; he was forced to take
+up his lodging under that tree [the crab-tree, long
+pointed out] for some hours."</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The earliest description of Shakespeare as "a glover's
+son" is found in the memoranda of Archdeacon Plume
+of Rochester, written about 1656. Plume adds, "Sir
+John Mennes saw once his old father in his shop&mdash;a
+merry cheeked old man that said, 'Will was a good
+honest fellow, but he darest have crackt a jeast with
+him at any time.'" No Sir John Mennes who could
+have seen John Shakespeare is known, but the saying
+may well be the echo of contemporary gossip.</p>
+
+<p>A manuscript preserved at Corpus Christi College,
+Oxford, contains certain notes made before 1688 by the
+Rev. William Fulman. Among them are interpolated
+others (given here in italics) by the Rev. Richard
+Davies previously to 1708. "William Shakespeare was
+born at Stratford-on-Avon in Warwickshire about
+1563-4. <i>Much given to all unluckinesse in stealing
+venison and rabbits, particularly from Sr. ... Lucy, who
+had him whipt and sometimes imprisoned, and at last
+made him fly his native country to his great advancement;</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+<i>but his reveng was so sweet that he is his Justice Clodpate,
+and calls him a great man, and that in allusion to his
+name bore three lowses rampant for his arms.</i> From an
+actor of playes he became a composer. He dyed Apr.
+23, 1616, &aelig;tat 53, probably at Stratford, for there he
+is buried, and hath a monument (Dugd. p. 520), <i>on
+which he lays a heavy curse upon any one who shall
+remove his bones. He dyed a papist."</i> The inaccuracy
+of Davies's version of facts otherwise known warns
+us against too great a reliance on his individual contribution.</p>
+
+<p>A certain John Dowdall left a short account of places
+he visited in Warwickshire in 1693. He describes the
+monument and tombstone, giving inscriptions, and
+adds, "The clarke that shew'd me this church is
+above 80 years old; he says that this Shakespeare was
+formerly in this towne bound apprentice to a butcher,
+but that he run from his master to London, and there
+was received into the play-house as a serviture, and by
+this means had an opportunity to be what he afterwards
+prov'd. He was the best of his family, but the
+male line is extinguished. Not one for feare of the curse
+abovesaid dare touch his gravestone, tho his wife and
+daughters did earnestly desire to be leyd in the same
+grave with him." The traditional explanation of the
+curse as reported by William Hall, has already been
+given (p. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>).</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The first regular biography of Shakespeare is that
+by Nicholas Rowe, written as a preface to his edition of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Rowe's Biography</span>the plays which, issued in 1709, stands at the beginning
+of modern Shakespearean interpretation. Though
+compiled nearly a century after the poet's death,
+Rowe's life has claims upon our credit more substantial
+than might be expected. His chief source of information
+was the great actor Betterton, a Shakespeare
+enthusiast, who had himself taken pains to accumulate
+facts concerning his hero. Much of Betterton's
+material came to him through John Lowin and Joseph
+Taylor, two actors who had been colleagues of Shakespeare's
+and who lived into the Restoration period.
+According to John Downes, a theatrical prompter in
+the end of the seventeenth century, these veterans
+brought to the new generation the actual instruction
+they had received from the dramatist himself on the
+playing of the parts respectively of Henry VIII and
+Hamlet. Theatrical and other traditions reached
+Rowe also through Sir William D'Avenant, the leading
+figure in the revival of the stage after 1660. D'Avenant's
+father was host of the Crown Inn at Oxford,
+where, according to the statements of Aubrey and
+of Anthony Wood in 1692, Shakespeare was accustomed
+to put up on his journeys between London and Stratford.
+Wood reports that the elder D'Avenant was a
+"man of grave and saturnine disposition, yet an admirer
+of plays and play-makers, especially Shakespeare,"
+and that Mrs. D'Avenant was "a very beautiful
+woman, of a good wit and conversation." William
+D'Avenant was generally reputed to be Shakespeare's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+godson, and Aubrey, whose gossip must be accepted
+with great hesitation, says that he was not averse
+to being taken as his son. In spite of the fact of this
+scandal's appearance in various seventeenth century
+anecdotes, the more careful account of the D'Avenants
+by Wood points to its rejection. The story is usually
+linked with another recorded by the lawyer Manningham
+in his Diary, March 13, 1602, that Burbage, who
+had been playing Richard III, was overheard by Shakespeare
+making an appointment with a lady in the
+audience. When the tragedian arrived at the rendez-vous,
+he found Shakespeare in possession; and on
+knocking was answered that "William the Conqueror
+was before Richard the Third."</p>
+
+<p>To return to the D'Avenants, the elder son, Robert,
+used to tell that when he was a child Shakespeare had
+given him "a hundred kisses." Sir William was
+Rowe's authority for the statement that the Earl of
+Southampton once gave the poet &pound;1000 "to enable
+him to go through with a purchase which he heard he
+had a mind to"; but no purchase of this magnitude by
+Shakespeare is recorded. D'Avenant himself was said
+to own a complimentary letter written to Shakespeare
+by James I, and the publisher Lintot says that the
+Duke of Buckinghamshire claimed to have examined
+the document. The story about Shakespeare's first
+connection with the theater consisting in his holding
+horses outside, told first in a manuscript note preserved
+in the Library of the University of Edinburgh, 1748,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Further Traditions</span>is also credited to D'Avenant. According to this
+tradition, frequently repeated, the future dramatist
+organized a regular corps of boys and monopolized
+the business, so that "as long as the practice of riding
+to the play-house continued the waiters that held the
+horses retained the appellation of Shakespeare's Boys."</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Many of the natural inferences to be drawn from the
+data in the first part of the chapter are given by Rowe
+as facts. Thus he states positively that Shakespeare
+attended a free school, from which he was withdrawn
+owing to "the narrowness of his circumstances, and
+the want of assistance at home." He repeats the deer-stealing
+anecdote, with further detail. As to his
+acting, Rowe reports, "Tho' I have inquir'd, I could
+never meet with any further account of him this way
+than that the top of his performance was the ghost in
+his own Hamlet." He corroborates the general contemporary
+opinion of Shakespeare's fluency and
+spontaneity in composition. As to his personality,
+he says, "Besides the advantages of his wit, he was
+in himself a good-natur'd man, of great sweetness in
+his manners and a most agreeable companion." Rowe
+credits Shakespeare with having prevented his company
+from rejecting one of Jonson's plays at a time when
+Jonson was altogether unknown, and is inclined to
+consider the latter ungenerous in his critical remarks
+on Shakespeare.</p>
+
+<p>William Oldys, in his manuscript <i>Adversaria</i>, now in
+the British Museum, reports a few further fragments of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
+gossip, the chief of which is that Shakespeare's brother
+Gilbert was discovered still living about 1660 and was
+questioned by some actors as to his memory of William.
+All he could give them was a vague recollection of his
+having played the part of Adam in <i>As You Like It</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the most significant details which tradition,
+unauthenticated but often plausible, has added to
+our knowledge of the documents. There exists also
+a very considerable amount of literary allusion to
+Shakespeare's productions from 1594 onwards, which
+is easily accessible in collected form. The most
+notable of these are the comments of his friend and contemporary,
+Ben Jonson. Besides the splendid eulogy
+prefixed to the First Folio, Jonson talked of Shakespeare's
+lack of art to Drummond of Hawthornden,
+and expressed himself with affection and discrimination
+in the famous passage in <i>Timber</i>.</p>
+
+<p>After all allowances have been made for the inaccuracies
+of oral tradition, we may safely gather from
+those concerning Shakespeare some inferences which
+help to clothe the naked skeleton of the documented
+facts. It is clear that, within a generation after
+Shakespeare's death, common opinion both in Stratford
+and London recognized that in the actor and dramatist
+a great man had passed away, that he had been in a
+worldly sense highly successful, though starting from
+unpropitious beginnings, that he wrote with great
+swiftness and ease, and that in his personal relations
+he was gentle, kindly, genial, and witty. That the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Evidence of the Sonnets</span>bailiff's son who returned to his native town as a prosperous
+gentleman, is to be identified with the actor and
+shareholder of the London theaters, and with the
+author of the plays and poems, it is difficult to see
+how there can remain any reasonable doubt; and,
+though the facts which prove this identity contain little
+to illuminate the vast intellect and soaring imagination
+which created Hamlet and Lear, they contain nothing
+irreconcilable with the personality, which these creations
+imply rather than reveal.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>One further source of information about Shakespeare's
+personality has figured largely in some biographies.
+The <i>Sonnets</i> were published in 1609, evidently
+without Shakespeare's co&ouml;peration or consent,
+with a dedication by the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, to
+a Mr. W. H., "the onlie begetter of these insuing
+sonnets." All attempts to identify this Mr. W. H.
+have failed. He may have been merely the person who
+procured the manuscript for Thorpe, though the
+language of the dedication seems to imply that he was
+the young gentleman who is the subject of a considerable
+number of the poems. Of this young gentleman
+and of a dark lady who seems to have been the occasion
+of other of the sonnets, much has been written, but no
+facts of Shakespeare's life have been established beyond
+those which are obvious to every reader: that Shakespeare
+wrote admiring and flattering sonnets to a young
+man who is urged to marry (and who may have been
+the Earl of Southampton, or an unknown Mr. W. H.,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
+or another); and that he treats of an intrigue with
+some unknown woman. The identification of the
+young man of the first seventeen sonnets with other
+friends who are praised in later sonnets is not certain,
+though in some cases probable; and much research and
+conjecture have entirely failed to make clear the relations
+between the poet, the rival poet, the lady, and the
+friend. The <i>Sonnets</i> furnish us with no knowledge of
+Shakespeare's personal affairs, and only a meager basis
+even for gossip as to some of his experiences with men
+and women.</p>
+
+<p>Another kind of inquiry has sought to discover in
+the sonnets not facts or incidents of Shakespeare's life,
+but indications of his emotional experiences. The results
+of such inquiry are manifestly outside the scope
+of this chapter. For their discussion, the reader must
+be referred to Professor Alden's introduction to the
+Tudor edition of the <i>Sonnets</i>. Shakespeare's personality
+as it is reflected from his works will also be considered
+in the concluding chapter of this volume. So
+much stress, however, has been placed on interpretations
+of the sonnets, and these have so often occupied
+an exaggerated place in his biography, that it may be
+worth while to remark that whether these lyrical poems
+are genuine and personal or are conventional and literary,
+and whether they make the poet more clearly discernible
+or not, they must certainly be taken not alone
+by themselves, but in connection with the dramas as
+affording us an impression of the man who wrote them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Evidence of the Sonnets</span>Of the sonnets, it may be said in almost the same
+words just now used of the documents and traditions,
+that whether they contain much or little to illuminate
+the vast intellect and soaring imagination which created
+Hamlet and Lear, they contain nothing irreconcilable
+with the personality which these creations imply rather
+than reveal.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>I.e.</i>, profession, used especially at that time of the profession
+of acting.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> See frontispieces in the Tudor Shakespeare to editions of
+<i>Henry V</i> (Droeshout original), <i>King Lear</i> (Ely Palace), <i>Romeo
+and Juliet</i> (Chandos), <i>Pericles</i> (Garrick Club bust), and <i>The
+Tempest</i> (Death-mask). The Stratford Monument and the
+Droeshout engraving are reproduced in the present volume.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Shakespeare's Reading</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>We have called the present chapter "Shakespeare's
+Reading" rather than "The Learning of Shakespeare,"
+because, apart from the famous line in which Ben
+Jonson stated that the poet had "small Latin and less
+Greek," it is evident from the allusions throughout
+the plays that Shakespeare was a reader rather than
+a scholar. In other words, he used books for what
+interested him; he did not study them for complete
+mastery; and many and varied as are the traces of his
+literary interests, they have the air of being detached
+fragments that have stuck in a plastic and retentive
+mind, not pieces of systematic erudition. It is true
+that many books have been written to show that
+Shakespeare had the knowledge of a professional in
+law, medicine, navigation, theology, conveyancing,
+hunting and hawking, horsemanship, politics, and
+other fields; but such works are usually the products
+of enthusiasts in single subjects, who are apt to forget
+how much a man of acute mind and keen observation
+can pick up of a technical matter that interests him
+for the time, and how intelligently he can use it. The
+cross-examination of an expert witness by an able
+lawyer is an everyday illustration; and in the literature<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">School-Books</span>of our own day this kind of versatility is strikingly
+exemplified in the work of such a writer as Mr. Kipling.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p>How Shakespeare learned to read and write his own
+tongue we do not know; that he did learn hardly needs
+to be argued. The free grammar school at Stratford-on-Avon,
+like other schools of its type, was named from
+its function of teaching Latin grammar; and we may
+make what is known of the curricula of such schools
+in the sixteenth century the basis for our inferences as
+to what Shakespeare learned there.</p>
+
+<p>The accidence, with which the course began, was
+studied in Lily's Grammar, and clear echoes of this
+well-known work are heard in the conversation between
+Sir Hugh Evans and William Page in <i>The Merry Wives
+of Windsor</i>, IV. i, in <i>1 Henry IV</i>, II. i. 104, in <i>Much Ado</i>,
+IV. i. 22, in <i>Love's Labour's Lost</i>, IV. ii. 82 (and perhaps,
+V. i. 10 and 84), in <i>Twelfth Night</i>, II. iii. 2, in <i>The Taming
+of the Shrew</i>, I. i. 167,&mdash;a line of Terence altered by
+Lily,&mdash;and in <i>Titus Andronicus</i>, IV. ii. 20-23, where
+Demetrius reads two lines from Horace, and Chiron says,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">O, 'tis a verse in Horace; I know it well.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I read it in the grammar long ago.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Such fragments of Latin as we find in the dialogue
+between Holofernes and Nathaniel in <i>Love's Labour's
+Lost</i>, IV. ii, and V. i, are probably due to some elementary
+phrase-book no longer to be identified. It is to
+be noted how prominently this early comedy figures
+in the list of evidences of his school-day memories.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Among the first pieces of connected Latin prose
+read in the Elizabethan schools was <i>&AElig;sop's Fables</i>, a
+collection which, after centuries of rewriting and re-compiling
+for adults, had come in the sixteenth century
+to be regarded chiefly as a school-book, but allusions
+to which are everywhere to be found in the literature
+of the day. In <i>2 Henry VI</i>, III. i. 343, and <i>Richard
+II</i>, III. ii. 129, we find references to the fable of
+"The Countryman and a Snake"; in <i>2 Henry VI</i>,
+III. i. 69, and <i>Timon of Athens</i>, II. i. 28, to "The Crow
+in Borrowed Feathers"; in <i>2 Henry VI</i>, III. i. 77, to
+"The Wolf in the Sheep's Skin"; in <i>King John</i>, II. i.
+139, to "The Ass in the Lion's Skin"; in <i>Henry V</i>, IV.
+iii. 91, to "The Hunter and the Bear"; in <i>As You
+Like It</i>, I. i. 87, to "The Dog that Lost his Teeth";
+in <i>All's Well</i>, II. i. 71, to "The Fox and the Grapes";
+besides a number of slighter and less definite allusions.
+The most detailed fable in Shakespeare, that of "The
+Belly and the Members," in <i>Coriolanus</i>, I. i. 99, is derived,
+not from <i>&AElig;sop</i>, but from Plutarch's <i>Life of
+Coriolanus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The traces of the well-known collection of sayings
+from various writers called <i>Sententi&aelig; Pueriles</i>, and
+of the so-called <i>Distichs of Cato</i>, both of which were
+commonly read in the second and third years, are only
+slight. Battista Spagnuoli Mantuanus, whose <i>Eclogues</i>,
+written about 1500, had become a text-book, is honored
+with explicit mention as well as quotation in <i>Love's
+Labour's Lost</i>, IV. ii. 95. Cicero, who was read from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Ovid</span>the fourth year, has left his mark on only a phrase or
+two, in spite of his importance in Renaissance culture;
+but Ovid is much more important. The motto on
+the title-page of <i>Venus and Adonis</i> is from the <i>Amores</i>,
+and the matter of the poem is from <i>Metamorphoses</i>, X.
+519 ff., with features from the stories of Hermaphroditus
+and Salmacis (<i>Meta.</i> IV. 285 ff.), and the hunting in
+Calydon (<i>Meta.</i> VIII. 270 ff.). Ovid is quoted in Latin
+in three early plays; and even where a translation
+was available, the phrasing of Shakespeare's allusions
+sometimes shows knowledge of the original. Most of
+Ovid had been translated into English before Shakespeare
+began to write, and Golding's version of the
+<i>Metamorphoses</i> (1567) was used for the references to
+the Act&aelig;on myth in <i>A Midsummer-Night's Dream</i>,
+IV. i. 107 ff., and for a famous passage in <i>The Tempest</i>,
+V. i. 33. Livy, who had been translated in 1545
+according to Malone, seems to have been the chief
+source of <i>Lucrece</i>, with some aid from Ovid's <i>Fasti</i>, II.
+721 ff. Among other Ovidian allusions are those to
+the story of Philomela, so pervasive in <i>Titus Andronicus</i>;
+to the Medea myth in four or five passages; to
+Narcissus and Echo, Phaeton, Niobe, Hercules, and a
+score more of the familiar names of classical mythology.
+Pyramus and Thisbe Shakespeare may have read about
+in Chaucer as well as in Ovid, but Bottom's treatment
+of this story in <i>A Midsummer-Night's Dream</i> gives but
+a slight basis for proving literary relations.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Virgil followed Ovid in the fifth year, and with Virgil,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+Terence. Of direct knowledge of the latter the plays
+bear no trace, but of the former there seems to be an
+influence in the description of the painting of Troy in
+<i>Lucrece</i>, 1366 ff., and in two short Latin sentences in
+<i>2 Henry VI</i>, II. i. 24, and IV. i. 117. Horace, Plautus,
+Juvenal, Persius, and Seneca were the new authors
+taken up in the last years in school. All the Horace in
+the plays may have been taken from other works, like
+the passage already quoted from Lily's Grammar.
+Juvenal and Persius have left no mark. The <i>Men&aelig;chmi</i>
+and <i>Amphitruo</i> of Plautus furnish the basis for <i>The
+Comedy of Errors</i>, and no English translation of either
+of these is known before that of the <i>Men&aelig;chmi</i> in
+1595, which some critics think Shakespeare may have
+seen in manuscript. But no verbal similarities confirm
+this conjecture, and there is no reason why the dramatist
+should not have known both plays at first hand.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of Seneca is dramatically the most important
+among the classical authors. All the plays
+that go by his name had been translated into English
+in the first part of Elizabeth's reign; he was the main
+channel through which the forms of classical tragedy
+reached the Renaissance; and when Shakespeare began
+to write he was the dominant force in the field of
+tragedy. This makes it hard to say whether the
+Senecan features in <i>Titus Andronicus</i>, <i>Richard III</i>,
+and even <i>Hamlet</i>, are due to Seneca directly, or to the
+tradition already well established among Shakespeare's
+earlier contemporaries.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="sidenote">Results of Schooling</span></p>
+
+<p>The impression which the evidence from the textbooks
+as a whole leaves on one is that Shakespeare
+took from school enough Latin to handle an occasional
+quotation<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> and to extract the plot of a play, but that
+he probably preferred to use a translation when one
+was to be had. The slight acquaintance shown with
+authors not always read at school, Caesar, Livy, Lucan,
+and Pliny, does not materially alter this impression.
+Much more conclusive as to the effect of his Latin
+training than the literary allusions are the numerous
+words of Latin origin either coined by Shakespeare, or
+used in such a way as to imply a knowledge of their
+derivation. The discovery of a lost translation may
+modify our views as to whether a particular author
+was used by him in the original, but the evidence from
+his use of Romance words gives clear proof that his
+schooling was no unimportant element in his mastery
+of speech.</p>
+
+<p>Greek was occasionally begun in the Elizabethan
+grammar school, but we do not know whether this
+was the case in Stratford. Certainly we have no
+reason to believe that Shakespeare could read Greek,
+as all his knowledge of Greek authors could have been
+obtained from translations, and only two Greek words,
+<i>misanthropos</i> and <i>threnos</i>, occur in his writings. Yet
+no single author was so important in providing material
+for the plays as the Greek Plutarch. His <i>Lives of
+Julius C&aelig;sar, Marcus Brutus, Marcus Antonius</i>, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+<i>Caius Martius Coriolanus</i>, in Sir Thomas North's
+translation, are the direct sources of the great Roman
+tragedies, and in a less important way the <i>Lives of
+Antonius</i> and <i>Alcibiades</i> were used in <i>Timon of Athens</i>.
+Homeric elements are discoverable in <i>Troilus and
+Cressida</i>, which derives mainly from the medieval
+tradition. As the Trojan story was already familiar
+on the stage, these need not have come from Chapman's
+Homer. The knowledge of Lucian which seems
+implied in <i>Timon</i> was probably not gained from the
+Greek original. The late Greek romances, which
+were popular in translation, may have been read by
+Shakespeare, since the reference to the "Egyptian
+thief" in <i>Twelfth Night</i>, V. i. 120, is from the <i>&AElig;thiopica</i>
+of Heliodorus, translated in 1569. Attempts have been
+made by the assembling of parallel passages to prove a
+knowledge of Greek tragedy on the part of Shakespeare,
+but such parallelisms are more naturally explained as
+coincidences arising from the treatment of analogous
+themes and situations.</p>
+
+<p>Of modern languages, French was the easiest for
+an Elizabethan Englishman to acquire, and the French
+passages and scenes in <i>Henry V</i> make it fairly certain
+that Shakespeare had a working knowledge of this
+tongue. Yet, as in the case of Latin, he seems to
+have preferred a translation to an original when he
+could find it. Montaigne, whose influence some have
+found pervasive in Shakespeare, he certainly used in
+Gonzalo's account of his ideal commonwealth in <i>The
+Tempest</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span><span class="sidenote">French and Italian</span> II. i. 143 ff., but it seems that he employed
+Florio's translation here. Rabelais's Gargantua is
+explicitly mentioned in <i>As You Like It</i>, III, ii. 238,
+and the great humorist is possibly the inspirer of
+some of Sir Andrew's nonsense in <i>Twelfth Night</i>, II. iii.
+23. Many of the Sonnets contain reminiscences of
+the French sonneteers of the sixteenth century, and
+it is thought that in some cases Shakespeare shows
+direct acquaintance with Ronsard. He was thus acquainted
+with the three greatest French writers of
+his century, and French may well have been the
+medium through which he reached authors in other
+languages.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The class of Italian literature with which Shakespeare
+shows most acquaintance is that of the <i>novelle</i>,
+though there is no proof that he could read the language.
+The <i>Decameron</i> of Boccaccio contains the love-story
+of <i>Cymbeline</i>, though there may have been an
+intermediary; the plot of <i>All's Well</i> came from the
+same collection, but had been translated by Painter in
+his <i>Palace of Pleasure</i>; and the story of the caskets
+in <i>The Merchant of Venice</i> is found in a form closer to
+Shakespeare's in the English translation of the <i>Gesta
+Romanorum</i> than in the <i>Decameron</i>. Thus we cannot
+conclude that the poet knew this work as a whole.
+Similarly with Bandello and Cinthio. The plot of
+<i>Much Ado</i> is found in the former, and is translated by
+Belleforest into French, but at least one detail seems
+to come from Ariosto, and here again an intermediary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+is commonly conjectured. The novel from Cinthio's
+<i>Hecatommithi</i> which formed the basis of <i>Othello</i> existed
+in a French translation; and his form of the plot of
+<i>Measure for Measure</i> came to Shakespeare through the
+English dramatic version of George Whetstone. The
+version of the bond story in <i>The Merchant of Venice</i>
+closest to the play is in <i>Il Pecorone</i> of Sir Giovanni
+Fiorentino, but the tale is widespread. Incidents in
+<i>The Merry Wives</i> have sources or parallels in the same
+work, in Straparola's <i>Piacevoli Notti</i>, and in Bandello,
+but in both cases English versions were available. A
+mass of Italian and French prototypes lies behind the
+plot of <i>Twelfth Night</i>, but most of the details are to be
+found in the English <i>Apolonius and Silla</i> of Barnabe
+Riche, and there is reason to conjecture a lost English
+play on the subject. <i>The Taming of the Shrew</i>, based
+on an extant older play, draws also on Gascoigne's
+version of Ariosto's <i>I Suppositi</i>; and the echoes of
+Petrarch in the Sonnets may well have come through
+French and English imitators. The introduction of
+stock types from the Italian drama, such as the pedant
+and the braggart-soldier, can be accounted for by the
+previous knowledge of these in England, and does not
+imply a first-hand reading of Italian literature. The
+negative position is still stronger in the case of Spanish,
+where the use of episodes from George of Montemayor's
+<i>Diana</i> in <i>The Two Gentlemen</i>, <i>Twelfth Night</i>, and <i>A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream</i>, can be supposed to be due
+to the author's having access to Yonge's translation in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Early English</span>manuscript, especially since there is no other trace of
+Spanish influence.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The conclusion with regard to Italian and Spanish,
+then, seems to be that Shakespeare in his search for
+plots was aware of the riches of the <i>novelle</i>, but that
+he found what he wanted as a rule in English or
+French versions; and that we have no evidence of
+his knowledge of anything but fiction from these
+literatures.</p>
+
+<p>Turning now to English, we find Shakespeare's
+knowledge of books in his own tongue beginning after
+the Conquest. The romances of the Middle Ages were
+in the Elizabethan time rapidly undergoing the process
+of degradation that was soon to end in the chap-books,
+but the material was still widely known. The particular
+versions read by the dramatist can rarely be determined
+on account of the slight nature of most of the references,
+but we find allusions to the Arthurian romances, to
+<i>Guy of Warwick</i>, <i>Bevis of Hampton</i>, <i>The Squire of Low
+Degree</i>, Roland and Oliver, and to <i>Huon of Bordeaux</i>,
+from which last came the name of Oberon as king
+of the fairies. Among popular ballads, those of
+Robin Hood are frequently alluded to; the story of
+<i>King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid</i> appears in no fewer
+than five plays; Hamlet knew a ballad on Jephtha's
+daughter, and Sir Toby one on the chaste Susanna.
+A large number of popular songs appear in fragments;
+and rimes and spells, current jests and anecdotes, combine
+with the fairy-lore of <i>A Midsummer-Night's Dream</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+<i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, and <i>The Merry Wives</i> to assure us
+that Shakespeare was thoroughly versed in the literature
+and traditions of the people.</p>
+
+<p>His acquaintance with more formal letters begins
+with Chaucer, whose <i>Knight's Tale</i> contributed some
+details to <i>A Midsummer-Night's Dream</i>, and the main
+plot of <i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i>, in which Shakespeare is
+now usually supposed to have had a hand. This story
+had, however, been already dramatized by Richard
+Edwardes. More certainly direct is his knowledge of
+Chaucer's <i>Troilus</i>, which, with Caxton's <i>Recuyell of
+the Historyes of Troye</i>, is the main source of <i>Troilus
+and Cressida</i>. The references to the leprosy of Cressida
+are due to Henryson's <i>Testament of Creseide</i>, a Scots
+sequel to Chaucer's poem, printed in the sixteenth century
+editions of the older poet's works. In the <i>Legend
+of Good Women</i> he may have found the story of Pyramus,
+and a version of the tragedy of Lucrece, to supplement
+his main sources in Livy and Ovid. Chaucer's contemporary
+Gower contributed to his stock the story of
+Florent (<i>Taming of the Shrew</i>, I. ii. 69) from the <i>Confessio
+Amantis</i>, and from the same collection a version of the
+tale of <i>Apollonius of Tyre</i>, dramatized by Shakespeare
+and another in <i>Pericles</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>With the non-dramatic literature produced by Shakespeare's
+contemporaries, we naturally find most evidence
+of his acquaintance in the case of those books which
+provided material for his plays. Thus the otherwise
+obscure Arthur Brooke, whose poem <i>Romeus and Juliet</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Contemporary Literature</span>is the chief source of the tragedy, is much more prominent
+in such an enumeration as the present than he
+probably was in Shakespeare's view of the literature
+of the day. Painter, whose version of the same story
+in his <i>Palace of Pleasure</i> cannot be shown to have been
+used much, if at all, by the dramatist, seems nevertheless
+to have been known to him; and we hardly need
+evidence that Shakespeare must have kept a watchful
+eye on similar collections of stories, such as Whetstone's,
+Riche's, and Pettie's. Of the greater writers of imaginative
+literature there is none missing from the list of
+those he knew, though, as has been implied, the evidence
+is not always proportionate to the greatness;
+and some prominent figures in other fields, such as
+Hooker and Bacon, do not appear. Spenser, who is
+supposed to have alluded to Shakespeare in <i>Colin Clout's
+come home again</i> and, less probably, in <i>The Teares of
+the Muses</i>, is in turn alluded to in <i>A Midsummer-Night's
+Dream</i>, V. i. 52; and his version of the story of Lear in
+<i>The Faerie Queene</i>, II. x, is believed to have given Shakespeare
+his form of the name Cordelia. Evidence is more
+abundant in the case of Sir Philip Sidney. The under-plot
+of <i>King Lear</i> is based on the story of the blind king
+of Paphlagonia in the <i>Arcadia</i>, and Sidney's sonnets,
+along with those of Daniel, Drayton, Constable, Watson,
+and Barnes, formed the main channel through which
+the French and Italian influences reached Shakespeare's.
+However we may estimate the original element in his
+sonnets, and in our opinion it is very great, there is no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+question of the author's having had a thorough familiarity
+with contemporary sonnetteers.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly we can be certain that he had read many of
+the elaborate narrative poems then in vogue, a class to
+which he contributed <i>Venus and Adonis</i>, <i>Lucrece</i>, and
+<i>A Lover's Complaint</i>. Daniel's <i>Rosamond</i> and Marlowe's
+<i>Hero and Leander</i> especially have left many
+traces, and Daniel's <i>Barons' Wars</i> is intimately related
+to <i>Richard II</i> and <i>Henry IV</i>. The longer prose fictions
+of the time he also watched, and Lyly's <i>Euphues</i> contributed
+the germ of a number of passages, as Lodge's
+<i>Rosalynde</i> and Greene's <i>Pandosto</i> supplied the plots of
+<i>As You Like It</i> and <i>The Winter's Tale</i> respectively.</p>
+
+<p>Reference has already been made to his knowledge
+of folk beliefs about fairies. To this should be added
+other supernatural beliefs, especially as to ghosts, devils,
+and witches, evidence of his familiarity with which will
+occur to every one. Matters of this sort were much discussed
+in his time, the frequency of ghosts in Senecan
+plays having made them conspicuous in Elizabethan
+imitations, and religious controversy having stimulated
+interest in demonology. Several important books appeared
+on the subject, and one of these at least Shakespeare
+read, Harsnett's <i>Declaration of Egregious Popish
+Impostures</i>, for from it Edgar, as Poor Tom in <i>King
+Lear</i>, derived many of the names and phrases which
+occur in his pretended ravings.</p>
+
+<p>The most useful book in all his reading, if we judge
+by the amount of his work that is based on it, was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Contemporary Drama</span>the second edition of the <i>Chronicles of England, Scotland,
+and Ireland</i>, compiled by Raphael Holinshed.
+With it he used the work by Hall on <i>The Union of Lancaster
+and York</i>, the <i>Chronicles</i> of Grafton and of Fabyan,
+and the <i>Annals</i> of John Stowe. On these were based the
+greater number of the historical plays, <i>Macbeth</i>, and the
+political part of <i>Cymbeline</i>. In the case of <i>Henry VIII</i>
+there should be added the <i>Acts and Monuments</i>, better
+known as the <i>Book of Martyrs</i>, of John Foxe.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>To deal adequately with Shakespeare's reading in the
+plays of his time would be to write a history of the
+Elizabethan drama. Older dramatists, like Preston,
+Gascoigne, and Whetstone, he knew, for he quotes
+<i>Cambyses</i>, and from the two last he derives material for
+the plots of <i>The Taming of the Shrew</i> and <i>Measure for
+Measure</i>. Anonymous writers supplied the older plays
+on which he based <i>King John, King Lear</i>, and <i>Hamlet</i>,
+parts of <i>Henry V</i> and <i>VI</i>, and of <i>Richard III</i>, and
+probably others. Allusions prove a familiarity with
+all of Marlowe's dramas; <i>Hamlet</i> is indebted to the
+tradition of which Kyd was one of the founders; Lyly
+taught him much in the handling of light comic dialogue;
+and he quotes lines from Peele. Greene's contribution
+is less specifically marked; but Shakespeare's profession
+of acting, as well as that of play-writing, of necessity
+made him acquainted with the whole dramatic production
+of the time. Thus, as has been stated in a previous
+chapter, he acted in several of Jonson's plays, and a good
+case has been made out for his modelling his last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+comedies on the new successes of Beaumont and
+Fletcher.</p>
+
+<p>No Englishman of that day was insensible to what
+was going on in exploration and conquest of the Western
+World; and in <i>The Tempest</i>, <i>Othello</i>, and other plays
+we have clear ground for stating that Shakespeare
+shared this interest, and read books like Eden's <i>History
+of Travayle in the West and East Indies</i>, Raleigh's <i>Discoverie
+of Guiana</i>, and such pamphlets as were used in
+the vast compilation of Richard Hakluyt. The scientific
+knowledge implied in the plays reflects current beliefs,
+and must have been derived from such works as Pliny,
+<i>Batman uppon Bartholome his Booke De Proprietatibus
+Rerum</i>, and from conversation.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, Shakespeare knew his Bible. Several volumes
+have been written to exhibit the extent of this
+knowledge, and it has been shown by Anders that he
+knew both the Genevan and the Great Bible, as well
+as the Prayer Book.</p>
+
+<p>Taken all together, the amount of literature indicated
+by this summary account of the evidences in the plays
+and poems abundantly proves the statement that
+Shakespeare, if not a scholar, was a man of wide and
+varied reading. When it is further considered that only
+a fraction of what any author reads leaves a mark
+that can be identified on what he writes, we shall readily
+allow that in the matter of study Shakespeare showed an
+activity and receptivity of mind that harmonizes with
+the impression received from his creative work.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="sidenote">His Reading Typical</span></p>
+
+<p>It agrees with our impressions of him derived from
+other sources also, that his reading reflects not so much
+idiosyncrasies of taste as the prevalent literary interests
+of the day. Thus in Latin literature the most conspicuous
+author among general readers, as distinguished
+from scholars, was Ovid, whose romantic narratives
+appealed to a time which reveled in tales gathered from
+all quarters; and this same prominence of Ovid has
+been shown to exist among the classical authors known to
+the dramatist. Similarly his use of chronicles like that
+of Holinshed merely reflects a widespread interest in
+national history; and Shakespeare shared the popular
+interest in the translations of <i>novelle</i> and the like that
+poured in from the Continent. The age of Elizabeth
+was an age of great expansion in reading&mdash;especially
+in the literature of entertainment. For the first time
+since the introduction of printing the people were free
+to indulge in books as a recreation, and the enormous
+growth of publishing in this era indicates the response
+to the new demand. In all this Shakespeare took part,
+and the evidences appear in his works so far as the
+nature of their themes permitted it. But the drama
+gave no opportunity for anything but passing allusions
+to scientific, philosophical, and religious matters, so
+that direct evidence is lacking as to how far Shakespeare
+was acquainted with what was being written in these
+fields. On the other hand, the profundity of his insight
+into human motive and behavior, the evidences of prolonged
+and severe meditation on human life and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+ways of the world, and the richness of the philosophical
+generalizations that lie just below the surface of his
+greater plays, make it difficult to believe that in these
+fields also he did not join in the intellectual activity of
+his day.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> See the list in the appendix to Schmidt's <i><a href="#Page_255">Lexicon</a></i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Chronology and Development</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>The value of a knowledge of the order in which an
+author's works were composed no longer needs to be
+argued. The development of power and skill which
+such knowledge reveals is an important part of biography,
+and an individual work is more surely interpreted
+when we know the period and the circumstances
+of the author's life in which it was written, and what
+other works, by himself and his fellows, lie nearest
+in point of time. Without a knowledge of chronology,
+the indebtedness of contemporary authors to one
+another and the growth of literary forms cannot be
+determined.</p>
+
+<p>The fact, so often to be insisted upon, that at the
+beginning of Shakespeare's career stage plays were
+hardly regarded as literature at all and were not published
+by their authors, deprives us of the evidence
+usually afforded by date of publication. We are thus
+forced to have recourse to a variety of more or less
+casually recorded data, and to indications of differences
+of maturity in style and matter which are often
+much less clear than could be wished. Before giving
+the results of the research that has been pursued for
+a century and a half, it will be worth while to enumerate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+the most fruitful methods which have been employed,
+and the sorts of evidence available.</p>
+
+<p>Of purely external evidence, the chief kinds are these:
+records of the performance of plays in letters, diaries,
+accounts, and the like; quotation, allusion, imitation,
+or parody in other works; entries in the books of the
+Master of the Revels at Court, and in the Register of
+the Stationers' Company; dates on the title-pages of
+the plays themselves; facts and traditions about the
+life of the author; dates in the lives of actors and in
+the careers of companies known to have performed the
+plays, and in the histories of theaters in which they
+were presented. Instances of some of these are the
+manuscript which tells of a performance of <i>The Comedy
+of Errors</i> at Gray's Inn in 1594; the diary of the quack,
+Dr. Simon Forman, who witnessed performances of
+<i>Macbeth, Cymbeline</i>, and <i>The Winter's Tale</i> at the
+Globe in 1610 and 1611; the appreciation of Shakespeare,
+with a list of a dozen plays by him, in the <i>Palladis
+Tamia</i><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> of Francis Meres, 1598; and the pamphlets
+on Somers's voyage to Virginia, which offered
+suggestions for <i>The Tempest</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Partly external and partly internal are the evidences
+derived from allusions in the plays to current events,
+personal or political, such as the reference in the
+Prologue to <i>Henry V</i> to the expedition of Essex
+to Ireland in 1599; references to other books, like the
+quotation from Marlowe in <i>As You Like It</i>, III. v. 82;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Kinds of Evidence</span>references from one play of Shakespeare's to another,
+like the promise in the Epilogue to <i>2 Henry IV</i> to
+"continue the story, with Sir John in it, and make
+you merry with fair Katherine of France."</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The purely internal evidence is seldom as specific
+as the external, and requires to be handled with much
+judgment and caution. Most difficult in this class
+is the weighing of considerations of a moral or esthetic
+nature; for, though these are often powerful in their
+effect on the individual reader, they are usually incapable
+of proof to another person with different
+tastes and a different point of view. Of such tests,
+those afforded by a study of the methods used in the
+treatment of plot and in the development of character
+are perhaps the least subjective. Somewhat more
+palpable are the changing characteristics of style.
+The number and nature of classical allusions and Latin
+words and quotations; the kind and degree of elaboration
+of figures of speech, puns, conceits, and the like;
+diffuseness or concentration in the expression of thought;
+artificiality or lifelikeness in the treatment of dialogue;
+the use of prose or verse; the employment of oaths,
+checked by statute shortly after the accession of
+James I: these are the main aspects of style which
+can be used in determining, not exact dates, but the
+period of Shakespeare's activity within which a given
+work falls. More capable of mechanical calculation
+than the tests of either matter or style are those derived
+from changes in versification, though here too<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+there is often a subjective element in the reckoning.
+The more important metrical tests include the following:
+the frequency of rhyme, whether in the heroic
+couplet or, as not uncommonly occurs in early plays,
+in alternates and even such elaborate arrangements
+as the sonnet; doggerel lines; alexandrines, or lines
+of twelve syllables; the presence of an extra syllable
+before a pause within the line; short lines, especially
+at the end of speeches; the substitution of other feet
+for the regular iambic movement of blank verse;
+weak and light endings; and, most valuable, the position
+of the pause in the line ("end-stopped" or "run on"),
+and feminine endings or hypermetrical lines, such as</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"These many summers in a sea of glor-y."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Many of these variable features were not consciously
+manipulated by the author; and, even when a general
+drift in a certain direction is clearly observable in his
+practice with regard to them, it is not to be assumed
+that his progress was perfectly regular, without leaps
+forward and occasional returns to an earlier usage.
+It is to be noted also that the subject and atmosphere
+of a particular play might induce a metrical treatment
+of a special kind, in which case the verse tests would
+yield evidence not primarily chronological at all.
+Nevertheless, when all allowances have been made and
+all due caution exercised, it will be found that the indications
+of the versification corroborate and supplement
+the external evidences in a valuable way.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="sidenote">Metrical Tests</span></p>
+<h3 class="moretop">TABLE I</h3>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="dat" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="lnlt">&nbsp;</td><td class="lnrt">Total<br />No. of<br />Lines</td><td class="lnrt">Prose</td><td class="lnrt">Blank<br />Verse</td><td class="lnrt">Penta-<br />meter<br />Rhymes</td><td class="lnrt">%<br />Blank<br />Verse<br />w. Fem.<br />Endings</td><td class="lnrt">%<br />Run-on<br />Lines</td><td class="lnrt">%<br />Speeches<br />Ending<br />within<br />the Line</td><td class="lnrt">No. of<br />Light<br />and Weak<br />Endings</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">L. L. L.</td><td class="lnrl">2789</td><td class="lnrl">1086</td><td class="lnrl">579</td><td class="lnrl">1028</td><td class="lnrl">7.7</td><td class="lnrl">18.4</td><td class="lnrl">10.0</td><td class="lnrl">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">C. of E.</td><td class="lnrl">1770</td><td class="lnrl">240</td><td class="lnrl">1150</td><td class="lnrl">380</td><td class="lnrl">16.6</td><td class="lnrl">12.9</td><td class="lnrl">0.6</td><td class="lnrl">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">T. G. V.</td><td class="lnrl">2060</td><td class="lnrl">409</td><td class="lnrl">1510</td><td class="lnrl">116</td><td class="lnrl">18.4</td><td class="lnrl">12.4</td><td class="lnrl">5.8</td><td class="lnrl">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">R. III</td><td class="lnrl">3599</td><td class="lnrl">55</td><td class="lnrl">3374</td><td class="lnrl">170</td><td class="lnrl">19.5</td><td class="lnrl">13.1</td><td class="lnrl">2.9</td><td class="lnrl">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">K. J.</td><td class="lnrl">2553</td><td class="lnrl">2403</td><td class="lnrl">150</td><td class="lnrl">6.3</td><td class="lnrl">17.7</td><td class="lnrl">12.7</td><td class="lnrl">7</td><td class="lnrl">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">R. &amp; J.</td><td class="lnrl">3002</td><td class="lnrl">405</td><td class="lnrl">2111</td><td class="lnrl">486</td><td class="lnrl">8.2</td><td class="lnrl">14.2</td><td class="lnrl">14.9</td><td class="lnrl">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">M. N. D.</td><td class="lnrl">2251</td><td class="lnrl">441</td><td class="lnrl">878</td><td class="lnrl">731</td><td class="lnrl">7.3</td><td class="lnrl">13.2</td><td class="lnrl">17.3</td><td class="lnrl">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">R. II</td><td class="lnrl">2644</td><td class="lnrl">2107</td><td class="lnrl">537</td><td class="lnrl">11.0</td><td class="lnrl">19.9</td><td class="lnrl">7.3</td><td class="lnrl">4</td><td class="lnrl">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">Merch.</td><td class="lnrl">2705</td><td class="lnrl">673</td><td class="lnrl">1896</td><td class="lnrl">93</td><td class="lnrl">17.6</td><td class="lnrl">21.5</td><td class="lnrl">22.2</td><td class="lnrl">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">1 Hy. IV</td><td class="lnrl">3170</td><td class="lnrl">1464</td><td class="lnrl">1622</td><td class="lnrl">84</td><td class="lnrl">5.1</td><td class="lnrl">22.8</td><td class="lnrl">14.2</td><td class="lnrl">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">2 Hy. IV</td><td class="lnrl">3437</td><td class="lnrl">1860</td><td class="lnrl">1417</td><td class="lnrl">74</td><td class="lnrl">16.3</td><td class="lnrl">21.4</td><td class="lnrl">16.8</td><td class="lnrl">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">M. W. W.</td><td class="lnrl">3018</td><td class="lnrl">2703</td><td class="lnrl">227</td><td class="lnrl">69</td><td class="lnrl">27.2</td><td class="lnrl">20.1</td><td class="lnrl">20.5</td><td class="lnrl">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">Hy. V</td><td class="lnrl">3320</td><td class="lnrl">1531</td><td class="lnrl">1678</td><td class="lnrl">101</td><td class="lnrl">20.5</td><td class="lnrl">21.8</td><td class="lnrl">18.3</td><td class="lnrl">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">M. Ado.</td><td class="lnrl">2823</td><td class="lnrl">2106</td><td class="lnrl">643</td><td class="lnrl">40</td><td class="lnrl">22.9</td><td class="lnrl">19.3</td><td class="lnrl">20.7</td><td class="lnrl">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">J. C.</td><td class="lnrl">2440</td><td class="lnrl">165</td><td class="lnrl">2241</td><td class="lnrl">34</td><td class="lnrl">19.7</td><td class="lnrl">19.3</td><td class="lnrl">20.3</td><td class="lnrl">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">A. Y. L. I.</td><td class="lnrl">2904</td><td class="lnrl">1681</td><td class="lnrl">925</td><td class="lnrl">71</td><td class="lnrl">25.5</td><td class="lnrl">17.1</td><td class="lnrl">21.6</td><td class="lnrl">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">T. N.</td><td class="lnrl">2684</td><td class="lnrl">1741</td><td class="lnrl">763</td><td class="lnrl">120</td><td class="lnrl">25.6</td><td class="lnrl">14.7</td><td class="lnrl">36.3</td><td class="lnrl">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">T. &amp; C.</td><td class="lnrl">3423</td><td class="lnrl">1186</td><td class="lnrl">2025</td><td class="lnrl">196</td><td class="lnrl">23.8</td><td class="lnrl">27.4</td><td class="lnrl">31.3</td><td class="lnrl">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">A. W. W.</td><td class="lnrl">2981</td><td class="lnrl">1453</td><td class="lnrl">1234</td><td class="lnrl">280</td><td class="lnrl">29.4</td><td class="lnrl">28.4</td><td class="lnrl">74.0</td><td class="lnrl">13</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">Hml.</td><td class="lnrl">3924</td><td class="lnrl">1208</td><td class="lnrl">2490</td><td class="lnrl">81</td><td class="lnrl">22.6</td><td class="lnrl">23.1</td><td class="lnrl">51.6</td><td class="lnrl">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">Meas.</td><td class="lnrl">2809</td><td class="lnrl">1134</td><td class="lnrl">1574</td><td class="lnrl">73</td><td class="lnrl">26.1</td><td class="lnrl">23.0</td><td class="lnrl">51.4</td><td class="lnrl">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">Oth.</td><td class="lnrl">3324</td><td class="lnrl">541</td><td class="lnrl">2672</td><td class="lnrl">86</td><td class="lnrl">28.1</td><td class="lnrl">19.5</td><td class="lnrl">41.4</td><td class="lnrl">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">Lear.</td><td class="lnrl">3298</td><td class="lnrl">903</td><td class="lnrl">2238</td><td class="lnrl">74</td><td class="lnrl">28.5</td><td class="lnrl">29.3</td><td class="lnrl">60.9</td><td class="lnrl">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">Mcb.</td><td class="lnrl">1993</td><td class="lnrl">158</td><td class="lnrl">1588</td><td class="lnrl">118</td><td class="lnrl">26.3</td><td class="lnrl">36.6</td><td class="lnrl">77.2</td><td class="lnrl">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">A. &amp; C.</td><td class="lnrl">3064</td><td class="lnrl">255</td><td class="lnrl">2761</td><td class="lnrl">42</td><td class="lnrl">26.5</td><td class="lnrl">43.3</td><td class="lnrl">77.5</td><td class="lnrl">99</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">Cor.</td><td class="lnrl">3392</td><td class="lnrl">829</td><td class="lnrl">2521</td><td class="lnrl">42</td><td class="lnrl">28.4</td><td class="lnrl">45.9</td><td class="lnrl">79.0</td><td class="lnrl">104</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">Cym.</td><td class="lnrl">3448</td><td class="lnrl">638</td><td class="lnrl">2505</td><td class="lnrl">107</td><td class="lnrl">30.7</td><td class="lnrl">46.0</td><td class="lnrl">85.0</td><td class="lnrl">130</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">W. T.</td><td class="lnrl">2750</td><td class="lnrl">844</td><td class="lnrl">1825</td><td class="lnrl">32.9</td><td class="lnrl">37.5</td><td class="lnrl">87.6</td><td class="lnrl">100</td><td class="lnrl">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">Tmp.</td><td class="lnrl">2068</td><td class="lnrl">458</td><td class="lnrl">1458</td><td class="lnrl">2</td><td class="lnrl">35.4</td><td class="lnrl">41.5</td><td class="lnrl">84.5</td><td class="lnrl">67</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="topiii" colspan="9">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3 class="moretop">TABLE II</h3>
+
+<p class="oh"><span class="smcap">Collaborated Plays</span></p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="dat" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="lnlt">&nbsp;</td><td class="lnrt">Total<br />No. of<br />Lines</td><td class="lnrt">Prose</td><td class="lnrt">Blank<br />Verse</td><td class="lnrt">Penta-<br />meter<br />Rhymes</td><td class="lnrt">%<br />Blank<br />Verse<br />w. Fem.<br />Endings</td><td class="lnrt">%<br />Run-on<br />Lines</td><td class="lnrt">%<br />Speeches<br />Ending<br />within<br />the Line</td><td class="lnrt">No. of<br />Light<br />and Weak<br />Endings</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">1 Hy. VI</td><td class="lnrl">2693</td><td class="lnrl">0</td><td class="lnrl">2379</td><td class="lnrl">314</td><td class="lnrl">8.2</td><td class="lnrl">10.4</td><td class="lnrl">0.5</td><td class="lnrl">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">2 Hy. VI</td><td class="lnrl">3032</td><td class="lnrl">448</td><td class="lnrl">2562</td><td class="lnrl">122</td><td class="lnrl">13.7</td><td class="lnrl">11.4</td><td class="lnrl">1.1</td><td class="lnrl">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">3 Hy. VI</td><td class="lnrl">2904</td><td class="lnrl">0</td><td class="lnrl">2749</td><td class="lnrl">155</td><td class="lnrl">13.7</td><td class="lnrl">9.5</td><td class="lnrl">0.9</td><td class="lnrl">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">T. And.</td><td class="lnrl">2525</td><td class="lnrl">43</td><td class="lnrl">2338</td><td class="lnrl">144</td><td class="lnrl">8.6</td><td class="lnrl">12.0</td><td class="lnrl">2.5</td><td class="lnrl">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">T. of S.</td><td class="lnrl">2671</td><td class="lnrl">516</td><td class="lnrl">1971</td><td class="lnrl">169</td><td class="lnrl">17.7</td><td class="lnrl">8.1</td><td class="lnrl">3.6</td><td class="lnrl">14</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">T. of A.</td><td class="lnrl">2358</td><td class="lnrl">596</td><td class="lnrl">1560</td><td class="lnrl">184</td><td class="lnrl">24.7</td><td class="lnrl">32.5</td><td class="lnrl">62.8</td><td class="lnrl">30 (S)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">Per.</td><td class="lnrl">2386</td><td class="lnrl">418</td><td class="lnrl">1436</td><td class="lnrl">225</td><td class="lnrl">20.2</td><td class="lnrl">18.2</td><td class="lnrl">71.0</td><td class="lnrl">82 (S)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">Hy. VIII</td><td class="lnrl">2754</td><td class="lnrl">67</td><td class="lnrl">2613</td><td class="lnrl">16</td><td class="lnrl">47.3</td><td class="lnrl">46.3</td><td class="lnrl">72.4</td><td class="lnrl">84 (S)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nol">T. N. K.</td><td class="lnrl">2734</td><td class="lnrl">179</td><td class="lnrl">2468</td><td class="lnrl">54</td><td class="lnrl">43.7</td><td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td><td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td><td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="topiii" colspan="9">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>The accompanying Tables<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> give the detailed results
+of investigations along these lines, and a study of the
+data therein contained will reveal both their possibilities
+and their limitations. In Tables I and II the
+order of the plays is approximately that of the dates of
+their composition (virtually the same as the dates of
+first performance). The second and third columns
+cannot be regarded as giving any clue to chronology,
+except that they show that in the dramas written
+under the influence of Marlowe prose is comparatively<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Metrical Tests</span>rare. Elsewhere Shakespeare employed prose for a
+variety of purposes: for low comedy, as in the tavern
+scenes in <i>Henry IV</i>, and the scenes in which Sir Toby
+figures in <i>Twelfth Night</i>; for repartee, as in the wit-combats
+of Beatrice and Benedick; for purely intellectual
+and moralizing speeches, such as Hamlet's over
+the skull of Yorick. On the other hand, highly emotional
+scenes are usually in verse, as are romantic passages
+like the conversation of Lorenzo and Jessica in the
+moonlight at Belmont, or the dialogues of Fenton and
+Anne Page, which contrast with the realistic prose of
+the rest of the <i>Merry Wives</i> and also the artificial pastoralism
+of Silvius and Ph&#339;be in <i>As You Like It</i>. Few
+absolute rules can be laid down in the matter, but study
+of Shakespeare's practice reveals an admirable tact
+in his choice of medium.</p>
+
+<p>The frequency of rhyme, as shown in the fourth
+column, has more relation to date. While there is no
+very steady gradation, it is clear that in his earlier
+plays he used rhyme freely, while at the close of his
+career he had practically abandoned it. The large
+number of rhymes in <i>A Midsummer-Night's Dream</i> and
+<i>Romeo and Juliet</i> is accounted for mainly by the prevailing
+lyrical tone of a great part of these plays, while,
+on the other hand, in <i>All's Well</i> it probably points
+to survivals of an earlier first form of this comedy.
+It ought to be noted that, in the figures given here,
+the rhyming lines in the play scene in <i>Hamlet</i>, the
+vision in <i>Cymbeline</i>, the masque in <i>The Tempest</i>, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+the Prologue and Epilogue of <i>Henry VIII</i> are not
+reckoned.</p>
+
+<p>More significant are the percentages in columns
+five, six, and seven. Before 1598, feminine endings
+never reach twenty per cent of the total number of
+pentameter lines; after that date they are practically
+always above that number, and show a fairly steady
+increase to the thirty-five per cent of <i>The Tempest</i>.
+The variations of run-on lines (which, of course, carry
+with them the frequency of pauses within the line,
+and inversely the growing rarity of end-stopped
+lines) are closely parallel to those of the feminine
+endings; while the increase in the proportion of speeches
+ending within the line is still more striking. In <i>The
+Comedy of Errors</i> this phenomenon hardly occurs at all;
+in <i>The Tempest</i> it happens in over eighty-four per cent
+of the speeches, the increase being especially regular
+after 1598. Yet in some cases other causes are operative.
+Thus cuts and revisions of plays were apt to
+leave broken lines at the ends of speeches, and the
+comparatively high percentages in <i>Love's Labour's
+Lost</i>, <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, and <i>All's Well</i> are probably in
+part due to these causes.</p>
+
+<p>The phenomena recorded in the last column are
+peculiar. Previous to the date of <i>Macbeth</i> it appears
+that Shakespeare practically avoided ending a line
+with light or weak words such as prepositions, conjunctions,
+and auxiliary verbs, but that from about 1606
+to the end he employed them in proportions ranging<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Risks of Error</span>from 3.53 per cent in <i>Antony and Cleopatra</i> to 7.14
+per cent in his part of <i>Henry VIII</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The figures for plays not wholly written by Shakespeare
+are naturally less significant, and have therefore
+been given separately; yet, on the whole, they show
+the same general tendencies in the use of meter.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed that while the developments
+suggested by the different columns are fairly consistent,
+they do not absolutely agree in any two cases, and
+can obviously be used, as has been said, only to corroborate
+other evidence in placing a play in a period,
+not to fix a precise year. Further, in the calculations
+involved, there are many doubtful cases calling for
+the exercise of individual judgment, especially as to
+what constitutes a run-on line, or a light or weak
+ending. Thus Professor Bradley differs from K&ouml;nig
+in several cases as to the figures given in the seventh
+column, counting the percentage of speeches ending
+within the line as 57 for <i>Hamlet</i>, 54 for <i>Othello</i>, 69 for
+<i>King Lear</i>, and 75 for <i>Macbeth</i>. For Acts III, IV, and
+V of <i>Pericles</i>, the 71 per cent is Bradley's, for which
+K&ouml;nig's 17.1 is clearly a mistake. Serious as are such
+discrepancies, and suggestive of a need for a general
+re-counting of all the more significant phenomena, they
+are not so great as to shake the faith of any scholar
+who has seriously studied the matter in the usefulness
+of metrical tests as an aid in the settling of the chronology.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="moretop">TABLE III</h3>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="dat" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="nlt">Periods</td><td class="nct" colspan="2">Comedies</td><td class="nct" colspan="2">Histories</td><td class="nct" colspan="2">Tragedies</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nvc">I</td><td class="nva">L. L. L.<br />C. of E.<br />T. G. of V.</td><td class="nvb">1591<br />1591<br />1591-2<br /><br /></td><td class="nva">1 Hy. VI<br />2 Hy. VI<br />3 Hy. VI<br />R. III<br />K. J.</td><td class="nvb">1590-1<br />1590-2<br />1590-2<br />1593<br />1593<br /></td><td class="nva"><br /><br /><br /><br />T. And.</td><td class="nvb"><br /><br /><br /><br />1593-4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nvc">II</td><td class="nva">M. N. D.<br />M. of V.<br />T. of S.<br />M. W. of W.<br />M. Ado<br />A. Y. L. I.<br />Tw. N.</td><td class="nvb">1594-5<br />1595-6<br />1596-7<br />1598<br />1599<br />1599-1600<br />1601</td><td class="nva">R. II<br /><br />1 Hy. IV<br />2 Hy. IV<br />Hy. V</td><td class="nvb">1595<br /><br />1597<br />1598<br />1599</td><td class="nva">R. and J.<br /><br /><br /><br />J. C&aelig;s.</td><td class="nvb">1594-5<br /><br /><br /><br />1599</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nvc">III</td><td class="nva">T. &amp; C.<br />A. Well<br />Meas.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Per.</td><td class="nvb">1601-2<br />1602<br />1603<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />1607-8</td><td class="nva">&nbsp;</td><td class="nvb">&nbsp;</td><td class="nva">&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;<br />Ham.<br />Oth.<br />Lear<br />Mach.<br />T. of Ath.<br />A. &amp; Cl.<br />Cor.</td><td class="nvb">&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;<br />1602, 1603<br />1604<br />1605-6<br />1606<br />1607<br />1607-8<br />1609</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="nvc">IV</td><td class="nva">Cymb.<br />W. Tale<br />Temp.<br />T. N. K.</td><td class="nvb">1610<br />1611<br />1611<br />1612-13</td><td class="nva"><br /><br /><br />Hy. VIII</td><td class="nvb"><br /><br /><br />1612</td><td class="nva">&nbsp;</td><td class="nvb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="topii" colspan="7">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<p>Table III gives a summary of the results of all the
+kinds of evidence available as recorded in the introduction
+to individual plays in the Tudor Shakespeare. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">First Period</span>classification into Comedies, Histories, and Tragedies
+draws attention at once to the changes in the type
+of drama on which Shakespeare concentrated his
+main attention, and suggests the usual division of
+his activity into four periods. In the first of these,
+extending from the beginning of his writing (perhaps
+earlier than 1590) to the end of 1593, he attempted
+practically all the forms of drama then in vogue.
+Plays which were given him to revise, or in which he
+was invited to collaborate, may naturally be supposed
+to have preceded independent efforts, and his still
+undetermined share in <i>Henry VI</i> is usually regarded
+as his earliest dramatic production. What he learned
+in this field of tragic history from his more experienced
+fellows may be seen in <i>Richard III</i>, in which
+he can be observed following in the footsteps of Marlowe
+in the treatment of meter, in the rhetorical and lyrical
+nature of the dialogue, and in the conception of the
+central character. Even less of his individual quality
+is to be discerned in the field of tragedy, for the most
+that can be claimed for him in <i>Titus Andronicus</i> is
+the re-combination of the repellent episodes of that
+crude specimen of the tragedy of blood, and the rewriting
+of the lines which occasionally cloak the horrors
+with passages of poetry. If, as is unlikely, the first
+form of <i>Romeo and Juliet</i> was written in this period,
+the extant form must show it so radically revised that
+it leaves us little ground for generalization as to his
+power in tragedy in this first period.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It was in comedy that Shakespeare first showed
+originality. <i>Love's Labour's Lost</i> is one of the few plays
+whose plots seem to have been due to his own invention;
+and full of sparkle and grace as it is, it bears
+obvious marks of the <i>tour de force</i>, the young writer's
+conscious testing of his powers in social satire, in comic
+situation, and most of all in verbal mastery and the
+manipulation of dialogue. In <i>The Comedy of Errors</i>
+he had the advantage of a definite model in the well-defined
+type of the Plautian comedy; but here again
+in the doubling of the twins and the elaboration of
+the entanglements there are traces of the beginner's
+delight in technic for its own sake. The clearly contrasted
+types in the two pairs of heroes and heroines
+of <i>The Two Gentlemen of Verona</i> point to a conscious
+effort in characterization, as the author's attention
+had been concentrated on dialogue and on situation
+in the other two comedies of this group. Thus, regarding
+the variety of kind and the nature of his
+achievement in these first eight or nine plays, we can
+hardly fail to acquiesce in the general opinion that
+views the first period as one of experiment.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The chronicle history was the Elizabethan dramatic
+form whose possibilities were first exhausted. <i>King
+John</i> had been only a making over of an earlier work,
+and perhaps the most significant single change Shakespeare
+made was the excision of the anti-Romanist
+bias which in the older play had made John a Protestant
+hero. Yet this history voices, too, in the speeches of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Second Period</span>Faulconbridge, that patriotic enthusiasm which finds
+fuller expression in the dying Gaunt's eulogy of England
+in <i>Richard II</i>, and culminates in the triumphant heroics
+of <i>Henry V</i>. This national enthusiasm, especially
+ebullient in the years following the Great Armada,
+is justly to be regarded as an important condition of
+the flourishing of these plays on English history; and
+it is natural to suppose that the ebbing of this spirit
+in the closing years of Elizabeth's reign is not unconnected
+with the decline of this dramatic type.
+There are, however, other causes clearly perceptible.
+The material was nearly exhausted. Almost every
+prominent national figure for the three hundred years
+before the founding of the Tudor dynasty had been
+put upon the stage; and to come down to more recent
+times was to meddle with matters of controversy,
+the ashes of which were not yet cold. The reign of
+Henry VIII was not touched till after the death of
+Elizabeth, and the nature of the treatment given to
+the court of her father by Shakespeare and Fletcher
+corroborates our view. Further, the growing mastery
+of technic which is so clearly perceptible in the
+comedies of the second period must have been accompanied
+by a restlessness under the hampering
+conditions as to the manipulation of character and
+plot which were imposed by the less plastic material
+of the chronicles. Some effort towards greater freedom
+the dramatist made in the later histories. The earlier
+plays of this class had been prevailingly tragic; but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+now he supplemented and enlivened the political
+element with the comic scenes which gave us Falstaff;
+yet these scenes, brilliant as they are in dialogue and
+superb in characterization, are of necessity little more
+than episodes. The form had served its purpose as an
+outlet for national feeling, but it was now outgrown.
+So distinguished, however, is Shakespeare's achievement
+in this kind that we might be almost justified
+in calling this second period that of the culmination
+of the chronicle history.</p>
+
+<p>The main objection to this title lies in his contemporary
+accomplishment in comedy. <i>A Midsummer-Night's
+Dream</i> and <i>The Merchant of Venice</i>, the one in
+its graceful poetic fancy and dainty lyricism, the other
+in its balanced treatment of all the elements of dramatic
+effectiveness&mdash;action, character, and dialogue,&mdash;exhibit
+the dramatist in complete control of his technical
+instruments, the creator of masterpieces of romantic
+comedy. <i>The Taming of the Shrew</i> is a more or less
+perfunctory revision, probably in collaboration, of
+an older farce comedy; <i>The Merry Wives of Windsor</i>
+bears on its face corroboration of the tradition that it
+was written to order in a fortnight. The power in
+high comedy first fully shown in <i>The Merchant of
+Venice</i> reaches its supreme pitch in the three plays
+composed at the turn of the century, <i>Much Ado about
+Nothing</i>, <i>As You Like It</i>, and <i>Twelfth Night</i>. In each
+of these a romantic love-tale, laid in some remote
+holiday world, is taken up, given a specific atmosphere,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Third Period</span>acted out by a group of delightful creations who are
+endowed with intellect, wit, and natural affection,
+bathed in poetic imagination, and yet handled with
+sufficient naturalism to awaken and hold our human
+sympathies. No more purely delightful form of dramatic
+art has ever been contrived; none has ever been
+treated so as to yield more fully its appropriate charm;
+so that in view of the completeness of the artist's
+success we are bound to call the period which closed
+with the first year of the seventeenth century the triumph
+of comedy.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><i>Julius C&aelig;sar</i>, the first of the plays dealing with
+Roman history, may have been written before 1600,
+but, whether it preceded <i>Hamlet</i> by one year or three,
+it forms a gradual introduction to the group of the great
+tragedies. Masterly as it is in its delineation of types,
+rich in political wisdom and the knowledge of human
+nature, splendid in rhetoric, it still fails to rise to the
+intensity of passion that marks the succeeding dramas.
+In <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Othello</i>, <i>King Lear</i>, and <i>Macbeth</i>, Shakespeare
+at length faced the great fundamental forces that
+operate in individual, family, and social life, realized
+especially those that make for moral and physical
+disaster, took account alike of the deepest tendencies
+in character and of the mystery of external fate or
+accident, exhibited these in action and reaction, in
+their simplicity and their complexity, and wrought out
+a series of spectacles of the pity and terror of human
+suffering and human sin without parallel in the modern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+world. In these stupendous tragedies he availed
+himself of all the powers with which he was endowed
+and all the skill which he had acquired. His verse
+has liberated itself from the formalism and monotony
+that had marked it in the earlier plays, and is now
+free, varied, responsive to every mood and every
+type of passion; the language is laden almost to the
+breaking point with the weight of thought; the dialogue
+ranges from the lightest irony to heart-rending pathos
+and intolerable denunciation; the characters lose all
+semblance of artificial creations and challenge criticism
+and analysis like any personage in history; the action
+is pregnant with the profoundest significance. Hardly,
+if at all, less powerful are the later tragedies of the
+Roman group. <i>Antony and Cleopatra</i> is unsurpassed
+for the intensity of its picture of passion, for its superb
+mastery of language, for its relentless truth. The
+more somber scenes of <i>Coriolanus</i> convey a tragedy
+which either on its personal or its political side scarcely
+yields to its predecessors in poignancy and gloom.
+Whatever else he may have written in these years,
+here is surely the period of tragedy.</p>
+
+<p>Nor do the plays classed as comedies and falling in
+the first three years of the new century seriously modify
+this impression of the prevailing tone of the period.
+<i>Troilus and Cressida</i>, <i>All's Well that Ends Well</i>, and
+<i>Measure for Measure</i> present a marked contrast to the
+romantic comedy of the preceding stage. The love-story
+of the first deals with a coquette and ends sordidly;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Fourth Period</span>while in the political plot, though it gives occasion for
+speeches full of weighty thinking, jealousy and intrigue
+overwhelm the heroic element. The second, alone of
+Shakespeare's comedies, has a hero who is a rake; and,
+skilful as is the delineation of Helena, it needs all the
+dramatist's power to hold our sympathy and to force
+us to an unwilling assent to the title. <i>Measure for
+Measure</i> has its scene laid in a city seething in moral
+corruption: out of this rises the central situation of
+the play; and the presence of the most idealistic of
+Shakespeare's heroines does not avail to counterbalance
+the atmosphere of sin and death that mocks
+the conventional happy ending, and makes this play,
+even more than the two others, seem more in place
+among the tragedies than among the comedies.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The plays of the last period are, in the Folio, classed
+with comedies, and such no doubt they are if judged
+merely by the nature of their d&eacute;nouements. But if
+we consider their characteristic note, and the fact that
+through the greater part of each play the forces and
+passions involved are rather those operative in tragedy
+than in comedy, we easily perceive why they have
+been classed as tragi-comedies or dramatic romances.
+<i>Pericles</i> in many respects stands apart from the other
+three in nature as well as in date, for it is a dramatization
+of an old Greek romance, and in it the hand of
+another than Shakespeare is only too evident. Yet
+it shares with the others certain common features:
+like <i>The Tempest</i> it has scenes at sea; all four deal with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+the separation and reuniting of families; all show us
+sympathetic figures deeply wronged and finally overcoming
+their injurers by forgiveness. The abounding
+high spirits of the earlier comedies are here replaced
+by a mood of calm assurance of the ultimate triumph
+of good and a placid faith that survives a rude acquaintance
+with the evil that is in men's hearts. No period
+has a more distinctive quality than this of the dramatic
+romances, in which the dramatist, on the eve of his
+retirement from London, gave his imagination free
+play, and in both character and action stamped his
+last creations with the mark of a lofty idealism.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The obvious fitness of this fourfold division into
+periods inevitably raises the question of its causes, and
+attempts at an answer have run along two main lines.
+One of these has been followed out with much eloquence
+and persuasiveness by Professor Dowden, whose phrases
+"In the Workshop," "In the World," "In the Depths,"
+"On the Heights," to describe the four periods, point
+clearly enough to the kind of significance which he finds
+in the changes in mood and type of play. With the
+first of these phrases few will be disposed to quarrel.
+In his period of experiment Shakespeare's style was
+as yet comparatively unformed, and his attention
+was so much occupied with problems of technic that
+even the most psychological of critics finds here little
+revelation of personality, and must be content to
+describe the stage as one of professional apprenticeship.
+In the terms used of the three later periods, however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Interpretation of Periods</span>there is an implication that the tone and mood of the
+plays in each are the direct reflection of the emotional
+experiences through which the poet himself was passing
+at the period of their composition. But this is to
+take for granted a theory of the relation between
+artist and production which has against it the general
+testimony of creator and critic alike. It is not at the
+pitch of an emotional experience that an artist successfully
+transmutes his life into art, but in retrospect,
+when his recollective imagination reproduces his mood
+in a form capable of being expressed without being
+dissipated. Of course, Shakespeare must have lived
+and enjoyed and suffered intensely; but this does not
+commit us to a belief in an immediate turning to account
+of personal experience in the writing of drama. His
+boy, Hamnet, died in 1596, about the time that he was
+writing <i>The Merchant of Venice</i> and the rollicking farce
+of <i>The Taming of the Shrew</i>, and just before he conceived
+Falstaff; it was fourteen years later that he gave us
+the pathetic figure of the young Mamillius in <i>The
+Winter's Tale</i>. From all we know of his personal life,
+the years of <i>King Lear</i> and <i>Othello</i> were years of abounding
+prosperity. The <i>lacrim&aelig; rerum</i> that touch the
+mind in these stupendous tragedies are the outcome
+of profound meditation and vivid imagination, not the
+accompaniment of a cry of instant pain. However we are
+to reconstruct the spiritual biography of Shakespeare, it
+is clear that it is by no such simple reading of his life
+in terms of his treatment of comic or tragic themes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The other line of explanation will suggest itself to
+any thoughtful student who contemplates the facts
+summed up in Chapter V on the Elizabethan drama.
+Whatever Shakespeare's pre&euml;minence in the quality
+of his work, he was not singular for innovations in
+kind. Not only are the plays of his experimental stage
+preceded by models easily discerned, but throughout his
+career one can see him eagerly taking up and developing
+varieties of drama on which less capable men had
+stumbled and for which the public had shown relish.
+Chronicle history, romantic comedy, tragedies of blood
+and revenge, dramatic romance, had all been invented
+by others, and Shakespeare never hesitated to follow
+their trail when it promised to lead to popular success.
+This does not mean that he did not put conscience into
+his work, but only that the change in type of play
+perceptible from period to period is more safely to be
+explained by changes of theatrical fashion and public
+taste than by conjectures as to the inner life of the
+dramatist. Nor are we prevented from finding here
+too that great good fortune as to occasion and opportunity
+that is needed, along with whatever natural
+endowment, to explain the achievement of Shakespeare.
+The return of the vogue of tragedy after he had attained
+maturity and seen life was indeed happy for him and
+for us; as was the rise of the imaginative type of
+dramatic romance when the storm and stress of his
+youth had gone by. Had the theatrical demand
+called for tragedy when Shakespeare was in the early<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Dates of the Poems</span>thirties and light comedy when he was in the forties,
+it seems likely that he would have responded to the
+demand, though we can hardly suppose that the
+result would have been as fortunate as in the existing
+state of things it proved to be.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The foregoing discussion has been confined to
+Shakespeare's plays; the poems present problems of
+their own. <i>Venus and Adonis</i> (1593) and <i>Lucrece</i>
+(1594), indeed, resemble the plays of the first period,
+with which they are contemporary, both in conforming
+to a familiar type then much in vogue, the re-telling
+in ornate style of classical legends drawn chiefly from
+Ovid, and in exhibiting marks of the conscious exercise
+of technical dexterity. They show the Shakespeare of
+the dramas mainly in their revelation of a remarkable
+power of detailed observation and their richness of
+phrase and fluency of versification. Vivid and eloquent
+though they are, they can hardly be regarded as affording
+a sure prophecy of the passion and power of characterization
+that mark his mature dramatic production.</p>
+
+<p>The case of the <i>Sonnets</i> is very different. From
+Meres's mention of them in 1598 we know that some
+had been written and were being circulated in manuscript
+by that date, and certain critics have sought to
+assign the main body of them to the first half of the last
+decade of the sixteenth century. But they were not
+published till 1609, and many of the greatest strike
+a note of emotion more profound than can be heard
+before the date of <i>Hamlet</i>. In writing them, Shakespeare<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+was, to be sure, following a vogue, but as Professor
+Alden has pointed out in his introduction to them
+in the Tudor Shakespeare, they stand apart in important
+respects from the ordinary sonnet sequences of the time.
+All our researches have failed to tell us to whom they
+were addressed, if, indeed, they were addressed to any
+actual person at all; it is hardly necessary to urge
+that Shakespeare was capable of profound and passionate
+utterance under the impulse of imagination alone.
+The probability is that they were produced at intervals
+over a period of perhaps a dozen years, and that they
+represent a great variety of moods, impulses, and
+suggestions. While some of them betray signs of
+youth and remind us of the apprentice workman of
+<i>Loves Labour's Lost</i>, others display in their depth
+of thought, intensity of feeling, and superb power of
+incisive and concentrated expression, the full maturity
+of the man and the artist. Hardly in the great tragedies
+themselves is there clearer proof of Shakespeare's
+supremacy in thought and language.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> See Appendix A, <a href="#Page_214">13</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The figures here given are based in columns 1, 2, 3, and 4
+on the calculations of Fleay; in 5, 6, and 7 on those of K&ouml;nig;
+and in 8 on those of Ingram. (S) = Shakespeare's scenes.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Elizabethan Drama</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>Shakespeare's lifetime was coincident with a period
+of extraordinary activity and achievement in the
+drama. By the date of his birth Europe was witnessing
+the passing of the religious drama that had held its
+course for some five centuries, and the creation of new
+and mixed forms under the incentive of classical
+tragedy and comedy. These new forms were at first
+mainly written by scholars and performed by amateurs,
+but in England, as everywhere else in western Europe,
+the growth of a class of professional actors was threatening
+to make the drama popular, whether it should be
+new or old, classical or medieval, literary or farcical.
+Court, school, organizations of amateurs, and the
+strolling actors were all rivals in supplying a widespread
+desire for dramatic entertainment; and no boy
+who went to a grammar school could be ignorant that
+the drama was a form of literature which gave glory to
+Greece and Rome and might yet bestow its laurels on
+England.</p>
+
+<p>When Shakespeare was twelve years old the first
+public playhouse was built in London. For a time
+literature held aloof from this public stage. Plays
+aiming at literary distinction were written for schools<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+or court, or for the choir boys of St. Paul's and the
+royal chapel, who, however, gave plays in public as well
+as at court. But the professional companies prospered
+in their permanent theaters, and university men with
+literary ambitions were quick to turn to these theaters
+as offering a means of livelihood. By the time that
+Shakespeare was twenty-five, Lyly, Peele, and Greene
+had made comedies that were at once popular and literary;
+Kyd had written a tragedy that crowded the
+pit; and Marlowe had brought poetry and genius
+to triumph on the common stage&mdash;where they had
+played no part since the death of Euripides. A native
+literary drama had been created, its alliance with the
+public playhouses established, and at least some of its
+great traditions had been begun.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the Elizabethan drama for the
+next twenty-five years is of exceptional interest to
+students of literary history, for in this brief period, in
+connection with the half-dozen theaters of a growing
+city and the demands of its varied population, we may
+trace the beginning, growth, florescence, and decay of
+many kinds of plays, and of many great careers.
+Actors, audiences, and dramatists all contributed to
+changes in taste and practice and to a development of
+unexampled rapidity and variety. In every detail of
+dramatic art there was change and improvement, a
+constant addition of new subject-matter, a mastery of
+new methods of technic, and an invention of new kinds
+of plays. The popular successes of Marlowe and Kyd<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Elizabethan Drama</span>and the early plays of Shakespeare himself seemed old-fashioned
+and crude to the taste of twenty years after,
+yet the triumphs of Shakespeare's maturity failed to
+exhaust the opportunities for innovation and advance.
+We are amazed to-day at the mere number of plays
+produced, as well as by the number of dramatists writing
+at the same time for this London of two hundred thousand
+inhabitants. To realize how great was the
+dramatic activity, we must remember further that
+hosts of plays have been lost, and that probably there
+is no author of note whose entire work has survived.
+By the time, however, that Shakespeare withdrew
+from London to Stratford the drama had reached its
+height. The dozen years from 1600 to 1612 included
+not only Shakespeare's great tragedies, but the best
+plays of Jonson, Chapman, and Webster, and the
+entire collaboration of Beaumont and Fletcher. The
+only other decades comparable with this in the history
+of the drama are that which heard plays by Sophocles,
+Euripides, and Aristophanes and that other which saw
+the masterpieces of Racine and Moli&egrave;re.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The greatness of the drama, however, by no means
+ended with the retirement and death of Shakespeare.
+Some of those who had been his early associates continued
+to write for the stage, and younger men, as
+Fletcher, Massinger, Ford, and Shirley, carried on the
+traditions of their predecessors. If, as in other forms
+of literature, there was decline and decadence during
+the next twenty-five years, the drama also retained<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+initiative, poetry, and intellectual force until the end.
+It was not dead or dying when the outbreak of the Civil
+War cut short its course; in fact, its plays, its traditions,
+even some of its theaters, actors, and dramatists survived
+the suppression of twenty years and helped to
+start the drama of the Restoration. Had Shakespeare
+lived to the age of seventy-eight he would have seen the
+closing of the theaters, and his lifetime would have
+covered the crowded history of the drama's development
+from such semi-moralities as <i>Cambises</i> and <i>The
+Nice Wanton</i> to the last plays of Massinger and Shirley.</p>
+
+<p>For nearly a quarter of a century he was a sharer in
+this dramatic movement, working in London as actor,
+manager, and playwright. While no playwright was
+more desirous than he to find in the stage full opportunity
+for his genius, he was as keen as any in gauging the
+immediate theatrical demand and in meeting the varying
+conditions of a highly competitive profession. As
+we have already noted, he began by imitating those who
+had won success, and to the end he was adroit in taking
+advantage of a new dramatic fashion or discovery.
+Like his fellows, he often took his plots from novels,
+histories, or other narratives; but his very choice of
+stories might be determined by the theatrical taste of
+the moment, and in his treatment of those stories he
+shows in person, situation, or scene, a consideration of
+current practices, traditions, and conventions. In
+every field of literature, a writer is conditioned by the
+work of his predecessors and contemporaries, and this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Beginnings of the Drama</span>dependence on current taste is especially important
+in the drama, where practice tends to fix itself in convention,
+and where innovation to be successful requires
+co&ouml;peration from the actors and approval from the
+audience as well as genius from the author. Though
+Shakespeare is for all time, he is part and parcel of the
+Elizabethan drama. If his plays are Elizabethan in
+their defects and limitations, such as their trivial puns
+and word-play, their overcrowded imagery, their loose
+and broken structure, their paucity of female r&ocirc;les,
+their mixture of comic and tragic, their reliance on disguise
+and mistaken identity as motives, their use of
+improbable or absurd stories; they are Elizabethan also
+in the qualities of their greatness, their variety of subject,
+their intense interest in the portrayal of character,
+the flexibility and audacity of their language, their noble
+and opulent verse, the exquisite idealism of their
+romantic love, and their profound analysis of the
+sources of human tragedy.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The Elizabethan drama was a continuation of the
+medieval drama transformed by the influence of classical
+models, especially the comedies of Terence and Plautus
+and the tragedies of Seneca. In England, by the
+beginning of the sixteenth century, the Miracle and
+Mystery plays were declining and were soon to disappear.
+The most common type of drama for the next
+sixty years was the Morality, which symbolized life as
+a conflict of vices and virtues or of the body and the
+soul. The drama was rapidly changing from long<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+out-door performances to brief plays that could be
+given almost anywhere by a few actors. The term
+Interludes became common for all such entertainments,
+and allegorical frameworks served to contain a wide
+variety of matter, farce, pedagogy, politics, religion,
+history, or pageant. Close imitations of the classical
+forms were soon attempted by scholars and men of
+letters; but as the professional actors grew in importance
+the development of a national comedy and tragedy
+went on without much direction from critics or theorists,
+but rather in response to the demands of actors
+and audiences and to the initiative of authors.</p>
+
+<p>The developments of comedy were numerous. Allegory
+gradually disappeared, and the Morality ceased
+to exist as a definite type, though its symbolization of
+life and its concern with conduct were handed along to
+the later drama. The plays of Robert Wilson, about
+1580, show an interesting use of allegory for the purposes
+of social satire, and realism and satire long continued
+to characterize Elizabethan comedy, though for
+a time confined mostly to incidental scenes. Common
+and incidental also was farce, which is found in most
+plays of the century whether tragic, comic, or moral
+in their main purpose. Further, it was soon discovered
+that the Plautian scheme of comedy was well suited to
+farcical incident, as in <i>Gammer Gurton's Needle</i> (1552).<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>
+The classical models or their Italian imitations also produced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Influence of Plautus</span>other and less domestic imitations, as in Gascoigne's
+translation of Ariosto's <i>I Suppositi</i> (pr. 1566)
+and Udall's <i>Ralph Roister Doister</i> (1540); a little later,
+Lyly's <i>Mother Bombie</i>, Munday's <i>Two Italian Gentlemen</i>,
+and Shakespeare's <i>Comedy of Errors</i>. Indeed such
+adaptations continued much later and resulted in some
+of the best farces, or realistic comedies of intrigue, as
+Shakespeare's <i>Merry Wives of Windsor</i> (1598), Heywood's
+<i>Wise Woman of Hogsdon</i> (1604), Jonson's
+<i>Epicene</i> (1609) and <i>Alchemist</i> (1610).</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The Plautian model, however, was far more influential
+than can be indicated by these close adaptations
+or by any list of direct imitations or borrowings. For
+the Elizabethan it offered a standard of comedy, and its
+plots, persons, and devices were freely used in all kinds
+of plays, romantic as well as realistic, sentimental as
+well as satirical or farcical. The plots of Plautus and
+Terence offer a series of tricks in which the complications
+are often increased by having the trickster tricked.
+Certain fixed types of character play the parts of gulls
+or gullers, as the old parents, the young lovers, the
+parasite, the braggart soldier, and the clever slave.
+The intrigue is forwarded by the use of disguise, mistaken
+identity, and most surprising coincidences; and
+it is accomplished by dialogue, often gross and abusive,
+but usually lively. This model served every nation
+of western Europe, reappearing with prolonged vitality
+in the inventions of Lope de Vega, the "commedia del
+arte" of Italy, and in the masterpieces of Moli&egrave;re.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+Much in its scheme that seems artificial and theatrical
+to-day was, we must remember, accepted without
+question by Europe of the sixteenth century as essential
+and desirable in comedy, especially in realistic comedy
+of intrigue or manners.</p>
+
+<p>The plots of Terence, notably that of the <i>Andria</i>,
+also gave some encouragement to the modern fondness
+for adventure and sentimental love, and some classical
+sanction to the abundant romantic material that was
+knocking at the doors of comedy. If by romantic we
+mean what is strange and removed from ordinary
+experience and what has the attractions of wonder,
+thrill, and idealization, then for the Elizabethan the
+world of romance was a wide one. It included the
+medieval stories of knights and their gests, and also
+the fresher tales of classical mythology; the Americas
+and Indies of contemporary adventure and the artificial
+Arcadias of humanist imitators of Virgil and Theocritus.
+Ovid and Malory, Homer and Boccaccio, Drake and
+Sanazzaro, were all contributors. The union of this
+romance with comedy on the stage began in two ways,
+and principally under the innovation of two writers,
+Lyly and Greene.</p>
+
+<p>The taste for pageants, processions, and tableaux
+grew and flourished under the patronage of the court;
+and music, dancing, and spectacle were combined with
+dialogue in various court exhibitions and plays given by
+the child actors. John Lyly, writing for these choir
+boys, developed this type of entertainment into a distinct<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Lyly and Greene</span>species of comedy. Of his eight plays, written at
+intervals from 1580 to 1593, all but one were in prose,
+and all except the Plautian <i>Mother Bombie</i> adhere
+loosely to a common formula. Classical myth or story,
+with pastoral elements, and occasionally an allegory
+of contemporary politics, furnish the basis of plots with
+similar love complications. Gods, goddesses, nymphs,
+fairies, and many others add to the spectacle and mingle
+in the love intrigue, and all rise to a graceful dialogue,
+which quickens to brisk repartee when the pages or
+servants appear. The witty page supersedes the rude
+buffoon of earlier plays, and everything is graceful and
+ingenious, slight in serious interest, but relieved by
+movement and song.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>This is the form of comedy which Shakespeare
+adopted for <i>Love's Labour's Lost</i> and perfected in <i>A Midsummer-Night's
+Dream</i>. But Lyly's contribution should
+not be defined merely by this type of drama, original
+as it is in its departure from medieval or classical
+precedents. He showed how comedy might be a courtly
+and literary entertainment and also the playground of
+fancy and wit.</p>
+
+<p>The second development of romantic comedy came
+through the dramatization of stories of love, adventure,
+and marvels. To such stories Robert Greene gave a
+heightened charm through the idealization of his
+heroines. His <i>Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay</i> (1590)
+is a magic play with an historical setting; but the
+interest gathers and centers on the love story of Margaret,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+the Keeper's daughter. In <i>James IV</i> (<i>c.</i> 1591)
+the pseudo-historical setting frames the stories of the
+noble Ida and the wronged but faithful Dorothea.
+In the incidents of the plot, with its woman disguised
+as a page, the faithless lover, and the final reconciliation,
+and also in the sweetness, modesty, and loyalty of the
+heroine, the play reminds us of Shakespeare's comedies
+and is indeed very close to <i>The Two Gentlemen of
+Verona</i>, in which he was clearly adopting Greene's
+formula.</p>
+
+<p>Tragedy naturally lagged somewhat behind comedy
+as a form of popular entertainment. So far as we can
+judge from the extant plays, there was until the appearance
+of Kyd and Marlowe no real union between
+Senecan imitations like <i>Gorboduc</i> (1562), <i>Jocasta</i> (1566),
+and <i>The Misfortunes of Arthur</i> (1588), on the one hand,
+and popular medleys of morality, tragedy, and farce
+like <i>Cambises</i> (1565), <i>Horestes</i> (<i>pr.</i> 1567), and <i>Appius and
+Virginia</i> (1563), on the other. Marlowe's <i>Tamburlaine</i>
+(1587) was an epoch-making play because it brought
+to the popular drama true poetry and genuine passion;
+but it and its successors also established a new type
+of tragedy. Marlowe made no effort to retain the
+structure or themes of classical tragedy; on the contrary,
+he made his plays loosely connected series of
+scenes dealing with the life and death of the hero,
+crowded with persons and with startling action. In
+this he was conforming to the method of the dramatic
+narratives that pleased the theaters. But each play<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Marlowe and Kyd</span>centers its dramatic interest on a mighty protagonist
+battling with his overweening desires and their inevitable
+disappointment. With the spectacle and sensation,
+the rant and absurdity, there is also dramatic
+structure and tragic significance in the revelation of
+these protagonists, their volitional struggles, and
+their direful catastrophes. These plays set the key
+for all Elizabethan tragedy, including Shakespeare's
+<i>Lear</i>, <i>Othello</i>, and <i>Macbeth</i>. They were immediately
+followed by dozens of imitators. All blank verse echoed
+Marlowe's mighty line, and tragedy was filled with
+ranting conquerors like Tamburlaine, monstrous villains
+like Barabbas, and murders like that of Edward II.
+Shakespeare was his pupil in the <i>2</i> and <i>3 Henry VI</i>,
+mastered his methods in <i>Richard III</i>, and still wrote in
+emulation, though no longer in imitation, in <i>Richard II</i>
+and <i>The Merchant of Venice</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Within a few months of <i>Tamburlaine</i>, appeared a play
+of almost equal influence on subsequent drama, Kyd's
+<i>Spanish Tragedy</i>. Kyd was a student of Seneca, a
+translator of Garnier's <i>Cornelia</i>, a Senecan imitation;
+and he adapted some elements of classical tragedy to
+the English stage. The ten plays ascribed to Seneca
+were the accepted models of tragedy in the Renaissance.
+Their presentation of the more horrible stories of Greek
+tragedy, their rhetorical and aphoristic style, their
+moralizing and their psychology, were all greatly
+admired. They were believed by the Elizabethans to
+have been acted, and their murders and violence seemed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
+to warrant such action on the modern stage; though
+the Elizabethans found less adaptable their use of the
+chorus, the restriction of the number of persons speaking,
+their long monologues, and the limitation of the
+action to the last phase of a story. Kyd modeled his
+rhetoric on Seneca and retained a vestige of the chorus,
+long soliloquies, and some other traits of Senecan
+structure; but his main borrowing was the essential
+story of a crime and its punishment. He thus brought
+to the Elizabethan stage the classical theme of retribution.
+In his <i>Spanish Tragedy</i>, a murder is avenged
+under the direction of a ghost, by a hesitating and soliloquizing
+protagonist, who is driven through doubt and
+speculation almost to madness, and then to craft, with
+which he outwits the wily villain and brings all the
+leading <i>dramatis person&aelig;</i> to a final slaughter.</p>
+
+<p>Blood revenge was established as the favorite motive
+of tragedy; the conflict of craft between protagonist
+and villain made up the action, and the speculations of
+the avenger gave a chance for wisdom and eloquence.
+One other play, probably by Kyd, the lost <i>Hamlet</i>,
+also presented these features and later formed the basis
+for Shakespeare's tragedy. Other plays, as <i>Soliman
+and Perseda</i>, <i>The True Tragedy of Richard III</i>, and
+<i>Locrine</i> immediately adopted Kyd's theme and technic;
+indeed the stage for half a dozen years abounded in
+avenging heroes, diabolical villains, shrieking ghosts,
+and long soliloquies on fate, death, retribution, and
+kindred themes. <i>Titus Andronicus</i> is quite in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">English History Plays</span>Kydian vein. Many plays combined the salient traits
+of Marlowe and Kyd, and henceforth no one wrote
+tragedy without paying homage to their inventions.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>We have now noticed the most important developments
+in comedy and tragedy made by the time that
+Shakespeare began writing for the theaters; and he
+made quick use of the progress accomplished by
+Plautian and Lylyan comedy, by Greene's romances,
+and by the tragedies of Kyd and Marlowe. There
+were other plays not easily classified under these names
+and of less service to Shakespeare. But to the
+critical playgoer of 1590 few plays would have seemed
+either 'right comedies' or 'right tragedies.' The majority
+were mere dramatizations of story without close
+construction or selection of material, seeking merely
+varied and abundant action. They drew their material
+from all kinds of narrative sources, Italian <i>novelle</i>,
+current pamphlets, Latin historians, or English chronicles;
+and, whether historical or fictitious, were usually
+known as Histories, <i>i.e.</i>, stories.</p>
+
+<p>The patriotic interest in English history fostered
+the presentation of its scenes upon the stage. The
+chronicles of Halle and Holinshed furnished abundant
+material; and embassies, processions, and pitched battles
+filled the stage with movement. Historical plays
+might, indeed, draw from classical history or from current
+foreign history, but from 1590 to 1603 a very large
+number of plays give scenic representation to the
+reigns of English kings.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Some of these form a distinct class, since, however
+mixed with comic matter, they imitate Kyd or Marlowe
+and recast the chronicle of a reign to fit the accepted
+subjects of tragedy, the downfall of a prince, the
+revenge for a crime, the overthrow of a tyrant, or the
+retribution brought upon a conspirator or usurper.
+Conceived under Marlowe's influence, and perhaps
+owing something to his hand, is the tetralogy that
+includes the three parts of <i>Henry VI</i> and <i>Richard III</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Those history plays, however, that do not follow the
+formulas for tragedy, are a heterogeneous group not
+easily classified. They usually keep to the loose chronicle
+method that presented a series of scenes without
+much regard to unity or coherence. Farce, comedy,
+magic, spectacle, heroics, and everything that might
+have happened was permissible in these plays, and
+perhaps the only thing indispensable was a pitched
+field with opposing armies. Biographical, comic,
+popular, patriotic, or what not, these plays brought a
+variety of scenes to the theaters, but offered only a
+loose and flexible form rather than any dramatic
+direction or model to the creator of Falstaff.</p>
+
+<p>The early deaths of Greene and Marlowe and the
+retirement of Lyly left Shakespeare the heir of their
+inventions. Though his plays were at first imitative,
+he soon surpassed his predecessors in gift of expression,
+in depiction of character, and in deftness of
+dramatic technic. The years from 1593 to near the
+turn of the century are particularly lacking in records of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Shakespeare's Leadership</span>plays or theaters; but it seems clear that the main
+developments of the drama were in romantic comedy
+and chronicle history; and it is also clear that Shakespeare
+was the unquestioned leader in both of these
+forms.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>In comparison with his associates, he was now the
+master, relying on his own experience rather than on
+their innovations. Neither the crude but popular
+<i>Mucedorus</i> (1595) nor Dekker's poetical extravagance,
+<i>Old Fortunatus</i> (1596), could contribute to his development
+of romantic comedy; and domestic comedy could
+not instruct the inventor of Launce and Launcelot.
+Incidental relationships may indeed be noted. <i>As
+You Like It</i>, for example, dramatizes a pastoral novel
+with the addition of scenes that recall Robin Hood's
+forest life, and may owe something to the suggestion of
+two Robin Hood plays by Chettle and Munday, <i>The
+Downfall and Death of Robert Earl of Huntingdon</i> (1598).
+But, on the whole, the indebtedness was on the other
+side, and imitations indicate that men of Shakespeare's
+day realized that romantic comedy and history could
+not be carried farther.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, a certain reaction set in against these forms
+of drama. Near the close of the century new tendencies
+became manifest. Comedy tended to become
+more realistic and satiric. Chapman, Marston, Middleton,
+and Jonson, all began writing romantic comedy,
+but changed shortly to realistic. Jonson, in his <i>Every
+Man in His Humour</i> (1598), announced his opposition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
+to the lawless drama which had preceded&mdash;whether
+romantic comedy or chronicle history&mdash;and proposed
+the creation of a new satirical comedy of manners. He
+was moved partly by a desire to break from past
+methods in order to bring comedy closer to classical
+example, and partly by a desire for realism, a faithful
+presentation, analysis, and criticism of current manners.
+The growth of London and the increase in luxury and
+immorality seem to have encouraged such a movement,
+and for the decade after 1598 there were many comedies
+of London life, mostly satiric, and nearly all
+realistic. Many varieties are to be found, from gross
+representation of the seamy side of city life to serious
+discussion of social questions, and from sympathetic
+picturing of certain trades to satiric exposure of the
+evils of society.</p>
+
+<p>Jonson's emulation of Aristophanes led him into
+arrogant personal satire in the <i>Poetaster</i> (1601), and
+there ensued the so-called war of the theaters, in which
+Marston, Dekker, and, according to report, Shakespeare
+were Jonson's opponents. If Shakespeare, indeed, had
+a share in this war, he showed only slight interest in the
+prevailing comedy. <i>Measure for Measure</i> uses the
+device of a spying duke employed in Marston's <i>Malcontent</i>,
+and discusses sexual relationships somewhat in
+the tone of the time, while the scenes dealing with
+houses of ill fame are not unlike similar scenes in the
+contemporary plays of Middleton, Webster, and others.
+<i>Troilus and Cressida</i>, also, show more of a satiric temper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Realistic Comedy</span>than is usual in Shakespeare. But neither of these
+plays partakes to any extent of the prevailing satire on
+contemporary London. Wide as was the range of
+Shakespeare's genius, it seems to have avoided the field
+of satire.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>A review of the drama must, however, at least remark
+the importance of this development of realistic
+comedy which flourished in the decade after 1598 and
+continued to the end. Jonson's comedy of 'humors'
+includes <i>Volpone</i> (1605), which overstepped the bounds
+of comedy in its denunciation of evil, the <i>Alchemist</i>
+(1611), perhaps the best English play on the Latin
+model, and <i>Bartholomew Fair</i> (1614), most original and
+English of them all. Dekker's fine drama of middle
+class life, <i>The Honest Whore</i> (1604), and Heywood's
+masterpiece, <i>A Woman Killed with Kindness</i> (1603), a
+play suggesting both the sentimental comedy of the
+eighteenth century and the problem play of to-day,
+also belong to this very remarkable era of domestic
+themes and serious realism.</p>
+
+<p>If Shakespeare did not turn to satire or realism or
+current social problems, he did turn away from chronicle
+history plays and romantic comedies. As we saw in
+the last chapter, for a period of eight or nine years, from
+<i>Julius C&aelig;sar</i> to <i>Antony and Cleopatra</i>, he gave his best
+efforts of his maturity to tragedy. The day for
+mere imitation of Seneca, Kyd, or Marlowe, was past;
+and scholars like Jonson and Chapman as well as
+Shakespeare sought in the tragedy of the public theater,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
+an opportunity for wisdom and poetry and a criticism
+of life.</p>
+
+<p>For models, Shakespeare did not need to go back
+farther than his own <i>Romeo and Juliet</i> and <i>Richard II</i>,
+nor to imitate any other than himself. Yet his great
+plays may have seemed to his contemporaries to adopt
+rather than to depart from current dramatic practices.
+They belong to the Elizabethan 'tragedy of blood';
+against a background of courts and battles they present
+the downfall of princes; they rest on improbable stories
+that end in fearful slaughter; they invariably set forth
+great crimes, compact of murder, lust, villainous
+intrigue, and ferocious cruelty. Some of them follow
+Kyd in recounting a story of blood vengeance presided
+over by ghosts, or discover the retribution due for crime
+in physical torments. Nearly all follow Marlowe in
+centering the tragic interest in the fate of a supernormal
+protagonist who is swayed by an overpowering emotion,
+and in elevating these human desires and passions into
+tremendous forces that work their waste of devastation
+and ruin on character and life.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The contemporary tragedy is brought closest to
+Shakespeare in the relations of the revenge plays to
+<i>Hamlet</i>. The type, introduced by Kyd in <i>The Spanish
+Tragedy</i> and the original <i>Hamlet</i>, underwent a special
+development in Marston's <i>Antonio's Revenge</i> (1598)
+and several other plays appearing from 1598 to 1603,
+that dealt with the blood vengeance of a son for a
+father. At the same time Shakespeare turned to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Tragedy</span>remaking of the old <i>Hamlet</i> and to a new treatment of
+the old theme, yet retained many of the old accessories.
+Marston reproduces the essential story of blood vengeance,
+presided over by a ghost, crossed by both lust
+and sentimental love, commented on by long soliloquies,
+and accompanied by pretended madness. Chettle, in
+<i>Hoffman</i>, amplifies the horrors and villainy and brings
+the story of the mad girl into closer juncture with the
+main plot than is the case in <i>Hamlet</i>. Tourneur, writing
+independently of Shakespeare, introduces, among all
+sorts of horrors, a Christian ghost who forbids blood
+vengeance and commands submission to Providence.
+Ben Jonson, in his additions to the old <i>Spanish Tragedy</i>,
+gives fine imaginative interpretation of the wavering
+moods of meditation, irony, and frenzy with which
+Kyd had dealt only crudely. The later development
+of this type proceeded without much regard to Shakespeare's
+<i>Hamlet</i>, but rather in the direction started by
+Marston's tragedies and his influential tragi-comedy,
+<i>The Malcontent</i>. While <i>Hamlet</i> may be described as
+centering attention on a meditative and high-minded
+avenger, Tourneur, Webster, Middleton, and later
+dramatists found greater interest in the study of villainy
+and intrigue. Revenge is born of depravity rather than
+duty, and given a setting of physical horrors and unnatural
+lust. Tourneur's <i>Revenger's Tragedy</i> (1606) and
+Webster's <i>White Devil</i> (1610) and <i>Duchess of Malfi</i> (1611)
+represent the culmination of this play of revenge, lust,
+and horror, and supply a sort of standard for tragedy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+until the Civil War. Webster, it must be added, was
+hardly less interested than Shakespeare in character
+and motive, though he chose to study these in a chamber
+of horrors.</p>
+
+<p>Shakespeare's Roman tragedies also suggest comparison
+with contemporary plays, those either on Roman
+or on contemporary foreign history. Tragedies dealing
+with Roman history had preceded <i>Julius C&aelig;sar</i>, but
+that play doubtless stimulated Jonson's <i>Sejanus</i> (1603)
+and <i>Catiline</i> (1611). Both these plays attempted an
+approach to classical structure and a thorough study
+and digest of classical history. This effort to make
+tragedy a serious and authoritative interpretation of
+history was also shared by Chapman in his plays dealing
+with contemporary French history, <i>1</i> and <i>2 Bussy
+D'Ambois</i> (1601-1607) and <i>1</i> and <i>2 Biron</i> (1608).
+While Jonson strove to free his style from the abundance
+of conceits, figures, and passages of description that
+had characterized earlier drama, Chapman used every
+chance to crowd his verse with far-stretched figure and
+weighty apothegm. At its worst it is peculiarly representative
+of Elizabethan confusion and bombast; at
+its best it is closest of all in its resemblance to Shakespeare's.
+Like Jonson and Chapman, Shakespeare
+sought historical backgrounds for his characters and
+found a fascination in the interpretation of the motives
+of the great protagonists of the world of antiquity.
+It is worthy of note, however, that he seems to have
+taken no interest in another class of subjects much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Beaumont and Fletcher</span>favored by his contemporaries. Contemporary crimes
+treated with an excess of realism and didactic conclusions
+are common in drama from <i>Arden of Feversham</i>
+(1590) on, and engaged the services of Jonson, Webster,
+Ford, Dekker, and others.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>About 1607 a new departure appeared in the work of
+the dramatic collaborators, Beaumont and Fletcher.
+After some experiments, they won, in their tragi-comedies,
+<i>Philaster</i> (1608) and <i>A King and No King</i> (1610),
+and their tragedy, <i>The Maid's Tragedy</i> (1609), great
+theatrical successes, and in these and similar plays established
+a new kind of dramatic romance. The realistic
+comedies of Jonson and Middleton, which, along with
+the great tragedies of Shakespeare, crowd the stage
+history of the preceding ten years, had offered nothing
+similar to these romances which joined tragic and
+idyllic material in scenes of brilliant theatrical effectiveness,
+abounding in transitions from suspense to surprise,
+and culminating in telling d&eacute;nouements. This new
+realm of romance is an artificial one, contrasting pure
+love with horrid entanglements of lust, and ever
+bringing love in conflict with duty, friendship, or the
+code of honor. In its intriguing courts, or in nearby
+forests where the idyls are placed, love of one kind or
+another is the ruling and vehement passion, riding
+high-handed over tottering thrones, rebellious subjects,
+usurping tyrants, and checked, if checked at all, only
+by the unexampled force of honor. Romance, in short,
+depends on situation, on the artificial but skilful juxtaposition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+of emotions and persons, and on the new
+technic that sacrifices consistency of characterization
+for surprise. Characterization tends to become typical,
+and motives tend to be based on fixed conventions, such
+as the code of honor might dictate to a seventeenth-century
+gentleman; but the lack of individuality in
+character is counterbalanced by the vividness with
+which the lovers, tyrants, faithful friends, evil women,
+and sentimental heroines are presented, and by the
+fluent and lucid style which varies to any emotional
+requirement and rises to the demands of the most
+sensational situations.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cymbeline</i> in its plot bears some close resemblances
+to <i>Philaster</i>, and it seems likely that Shakespeare was
+adopting the methods and materials of the new romance.
+At all events, he turned from tragedy to romance, and
+in <i>Cymbeline</i> and the far more original and successful
+<i>Winter's Tale</i> and <i>Tempest</i> produced tragi-comedies that,
+like Beaumont and Fletcher's, rely on a contrast of
+tragic and idyllic and on surprising plots and idealized
+heroines. After Beaumont's retirement in 1611 or
+1612, it seems probable that Fletcher and Shakespeare
+collaborated together on <i>Henry VIII</i> and <i>The Two
+Noble Kinsmen</i>.</p>
+
+<p>There is ample evidence that the plays of Beaumont
+and Fletcher won a great popular renown, surpassing for
+a time those of Shakespeare and all others. Beaumont
+did not live long after he ceased to write for the stage,
+dying at thirty, in the same year as Shakespeare. Jonson<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Tragi-Comedy</span>had given up dramatic writing for the time, and
+Fletcher was left the chief writer for Shakespeare's old
+company and the undoubted leader of the theater.
+Including the plays written in collaboration with Beaumont,
+Shakespeare, and later with Massinger, he left
+some sixty dramas of many kinds, varying from farcical
+comedy of manners to the most extreme tragedy. The
+comedies of manners present the affairs of women, and
+spice their lively conversation and surprising situations
+with a wit that often reminds one of the Restoration;
+indeed they carry the development of comedy nearly to
+the point where Wycherley and Congreve began. The
+tragi-comedies, which display the qualities already
+noted as belonging to the romances, have the technical
+advantage that the disentanglement of their rapid plots
+and sub-plots is left hanging in the balance until the
+very end. The happy ending to tragic entanglements
+won a favor it has never lost on the English stage, and
+tragi-comedy of the Fletcherian type continued the most
+popular form of the drama until Dryden.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>It is unnecessary here to dwell long over the drama
+after Shakespeare's death. Jonson, Dekker, Heywood,
+and Webster wrote from time to time, and Middleton
+devoted his versatile talent to whatever kind of play
+was in vogue, now rather to Websterian tragedy and
+Fletcherian tragi-comedy than to realistic comedy.
+Yet, in collaboration with Rowley, he produced the
+powerful tragedy, <i>The Changeling</i>, and the much-admired
+tragi-comedy, <i>A Fair Quarrel</i>. After Fletcher's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
+death in 1625, Massinger took his place as leader of the
+stage, and his work, with that of Ford and Shirley, carry
+on the great traditions of the drama to the very end.
+A host of minor writers, as Brome, D'Avenant, Suckling,
+Cartwright, offer little that is new; but no survey of
+the drama, however brief, can neglect to mention
+the skilful exposition, admirable psychology, and
+sound structural principles that characterized the best of
+Massinger's many plays, the unique and amazing dramatic
+genius shown in Ford's masterpieces, <i>The Broken
+Heart</i> and <i>'Tis Pity She's a Whore</i>, and the ingenuity in
+plot, adroitness in characterization, and genuine poetic
+gifts of Shirley.</p>
+
+<p>Comedies from 1616 to 1642 reveal two chief influences;
+they are realistic and satiric, following
+Jonson, or they are light-hearted, lively combinations
+of manners and intrigue, after Fletcher. In the former
+class are Massinger's two great comedies, <i>The City
+Madam</i> and <i>A New Way to Pay Old Debts</i>. To the
+latter class belong most of the comedies of Shirley.
+Tragi-comedies follow Fletcher with the variations
+due to the authors' ingenuity, and include perhaps the
+most attractive plays of Massinger and Shirley. Tragedies
+usually mingle lust, devilish intrigue, physical
+horror, after the fashion of Webster and Tourneur, but
+now often with romantic variation on the theme of
+love, and a technic of suspense and surprise similar
+to Beaumont and Fletcher. These are the main tendencies
+in the last twenty years of the drama, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Pastoral and Masque</span>characterize in the large the work of the greater men
+as well as of the less. Shakespeare's influence is widespread,
+but appears incidentally in particular scene,
+situation, character, or phrase, rather than as affecting
+the main course and fashions of the drama. After
+the publication of his plays in 1623, this incidental
+influence increased, and is distinctly noticeable in the
+plays of Ford and Shirley.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>A glance must suffice for two dramatic forms that
+had only slight connection with the public theaters,
+the Pastoral Play and the Court Masque. Pastoral
+elements are found in many early entertainments
+and in the plays of Lyly and Peele. Later, in imitation
+of Guarini's <i>Il Pastor Fido</i>, attempts were made to
+inaugurate a pastoral drama, presenting a full-fledged
+dramatic exposition of the golden age. Daniel's
+<i>Queen's Arcadia</i> (1605) and Fletcher's <i>Faithful Shepherdess</i>
+(1609) had many later followers, but the form won
+no permanent hold on the popular taste. Traces
+of its influence, however, may often be seen, as in
+Shakespeare's <i>As You Like It</i>, or Beaumont and Fletcher's
+<i>Philaster</i>. The masque, originally only a masquerade,
+soon acquired some dramatic accompaniment,
+and in the court of James I developed into an elaborate
+form of entertainment. The masked dance of the
+ladies and gentlemen of the court was merely the focus
+for dialogue, elaborate setting, spectacle, music, and
+grotesque dances by professionals. These shows,
+costing vast sums for staging, costumes, and music,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+depended for their success mainly on the architect Inigo
+Jones, but in some degree also on Ben Jonson, who was
+the creator of the Court Masque as a literary form.
+Such expensive spectacles were far beyond the reach
+of the public theater, but provoked considerable imitation,
+as in Shakespeare's <i>Tempest</i>, or several of Beaumont
+and Fletcher's plays. Later Milton immortalized
+the form in <i>Comus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The most hasty review of the Elizabethan drama
+must suggest how constantly Shakespeare responded to
+its prevailing conditions. There are, of course, great
+variations in the signs which different plays offer
+of contemporary influence and peculiarity. So it is
+with most of his fellow dramatists. <i>Lear</i> and <i>Othello</i>
+were perhaps written within the same year, yet <i>Othello</i>,
+in its unity, its technical excellence, and its depiction of
+character, is the most modern of the tragedies, while
+<i>Lear</i>, with its impossible story, its horrors, its treatment
+of madness, its likeness to the chronicle plays, its prolonged
+passage from crisis to catastrophe, in its very
+conception, is the most Elizabethan, though perhaps
+the most impressive of the tragedies. <i>Twelfth Night</i> is
+suited to any stage, but <i>Troilus and Cressida</i> and <i>Pericles</i>
+are hardly conceivable except on the Elizabethan. Despite
+such variations, however, Shakespeare's relations
+to the contemporary drama were manifestly constant
+and immediate. If it was rarely a question with him
+what the ancients had written, it was always a question
+what was being acted and what was successful at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Shakespeare and His Contemp&shy;oraries</span>moment. His own growth in dramatic power goes step
+by step with the rapid and varied development of the
+drama, and the measure for comparison must be, not by
+decades, but by years or months.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>A study of the Elizabethan drama may help to excuse
+some of the faults and limitations of Shakespeare, but
+it also enforces his merits. Both faults and merits
+are often to be understood in the efforts of lesser men
+to do what he did. We admire his triumphs the more
+as we consider their failures. Yet they often had
+admirable success, and their triumphs as well as his are
+due in part to the dramatic conditions which gave the
+freest opportunity for individual initiative in language,
+verse, story, and construction. Noble bursts of poetry,
+richness and variety of life, an intense interest in human
+nature, comic or tragic&mdash;these are the great merits of
+that drama. That in a superlative degree they are
+also the characteristics of Shakespeare is not due solely
+to his exceptional genius, but to the fact that his genius
+worked in a favorable environment.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 297px;">
+<a href="images/116.png"><img src="images/t116.png" width="297" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a>
+<p class="captionn">A TYPICAL SHAKESPEREAN STAGE</p>
+<p><small>From Albright's <i>Shaksperian Stage</i></small></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> In this chapter the dates appended to the plays indicate
+the conjectured year of presentation. Dates of publication are
+prefixed by <i>pr</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Elizabethan Theater</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>In 1576, James Burbage, father of the great actor,
+Richard Burbage, and himself a member of the Earl
+of Leicester's company, built the first London playhouse,
+the Theater in Shoreditch. In the next year a
+second playhouse, the Curtain, was erected nearby,
+and these seem to have remained the only theaters
+until 1587-1588, when probably the Rose, on the Bankside,
+was built by Henslowe. In 1599 Richard and
+Cuthbert Burbage, after some difficulty over their
+lease, demolished the old Theater and used the timber
+for the Globe, near the Rose, on the Bankside. The
+Swan, another theater, had been built there in 1594,
+somewhat to the west; and in 1614 the Hope was
+erected hard by the old Rose and the new Globe, which
+in 1613 had replaced the old Globe. Meantime the
+Fortune had been built by Henslowe and Alleyn in
+1600 in Golden Lane to the north of Cripplegate, on
+the model of the Globe, and the Red Bull was erected
+in the upper end of St. John's Street about 1603-1607.
+These were all public theaters, open to the air, built of
+wood, outside the city limits and the jurisdiction of
+the city corporation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Before the Theater, plays had been acted in various
+places about the city, and especially in inn-yards, some
+of which long continued to be used for dramatic performances.
+At an early date also, the companies of
+children actors connected with the choirs of St. Paul's
+and the Queen's Chapel had given public performances,
+probably indoors, at places near St. Paul's and in Blackfriars.
+When the Burbages were in difficulties about
+the Theater, they had leased certain rooms in the dismantled
+monastery of Blackfriars, but had then released
+these to a company of children which acted
+there for some years. In 1608 the Burbages regained
+possession of this property, and Shakespeare's company
+began acting there. This Blackfriars theater
+was known as a private theater in order to avoid the application
+of certain statutes directed against the public
+theaters, but it differed from them merely in being indoors,
+with artificial lights, and higher prices. It was
+used by Shakespeare's company as a winter theater,
+while the Globe served for summer performances, and
+it was the model for various other private theaters,
+two of which survived the Protectorate and became in
+turn the models for the Restoration Theater. Drury
+Lane and Covent Garden, indeed, trace their ancestry
+back directly to the Blackfriars through the Cockpit
+and the Salisbury Court playhouses.</p>
+
+<p>The companies of actors which occupied these
+theaters were co&ouml;perative organizations. Eight or ten
+actors formed a company, leased a theater, hired supernumeraries,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Companies of Actors</span>bought plays, and shared in the profits.
+In Elizabeth's reign they secured a legal position by
+obtaining a license from some nobleman, and so were
+known as the Earl of Leicester's men, Lord Admiral's
+men, and so on. On the accession of James I, the leading
+London companies were taken directly under
+patronage of members of the royal family. During
+Shakespeare's time there were innumerable companies,
+but the tendency was for the best actors to become
+associated in a few companies, and for each company
+to keep to a particular theater; so that at the accession
+of James I, there were only five adult companies in
+London with permanent theaters. The best companies
+were frequently employed to act at court, and during
+the summer or when the plague was raging in London,
+they often toured the country. The children's companies
+flourished from time to time, and especially
+from 1599-1607 they were, as we learn from <i>Hamlet</i>,
+formidable rivals of the men.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The history of the adult companies shows the growth
+of two distinct interests, that of Henslowe and Alleyn,
+and that of the Burbages. Henslowe, whose diary is
+one of the chief documents for the history of the
+theater, built the Rose, and in partnership with his
+son-in-law, the famous actor Alleyn, controlled the
+Fortune and the Hope, and the companies known as
+the Admiral's and the Earl of Worcester's men, and
+later on the Queen's and the Prince's men. The Burbages
+owned the Theater, the Globe, and the Blackfriars,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+and were in control of Shakespeare's company. This
+company, at first the Earl of Leicester's men, was known
+by the names of its various patrons, Strange's, Derby's,
+Hunsdon's, and the Lord Chamberlain's, until in 1603
+it became the King's men. For a short time, as Lord
+Strange's men, it acted at the Rose, and apparently
+later at the playhouse in Newington Butts, but its
+regular theaters were the Theater, the Globe, and
+Blackfriars. With this company Shakespeare was
+connected from the beginning, and he aided in making
+it the chief London company. For a time, Alleyn and
+the Admiral's men were its close rivals, but even before
+the accession of James I, Shakespeare and Burbage
+had given it a supremacy that it maintained to the
+closing of the theaters.</p>
+
+<p>There are various pictures of the exterior of Elizabethan
+theaters in the contemporary maps or views of
+London, the best representation of the four Bankside
+theaters being the engraving of Hollar printed in the
+Tudor edition of <i>Twelfth Night</i>. This was first published
+in <i>Londinopolis</i>, 1657, but represents the Bankside
+as it was about 1620. Four pictures of interiors
+have been preserved, that from Kirkman's <i>Drolls</i>, those
+from the title-pages of <i>Roxana</i> and <i>Messalina</i>, and the
+DeWitt drawing of the Swan, reproduced in the Tudor
+Shakespeare, <i>1 Henry VI</i>. The drawing from Kirkman's
+<i>Drolls</i> is usually known as the Red Bull stage,
+but it was not issued until 1679, and does not seem
+to have anything to do with the Red Bull or with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Public Theaters</span>any other regular theater. The <i>Messalina</i> and <i>Roxana</i>
+pictures are small, and both show a rear curtain and a
+projecting stage. The DeWitt drawing was done from
+hearsay evidence, is inaccurate in details, and represents
+a theater with a movable stage, probably not
+long regularly used for plays; it gives little idea of
+the stage, but does afford a good general notion of the
+interior of a public theater. The contract for the Fortune
+theater, built on the model of the Globe, except
+that it was square instead of octagonal, has been preserved
+and enables us to complete this view of the
+interior in detail.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The public theaters were usually round, or nearly
+round, wooden buildings of three stories. These
+stories were occupied by tiers of galleries encircling the
+pit, which was open to the air. The stage projected
+halfway into the pit, and was provided with dressing
+rooms in the rear, and a protecting roof overhead,
+supported in some cases by pillars. At the top was
+the 'hut', a room used to provide apparatus for raising
+and lowering persons or properties from the stage,
+Light when needed was provided by torches. Admission
+to standing room in the pit was usually only a
+penny, but seats in the gallery or boxes or on the stage
+cost much more, rising as high as half a crown. Performances
+were given on every fair day except Sunday,
+and a flag flying from the hut indicated that a play
+was to be performed. Some of the public playhouses
+were used for acrobats, fencing, or even bear-baiting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+as well as for plays; but the better theaters, as the
+Globe and Fortune, seem to have been limited to dramatic
+performances.</p>
+
+<p>The size and arrangement of the stage doubtless
+varied somewhat with the different theaters, and considerable
+changes seem to have been introduced by
+the indoor private theaters. But the Curtain was
+used from 1577 to 1642, some new theaters were
+modeled closely on the old, and the same plays were
+acted on different stages, so it is apparent that in all
+the stage was the same in its main features. For clearness
+these may be again enumerated. The stage
+was a platform projecting into the pit, open on three
+sides, and without any front curtain. In the rear
+were two doors, and between them, an alcove, or inner
+stage, separated from the front stage by curtains.
+Above the inner stage was a gallery, also provided with
+curtains, and over the doors were windows or balconies.
+The arrangement of doors, inner stage, gallery, and
+curtain may have varied somewhat, but the essential
+elements are a curtained space at the rear, and a gallery
+above. Trap-doors were also provided, and the hut
+overhead supplied the machinery for ascents and
+descents of gods and goddesses.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Our diagram for the ground floor of the Fortune
+shows a square-cornered stage with doors flat on the
+rear, while the perspective drawing from Dr. Albright's
+<i>Shaksperian Stage</i> shows a tapering stage, as in the
+<i>Messalina</i> picture, with doors on the bias. Some stages<span class="sidenote">The Fortune Theater</span><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+may have had rounded corners with doors in the side.
+The pillars were not necessary in the private theaters;
+or in some public houses where other means were found
+for supporting the roof.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="PLAN" id="PLAN"></a>
+<a href="images/123.png"><img src="images/t123.png" width="400" height="400" alt="Originally occupying P. 123" title="" /></a>
+<p class="captionn">GROUND PLAN OF THE FORTUNE THEATER<br /><br />
+<small>Dimensions: 80 ft. square on the outside; 55 ft. square on the inside,<br />
+the stage 43 ft. wide and extending to the middle of the pit.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The performance of a play differed in many ways
+from one to-day. There was no scenery and there were
+no women actors. Though scenes were used in court
+performances as early as 1604, they do not seem to have
+been employed by the professional companies to any
+extent until after the Restoration. Female parts were
+taken by boys, and, except in plays acted by the children's
+companies, there were rarely more than two important
+female characters in a play. Though without
+scenery, the Elizabethan stage was by no means devoid
+of spectacle. Processions, battles, all kinds of mythological
+beings, ascents to heaven, descents to hell, fire-works,
+and elaborate properties, were employed.
+Numerous contemporary plays indicate that neither the
+fairyland of <i>A Midsummer-Night's Dream</i>, nor the magnificent
+court of <i>Henry VIII</i>, was devised without an
+eye to the resources of the stage. Large sums of money
+were lavished on costumes, the cost of a coat often
+exceeding the price paid an author for a play. Costume
+was anachronistic; Cleopatra was impersonated
+by a boy in stays and farthingale; and C&aelig;sar, probably
+by Burbage, in a costume much like that worn
+by the Earl of Essex. Some attention, however, was
+paid to appropriateness. Shepherds were clothed in
+white, hunters in green; and doubtless mermaids,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Stage Presentation</span>fairies, Venuses, and satyrs were given as appropriate
+a dress as fancy could devise. The action of a play
+seems usually to have been completed in two hours.
+There was sometimes music between the acts, but
+there were no long waits, and little stage business.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The peculiarities in the presentation of a play due
+to the arrangement of the stage were considerable, and
+have been the subject of much discussion and misunderstanding
+among investigators. There is, however,
+no doubt that the action was largely on the front
+stage, and that most of the scenes, at least in Shakespeare's
+lifetime, were designed for presentation on this
+projecting platform. Since there was no drop-curtain,
+actors had some distance to traverse, on entrances and
+exits, between the doors and the front. At the end of a
+scene or a play, all must retire, and the bodies of the
+dead must be carried out. Hence a tragedy often
+ends with a funeral procession, a comedy with a dance.
+The indications of scene supplied by modern editors
+for Shakespeare's plays help to visualize a modern
+presentation, but are misleading as to Shakespeare's
+intentions or an Elizabethan performance. The majority
+of scenes in his plays differ strikingly from those
+in a modern play in that they offer no hints as to the
+exact locality. Often it is not clear from the text
+whether the scene is conceived as indoors or outdoors,
+in the palace, or the courtyard, or before the entrance.
+Even when the scene is presumably within a room,
+there is often no indication of the nature of the furnishings,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+never any of the elaborate attention to details
+of setting, such as we find in a play by Pinero or Shaw.
+Sometimes placards were hung up indicating the scene
+of a play, but apparently these merely gave the general
+scene, as "Venice" or "Verona," and did not often
+designate localities more closely. In fact the majority
+of the scenes were probably written with no precise
+conception of their setting. They were written to be
+acted on a front stage, bare of scenery, projecting out
+into the audience. This did not represent a particular
+locality, but rather any locality whatever.</p>
+
+<p>The inner stage and the gallery above, and to some
+extent the doors and the windows, were used to indicate
+specific localities when these were necessary.
+The gallery represented the wall of a town, an upper
+story of a house, or any elevated locality. The doors
+represented doors to houses or gates to a city, and the
+windows or balconies over them were often used for
+the windows of the houses. The inner stage was used
+in various ways to indicate a specific locality requiring
+properties, and this use apparently increased as time
+went on, and especially in the indoor, artificially lighted
+private theaters. In any case, however, when the curtains
+were opened, the inner stage became a part of
+the main stage, and while action might take place
+there, it might also serve as a background for action
+proceeding in the front. Properties could be brought
+on and off the inner stage, behind the closed curtains,
+hence large properties were confined to its precincts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Inner Stage</span>Furniture, as chairs, tables, or even beds, could, however,
+be pushed or carried out from the inner to the
+outer stage. A play might be given on the front
+stage without using the curtained recess at all, but
+numerous references to curtains make it clear that the
+inner stage was used from the early days of the theater.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The uses of the inner stage have been much discussed
+and are still in dispute, but they may be summarized
+briefly. <i>First</i>, the inner stage was used for a
+specific, restricted, and usually propertied locality&mdash;a
+cave, a study, a shop, a prison. <i>Second</i>, the inner
+stage was used for scenes requiring discovery or tableaux.
+Numerous stage directions indicate the drawing of the
+curtains to present a scene set on the inner stage, as
+Bethsabe at her bath, Friar Bungay in bed with his
+magical apparatus about him, Ferdinand and Miranda
+playing chess. <i>Third</i>, the use of the inner stage was
+extended so that it represented any propertied background,
+especially for scenes in a forest, church, or
+temple. In <i>As You Like It</i>, for example, the last four
+acts are located in the Forest of Arden. "This is the
+Forest of Arden," says Rosalind as soon as she arrives
+there; and even before this, Duke senior alludes to
+"these woods," and later we learn that there are practicable
+trees on which Orlando hangs his verses. The
+forest setting, consisting of trees and rocks, was placed on
+the inner stage and served to give a scenic background.
+Of course, different places in the forest are to be presumed,
+but one forest background would be sufficient<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+for all. In the course of the four acts, however,
+there are three scenes (II. ii; II. iii; III. i) that are
+not in the forest, but at unspecified and unpropertied
+places about the palace and Oliver's house. For these
+scenes the curtain would be closed, shutting off the
+forest background and transferring the spectators to
+the unspecified localities of Act I, <i>i.e.</i>, to the bare front
+stage. <i>Fourth.</i> An extension of this last use made it
+possible to employ the curtain to indicate change of
+scene. Several scenes, where no heavy properties were
+required, might succeed one another on the front stage
+with the curtains closed; but the opening of the curtains
+would reveal a special background and a manifest
+change of scene. One instance of this use of the inner
+stage is seen in the immediate change from an outdoor
+to an indoor scene, or <i>vice versa</i>. The scene is in
+the street, <i>i.e.</i>, on the front stage; the person knocks
+at one of the doors and is admitted to a house; when
+he reappears, it is through the inner stage, the curtains
+of which have been drawn, disclosing the setting of a
+room. Or this process is reversed. In <i>A Yorkshire
+Tragedy</i>, there is an interesting case of such an alternation
+from indoors to outdoors, with one character
+remaining on the stage all of the time. A more extensive
+use of this "alternation" could be employed to
+indicate marked changes of place. As long as the
+action remains in Venice, the bare front stage will do,
+but a transfer to Portia's house at Belmont can be
+made by means of the curtains and the inner stage.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Evolution of the Theater</span>In the later plays at the private theaters this use of the
+inner stage, then better lighted, seems to have increased,
+especially in the change from a street or general hall
+to special apartments.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>These uses of the inner stage, together with that of
+the upper stage or gallery, gave a chance for considerable
+variety in the action, and rendered the rapid succession
+of scenes less bewildering than one would at first
+suppose. Shakespeare's stage was the outcome of the
+peculiar conditions of acting by professionals in the
+sixteenth century, but it was also a natural step in the
+evolution from the medieval to the modern stage.
+On the medieval stage there was a neutral place or
+<i>platea</i> and special localized and propertied places called
+<i>sedes</i>, <i>domus</i>, <i>loca</i>. On the Elizabethan stage the front
+stage is the <i>platea</i>, the inner and upper stages the <i>domus</i>
+or <i>loca</i>. In the Restoration theater the scenery was
+placed on the inner stage and shut off from the outer
+stage by a curtain. With the use of scenery, the inner
+stage became more important, and the projecting apron
+of the front stage was gradually cut down. The proscenium
+doors in front of the curtain long survived
+their original use as entrances, but, as a rule, they
+have now finally disappeared with the front stage.
+The modern picture-frame stage of to-day is the evolution
+of the inner stage of the Elizabethans. Similarly
+the method of stage presentation has changed
+only gradually from Shakespeare's day to ours. The
+alternation from outer to inner stage was very common<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
+in the Restoration theaters, where flat scenes were used
+instead of a curtain, and it may still be seen in the production
+of melodrama or of Shakespeare's plays. A
+painted drop shuts off a few feet of the stage, which
+becomes a street or a hall, while properties and scenery
+are being arranged in the rear. When the drop goes
+up, we pass from the street or the court of the wicked
+Duke to the Forest of Arden, just as the Elizabethans
+did.</p>
+
+<p>The Elizabethan stage affected Shakespeare's dramatic
+art in many ways. The absence of scenery, of
+women actors, and of a front curtain, the use of a bare
+stage that served for neutral or unspecified localities,
+naturally influenced the composition of every play.
+But the theatrical presentation was by no means as
+crude or as medieval as these differences from modern
+practice seem to indicate. The intimacy established
+between actors and audience by the projecting stage,
+the rapidity of action hastened by the lack of scenery
+or furniture, the possibilities of rapid changes of scene
+rendered intelligible by the use of the inner stage,
+were all manifest advantages in encouraging dramatic
+invention. The traditions formed in this theater for
+the presentation of <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, and the
+other plays, were handed on from Shakespeare and
+Burbage to Lowin and Taylor, to Betterton, Cibber,
+and Garrick, down to the present day; and have perhaps
+been less revolutionized by scenery and electric
+lights than we might imagine.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Text of Shakespeare</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>The main difficulties that stand in the way of determining
+the actual form in which Shakespeare left his
+plays are due, first, to the total absence of manuscripts,
+and, secondly, to the fact that he, like his contemporaries,
+regarded dramatic literature as material for performance
+on the stage, not as something to be read in the
+library. The most obvious evidence of this lies in his
+having himself issued with every appearance of personal
+attention his poems of <i>Venus and Adonis</i> and
+<i>Lucrece</i>, while he permitted his plays to find their way
+into print without any trace of supervision and, in
+some cases, apparently without his consent. When
+the author sold a play to the theatrical company which
+was to perform it, he appears to have regarded himself
+as having no longer any rights in it; and when a play
+was published, we are in general justified in supposing
+either that it had been obtained surreptitiously, or that
+it had been disposed of by the company. Exceptions
+to this begin to appear in the first half of the seventeenth
+century, notably in the case of Heywood, who
+defended his action on the plea of protecting the text
+from mutilation, and in that of Ben Jonson, who issued<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
+in 1616, in the face of ridicule for his presumption, a
+folio volume of his "Works." But, though Shakespeare
+is reported to have felt annoyance at the pirating
+of his productions, there is no evidence of his having
+been led to protect himself or the integrity of his writings
+by departing from the usual practice in his profession.</p>
+
+<p>Among the various documents which make us aware
+of this situation, so general then, but so strongly in
+contrast with modern methods, three explicit statements
+by Heywood are so illuminating that they
+deserve quotation. One occurs in the preface to his
+<i>Rape of Lucrece</i>, 1630:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>To the Reader.&mdash;It hath beene no custome in mee of all
+other men (courteous Reader) to commit my plaies to the
+presse: the reason though some may attribute to my owne
+insufficiencie, I had rather subscribe in that to their seuare
+censure then by seeking to auoide the imputation of weaknes
+to incurre greater suspition of honestie: for though some
+haue vsed a double sale of their labours, first to the Stage,
+and after to the presse, For my owne part I heere proclaime
+my selfe euer faithfull in the first, and neuer guiltie of the last:
+yet since some of my plaies haue (vnknowne to me, and without
+any of my direction) accidentally come into the Printers
+hands, and therefore so corrupt and mangled, (coppied only
+by the eare) that I have bin as vnable to know them, as
+ashamed to chalenge them, This therefore, I was the willinger
+to furnish out in his natiue habit: first being by consent,
+next because the rest haue beene so wronged in being
+publisht in such sauadge and ragged ornaments: accept
+it courteous Gentlemen, and prooue as fauorable Readers
+as we haue found you gratious Auditors. Yours T. H.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="sidenote">The Right to Print</span>The second is in Heywood's <i>Pleasant Dialogues and
+Dramas</i>, 1637, the prologue to <i>If you know not me,
+you know no bodie; Or, The troubles of Queen Elizabeth</i>.
+It is as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A Prologve to the Play of Queene Elizabeth as it was last
+revived at the Cock-pit, in which the Author taxeth the most
+corrupted copy now imprinted, which was published without
+his consent.</p></div>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Prologue</span></p>
+<div class="cpoem">
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i2">Playes have a fate in their conception lent,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Some so short liv'd, no sooner shew'd than spent;<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">But borne to-day, to morrow buried, and<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Though taught to speake, neither to goe nor stand.<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">This: (by what fate I know not) sure no merit,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">That it disclaimes, may for the age inherit.<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Writing 'bove one and twenty: but ill nurst,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And yet receiv'd as well performed at first,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Grac't and frequented, for the cradle age,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Did throng the Seates, the Boxes, and the Stage<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">So much: that some by Stenography drew<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The plot: put it in print: (scarce one word trew:)<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And in that lamenesse it hath limp't so long,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The Author now to vindicate that wrong<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Hath tooke the paines, upright upon its feete<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">To teache it walke, so please you sit, and see't.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The third passage occurs in the address to the reader
+prefixed to <i>The English Traveller</i>, 1633:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>True it is that my plays are not exposed to the world in
+volumes, to bear the titles of Works (as others). One reason
+is that many of them by shifting and changing of companies
+have been negligently lost; others of them are still retained
+in the hands of some actors who think it against their peculiar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
+profit to have them come in print; and a third that it was
+never any great ambition in me in this kind to be voluminously
+read.</p></div>
+
+<p>From these passages we gather that Heywood considered
+it dishonest to sell the same play to the stage
+and to the press; that some of his plays were stolen
+through stenographic reports taken in the theater and
+were printed in corrupt forms; that, in order to counteract
+this, he obtained the consent of the theatrical
+owners to his publication of a correct edition; that
+some actors considered the printing of plays against their
+interest (presumably because they thought that if a
+man could read a play, he would not care to see it
+acted); and that many plays were lost through
+negligence and the changes in the theatrical companies.
+That we are here dealing with the conditions
+of Shakespeare's time is clear enough, since the
+edition of <i>If you know not me</i> on which Heywood
+casts reflections was published in 1605, and in 1604
+Marston supplies corroboration in the preface to his
+<i>Malcontent</i>:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>I would fain leave the paper; only one thing afflicts me, to
+think that scenes, invented merely to be spoken, should be enforcively
+published to be read, and that the least hurt I can
+receive is to do myself the wrong. But since others otherwise
+would do me more, the least inconvenience is to be accepted.
+I have myself, therefore, set forth this comedy; but so, that
+my enforced absence must much rely upon the printer's discretion:
+but I shall entreat slight errors in orthography may be
+as slightly overpassed, and that the unhandsome shape which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Pirated Editions</span>this trifle in reading presents, may be pardoned for the pleasure
+it once afforded you when it was presented with the soul of
+lively action.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<p>The only form in which any of Shakespeare's plays
+found their way into print during his lifetime was that
+of small pamphlets, called Quartos, which were sold at
+sixpence each.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> In the case of five of these there is
+general agreement that they came to the press by
+the surreptitious method of reporting described by
+Heywood: the first Quarto versions of <i>Romeo and
+Juliet</i>, <i>Henry V</i>, <i>The Merry Wives</i>, <i>Hamlet</i>, and <i>Pericles</i>.
+All of these bear clear traces of the effects of such
+mutilation as would naturally result from the attempt
+to write down the dialogue during the performance,
+and patch up the gaps later. The first Quartos of
+<i>Richard III</i> and <i>King Lear</i>, though much superior to
+the five mentioned, yet contain so many variants from
+the text of the Folio which seem to be due to mistakes
+of the ear and to slips of memory on the part of the
+actors, that probably they should also be included in the
+list of those surreptitiously obtained.</p>
+
+<p>Redress for such pirating as is implied in these publications
+was difficult on account of the absence of a
+law of copyright. The chief pieces of legislation
+affecting the book trade were the law of licensing and
+the charter of the Stationers' Company. According
+to the first, all books, with a few exceptions, such as
+academic publications, had to be licensed before publication<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
+by the Bishop of London or the Archbishop of
+Canterbury. This was an unworkable provision, and
+in fact the responsibility for all books not likely to
+raise political or theological controversy was left to
+the Stationers' Company. This close corporation of
+printers and publishers exercised its powers for the protection
+of its members rather than of authors. A
+publisher wishing to establish a monopoly in a book
+he had acquired entered it on the Stationers' Register,
+paying a fee of sixpence, and was thereby protected
+against piracy. When the copy so registered was improperly
+acquired, the state of the case is not so clear.
+At times the officials showed hesitation about registering
+a book until the applicant "hath gotten sufficient
+authoritye for yt," and <i>As You Like It</i>, for example,
+appears in the Register only "to be staied," which it
+was until the publication of the first Folio. Further,
+the pirated <i>Romeo and Juliet</i> and <i>Henry V</i> were never
+entered at all; the pirated <i>Hamlet</i> and <i>Pericles</i> were
+entered, but to other publishers, who in the case of
+<i>Hamlet</i> brought out a more correct text in the following
+year; the pirated <i>Merry Wives</i> was transferred
+from one publisher to another on the day of entry, and
+actually issued by the second. Thus this group of
+plays does not support the view that the Stationers'
+Company stood ready to give perpetual copyright to
+their members even for obviously stolen goods. It is
+to be noted, too, that the previous publication of these
+surreptitious copies formed no hindrance to the later<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Publisher's Copyright</span>issue of an authentic copy. The second Quarto of
+<i>Hamlet</i>, printed from a complete manuscript, followed,
+as has been said, the first the next year, and
+the same thing happened in the case of <i>Romeo and
+Juliet</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>On the other hand, the great majority of the Quartos
+printed from playhouse copies of the plays were regularly
+entered, and the rights of the original publisher
+preserved to him. The appearance of groups of plays
+in the market following interference with theatrical
+activity such as came from the plague in 1594, from the
+breaking up of companies, or from Puritan attempts at
+restriction, confirm the belief that these better Quartos
+were honorably acquired by the publishers from the
+companies owning them, when the actors thought that
+there was more to gain than to lose by giving them to
+the press.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The accompanying "Table of Quarto Editions"
+gives the names of all the Shakespearean plays issued
+in this form before the publication of the collected
+edition in 1623, known as the First Folio. In the
+cases of <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, <i>1 Henry IV</i>, <i>Love's Labour's
+Lost</i>, <i>Merchant of Venice</i>, <i>Much Ado</i>, <i>A Midsummer-Night's
+Dream</i>, and <i>Richard II</i>, a Quarto, usually the
+most recent, provided the text from which the version in
+the Folio was printed. Hence, though in several cases
+the copy of the Quarto thus employed seems to have
+been one used by the actors and containing corrections
+of some value, the extant Quarto rather than the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
+Folio is the prime authority for the text to-day.
+The same is true of <i>Titus Andronicus</i>, except that in
+this case the Folio restores from some manuscript
+source a scene which had been dropped from the
+Quarto. If, as some hold, the Folio texts of <i>Richard
+III</i> and <i>King Lear</i> were printed from Quartos, there
+must have been available also a manuscript version,
+which is so heavily drawn upon that the Folio text
+virtually represents an independent source, as it does
+in the case of four of the five plays acknowledged to
+be due to surreptitious reporting. <i>Pericles</i>, the fifth of
+these, was first admitted to the collected works in the
+third Folio, and is the only "reported" text forming
+our sole authority.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a><span class="sidenote">Table of Quarto Editions</span></p>
+<h3 class="moretop">TABLE OF QUARTO EDITIONS BEFORE 1623</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="dat1" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Originally occupying pages 138 and 139">
+
+<tr><td class="nlt" style="width: 10%;" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td class="nct" colspan="2" rowspan="2">Entries in<br />Stationers'<br />Register</td>
+<td class="nct" colspan="8">Dates Of</td>
+<td class="nct" rowspan="2" style="width: 18%;" colspan="2">Source of<br />Q Text</td><td class="nct" rowspan="2" style="width: 16%;">Source of<br />F<sub>1</sub> Text</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nqs">Q<sub>1</sub></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="nqs">Q<sub>2</sub></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="nqs">Q<sub>3</sub></td>
+<td class="nqs">Q<sub>4</sub></td>
+<td class="nqs">Q<sub>5</sub></td>
+<td class="nqs">Q<sub>6</sub></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nol">T. A.</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Feb. 6, 1594</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1594</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1600</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1611</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Playhouse</td>
+<td class="lnl">Q<sub>3</sub> completed and<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;corrected</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nol">R. II</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Aug. 29, 1597</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1597</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1598</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1608</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1615</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Playhouse</td>
+<td class="lnl">Q<sub>4</sub> corrected</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nol">R. III</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Oct. 19, 1597</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1597</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1598</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1602</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1605</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1612</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1622</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Disputed</td>
+<td class="lnl">Disputed</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nol">R. J.</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">No entry</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1597</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1599</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1609</td>
+<td class="lnrl">n.d.</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="nbrc" style="font-size: 200%;">{</td>
+<td class="nol" style="padding-left: 0em;">Q<sub>1</sub> Reported<br />Q<sub>2</sub> Playhouse</td>
+<td class="lnl">Q<sub>3</sub> from Q<sub>2</sub></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nol">1 H. IV</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Feb. 25, 1598</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1598</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1599</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1604</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1608</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1613</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1622</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Playhouse</td>
+<td class="lnl">Q<sub>5</sub> corrected</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nol">L. L. L.</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">No entry</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1598</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Playhouse</td>
+<td class="lnl">Q<sub>1</sub></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nol">Merch.<br /><br /></td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">July 22, 1598<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;(conditional)</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnl">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nol">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Oct. 28, 1600</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1600</td>
+<td class="nbrc" style="font-size: 300%;">{</td>
+<td class="nor">1600<br />or&nbsp;&nbsp;<br />1619</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Playhouse</td>
+<td class="lnl">Q<sub>1</sub> (Heyes)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nol">H. V.<br /><br /></td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">[Aug. 4, 1600]<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;"to be stayed"</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1600</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1602</td>
+<td class="nbrc" style="font-size: 300%;">{</td>
+<td class="nor">1608<br />or&nbsp;&nbsp;<br />1619</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Reported</td>
+<td class="lnl">Independent</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nol">M. Ado<br /><br /><br /></td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">[Aug. 4, 1600]<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;"to be stayed"<br />Aug. 23, 1600</td>
+<td class="lnrl"><br /><br />1600</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2"><br /><br />Playhouse</td>
+<td class="lnl"><br /><br />Q<sub>1</sub> corrected</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nol">2 H. IV</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Aug. 23, 1600</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1600</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Playhouse</td>
+<td class="lnl">Independent</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nol">M. N. D.</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Oct. 8, 1600</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1600</td>
+<td class="nbrc" style="font-size: 300%;">{</td>
+<td class="nor">1600<br />or&nbsp;&nbsp;<br />1619</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Playhouse</td>
+<td class="lnl">Q<sub>2</sub> corrected</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nol">M. W.</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Jan. 18, 1602</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1602</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1619</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Reported</td>
+<td class="lnl">Independent</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nol">Hml.</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">July 26, 1602</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1603</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1604,5</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1611</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="nbrc" style="font-size: 200%;">{</td>
+<td class="nol" style="padding-left: 0em;">Q<sub>1</sub> Reported<br />Q<sub>2</sub> Playhouse</td>
+<td class="lnl">Independent</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nol">Lear</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Nov. 26, 1607</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1608</td>
+<td class="nbrc" style="font-size: 300%;">{</td>
+<td class="nor">1608<br />or&nbsp;&nbsp;<br />1619</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Disputed</td>
+<td class="lnl"><br />Disputed (Q<sub>1</sub> in<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;several states)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nol">T. C.</td>
+<td class="lnl" style="width: 12%;">Feb. 7, 1603<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;(conditional)<br />Jan. 28, 1609</td>
+<td class="nbrcr" style="font-size: 300%; width: 2%;">}</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1609</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Playhouse</td>
+<td class="lnl"><br />Independent (Q<sub>1</sub><br />&nbsp;&nbsp;in two issues)</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nol">Per.</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">May 20, 1608</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1609</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1609</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">1611</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1619</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Reported</td>
+<td class="lnl"><br />Not in F<sub>1</sub><br />F<sub>3</sub> from Q<sub>4</sub></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="nol">Oth.</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Oct. 6, 1621</td>
+<td class="lnrl">1622</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnrl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="lnl" colspan="2">Playhouse</td>
+<td class="lnl">Independent</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="topiii" colspan="14">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><span class="sidenote">The First Folio</span>We come now to the publication of the First Folio,
+the most important single volume in the history of the
+text of Shakespeare. On November 8, 1623, the
+following entry occurs in the Stationers' Register:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Mr. Blount: Isaak Jaggard. Entred for their copie under
+the hands of M<sup>r</sup> Doctor Worrall and M<sup>r</sup> Cole, Warden,
+M<sup>r</sup> William Shakspeers Comedyes, Histories and Tragedyes,
+soe manie of the said copyes as are not formerly entred to
+other men viz<sup>t</sup>, Comedyes. The Tempest. The two gentlemen
+of Verona. Measure for Measure. The Comedy of
+Errors. As you like it. All's well that ends well. Twelft
+Night. The winters tale. Histories. The thirde part of
+Henry the sixt. Henry the eight. Tragedies. Coriolanus.
+Timon of Athens. Julius C&aelig;sar. Mackbeth. Anthonie
+and Cleopatra. Cymbeline.</p></div>
+
+<p>One notes here the omission of <i>1</i> and <i>2 Henry VI</i>,
+<i>King John</i>, and <i>The Taming of the Shrew</i>, which had
+neither been previously entered nor issued in Quarto.
+This is probably due to the fact that three of these are
+based on older plays of which Quartos exist, which may
+have seemed to the publishers reason enough to save
+their sixpences. If we assume that "The thirde part
+of Henry the sixt" is a misprint for "The first part,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
+the explanation covers the whole case. The registration
+of <i>Antony and Cleopatra</i> was superfluous, as it had
+been entered, though not printed, so far as we know,
+on May 20, 1608.</p>
+
+<p>There are thus in the First Folio, the publication of
+which immediately followed this entry in 1623, twenty
+plays not before issued, for which the text of this
+volume is our sole authority. The emphasis so commonly
+placed on the supreme value of the text of the
+First Folio is justified with regard to these twenty
+plays; as for the remaining seventeen, its importance
+is shared, in proportions varying from play to play,
+with the texts of the Quartos. The sources from which
+the compilers of the Folio obtained their new material
+were in all probability playhouse copies, as in the case
+of the better Quartos. Heminge and Condell, Shakespeare's
+actor colleagues and friends, who sign the Address
+to the Readers,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> would obviously be the instruments
+for obtaining such copies. As for the so-called
+"private transcripts" which some have postulated as
+a source of material, there is no evidence that at this
+date any such existed. Whether any of the playhouse
+manuscripts provided by Heminge and Condell were in
+Shakespeare's autograph we can neither affirm nor deny,
+but it is well to be cautious in accepting at its face
+value the implication contained in their words that they
+had "scarce received from him a blot in his papers."</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 238px;"><a name="Facsim" id="Facsim"></a>
+<a href="images/286.jpg"><img src="images/t286.jpg" width="238" height="400" alt="" title="" /></a>
+<p class="captionn"><span class="smcap">The Title Page of the First Folio</span><br />
+(<i>From the copy in the New York Public Library.</i>)</p></div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="sidenote">The First Folio</span>The First Folio is a large volume of 908 pages,
+measuring in the tallest extant copy 13&#8540; x 8&#189; inches.
+A reduced facsimile of the title page with the familiar
+wood-cut portrait appears on the opposite page. The
+text is printed in two columns with sixty-six lines to a
+column. The typography is only fairly good, and many
+mistakes occur in the pagination. Extant copies, of
+which there are at least 156, vary in some respects, on
+account of the practice of making corrections while the
+sheets were being printed. The printer was William
+Jaggard, and his associates in the publishing enterprise
+were his son Isaac and the booksellers, William Aspley,
+John Smethwick, and Edward Blount. Estimates of the
+size of the edition vary from five to six hundred.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the causes which made the text of these
+early editions inaccurate are common to all the plays,
+while some are peculiar to those obtained by reporters
+in the theater. Of the first, the most fundamental
+is, of course, the illegibility or ambiguity of the author's
+original manuscript. Such flaws were perpetuated and
+multiplied with each successive transcript, and when
+the manuscript copy came into the printer's hands,
+the errors of the compositor&mdash;confusion of words
+sounding alike, of words looking alike, unconscious
+substitution of synonyms, mere manual slips, and the
+like&mdash;were added to those already existing. The
+absence of any uniform spelling, and carelessness in
+punctuation, which led to these being freely modified
+by the printer, increased the risk of corruption. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+punctuation of both Quartos and Folio, though by no
+means without weight, cannot be regarded as having
+the author's sanction, and all modernized editions
+re-punctuate with greater or less freedom. Most
+nineteenth-century editors carry on with minor modifications
+the punctuation of Pope, so that their texts
+show a composite of sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth,
+and nineteenth century methods; the text used in the
+Tudor edition is frankly punctuated, as far as the syntax
+permits, according to modern methods, with, it is
+believed, no loss in authority. There is no clear evidence
+that, in such productions as plays, proof was
+read outside of the printing-office. The theory, insisted
+on by Dr. Furness in successive volumes of the <i>New
+Variorum Shakespeare</i>, that the Elizabethan compositor
+set type to dictation is without foundation, the
+phenomena which he seeks to explain by it occurring
+commonly to-day when there is no question of such a
+practice.</p>
+
+<p>Another class of variation in text arose from the
+treatment of the manuscript in the playhouse. Cuts,
+additions, and alterations were made for acting purposes,
+stage directions were added with or without
+the assistance of the author, revivals of the play called
+for revision by the original writer or another. The
+majority of stage directions in modern editions, except
+exits and entrances, are due to editors from Rowe
+onwards, and these unauthorized additions are distinguished
+in the Tudor edition by brackets. Almost<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Corruptions of Text</span>all notes of place at the beginnings of scenes belong to
+this class.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The defects to which the texts of the surreptitiously
+obtained Quartos are particularly subject include
+omissions and alterations due to lapse of memory on
+the part of the actors, additions due to the tendency to
+improvise which Shakespeare censures in <i>Hamlet</i>,
+omissions due to the reporter's failure to hear or to
+write quickly enough, garbled paraphrases made up
+to supply such omissions, and the writing of prose as
+verse and verse as prose.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the most important of the causes of the
+corruptions which the long series of editors of Shakespeare
+have devoted their study and their ingenuity
+to remedying. The series really begins with the second
+Folio of 1632 and is continued with but slight improvements
+in the third Folio of 1663, reprinted with the
+addition of <i>Pericles</i> and six spurious plays in 1664,
+and in the fourth Folio of 1685. The emendations
+made in the seventeenth-century editions are mainly
+modernizations in spelling and such minor changes as
+occurred to members of the printing staff. In no case
+do they have any authority except such as may be
+supposed to belong to a man not far removed from
+Shakespeare in date; and they add about as many
+mistakes as they remove.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty of the task of the modern editor varies
+greatly from play to play. It is least in the twenty
+plays for which the First Folio is the sole authority,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+greater in the eight in which the Folio reprints a Quarto
+with some variations, greatest in the nine in which
+Folio and Quarto represent rival versions. In these last
+cases, it is the duty of the editor to decide from all the
+accessible data which version has the best claim to
+represent the author's intention, and to make that a
+basis to be departed from only in clear cases of corruption.
+The temptation, which no editor has completely
+resisted, is naturally towards an eclecticism which adopts
+the reading that seems most plausible in itself, without
+giving due weight to the general authority of the
+text chosen as a basis. If carried far, such eclecticism
+results in a patchwork quite distinct from any version
+that Shakespeare can have known.</p>
+
+<p>The first editor of Shakespeare, in the modern sense,
+was Nicholas Rowe, poet laureate under Queen
+Anne. He published in 1709 an edition of the plays
+in six octavo volumes, preceded by the first formal
+memoir of the dramatist, and furnished with notes.
+The poems were issued in the following year in similar
+form, with essays by Gildon. Rowe based his text
+upon that of the fourth Folio, with hardly any collation
+of previous editions. He corrected a large number of
+the more obvious corruptions, the most notable of
+his emendations being perhaps the phrase in <i>Twelfth
+Night</i>, "Some are become great," which he changed
+to "Some are born great." On the external aspect
+of the plays Rowe has left a deeper mark than any
+subsequent editor. In the Folios only eight of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Rowe and Pope</span>plays had lists of <i>dramatis person&aelig;</i>; Rowe supplied
+them for the rest. In the Folios the division into
+acts and scenes is carried out completely in only
+seventeen cases, it is partially done in thirteen, and
+in six it is not attempted at all. Rowe again completed
+the work, and though some of his divisions
+have been modified and others should be, he performed
+this task with care and intelligence. He modernized
+the spelling and the punctuation, completed the exits
+and entrances, corrected many corrupt speech-tags,
+and arranged many passages where the verse was
+disordered. In virtue of these services, he must, in
+spite of his leaving much undone, be regarded as one
+of the most important agents in the formation of our
+modern text.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>A second edition of Rowe's Shakespeare was published
+in 1714, and in 1725 appeared a splendid quarto
+edition in six volumes, edited by Alexander Pope.
+In his preface Pope made strong professions of his
+good faith in dealing with the text. "I have discharged,"
+he said, "the dull duty of an editor to my
+best judgment, with more labor than I expect thanks,
+with a religious abhorrence of all innovation, and without
+any indulgence to my private sense or conjecture....
+The various readings are fairly put in the margin, so
+that anyone may compare 'em; and those I have preferred
+into the text are constantly <i>ex fide codicum</i>,
+upon authority.... The more obsolete or unusual
+words are explained." Hardly one of these statements<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+is entirely true. Pope possessed copies of the
+first and second Folios, and at least one Quarto of each
+play that had been printed before 1623, except <i>Much
+Ado</i>, but these he consulted only occasionally, and
+seldom registered the variants as he said he had done.
+When he did, he gave no clue to their source. He
+constantly inserted his private conjectures without
+notice, and his explanations of difficult expressions
+are few and frequently wrong. Passages considered
+by him inferior or spurious he relegated to the foot of
+the pages; others he merely omitted without notice.
+His ear was often jarred by the freedom of Shakespeare's
+verse, and he did his best to make it
+"regular" by eighteenth-century standards. Yet
+Pope spent much ingenuity in striving to better the
+text, and no small number of restorations and emendations
+are to be credited to him, especially in connection
+with the arrangement of the verse. He is to be credited
+also with discernment in rejecting the seven plays
+added to the Shakespearean canon in the third Folio,
+of which only <i>Pericles</i> has since been restored.</p>
+
+<p>The weaknesses of Pope's edition did not long remain
+hidden. In the spring of 1726 appeared "Shakespeare
+Restored: or, a Specimen of the many Errors, as well
+committed, as unamended, by Mr. Pope in his late
+edition of this Poet. Designed not only to correct the
+said edition, but to restore the True Reading of Shakespeare
+in all the Editions ever yet publish'd." Lewis
+Theobald, the author, was a translator and scholar,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Theobald and Hanmer</span>much better equipped than Pope for the work of editing,
+and his merciless exposure of Pope's defects gave
+a foretaste of the critical ability later displayed in the
+edition of Shakespeare which he published in 1734.
+Lovers of Shakespeare discerned at the time the service
+performed by Theobald in this attack on Pope, but the
+publication in 1728 of the first edition of the <i>Dunciad</i>,
+with Theobald as hero, gave Pope his revenge, and
+cast over the reputation of his critic a cloud which is
+only now dispersing. Modern scholarship, however,
+has come to recognize the primacy of Theobald among
+emendators of Shakespeare's text, and the most famous
+of his contributions, his correction of "a table of green
+fields" to "'a babled of green fields," in Quickly's
+account of the death of Falstaff in <i>Henry V</i>, II. iii. 17,
+is only a specially brilliant example of the combination
+of acuteness, learning, and sympathy which made his
+edition a landmark in the history of the text. For
+many of his troubles, however, Theobald was himself
+to blame; he attacked his opponents with unnecessary
+vehemence, as he expressed his appreciation of his
+own work with unnecessary emphasis; he was not
+always candid as to what he owed to others, even to
+the despised edition of Pope, from which he printed;
+and he indulged his appetite for conjecture at times
+beyond reasonable bounds.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Theobald's edition was followed in 1744 by that of
+Sir Thomas Hanmer in six beautifully printed volumes.
+This edition is based on that of Pope, and even goes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
+farther than Pope's in relegating to the foot of the page
+passages supposed unworthy. Hanmer performed no
+collating worth mentioning, but made some acute conjectures.</p>
+
+<p>The student is apt to be prejudiced against the work
+of William Warburton on account of the extravagance
+of his claims and his ungenerous treatment of predecessors
+to whom he was greatly indebted. "The
+Genuine Text," he announced, "(collated with all
+former editions and then corrected and emended)
+is here settled: Being restored from the Blunders of
+the first editors and the Interpolations of the two
+Last"; yet he based his text on Theobald's and joined
+Pope's name with his own on the title-page. Whatever
+value belongs to Warburton's edition (1747) lies
+in a number of probable conjectural emendations,
+some of which he had previously allowed Theobald to
+use, and in the amusing bombast and arrogance of many
+of his notes. The feeble support that lay behind the
+pretensions of this editor was exposed by a number
+of critics such as John Upton, Zachary Grey, Benjamin
+Heath, and Thomas Edwards, who did not issue new
+editions, but contributed a considerable number of
+corrections and interpretations.</p>
+
+<p>The value of Dr. Johnson's edition (1765) does not lie
+in his emendations, which are usually, though not
+always, poor, or in his collation of older editions, for
+which he was too indolent, but in the sturdy common-sense
+of his interpretations and the consummate skill<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Johnson and Capell</span>frequently shown in paraphrases of obscure passages.
+His Preface to the edition was the most weighty general
+estimate of Shakespeare so far produced, and
+remains a valuable piece of criticism. In scientific
+treatment of the text, involving full use of all the
+Quartos and Folios then accessible, Johnson and his
+predecessors were far surpassed by Edward Capell, who
+issued his edition in ten volumes in 1768. Unfortunately,
+the enormous labor Capell underwent did not
+bear its full fruit, for he suppressed much of his textual
+material in the interests of a well-printed page, and his
+preface and notes are written in a crabbed style that
+obscures the acuteness of his editorial intelligence.
+He elaborated stage directions, and carried farther the
+correction of disarranged meter; but, like most of his
+fellow-editors in that century, he did less than justice
+to his predecessors and was too indulgent to his own
+conjectures. This edition was supplemented by volumes
+of notes published in 1775 (1 vol.) and 1779-1783
+(3 vols.).</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Before the publication of Capell's text, the antiquary
+George Steevens had issued in 1766 reprints of
+twenty of the early Quartos; and in 1773 he produced,
+in association with Johnson, an edition with a good text
+in which he benefited from Capell's labors (though he
+denies this). Through his knowledge of Elizabethan literature
+he made substantial contributions to the interpretation
+of difficult passages. He restored <i>Pericles</i> to
+a place in the canon, but excluded the <i>Poems</i>, because<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
+"the strongest Act of Parliament that could be framed
+would fail to compel readers into their service." To
+the second edition of Johnson and Steevens's text
+(1778) Edmund Malone contributed his famous "Essay
+on the Chronology of Shakespeare's Plays," which
+began modern investigation of this subject. The
+third edition was revised in 1785 by Isaac Reed; and
+this was succeeded by the edition of Malone in 1790,
+in which the vast learning and conscientious care of
+that scholar combined to produce the most trustworthy
+text so far published. Malone was not brilliant,
+but he was extremely erudite and candid, and
+his so-called "Third Variorum" edition in twenty-one
+volumes, brought out after his death by James Boswell
+in 1821, is a mine of information on theatrical history
+and cognate matters, which will probably always be
+of value to students of the period. The name of
+"First Variorum Edition" is given to the fifth edition
+of Johnson and Steevens, revised by Reed in 1803, and
+"Second Variorum" to the sixth edition of the same,
+1813. Meantime occasional critiques of complete
+editions contributed something to the text. Johnson's
+edition called forth comment by Kendrick in 1765
+and Tyrwhitt in 1766, and the Johnson and Steevens
+text was criticized by Joseph Ritson in 1783 and 1788,
+and by J. Monck Mason in 1785. The first American
+edition was published in Philadelphia in 1795-1796
+from Johnson's text; the first continental edition at
+Brunswick in 1797-1801 by C. Wagner.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="sidenote">Nineteenth-Century Editors</span>The editions of the nineteenth century are too
+numerous for detailed mention here. Passing by the
+"family" Shakespeare of T. Bowdler, 1807 and 1820,
+and the editions of Harness, 1825, and Singer, 1826, we
+note the editions of 1838-1842, and 1842-1844 in which
+Charles Knight resorted to the text of the First Folio
+as an exclusive authority. J. P. Collier in his edition
+of 1844 leaned, on the other hand, to the side of the
+Quartos, but later became a clever if somewhat rash
+emendator, who spoiled his reputation by seeking to
+obtain authority for his guesses by forging them in a
+seventeenth-century hand in a copy of the second
+Folio. The colossal volumes of J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps's
+edition, 1853-1865, contain stores of antiquarian
+illustration; and in the edition of Delius, 1854-1861,
+we have the chief contribution of Germany to
+the text of Shakespeare. Delius, like Knight, though
+not to the same extreme, exaggerated the authority of
+the First Folio; but for the plays for which that is the
+sole source, his text has earned high respect. Alexander
+Dyce, wisest of Elizabethan scholars, produced
+in 1857 a characteristically sane text, on the whole the
+best to this date; while in America in 1857-1860 and
+1859-1865 the brilliant but erratic Richard Grant
+White produced editions which show a commendable
+if puzzling openness to conviction in successive changes
+of opinion.</p>
+
+<p>From 1863 to 1866 appeared the first issue of the
+Cambridge Shakespeare, edited originally by W. G.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
+Clark, J. Glover, and W. A. Wright. The responsibility
+for the later revised edition of 1891-3 is Dr. Wright's.
+The exceedingly careful and exhaustive collation of all
+previous textual readings in the notes of this edition
+make it indispensable for the serious student, and its
+text, substantially reprinted in the Globe edition, is the
+most widely accepted form of the works of Shakespeare
+which has ever been circulated. The over-emphasis
+on the First Folio which has been noted in Knight and
+Delius is no longer found here, and in general the comparative
+value of Quarto and Folio is weighed in the
+case of each play. Occasionally, in cases like that of
+<i>Richard III</i>, where both Quarto and Folio are good
+but vary widely, the Cambridge editors seem more
+eclectic than their general theory warrants, and the
+punctuation is still archaic, clinging to the eighteenth-century
+tradition. But the acceptance of this careful
+and conservative text has been a wholesome influence
+in Shakespearean study.</p>
+
+<p>The only completely re&euml;dited texts which have
+been issued since the revised Cambridge edition are
+that of the Oxford Shakespeare, by W. J. Craig, on
+principles very similar to the Cambridge, and the
+Neilson text, originally published in one volume in
+1906 and revised and reprinted in the Tudor Shakespeare.
+The massive volumes of Dr. H. H. Furness's
+<i>New Variorum Shakespeare</i>, begun in 1871 (17 volumes
+issued), now reprint the text of the First Folio, and show
+marked traces of the tendency to follow this authority<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Recent Editors</span>without due discrimination. This monumental abstract
+of all previous criticism is of great value to the
+professional student of Shakespeare, and its textual
+apparatus has the advantage over the Cambridge
+edition of recording not only the first occurrence of a
+reading, but the names of the chief editors who have
+adopted it. It thus gives a compendious history of
+editorial judgment on all disputed points.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The conjectural emendation of Shakespeare still
+goes on, but since Dyce, comparatively few suggestions
+find general acceptance. More progress has been made
+in interpretation through the greater accessibility of
+contemporary documents and the advance in recent
+years in our knowledge of Elizabethan theatrical conditions.
+But, in view of the circumstances under which
+the original editions were printed, there will always be
+room for variations of individual opinion in many cases,
+both as to what Shakespeare wrote and as to what he
+meant.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> For facsimile reproductions see Bibliography, <a href="#Appendix_D">Appendix D</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> In the table of Quarto editions may be noted four entries
+with the words "or 1619" added to the date which appears
+on the title-page. These four plays, the Roberts Quartos of
+<i>The Merchant of Venice</i> and <i>A Midsummer-Night's Dream</i>
+of 1600, the third Quarto of <i>Henry V</i>, 1608, the second Quarto
+of <i>King Lear</i>, 1608, along with the 1619 Quartos of <i>The Merry
+Wives</i> and <i>Pericles</i>, an undated Quarto of <i>The Whole Contention</i>
+(the earlier form of <i>2</i> and <i>3 Henry VI</i>), the Quarto of <i>Sir
+John Oldcastle</i>, dated 1600, and the Quarto of <i>A Yorkshire
+Tragedie</i>, dated 1619, have been shown by Mr. A. W. Pollard,
+with the co&ouml;peration of Mr. W. W. Greg, to have been put
+on the market at the same time, and Mr. W. J. Neidig has
+proved from typographical evidence that the title-pages of
+all nine were set up in succession in 1619. A very curious
+problem is thus presented, and the motives for the deception
+practised, apparently by the printers Pavier and Jaggard,
+have not been satisfactorily cleared up; but at present it
+appears likely that in the case of these nine Quartos the
+correct date of publication should be 1619, and that, in the
+case of the first two mentioned, the question of the comparative
+authority of the Heyes and Fisher Quartos respectively
+as against that of the Roberts Quartos should be settled
+against the latter. This last point is the only part of this
+remarkable discovery which is of importance in determining
+the text, as the Quartos dated 1608 and 1619 were already
+known to be mere reprints of earlier ones.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> For this and other prefatory matter from the First
+Folio, see <a href="#Appendix_A">Appendix A</a>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Questions of Authenticity</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>Owing to the conditions of publication described in
+Chapter VII there are questions as to the authenticity
+of a number of the poems and plays ascribed to Shakespeare.
+Of the poems, "The Ph&#339;nix and the Turtle"
+and "A Lover's Complaint" have been sometimes rejected
+as unworthy, but there is no other evidence
+against the ascription to him by the original publishers.
+The case of <i>The Passionate Pilgrim</i> is different and is
+interesting as illustrating the methods of piracy practised
+by booksellers and as affording the only record of
+a protest by Shakespeare against the free use which
+they made of his name. This anthology was published
+by W. Jaggard in 1599 as "by W. Shakespeare." The
+third edition in 1612 added two pieces by Thomas
+Heywood. Heywood immediately protested and in
+the postscript to his <i>Apologie for Actors</i>, 1612, declared
+that Shakespeare was "much offended with M. Jaggard
+that (altogether unknown to him) presumed to make
+so bold with his name." Of the twenty poems that
+made up the volume, only five are certainly by Shakespeare,
+two appearing also in <i>The Sonnets</i> and three in
+<i>Love's Labour's Lost</i>. Six others can be assigned to
+contemporary poets. The authorship of the remaining<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">The Shakespeare Apocrypha</span>nine is unknown, but probably only one or two are by
+Shakespeare.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>In addition to the thirty-seven plays now included
+in all editions of Shakespeare, some forty others have
+been, for one reason or another, attributed to him.
+The First Folio contained thirty-six plays; and it is a
+strong evidence of the honesty and information of its
+editors, Heming and Condell, that subsequent criticism
+has been satisfied to retain the plays of their choice and
+to make but one addition, <i>Pericles</i>. Of these plays,
+however, it is now generally agreed that a number are
+not entirely the work of Shakespeare, but were written
+by him in part in collaboration with other writers, <i>e.g.</i>,
+<i>Titus Andronicus, 1, 2</i>, and <i>3</i> <i>Henry VI</i>, <i>Timon of
+Athens</i>, <i>Pericles</i>, and <i>Henry VIII</i>. Of two of these,
+<i>Titus Andronicus</i> and <i>1 Henry VI</i>, some students
+refuse to give Shakespeare any share. Of the forty
+doubtful plays, there is not one which in its entirety
+is now credited to Shakespeare; and only three or
+four in which any number of competent critics see
+traces of his hand. Only in the case of <i>The Two Noble
+Kinsmen</i> is there any weight of evidence or opinion
+that he had a considerable share.</p>
+
+<p>The second Folio kept to the thirty-six plays of the
+First Folio; but the second printing of the third Folio
+(1664) added seven plays: <i>Pericles Prince of Tyre</i>,
+<i>The London Prodigal</i>, <i>The History of Thomas Lord
+Cromwell</i>, <i>Sir John Oldcastle</i>, <i>Lord Cobham</i>, <i>The Puritan
+Widow</i>, <i>A Yorkshire Tragedy</i>, <i>The Tragedy of Locrine</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>
+These seven plays were also included in the fourth
+Folio, and as supplementary volumes to Rowe's, Pope's,
+and some later editions. They were all originally
+published in quarto as by W. S., or William Shakespeare,
+but except in the case of <i>Pericles</i>, this has been regarded
+as a bookseller's mistake or deception without warrant.
+<i>Locrine</i>, "newly set forth, overseen, and corrected
+by W. S., 1595," is a play of about the date of <i>Titus
+Andronicus</i>, and is probably by Greene, Peele, or some
+imitator of Marlowe and Kyd. <i>Sir John Oldcastle</i>
+appeared in 1600 in two quartos, one of which ascribed
+it to William Shakespeare, but it was clearly composed
+for the Admiral's men as a rival to the Falstaff
+plays which the Chamberlain's men had been acting.
+<i>Thomas Lord Cromwell</i> (1602) and <i>The Puritan</i> (1607)
+were ascribed to W. S., on their title-pages, but offer
+no possible resemblances to Shakespeare. <i>The London
+Prodigal</i> (1605) and <i>A Yorkshire Tragedy</i> (1608) were
+both acted by Shakespeare's company, and bore his
+name on their first editions, and the latter also on a
+second edition, 1619. The external evidence for his
+authorship is virtually the same as in the case of
+<i>Pericles</i>, which also was acted by his company, appeared
+under his name during his lifetime, but was rejected by
+the editors of the First Folio. No one, however, can
+discover any suggestion of Shakespeare in <i>The London
+Prodigal</i>. <i>A Yorkshire Tragedy</i> is a domestic tragedy in
+one act, dealing with a contemporary murder. It gives
+the conclusion of a story also treated in a play, <span class="sidenote">The Two Noble Kinsmen</span><i>The</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
+<i>Miseries of Enforced Marriage</i> (1607) by George Wilkins,
+the author of a novel <i>The Painful Adventures of
+Pericles</i>, and sometimes suggested as a collaborator
+on the play <i>Pericles</i>. <i>A Yorkshire Tragedy</i> is very
+unlike Shakespeare, but it has a few passages of extraordinarily
+vivid prose, which might conceivably owe
+something to him.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i> was registered April 8, 1634,
+and appeared in the same year with the following
+title-page "The Two Noble Kinsmen: Presented at
+the Blackfriars by the Kings Maiesties servants, with
+great applause: Written by the memorable Worthies
+of their time;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="nol">Mr. John Fletcher, and<br />Mr. William Shakespeare</td>
+<td class="nbrcr" style="font-size: 200%;">}</td><td class="nol">Gent.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Printed at London by the Tho. Cotes for Iohn Waterson;
+and are to be sold at the signe of the Crowne in
+Paul's Church-yard. 1634." The exclusion of the
+play from the First Folio may be explained on the same
+basis as the exclusion of <i>Pericles</i>; for in each play
+Shakespeare wrote the minor part. There is now
+general agreement that <i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i> was
+written by two authors with distinct styles, and that
+the author of the larger portion is Fletcher. The
+attribution of the non-Fletcherian part to Shakespeare
+has been upheld by Lamb, Coleridge, De Quincey,
+Spalding (in a notable Letter on Shakespeare's Authorship
+of <i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i>, 1833), Furness, and
+Littledale (who edited the play for <i>The New Shakespeare<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
+Society</i>, Series II, 1, 8, 15, London, 1876-1885); but
+there are still many critics who do not believe that
+Shakespeare had any part in the play. This question
+will probably always remain a matter of opinion;
+but the evidence of various verse tests confirms esthetic
+judgment in assigning about two fifths of the verse to
+Shakespeare. The Shakespearean portion, here and
+there possibly touched by Fletcher, includes, I. i;
+I. ii; I. iii; I. iv. 1-28; III. i; III. ii; V. i. 17-73; V. iii.
+1-104; V. iv, and perhaps the prose II. i and IV. iii.</p>
+
+<p>The dance in the play is borrowed from an anti-masque
+in Beaumont's <i>Masque of the Inner Temple and
+Gray's Inn</i>, presented at court, February 20, 1613. This
+fixes the date of composition for the play in 1613, the
+same year as <i>Henry VIII</i>, on which it is now generally
+agreed that Shakespeare and Fletcher collaborated.
+On both of the plays the collaboration seems to have
+been direct; <i>i.e.</i>, after making a fairly detailed outline,
+each writer took certain scenes, and, to all intents,
+completed these scenes after his own fashion.</p>
+
+<p>One other play must be mentioned in connection
+with <i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i>. <i>Cardenio</i>, entered on
+the Stationers' Register, 1653, was described as "by
+Fletcher and Shakespeare." It seems probably identical
+with a <i>Cardenno</i> acted at court by the King's men
+in May, 1613, and a <i>Cardenna</i> in June, 1613. Attempts
+have been made to connect it with <i>Double Falsehood</i>,
+assigned to Shakespeare by Theobald on its publication
+in 1728.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="sidenote">Last Ascriptions</span>Other non-extant plays ascribed to Shakespeare after
+1642 require no attention, nor do a number of Elizabethan
+plays assigned to him in certain of their later
+quartos. Among these are <i>The Troublesome Reign
+of King John</i>, on which Shakespeare's <i>King John</i> was
+based; <i>The First Part of The Contention</i>, and (the
+Second Part) <i>The True Tragedy of Richard Duke of
+York</i> (versions of <i>2 Henry VI</i> and <i>3 Henry VI</i>); and
+<i>The Taming of a Shrew</i>, the basis of Shakespeare's
+play. The relation of Shakespeare's plays to these
+earlier versions is discussed in the introductions to the
+respective volumes of the Tudor Shakespeare. Other
+plays assigned, without grounds, to Shakespeare by
+late seventeenth-century booksellers are <i>The Merry
+Devil of Edmonton, The Arraignment of Paris, Fair Em,
+Mucedorus</i>, and <i>The Birth of Merlin</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A few other anonymous plays have been ascribed
+to Shakespeare by modern critics. Of chief note
+are <i>Arden of Feversham</i>, 1592, first attributed to Shakespeare
+by Edward Jacob in 1770; <i>Edward III</i>, 1596,
+included with other false attributions to Shakespeare
+in a bookseller's list of 1659, and edited and assigned to
+Shakespeare by Capell in 1760; <i>Sir Thomas More</i>, an
+old play of about 1587, preserved in manuscript until
+edited by Dyce in 1844 and assigned to Shakespeare by
+Richard Simpson in 1871. There is no evidence for
+the ascription of various portions of these plays to
+Shakespeare, except that certain passages seem to some
+critics characteristic of him. But at the date when the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
+three plays were written his style had not attained
+its characteristic individuality; and the assignment of
+these anonymous plays to any particular author
+neglects the obvious fact that many writers of that
+period present similar traits of versification and imagery.
+The attribution to Shakespeare of the Countess of
+Salisbury episode in <i>Edward III</i>, parts of the insurrection
+scenes in <i>Sir Thomas More</i>, and a few passages
+in <i>Arden of Feversham</i> has scarcely any warrant beyond
+the enthusiastic admiration of certain critics for these
+passages.</p>
+
+<p>Thus only one play of the Shakespeare Apocrypha has
+any considerable claim to admission into the canon.
+The evidence for his participation in <i>The Two Noble
+Kinsmen</i> is about as strong as in <i>Pericles</i>, and the part
+assigned to him is fairly comparable with his contribution
+to <i>Henry VIII</i>.</p>
+
+<p>An account of the Shakespeare Apocrypha is, however,
+incomplete without reference to the forgeries of documents
+or plays. Theobald published <i>Double Falsehood</i>
+in 1728, as based on a seventeenth-century manuscript
+which he conjectured to be by Shakespeare. John
+Jordan, a resident of Stratford, forged the will of Shakespeare's
+father, and probably some other papers in his
+<i>Collections</i>, 1780; William Henry Ireland, with the aid
+of his father, produced in 1796 a volume of forged papers
+purporting to relate to Shakespeare's career, and on
+April 2, 1796, Sheridan and Kemble presented at Drury
+Lane the tragedy of <i>Vortigern</i>, really by Ireland, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Forgeries</span>said by him to have been found among Shakespeare's
+manuscripts. Ireland was exposed by Malone, and
+he published a confession of his forgeries in 1805.
+More skilful and far more disturbing to Shakespearean
+scholarship are the forgeries of John Payne Collier,
+extending over a period from 1835 to 1849. These
+included manuscript corrections in a copy of the second
+Folio, and many documents concerning the biography of
+Shakespeare and the history of the Elizabethan theater.
+These forgeries have vitiated many of Collier's most
+important publications, as his <i>Memoirs of Edward
+Alleyn</i>, and <i>History of English Dramatic Poetry</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>We turn now from attempts to increase Shakespeare's
+writings to an extraordinary effort to deny him the
+authorship of all his plays. Doubts on this score
+seem to have been raised by Joseph C. Hart in his
+<i>Romance of Yachting</i>, 1848, and by an article in <i>Chambers'
+Journal</i>, August 7, 1852. In 1856, Mr. W. H.
+Smith first proposed Bacon's authorship in a letter to
+Lord Ellesmere, "Was Lord Bacon the author of
+Shakespeare's plays?" These were followed by an
+article by Miss Delia Bacon in <i>Putnam's Monthly</i>, 1856,
+and a volume, <i>The Philosophy of the Plays of Shakespeare
+unfolded by Delia Bacon</i>. Since Miss Bacon's
+book, her hypothesis has resulted in the publication
+of hundreds of volumes and pamphlets supporting
+many variations of the theory. Some are content to
+view the authorship as a mystery, assigning the plays
+to an unknown author. Others attribute the authorship<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>
+to a club of distinguished men, or to Sir Anthony
+Shirley, or the Earl of Rutland, or another. Others
+give Bacon only a portion of the plays, as those containing
+many legal terms. The majority, however,
+are thoroughgoing "Baconians," and the most prodigious
+cases of misapplied ingenuity have been the
+efforts to find in the First Folio a cipher, by which certain
+letters are selected which proclaim Bacon's authorship;
+as <i>The Great Cryptogram</i>, 1887, by Ignatius
+Donnelly, and <i>The Bi-Literal Cypher of Francis Bacon</i>,
+1900, by Mrs. Gallup. Such cyphers are mutually
+destructive, and their absurdity has been repeatedly
+demonstrated. Either they will not work without
+much arbitrary manipulation, or they work too well and
+are found to indicate Bacon's authorship of literature
+written before his birth and after his death. Yet similar
+'discoveries' continue to be announced.</p>
+
+<p>The evidences supporting Shakespeare's authorship
+have been set forth sufficiently in this volume and
+offer no basis for an attitude of skepticism. A few
+considerations may be recalled as correctives for a
+partial or mistaken reading of the evidence. (1)
+Though the records of Shakespeare's life are meager,
+they are fuller than for any other Elizabethan dramatist.
+Indeed we know little of the biography of any
+men of the sixteenth century unless their lives affected
+church or politics and hence found preservation in
+the records. There is no 'mystery' about Shakespeare.
+(2) Records amply establish the identity between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">The "Baconian" Question</span>Shakespeare the actor and the writer. Moreover, the
+plays contain many words and phrases natural to an
+actor, many references to the actor's art, and show a
+wide and detailed knowledge of the ways and peculiarities
+of the theater. (3) The extent of observation and
+knowledge in the plays is, indeed, remarkable, but it
+is not accompanied by any indication of thorough
+scholarship, or a detailed connection with any profession
+outside of the theater, or a profound knowledge of
+the science or philosophy of the time. (4) The law
+terms are numerous, and usually correct, but do not
+establish any great knowledge of the law. Elizabethan
+London was full of law students who were among
+frequent patrons of the theater. Through acquaintance
+with these gentlemen Shakespeare might have
+readily acquired all the law that he displays. Moreover
+Shakespeare had an opportunity to gain a considerable
+familiarity with the law through the frequent litigations
+in which he and his father were concerned. (5) The
+dedication, commendatory poems, and address to the
+readers prefixed to the First Folio ought in themselves
+to be sufficient to remove the skepticism as to Shakespeare's
+authorship.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The following considerations apply to the attribution
+to Bacon, so far as that rests on any tangible
+basis: (1) Sir Tobie Matthews writes in a letter to
+Bacon, written some time later than January, 1621,
+"The most prodigious wit that ever I knew of my nation
+and of this side of the sea is of your Lordship's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>
+name, though he be known by another." The sentence
+probably refers to Father Thomas Southwell, a Jesuit,
+whose real surname was Bacon. There is nothing to
+connect it with Shakespeare. (2) The parallelisms
+between passages in Shakespeare and Bacon deal with
+phrases in common use and fail to establish any connection
+between the two men. (3) The few surviving
+examples of Bacon's verse suggest no ability as a
+poet. (4) Bacon's life is well known, and it offers no
+hint of connection with the theaters and no space in
+its crowded annals for the production of Shakespeare's
+plays. In fact, if we had to find an author for Shakespeare's
+plays among writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries, Bacon would be about the last person
+conceivable.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Shakespeare since 1616</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>During Shakespeare's lifetime, his plays were mentioned
+and imitated as often as those of any of his
+contemporaries. The more important documents bearing
+on his growing reputation have already been noted
+in this volume. This popularity, however, was confined
+to theater-goers and the readers of the sixteen
+plays that had appeared before 1616. There was no
+opportunity for a full estimate of his plays as literature
+until their publication in the Folio of 1623. This
+is given full and worthy expression in the fine verses
+which Ben Jonson contributed as a preface to the Folio.
+He had girded at several of Shakespeare's plays, and
+his own views of the principles and practices of the
+dramatic art were largely opposed to Shakespeare's,
+but he took this opportunity to express unstinted appreciation
+of Shakespeare's greatness. He notes with
+discrimination that Shakespeare learned his art in an
+earlier day, but far outshone Kyd, Lyly, and Marlowe.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">Soul of the Age<br />
+The applause! delight! the wonder of our Stage!</p>
+
+
+<p>He may challenge comparison with the great Greek
+tragedians, or in comedies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Of all that insolent Greece or haughty Rome<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Sent forth, or since did from their ashes come.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">He was not of an age but for all time!<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The magnitude of Shakespeare's achievement was thus
+enthusiastically proclaimed by the literary dictator of
+the time.</p>
+
+<p>From 1623, until the closing of the theaters, the
+plays continued favorites on the stage, though they
+yielded somewhat in the current taste to the theatrical
+successes of Fletcher and Massinger. After 1623, they
+continued to be read and admired, as is shown by
+the publication of the second and third folios in 1632
+and 1663-1664, and by many appreciations, including
+those of D'Avenant, Suckling, the Duchess of Newcastle,
+and Milton. At the Restoration many of the
+plays were at once revived on the stage, and Dryden's
+essay <i>Of Dramatick Poesie</i> (1668) summed up
+in a masterly fashion contemporary opinion on Shakespeare.
+He is compared with other great dramatists,
+and is declared less correct than Jonson and less
+popular and modern than Beaumont and Fletcher,
+yet is "the man who of all Moderns, and perhaps
+Ancient Poets, had the largest and most comprehensive
+soul."</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The Restoration was in some doubt about Shakespeare,
+for while it found in him much to admire, it
+also found much to condemn. His plays now had the
+advantage of women actors for the female parts, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">The Seventeenth Century</span>they encountered changed fashions in the theater. The
+romantic comedies were not to the taste of the time, and
+disappeared from the stage until toward the middle of
+the eighteenth century. Meanwhile, <i>The Merry Wives
+of Windsor</i> was the most popular and most highly
+esteemed of his comedies. The tragedies attracted the
+genius of Betterton and were constantly acted, but these
+were subject to revision of various kinds. <i>Hamlet</i> and
+<i>Othello</i> held their places without alterations, but Nahum
+Tate's tame version of <i>King Lear</i> and Cibber's version
+of <i>Richard III</i> superseded the originals for many years.
+<i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, too, gave way to Otway's <i>Caius
+Marius</i>, 1692, which kept large portions of Shakespeare's
+play; and <i>Antony and Cleopatra</i> yielded place
+on the stage to Dryden's fine <i>All for Love</i> (1678), in
+the style of which he professes to imitate the "divine
+Shakespeare." By 1692, adaptations had also been
+made of <i>Troilus and Cressida</i>, <i>The Tempest</i>, <i>Macbeth</i>,
+<i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i>, <i>Timon</i>, <i>Richard II</i>, <i>Coriolanus</i>,
+<i>Henry VI</i>, <i>Cymbeline</i>, <i>Titus Andronicus</i>, <i>Julius C&aelig;sar</i>.
+A great deal of contempt has been visited upon these
+revisions of Shakespeare, and their attempts to improve
+on him are usually feeble enough; but sufficient
+recognition has not been given to the testimony that
+these revisors bear to a great appreciation and admiration
+of Shakespeare. They tried to adapt him to
+current metrical conventions, to current literary
+fashions, to an idea of art quite foreign to his, but
+they made these efforts because they admired his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>
+genius. If they did not admire everything in his
+thirty-seven plays, they admired a great deal.</p>
+
+<p>Further, these revisions are the outcome of critical
+strictures on the plays which were then common and,
+in essence, have been frequently repeated. Critics objected
+to the irregularity and confusion of their structure,
+to their disregard of the unities of action, their mixture
+of tragic and comic, their obscurity and archaism
+of diction, their mixed and confused figures, their occasional
+puns and bombast. These are substantially the
+criticisms that Dryden offers when under the influence
+of Rymer. Rymer himself (<i>A Short View of Tragedy</i>,
+1693) goes much farther. He desires tragedy to give
+a rationalized view of life, dealing poetic justice to
+various typical persons, and consequently condemns
+Shakespeare's persons as too individual, his plots as
+too irregular, and the total effect of his plays as insufficiently
+didactic and moral. This view of tragedy
+was mainly due to the rationalistic and classical
+ideas which continued for a century to dominate
+European criticism. But before the seventeenth century
+was over, Shakespeare's growing reputation had
+proved itself a rock against which the tendencies in
+criticism had broken like unavailing waves. However
+much they might insist on rules in art, critics were
+generally willing to hail Shakespeare as the great exception.
+Champions were ready to answer Rymer and
+to defend Shakespeare. <i>Othello</i>, selected by Rymer for
+special analysis and condemnation, continued to hold<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Widening Influence</span>its place on the stage and to incite dramatists to
+emulation. The plays continued to be read, and new
+editions were demanded. In the forty years from 1660
+to 1700, in spite of great changes in theatrical conditions,
+in spite of changes of taste in readers that
+relegated most of Elizabethan drama to neglect, and
+in spite of the formation of a criticism doubtful or
+neglectful of the very qualities in literature that his
+plays present, Shakespeare continued to win admirers.
+By 1700 he was recognized as a dramatist and poet who
+was one of the great possessions of the English race.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>In the two centuries since, Shakespeare's fame and
+influence have spread and multiplied to an extent
+difficult to characterize justly in a brief summary.
+Some important evidences of this growth may indeed
+be collected and analyzed. The position and importance
+of his plays on the stage, the ever increasing
+number of editions, the changing attitudes of critics
+and men of letters&mdash;on these matters it is not difficult
+to draw conclusions as to Shakespeare's influence
+at home and abroad. But it is not so easy to say
+what his influence was on the literature of any generation,
+and still less easy to summarize with certainty
+the effects on thought and feeling and conduct which
+made up his continuing power over generation after
+generation of readers. This much is clear, that a
+study of Shakespeare's influence is in part a study of
+changing ideas and ideals in literature&mdash;that as he
+survived the Restoration taste, so he survived the new<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
+classicism of the eighteenth and the romanticism of
+the early nineteenth century. It is also clear that a
+full record of the influence of Shakespeare on English-speaking
+readers would touch on almost all the varied
+changes of thought and conduct that have entered into
+the history of two centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The most important of the successive editions of
+Shakespeare from that of Nicholas Rowe, 1709, to the
+present time, have been noted in the history of the
+text in <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Chapter VII</a>. It must be observed that these
+various publications indicate not only progress toward
+establishing a sound text, but also a constantly increasing
+number of readers. The multiplication of editions
+kept pace with the vast extension of the middle-class
+interest in literature. By the end of the eighteenth
+century, the works of Shakespeare were in the possession
+of everyone who had a library, and with a text
+and notes that left few difficulties for a person of any
+education.</p>
+
+<p>The nineteenth century well maintained the tradition
+of earlier scholarship. Malone's extensive antiquarian
+knowledge of Elizabethan drama and theater
+served as the basis for further research in these fields
+by Dyce, Ward, Fleay, and others. The chronological
+order of the plays, which Malone was the first to investigate,
+was determined with considerable certainty
+and gave a new significance to the study of Shakespeare's
+work as a whole. Dyce, Sidney Walker, and
+Wright, Delius of the Germans, Richard Grant White<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">On the Stage</span>of the Americans, are a few among the long list of
+scholars who have added notable emendations and illustrative
+notes. Editions of the collected works indeed
+soon became almost too numerous for record, and the
+number of readings, notes, and illustrations too great
+for collection even in the largest variorum. To-day
+the task of scholarship may lie in the restriction, simplification,
+and final determination of certain varying
+editorial practices rather than in the accumulation of
+further illustrative and appreciative comment. But
+to the work of adding new editions there can be no
+end so long as the number of readers increases. Volumes
+of all sizes, for many classes, following various
+editorial methods, are likely to continue to meet the
+changing but ever increasing demands of English-speaking
+readers. At the end of the nineteenth century
+Shakespeare's works were not merely a household
+possession, they were to be had in every possible form
+to suit every possible taste or convenience.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The extension of Shakespeare's popularity on the
+stage was concurrent with this widening range of
+readers. In the first thirty years of the eighteenth
+century, which marked a revolution in the nature of
+the drama and the taste of the audiences, Shakespeare's
+tragedies continued to be among the most frequently
+acted stock plays at the two patented theaters. The
+middle of the century saw the revival of most of the
+romantic comedies and the appearance of David Garrick.
+Some of the adaptations continued, but others<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>
+were displaced by genuine Shakespeare, as in <i>Macbeth</i>,
+<i>The Merchant of Venice</i>, and <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>. <i>All's
+Well That Ends Well</i>, <i>As You Like It</i>, <i>Cymbeline</i>, <i>Much
+Ado</i>, <i>Twelfth Night</i>, <i>The Winter's Tale</i>, were all revived.
+In fact, if we include adaptations, every play of Shakespeare
+was seen on the stage during the eighteenth
+century, with the exceptions of <i>2</i> and <i>3 Henry VI</i>, only
+parts of these appearing, and of <i>Love's Labour's Lost</i>,
+of which a version prepared for acting was published
+in 1762 but not produced.</p>
+
+<p>The traditions of Betterton had been carried on by
+Wilks (1670-1732), Barton Booth (1681-1733), Colley
+Cibber (1671-1757), and others. But the prevailing
+manner was condemned as stiff and lifeless in comparison
+with the energy of Garrick's presentation.
+From his first triumph in Richard III in 1741, to his
+farewell performance of Lear in 1776, he won a series
+of signal successes in both tragedy and comedy, in
+Hamlet, Lear, Macbeth, Richard III, Falconbridge,
+Romeo, Hotspur, Iago, Leontes, Posthumus, Benedick,
+and Antony. Garrick's services to Shakespeare extended
+beyond the parts which he impersonated. He
+revived many plays, and though he garbled the texts
+freely, yet in comparison with earlier practice he really
+had some right to boast that he had restored the text of
+Shakespeare to the stage. Further, his example led
+to an increased popularity of Shakespeare in the theater
+and afforded new incentives for other actors. Mrs.
+Clive, Mrs. Cibber, and Mrs. Pritchard were among<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Kemble and Kean</span>the women who acted with Garrick. Macklin, by his
+revival of Shylock as a tragic character, Henderson by
+his impersonation of Falstaff, and John Palmer in
+secondary characters, as Iago, Mercutio, Touchstone,
+and Sir Toby, were his contemporaries most famous
+in their day.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Garrick's place at the head of the English stage was
+taken by John Philip Kemble (1757-1823), an actor
+of great dignity of presence and manner, who won
+general admiration in the great tragic parts, especially
+those offering opportunities for declamation. His
+sister, Mrs. Sarah Siddons, was doubtless the greatest
+of English actresses; her Lady Macbeth, Queen Katherine,
+and Constance overwhelmed her audiences by
+their majesty and passion. Kemble's reputation was
+surpassed by Edmund Kean, whose appearance as
+Shylock in 1819, at Drury Lane, was the first of a
+series of great successes in most of the tragic parts,
+including Hamlet, Lear, Othello, and Richard III. In
+contrast to Kemble's declamation, Kean's acting was
+vehement and passionate. Coleridge declared that to
+see him was "reading Shakespeare by flashes of lightning."
+Readers of the dramatic criticism of Hazlitt
+and Lamb will recall tributes to Kean and to other
+favorite actors, especially perhaps their praise of Mrs.
+Jordan's Viola and Rosalind. Macready for forty years
+maintained the great traditions of English acting, and
+during his managements of Drury Lane sought to retain
+for Shakespeare's plays their pre&euml;minence on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>
+stage. Associated with his many impersonations were
+those of Mrs. Warner and Helen Faucit (Lady Martin).
+From Garrick's d&eacute;but to the retirement of Macready
+(1851) is a century of great actors and actresses who
+brought to the interpretation of the many characters
+of the plays a skill and intelligence that satisfied the
+most critical theater-goers and extended vastly the
+appreciation and knowledge of Shakespeare's men and
+women.</p>
+
+<p>Shakespeare's position on the stage was, however,
+maintained only with difficulty against the melodramas,
+musical farces, and spectacles that absorbed the theaters.
+Yet from 1844 to 1862, Samuel Phelps, at Sadler's
+Wells, presented thirty-one of the plays. Since then
+the stage has hardly seen an equally important revival;
+but the great traditions of acting have been carried on
+by many eminent actors: Sir Henry Irving, Ellen
+Terry, Forbes Robertson, in England; Edwin Forrest,
+Edwin Booth, Junius Brutus Booth, Charlotte Cushman,
+Ada Rehan, Julia Marlowe, and Edward Sothern
+in America. Lately, successful attempts have been
+made to perform plays in the Elizabethan manner, and
+perhaps there is a tendency to pay less attention to
+elaborate scenic presentation than was the habit during
+the last of the nineteenth century. In one respect, at
+least, the present offers a decided improvement on the
+past, for there is now a strong sentiment in favor of as
+close an adherence as possible to an authorized text of
+the plays.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="sidenote">The Eighteenth Century</span>Shakespeare has held his place on the stage in spite
+of many and great changes in theatrical conditions and
+dramatic taste. He will probably survive changes
+greater than those which separate the picture stage
+with its electric lights from the projecting open-air
+platform of his own day, or than those which separate
+the dramas of Ibsen, Shaw, and Barrie from those of
+Marlowe and Fletcher, or the cinematograph and
+comic opera from the bear-baiting and jugglery which
+rivaled the Globe. The visitor who scans, in the
+Stratford Museum, the curious collection of portraits
+of actors and actresses in Shakespearean parts may
+wonder what peculiarities of costume, manner, and
+expression will be devised for the admired interpretations
+of the centuries to come. But it hardly seems
+possible that any actor of the future will influence as
+greatly the appreciation of Shakespeare's characters
+and speeches as did Garrick and Mrs. Siddons in England
+or Edwin Booth in America.</p>
+
+<p>Shakespearean criticism in the eighteenth century
+was, as has been noted, largely textual, but there was
+also a considerable discussion of Shakespeare's learning,
+his art, and its violations of neo-classical theory.
+John Dennis, in his <i>Letters</i>, 1711, proved a sturdy admirer,
+and the consensus of opinion of following writers
+was that of Sedley's couplet which described Shakespeare
+as</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The pride of Nature, and the shame of Schools,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Born to Create, and not to Learn from Rules.<br /></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></div></div>
+
+<p>Voltaire's attacks brought rejoinders from Mrs. Elizabeth
+Montagu in 1769 and from Dr. Johnson in the
+preface to his edition, 1765. In fact, admiration for
+Shakespeare was a powerful factor in forcing the rejection
+of rules and standards of French criticism. Johnson's
+Preface finds fault with Shakespeare's neglect of
+poetic justice and dwells at length on the faults in
+plots and diction, but Johnson defends the violation of
+the unities, and his praise is a discriminating summary
+of the merits that the eighteenth century had found
+in Shakespeare. It is praise that is likely to endure.</p>
+
+<p>Within another generation, however, reverence for
+Shakespeare had increased to an intensity that made
+Johnson's admiration seem feeble and niggardly. This
+transformation was due to many causes, but in the main
+it was a part of the vast changes in European literature
+known as the Romantic movement. This resulted in
+a rejection of the rules and models of neo-classicism, a
+new interest in the literature and manners of the
+Middle Ages, a conception of poetry as the expression
+of individuality, attention to the individual man in all
+orders of society, a fresh concern for external nature,
+an emphasis on the emotions rather than mere reason,
+a desire for wonder and mystery, and an exaltation of
+natural instincts and intuitions as opposed to general
+truths or social conventions. In each of these particulars,
+Shakespeare seemed the complete fulfilment of the
+new tendencies&mdash;which indeed his growing influence
+had undoubtedly encouraged. More than Spenser or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Appreciative Criticism</span>Milton or the old ballads, he was the inspiration and
+guide for new endeavors in literature. It seemed to
+the new age of critics and poets that they had rediscovered
+him, and they hastened to raise him from neglect
+to the throne of omniscience. He was no longer a
+wayward genius, he was the model from whom art and
+wisdom were to be learned.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>This new criticism was esthetic and appreciative.
+It did not try to balance Shakespeare's merits and
+faults, or to test him by codes of arts or morals. It
+recognized him as supreme, and its discipleship was
+devoted to reverent interpretation and enthusiastic
+admiration. Believing in the importance of the poetic
+imagination in the affairs of men, it found in him a
+gospel and an example for its creed. Its delightful
+task was to find new beauties and to search out the
+hiding-places that revealed the god of its idolatry.
+If the genius of the master-poet was the source of art
+and wisdom, the personality of the critic gained a new
+refulgence through its service of reflecting the rays of
+glory. The interest in the study of individual characters
+had resulted, even in Johnson's day, in some notable
+interpretive essays, as Maurice Morgann's on
+Falstaff (1777). In the next generation, Coleridge,
+Lamb, and Hazlitt in England, and Schlegel and
+Goethe in Germany, brought the keenest intelligence
+and most sympathetic taste to a criticism that aspired
+to reveal the full range and height of Shakespeare's
+creative faculty.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The results of this criticism may be more specifically
+summarized. (1) It viewed the individual characters
+of the plays as if they were real persons, analyzing their
+motives and elaborating or repainting their portraits,
+as in the analyses of Hamlet by Goethe and Coleridge,
+or in the brilliant sketches of Hazlitt. The few hundred
+lines spoken by a leading character have thus
+been expanded by the impressions made on successive
+critics into volumes of biography. (2) Shakespeare's
+works were studied as a whole in an effort to study
+the development of his art and mind. Schlegel and
+Coleridge gave a unity to the phenomena of the thirty-seven
+plays that had not been recognized hitherto;
+but they and their followers naturally tended to make
+of their author a sort of nineteenth-century romanticist.
+(3) Exalting the services of poetry and the creative
+imagination, they viewed Shakespeare's exhibition of
+human nature and his incidental wisdom as profound,
+consistent, and immensely valuable for the human race.
+Hence they were ever seeking in his work for a philosophy,
+a synthetic ethics, and making the widest
+applications of his words to conduct. Believing that
+he could do no wrong, they inevitably came to attribute
+to him ideas and morals that were of their own
+creation.</p>
+
+<p>The defects of this criticism are most apparent in
+critics like Ulrici and Gervinus who carry its methods
+to extremes. Personal, fanciful, unhistorical, idolatrous,
+it is yet a tremendous tribute and an amazing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">The Nineteenth Century</span>record of the sway that Shakespeare has exerted on the
+human mind. The writings of no other man have
+been studied so intimately by so many sympathetic
+readers, or have excited such different impressions.
+Throughout the nineteenth century this appreciative
+criticism has continued, and Shakespeare has been
+interpreted through the personality of many critics,
+German and American, as well as British, more recently
+through the delicate sensibility of Professor Dowden,
+and the penetrating reflection of Professor A. C. Bradley.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>At the end of the nineteenth century, Shakespearean
+criticism has become too varied for a brief survey.
+Textual and esthetic criticism both continue. The
+biography has been established on a sound basis of
+fact by Halliwell-Phillipps and Sidney Lee; and still
+new facts reward patient investigators of the legal and
+court documents, almost the only records preserved
+that can possibly bear on Shakespeare's life. Special
+studies of all sorts have been numerous, as to his
+reading, religion, folk-lore, and so on. More significant
+in its effect on our general view have been the
+efforts of historical criticism. As our knowledge of
+Elizabethan literature, drama, theater, have increased,
+it has been possible to see Shakespeare in relation
+to his time and environment. The study of Shakespeare
+as a sixteenth-century dramatist aims not
+merely at a better appreciation of his work, but also
+to explain his development and to account for some of
+the qualities of his achievement. Its attitude is that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>
+of the scientific historian examining the records of any
+great human activity, and trying to understand its
+causes, results, and meaning. Somewhat allied to this
+has been technical dramatic criticism, which is uniting
+knowledge of the Elizabethan theater with interest in
+drama as a peculiar form, and thereby studying Shakespeare
+as a dramatist rather than as a poet or philosopher.
+In fact, Shakespeare is no longer merely man,
+poet, dramatist, philosopher, or genius. Jonson's tribute,
+Dryden's summary, Johnson's judicial essay, or Coleridge's
+admiring studies, all seem hopelessly inadequate
+to express the range of his dominion. He has become
+the source of the most various and extensive interests,
+a continent that ever expands its fields for exploration,
+an epoch that ever extends the years of its duration, a
+race that never dies, though its progeny ever multiplies.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>It is in the nineteenth century that Shakespeare's
+dominance becomes international. Four of his plays
+were acted at Dresden and elsewhere early in the
+seventeenth century, but there seems to have been no
+literary acquaintance with the plays in Germany until
+about the middle of the eighteenth century, when two
+poor translations of <i>Julius C&aelig;sar</i> and <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>
+appeared, and J. C. Gottsched severely criticized
+Shakespeare's art. In 1759, in a journal, "Litteraturbriefe,"
+Lessing began a warm defense of Shakespeare
+and declared his superiority to Racine and Corneille.
+His <i>Hamburgische Dramaturgie</i> (1767) went
+far in directing the change of taste from French classicism<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">In Germany</span>and in establishing Shakespeare in German
+thought as the greatest of poets, whether ancient or
+modern. A prose translation was begun by Wieland
+in 1762 and completed by Eschenburg in 1789. What
+is perhaps the best translation of Shakespeare into
+any foreign tongue was begun in 1797 by A. W. von
+Schlegel and Ludwig Tieck, two leaders of German
+romanticism, and finally completed in 1853. Schlegel's
+lectures on <i>Shakespeare and the Drama</i> were delivered
+in Vienna in 1808, and present both the romanticist's
+idolizing of Shakespeare and a new kind of esthetic
+criticism destined to exercise great influence on Coleridge
+and the English critics. Meanwhile Goethe was
+adapting <i>Romeo and Juliet</i> for the Weimar theater
+(1801) and Schiller was arranging <i>Macbeth</i> for presentation
+at Stuttgart (1801). Goethe indeed was, throughout
+his life, an enthusiastic admirer of Shakespeare, and
+his works are full of discriminating criticism, of which
+perhaps the most famous passage is the analysis of
+Hamlet in <i>Wilhelm Meister</i>. Since Lessing and Herder,
+German poetry and drama have felt Shakespeare's
+influence, and in both textual and esthetic criticism,
+Germany has rivaled England and the United States.
+Delius and Schmidt, whose <i>Shakespeare-Lexicon</i> (1874)
+is one of the great monuments of Shakespeare scholarship,
+are perhaps first among textual students; since
+1865 the German Shakespeare Society has published
+yearly contributions of all kinds to Shakespeare criticism,
+and especially an excellent bibliography. On the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>
+stage Shakespeare has been constantly acted since the
+beginning of the century, and has engaged the services
+of some of the greatest actors, as Schroeder, the two
+Devrients, and Barnay. At present a large number of his
+plays are performed annually, in the smaller as well as
+the larger cities, and more frequently than in Britain
+or America. Twenty-six of the plays were acted in
+1911, <i>Othello</i> leading with 158 performances. For the
+years 1909, 1910, 1911, <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Othello</i>, <i>The Merchant
+of Venice</i> have been the favorites, with <i>The Taming of
+the Shrew</i> and <i>A Midsummer-Night's Dream</i> the most
+popular of the comedies. For over a century Shakespeare
+has profoundly influenced German life and letters.
+Rarely, if ever, has a great people been so powerfully
+affected by a writer in a foreign tongue.</p>
+
+<p>In France, during the eighteenth century, Shakespeare's
+reputation was both aided and hindered by
+Voltaire. Though there are a few earlier notices of
+the English dramatist, Voltaire, after his visit to England,
+1720-1729, was virtually the first to win attention
+for Shakespeare. He admired Shakespeare,
+acknowledged his influence, but deplored his deficiencies
+in taste and art, "le Corneille de Londres, grand
+fou d'ailleurs, mais il a des morceaux admirables."
+Voltaire's criticism provoked replies in England and a
+defense from Diderot, who shared with Lessing the
+effort to emancipate the drama from some of its neo-classical
+restriction. Translations of twelve plays by
+La Place (1745-1748) and all of the plays by Le Tourneur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">In France</span>(1776-1782) gave an opportunity for greater
+acquaintance with his work. A version of <i>Hamlet</i> by
+Ducis was acted at Paris in 1769. But even at the
+end of the century, French literary opinion, though
+partly won by Le Tourneur's praise of Shakespeare,
+still sympathized with Voltaire, now engaged in an
+attack on Englishmen and their favorite. His last
+opinion (1778) declares, "Shakespeare est un sauvage
+avec des &eacute;tincelles de g&eacute;nie qui brillent dans une nuit
+horrible."</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The nineteenth century saw a reaction from this
+criticism, indicated by the praise of Madame de Sta&euml;l
+(<i>De la Litterature</i>, 1804), by Guizot's essay accompanying
+a revision of Le Tourneur's translation (1821), and
+later in the appreciation of M&eacute;zi&egrave;res's <i>Shakespeare ses
+&#338;uvres et ses Critiques</i> (1860), in several translations,
+and in Victor Hugo's eulogy (1869). The best of the
+translations is by the poet's son, Fran&ccedil;ois Victor Hugo
+in prose (1859-1866). On the Paris stage, the leading
+English actors have appeared from time to time, and
+French versions of <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Macbeth</i>, and <i>Othello</i> have
+made a permanent place. M. Jusserand is the chief
+authority for the history of Shakespeare in France and
+an ambassador of peace between the conflicting literary
+tastes of the two nations.</p>
+
+<p>In Italy, Holland, Russia, Poland, and Hungary,
+during the nineteenth century, many of the plays have
+been regularly acted, and from Italy have come great
+actors and actresses, as Ristori, Salvini, and Rossi.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>
+Complete translations have been published in these
+countries and in Bohemian, Swedish, Danish, Finnish,
+and Spanish; and separate plays have been translated
+and acted in many other languages including those of
+India, Japan, and China.</p>
+
+<p>In music and painting Shakespeare's influence has
+also been international. Books have been devoted to
+the history of Shakespeare's music, and such surveys
+include nearly every English composer of note, and
+also Schubert, Schumann, Mendelssohn, Berlioz, Ambroise
+Thomas, Saint Sa&euml;ns, Rossini, and Verdi. In
+painting as well, the persons and scenes of the play
+have excited the efforts of English, German, and American
+artists.</p>
+
+<p>In America, as has already been indicated, the interest
+in Shakespeare is hardly separable from that in
+Great Britain. Editors, critics, scholars, have been
+numerous and their contributions important, and the
+plays have been acted constantly and widely through
+the country. Probably there is no part of the world
+to-day where the study of Shakespeare is so active and
+where the interest in his work is so widespread. In one
+respect, at least, the United States in recent years has
+carried this study and interest beyond England, in the
+fields of education. As the study of the mother tongue
+has become the basis of American education, so Shakespeare
+has come to play a more and more important
+part in the training of youth. The universities offer
+training in the various departments of Shakespearean<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">In the United States</span>scholarship, every college offers courses on his plays, a
+number of them are prescribed for reading and study
+in the high schools; a few of them are read and extracts
+memorized in the primary schools. The child
+begins his education with Ariel and the fairies, and
+until his schooling is completed is kept in almost daily
+intercourse with the poetry and persons of the dramas.
+Homer was not better known in Athens. In a democracy
+still young and widely separated from older
+nations and cultures, Shakespeare has become one of
+the links that bind the American public not only to
+the common inheritances of the English-speaking races,
+but to the traditional culture of Europe.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Known in the literature and theater of every civilized
+nation, the subject of a vast and increasing amount of
+discussion and criticism, the source of a scholarship
+rivaling that devoted to the writers of antiquity, the
+familiar theme for music and painting, the household
+possession of Great Britain, Germany, and America,
+influencing thought and conduct as few books have
+ever influenced them, and now an important element
+in the education of a great democracy,&mdash;the plays of
+Shakespeare occupy a position whence imagination
+"can not pierce a wink beyond, but doubt discovery
+there." His reputation and influence must change
+greatly in the years to come; but this at least is secure&mdash;three
+hundred years of an ever increasing sway over
+the human mind.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Conclusion</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>The purpose of this volume has been to summarize
+what we know about Shakespeare. The documentary
+records and early traditions of his life have been supplemented
+by information in regard to the times and
+places in which he lived, the literature which he read,
+and the theaters for which he worked. The evolution
+of the drama that grew up in those theaters has been
+reviewed, and its manifest connections with Shakespeare's
+own development have been indicated. That
+development has been traced by means of a careful
+determination of the chronology of the plays; and the
+recognition of this growth of his powers has been shown
+to be a necessary basis for a just estimate of their
+achievement.</p>
+
+<p>If, now, in conclusion, we attempt to define our
+general impression of the man and his work, this
+must inevitably take into account considerations of
+environment and development. The man belonged
+to his era, his city, and his profession. The documents
+make it plain that he did not live apart, but in close
+contact with the affairs of his day and generation.
+The plays make it clear that few men ever became so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">The Sonnets</span>intimately familiar with the manners, morals, and ideas
+of their own time. There is no doubt that he drank
+deeply of the experience that Elizabethan London offered
+him. Still more, the plays make it clear that his life
+was one of constant and extraordinary intellectual and
+spiritual growth. Though, from the objective nature
+of the dramas, it is impossible to translate them into
+terms of personal experience or into exact stages of
+mental growth, yet it is none the less evident that the
+progress from the author of <i>Love's Labour's Lost</i> to the
+author of <i>The Tempest</i>, from the creator of Richard III
+and Valentine to the creator of Iago and Antony, was
+marked, not only by a widening experience, but also by
+a development of personal character.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>To understand a man's surroundings does not, however,
+reveal the man; and to measure the growth of
+genius does not interpret its quality. Lovers of the
+plays are likely always to query: What manner of man
+was this? Taken out of his London, at any time
+in his career, how would he seem if we could know him
+as a man? Of what nature is this companion and
+friend whose presence we have felt through all his
+verses and in all of his characters? The few clues offered
+by records or tradition, and the difficulties in
+separating the creator from the thousand men and
+women of his creation, have driven many to seek answers
+to these questions in the sonnets. There he
+speaks in the first person, and there are revealed not
+merely some dubious hints of actual incidents, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+the surer indications of emotional conflicts that went
+to the heart of the man's nature. At their worst,
+the sonnets may have been only literary exercises on
+conventional themes, but at their best they are surely
+both superb poetry and the result of genuine emotion.
+Can we doubt that the poet knew the pitfalls that
+beset the course of human passion or that he had
+faith in the triumphant beauty of love and friendship?
+Yet the most splendid of these lyrical declarations of
+faith add little to what we knew of the creator of the
+lovers and friends of the dramas. The trivialities and
+the sublimities, the sin and the idealism of the sonnets
+coalesce with the emotional effects of the comedies and
+tragedies. In forming our impression of the man,
+whatever we may derive from the sonnets does not
+contradict and does not largely affect the impressions
+made by the poetry and humanity of the plays. For
+the conception which each one forms of Shakespeare
+the man must be derived in the main from the impressions
+of personality implied by the plays. Such a
+conception is bound to be individual and without
+validity that can rest on proofs, but in the main it
+has not varied greatly from individual to individual
+or from generation to generation. From Jonson and
+Dryden to Goethe and Tennyson, there has been no
+great difference in the essentials of this estimate of
+the man.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>If the plays do not throw a clear light on matters
+of conduct and exercise of the will, they certainly tell<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Personality of Shakespeare</span>of no lack of self-control and no weakness or feverishness
+of action. The traditions of conviviality and the records
+of a life of constant industry that secured wealth
+and social position are both in accord with the impressions
+derived from the plays of an eagerness for experience
+controlled by a self-mastery and a serenity of
+purpose. If one were to search for a modern writer
+most like Shakespeare, one would select Scott, rather
+than Shelley, or Byron, or Wordsworth. As to the
+intellectual quality of the author of the plays, it is
+clear that he was not a Galileo or a Bacon. If we
+judge intellectual power by its creation of system or
+synthesis, we shall probably estimate Shakespeare less
+highly than if we remember that intellect of the highest
+order is often displayed by maintaining openness and
+largeness of view in face of the solicitations of theory or
+prejudice. No one can read the plays in connection
+with the literature of the time, or of any time, without
+marveling at their freedom from vulgarity, pettiness,
+or narrowness of mental attitude. If they do not
+afford evidences of a profound culture in philosophy,
+letters, or science, they offer no trace of intellectual
+blindness or conceit, and they leave no doubt that
+their author had thought greatly and freely. Even
+more certain is their assurance of the range and intensity
+of his emotional life. In these respects again,
+no one can compare his work with that of other writers
+without feeling the effect of his personality. Fletcher,
+perhaps next to him among the Elizabethans in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>
+versatile expression of a wide range of emotions, gives
+no sign of the sincere, profound, and searching interest
+in humankind which we are sure was Shakespeare's.
+Bacon, surpassing him perhaps in intellectual curiosity
+and thoroughness, manifestly gives no evidence in
+his writings of the warmth of sympathy, the quickness
+of emotional response, the fire of passion which we find
+in the author of Shakespeare's plays. It is difficult
+to disbelieve that their imaginative participation in the
+height and breadth of human feeling was the creation
+of a man who united intellectual greatness with an
+emotional susceptibility of extraordinary range and
+delicacy, and with a sympathy, genial, wide, tolerant,
+but also heartfelt, deep, and passionate. Such is
+the ineffaceable impression of the man which has been
+shared by many generations of readers, and which
+found expression two hundred and fifty years ago in
+Dryden's carefully considered estimate, "The man who
+of all Moderns, and perhaps Ancient Poets, had the
+largest and most comprehensive soul."</p>
+
+<p>What of the plays themselves? Is there any fixed
+and universal estimate of their quality and significance
+as literature? In this volume we have been concerned
+in reviewing our knowledge about them rather than
+in their interpretation or evaluation. We have noted
+the sources from which their plots were drawn, the
+conditions under which they were produced in the playhouses,
+the influences at work in the contemporary
+drama which determined in some measure their subjects<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Qualities of the Plays</span>and treatment. Starting with the probable
+dates of their composition, we have traced them from
+the theater to the printer, through the hands of
+many editors, and through the long history of their
+effects on theatergoers and readers. In their history
+they have played a part in the changes of taste and opinion
+of three centuries, and if they have grown greatly in
+men's estimation, this has not been without much variability
+of appreciation and uncertainty as to their value.
+What, then, are the qualities of the plays that raised
+them at once above the measure of contemporary
+influence and rivalry? Are these the qualities that
+have continued to win the most general appreciation?
+Despite all the stress we are to-day taught to place
+on change, growth, evolution, are there qualities
+in these plays which insure them a continued pre&euml;minence
+in literature?</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Differences of opinion testify, indeed, to the comprehensive
+appeal of the plays to different minds, nations,
+or epochs, but they have not greatly affected the
+essential elements in men's admiration. If some critic
+brings into new prominence a quality that has partly
+escaped attention, his discovery is not likely to affect
+the more permanent elements of their reputation. If
+for a time attention is turned to the plays as plays
+rather than as poems and to the merits of Shakespeare
+as a dramatist, this criticism does not lead to any
+lasting disregard of their poetic quality or to the permanent
+acceptance of skill in dramatic structure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>
+as a chief element in their literary pre&euml;minence. Nor
+is such an element discoverable in their philosophical
+synthesis or their incidental wisdom, although some of
+the most brilliant criticism has exalted that wisdom
+or sought to formulate and expound their view of life.
+Concerning the essential elements of their greatness
+no real difference of opinion has arisen from the time
+they were written down to the present day. They were
+lifted at once above the level of contemporary endeavor,
+and they have continued to grow in reputation chiefly
+because of their poetry and their characterization.</p>
+
+<p>Concerning the nature and quality of these there is
+little difference of opinion, though critics may vary
+in estimating their beauty or value. One may prefer
+the verse of Homer or of Milton, but he will not deny
+the traits that distinguish Shakespeare's. Another
+may prefer the well-ordered study of human motives
+in Sophocles, or the realistic analysis of a modern
+realist like Turgenieff, but he will recognize the qualities
+in Shakespeare's characterization that are the basis of
+general admiration. Still another may condemn that
+admiration, but he will not differ from us as to the
+chief sources of its existence.</p>
+
+<p>These two sources are hardly to be separated, for the
+persons are revealed through the beauty of the verse,
+and the poetry is ever adapted to the speakers. In the
+early plays the poet's fancy often refuses to be bound
+by the requirements of his characters and escapes in
+lyric or descriptive excursions; but as his art becomes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Poetry of the Plays</span>more masterly, the poetry adapts itself with increasing
+devotion to the dramatic task, discarding the
+limitations of the verse form and even at times sacrificing
+clarity and harmony of expression in its effort
+to make a few lines significant of the thought and emotion
+of some individual. An enormous vocabulary
+is treated with daring freedom; words are coined,
+changed, or restamped in order to let nothing of significance
+escape. The effect is not primarily that of
+finished workmanship or elaborate harmony, though
+these may be found in many passages and notably in
+the greatest of the sonnets. Broken rather than
+completed images, richness of suggestion rather than
+unity of impressiveness, surprise and novelty in words
+rather than their delicate adjustment, make up an
+effect of bewildering enchantment rather than of
+perfected form. This is true even in an early play
+like <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, where the verse becomes undramatic
+in order to make the most of every opportunity
+for fancy or melody, and it is true also in <i>Othello</i>, where
+poetry and characterization are wedded with consummate
+art. The reader's pleasure is not in finding
+each idea finally developed or each motive given full
+elaboration. It is rather in the flow of words which
+endow each person and moment with their wealth of
+color and suggestion, and somehow carry on to the
+reader both their impression of life and the transforming
+power of their dignity and splendor.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>In a last analysis the quality of the poetry is less<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
+dependent on the music of line or passage than on the
+imagery of the words themselves. It seems as if the
+imagination had hurried on Ariel's wing around the
+universe in order to freight each phrase with a fresh
+trope and an unexpected meaning. Sometimes, to
+be sure, there results an excess or mixture of figures;
+but restrained to character and situation, bound by
+the measure of the pentameter, the carnival of words
+becomes a gorgeous yet ordered pageant, the very
+spectacle of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Let us take but one passage, not from the great
+crises of passion, nor from those unsurpassable revelations
+of the tortured spirit, but from the opening of a
+play where the purpose is chiefly expository, and where
+indeed the language is not free from that mixture of
+figures which some condemn. The wonderful first
+scene of <i>Antony and Cleopatra</i>, which within the compass
+of its sixty-two lines presents the two protagonists
+and their background of empire and war,
+opens thus in the speech of a subordinate.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Nay, but this dotage of our general's<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">O'erflows the measure. Those his goodly eyes,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That o'er the files and musters of the war<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Have glow'd like plated Mars, now bend, now turn<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The office and devotion of their view<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Upon a tawny front; his captain's heart,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Which in the scuffles of great fights hath burst<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The buckles on his breast, reneges all temper,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And is become the bellows and the fan<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To cool a gipsy's lust.<br /></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></div></div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="sidenote">Character&shy;ization</span>A few lines further on Antony speaks thus, as he
+embraces Cleopatra.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Let Rome in Tiber melt, and the wide arch<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of the rang'd Empire fall! Here is my space.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Kingdoms are clay; our dungy earth alike<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Feeds beast as man; the nobleness of life<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Is to do thus, when such a mutual pair<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And such a twain can do't, in which I bind,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">On pain of punishment, the world to wit<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">We stand up peerless.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>No other man ever wrote verse like this; and it is
+hard to believe that words will ever again respond to
+such a magician.</p>
+
+<p>This poetry is the fitting accompaniment of a characterization,
+the range and vitality of which, the world to
+wit, stand up peerless. While these are in general
+qualities of the Elizabethan drama, it is noteworthy
+that almost from the beginning Shakespeare outstripped
+his rivals. Launce, Richard III, Shylock, Juliet, were
+enough to establish a supremacy. The years that
+followed with their maturing thought and experience
+gave an amazing development to what was manifestly
+the native bent of his genius. Whatever else one may
+find in the plays, indeed whatever one finds there of
+wisdom or beauty, truth or art, it cannot be separated
+from their revelation of human nature.</p>
+
+<p>It is this primarily that makes the dramas great and
+lasting. The histories, with all their pomp and movement
+and patriotism, reveal kings and lords and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>
+peasants as alike the subjects of changing fortune,
+alike human beings for our pity, admiration, or laughter.
+The comedies with their fancy and sentiment and fun,
+and their perennial sunshine on the self-deceived and
+selfish, are ruled by the most charming and refined
+of womankind. The tragedies with their presentation
+of the waste and suffering of life, though here depravity
+may seem to fill the scene and innocence share in the
+punishment and ruin, yet redeem us from the terror
+of their devastation by their assurances of both the
+majesty and the loveliness of men and women.</p>
+
+<p>Shakespeare's methods in characterization have
+seemed to some haphazard and bewildering. He does
+not fit his men and women into an analysis of the constitution
+of society or into an obvious view of man's
+relations in the universe. Nor does he use his characters
+to illustrate fixed conceptions or processes of cause
+and effect. He usually started with an old story, with
+certain types of character, and he was not forgetful
+of theatrical necessities or dramatic construction. But
+as he went on he brought all his astounding interest
+in human nature to focus on the old plot and the stock
+type. Hamlet, the hesitating avenger, becomes the sentimentalist,
+the idealist, the thinker at war with himself,
+the embodiment of that conflict between circumstance
+and a nature unfitted to its task, which in some measure
+we have all encountered in life. An arrogant and
+doting old man, by the force of creative imagination,
+transcends the nursery tale from which he came, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Human Nature</span>carries to us all the implications of suffering and love
+that surround the aging of parents and the growth of
+children. Cleopatra is a wanton, but no analysis
+can explain the subtleties with which the idealism and
+animalism, the sacrifice and frivolity&mdash;and how much
+else&mdash;of human passion are bound together in the few
+hundred lines which she speaks. It is impossible to
+affirm that each of the great characters is thoroughly
+consistent or offers a strictly accurate motivation.
+Rather, they are magnificent portraits&mdash;like the
+Mona Lisa&mdash;crowded with a penetrating but question-provoking
+psychology. Into such parts and situations
+as the drama could afford are impressed every
+possible revelation of our motives; but his model was
+always reality and he never yielded truth to whim or
+prepossession.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Human nature, at its best or worst, droll or tragic,
+is thus given magnitude and potency. This idealization,
+rendered still more effective by the verse, persuades
+us as we read that here are our own attributes and
+conflicts exalted, now into serene beauty, again
+into torment and horror, and again into the Olympic
+warfare of unknown supermen. No doubt there is
+confusion because of the complexity of motives depicted
+and the multiplicity of impressions created, but there
+is also a final message of the greatness and comprehensiveness
+of human souls. In this world of sin and
+weakness and death, it is human beings, however
+mocked or maltreated by circumstance or by themselves,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>
+that are still triumphant and interesting. Out
+of his strifes and failures, the individual man yet
+emerges, the object of our contemplation and the
+assurance of our faith.</p>
+
+<p>In periods or persons when interest in the individual
+gives way to thought about class or system or some
+form of organization, it is likely that admiration for
+Shakespeare's plays will suffer a decline. In periods
+or persons when the individual assumes a larger place in
+thought and his power to affect and dominate the world
+is emphasized, the plays are likely to acquire a new
+regard. As long, however, as the study of human
+nature is a chief occupation of mankind and as long
+as we believe that a great purpose of imaginative literature
+is to enlarge our knowledge and sympathy for
+our fellows, so long, we may be sure, these dramas will
+not lose their pre&euml;minence in literature.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201"></a><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a></p>
+<h2><a name="APPENDICES" id="APPENDICES"></a>APPENDICES</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Appendix_A" id="Appendix_A"></a>Appendix A</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Biographical Documents and Authorities</span></h3>
+
+
+<h4>I. REPOSITORIES OF DOCUMENTS</h4>
+
+<p>L. refers to Lambert's <i>Shakespeare Documents</i> and H.-P. to
+Halliwell-Phillipps's <i>Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare</i>. 7th ed.</p>
+
+
+<h5>1</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Parish Registers of Stratford-on-Avon</span> are the
+authority for the baptisms of John Shakespeare's seven children
+(L. 1-7); for the burials of Anne and Edmund (L. 10);
+for the baptisms of William Shakespeare's daughter Susanna
+(L. 13) and the twins, Hamnet and Judith (L. 14); for the
+burials of Hamnet (L. 28), of the poet's father, John (L. 75),
+of his mother, Mary (L. 110), of the poet himself (L. 146),
+and of his widow (L. 159). These Registers have been edited
+for the Parish Registers Society, by R. Savage, 1898-9.</p>
+
+
+<h5>2</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Corporation Records of Stratford-on-Avon</span> contain
+the Quiney-Sturley correspondence (L. 39, 43, 44; H.-P.
+II. 57-60); a return of the quantities of corn and malt held
+by the inhabitants of the ward in which New Place was situated,
+"Wm. Shackespere" being down for ten quarters (L. 53);
+a Bill of Complaint presented by R. Lane, T. Green, and
+William Shakespeare respecting the tithes of Stratford-upon-Avon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>
+(L. 125); the answer of William Combe to the foregoing
+Bill (L. 126).</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h5>3</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Public Record Office in London</span> preserves the following:
+record of the purchase by John Shakespeare of two
+houses on Henley Street, Stratford-on-Avon (L. 8); record
+of a mortgage on an estate at "Awston Cawntlett" given to
+Edmund Lambert by John and Mary Shakespeare (L. 9);
+Bill of Complaint brought by John Shakespeare against John,
+son of Edmund Lambert, respecting an estate at Wilmecote,
+near Stratford (L. 15); Ms. accounts of the Treasurer of the
+Chamber, "To Willm. Kempe, Willm. Shakespeare &amp;
+Richarde Burbage, servaunts to the Lord Chamberleyne, upon
+the Councelles warrant dated at Whitehall xv<sup>to</sup> Marcij 1594
+for twoe severall Comedies or enterludes shewed by them
+before her Majestic in Christmas tyme laste paste, viz: upon
+St. Stephens daye and Innocentes daye xiij.li. vj.s. viijd.,
+and by waye of her Majesties rewarde vj.li. xiii.s. iiijd. in all
+xx.li." (L. 25); record of the purchase of New Place by Shakespeare
+(L. 32); papers in a Chancery suit relating to the
+estate at Wilmecote mortgaged to Edmund Lambert, and
+consisting of a Bill of Complaint by John and Mary Shakespeare
+against John Lambert for his refusal to accept &pound;40
+and reconvey the property to the complainants, John Lambert's
+answer, and the replication of John and Mary Shakespeare
+to the answer (L. 35); a subsidy roll showing William
+Shakespeare as a defaulter in respect of a tax of five shillings,
+October, 1596, and of thirteen shillings and four pence, October,
+1598, based on an assessment made about 1598 or 1594,
+when the poet was living in St. Helen's, Bishopsgate, and
+paid after he had moved to Southwark (<i>Athen&aelig;um</i>, March 16,
+1906, and L. 42); Royal Warrant for a Patent and the Patent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Biographical Documents</span>itself (May 19, 1603) licensing the company of actors, "Laurence
+Fletcher, William Shakespeare, Richard Burbage, Augustine
+Phillippes, John Hemmings, Henrie Condell, William Sly,
+Robert Armyn, Richard Cowly and the rest of their associates"
+as the King's Servants (L. 87, 88); the Accounts of the Revels
+at Court in the reigns of Elizabeth and James, containing
+entries showing performances at Court of "The Moor of
+Venis," "The Merry Wives of Winsor," "Mesur for Mesur"
+by "Shaxberd," "the plaie of Errors" by "Shaxberd,"
+"Loves Labours lost," "Henry the fift," and "the Martchant
+of Venis" by "Shaxberd" (twice, being "againe commanded
+by the Kings Ma<sup>tie</sup>"), all in 1604 (O.S.), of "the Tempest"
+and "y<sup>e</sup> winters nightes Tayle" in 1611, all by the King's
+men, and of the performance before the Court at Wilton,
+Dec. 2, 1603 (L. 96, 133, <i>Notes in the History of the Revels
+Office under the Tudors</i>, ed. by E. K. Chambers, and <i>Supposed
+Shakespeare Forgeries</i>, by Ernest Law); record of the purchase
+in 1610 of an estate in Old Stratford and Stratford-on-Avon
+by Shakespeare from William and John Combe (L. 127);
+three documents in a Chancery suit relating to the ownership
+of property in Blackfriars, April 26, May 15, May 22, 1615
+(C. W. Wallace in <i>Englische Studien</i>, April, 1906, and Preface
+to New Edition of Lee's <i>Life</i>, xxii ff.); the grant for cloaks
+for the King's entry into London, March 15, 1604 (Ld. Chamberlain's
+Papers, No. 600); the documents in the law suit
+among the heirs of Richard Burbage (1635), relating to the
+ownership of the Globe and the Blackfriars theaters, and
+giving much information on the value of theatrical shares,
+actors' salaries, etc. (H.-P. i. 312-319); and the documents
+in the lawsuit of Bellots <i>vs.</i> Mountjoy (1612), including Shakespeare's
+deposition (<i>New Shakespeare Discoveries</i>, C. W. Wallace,
+<i>Harper's Magazine</i>, March, 1910).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h5>4</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Shakespeare's Birthplace Museum in Stratford-on-Avon</span>
+contains several documents of importance: record
+of the conveyance in 1602 of an estate in Old Stratford from
+William and John Combe to William Shakespeare (L. 79,
+H.-P. II, 17-19); extract from the Court Rolls of the Manor
+of Rowington, transferring from Walter Getley to William
+Shakespeare certain premises in Chapel Lane, Stratford-on-Avon
+(L. 81); the conveyance to Shakespeare from Ralph
+Hubande of the residue of a lease of a moiety of the tithes of
+Stratford-on-Avon, Old Stratford, Welcombe, and Bishopton
+(L. 99); the diary of one Thomas Greene, containing a reference
+to the dispute as to the inclosing of common lands (reproduced
+in facsimile in C. M. Ingleby's <i>Shakespeare and the
+Enclosure of Common Fields at Welcombe</i>, 1885).</p>
+
+
+<h5>5</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The British Museum</span> possesses the Ms. diary of John
+Manningham of the Middle Temple, which, under the date of
+Feb. 2, 1601, records a performance of <i>Twelfth Night</i>, and the
+anecdote recorded above, p. 44 (L. 77; Ms. Harl. 5353, ed.
+Camden Soc., p. 39); also the Mortgage Deed from Shakespeare
+to Henry Walker on the property in Blackfriars conveyed
+to Shakespeare and others on the day previous, March
+10, 1612/13.</p>
+
+
+<h5>6</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Bodleian Library at Oxford</span> has the Ms. diary of
+Dr. Simon Forman describing performances of <i>Winter's Tale,
+Cymbeline</i>, and <i>Macbeth</i> in 1610 and 1611 (L. 128; Ms.
+Ashmol. 208, fol. 201<i>b</i>); and the Accounts of Lord Stanhope
+of Harrington, Treasurer of the Chamber to James I, containing
+the following entry: "1613, May 20. Item paid to John<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Biographical Documents</span>Heminges uppon the cowncells warrant dated att Whitehall
+xx<sup>o</sup> die Maii 1613 for presentinge before the Princes highnes
+the La: Elizabeth and the Prince Pallatyne Elector fowerteene
+severall playes viz ... Much adoe abowte nothinge ...
+The Tempest ... The Winters Tale, S<sup>r</sup> John Falstafe,
+The Moore of Venice ... C&aelig;sars Tragedye ... All w<sup>ch</sup>
+Playes weare played within the tyme of this Accompte, viz
+p<sup>d</sup> the some of iiij. (xx.) xiij.li. vj.s. viij.d.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>"Item paid to the said John Heminges uppon the lyke
+warrant dated att Whitehall xx<sup>o</sup> die Maij 1613 for presenting
+sixe severall playes viz. one playe called ... And one other
+called Benidicte and Betteris all played within the tyme of
+this Accompte viz p<sup>d</sup> ffortie powndes And by waye of his
+Ma<sup>tis</sup> rewarde twentie powndes In all ... lx li." (L. 138;
+Ms. Rawl. A. 239).</p>
+
+
+<h5>7</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Episcopal Register of the Diocese of Worcester</span>
+contains the bond given by Sandells and others for the marriage
+of Shakespeare and Anne Hathaway (L. 12).</p>
+
+
+<h5>8</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Library of the Guildhall in London</span> has the indenture
+prepared for the purchaser in the sale of the house in
+Blackfriars on March 10, 1613, by Henry Walker to William
+Shakespeare and others (L. 136). The indenture held by the
+seller is in the library of Mr. Marsden J. Perry, Providence,
+R. I.</p>
+
+
+<h5>9</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Principal Probate Registry</span>, Somerset House,
+London, contains Shakespeare's Will, which runs as follows:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a><span class="smcap">Vicesimo</span> quinto die [Januarii] <i>Martii</i>, anno regni domini
+nostri Jacobi, nunc regis Angli&aelig;, &amp;c., decimo quarto, et
+Scoti&aelig; xlix<sup>o</sup>, annoque Domini 1616.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;<span class="smcap">T. Wmi. Shackspeare</span></p>
+
+<p>In the name of God, Amen! I William Shackspeare, of
+Stratford upon Avon in the countie of Warr., gent., in perfect
+health and memorie, God be praysed, doe make and ordayne
+this my last will and testament in manner and forme followeing,
+that ys to saye, ffirst, I comend my soule into the handes
+of God my Creator, hoping and assuredlie beleeving, through
+thonelie merittes, of Jesus Christe my Saviour, to be made partaker
+of lyfe everlastinge, and my bodye to the earth whereof
+yt ys made. Item, I gyve and bequeath unto my [sonne and]<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
+daughter Judyth one hundred and fyftie poundes of lawfull
+English money, to be paied unto her in the manner and forme
+foloweng, that ys to saye, one hundred poundes <i>in discharge
+of her marriage porcion</i> within one yeare after my deceas, with
+consideracion after the rate of twoe shillinges in the pound
+for soe long tyme as the same shalbe unpaied unto her after
+my deceas, and the fyftie poundes residwe thereof upon her
+surrendring <i>of</i>, or gyving of such sufficient securitie as the
+overseers of this my will shall like of, to surrender or graunte
+all her estate and right that shall discend or come unto her
+after my deceas, or <i>that shee</i> nowe hath, of, in, or to, one copiehold
+tenemente, with thappurtenaunces, lyeing and being in
+Stratford upon Avon aforesaied in the saied countye of Warr.,
+being parcell or holden of the mannour of Rowington, unto
+my daughter Susanna Hall and her heires for ever. Item, I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Shakespeare's Will</span>gyveand bequeath unto my saied daughter Judith one hundred
+and fyftie poundes more, if shee or anie issue of her bodie be
+lyvinge att thend of three yeares next ensueing the daie of the
+date of this my will, during which tyme my executours are
+to paie her consideracion from my deceas according to the
+rate aforesaied; and if she dye within the saied tearme without
+issue of her bodye, then my will ys, and I doe gyve and
+bequeath one hundred poundes thereof to my neece Elizabeth
+Hall, and the fiftie poundes to be sett fourth by my executours
+during the lief of my sister Johane Harte, and the use and
+proffitt thereof cominge shalbe payed to my saied sister Jone,
+and after her deceas the saied l.<sup><i>li.</i></sup> shall remaine amongst the
+children of my saied sister, equallie to be divided amongst
+them; but if my saied daughter Judith be lyving att thend
+of the saied three yeares, or anie yssue of her bodye, then my
+will ys, and soe I devise and bequeath the saied hundred and
+fyftie poundes to be sett out <i>by my executours and overseers</i>
+for the best benefitt of her and her issue, and <i>the stock</i> not <i>to
+be</i> paied unto her soe long as she shalbe marryed and covert
+baron [by my executours and overseers]; but my will ys, that
+she shall have the consideracion yearelie paied unto her
+during her lief, and, after her deceas, the saied stock and
+consideracion to bee paied to her children, if she have anie,
+and if not, to her executours or assignes, she lyving the saied
+terme after my deceas. Provided that yf suche husbond as
+she shall att thend of the saied three years be marryed unto,
+or att anie after (<i>sic</i>), doe sufficientlie assure unto her and
+thissue of her bodie landes awnswereable to the porcion by this
+my will gyven unto her, and to be adjudged soe by my executours
+and overseers, then my will ys, that the said cl.<sup><i>li.</i></sup> shalbe
+paied to such husbond as shall make such assurance, to his
+owne use. Item, I gyve and bequeath unto my saied sister<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>
+Jone xx.<sup><i>li</i></sup> and all my wearing apparrell, to be paied and delivered
+within one yeare after my deceas; and I doe will and
+devise unto her <i>the house</i> with thappurtenaunces in Stratford,
+wherein she dwelleth, for her naturall lief, under the yearlie
+rent of xij.<sup><i>d.</i></sup> Item, I gyve and bequeath unto her three sonnes,
+William Harte, ... Hart, and Michaell Harte, fyve pounds
+a peece, to be paied within one yeare after my deceas [to be
+sett out for her within one yeare after my deceas by my executours,
+with thadvise and direccions of my overseers, for her
+best profitt, untill her mariage, and then the same with the
+increase thereof to be paied unto her]. Item, I gyve and
+bequeath unto [her] <i>the saied Elizabeth Hall</i>, all my plate,
+<i>except my brod silver and gilt bole</i>, that I now have att the
+date of this my will. Item, I gyve and bequeath unto the
+poore of Stratford aforesaied tenn poundes; to Mr. Thomas
+Combe my sword; to Thomas Russell esquier fyve poundes;
+and to Frauncis Collins, of the borough of Warr. in the countie
+of Warr. gentleman, thirteene poundes, sixe shillinges, and
+eight pence, to be paied within one yeare after my deceas.
+Item, I gyve and bequeath to [Mr. Richard Tyler thelder]
+<i>Hamlett Sadler</i> xxvj.<sup><i>s.</i></sup> viij.<sup><i>d.</i></sup> to buy him a ringe; to <i>William
+Raynoldes gent., xxvj.<sup>s.</sup> viij.<sup>d.</sup> to buy him a ringe</i>; to my godson
+William Walker xx<sup><i>s.</i></sup> in gold; to Anthonye Nashe gent., xxvj.<sup><i>s.</i></sup>
+viij.<sup><i>d.</i></sup>; and to Mr. John Nashe xxvj.<sup><i>s.</i></sup> <i>viij.<sup>d.</sup></i> [in gold]; <i>and to
+my fellowes John Hemynges, Richard Burbage, and Henry Cundell,
+xxvj.<sup>s.</sup> viij.<sup>d.</sup> a peece to buy them ringes</i>. Item, I gyve, will,
+bequeath, and devise, unto my daughter Susanna Hall, <i>for
+better enabling of her to performe this my will, and towards the
+performans thereof</i>, all that capitall messuage or tenemente
+with thappurtenaunces, <i>in Stratford aforesaid</i>, called the New
+Place, wherein I nowe dwell, and two messuages or tenementes
+with thappurtenaunces, scituat, lyeing, and being in Henley<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Shakespeare's Will</span>streete, within the borough of Stratford aforesaied; and all
+my barnes, stables, orchardes, gardens, landes, tenementes,
+and hereditamentes, whatsoever, scituat, lyeing, and being,
+or to be had, receyved, perceyved, or taken, within the townes,
+hamletes, villages, fieldes, and groundes, of Stratford upon
+Avon, Oldstratford, Bushopton, and Welcombe, or in anie of
+them in the saied countie of Warr. And alsoe all that messuage
+or tenemente with thappurtenaunces, wherein one John
+Robinson dwelleth, scituat, lyeing and being, in the Blackfriers
+in London, nere the Wardrobe; and all my other landes,
+tenementes, and hereditamentes whatsoever, To have and to
+hold all and singuler the saied premisses, with theire appurtenaunces,
+unto the saied Susanna Hall, for and during the
+terme of her naturall lief, and after her deceas, to the first
+sonne of her bodie lawfullie yssueing, and to the heires males
+of the bodie of the saied first sonne lawfullie yssueinge; and
+for defalt of such issue, to the second sonne of her bodie, lawfullie
+issueinge, and [of] to the heires males of the bodie of the
+saied second sonne lawfullie yssueinge; and for defalt of such
+heires, to the third sonne of the bodie of the saied Susanna
+lawfullie yssueing, and of the heires males of the bodie of the
+saied third sonne lawfullie yssueing; and for defalt of such
+issue, the same soe to be and remaine to the ffourth [sonne],
+ffyfth, sixte, and seaventh sonnes of her bodie lawfullie issueing,
+one after another, and to the heires males of the bodies
+of the saied fourth, fifth, sixte, and seaventh sonnes lawfullie
+yssueing, in such manner as yt ys before lymitted to be and
+remaine to the first, second, and third sonns of her bodie, and
+to theire heires males; and for defalt of such issue, the said
+premisses to be and remaine to my sayed neece Hall, and the
+heires males of her bodie lawfullie yssueinge; and for defalt
+of such issue, to my daughter Judith, and the heires males of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>
+her bodie lawfullie issueinge; and for defalt of such issue, to
+the right heires of me the saied William Shakspeare for ever.
+<i>Item, I gyve unto my wief my second best bed with the furniture.</i>
+Item, I gyve and bequeath to my saied daughter Judith my
+broad silver gilt bole. All the rest of my goodes, chattels,
+leases, plate, jewels, and household stuffe whatsoever, after
+my dettes and legasies paied, and my funerall expenses dischardged,
+I give, devise, and bequeath to my sonne in lawe,
+John Hall gent., and my daughter Susanna, his wief, whom I
+ordaine and make executours of this my last will and testament.
+And I doe intreat and appoint <i>the saied</i> Thomas
+Russell esquier and Frauncis Collins gent, to be overseers
+hereof, and doe revoke all former wills, and publishe this
+to be my last will and testament. In witness whereof I
+have hereunto put my [seale] <i>hand</i>, the daie and yeare first
+abovewritten.</p>
+
+<p class="author">By me <span class="smcap">William Shakspeare</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Witnes to the publyshing hereof,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><span class="smcap">Fra: Collyns</span>,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><span class="smcap">Julyus Shawe</span>,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><span class="smcap">John Robinson</span>,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><span class="smcap">Hamnet Sadler</span>,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><span class="smcap">Robert Whattcott</span>.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Probatum coram magistro Willielmo Byrde, legum doctore
+comiss. &amp;c. xxij<sup>do.</sup> die mensis Junii anno Domini 1616,
+juramento Johannis Hall, unius executorum, &amp;c. cui &amp;c.
+de bene &amp;c. jurat. reservat. potestate &amp;c. Susann&aelig; Hall,
+alteri executorum &amp;c. cum venerit petitur, &amp;c. (Inv.
+ex.)</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><span class="sidenote">Biographical Documents</span></p><h5>10</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Heralds' College</span> has the two drafts of a grant of
+arms to John Shakespeare in 1596 (Ms. Vincent. Coll. Arm.
+157, arts. 23, 24); and the confirmation of the grant in 1599
+(L. 30, 55). For further details on the matter of the coat of
+arms, see <i>Herald and Genealogist</i>, i. 510, and for facsimiles,
+<i>Miscellanea Genealogica et Heraldica</i>, 2d ser. 1886, i. 109.
+On the criticism of the herald's complaisance in the matter of
+the Shakespeare and similar grants, see Preface to New Edition
+(1909) of Lee's <i>Life</i>, pp. xi-xv.</p>
+
+
+<h5>11</h5>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Stationers' Register</span>, accessible in the <i>Transcript</i>
+edited by E. Arber, 5 vols. 1875-94, contains the records of the
+entries of those of Shakespeare's works which were registered
+either with or without his name. The Shakespearean entries
+are gathered out of the great mass contained in these volumes
+by Lambert, Fleay, Stokes, H. P., <i>Chronological Order of
+Shakespeare's Plays</i>, 1878, Appendix V, and others.</p>
+
+
+<h5>12. <span class="smcap">Miscellaneous</span></h5>
+
+<p>The literary allusions to Shakespeare in the sixteenth and
+earlier seventeenth centuries have been collected in <i>Shakespeare's
+Century of Praise</i>, revised and re&euml;dited by J. Munro
+as <i>The Shakespeare Allusion Books</i>, London, 1909.</p>
+
+<p>Greene's attack in <i>Greenes Groatsworth</i> will be found in its
+context in his works, ed. A. B. Grosart, 1881-1886, and
+Chettle's Apology in his <i>Kind Hartes Dreame</i>, Percy Society,
+1874.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Historical MSS. Commission's Report on the Historical
+MSS. of Belvoir Castle</i>, IV. 494, contains the entry from the
+Belvoir Household Book as to Rutland's "impresa." See also<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span>
+<i>Times</i>, December 27, 1905, and Preface to New Edition of
+Lee's <i>Life</i>, pp. xvi-xxii.</p>
+
+
+<h5>13. <span class="smcap">Extracts from Meres's <i>Palladis Tamia</i></span>, 1598</h5>
+
+<p>As the Greeke tongue is made famous and eloquent by
+<i>Homer</i>, <i>Hesiod</i>, <i>Euripedes</i>, <i>&AElig;schilus</i>, <i>Sophocles</i>, <i>Pindarus</i>,
+<i>Phocylides</i> and <i>Aristophanes</i>; and the Latine tongue by <i>Virgill</i>,
+<i>Ovid</i>, <i>Horace</i>, <i>Silius Italicus</i>, <i>Lucanus</i>, <i>Lucretius</i>, <i>Ausonius</i>
+and <i>Claudianus</i>: so the English tongue is mightily enriched,
+and gorgeouslie invested in rare ornaments and resplendent
+abiliments by sir <i>Philip Sidney</i>, <i>Spencer</i>, <i>Daniel</i>, <i>Drayton</i>,
+<i>Warner</i>, <i>Shakespeare</i>, <i>Marlow</i> and <i>Chapman</i>.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>As the soule of <i>Euphorbus</i> was thought to live in <i>Pythagoras</i>:
+so the sweete wittie soule of <i>Ovid</i> lives in mellifluous &amp; hony-tongued
+Shakespeare, witnes his <i>Venus</i> and <i>Adonis</i>, his <i>Lucrece</i>,
+his sugred Sonnets among his private friends, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>As <i>Plautus</i> and <i>Seneca</i> are accounted the best for Comedy
+and Tragedy among the Latines, so <i>Shakespeare</i> among y<sup>e</sup>
+English is the most excellent in both kinds for the stage; for
+Comedy, witnes his <i>G&#7869;tlem&#7869; of Verona</i>, his <i>Errors</i>, his <i>Love
+labors lost</i>, his <i>Love labours wonne</i>, his <i>Midsummers night
+dreame</i>, &amp; his <i>Merchant of Venice</i>: for Tragedy, his <i>Richard
+the 2, Richard the 3, Henry the 4, King Iohn, Titus Andronicus,</i>
+and his <i>Romeo</i> and <i>Iuliet</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As <i>Epius Stolo</i> said, that the Muses would speake with
+<i>Plautus</i> tongue, if they would speak Latin: so I say that the
+Muses would speak with <i>Shakespeares</i> fine filed phrase, if
+they would speake English.</p>
+
+<p>As <i>Ovid</i> saith of his worke:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Iamque opus exegi, quod nec Iovis ira, nec ignis,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nec poterit ferrum, nec edax abolere vetustas.<br /></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></div></div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="sidenote">Extracts from Meres</span>And as <i>Horace</i> saith of his; <i>Exegi monumentum &aelig;re perennius;
+Regalique; situ pyramidum altius; Quod non imber
+edax; Non Aquilo impotens possit diruere; aut innumerabilis
+annorum feries &amp;c. fuga temporum</i>: so say I severally of sir
+<i>Philip Sidneys</i>, <i>Spencers</i>, <i>Daniels</i>, <i>Draytons</i>, <i>Shakespeares</i>, and
+<i>Warners workes</i>;</p>
+
+<p>As <i>Pindarus</i>, <i>Anacreon</i> and <i>Callimachus</i> among the Greekes;
+and <i>Horace</i> and <i>Catullus</i> among the Latines are the best
+Lyrick Poets: so in this faculty the best among our Poets
+are <i>Spencer</i> (who excelleth in all kinds) <i>Daniel</i>, <i>Drayton</i>,
+<i>Shakespeare</i>, <i>Bretton</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As ... so these are our best for Tragedie, the Lorde
+<i>Buckhurst</i>, Doctor <i>Leg</i> of Cambridge, Doctor <i>Edes</i> of Oxforde,
+maister <i>Edward Ferris</i>, the Authour of the <i>Mirrour for Magistrates</i>,
+<i>Marlow</i>, <i>Peele</i>, <i>Watson</i>, <i>Kid</i>, <i>Shakespeare</i>, <i>Drayton</i>,
+<i>Chapman</i>, <i>Decker</i>, and <i>Benjamin Johnson</i>.</p>
+
+<p>... so the best for Comedy amongst us bee, <i>Edward</i> Earle of
+Oxforde, Doctor <i>Gager</i> of Oxforde, Maister <i>Rowley</i> once a
+rare Scholler of learned Pembroke Hall in Cambridge, Maister
+<i>Edwardes</i> one of her Maiesties Chappell, eloquent and wittie
+<i>John Lilly</i>, <i>Lodge</i>, <i>Gascoyne</i>, <i>Greene</i>, <i>Shakespeare</i>, <i>Thomas
+Nash</i>, <i>Thomas Heywood</i>, <i>Anthony Mundye</i> our best plotter,
+<i>Chapman</i>, <i>Porter</i>, <i>Wilson</i>, <i>Hathway</i>, and <i>Henry Chettle.</i></p>
+
+<p>... so these are the most passionate among us to bewaile
+and bemoane the perplexities of Love, <i>Henrie Howard</i> Earle
+of Surrey, sir <i>Thomas Wyat</i> the elder, sir <i>Francis Brian</i>, sir
+<i>Philip Sidney</i>, sir <i>Walter Rawley</i>, sir <i>Edward Dyer</i>, <i>Spencer</i>,
+<i>Daniel</i>, <i>Drayton</i>, <i>Shakespeare</i>, <i>Whetstone</i>, <i>Gascoyne</i>, <i>Samuell
+Page</i> sometimes fellowe of <i>Corpus Christi</i> Colledge in Oxford,
+<i>Churchyard, Bretton</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h5>14. <span class="smcap">The Inscription on Shakespeare's Monument in
+the Church of the Holy Trinity, Stratford-on-Avon</span></h5>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i4">Judicio Pylium, genio Socratem, arte Maronem<br /></span>
+<span class="i6">Terra tegit, populus m&aelig;ret, Olympus habet.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Stay, passenger, why goest thou by so fast?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Read, if thou canst, whom envious death hath plast<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Within this monument: Shakespeare with whome<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Quick nature dide; whose name doth deck ys tombe<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Far more than cost; sith all yt he hath writt<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Leaves living art but page to serve his witt.<br /></span>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i8">Obiit ano. doi 1616.&nbsp;&nbsp;&AElig;tatis 53.&nbsp;&nbsp;Die 23 Ap.</span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+<h5>15. <span class="smcap"><a name="The_Introductory_Matter_in_the_First_Folio" id="The_Introductory_Matter_in_the_First_Folio"></a>The Introductory Matter in the First Folio</span></h5>
+
+<p class="captionn">
+TO THE MOST NOBLE<br />
+<span class="smcap">and</span><br />
+INCOMPARABLE PAIRE OF BRETHREN.<br />
+WILLIAM<br />
+Earle of Pembroke, &amp;c. Lord Chamberlaine to the<br />
+<i>Kings most Excellent Maiesty</i>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">and</span><br />
+PHILIP<br />
+Earle of Montgomery, &amp;c. Gentleman of his Maiesties Bed-Chamber.<br />
+Both Knights of the most Noble Order of the Garter,<br />
+and our singular good <span class="smcap">Lords</span>.</p>
+<p class="zerop" style="margin-left: 2em;">Right Honourable,</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Whilst</span> we studie to be thankful in our particular, for the
+many fauors we haue receiued from your L. L. we are falne
+vpon the ill fortune, to mingle two the most diuerse things
+that can bee, feare, and rashnesse; rashnesse in the enterprize,
+and feare of the successe. For, when we valew the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">The First Folio</span>places your H. H. sustaine, we cannot but know their dignity
+greater, then to descend to the reading of these trifles: and,
+while we name them trifles, we haue depriu'd our selues of
+the defence of our Dedication. But since your L. L. haue
+beene pleas'd to thinke these trifles some-thing, heeretofore;
+and haue prosequuted both them, and their Authour liuing,
+with so much fauour: we hope, that (they out-liuing him,
+and he not hauing the fate, common with some, to be exequutor
+to his owne writings) you will vse the like indulgence toward
+them, you haue done vnto their parent. There is a great
+difference, whether any Booke choose his Patrones, or finde
+them: This hath done both. For, so much were your L. L.
+likings of the seuerall parts, when they were acted, as before
+they were published, the Volume ask'd to be yours. We haue
+but collected them, and done an office to the dead, to procure
+his Orphanes, Guardians: without ambition either of selfe-profit,
+or fame: onely to keepe the memory of so worthy a
+Friend, &amp; Fellow aliue, as was our <span class="smcap">Shakespeare</span>, by humble
+offer of his playes, to your most noble patronage. Wherein,
+as we haue iustly obserued, no man to come neere your L. L.
+but with a kind of religious addresse; it hath bin the height
+of our care, who are the Presenters, to make the present
+worthy of your H. H. by the perfection. But, there we must
+also craue our abilities to be considerd, my Lords. We cannot
+go beyond our owne powers. Country hands reach foorth
+milke, creame, fruites, or what they haue: and many Nations
+(we haue heard) that had not gummes &amp; incense, obtained
+their requests with a leauened Cake. It was no fault to approch
+their Gods, by what meanes they could: And the most,
+though meanest, of things are made more precious, when
+they are dedicated to Temples. In that name therefore, we
+most humbly consecrate to your H. H. these remaines of your<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>
+seruant <span class="smcap">Shakespeare</span>; that what delight is in them, may be
+euer your L. L. the reputation his, &amp; the faults ours, if any
+be committed, by a payre so carefull to shew their gratitude
+both to the liuing, and the dead, as is</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 34em;">Your Lordshippes most bounden,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 40em;"><span class="smcap">Iohn Heminge</span>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 40em;"><span class="smcap">Henry Condell</span>.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><i>To the Great Variety of Readers.</i>&mdash;From the most able to
+him that can but spell;&mdash;there you are number'd. We had
+rather you were weighd, especially when the fate of all bookes
+depends upon your capacities, and not of your heads alone,
+but of your purses. Well! It is now publique, and you will
+stand for your privileges wee know; to read and censure.
+Do so, but buy it first. That doth best commend a booke,
+the stationer saies. Then, how odde soever your braines be,
+or your wisedomes, make your licence the same and spare
+not. Judge your sixe-pen'orth, your shillings worth, your five
+shillings worth at a time, or higher, so you rise to the just
+rates, and welcome. But, whatever you do, buy. Censure
+will not drive a trade or make the jacke go. And though you
+be a magistrate of wit, and sit on the stage at Black-Friers
+or the Cock-pit to arraigne playes dailie, know, these playes
+have had their triall alreadie, and stood out all appeales, and
+do now come forth quitted rather by a Decree of Court than
+any purchas'd letters of commendation.</p>
+
+<p>It had bene a thing, we confesse, worthie to have bene
+wished, that the author himselfe had liv'd to have set forth
+and overseen his owne writings; but since it hath bin ordain'd
+otherwise, and he by death departed from that right, we pray
+you do not envie his friends the office of their care and paine
+to have collected and publish'd them; and so to have publish'd<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">The First Folio</span>them, as where (before) you were abus'd with diverse
+stolne and surreptitious copies, maimed and deformed by the
+frauds and stealthes of injurious impostors that expos'd
+them; even those are now offer'd to your view cur'd and
+perfect of their limbes, and all the rest absolute in their numbers
+as he conceived them; who, as he was a happie imitator
+of Nature, was a most gentle expresser of it. His mind and
+hand went together; and what he thought, he uttered with
+that easinesse that wee have scarse received from him a blot in
+his papers. But it is not our province, who onely gather his
+works and give them you, to praise him. It is yours that
+reade him. And there we hope, to your divers capacities,
+you will finde enough both to draw and hold you; for his wit
+can no more lie hid then it could be lost. Reade him, therefore;
+and againe and againe; and if then you doe not like
+him, surely you are in some manifest danger not to understand
+him. And so we leave you to other of his friends, whom,
+if you need, can bee your guides. If you neede them not,
+you can leade yourselves and others; and such readers we
+wish him.&mdash;<i>Iohn Heminge.</i>&mdash;<i>Henrie Condell.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<p class="moretopc">
+TO THE MEMORY OF MY BELOUED,<br />
+<br />
+THE AVTHOR<br />
+<br />
+<small>MR. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE:<br />
+AND<br />
+what he hath left vs.</small><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="cpoem">
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">To draw no enuy (<i>Shakespeare</i>) on thy name,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Am I thus ample to thy Booke, and Fame:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">While I confesse thy writings to be such,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">As neither <i>Man</i>, nor <i>Muse</i>, can praise too much.<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg&nbsp;220]</a></span>
+<span class="i0">'Tis true, and all mens suffrage. But these wayes<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Were not the paths I meant vnto thy praise:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For seeliest Ignorance on these may light,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Which, when it sounds at best, but eccho's right;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or blinde Affection, which doth ne're aduance<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The truth, but gropes, and vrgeth all by chance;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or crafty Malice, might pretend this praise,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And thinke to ruine, where it seem'd to raise.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">These are, as some infamous Baud, or Whore,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Should praise a Matron. What could hurt her more?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But thou art proofe against them, and indeed<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Aboue th' ill fortune of them, or the need.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I, therefore will begin. Soule of the Age!<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The applause! delight! the wonder of our Stage!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">My <i>Shakespeare</i>, rise; I will not lodge thee by<br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>Chaucer</i>, or <i>Spenser</i>, or bid <i>Beaumont</i> lye<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">A little further, to make thee a roome:<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Thou art a Moniment, without a tombe,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And art aliue still, while thy Booke doth liue,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And we haue wits to read, and praise to giue.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That I not mixe thee so, my braine excuses;<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">I meane with great, but disproportion'd <i>Muses</i>:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For, if I thought my iudgement were of yeeres,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">I should commit thee surely with thy peeres,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And tell, how farre thou didstst our <i>Lily</i> out-shine,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Or sporting <i>Kid</i>, or <i>Marlowes</i> mighty line.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And though thou hadst small <i>Latine</i>, and lesse <i>Greeke</i>,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">From thence to honour thee, I would not seeke<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For names; but call forth thund'ring <i>&AElig;schilus</i>,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>Euripides</i>, and <i>Sophocles</i> to vs,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Paccuuius</i>, <i>Accius</i>, him of <i>Cordoua</i> dead,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">To life againe, to heare thy Buskin tread,<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg&nbsp;221]</a></span><span class="sidenote">Ben Jonson's Eulogy</span>
+<span class="i0">And shake a Stage: Or, when thy Sockes were on,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Leaue thee alone, for the comparison<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of all, that insolent <i>Greece</i>, or haughtie <i>Rome</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Sent forth, or since did from their ashes come.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Triumph, my <i>Britaine</i>, thou hast one to showe,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">To whom all Scenes of <i>Europe</i> homage owe.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">He was not of an age, but for all time!<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And all the <i>Muses</i> still were in their prime,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">When like <i>Apollo</i> he came forth to warme<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Our eares, or like a <i>Mercury</i> to charme!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nature her selfe was proud of his designes,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And ioy'd to weare the dressing of his lines!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Which were so richly spun, and wouen so fit,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">As, since, she will vouchsafe no other Wit.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The merry <i>Greeke</i>, tart <i>Aristophanes</i>,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Neat <i>Terence</i>, witty <i>Plautus</i>, now not please;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But antiquated, and deserted lye<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">As they were not of Natures family.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Yet must I not giue Nature all: Thy Art,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">My gentle <i>Shakespeare</i>, must enioy a part.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For though the <i>Poets</i> matter, Nature be,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">His Art doth giue the fashion. And, that he,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Who casts to write a liuing line, must sweat,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">(Such as thine are) and strike the second heat<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Vpon the <i>Muses</i> anuile: turne the same,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">(And himselfe with it) that he thinkes to frame;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or for the lawrell, he may gaine a scorne,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">For a good <i>Poet's</i> made, as well as borne.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And such wert thou. Looke how the fathers face<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Liues in his issue, euen so, the race<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of <i>Shakespeares</i> minde, and manners brightly shines<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">In his well torned, and true-filed lines:<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg&nbsp;222]</a></span>
+<span class="i0">In each of which, he seemes to shake a Lance,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">As brandish't at the eyes of Ignorance.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Sweet Swan of <i>Auon</i>! what a sight it were<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">To see thee in our waters yet appeare,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And make those flights vpon the bankes of <i>Thames</i>,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">That so did take <i>Eliza</i>, and our <i>Iames</i>!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But stay, I see thee in the <i>Hemisphere</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Aduanc'd, and made a Constellation there!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Shine forth, thou Starre of <i>Poets</i>, and with rage,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Or influence, chide, or cheere the drooping Stage;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Which, since thy flight fro hence, hath mourn'd like night,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And despaires day, but for thy Volumes light.<br /></span>
+</div></div><p class="author"><span class="smcap">Ben: Ionson.</span></p></div>
+
+
+
+<p class="moretopc">VPON THE LINES AND LIFE OF THE FAMOUS</p>
+
+<p class="center">Scenicke Poet, Master <span class="smcap">William Shakespeare</span></p>
+
+<div class="cpoem">
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Those hands, which you so clapt, go now, and wring<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">You <i>Britaines</i> braue; for done are <i>Shakespeares</i> dayes:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">His dayes are done, that made the dainty Playes,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Which made the Globe of heau'n and earth to ring.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Dry'de is that veine, dry'd is the <i>Thespian</i> Spring,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Turn'd all to teares, and <i>Ph&#339;bus</i> clouds his rayes:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That corp's, that coffin now besticke those bayes,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Which crown'd him <i>Poet</i> first, then <i>Poets</i> King.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">If <i>Tragedies</i> might any <i>Prologue</i> haue,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">All those he made, would scarse make one to this:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Where <i>Fame</i>, now that he gone is to the graue<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">(Deaths publique tyring-house) the <i>Nuncius</i> is.<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">For though his line of life went soone about,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The life yet of his lines shall neuer out.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">Hvgh Holland</span>.</p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg&nbsp;223]</a></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="sidenote">The First Folio</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="moretopc">TO THE MEMORIE</p>
+
+<p class="center">of the deceased Authour Maister<br /><br />
+<small>W. SHAKESPEARE</small></p>
+
+<div class="cpoem">
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Shake-speare</i>, at length thy pious fellowes giue<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The world thy Workes: thy Workes, by which, out-liue<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Thy Tombe, thy name must: when that stone is rent,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And Time dissolues thy <i>Stratford</i> Moniment,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Here we aliue shall view thee still. This Booke,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">When Brasse and Marble fade, shall make thee looke<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Fresh to all Ages: when Posteritie<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Shall loath what's new, thinke all is prodegie<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That is not <i>Shake-speares</i> eu'ry Line, each Verse<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Here shall reuiue, redeeme thee from thy Herse.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nor Fire, nor cankring Age, as <i>Naso</i> said,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of his, thy wit-fraught Booke shall once inuade.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nor shall I e're beleeue, or thinke thee dead<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">(Though mist) vntill our bankrout Stage be sped<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">(Jmpossible) with some new straine t'out-do<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Passions of <i>Iuliet</i>, and her <i>Romeo</i>;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or till J heare a Scene more nobly take,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Then when thy half-Sword parlying <i>Romans</i> spake.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Till these, till any of thy Volumes rest<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Shall with more fire, more feeling be exprest,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Be sure, our <i>Shake-speare</i>, thou canst neuer dye,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But crown'd with Lawrell, liue eternally.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">L. Digges.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="moretopc">To the memorie of M. <i>W. Shake-speare</i>.</p>
+<div class="cpoem">
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><span class="smcap">Wee</span> wondred (<i>Shake-speare</i>) that thou went'st so soone<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">From the Worlds-Stage, to the Graues-Tyring-roome.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Wee thought thee dead, but this thy printed worth,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Tels thy Spectators, that thou went'st but forth<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg&nbsp;224]</a></span>
+<span class="i0">To enter with applause. An Actors Art,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Can dye, and liue, to acte a second part.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That's but an <i>Exit</i> of Mortalitie;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">This, a Re-entrance to a Plaudite.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+<p class="author">I. M.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><i>The Workes of William Shakespeare, containing all his
+Comedies, Histories, and Tragedies; truely set forth according
+to their first Originall.</i>&mdash;<i>The names of the Principall Actors in
+all these playes.</i>&mdash;William Shakespeare; Richard Burbadge;
+John Hemmings; Augustine Phillips; William Kempt;
+Thomas Poope; George Bryan; Henry Condell; William
+Slye; Richard Cowly; John Lowine; Samuell Crosse; Alexander
+Cooke; Samuel Gilburne; Robert Armin; William
+Ostler; Nathan Field; John Underwood; Nicholas Tooley;
+William Ecclestone; Joseph Taylor; Robert Benfeld; Robert
+Goughe; Richard Robinson; John Shancke; John Rice.</p>
+
+<p><i>A Catalogue of the severall Comedies, Histories, and Tragedies
+contained in this Volume.</i>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Comedies.</span> The Tempest,
+folio 1; The Two Gentlemen of Verona, 20; The Merry Wives
+of Windsor, 38; Measure for Measure, 61; The Comedy of
+Errours, 85; Much adoo about Nothing, 101; Loves Labour
+lost, 122; Midsommer Nights Dreame, 145; The Merchant
+of Venice, 163; As You Like it, 185; The Taming of the
+Shrew, 208; All is well that Ends well, 230; Twelfe-Night,
+or what you will, 255; The Winters Tale, 304.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Histories.</span>
+The Life and Death of King John, fol. 1; The Life and Death
+of Richard the Second, 23; The First Part of King Henry the
+Fourth, 46; The Second Part of K. Henry the fourth, 74;
+The Life of King Henry the Fift, 69; The First part of King
+Henry the Sixt, 96; The Second part of King Hen. the Sixt,
+120; The Third part of King Henry the Sixt, 147; The Life
+and Death of Richard the Third, 173; The Life of King<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg&nbsp;225]</a></span>
+<span class="sidenote">Traditional Material</span>Henry the Eight, 205.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Tragedies</span>. The Tragedy of
+Coriolanus, fol. 1; Titus Andronicus, 31; Romeo and Juliet,
+53; Timon of Athens, 80; The Life and death of Julius
+C&aelig;sar, 109; The Tragedy of Macbeth, 131; The Tragedy of
+Hamlet, 152; King Lear, 283; Othello, the Moore of Venice,
+310; Anthony and Cleopater, 346; Cymbeline King of
+Britaine, 369.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h4>II. <a name="SOURCES_OF_TRADITIONAL_MATERIAL" id="SOURCES_OF_TRADITIONAL_MATERIAL"></a>SOURCES OF TRADITIONAL MATERIAL</h4>
+
+
+<p>Fuller's Worthies of England. 1662.</p>
+
+<p>Aubrey's Lives of Eminent Men, 2 vols. Ed. A. Clark.
+Oxford, 1895.</p>
+
+<p>Diary of Rev. John Ward (1661-1663). Ed. C. A. Severn, 1839.</p>
+
+<p>Rev. William Fulman's and Rev. Richard Davies's Mss.
+Corpus Christi College, Oxford.</p>
+
+<p>John Dowdall's Travels in Warwickshire (1693). London, 1838.</p>
+
+<p>William Hall (1694), Letter in Bodleian Mss. London, 1884.</p>
+
+<p>William Oldys, Ms. Adversaria in British Museum, printed in
+Appendix to Yeowell's Memoir of Oldys, 1862.</p>
+
+<p>Archdeacon Plume's Ms. memoranda at Maldon, Essex. See
+Lee, <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, May, 1906, and Preface to
+New Edition (1909) of <i>Life</i>.</p>
+
+<p>For the anecdote of the Bidford Drinkers, see H.-P. and
+Greene's Legend of the Crab Tree, 1857.</p>
+
+<p>Antony Wood. Athen&aelig; Oxonienses, 1692.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The words which have been erased are put between brackets; those
+which have been interlined are printed in italics.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> So Lambert, Halliwell-Phillipps reads "sonne in L."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Francis Collyns was the lawyer at Warwick who prepared the will,
+of which the draft only was executed, no time being possible for an engrossed
+copy.&mdash;Note by Lambert.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Appendix_B" id="Appendix_B"></a>Appendix B</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Index to the Characters in Shakespeare's Plays</span></h3>
+
+
+
+
+<p>This Index records the act and scene in which each character first
+speaks, not necessarily the same as that in which he first appears. Only
+persons who speak are included, except a few marked with asterisk.</p>
+
+
+<ul><li>Aaron. TA. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Abbess, Lady. CofE. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Abergavenny, Lord. H8. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Abhorson. Meas. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Abraham. R&amp;J. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Achilles. T&amp;C. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Adam. AYLI. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Adrian. Tmp. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Adriana. CofE. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>&AElig;dile, an. Cor. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>&AElig;geon. CofE. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>&AElig;milia. CofE. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>&AElig;milius. TA. IV. iv.</li>
+
+<li>&AElig;neas. T&amp;C. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Agamemnon. T&amp;C. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Agrippa. A&amp;C. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Aguecheek, Sir Andrew. TwN. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Ajax. T&amp;C. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Alarbus. TA.*</li>
+
+<li>Albany, Duke of. Lear I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Alcibiades. Tim. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Alen&ccedil;on, Duke of. 1H6. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Alexander. T&amp;C. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Alexas. A&amp;C. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Alice. H5. III. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Alonso. Tmp. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Ambassadors:<ul>
+<li>Hml. V. ii;</li>
+<li>H5. I. ii;</li>
+<li>1H6. V. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Amiens. AYLI. II. i. v.</li>
+
+<li>Andromache. T&amp;C. V. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Andronicus. <i>See</i> <a href="#Titus">Titus</a>, <a href="#Marcus">Marcus</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Angelo. CofE. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Angelo. Meas. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Angus. Mcb. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Anne Bullen, Queen. H8. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Anne, Lady. R3. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Anne Page. MWW. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Antigonus. WT. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Antiochus, King of Antioch. Per. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Antipholus of Ephesus. CofE. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Antipholus of Syracuse. CofE. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Antonio. Merch. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Antonio. MAdo. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Antonio. Tmp. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Antonio. TGV. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Antonio. TwN. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Antony.<ul>
+<li>JC. I. ii;</li>
+<li>A&amp;C. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Apemantus. Tim. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Apothecary. R&amp;J. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Apparitions. Mcb. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Archbishop. <i>See</i> <a href="#York">York</a>, <a href="#Canterbury">Canterbury</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>Archidamus. WT. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Ariel. Tmp. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Armado, Don. LLL. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Arragon, Prince of. Merch. II. ix.</li>
+
+<li>Artemidorus. JC. II. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Arthur, Duke of Bretagne. John II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Arviragus. Cym. III. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Astringer, Gentle. AWEW. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Attendants.
+<ul><li>A&amp;C. I. ii;</li>
+<li>Hml. IV. vi.</li>
+<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Servants">Servants</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Audrey. AYLI. III. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Aufidius, Tullus. Cor. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Aumerle, Duke of. R2. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Austria, Archduke of.
+<ul><li>John II. i.</li>
+<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Lymoges">Lymoges</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Autolycus. WT. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Auvergne, Countess of. 1H6. II. iii.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Bagot. R2. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Balthasar. MAdo. II. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Balthazar. CofE. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Balthazar. Merch. III. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Balthazar. R&amp;J. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Banditti. Tim. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Banquo. Mcb. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Baptista. TofS. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Bardolph.
+<ul><li>1H4. II. ii;</li>
+<li>2H4. II. i;</li>
+<li>H5. II. i;</li>
+<li>MWW. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Bardolph, Lord. 2H4. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Barnardine. Meas. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Bassanio. Merch. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Bassanius. TA. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Basset. 1H6. III. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Bastard of Orleans. 1H6. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Bastard. <i>See</i> <a href="#Edmund">Edmund</a>, <a href="#Faulconbridge">Faulconbridge</a>, and <a href="#Margarelon">Margarelon</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bates. H5. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Bawd.
+<ul><li>Per. IV. ii.</li>
+<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Overdone">Overdone</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Beadles.
+<ul><li>2H4. V. iv;</li>
+<li>2H6. II. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Beatrice. MAdo. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Beaufort, Henry, Bishop of Winchester, and Cardinal.
+<ul><li>1H6. I. i;</li>
+<li>2H6. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Beaufort, John, Duke of Somerset.
+<ul><li>1H6. II. iv;</li>
+<li>2H6. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Beaufort, Thomas, Duke of Exeter.
+<ul><li>H5. I. ii;</li>
+<li>1H6. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Bedford, Duke of. H5. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Bedford, Duke of. 1H6. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Belarius. Cym. III. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Belch, Sir Toby. TwN. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Benedick. MAdo. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Benvolio. R&amp;J. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Berkeley. R3. I. iii.*</li>
+
+<li>Berkeley, Lord. R2. II. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Bernardo. Hml. I i.*</li>
+
+<li><a name="Bertram" id="Bertram"></a>Bertram, Count of Rousillon. AWEW. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Bevis, George. 2H6. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Bianca. Oth. III. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Bianca. TofS. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Bigot, Lord. John IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Biondello. TofS. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Biron. LLL. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Blanche of Spain. John II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Blunt, Sir James. R3. V. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Blunt, Sir Walter. 1H4. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Boatswain. Tmp. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Bolingbroke, Roger. 2H6. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Bolingbroke, afterwards King Henry IV. R2. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Bona. 3H6. III. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Borachio. MAdo. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Bottom. MND. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Boult. Per. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Bourbon, Duke of. H5. III. v.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Bourchier" id="Bourchier"></a>Bourchier, Cardinal. R3. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Boyet. LLL. II. i.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Boys" id="Boys"></a>Boys:
+<ul><li>H5. II. i;</li>
+<li>1H6. I. iv;</li>
+<li>H8. V. i;</li>
+<li>Mcb. IV. ii;</li>
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>Meas. IV. i;</li>
+<li>MAdo. II. iii;</li>
+<li>R3. II. ii;</li>
+<li>T&amp;C. I. ii.</li>
+<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Pages">Pages</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Brabantio. Oth. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Brakenbury, Sir Robert. R3. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Brandon. H8. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Brothers, to Posthumus, ghosts. Cym. V. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Brutus, Decius. JC. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Brutus, Junius. Cor. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Brutus, Marcus. JC. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Buckingham, Duke of.
+<ul><li>2H6. I. i;</li>
+<li>R3. I. iii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Buckingham, Duke of. H8. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Bullcalf. 2H4. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Bullen, Anne. H8. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Burgundy, Duke of. H5. V. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Burgundy, Duke of. 1H6. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Burgundy, Duke of. Lear I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Bushy. R2. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Butts, Doctor. H8. V. ii.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Cade, John. 2H6. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>C&aelig;sar. <i>See</i> <a href="#Julius">Julius</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#Octavius">Octavius</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Caithness. Mcb. V. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Caius. TA.*</li>
+
+<li>Caius, Doctor. MWW. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Caius Ligarius. JC. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Caius Lucius. Cym. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Caius Marcius (Coriolanus). Cor. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Calchas. T&amp;C. III. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Caliban. Tmp. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Calpurnia. JC. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Cambridge, Earl of. H5. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Camillo. WT. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Campeius, Cardinal. H8. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Canidius. A&amp;C. III. x.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Canterbury" id="Canterbury"></a>Canterbury, Archbishop of.
+<ul><li>H5. I. i.</li>
+<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Bourchier">Bourchier</a>, <a href="#Cranmer">Cranmer</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Caphis. Tim. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Captains:
+<ul><li>A&amp;C. IV. iv;</li>
+<li>Cym. IV. ii, V. iii;</li>
+<li>Hml. IV. iv;</li>
+<li>1H6. II. ii;</li>
+<li>Lear V. iii;</li>
+<li>Mcb. I. ii;</li>
+<li>R2. II. iv;</li>
+<li>TA. I. i.</li>
+<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Sea-Captain">Sea Captain</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Capucius. H8. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Capulet. R&amp;J. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Capulet, Lady. R&amp;J. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Capulet, second. R&amp;J. I. v.</li>
+
+<li>Cardinal. <i>See</i> <a href="#Bourchier">Bourchier</a>, <a href="#Winchester">Winchester</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carlisle, Bishop of. R2. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Carpenter. JC. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Carriers. 1H4. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Casca. JC. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Cassandra. T&amp;C. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Cassio. Oth. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Cassius. JC. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Catesby, Sir William. R3. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Cato, young. JC. V. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Celia. AYLI. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Ceres. Tmp. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Cerimon. Per. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Chamberlain. 1H4. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Chamberlain, Lord. H8. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Chancellor, Lord. H8. V. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Charles, a wrestler. AYLI. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Charles, the dauphin, later King of France. 1H6. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Charles VI, King of France. H5. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Charmian. A&amp;C. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Chatillon, ambassador. John I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Chief Justice. 2H4. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Chiron. TA. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Chorus.
+<ul><li>H5;</li>
+<li>Per;</li>
+<li>R&amp;J;</li>
+<li>WT.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>Cicero. JC. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Cimber, Metellus. JC. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Cinna, a conspirator. JC. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Cinna, a poet. JC. III. iii.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Citizens" id="Citizens"></a>Citizens.
+<ul><li>Cor. I. i;</li>
+<li>2H6. IV. v;</li>
+<li>John II. i;</li>
+<li>R3. II. iii;</li>
+<li>R&amp;J. III. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Clarence, George, Duke of.
+<ul><li>3H6. II. ii;</li>
+<li>R3. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Clarence, Thomas, Duke of. 2H4. IV. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Clarence, son and daughter of. R3. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Claudio. Meas. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Claudio. MAdo. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Claudius, King of Denmark. Hml. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Claudius. JC. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Cleomenes. WT. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Cleon. Per. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Cleopatra. A&amp;C. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Clerk. 2H6. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Clifford, Lord.
+<ul><li>2H6. IV. viii;</li>
+<li>3H6. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Clifford, young, son of preceding. 2H6. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Clitus. JC. V. v.</li>
+
+<li>Cloten. Cym. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Clowns:
+<ul><li>A&amp;C. V. ii;</li>
+<li>AWEW. I. iii;</li>
+<li>Hml. V. ii;</li>
+<li>LLL. I. ii;</li>
+<li>Oth. III. i;</li>
+<li>TA. IV. iii;</li>
+<li>WT. IV. iii.</li>
+<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Feste">Feste</a>, <a href="#Peter">Peter</a>, <a href="#Pompey">Pompey</a>, etc.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Cobbler. JC. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Cobweb. MND. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Colville, Sir John. 2H4. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Cominius. Cor. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Commons. 2H6. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Conrade. MAdo. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Conspirators. Cor. V. vi.</li>
+
+<li>Constable (Dull). LLL. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Constable of France. H5. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Constance. John II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Cordelia. Lear I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Corin. AYLI. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Coriolanus. Cor. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Cornelius, a physician. Cym. I. v.</li>
+
+<li>Cornelius. Hml. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Cornwall, Duke of. Lear I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Costard. LLL. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Court. H5. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Courtesan. CofE. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Cranmer" id="Cranmer"></a>Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury. H8. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Cressida. T&amp;C. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Crier. H8. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Cromwell. H8. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Cupid. Tim. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Curan. Lear II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Curio. TwN. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Curtis. TofS. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Cymbeline, King. Cym. I. i.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Dancer, A. 2H4. Epi.</li>
+
+<li>Dardanius. JC. V. v.</li>
+
+<li>Daughter of Antiochus. Per. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Dauphin. H5. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Davy. 2H4. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Deiphobus. T&amp;C. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Demetrius. A&amp;C. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Demetrius. MND. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Demetrius. TA. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Dennis. AYLI. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Denny, Sir Anthony. H8. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Derby, Earl of. R3. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Dercetas. A&amp;C. IV. xiv.</li>
+
+<li>Desdemona. Oth. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Diana. Per.*</li>
+
+<li>Diana. AWEW. III. v.</li>
+
+<li>Dick, butcher. 2H6. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Diomedes. T&amp;C. II. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Diomedes. A&amp;C. IV. xiv.</li>
+
+<li>Dion. WT. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Dionyza. Per. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Doctor. Lear IV. iv.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>Doctor, English Mcb. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Doctor, Scotch. Mcb. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Dogberry. MAdo. III. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Dolabella. A&amp;C. III. xii.</li>
+
+<li>Doll Tearsheet. 2H4. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Don Adriano de Armado. LLL. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Donalbain. Mcb. II. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Don John. MAdo. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Don Pedro. MAdo. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Dorcas. WT. IV. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Dorset, Marquis of. R3. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Douglas Archibald, Earl of. 1H4. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Drawers. 2H4. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Dromio of Ephesus. CofE. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Dromio of Syracuse. CofE. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Duke, in banishment. AYLI. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Duke Frederick. AYLI. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Duke of Milan. TGV. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Dull. LLL. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Dumain. LLL. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Duncan, King. Mcb. I. ii.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Edgar. Lear I. ii.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Edmund" id="Edmund"></a>Edmund. Lear I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Edmund, Earl of Rutland. 3H6. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Edward, Earl of March, later Edward IV.
+<ul><li>3H6. I. i;</li>
+<li>R3. II. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Edward IV, King.
+<ul><li>3H6. I. i;</li>
+<li>R3. II. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Edward V, King. R3. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Edward, Prince of Wales, afterwards Edward V. R3. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Edward Plantagenet, Prince of Wales. 3H6. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Egeus. MND. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Eglamour. TGV. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Egyptian. A&amp;C. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Elbow. Meas. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Eleanor, Duchess of Gloucester. 2H6. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Eleanor, Queen. John I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Elizabeth, Queen (as L. Grey).
+<ul><li>3H6. III. ii;</li>
+<li>R3. I. iii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Ely, Bishop of. H5. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Ely, Bishop of. R3. III. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Emilia. Oth. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Emilia. WT. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Enobarbus. A&amp;C. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Eros. A&amp;C. III. v.</li>
+
+<li>Erpingham, Sir Thomas. H5. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Escalus, Prince. R&amp;J. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Escalus. Meas. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Escanes. Per. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Essex, Earl of. John I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Euphronius. A&amp;C. III. xii.</li>
+
+<li>Evans, Sir Hugh. MWW. I. i</li>
+
+<li>Executioners. John IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Exeter (Beaufort), Duke of.
+<ul><li>H5. I. ii;</li>
+<li>1H6. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Exeter, Duke of. 3H6. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Exton, Sir Pierce of. R2. V. iv.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Fabian. TwN. II. v.</li>
+
+<li>Fairies.
+<ul><li>MND. II. i;</li>
+<li>MWW. V. iv.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Falstaff, Sir John.
+<ul><li>1H4. I. ii;</li>
+<li>2H4. I. ii;</li>
+<li>MWW. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Fang. 2H4. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Fastolfe, Sir John. 1H6. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Father that hath killed his son. 3H6. II. v.</li>
+
+<li>Faulconbridge, Lady. John I. i.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Faulconbridge" id="Faulconbridge"></a>Faulconbridge, Philip the Bastard. John I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Faulconbridge, Robert. John I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Feeble. 2H4. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Fenton. MWW. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Ferdinand. Tmp. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span>Ferdinand, King of Navarre. LLL. I. i.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Feste" id="Feste"></a>Feste. TwN. I. v.</li>
+
+<li>Fisherman. Per. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Fitzwater, Lord. R2. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Flaminius. Tim. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Flavius. JC. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Flavius. Tim. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Fleance. Mcb. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Florence, Duke of. AWEW. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Florizel. WT. IV. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Fluellen. H5. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Flute. MND. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Fool.
+<ul><li>Lear I. iv;</li>
+<li>Tim. II. ii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Ford. MWW. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Ford, Mistress. MWW. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Forester.
+<ul><li>AYLI. IV. ii;</li>
+<li>LLL. IV. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Fortinbras. Hml. IV. iv.</li>
+
+<li>France, King of. AWEW. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>France, King of. Lear I. i.</li>
+
+<li>France, Princess of. LLL. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Francis. 1H4. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Francisca. Meas. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Francisco. Hml. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Francisco. Tmp. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Frederick, Duke. AYLI. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Frenchman, A. Cym. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Friar Francis. MAdo. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Friar John. R&amp;J. V. 2.</li>
+
+<li>Friar Lawrence. R&amp;J. II. 3.</li>
+
+<li>Friar Peter. Meas. IV. vi.</li>
+
+<li>Friar Thomas. Meas. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Froth. Meas. II. i.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Gadshill. 1H4. II. i.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Gaolers" id="Gaolers"></a>Gaolers:
+<ul><li>CofE. I. i;</li>
+<li>Cym. V. iv;</li>
+<li>1H6. II. v;</li>
+<li>Merch. III. iii;</li>
+<li>WT. II. ii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Gallus. A&amp;C. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Gardener. R2. III. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester. H8. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Gargrave, Sir Thomas. 1H6. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Gaunt, John, Duke of Lancaster. R2. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Gentleman Usher. H8. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Gentlemen:
+<ul><li>AWEW. V. iii;</li>
+<li>Cym. I. i;</li>
+<li>Hml. IV. v;</li>
+<li>2H6. IV. i;</li>
+<li>H8. II. i;</li>
+<li>Lear I. v;</li>
+<li>Meas. I. ii;</li>
+<li>Per. III. ii;</li>
+<li>Oth. II. i;</li>
+<li>WT. V. ii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Gentlewomen.
+<ul><li>Cor. I. iii;</li>
+<li>Mcb. V. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>George, Duke of Clarence.
+<ul><li>3H6. II. ii;</li>
+<li>R3. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Gertrude, Queen of Denmark. Hml. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Ghosts of:
+<ul><li>C&aelig;sar, JC. IV. iii;</li>
+<li>of Hamlet's father, Hml. I. v;</li>
+<li>Sicilius Leonatus, wife, two sons, Cym. V. iv;</li>
+<li>Banquo,* Mcb. III. iv;</li>
+<li>Prince Edward, Henry VI, Clarence, Rivers, Grey, Vaughan, Hastings, two young princes,
+<ul><li>Lady Anne, and Buckingham, R3. V. iii.</li></ul></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Glansdale, Sir William. 1H6. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Glendower, Owen. 1H4. III.</li>
+
+<li>Gloucester, Humphrey, Duke of.
+<ul><li>2H4. IV. iv;</li>
+<li>H5. III. vii;</li>
+<li>1H6. I. i;</li>
+<li>2H6. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Gloucester, Richard, Duke of.
+<ul><li>3H6. I. i;</li>
+<li>R3. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Gloucester, Duchess of. 2H6. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Gloucester, Duchess of. R2. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Gloucester, Earl of. Lear I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Gobbo, Launcelot. Merch. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>Gobbo, Old, father of Launcelot. Merch. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Goffe, Matthew. 2H6.*</li>
+
+<li>Goneril. Lear I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Gonzalo. Tmp. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Goths. TA. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Governor of Harfleur. H5. III. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Governor of Paris. 1H6. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Gower.
+<ul><li>2H4. II. i;</li>
+<li>H5. III. ii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Gower, chorus. Per.</li>
+
+<li>Grandpr&eacute;. H5. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Gratiano. Merch. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Gratiano. Oth. V. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Gravediggers. Hml. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Green. R2. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Gregory. R&amp;J. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Gremio. TofS. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Grey, Lady, later Queen Elizabeth.
+<ul><li>3H6. III. ii;</li>
+<li>R3. I. iii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Grey, Lord. R3. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Grey, Sir Thomas. H5. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Griffith. H8. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Grooms.
+<ul><li>2H4. V. v;</li>
+<li>R2. V. v.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Grumio. TofS. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Guard. A&amp;C. IV. xiv.</li>
+
+<li>Guiderius. Cym. III. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Guildenstern. Hml. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Guildford, Sir Henry. H8. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Gurney, James. John I. i.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Haberdasher. TofS. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Hamlet. Hml. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Harcourt. 2H4. IV. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Hastings, Lord. 2H4. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Hastings, Lord.
+<ul><li>3H6. IV. i;</li>
+<li>R3. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Hecate. Mcb. III. v.</li>
+
+<li>Hector. T&amp;C. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Helen, an attendant. Cym. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Helen. T&amp;C. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Helena. AWEW. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Helena. MND. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Helenus. T&amp;C. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Helicanus. Per. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Henry_IV" id="Henry_IV"></a>Henry IV, King (Bolingbroke).
+<ul><li>1H4. I. i;</li>
+<li>2H4. III. i;</li>
+<li>R2. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Henry V, King (first, Henry, Prince of Wales).
+<ul><li>1H4. I. ii;</li>
+<li>2H4. II. ii;</li>
+<li>H5. I. ii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Henry, Prince.
+<ul><li>1H4. I. ii;</li>
+<li>2H4. II. ii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Henry, Prince, son of King John. John V. vii.</li>
+
+<li>Henry VI, King.
+<ul><li>1H6. III. i;</li>
+<li>2H6. I. i;</li>
+<li>3H6. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Henry VII, King, first Earl of Richmond.
+<ul><li>3H6.*</li>
+<li>R3. V. iii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Henry VIII, King. H8. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Heralds.
+<ul><li>Cor. II. i;</li>
+<li>H5. III. vi, IV. viii;</li>
+<li>2H6. II. iv;</li>
+<li>John II. i;</li>
+<li>Lear V. iii;</li>
+<li>Oth. II. ii;</li>
+<li>R2. I. iii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Herbert, Sir Walter. R3. V. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Hereford, Duke of.
+<ul><li><i>See</i> <a href="#Henry_IV">Henry IV</a>.</li>
+<li>R2. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Hermia. MND. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Hermione. WT. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Hero. MAdo. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Hippolyta. MND. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Holland, John. 2H6. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Holofernes. LLL. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Horatio. Hml. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Horner, Roger. 2H6. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Hortensio. TofS. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Hortensius. Tim. III. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Host. TGV. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Host of the Garter Inn. MWW. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Hostess.
+<ul><li>H5. II. i.</li>
+<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Quickly">Quickly</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Hostess. TofS. Ind.</li>
+
+<li>Hotspur.
+<ul><li>1H4. I. iii.</li>
+<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Percy">Percy</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>Hubert de Burgh. John III. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Hume, John. 2H6. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Humphrey of Gloucester.
+<ul><li>2H4. IV. iv;</li>
+<li>H5. III. vii;</li>
+<li>1H6. I. i;</li>
+<li>2H6. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Huntsmen.
+<ul><li>3H6. IV. v;</li>
+<li>TofS. Ind.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Hymen. AYLI. V. iv.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Iachimo. Cym. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Iago. Oth. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Iden, Alexander. 2H6. IV. x.</li>
+
+<li>Imogen. Cym. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Interpreter. AWEW. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Iras. A&amp;C. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Iris. Tmp. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Isabel, Queen of France. H5. V. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Isabella. Meas. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Isadore, servant. Tim. II. ii.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Jamy. H5. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Jaquenetta. LLL. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Jaques. AYLI. II. v.</li>
+
+<li>Jaques, son of Sir Roland de Boys. AYLI.*</li>
+
+<li>Jessica. Merch. II. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Jeweller. Tim. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Joan la Pucelle (Joan of Arc). 1H6. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>John, King. John I. i.</li>
+
+<li>John of Lancaster.
+<ul><li>1H4. V. iv;</li>
+<li>2H4. IV. ii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Jordan, Margery. 2H6. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Julia. TGV. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Juliet. Meas. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Juliet. R&amp;J. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Julius" id="Julius"></a>Julius C&aelig;sar. JC. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Juno. Tmp. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Jupiter. Cym. V. iv.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Katherina. TofS. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Katherine. LLL. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Katherine, Princess of France. H5. III. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Katherine, Queen. H8. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Keepers:
+<ul><li>3H6. III. i;</li>
+<li>H8. V. ii; R2. V. v;</li>
+<li>R3. I. iv.</li>
+<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Gaolers">Gaolers</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Kent, Earl of. Lear I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Knights:
+<ul><li>Lear I. iv;</li>
+<li>Per. II. iii.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Ladies:
+<ul><li>Cor. II. i;</li>
+<li>Cym. I. v;</li>
+<li>R2. III. iv;</li>
+<li>Tim. I. ii;</li>
+<li>WT. II. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Laertes. Hml. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Lafeu, Lord. AWEW. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Lamprius. A&amp;C. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Launce. TGV. II. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Launcelot Gobbo. Merch. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Lavache, a clown. AWEW. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Lavinia. TA. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Lawyer, a. 1H6. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Lear, King. Lear I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Le Beau. AYLI. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Legate. 1H6. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Lennox. Mcb. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Leonardo. Merch. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Leonato. MAdo. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Leonatus, Posthumus. Cym. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Leonine. Per. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Leontes. WT. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Lepidus.
+<ul><li>JC. IV. i;</li>
+<li>A&amp;C. I. iv.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Lewis, the Dauphin. H5. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Lewis, the Dauphin. John II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Lewis XI, King of France. 3H6. III. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Lieutenant:
+<ul><li>Cor. IV. vii;</li>
+<li>2H6. IV. i;</li>
+<li>3H6. IV. vi.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Ligarius. JC. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Lincoln, Bishop of. H8. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span>Lion. MND. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Longaville. LLL. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Lords:
+<ul><li>AWEW. I. ii, III. i;</li>
+<li>AYLI. II. i;</li>
+<li>Cor. V. vi;</li>
+<li>Cym. I. ii;</li>
+<li>Hml. V. ii;</li>
+<li>LLL. II. i;</li>
+<li>Mcb. III. iv;</li>
+<li>Per. I. ii;</li>
+<li>R3. V. iii;</li>
+<li>TofS. Ind.;</li>
+<li>Tim. I. i;</li>
+<li>WT. II. ii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Lorenzo. Merch. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Lovel, Lord. R3. III. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Lovell, Sir Thomas. H8. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Luce. CofE. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Lucentio. TofS. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Lucetta. TGV. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Luciana. CofE. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Lucianus. Hml. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Lucilius. JC. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Lucilius. Tim. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Lucio. Meas. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Lucius, Caius. Cym. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Lucius. JC. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Lucius. TA. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Lucius, young. TA. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Lucius. Tim. III. ii;
+<ul><li>servant. Tim. III. iv.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Lucullus. Tim. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Lucy, Sir William. 1H6. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Ludovico. Oth. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Lychorida. Per. III. i.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Lymoges" id="Lymoges"></a>Lymoges, Duke of Austria. John II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Lysander. MND. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Lysimachus. Per. IV. vi.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Macbeth. Mcb. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Macbeth, Lady. Mcb. I. v.</li>
+
+<li>Macduff. Mcb. II. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Macduff, Lady. Mcb. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Macduff's son. Mcb. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Macmorris. H5. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>M&aelig;cenas. A&amp;C. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Malcolm. Mcb. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Malvolio. TwN. I. v.</li>
+
+<li>Mamillius. WT. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Marcellus. Hml. I. i.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Marcus" id="Marcus"></a>Marcus Andronicus. TA. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Marcus Antonius (Antony).
+<ul><li>JC. I. ii;</li>
+<li>A&amp;C. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Mardian. A&amp;C. I. v.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Margarelon" id="Margarelon"></a>Margarelon. T&amp;C. V. vi.</li>
+
+<li>Margaret. MAdo. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Margaret, Queen.
+<ul><li>1H6. V. iii;</li>
+<li>2H6. I. i;</li>
+<li>3H6. I. i;</li>
+<li>R3. I. iii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Margaret Plantagenet, daughter of Clarence. R3. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Maria. LLL. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Maria. TwN. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Mariana. AWEW. III. v.</li>
+
+<li>Mariana. Meas. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Marina. Per. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Mariner.
+<ul><li>WT. III. iii;</li>
+<li>Tmp. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Marshal. Per. II. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Marshal, Lord. R2. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Martext, Sir Oliver. AYLI. III. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Martius. TA. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Marullus. JC. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Master. 2H6. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Master gunner. 1H6. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Master, of a ship.
+<ul><li>Tmp. I. i;</li>
+<li>2H6. IV. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Master's Mate. 2H6. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Mayor of London.
+<ul><li>1H6. III. i;</li>
+<li>R3. III. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Mayor of St. Albans. 2H6. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Mayor of York. 3H6. IV. vii.</li>
+
+<li>Melun. John V. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Menas. A&amp;C. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Menecrates. A&amp;C. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Menelaus. T&amp;C. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Menenius Agrippa. Cor. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Menteith. Mcb. V. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Mercade. LLL. V. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Merchants:
+<ul><li>CofE. I. ii;</li>
+<li>Tim. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Mercutio. R&amp;J. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>Messala. JC. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Messengers:
+<ul><li>A&amp;C. I. i;</li>
+<li>AWEW. IV. iii;</li>
+<li>CofE. V. i;</li>
+<li>Cor. I. i;</li>
+<li>Cym. V. iv;</li>
+<li>Hml. IV. v;</li>
+<li>1H4. IV. i;</li>
+<li>2H4. IV. i;</li>
+<li>H5. II. v;</li>
+<li>1H6. I. i;</li>
+<li>2H6. I. ii;</li>
+<li>3H6. I. ii;</li>
+<li>H8. IV. ii;</li>
+<li>John IV. ii;</li>
+<li>JC. IV. iii;</li>
+<li>Lear IV. ii;</li>
+<li>LLL. V. ii;</li>
+<li>Mcb. I. v;</li>
+<li>Meas. IV. ii;</li>
+<li>Merch. II. ix;</li>
+<li>MAdo. I. i;</li>
+<li>Oth. I. iii;</li>
+<li>Per. I. i;</li>
+<li>R3. III. ii;</li>
+<li>TofS. III. i;</li>
+<li>Tim. I. i;</li>
+<li>TA. III. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Metellus Cimber. JC. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Michael. 2H6. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Michael, Sir. 1H4. IV. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Milan, Duke of. TGV. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Miranda. Tmp. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Montague. R&amp;J. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Montague, Lady. R&amp;J. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Montague, Marquess of. 3H6. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Montano. Oth. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Montgomery, Sir John. 3H6. IV. vii.</li>
+
+<li>Montjoy. H5. III. vi.</li>
+
+<li>Moonshine. MND. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Mopsa. WT. IV. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Morocco, Prince of. Merch. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Mortimer, Edmund, Earl of March. 1H4. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Mortimer, Edmund, Earl of March. 1H6. II. v.</li>
+
+<li>Mortimer, Lady. 1H4. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Mortimer, Sir Hugh.* 3H6. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Mortimer, Sir John. 3H6. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Morton. 2H4. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Morton, John, Bishop of Ely. R3. III. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Moth. LLL. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Moth. MND. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Mother to Posthumus, a ghost. Cym. V. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Mouldy. 2H4. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Mowbray, Lord. 2H4. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Mowbray, Thomas, Duke of Norfolk. R2. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Murderers:
+<ul><li>2H6. III. ii;</li>
+<li>Mcb. III. i;</li>
+<li>R3. I. iii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Musicians:
+<ul><li>Merch. V. i;</li>
+<li>Oth. III. i;</li>
+<li>R&amp;J. IV. v;</li>
+<li>TGV. IV. ii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Mustardseed. MND. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Mutius. TA. I. i.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Nathaniel, Sir. LLL. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Neighbors. 2H6. II. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Nerissa. Merch. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Nestor. T&amp;C. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Noble, a. Cor. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Nobleman, a. 3H6. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Norfolk, Duke of.
+<ul><li>3H6. I. i;</li>
+<li>R3. V. iii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Norfolk, Duke of, Thomas Mowbray. R2. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Norfolk, Duke of. H8. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Northumberland. <i>See</i> <a href="#Percy">Percy</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Northumberland, Earl of. 3H6. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Northumberland, Lady. 2H4. II. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Nurse. R&amp;J. I. 3.</li>
+
+<li>Nurse. TA. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Nym.
+<ul><li>H5. II. i;</li>
+<li>MWW. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Oberon. MND. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Octavia. A&amp;C. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Octavius" id="Octavius"></a>Octavius C&aelig;sar (Augustus).
+<ul><li>JC. IV. i;</li>
+<li>A&amp;C. I. iv.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Officers:
+<ul><li>CofE. IV. i;</li>
+<li>Cor. II. ii;</li>
+<li>Oth. I. iii;</li>
+<li>R&amp;J. I. i;</li>
+<li>TwN. III. iv;</li>
+<li>WT. III. ii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Old Athenian. Tim. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Old Lady. H8. II. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Old Man.
+<ul><li>Lear IV. i;</li>
+<li>Mcb. II. iv.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>Oliver. AYLI. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Oliver Martext, Sir. AYLI. III. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Olivia. TwN. I. v.</li>
+
+<li>Ophelia. Hml. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Orlando. AYLI. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Orleans, bastard of. 1H6. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Orleans, Duke of. H5. III. vii.</li>
+
+<li>Orsino, Duke of Illyria. TwN. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Osric. Hml. V. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Ostler. 1H4. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Oswald. Lear I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Othello. Oth. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Outlaws. TGV. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Overdone" id="Overdone"></a>Overdone, Mrs. Meas. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Oxford, Earl of. 3H6. III. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Oxford, Earl of. R3. V. ii.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Page. MWW. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Page, Mistress. MWW. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Page, Mistress Anne, a daughter. MWW. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Page, William, a son. MWW. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Pages" id="Pages"></a>Pages:
+<ul><li>AWEW. I. i;</li>
+<li>AYLI. V. iii;</li>
+<li>2H4. I. ii;</li>
+<li>H8. V. i;</li>
+<li>R3. IV. ii;</li>
+<li>R&amp;J. V. ii;</li>
+<li>Tim. II. ii.</li>
+<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Boys">Boys</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Painter. Tim. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Pandar. Per. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Pandarus. T&amp;C. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Pandulph, Cardinal. John III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Panthino. TGV. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Paris. R&amp;J. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Paris. T&amp;C. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Parolles. AWEW. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Patience. H8. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Patrician. Cor. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Patroclus. T&amp;C. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Paulina. WT. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Peaseblossom. MND. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Pedant. TofS. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Pedro, Don. MAdo. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Pembroke, Earl of. 3H6. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Pembroke, Earl of. John IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Percy, Henry, Earl of Northumberland.
+<ul><li>1H4. I. iii;</li>
+<li>2H4. I. i;</li>
+<li>R2. III. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Percy" id="Percy"></a>Percy, Henry (Hotspur).
+<ul><li>1H4. I. iii;</li>
+<li>R2. II. iii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Percy, Lady (wife of Hotspur).
+<ul><li>1H4. II. iii;</li>
+<li>2H4. II. iii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Percy, Thomas, Earl of Worcester. 1H4. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Perdita. WT. IV. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Pericles. Per. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Peter. 2H6. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Peter" id="Peter"></a>Peter. R&amp;J. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Peter of Pomfret. John IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Petitioners. 2H6. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Peto.
+<ul><li>1H4. II. ii;</li>
+<li>2H4. II. iv.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Petruchio. TofS. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Phebe. AYLI. III. v.</li>
+
+<li>Philario. Cym. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Philemon. Per. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Philip, King of France. John II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Philo. A&amp;C. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Philostrate. MND. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Philotus. Tim. III. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Phrynia. Tim. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Physicians:
+<ul><li>Cym. I. v;</li>
+<li>Lear IV. iv;</li>
+<li>Mcb. IV. iii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Pierce, Sir, of Exton. R2. V. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Pinch. CofE. IV. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Pindarus. JC. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Pirates. Per. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Pisanio. Cym. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Pistol.
+<ul><li>2H4. II. iv;</li>
+<li>H5. II. i;</li>
+<li>MWW. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Plantagenet. <i>See</i> <a href="#Richard">Richard</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Player King. Hml. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>Player Queen. Hml. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Players.
+<ul><li>Hml. II. ii;</li>
+<li>TofS. Ind.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Plebeians.
+<ul><li>JC. III. ii.</li>
+<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Citizens">Citizens</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Poet. Tim. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Poet. JC. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Poins.
+<ul><li>1H4. I. ii;</li>
+<li>2H4. II. ii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Polixenes. WT. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Polonius. Hml. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Pompeius, Sextus. A&amp;C. II. i.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Pompey" id="Pompey"></a>Pompey. Meas. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Popilius. JC. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Porters:
+<ul><li>2H4. I. i;</li>
+<li>1H6. II. iii;</li>
+<li>H8. V. iv;</li>
+<li>Mcb. II. iii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Porter's Man. H8. V. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Portia. JC. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Portia. Merch. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Post.
+<ul><li>2H6. III. i;</li>
+<li>3H6. III. iii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Posthumus Leonatus. Cym. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Prentices. 2H6. II. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Priam, King of Troy. T&amp;C. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Priests:
+<ul><li>Hml. V. i;</li>
+<li>R3. III. ii;</li>
+<li>TwN. V. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Princess of France. LLL. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Proculeius. A&amp;C. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Prologue.
+<ul><li>R&amp;J;</li>
+<li>H5;</li>
+<li>MND;</li>
+<li>Hml. III, ii;</li>
+<li>H8;</li>
+<li>T&amp;C.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Prospero. Tmp. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Proteus. TGV. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Provost. Meas. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Publius. JC. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Publius. TA. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Puck, Robin Goodfellow. MND. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Pursuivant. R3. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Pyramus. MND. V. i.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Queen, wife of Cymbeline. Cym. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Queen, wife of Richard II. R2. II. i.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Quickly" id="Quickly"></a>Quickly, Mrs.
+<ul><li>1H4. II. iv;</li>
+<li>2H4. II. i;</li>
+<li>H5. II. i;</li>
+<li>MWW. I. iv.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Quince. MND. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Quintus. TA. I. i.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Rambures. H5. III. vii.</li>
+
+<li>Ratcliff, Sir Richard. R3. III. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Regan. Lear I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Reignier, Duke of Anjou. 1H6. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Reynaldo. Hml. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Richard II, King. R2. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Richard II, Queen to. R2. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Richard III, King (at first Gloucester).
+<ul><li>3H6. I. i;</li>
+<li>R3. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Richard_Duke_of_York_son_of_Edward_IV" id="Richard_Duke_of_York_son_of_Edward_IV"></a>Richard, Duke of York, son of Edward IV. R3. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Richard" id="Richard"></a>Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York.
+<ul><li>1H6. II. iv;</li>
+<li>2H6. I. i;</li>
+<li>3H6. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Richard Plantagenet, son of preceding.
+<ul><li>2H6*;</li>
+<li>3H6. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Richmond, Earl of, later Henry VII.
+<ul><li>3H6*;</li>
+<li>R3. V. iii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Rivers, Lord.
+<ul><li>3H6. IV. iv;</li>
+<li>R3. I. iii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Robin. MWW. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Robin Goodfellow. MND. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Roderigo. Oth. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Roman, a.
+<ul><li>Cor. IV. iii.</li>
+<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Citizens">Citizens</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Romeo. R&amp;J. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Rosalind. AYLI. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Rosaline. LLL. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Rosencrantz. Hml. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Ross. Mcb. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Ross, Lord. R2. II. i.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Rotherham" id="Rotherham"></a>Rotherham, Thomas. Archbishop of York. R3. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>Rousillon, Count. <i>See</i> <a href="#Bertram">Bertram</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rousillon, Countess. AWEW. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Rugby, John. MWW. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Rumour. 2H4. Ind.</li>
+
+<li>Rutland, Edmund, Earl of. 3H6. I. iii.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Sailors:
+<ul><li>Hml. IV. vi;</li>
+<li>Oth. I. iii;</li>
+<li>Per. III. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Salanio. Merch. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Salarino. Merch. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Salerio. Merch. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Salisbury, Earl of.
+<ul><li>H5. IV. iii;</li>
+<li>1H6. I. iv.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Salisbury, Earl of. 2H6. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Salisbury, Earl of. John III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Salisbury, Earl of. R2. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Sampson. R&amp;J. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Sandys, William (Lord). H8. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Saturninus. TA. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Say, Lord. 2H6. IV. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Scales, Lord. 2H6. IV. v.</li>
+
+<li>Scarus. A&amp;C. III. x.</li>
+
+<li>Scout. 1H6. V. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Scribe. H8. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Scrivener. R3. III. vi.</li>
+
+<li>Scroop, Lord. H5. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Scroop" id="Scroop"></a>Scroop, Richard, Archbishop of York.
+<ul><li>1H4. IV. iv;</li>
+<li>2H4. I. iii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Scroop, Sir Stephen. R2. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Sea-Captain" id="Sea-Captain"></a>Sea-Captain (Lieut.).
+<ul><li>2H6. IV. i;</li>
+<li>TwN. I. ii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Sebastian. Tmp. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Sebastian. TwN. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Secretary. H8. I i.</li>
+
+<li>Seleucus. A&amp;C. V. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Sempronius. TA.*</li>
+
+<li>Sempronius. Tim. III. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Senators,
+<ul><li>Roman.
+<ul><li>Cor. I. i;</li>
+<li>Cym. III. vii;</li></ul></li></ul>
+<ul><li>Venetian. Oth. I. iii;</li></ul>
+<ul><li>Athenian. Tim. II. i;</li></ul>
+<ul><li>Coriolanian. Cor. I. ii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Sentinels. 1H6. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Sentry. A&amp;C. IV. ix.</li>
+
+<li>Sergeant. 1H6. II. i;
+<ul><li>(at arms) H8. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li><a name="Servants" id="Servants"></a>Servants:
+<ul><li>A&amp;C. II. vii;</li>
+<li>Hml. IV. vi;</li>
+<li>1H4. II. iii;</li>
+<li>2H4. I. ii;</li>
+<li>H8. I. iv;</li>
+<li>JC. II. ii;</li>
+<li>Lear III. vii;</li>
+<li>Mcb. III. i;</li>
+<li>Meas. II. ii;</li>
+<li>Merch. III. i;</li>
+<li>Per. III. ii;</li>
+<li>R2. II. ii;</li>
+<li>TofS. IV. i;</li>
+<li>Tim. I. ii;</li>
+<li>T&amp;C. III. i;</li>
+<li>TwN. III. iv;</li>
+<li>WT. II. iii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Servilius. Tim. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Servingmen:
+<ul><li>Cor. IV. v;</li>
+<li>1H6. I. iii;</li>
+<li>2H6. II. iv;</li>
+<li>Merch. I. ii;</li>
+<li>TofS. Ind.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Seyton. Mcb. V. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Sexton. MAdo. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Sextus Pompeius. A&amp;C. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Shadow. 2H4. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Shallow, Justice.
+<ul><li>2H4. III. ii;</li>
+<li>MWW. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Shepherd. 1H6. V. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Shepherd, Old. WT. III. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Sheriff.
+<ul><li>1H4. II. iv;</li>
+<li>2H6. II. iv;</li>
+<li>R3. V. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Shrewsbury, Talbot, Earl of. 1H6. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Shylock. Merch. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Sicilius Leonatus, a ghost. Cym. V. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Sicinius Velutus. Cor. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Silence. 2H4. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Silius. A&amp;C. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Silvia. TGV. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Silvius. AYLI. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Simonides, King of Pentapolis. Per. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Simpcox. 2H6. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Simpcox's wife. 2H6. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Simple, Peter. MWW. I. i.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>Siward. Mcb. V. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Siward, young. Mcb. V. vii.</li>
+
+<li>Slender, Abraham. MWW. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Sly, Christopher. TofS. Ind.</li>
+
+<li>Smith. 2H6. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Snare. 2H4. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Snout. MND. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Snug. MND. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Soldiers:
+<ul><li>A&amp;C. III. vii;</li>
+<li>AWEW. IV. i;</li>
+<li>Cor. I. iv;</li>
+<li>H5. IV. iv;</li>
+<li>1H6. II. i;</li>
+<li>2H6. IV. vi;</li>
+<li>3H6. IV. viii;</li>
+<li>JC. IV. ii;</li>
+<li>Mcb. V. iv;</li>
+<li>Tim. V. iv;</li>
+<li>T&amp;C. V. ix.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Solinus, Duke of Ephesus. CofE. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Somerset, Duke of.
+<ul><li>1H6. II. iv;</li>
+<li>2H6. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Somerset, Duke of. 3H6. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Somerville, Sir John. 3H6. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Son that hath killed his father. 3H6. II. v.</li>
+
+<li>Soothsayers.
+<ul><li>A&amp;C. I. ii;</li>
+<li>Cym. IV. ii;</li>
+<li>JC. I. ii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Southwell, John. 2H6. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Speed. TGV. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Spirits. 2H6. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Spring (Ver). LLL. V. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Stafford, Lord. 3H6.*</li>
+
+<li>Stafford, Sir Humphrey. 2H6. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Stafford, William. 2H6. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Stanley, Lord, Earl of Derby. R3. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Stanley, Sir John. 2H6. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Stanley, Sir William. 3H6. IV. v.*</li>
+
+<li>Starveling. MND. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Stephano. Merch.*</li>
+
+<li>Stephano. Tmp. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Steward. AWEW. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Strangers. Tim. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Strato. JC. V. v.</li>
+
+<li>Suffolk, Earl and Duke of.
+<ul><li>1H6. II. iv;</li>
+<li>2H6. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Suffolk, Duke of. H8. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Surrey, Earl of. 2H4.*</li>
+
+<li>Surrey, Earl of. R2. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Surrey, Earl of. R3. V. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Surrey, Lord. H8. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Surveyor. H8. I. ii.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Tailor. TofS. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury. 1H6. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Talbot, John. 1H6. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Tamora, Queen of Goths. TA. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Taurus. A&amp;C. III. viii.</li>
+
+<li>Thaisa. Per. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Thaliard. Per. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Thersites. T&amp;C. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Theseus. MND. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Thieves. 1H4. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Thisbe. MND. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Thomas, Friar. Meas. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Thurio. TGV. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Thyreus (Thidias). A&amp;C. III. xii.</li>
+
+<li>Timandra. Tim. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Time (chorus). WT. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Timon. Tim. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Titania. MND. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Titinius. JC. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Titus. Tim. III. iv.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Titus" id="Titus"></a>Titus Andronicus. TA. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Titus Lartius. Cor. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Touchstone. AYLI. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Townsmen of St. Albans. 2H6. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Tranio. TofS. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Travellers. 1H4. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Travers. 2H4. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Trebonius. JC. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Tressel. R3. I. iii.*</li>
+
+<li>Tribunes, Roman:
+<ul><li>Cym. III. vii;</li>
+<li>TA. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>Trinculo. Tmp. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Troilus. T&amp;C. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Tubal. Merch. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Tullus Aufidius. Cor. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Tutor. 3H6. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Tybalt. R&amp;J. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Tyrrel, Sir James. R3. IV. ii.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Ulysses. T&amp;C. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Ursula. MAdo. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Urswick, Christopher. R3. IV. v.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Valentine. TwN. I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Valentine. TGV. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Valentine. TA.*</li>
+
+<li>Valeria. Cor. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Varrius. A&amp;C. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Varro, servant. Tim. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Varro. JC. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Vaughan, Sir Thomas. R3. III. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Vaux. 2H6. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Vaux, Sir Nicholas. H8. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Venice, Duke of. Merch. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Venice, Duke of. Oth. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Ventidius. A&amp;C. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Ventidius. Tim. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Verges. MAdo. III. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Vernon. 1H6. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Vernon, Sir Richard. 1H4. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Vincentio. TofS. IV. v.</li>
+
+<li>Vincentio, Duke. Meas. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Vintner. 1H4. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Viola. TwN. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Violenta. AWEW. III. v.</li>
+
+<li>Virgilia. Cor. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Volsce, a. Cor. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Voltimand. Hml. I. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Volumnia. Cor. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Volumnius. JC. V. v.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Wall, MND. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Warders. 1H6. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Wart. 2H4. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Warwick (Beauchamp), Earl of.
+<ul><li>2H4. III. i;</li>
+<li>H5. IV. viii;</li>
+<li>1H6. II. iv.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Warwick (Nevil), Earl of.
+<ul><li>2H6. I. i;</li>
+<li>3H6. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Watchmen:
+<ul><li>Cor. V. ii;</li>
+<li>3H6. IV. iii;</li>
+<li>MAdo. III. iii;</li>
+<li>R&amp;J. V. iii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Westminster, Abbot of. R2. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Westmoreland, Earl of.
+<ul><li>1H4. I. i;</li>
+<li>2H4. IV. i;</li>
+<li>H5. I. ii.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Westmoreland, Earl of. 3H6. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Whitmore, Walter. 2H6. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Widow. TofS. V. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Widow, of Florence. AWEW. III. v.</li>
+
+<li>William. AYLI. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Williams. H5. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Willoughby, Lord. R2. II. i.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Winchester" id="Winchester"></a>Winchester, Bishop of.
+<ul><li>1H6. I. i;</li>
+<li>2H6. I. i.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Winchester (Gardiner), Bishop of. H8. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Witches. Mcb. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Wolsey, Cardinal. H8. I. i.</li>
+
+<li>Woodville. 1H6. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Worcester, Earl of. 1H4. I. iii.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li><a name="York" id="York"></a>York, Archbishop of. <i>See</i> <a href="#Rotherham">Rotherham</a> and <a href="#Scroop">Scroop</a>.</li>
+
+<li>York, Duchess of. R2. V. ii.</li>
+
+<li>York, Duchess of. R3. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>York, Duke of. H5. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>York, Duke of. <i>See</i> <a href="#Richard">Richard</a>.</li>
+
+<li>York, Duke of. <i>See</i> <a href="#Richard_Duke_of_York_son_of_Edward_IV">Richard, son of Edward IV</a>.</li>
+
+<li>York, Edmund Langley, Duke of. R2. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Young Marcius. Cor. V. iii.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Appendix_C" id="Appendix_C"></a>Appendix C</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Index of the Songs in Shakespeare's Plays</span></h3>
+
+
+
+
+<p>The first lines are given. In a few cases it is doubtful whether the
+verses were sung or spoken.</p>
+
+
+<ul><li>A cup of wine that's brisk and fine, 2H4. V. iii.</li>
+
+<li>And let me the canakin clink, clink; Oth. II. iii.</li>
+
+<li>And will he not come again? Hml. IV. v.</li>
+
+<li>An old hare hoar, R&amp;J. II. iv.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Be merry, be merry, my wife has all; 2H4. V. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Blow, blow, thou winter wind. AYLI. II. vii.</li>
+
+<li>By gis, and by Saint Charity, Hml. IV. v.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Come away, come away, Mcb. III. v.</li>
+
+<li>Come away, come away, death, TN. II. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Come, thou monarch of the vine, A&amp;C. II. vii.</li>
+
+<li>Come unto these yellow sands, Tmp. I. ii.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Do me right, 2H4. V. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Do nothing but eat, and make good cheer, 2H4. V. iii.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Farewell, master; farewell, farewell! Tmp. II. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Fear no more the heat o' the sun, Cym. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Fie on sinful fantasy! MWW. V. v.</li>
+
+<li>Fill the cup, and let it come; 2H4. V. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Flout 'em and scout 'em. Tmp. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Fools had ne'er less grace in a year; Lear I. iv.</li>
+
+<li>For bonny sweet Robin is all my joy. Hml. IV. v.</li>
+
+<li>Full fathom five thy father lies; Tmp. I. ii.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Get you hence, for I must go. WT. IV. iv.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Hark, hark! the lark at heaven's gate sings, Cym. II. iii.</li>
+
+<li>He that has and a little tiny wit,&mdash; Lear. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>Honour, riches, marriage-blessing, Tmp. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>How should I your true love know. Hml. IV. v.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>I am gone, sir, TN. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>If it do come to pass, AYLI. II. vi.</li>
+
+<li>In youth, when I did love, did love, Hml. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>I shall no more to sea, to sea, Tmp. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>It was a lover and his lass, AYLI. V. iii.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>Jog, jog on, the foot-path way, WT. IV. iii.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>King Stephen was and a worthy peer, Oth. II. iii.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Lawn as white as driven snow; WT. IV. iv.</li>
+
+<li>Love, love, nothing but love, still more! T&amp;C. III. i.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>No more dams I'll make for fish; Tmp, II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>No more, thou thunder-master, show. Cym. V. iv.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Oh mistress mine, where are you roaming? TN. II. iii.</li>
+
+<li>On the ground, MND. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Orpheus with his lute made trees. (Fletcher?) H8. III. i.</li>
+
+<li>Over hill, over dale, MND. II. i.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Pardon, goddess of the night, MAdo. V. iv.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Round about the cauldron go; Mcb. IV. i.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Sigh no more, ladies, sigh no more, MAdo. II. iii.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Take, O, take those lips away, Meas. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>Tell me where is fancy bred, Merch. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>The god of love, MAdo. V. ii.</li>
+
+<li>The master, the swabber, the boatswain, and I, Tmp. II. ii.</li>
+
+<li>The ousel cock so black of hue, MND. III. ii.</li>
+
+<li>The poor soul sat sighing by a sycamore tree, Oth. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>They bore him barefac'd on the bier; Hml. IV. v.</li>
+
+<li>To-morrow is Saint Valentine's day, Hml. IV. v.</li>
+
+<li>To shallow rivers, to whose falls. MWW. III. i.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Under the greenwood tree, AYLI. II. vi.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Was this fair face the cause, quoth she, AWEW. I. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Wedding is great Juno's crown. AYLI. V. iv.</li>
+
+<li>What shall he have that killed the deer? AYLI. IV. ii.</li>
+
+<li>When daffodils begin to peer, WT. IV. i.</li>
+
+<li>When daisies pied and violets blue. LLL. V. ii.</li>
+
+<li>When that I was and a little tiny boy, TN. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>Where the bee sucks, there suck I. Tmp. V. i.</li>
+
+<li>While you here do snoring lie, Tmp. II. i.</li>
+
+<li>Who doth ambition shun, AYLI. II. vi.</li>
+
+<li>Who is Silvia? What is she, TGV. IV. iii.</li>
+
+<li>Will you buy any tape, WT. IV. iv.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>You spotted snakes with double tongue, MND. II. ii.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Appendix_D" id="Appendix_D"></a>Appendix D</h2>
+
+<h3>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h3>
+
+
+
+
+<p>This Bibliography is arranged in divisions corresponding
+to the chapters of this volume. It aims to include those books
+most important for the student, and to furnish guidance for
+those interested in more specialized fields of study.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the chief general bibliographies:</p>
+
+<p>Shakespeare Bibliography, by William Jaggard, Stratford-on-Avon,
+1911. This is the most important and useful attempt
+that has yet been made toward a complete bibliography of
+works in the English language; but it is far from being exhaustive
+or accurate.</p>
+
+<p>Catalogue of the Barton Collection of the Boston Public
+Library, part i, Shakespeare's Works and Shakesperiana,
+1878-1888. Probably the best bibliography up to the date
+of its publication.</p>
+
+<p>Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakespeare-Gesellschaft. Weimar,
+1865-. The bibliographies, with indexes, issued in this annual
+provide the best bibliography of all recent Shakespearean
+literature in all languages. They include references to
+periodicals and to book reviews.</p>
+
+<p>The Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. v, chaps.
+viii-xii. Cambridge, 1910. The best recent short selected
+bibliography.</p>
+
+<p>Other useful bibliographical aids are: the article on Shakespeare
+Encycl. Brit., Eleventh ed., 1911; the British Museum
+Catalogue of Printed Books, 1897; the Catalogue of the
+Lenox Library, New York, 1880; and the Index to the
+Shakespeare Memorial Library, Birmingham, 1900.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>CHAPTER I<br /><br /><span class="smcap">Shakespeare's England and London</span></h4>
+
+<p>See bibliographies in the Cambridge Modern History,
+vol. iii, chap. x, and the Cambridge History of English Literature,
+vol. v, chap. xiv. The two most accessible and important
+works on the subject are: William Harrison's <i>Description
+of Britaine and England</i>, in Holinshed's Chronicle, 1577,
+reprinted in the Shaks. Soc. Publ. 1877-1888, in the Scott
+Library, 1899, and in Everyman's Library; and John Stow's
+<i>Survey of London</i>, 1st ed., 1598, reprinted in Everyman's
+Library. J. D. Wilson's <i>Life in Shakespeare's England</i>
+(Cambridge, 1911) is an excellent anthology drawn from
+Elizabethan publications.</p>
+
+<p>The following list includes only more important and more
+recent books.</p>
+
+<p>Aiken, L. Memoirs of the Court of James I. 2d ed.,
+1822.</p>
+
+<p>Ashton, J. Humour, Wit, and Society in the Seventeenth
+Century. 1883.</p>
+
+<p>Besant, Sir W. London. 1892.</p>
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; London in the Times of the Tudors. 1908.</p>
+
+<p>Creighton, M. The Age of Elizabeth. 1892.</p>
+
+<p>Creizenach, W. Geschichte des neueren Dramas, Halle,
+1893. See vol. iv, part i, book iii, Religios-sittliche und politisch-soziale
+Anschauungen der Theaterdichter.</p>
+
+<p>Douce, F. Illustrations of Shakespeare and of Ancient
+Manners. 1839.</p>
+
+<p>An English Garner. New ed., 1903. See vols.: Social
+England Illustrated; Tudor Tracts, 1532-1582; Stuart Tracts,
+1603-1693.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Froude, J. A. History of England from the Fall of Wolsey
+to the Defeat of the Armada. 1856-1870. Reprinted in
+Everyman's Library.</p>
+
+<p>Gildersleeve, V. Government Regulation of the Elizabethan
+Drama. New York, 1908.</p>
+
+<p>Hall, H. Society in the Elizabethan Age. 4th ed., 1901.</p>
+
+<p>Jusserand, J. J. Histoire litteraire du peuple Anglais.
+Paris, 1904. English trans., 1909. See especially vol. ii,
+book v, chap. i.</p>
+
+<p>Lee, S. Stratford-on-Avon from the Earliest Times to the
+Death of Shakespeare. 1907.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; An Account of Shakespeare's England, a survey of
+social life and conditions in the Elizabethan age (in preparation).</p>
+
+<p>Nicholls, J. The Progresses and Processions of Queen
+Elizabeth. New ed., 3 vols., 1823.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; The Progresses, Processions, and Festivities of King
+James I. 4 vols., 1828.</p>
+
+<p>Stephenson, H. T. Shakespeare's London. New York,
+1905.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; The Elizabethan People. New York, 1910.</p>
+
+<p>Strutt, J. Sports and Pastimes of the People of England.
+1801. New ed., 1903.</p>
+
+<p>Thompson, E. N. S. The Controversy between the Puritans
+and the Stage. Yale Studies in English, vol. xx. New
+York, 1903.</p>
+
+<p>Traill, H. D. Social England. 3d ed., 1904. See vols. iii
+and iv.</p>
+
+<p>Wakeman, H. O. The Church and the Puritans, 1570-1660.
+New ed., 1902.</p>
+
+<p>Wheatley, H. B. London Past and Present. 3 vols.
+1891.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="BCHAP_II" id="BCHAP_II"></a>CHAPTER II<br /><br /><span class="smcap">Biographical Facts and Traditions</span></h4>
+
+<p>Halliwell-Phillipps, J. O. Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare.
+2 vols. 7th ed., 1887. Later eds. are reprints.
+With illustrations, facsimiles, and a full collection of documents.</p>
+
+<p>Lambert, D. H. Shakespeare Documents. (Published
+originally as Cart&aelig; Shakespearean&aelig;, 1904.) A chronological
+catalogue of extant evidence.</p>
+
+<p>Lee, Sidney. A Life of William Shakespeare, London and
+New York, 1898. New and revised ed., 1909.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Shakespeare in Oral Tradition, Chap. III in Shakespeare
+and the Modern Stage, 1906.</p>
+
+<p>The preceding are the most important books, but the following
+are useful in various ways: William Shakespeare.
+K. Elze. Halle, 1876. Eng. trans, by L. D. Schmitz, 1888.
+A Chronicle History of the Life and Works of Shakspere.
+F. G. Fleay. London, 1886. Shakespeare's Marriage.
+J. W. Gray. 1905. Shakespeare's Family. C. C. Stopes.
+1901. Shakespeare's Warwickshire Contemporaries. C. C.
+Stopes. 1907. New Shakespeare Discoveries. C. W. Wallace.
+Harper's Magazine, March, 1910. Catalogues of the books,
+manuscripts, works of art, antiquities, and relics at present
+exhibited in Shakespeare's birthplace, Stratford-on-Avon,
+1910. For discussion of portraits of Shakespeare, see
+Portraits of Shakespeare, J. P. Norris, Philadelphia, 1885;
+M. R. Spielmann in Stratford-Town Shakespeare, vol. x; and
+in Encycl. Brit., 11th ed., article on Shakespeare. On a Portrait
+of Shakespeare in the Shakespeare Memorial at Stratford-on-Avon,
+L. Cust, Proc. Soc. Antiq., 1895.</p>
+
+<p>See also <a href="#SOURCES_OF_TRADITIONAL_MATERIAL">Sources of Traditional Material</a>, Appendix A, p. 225.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4 class="moretop">CHAPTER III<br /><br /><span class="smcap">Shakespeare's Reading</span></h4>
+
+<p>Shakespeare's Books: A dissertation on Shakespeare's
+reading and the immediate sources of his works. By H. R. D.
+Anders. Berlin, 1904. The best book on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>Shakespeare's Studies, T. S. Baynes, 1893.</p>
+
+<p>Shakespeare's Holinshed. Ed. W. G. Boswell-Stone. 1896.
+New ed., 1907. A reprint of the passages in Holinshed's
+Chronicles which Shakespeare used.</p>
+
+<p>Shakespeare's Plutarch. Ed. W. W. Skeat. 1875.</p>
+
+<p>The English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare. J. J. Jusserand,
+trans. E. Lee. 1890.</p>
+
+<p>The Shakespeare Classics, gen. ed. L. Gollancz (in progress,
+1907-), reprints the chief sources of the plays:
+Lodge's Rosalynde, Greene's Pandosto, Brooke's Romeo and
+Juliet, the Chronicle History of King Leir, The Taming of a
+Shrew, The Sources and Analogues of A Mid-summer-Night's
+Dream, Shakespeare's Plutarch. Most of these, with other
+valuable material, are found also in W. C. Hazlitt's revision of
+Collier's Shakespeare Library. 6 vols. 1875 (out of print).</p>
+
+<p>Many translations which Shakespeare may have known
+are included in the long series of the Tudor Translations, ed.
+W. E. Henley and Charles Whibley (mostly out of print).</p>
+
+<p>For drama see Bibliography, chap. <a href="#BCHAP_VI">vi</a>; for contemporary literature
+see bibliography in Cambridge History of English Literature;
+or any short manual, as Saintsbury's Elizabethan
+Literature, or Seccombe and Allen's Age of Shakespeare.
+2 vols.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>CHAPTER IV<br /><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Chronology and Development</span></h4>
+
+<p>The first thorough attempt to determine the chronology of
+Shakespeare's plays was made in Malone's "Attempt to
+ascertain the order in which the plays attributed to Shakespeare
+were written," published in Steevens's edition of 1778.
+His final conclusions on the subject are to be found in the preliminary
+volumes of the 1821 Variorum. Since then, discussions
+of chronology and development have appeared in almost every
+edition of Shakespeare's Works and in many volumes discussing
+his life and art. (See Bibliography for Chaps. <a href="#BCHAP_II">II</a> and <a href="#BCHAP_VIII">VIII</a>.)
+The following are the most important contributions to the
+general question of the chronology.</p>
+
+<p>Hertzberg, W. G. Preface to Cymbeline in Ulrici's ed. of
+Schlegel and Tieck's trans. of Shakespeare, 1871.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Metrisches, grammatisches, chronologisches zu Shakespeares
+Dramen. Jahrbuch, xiii, 1878.</p>
+
+<p>Fleay, F. G. Shakspere Manual, 1878.</p>
+
+<p>New Shakspere Society. Publications for 1874 contain
+Fleay's tests as originally proposed with discussions by Furnivall,
+Ingram, et al. Publications for 1877-9 contain F. S.
+Pulling's essay on The Speech-ending test, p. 457.</p>
+
+<p>Ingram, J. K. On the weak endings of Shakspere with
+some account of the verse-tests in general. N. S. S. Publ. 1874.</p>
+
+<p>K&ouml;nig, G. Der Vers in Shaksperes Dramen. Quellen
+und Forschungen vol. 61, 1888. The fullest presentation of
+numerical results for various verse tests.</p>
+
+<p>Furnivall, F. J. Preface to the Leopold Shakespeare, 1876.</p>
+
+<p>Hales, J. W. The Succession of Shakespeare's plays. 1874.</p>
+
+<p>Stokes, H. P. Attempt to determine the chronological
+order of Shakespeare's plays, 1878.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>CHAPTER V<br /><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">The Elizabethan Drama</span></h4>
+
+<p>Full bibliographies of both plays and critical works are to
+be found in Schelling's Elizabethan Drama and in the Cambridge
+History of English Literature, vols. v and vi.</p>
+
+
+<h5>1. EDITIONS OF PLAYS</h5>
+
+<p>Convenient collections, often with valuable introductions
+and notes, are: Dodsley's Old English Plays, ed. W. C. Hazlitt,
+15 vols., 1874-1876; Manly's Pre-Shaksperean Drama,
+2 vols., Boston; Neilson's Chief Elizabethan Dramatists,
+Boston, 1911 (30 plays in one volume); the Mermaid Series
+of the Old Dramatists (4 or 5 plays by one author in each
+vol.); the Belles Lettres Edition (with excellent bibliographies),
+Boston; Masterpieces of the English Drama, New York;
+Temple Dramatists. Valuable reprints of old plays and
+documents are found in the following series now in progress:
+The Tudor Facsimile Texts, ed. J. S. Farmer, 43 vols., 1907;
+Materialien zur Kunde des &auml;lteren englischen Dramas, ed.
+W. Bang, Louvain, 1902; Publications of the Malone Society,
+1906.</p>
+
+<p>Collected editions of the chief dramatists include those of
+Greene, Peele, Webster, Ford, Beaumont and Fletcher, and
+Shirley, ed. by Alexander Dyce; of Middleton, Marston,
+Marlowe, and Webster, by A. H. Bullen, and the more recent
+editions from the Clarendon Press,&mdash;Greene, ed. J. Churton
+Collins; Kyd, by F. S. Boas; Lyly, by W. Bond; Nash, by
+McKerrow; Marlowe, by Tucker Brooke. Massinger and
+Jonson exist only in the early nineteenth-century editions of
+Gifford. There are also recent editions of Beaumont and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span>
+Fletcher by A. R. Waller, Cambridge, and by A. H. Bullen
+<i>et al.</i> (in progress), and an edition of Chapman by T. Parrott.</p>
+
+<h5>2. CRITICAL AND HISTORICAL</h5>
+
+<p>Die Geschichte des neueren Dramas. W. Creizenach (in
+progress). Halle, 1893-. This is the standard history of
+the modern drama, vol. iv dealing in a masterly fashion with
+the Shakespearean period. There is no English translation.</p>
+
+<p>History of English Dramatic Literature to the Death of
+Queen Anne. A. W. Ward. 2d ed. 3 vols. 1899.</p>
+
+<p>Elizabethan Drama. F. E. Schelling. 2 vols. Boston,
+1902. This contains valuable bibliographies and a finding
+list for the plays.</p>
+
+<p>The Medi&aelig;val Stage. E. K. Chambers. 2 vols. Oxford,
+1903. Authoritative for the pre-Elizabethan drama, with
+valuable bibliography and appendices.</p>
+
+<p>A Bibliographical Chronicle of the English Drama. F. G.
+Fleay. 1559-1642. A work of great value to scholars, but
+not of much service to the general reader.</p>
+
+<p>Other works less comprehensive in scope, but dealing with
+special aspects or divisions of the drama, are: Tragedy, A. H.
+Thorndike, Boston, 1908; Shakespeare and his Predecessors,
+F. S. Boas, 1896; Tudor Drama, C. F. Tucker Brooke,
+Boston, 1912.</p>
+
+<p>Special treatises which have also been drawn upon for this
+chapter are: F. E. Schelling's English Chronicle Play, New
+York, 1902; A. H. Thorndike's Influence of Beaumont and
+Fletcher on Shakspere, Lemcke and Buechner, N. Y., 1901; and
+Hamlet and the Revenge Plays, Publ. Mod. Lang. Assn., 1902;
+E. E. Stoll's John Webster, 1905; F. H. Ristine's English
+Tragi-Comedy, 1910; Reyher's Les Masques Anglais, Paris,
+1909; W. W. Greg's Pastoral Poetry and Pastoral Drama, 1906.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="BCHAP_VI" id="BCHAP_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI<br /><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">The Elizabethan Theater</span></h4>
+
+<p>None of the books here listed gives a comprehensive account
+of the theater. Greg's admirable edition of Henslowe's
+Diary, Fleay's researches, and Murray's supplements to them
+are all valuable for students. The account of the stage and
+the method of performance given in this chapter are based
+in part on Albright. During the last ten years there has
+been much controversy on this subject; and those interested
+should consult the bibliographies in the Shakespeare Jahrbuch
+under Albright, Brodmeier, Archer, Chambers, Corbin, Lawrence,
+Reynolds, Wegener. For contemporary documents,
+see the Bibliography to chap, x, vol. vi, of the Cambridge
+History of English Literature.</p>
+
+<p>Albright, V. E. The Shakespearian Stage. New York,
+1909.</p>
+
+<p>Archer, W. The Elizabethan Stage. Quarterly Review,
+April, 1908.</p>
+
+<p>Brodmeier, C. Die Shakespeare-B&uuml;hne nach der alten
+B&uuml;hnenanweisungen. Weimar, 1904.</p>
+
+<p>Chambers, E. K. The Stage of the Globe. Stratford
+Ed. Shakespeare's Works, vol. x.</p>
+
+<p>Collier, J. P. Memoirs of the Principal Actors in the Plays
+of Shakespeare. Shaks. Soc., 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Feuillerat, A. Documents relating to the Office of the
+Revels in the time of Queen Elizabeth. Louvain, 1908.</p>
+
+<p>Fleay, F. G. A Chronicle History of the London Stage.
+1890.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; A Biographical Chronicle of the English Drama, 1559-1642.
+2 vols., 1891.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Gildersleeve, V. Government Regulation of the Elizabethan
+Theater. New York, 1908.</p>
+
+<p>Greg, W. W., ed. Henslowe's Diary, 2 parts. London,
+1907-1908.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Henslowe Papers. 1907.</p>
+
+<p>Lawrence, W. J. The Elizabethan Playhouse and other
+studies. Stratford. 1912.</p>
+
+<p>Mantzius, R. A History of Theatrical Art in Ancient and
+Modern Times. 1904. Cf. vol. iii.</p>
+
+<p>Murray, J. T. English Dramatic Companies, 1558-1642.
+1910.</p>
+
+<p>Ordish, T. F. Early London Theaters. 1894.</p>
+
+<p>Rendle, W. Old Southwark and its People. 1878.</p>
+
+<p>Reynolds, G. F. Some Principles of Elizabethan Staging.
+Reprinted from Modern Philology. Chicago, 1905.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; What we know of the Elizabethan Stage, Modern
+Philology, July, 1911. With bibliography of recent discussions.</p>
+
+<p>Wallace, C. W. The Children of the Chapel at Blackfriars,
+1597-1603. Univ. of Nebraska, 1908.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Evolution of the English drama up to Shakespeare:
+with a history of the first Blackfriars theatre. Stechert.
+1912.</p>
+
+<p>These two volumes contain some newly discovered material,
+but their discussions of theatrical history are not valuable.</p>
+
+<p>Wegener, R. Die B&uuml;hneneinrichtung des Shakespeareschen
+Theaters nach der zeitgen&ouml;ssischen Dramen. Halle, 1907.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>CHAPTER VII<br /><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">History of the Text</span></h4>
+
+
+<h5>1. COMPLETE EDITIONS</h5>
+
+<p class="moretop"><i>In one volume.</i></p>
+
+<p>The Globe Edition, ed. W. G. Clark and W. Aldis Wright
+1864.</p>
+
+<p>The 'Oxford' Edition, ed. W. J. Craig. Oxford, 1904.</p>
+
+<p>The 'Cambridge Poets' Edition, ed. with introductions to
+each play, ed. W. A. Neilson. Boston, 1906 (the text used in
+the Tudor Shakespeare).</p>
+
+<p class="moretop"><i>Annotated Library Editions.</i></p>
+
+<p>The Cambridge Shakespeare, ed. W. Aldis Wright. 9 vols.
+1863-1866. 2d ed., 1891-1893. The text known as the Cambridge
+text is very near to that of the Globe ed., and these
+have been generally used in recent editions.</p>
+
+<p>A new Variorum Edition, ed. H. Howard Furness and
+H. H. Furness, Jr. (in progress). Philadelphia, 1871. This
+ed. prints (latterly) the First Folio text with exhaustive
+variants and annotations. The appendices supply much
+illustrative matter. The following plays have appeared:
+Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth (2d ed.), Hamlet (2 vols.),
+Lear, Othello, Merchant of Venice, As You Like It, The
+Tempest, A Midsummer-Night's Dream, A Winter's Tale,
+Much Ado About Nothing, Twelfth Night, Love's Labour's
+Lost, Antony and Cleopatra, Richard III, Julius C&aelig;sar.</p>
+
+<p>The Arden Shakespeare, general ed. W. J. Craig, in progress,
+1899. Publ. in the U. S. without special title by Bobbs-Merrill
+Co., Indianapolis.</p>
+
+<p>The Eversley Edition, ed. by C. H. Herford. 10 vols., 1901-1907.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Among other recent editions are the Rolfe ed., 40 vols.,
+1871, revised 1896; Temple, ed. I. Gollancz, 40 vols., 1894,
+1895; First Folio, ed. C. Porter and H. Clarke (following and
+defending the text of the First Folio). New York, 1903;
+Caxton, general ed. S. Lee, 1910.</p>
+
+<p class="moretop"><i>Historical Editions.</i></p>
+
+<p>The most valuable is the Third Variorum, Boswell and
+Malone, 21 vols., 1821. The other principal editions are discussed
+in this volume, and include: Rowe, 1709, 1714; Pope,
+1723-1725; Theobald, 1733; Hanmer, 1744; Warburton,
+1747; Johnson, 1765; Steevens (20 plays), 1766; Capell,
+1768; Steevens (and Johnson), 1773; Malone, 1790; Reed
+(Steevens and Johnson), 1st Variorum, 1803; 2d Variorum,
+1813; Knight, 1838-1842, second ed., 1842-1844; Hudson,
+1851-1856; Delius, 1854-1861; Dyce, 1857, second ed., 1864-1867;
+White, 1857-1860, second ed., 1859-1865.</p>
+
+
+<h5>2. FACSIMILE REPRINTS</h5>
+
+<p>For a discussion of conditions of publication of early editions,
+see A. W. Pollard's Shakespeare's Folios and Quartos.
+1909.</p>
+
+<p>The First Folio, With introd. by Sidney Lee. Oxford,
+1902.</p>
+
+<p>The First, Second, Third, and Fourth Folios. Methuen,
+1904-1910.</p>
+
+<p>The First Folio, reprint, L. Booth, 1869.</p>
+
+<p>The First Folio, in reduced facsimile, J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps,
+1876. Very small type.</p>
+
+<p>Quarto Facsimiles. E. W. Ashbee. 48 vols. 1862-1871.</p>
+
+<p>Quarto Facsimiles reproduced by photographic process,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>
+J. W. Griggs, under the superintendence of F. J. Furnivall.
+43 vols. 1883-1889.</p>
+
+<p>Shakespeare's Poems and Pericles, with introduction by
+Sidney Lee. 5 vols. Oxford, 1905.</p>
+
+
+<h5>3. GLOSSARIES, GRAMMARS, ETC.</h5>
+
+<p>The standard concordance is Bartlett's <i>New and Complete
+Concordance</i>, 1894. The standard dictionary and one of the
+great monuments of Shakespeare scholarship is Alexander
+Schmidt's <i>Shakespeare-Lexikon</i>. 2 vols. Berlin, 1894, 1895.
+3d ed., 1902. This contains valuable appendices on syntax.
+The most recent brief glossary is C. T. Onion's <i>Shakespeare
+Glossary</i>. Oxford, 1911. It makes partial use of the valuable
+material in the New English Dictionary. The best grammar
+in English, though now somewhat out of date, is F. A. Abbott's
+<i>Shakespearian Grammar</i>, 1869, often reprinted.</p>
+
+<p>The following are also of value:</p>
+
+<p>Cunliffe, R. J. A New Shakespearean Dictionary. 1910.</p>
+
+<p>Dyce, A. A Glossary to the Works of Shakespeare. 1867.
+Revised by H. Littledale, 1902.</p>
+
+<p>Ellis, A. J. On Early English Pronunciation, with especial
+reference to Shakspere and Chaucer. 5 parts. E. E. T. S.,
+1869-1889.</p>
+
+<p>Franz, W. Shakespeare-Grammatik. 2 parts. Halle,
+1898-1900. 2d ed., Heidelberg, 1905. No English translation.</p>
+
+<p>Vietor, W. A Shakespeare Phonology, Marburg and
+London, 1906.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><a name="BCHAP_VIII" id="BCHAP_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII<br /><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Questions of Authenticity</span></h4>
+
+
+<h5>1. THE DOUBTFUL PLAYS</h5>
+
+<p>The Shakespeare Apocrypha. Ed. C. F. T. Brooke. Oxford,
+1908. This contains texts of fourteen of the plays discussed
+in this chapter.</p>
+
+<p>Pseudo-Shakespearean Plays. Ed. K. Warnke and L. Proescholdt.
+5 vols. Halle, 1883, 1888. Contains only 5 plays.</p>
+
+<p>The Two Noble Kinsmen. Ed. H. Littledale. New Shaks.
+Soc. Publ., 1876.</p>
+
+<p>Doubtful Plays of William Shakespeare. Ed. M. Moltke.
+Leipsig, 1869. Contains 6 plays.</p>
+
+<p>A good bibliography for the critical matter on these plays
+is to be found in the Cambridge History of English Literature,
+vol. v, pp. 442-444. As to Cardenio, connected with
+Double Falsehood, see Bradford, G., Jr., Mod. Lang. Notes,
+February, 1910.</p>
+
+
+<h5>2. FORGERIES</h5>
+
+<p>Ingleby, C. M. The Shakespeare Fabrications. 1859. A
+complete review of the Collier forgeries, with bibliography.</p>
+
+<p>Ireland, W. H. Confessions containing the particulars of
+his fabrication of the Shakespeare manuscripts. 1808.</p>
+
+<p>Malone, E. Inquiry into the Authenticity (of the Ireland
+Ms.). 1796.</p>
+
+<p>Law, E. Some Supposed Shakespeare Forgeries. 1911.</p>
+
+<p>Wheatley, H. B. Notes on the life of John Payne Collier.
+1884. Gives a list and account of the spurious documents.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h5>3. THE BACON CONTROVERSY</h5>
+
+<p>Allen, C. Notes on the Bacon-Shakespeare question.
+Boston, 1900. An account of Shakespeare's legal phrases.</p>
+
+<p>Bacon, Delia. The Philosophy of the Plays of Shakespeare
+Unfolded. 1857.</p>
+
+<p>Bacon, Francis. Life and Letters. Ed. J. Spedding. 7
+vols. 1861-1872.</p>
+
+<p>Beeching, H. C. William Shakespeare: Player, Play maker
+and Poet. A reply to Mr. George Greenwood. 1908.</p>
+
+<p>Bompas, G. C. The Problem of Shakespeare's Plays.
+1902.</p>
+
+<p>Booth, W. S. Some Acrostic Signatures of Francis Bacon.
+Boston, 1909.</p>
+
+<p>Donnelly, I. The Great Cryptogram. 2 vols. Chicago,
+1887.</p>
+
+<p>Fiske, John. Forty Years of Bacon-Shakespeare Folly.
+Atlantic Monthly, 1897; reprinted in Century of Science,
+1899.</p>
+
+<p>Gallup, E. W. The Bi-literal Cypher of Francis Bacon.</p>
+
+<p>Greenwood, G. G. The Shakespeare Problem restated.
+Lane, 1908.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; In re Shakespeare Beeching <i>v.</i> Greenwood. Lane,
+1909.</p>
+
+<p>Lang, A. Shakespeare, Bacon, and the Great Unknown.
+1912.</p>
+
+<p>Pott, Mrs. H. Did Francis Bacon write Shakespeare?
+Chicago, 1891.</p>
+
+<p>Robertson, J. M. The Baconian heresy, 1913.</p>
+
+<p>Wyman, W. H. Bibliography of the Shakespeare-Baconian
+controversy. Cincinnati, 1884. Continued in Shakespeariana.
+Philadelphia.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>CHAPTER IX<br /><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Shakespeare since 1616</span></h4>
+
+
+<h5>1. THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES</h5>
+
+<p>The Shakespeare Allusion Books. Ed. J. Munro. 2 vols.
+This reprints references to Shakespeare before 1700.</p>
+
+<p>Eighteenth Century Essays on Shakespeare. Ed. D.
+Nichol Smith. Glasgow. Contains Rowe's, Pope's, Theobald's,
+Johnson's prefaces, Farmer's essay on Shakespeare's
+learning, Morgann's essay on Falstaff, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Shakespearian Wars. T. R. Lounsbury. i. Shakespeare
+as a Dramatic Artist, ii. Shakespeare and Voltaire. 2 vols.
+Yale Univ., 1901.</p>
+
+<p>First Editors of Shakespeare or The Text of Shakespeare
+(Pope and Theobald). T. R. Lounsbury. 1906.</p>
+
+<p>Shakespeare en France sous l'ancien r&eacute;gime. J. J. Jusserand.
+Paris. 1898. Eng. trans. London, 1899.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable matter in the following volumes from the
+Clarendon Press bears on the early criticism of Shakespeare:
+Elizabethan Critical Essays, ed. Gregory Smith, 2 vols.;
+Seventeenth Century Critical Essays, ed. J. E. Spingarn,
+3 vols.; Dryden's Essays, ed. W. P. Ker, 2 vols.</p>
+
+
+<h5>2. THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES</h5>
+
+<p>Baker, G. P. The Development of Shakespeare as a Dramatist.
+Macmillan, 1907.</p>
+
+<p>Boas, F. S. Shakespeare and his Predecessors. 1895.</p>
+
+<p>Bradley, A. C. Shakespearean Tragedy. Macmillan,
+1904.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Oxford Lectures on Poetry. Macmillan, 1909.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Brandes, G. William Shakespeare. Copenhagen, 1896.
+Eng. trans. 2 vols., 1898.</p>
+
+<p>Coleridge, S. T. Notes and Lectures on Shakespeare, etc.
+2 vols. 1849. Reprinted in Everyman's Library, the
+New Universal Library, and Bohn's Library.</p>
+
+<p>Collins, J. C. Studies in Shakespeare. 1904.</p>
+
+<p>Dowden, E. Shakspeare: His Mind and Art. 1874.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; A Shakspere Primer. 1877.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Introduction to Shakespeare. 1893.</p>
+
+<p>Elze, K. William Shakespeare. Halle, 1876. Eng. trans.,
+1888.</p>
+
+<p>Goethe. Wilhelm Meister, book IV, chaps. 13-16, contains
+an analysis of Hamlet.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Wahrheit und Dichtung, and Eckermann's Reports
+of Goethe's conversations contain references. An essay
+"Shakespeare und kein Ende" appears in his collected
+works.</p>
+
+<p>Hazlitt, W. Characters of Shakespeare's plays, 1817. Reprinted
+in Everyman's Library, New Universal Library,
+Bohn's Library.</p>
+
+<p>Heine, Heinrich. Shakespeare's Maidens and Women, in
+Works. Eng. trans. Heinemann, 1851.</p>
+
+<p>Jameson, Mrs. Shakespeare's Heroines. Temple Classics.</p>
+
+<p>Kreyssig, F. S. T. Vorlesungen &uuml;ber Shakespeare. 2 vols.
+3d ed. Berlin, 1876.</p>
+
+<p>Lamb, Charles. On Some of the Old Actors (Essays of
+Elia). Reprinted in Everyman's Library.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; On the Tragedies of Shakespeare (Misc. essays). Reprinted
+in Temple Classics.</p>
+
+<p>Lee, Sidney. Shakespeare and the Modern Stage. 1906.</p>
+
+<p>Lessing, G. E. Laoko&ouml;n, and Dramatic Notes. Eng. trans.,
+Bohn's Library.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>MacCallum, M. W. Shakespeare's Roman Plays and their
+Background. 1910.</p>
+
+<p>Martin, Lady (Helen Faucit). On Some of Shakespeare's
+Female Characters. 1885.</p>
+
+<p>Matthews, Brander. Shakespeare as a Playwright. In
+preparation.</p>
+
+<p>Moulton, R. G. Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist. Oxford,
+1885.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; The Moral System of Shakespeare. 1903.</p>
+
+<p>Raleigh, W. Shakespeare (English Men of Letters). 1907.</p>
+
+<p>Schlegel, A. W. von. Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature.
+Reprinted in Bohn's Library.</p>
+
+<p>Swinburne, A. C. A Study of Shakespeare. 1880.</p>
+
+<p>Thorndike, A. H. The Influence of Beaumont and Fletcher
+on Shakespeare. Lemcke and Buechner, N. Y., 1901.</p>
+
+<p>Wendell, B. William Shakspere. 1894.</p>
+
+<p>White, R. G. Studies in Shakespeare. 9th ed. 1896.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Shakespeare's Scholar. 1854.</p>
+
+<p>Important critical and interpretative aids will also be
+found in the bibliographies for earlier chapters, as in the complete
+editions of Shakespeare's works, in histories of literature
+and the drama, or in special studies, as Anders's
+Shakespeare's Books, and Madden's Diary of Master William
+Silence.</p>
+
+<p>For a handy bibliography of studies of botany, folk-lore, law,
+medicine, the supernatural in Shakespeare, etc., see the Cambridge
+History of English Literature, vol. v, pp. 450, 451, to
+which may be added Freytag, G., Technique of the Drama,
+Eng. trans. 1891; Matthew, B., A Study of the Drama, 1910;
+Arnold, M. E., Soliloquies of Shakespeare, New York, 1911;
+Fansler, H. E., Evolution of Technic in Elizabethan Tragedy,
+1914; Archer, W., Play Making, 1912.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the New Variorum Furness gives a summary of the interpretation
+and criticism for each play; but he is often quite
+neglectful of recent tendencies in criticism.</p>
+
+
+<h5>3. STAGE HISTORY</h5>
+
+<p>The standard work for the English stage is <i>Some Account
+of the English Stage, from the Restoration in 1660 to 1830</i>, by
+J. Genest, 10 vols., Bath, 1832. There is no authoritative
+history of the stage since 1832. Information in regard to the
+Shakespearean plays may be had in the lives of the actors,
+as Colley Cibber's Apology; Davies's Memoirs of Garrick,
+1790; Murphy's Life of Garrick, 1801; Boaden's Memoirs of
+Mrs. Siddons, 1827, and Memoirs of Kemble, 1825; Cumberland's
+Memoir, 1806; Boaden's Memoirs of Mrs. Inchbald;
+Private Correspondence of David Garrick, 1831-1832;
+Cooke's Memoirs of Charles Macklin, 1808; Macready's
+Reminiscences, 1878; Archer's Life of Macready, 1890;
+Molloy's Life of Edmund Kean, 1888; Winter's Life and Art
+of Edwin Booth, 1893; Brereton's Life of Sir Henry Irving,
+London, 1908.</p>
+
+<p>Baker, H. B. The London Stage, 1576-1903. 1904.</p>
+
+<p>Brown, J. S. A History of the New York Stage, 1732-1901.
+3 vols. New York, 1903.</p>
+
+<p>Doran, J. Their Majesties' Servants. 1888. Ed. R. W.
+Lowe.</p>
+
+<p>Dunlap, W. A History of the American Theater. 1832.</p>
+
+<p>Fitzgerald, P. A New History of the English Stage. 2
+vols. London, 1882.</p>
+
+<p>Hazlitt, W. A View of the English Stage. 1818.</p>
+
+<p>Home, R. H. New Spirit of the Age. 1884.</p>
+
+<p>Lowe, R. W. Thomas Betterton, New York, 1891.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Lowe, R. W. Bibliographical Account of English Dramatic
+Literature. 1888.</p>
+
+<p>Phelps, W. M., and Forbes Robertson, J. Life and Works
+of Samuel Phelps. London, 1886.</p>
+
+<p>Seilhamer, G. O. A History of the American Theater,
+3 vols. Philadelphia, 1891.</p>
+
+
+<h5>4. SHAKESPEARE ON THE CONTINENT</h5>
+
+<p>A good selected bibliography is to be found in the Cambridge
+History of English Literature, vol. v, pp. 456-472,
+and a full bibliography annually in the Shakespeare Jahrbuch.
+Only a few of the most important titles are given here, including
+some already noted.</p>
+
+<p>B&ouml;htling, A. R. A. Goethe und Shakespeare. Leipzig,
+1909.</p>
+
+<p>Burckhardt, C. A. H. Das Repertoire des Weimarischen
+Theaters unter Goethes Leitung. Hamburg, 1901.</p>
+
+<p>Chateaubriand, F. R. de. Shakespeare. 1801.</p>
+
+<p>Cohn, A. Shakespeare in Germany in the Sixteenth and
+Seventeenth Centuries. Berlin, 1865.</p>
+
+<p>Creizenach, W. Die Schauspiele der englischen Kom&ouml;dianten.
+Stuttgart, 1889.</p>
+
+<p>Delius, N. S&auml;mmtliche Werke, Kritische Ausgabe. 1854-1861.
+5th ed., 1882.</p>
+
+<p>Elze, K. William Shakespeare. Halle, 1876.</p>
+
+<p>Gen&eacute;e, R. Geschichte der Shakespeareschen Dramen in
+Deutschland. Leipzig, 1870.</p>
+
+<p>Guizot, F. De Shakespeare et de la Po&eacute;sie dramatique.
+Paris, 1822.</p>
+
+<p>Heine, H. Shakespeares M&auml;dchen und Frauen, in s&auml;mmtliche
+Werke. vol. v, 1839. Eng. trans., 1895.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Hugo, F. V. &#338;uvres compl&egrave;tes de Shakespeare, traduites.
+18 vols. Paris, 1856-1867.</p>
+
+<p>Hugo, Victor. Cromwell, Preface. Paris, 1827.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; William Shakespeare. Paris, 1864.</p>
+
+<p>Jusserand, J. J. Shakespeare en France sous l'ancien
+r&eacute;gime. Paris, 1898. Eng. trans. London, 1899.</p>
+
+<p>Koeppel, E. Studien &uuml;ber Shakespeare's Wirkung auf
+zeitgen&ouml;ssische Dramatiker. Louvain, 1905.</p>
+
+<p>Kreyssig, F. Vorlesungen &uuml;ber Shakespeare und seine
+Werke. 1858. 3d ed., 1877.</p>
+
+<p>Lee, Sidney. Shakespeare in France. In Shakespeare and
+the Modern Stage.</p>
+
+<p>Lessing, G. E. Hamburgische Dramaturgie. Nos. 12, 15,
+73. 1767, 1768.</p>
+
+<p>Lounsbury, T. R. Shakespeare and Voltaire. 1902.</p>
+
+<p>M&eacute;zi&egrave;res, A. Shakespeare, ses &#339;uvres et ses critiques.
+Paris, 1860.</p>
+
+<p>Renan, E. Caliban, Suite de la Temp&ecirc;te. Paris, 1878.</p>
+
+<p>Schlegel, A. W. Ueber dramatische Kunst und Literatur.
+Heidelberg, 1809-1811.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Shakespeare's Dramatische Werke, &uuml;bersetzt. 1797-1810.
+Neue Ausgabe, erg&auml;nzt und erl&auml;utert von L. Tieck.
+9 vols. 1825, 1880-1883. Revised by Ulrici, 1867-1871, by
+Grandl, 1897-1899, by H. Conrad, 1905.</p>
+
+<p>Stendhal (Henri Bergh) Racine et Shakespeare. Paris,
+1823.</p>
+
+<p>Taine, H. Histoire de la litterature anglaise. Paris, 1844.
+Eng. trans., rev. ed., 1873.</p>
+
+<p>Ten Brink, B. Shakespeare. Strassburg, 1893.</p>
+
+<p>Tolstoi, L. N. Shakespeare. 1906.</p>
+
+<p>Ward, A. W. History of English Dramatic Literature.
+vol. i, pp. 534 ff.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Index" id="Index"></a>Index</h2>
+
+
+
+
+
+<ul><li><i>Adversaria</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>&AElig;sop's Fables</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>&AElig;thiopica</i> of Heliodorus, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Albright, V. E., <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Alchemist</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alden, R. M., <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alleyn, Edward, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>All for Love</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>All's Well that Ends Well</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Amores</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Amphitruo</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Andria</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Antonio's Revenge</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Antony and Cleopatra</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Apollonius of Tyre</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Apologie for Actors</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Apolonius and Silla</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Appius and Virginia</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Arcadia</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Archbishop of Canterbury, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Arden of Feversham</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ariosto, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aristophanes, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Arraignment of Paris</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aspley, William, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>As You Like It</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aubrey, John, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Autographs, facsimiles of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Bacon, Delia, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bacon, Francis, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163-166</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bacon, Matthew, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+<li>"Baconians," <a href="#Page_163">163-166</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bandello, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bankside, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Barnay, L., <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Barnes, Barnabe, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Barons' Wars</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Barrie, J. M., <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Bartholomew Fair</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Batman upon Bartholome</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Beaumont_and_Fletcher" id="Beaumont_and_Fletcher"></a>Beaumont and Fletcher, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beaumont, Francis, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.
+<ul><li><i>See</i> <a href="#Beaumont_and_Fletcher">Beaumont and Fletcher</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Belleforest, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beeston, Christopher, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Betterton, Thomas, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Bevis of Hampton</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bible, the, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bidford, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Bi-Literal Cypher of Francis Bacon</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Biron</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Birth of Merlin</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blackfriars,
+<ul><li>property in, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
+<li>theater, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Blount, Edward, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boccaccio, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Booth, Barton, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Booth, Edwin, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Booth, Junius Brutus, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boswell, J., <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bowdler, T., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bradley, A. C., <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Broken Heart</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brome, R., <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>Brooke, Arthur, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Buckinghamshire, Duke of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Burbage, Cuthbert, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Burbage, James, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Burbage, Richard, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Bussy d'Ambois</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Byron, Lord, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>C&aelig;sar, Julius <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Cambridge Shakespeare</i>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Cambyses</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Capell, Edward, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Cardenio</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cartwright, W., <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Catiline</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Caxton, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Chambers' Journal</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chandos portrait, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Changeling</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chapman, George, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chaucer, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chettle, Henry, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cibber, Colley, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cibber, Mrs., <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cicero, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cinthio, Giraldi, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>City Madam</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clark, W. G., <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clive, Mrs., <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cockpit theater, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coleridge, S. T., <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Colin Clout</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Collier, J. P., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Collins, Francis, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Combe, John, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Combe, William, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Comedy of Errors</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Condell Henry, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Confessio Amantis</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Congreve, William, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Constable, Henry, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Contention of York and Lancaster</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Coriolanus</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Corneille, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Cornelia</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Covent Garden theater, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Craig, W. J., <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Curtain theater, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cushman, Charlotte, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Cymbeline</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Daniel, Samuel, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+
+<li>D'Avenant, Sir William, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Davies, Rev. R., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Decameron</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dekker, T., <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>De la Litterature</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Delius, N., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dennis, John, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>De proprietatibus rerum</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li>De Quincey, T., <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Derby's men, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Devrients, the, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>De Witt drawing of Swan theater, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Diana</i> of Montemayor, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Diderot, D., <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Discovery of Guiana</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Distichs of Cato</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Donnelly, I., <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Double Falsehood</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dowdall, John, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dowden, E., <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Downes, John, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Downfall and Death of Huntington</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drake, Sir F., <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drayton, Michael, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Droeshout, Martin, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Footnote_2_2">38n</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span>Drummond, W., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drury Lane theater, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dryden, John, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ducis, J. F., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Dunciad</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dyce, A., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dyke, John, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Earl of Leicester's men, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Earl of Worcester's men, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Eden's <i>History of Travayle</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Edward III</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Edwards, Richard, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Edwards, T., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ellesmere, Lord, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ely Palace portrait, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Footnote_2_2">38n</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>English Dramatic Poets</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>English Traveller</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Epicene</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Essay of Dramatic Poesie</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Essex, Earl of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Euphues</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Euripides, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Evans, Sir Hugh, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Everyman in His Humour</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Fables in Shakespeare, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fabyan's <i>Chronicles</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Faerie Queen</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fair Em</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fair Quarrel</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Faithful Shepherdess</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Fasti</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Faucit, Helen, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Field, Richard, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="First_Folio" id="First_Folio"></a>First Folio, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;
+<ul><li>described, <a href="#Page_141">141-143</a>;</li>
+<li>facsimile of title-page, <a href="#Facsim">143</a>;</li>
+<li>introductory matter in, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#The_Introductory_Matter_in_the_First_Folio">Appendix A</a></span>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Fisher Quarto, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">141n</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fleay, F. G., <a href="#Footnote_5_5">72n</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Fletcher_John" id="Fletcher_John"></a>Fletcher, John, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;
+<ul><li>collaboration on <i>Two Noble Kinsman</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+<li><i>See</i> <a href="#Beaumont_and_Fletcher">Beaumont and Fletcher</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Fletcher, Lawrence, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Florio" id="Florio"></a>Florio, John, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.
+<ul><li><i>See</i> <a href="#Montaigne">Montaigne</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Flower, Mrs. Charles, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Folios, Second, Third, Fourth, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ford, John, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forman, Dr. Simon, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forrest, Edwin, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fortune theater, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;
+<ul><li>diagram of, <a href="#PLAN">123</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Foxe, John, <i>Book of Martyrs</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fuller, Thomas, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fulman, Rev. W., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Furness, H. H., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Galileo, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gallup, Mrs., <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Gammer Gurton's Needle</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Garrick Club bust, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Garrick, David, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gascoigne, George, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gervinus, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Gesta Romanorum</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Getley, Walter, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gildon, C., <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Goethe, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Globe Shakespeare</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Globe theater, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Glover, J., <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Golding, Arthur, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Gorboduc</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gottsched, J. C., <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>Gower, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grafton's <i>Chronicles</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Great Cryptogram</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Greene" id="Greene"></a>Greene, Robert, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;
+<ul><li>attack on S., <a href="#Page_20">20-23</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Greene's Funeralls</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Greene's <i>Groatsworth of Wit</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20-22</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Greg, W. W., <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gresham, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grey, Z., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Guarini, G. B., <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Guizot, F., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Guy of Warwick</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Hakluyt, Richard, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hall, John, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hall, Susanna, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hall, William, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Halliwell-Phillipps, J. O., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hall's <i>Union of Lancaster and York</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Hamburgische Dramaturgie</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Hamlet</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Hamlet</i>, the lost, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hanmer, Sir T., <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harness, W., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harsnett's <i>Popish Impostures</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hart, J. C., <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hazlitt, William, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Heath, B., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Hecatommithi</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Heliodorus, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Heminge, John, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Henderson, J., <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>1 Henry IV</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>2 Henry IV</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Henry V</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>1 Henry VI</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>2 Henry VI</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>3 Henry VI</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Henry VIII</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Henry VIII, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Henryson, Robert, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Henslowe, P., <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Herder, J. G., <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Hero and Leander</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Heyes Quarto, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">141n</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Heywood, Thomas, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;
+<ul><li>quoted in publishing, <a href="#Page_132">132-134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li><i>History of English Dramatic Poetry</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Hoffman</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hollar, W., <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hollinshed's <i>Chronicles</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Homer, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Honest Whore</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hooker, Richard, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hope theater, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Horace, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Horestes</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hugo, F. V., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hugo, Victor, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hunsdon's men, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Huon of Bordeaux</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Ibsen, H., <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>If you know not me you know nobodie</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ingram, J. K., <a href="#Footnote_5_5">72n</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ireland, W. H., <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Irving, Sir Henry, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>Jacob, E., <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jaggard, Isaac, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jaggard, William, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+<li>James I, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>James IV</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Janssen, Gerard, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Jocasta</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Johnson, Samuel, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li>John, King, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Jonson_Ben" id="Jonson_Ben"></a>Jonson, Ben, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;
+<ul><li>eulogy of S., <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Jordan's <i>Collections</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jordan, Mrs., <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Julius C&aelig;sar</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jusserand, J. J., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Juvenal, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Kean, Edmund, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kemble, J. P., <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kempe, Will., <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kendrick, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kesselstadt, death-mask, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Kind-Heart's Dream</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>King and No King</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>King John</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li>King's men, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kipling, Rudyard, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kirkman's <i>Drolls</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Knight, Charles, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Knight's Tale</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li>K&ouml;nig, G., <a href="#Footnote_5_5">72n</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kyd, Thomas, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Lacy, John, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lamb, Charles, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Langbaine, G., <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li>La Place's translation, 184.</li>
+
+<li><i>Lear</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#FNanchor_8_8">140n</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lee, Sidney, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Legend of Good Women</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leicester, Earl of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lessing, G. E., <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Le Tourneur, P., <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lily's Grammar, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Littledale, H., <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Lives of eminent men</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Livy, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Locrine</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lodge, Thomas, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Londinopolis</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>London, described, <a href="#Page_6">6-12</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>London Prodigal</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lope de Vega, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lord Admiral's men, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lord Chamberlain's men, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Lover's Complaint, A</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Love's Labour's Lost</i>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Love's Labour's Won</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lowin, John, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lucan, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lucian, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Lucrece</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lucy, Sir T., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lyly, John, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li><i>Macbeth</i>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Macklin, C., <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Macready, W., <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Maid's Tragedy</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Malcontent</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;
+<ul><li>quoted, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span>Malone, Edmund, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Malory, Sir T., <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mannering, Arthur, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Manningham, John, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mantuan's <i>Eclogues</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marlowe, Christopher, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marlowe, Julia, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marston, J., <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mason, J. M., <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Massinger, Philip, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Matthews, Sir T., <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Measure for Measure</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Memoirs of Edward Alleyn</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mennes, Sir John, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Men&aelig;chmi</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Merchant of Venice</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Meres,  Francis,  <i>Palladis Tamia</i>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Merry Devil of Edmonton</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Merry Wives of Windsor</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Messalina</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Metamorphoses</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+<li>M&eacute;zi&egrave;res, A., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Middleton, Sir Hugh, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Middleton, T., <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Midsummer Night's Dream</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Milton, John, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Miracle plays, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Miseries of Enforced Marriage</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Misfortunes of Arthur</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moli&egrave;re, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Montagu, Mrs. Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li><a name="Montaigne" id="Montaigne"></a>Montaigne, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Montemayor, George of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Morality plays, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+
+<li>More, Sir Thomas, life of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Morgann, M., <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Mother Bombie</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mountjoy, Christopher, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Much Ado About Nothing</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Mucedorus</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Munday, A., <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Music, Shakespeare in, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Neidig, W. J., <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Neilson Text, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Newcastle, Duchess of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Newington Butts theater, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>New Variorum</i>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>New Way to Pay Old Debts</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Nice Wanton</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+<li>North, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.
+<ul><li><i>See</i> <a href="#Plutarch">Plutarch</a>.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li><i>Oldcastle, Sir John</i>, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Old Fortunatus</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oldys, William, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Othello</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Otway, T., <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ovid, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Oxford Shakespeare</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li><i>Painful Adventures of Pericles</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Painter's <i>Palace of Pleasure</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Palmer, J., <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Palladis Tamia</i>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Pandosto</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span><i>Passionate Pilgrim</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Pastor Fido</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pavier, T., <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Pecorone, Il.</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Peele, George, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Pericles</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Persius, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Petrarch, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Phelps, S., <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Philaster</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Philip, Augustus, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Phillips, Edward, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Philosophy of the Plays of S.</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Ph&#339;nix and the Turtle</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Piacevoli Notti</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Plautus, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Pleasant Dialogues and Dramas</i>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pliny, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Plume, Archdeacon, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i><a name="Plutarch" id="Plutarch"></a>Plutarch's Lives</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Poetaster</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pollard, A. W., <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pope, Alexander, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pope, Thomas, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Preston, T., <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pritchard, Mrs., <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Prince's men, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Puritan, the</i> <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Puritan Widow</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Putnam's Monthly</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Quartos, <a href="#Page_135">135-140</a>;
+<ul><li>table of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
+<li>of apocryphal plays, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Queen's Arcadia</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Queen's Chapel boys, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Queen's men, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Quiney, Richard, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Quiney, Thomas, son-in-law of S., <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Rabelais, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Racine, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Raleigh, Sir Walter, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Ralph Royster Doyster</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Rape of Lucrece</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Recuyell of Troy</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Red Bull theater, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Reed, I., <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rehan, Ada, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Return from Parnassus</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Revenger's Tragedy</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Richard II</i>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Richard III</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Riche, Barnaby, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ristori, Madame, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ritson, T., <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Roberts Quartos, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">141n</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Robertson, Sir Forbes, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Robin Hood, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Robin Hood plays, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Romance of Yachting</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Romeus and Juliet</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ronsard, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Rosalynde</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Rosamond</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rose theater, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rossi, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rowe, Nicholas, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rowley, W., <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Roxana</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rutland, Earl of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rymer, T., <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Sadler's Wells, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Salisbury Court theater, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Salvini, T., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sanazzaro, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Schlegel, A. W., <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Schmidt's <i>Lexicon</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>Schroeder, F., <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Scott, Sir Walter, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sejanus</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Seneca, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sententi&aelig; Pueriles</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shakespeare, Anna, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shakespeare, Anne (Hathaway), <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shakespeare, Edmund, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shakespeare, Gilbert, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shakespeare, Hamnet, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shakespeare, Joan, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shakespeare, John, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shakespeare, Judith, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shakespeare, Mary Arden, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shakespeare, Richard, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shakespeare, Susanna, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shakespeare, William. <i>See</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Page_v">Contents</a></span>.
+<ul><li>Monument of, <a href="#frontispiece">frontispiece</a>;</li>
+<li>facsimile autographs of, <a href="#signatures">36</a>;</li>
+<li>portrait of in First Folio, <a href="#Facsim">143</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Shakespeare and the Drama</i>, Schlegel's, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Shakespeare Restored</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shakespeare Society, New, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shaw, G. B., <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shelley, P. B. <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sheridan, T., <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shirley, James, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shirley, Sir A., <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Short View of Tragedy</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Siddons, Mrs. Sarah, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sidney, Sir Philip, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Simpson, R., <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Singer, S. W., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sir Thomas More</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Sir Thomas Oldcastle</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Slye, William, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Smethwick, John, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Smith, W. H., <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Soliman and Perseda</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Somers, Sir George, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i><a name="Sonnets" id="Sonnets"></a>Sonnets</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;
+<ul><li>date of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li>evidence of, <a href="#Page_47">47-49</a>;</li>
+<li>personality in, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Sophocles, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sothern, Edward, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Southampton, Earl of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Southwell, T., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spalding, William, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spenser, Edmund, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Spanish Tragedy</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Squire of Low Degree</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li>St. Paul's, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sta&euml;l, Madame de, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stage, typical Shakespearean, illustration, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stationers' Company, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Steevens, G., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stowe, John, <i>Annals</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Strange's men, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stratford, described, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;
+<ul><li>Shakespeare at, <a href="#Page_18">18-35</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Sturley, Abraham, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Suckling, Sir John, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Supposoti, I</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Surrey, Earl of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Swan theater, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Tables of metrical tests, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;
+<ul><li>of chronology of plays, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li>
+<li>of quarto editions, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li><i>Tamburlaine</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Taming of a Shrew</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Taming of the Shrew</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Taylor, Joseph, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Tears of the Muses</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Tempest, The</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span>Tennyson, A., <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Terence, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Terry, Ellen, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Testament of Cressid</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Theater, in Shoreditch, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Theatrum Poetarum</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li>Theobald L., <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Theocritus, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Thomas Lord Cromwell</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Thorpe, Thomas, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tieck, L., <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Timber</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Timon of Athens</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>'Tis Pity She's a Whore</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Titus Andronicus</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tourgenieff, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tourneur, C., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Troilus and Cressida, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Troilus and Cressida</i>, (Chaucer's), <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Troublesome Reign of King John</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>True Tragedy of Richard III</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>True Tragedy of Richard Duke of York</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Tudor Shakespeare</i>, <a href="#Footnote_2_2">38n</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Twelfth Night</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Two Gentlemen of Verona</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Two Italian Gentlemen</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Two Noble Kinsmen, The</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tyrwhitt, T., <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Udall, N., <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ulrici, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Upton, J., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li><i>Venus and Adonis</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Virgil, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Volpone</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Voltaire, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Vortigern</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Wagner, C., <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Walker, Henry, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Walker, Sidney, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wallace, C. W., <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Walton's <i>Lives</i>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Warburton, W., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ward, Rev. J., <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ward, W. A., <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+<li>Warner, Mrs., <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Watson, Thomas, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Webster, John, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Weever, John, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Whetstone, George, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>White Devil</i> <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li>White, R. G., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wieland, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Wilhelm Meister</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wilson, Robert, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Winchester, Bishop of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Winter's Tale</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Wise Woman of Hogsdon</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wolsey, life of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Woman Killed with Kindness</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wood, Anthony, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wordsworth, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Worthies of England</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wright, W. A., <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wyatt, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wycherley, W., <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li><i>Yorkshire Tragedy</i>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">140n</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p class="oh">Printed in the United States of America.</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="trans2"><p class="ooh"><a name="Transcriber_Corrections" id="Transcriber_Corrections"></a>Transcriber's Endnotes</p>
+
+<p><b>Corrections:</b></p>
+<ul>
+<li>Page <a href="#Page_41">41</a>. Chapter II. "certains" corrected to <i>certain</i>.
+<ul><li>"... contains certain notes made before 1688 by the ..."</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul><li>Page <a href="#Page_72">72</a>. Table 2. "<span class="smcap">Lines</span>" corrected to <i><span class="smcap">Line</span></i>.
+<ul><li>"<span class="smcap">... Ending within the Line ...</span>"</li></ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Page <a href="#Page_89">89</a>. Chapter V. "comedy These" corrected to <i>comedy. These</i>.
+<ul><li>"... of classical tragedy and comedy. These new forms ..."</li></ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Page <a href="#Page_234">234</a>. Appendix B. "St. Alban's" corrected to <i>St. Albans</i>.
+<ul><li>"... Mayor of St. Albans. 2H6. II. i."</li></ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Page <a href="#Page_265">265</a>. Index entry. "Bi-Lateral" corrected to <i>Bi-Literal</i>.
+<ul><li>"... Bi-Literal Cypher of Francis Bacon ..."</li></ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul><li>Page <a href="#Page_268">268</a>. Index Hamlet entry. "160" corrected to <i>106</i>.
+<ul><li>"... 87, 100, 106, 107, 119 ..."</li></ul></li></ul>
+
+<p><b>Re-sequenced Index entries:</b></p>
+<ul><li><a href="#First_Folio">First Folio</a>, described, 141-143; facsimile of title-page, 143; 167; introductory matter in, <i>see</i> Appendix A.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li><a href="#Fletcher_John">Fletcher, John</a>, 9, 91, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114; collaboration on <i>Two Noble Kinsman</i>, 159, 160; 168, 177, 191. <i>See</i> Beaumont and Fletcher.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li><a href="#Florio">Florio</a>, John. <i>See</i> Montaigne, 57.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li><a href="#Greene">Greene</a>, Robert, attack on S., 20-23: 62, 63, 90, 96, 97, 101, 102, 158.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li><a href="#Jonson_Ben">Jonson, Ben</a>, 13, 29, 30, 31, 33, 39, 40, 45, 46, 50, 63, 91, 95, 103, 105, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 114, 131; eulogy of S., 167, 168; 182, 190.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li><i><a href="#Sonnets">Sonnets</a></i>, evidence of, 47-49; 57, 58; date of, 87, 156; personality in, 189, 190.</li></ul>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Facts About Shakespeare, by 
+William Allan Nielson and Ashley Horace Thorndike
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FACTS ABOUT SHAKESPEARE ***
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Facts About Shakespeare, by
+William Allan Nielson and Ashley Horace Thorndike
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Facts About Shakespeare
+
+Author: William Allan Nielson
+        Ashley Horace Thorndike
+
+Release Date: August 8, 2007 [EBook #22281]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FACTS ABOUT SHAKESPEARE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Stephen Blundell and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: The Shakespeare Monument in the Parish Church,
+Stratford-on-Avon.]
+
+
+
+
+              THE FACTS ABOUT
+                SHAKESPEARE
+
+
+                    BY
+
+       WILLIAM ALLAN NEILSON, PH.D.
+PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY
+
+                    AND
+
+  ASHLEY HORACE THORNDIKE, PH.D., L.H.D.
+PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
+
+
+              [Illustration]
+
+
+                 New York
+           THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                   1927
+
+           _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1913,
+BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1913. Reprinted April,
+1914; July, 1915; May, November, 1916; January, 1918; February,
+September, 1920; September, 1921; March, 1922; February, December, 1923;
+October, 1924; June, 1926; January, December, 1927.
+
+
+
+PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY
+THE BERWICK & SMITH CO.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+    Unique page headings have been retained, marked as [Page Heading:],
+    and positioned at the first available paragraph break of the page or
+    the preceding page.
+
+    Many spelling inconsistencies exist due to the historical period of
+    the quoted sources. These, in addition to the original punctuation,
+    have been retained.
+
+    Obvious typesetting errors have been corrected and noted in the
+    Transcriber's Endnotes at the end of the text.
+
+    Some index entries have been re-sequenced to allow for clarity of
+    sub-entries. These changes are recorded in the Transcriber's
+    Endnotes along with a copy of the original text.
+
+    The following non-standard characters have been represented as
+    follows:
+
+      [oe] oe ligature
+      [OE] OE ligature
+      [~e] tilde over e. A contraction of en.
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+CHAPTER                                                        PAGE
+
+   I. SHAKESPEARE'S ENGLAND AND LONDON                            1
+
+  II. BIOGRAPHICAL FACTS AND TRADITIONS                          17
+
+ III. SHAKESPEARE'S READING                                      50
+
+  IV. CHRONOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT                                 67
+
+   V. THE ELIZABETHAN DRAMA                                      89
+
+  VI. THE ELIZABETHAN THEATER                                   117
+
+ VII. THE TEXT OF SHAKESPEARE                                   131
+
+VIII. QUESTIONS OF AUTHENTICITY                                 156
+
+  IX. SHAKESPEARE SINCE 1616                                    167
+
+   X. CONCLUSION                                                188
+
+APPENDIX A. BIOGRAPHICAL DOCUMENTS AND AUTHORITIES              203
+
+APPENDIX B. INDEX OF THE CHARACTERS IN SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS      226
+
+APPENDIX C. INDEX OF THE SONGS                                  241
+
+APPENDIX D. BIBLIOGRAPHY                                        243
+
+INDEX                                                           265
+
+
+
+
+THE FACTS ABOUT SHAKESPEARE
+
+
+
+
+The Facts about Shakespeare
+
+[Illustration]
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+SHAKESPEARE'S ENGLAND AND LONDON
+
+
+Shakespeare lived in a period of change. In religion, politics,
+literature, and commerce, in the habits of daily living, in the world of
+ideas, his lifetime witnessed continual change and movement. When
+Elizabeth came to the throne, six years before he was born, England was
+still largely Catholic, as it had been for nine centuries; when she died
+England was Protestant, and by the date of Shakespeare's death it was
+well on the way to becoming Puritan. The Protestant Reformation had
+worked nearly its full course of revolution in ideas, habits, and
+beliefs. The authority of the church had been replaced by that of the
+Bible, of the English Bible, superbly translated by Shakespeare's
+contemporaries. Within his lifetime, again, England had attained a
+national unity and an international importance heretofore unknown. The
+Spanish Armada had been defeated, the kingdoms of England and Scotland
+united, and the first colony established in America. Even more
+revolutionary had been the assertion of national greatness in literature
+and thought. The Italian Renaissance, following the rediscovery of Greek
+and Roman literature, had extended its influence to England early in the
+century, but only after the accession of Elizabeth did it bring full
+harvest. The names that crowd the next fifty years represent fine native
+endowments, boundless aspiration, and also novelty,--as Spenser in
+poetry, Bacon in philosophy, Hooker in theology. In commerce as well as
+in letters there was this same activity and innovation. It was a time of
+commercial prosperity, of increase in comfort and luxury, of the growth
+of a powerful commercial class, of large fortunes and large
+benefactions. Whatever your status, your birth, trade, profession,
+residence, religion, education, or property, in the year 1564 you had a
+better chance to change these than any of your ancestors had; and there
+was more chance than there had ever been that your son would improve his
+inheritance. The individual man had long been boxed up in guild, church,
+or the feudal system; now the covers were opened, and the new
+opportunity bred daring, initiative, and ambition. The exploits of the
+Elizabethan sea rovers still stir us with the thrill of adventure; but
+adventure and vicissitude were hardly less the share of merchant,
+priest, poet, or politician. The individual has had no such opportunity
+for fame in England before or since. The nineteenth century, which saw
+the industrial revolution, the triumphs of steam and electricity, and
+the discoveries of natural science, is the only period that equalled the
+Elizabethan in the rapidity of its changes in ideas and in the
+conditions of living; and even that era of change offered relatively
+fewer new impulses to individual greatness than the fifty years of
+Shakespeare's life.
+
+[Page Heading: Tudor England]
+
+Shakespeare's England was an agricultural country of four or five
+million inhabitants. It fed itself, except when poor harvests compelled
+the importation of grain, and it supplemented agriculture by grazing,
+fishing, and commerce, chiefly with the Netherlands, but growing in many
+directions. The forests were becoming thin, but the houses were still of
+timber; the roads were poor, the large towns mostly seaports. The
+dialects spoken were various, but the speech of the midland counties had
+become established in London, at the universities, and in printed books,
+and was rapidly increasing its dominance. The monasteries and religious
+orders were gone, but feudalism still held sway, and the people were
+divided into classes,--the various ranks of the nobility, the gentry,
+the yeomen, the burgesses, and the common people. But changes from one
+class to another were numerous; for many lords were losing their
+inheritances by extravagance, while many business men were putting their
+profits into land. In spite of persecutions, occasional insurrections,
+and the plague which devastated the unsanitary towns, it was a time of
+peace and prosperity. The coinage was reformed, roads were improved,
+taxes were not burdensome, and life in the country was more comfortable
+and secure than it had been. Books and education were spreading.
+Numerous grammar schools taught Latin, the universities made provision
+for poor students, and there were now many careers besides that of the
+church open to the educated man.
+
+Stratford, then a village of some two thousand inhabitants, somewhat off
+the main route of traffic, was far more removed from the world than most
+towns of similar size in this day of railways, newspapers, and the
+telegraph. With the nearby country, it made up an independent community
+that attended to its own affairs with great thoroughness. The
+corporation, itself the outgrowth of a medieval religious guild,
+regulated the affairs of every one with little regard for personal
+liberty. It was especially severe on rebellious servants, idle
+apprentices, shrewish women, the pigs that ran loose in the streets, and
+(after 1605) persons guilty of profanity. Regular church attendance and
+fixed hours of work were required. The corporation frequently punished
+with fines (the poet's father on one occasion) those who did not clean
+the street before their houses; and it was much occupied in regulating
+the ale-houses, of which the village possessed some thirty. Like all
+towns of this period, Stratford suffered frequently from fire and the
+plague. Trade was dependent mainly on the weekly markets and semi-annual
+fairs, and Stratford was by no means isolated, being not far from the
+great market town of Coventry, near Kenilworth and Warwick, and only
+eighty miles from London.
+
+[Page Heading: Sports and Plays]
+
+Shakespeare's England was merry England. At least, it was probably as
+near to deserving that adjective as at any time before or since. There
+was plenty of time for amusement. There were public bowling-greens and
+archery butts in Stratford, though the corporation was very strict in
+regard to the hours when these could be used. Every one enjoyed hunting,
+hawking, cock-fighting, bull-baiting, dancing, until the Puritans found
+such enjoyments immoral. The youthful Shakespeare acquired an intimate
+knowledge of dogs and horses, hunting and falconry, though this was a
+gentleman's sport. The highways were full of ballad singers, beggars,
+acrobats, and wandering players. Play-acting of one kind or another had
+long been common over most of rural England. Miracle plays were given at
+Coventry up to 1580, and bands of professional actors came to Stratford
+frequently, and on their first recorded appearance received their
+permission to act from the bailiff, John Shakespeare (1568-1569). There
+was many a Holofernes or Bottom to marshal his pupils or
+fellow-mechanics for an amateur performance; and Shakespeare may have
+seen the most famous of the royal entertainments, that at Kenilworth in
+1575, when Gascoigne recited poetry, and Leicester, impersonating Deep
+Desire, addressed Elizabeth from a bush, and a minstrel represented
+Arion on a dolphin's back. The tradition may be right which declares
+that it was the trumpets of the comedians that summoned Shakespeare to
+London.
+
+In the main, life in the country was not so very different from what it
+is now in the remoter places. Many a secluded English village, as
+recently as fifty years ago, jogged on much as in the sixteenth century.
+Opportunity then as now dwelt mostly in the cities, but the city of the
+sixteenth century bore slight resemblance to a city of to-day.
+
+London, with less than 200,000 inhabitants, was still a medieval city in
+appearance, surrounded by a defensive wall, guarded by the Tower, and
+crowned by the cathedral. The city proper lay on the north of the
+Thames, and the wall made a semicircle of some two miles, from the Tower
+on the east to the Fleet ditch and Blackfriars on the west. Seven gates
+pierced the wall to the north, and the roads passing through them into
+the fields were lined with houses. Westward along the river were great
+palaces, behind which the building was practically continuous along the
+muddy road that led to the separate city of Westminster. The Thames,
+noted for its fish and swans, was the great thoroughfare, crowded with
+many kinds of boats and spanned by the famous London Bridge. By one of
+the many rowboats that carried passengers hither and thither, or on foot
+over the arches of the bridge, between the rows of houses that lined it,
+and under the heads of criminals which decorated its entrance, you
+might cross the Thames to Southwark. Turning west, past St. Saviour's
+and the palace of the Bishop of Winchester, you were soon on the
+Bankside, a locality long given over to houses of ill fame and rings for
+the baiting of bulls and bears. The theaters, forbidden in the city
+proper, were built either in the fields to the north of the walls, or
+across the river close by the kennels and rings. Here, as Shakespeare
+waited for a boatman to ferry him across to Blackfriars, the whole city
+was spread before his eyes, in the foreground the panorama of the
+beautiful river, beyond it the crowded houses, the spires of many
+churches, and the great tower of old St. Paul's.
+
+[Page Heading: Tudor London]
+
+It was a city of narrow streets, open sewers, wooden houses, without an
+adequate water supply or sanitation, in constant danger from fire and
+plague. But dirt and disease were no more prevalent than they had been
+for centuries; in spite of them, there was no lack of life in the
+crowded lanes. The great palaces were outside the city proper, and there
+were few notable buildings within its precincts except the churches. The
+dismantled monasteries still occupied large areas, but were being made
+over to strange uses, the theaters eventually finding a place in
+Blackfriars and Whitefriars. The Strand was an ill-paved street running
+behind the river palaces, past the village of Charing Cross, on to the
+royal palace of Whitehall and to the Abbey and Hall at Westminster. The
+walls and surrounding moat had ceased to be of use for defense, and
+building constantly spread into the fields without. These fields were
+favorite places for recreation and served the purpose of city parks. The
+Elizabethans were fond of outdoor sports and spent little daytime
+indoors. The shops were open to the street, and the clear spaces at
+Cheapside and St. Paul's Church-yard seem to have been always crowded.
+St. Paul's, although still used for religious services, had become a
+sort of city club or general meeting place. Mules and horses were no
+longer to be found there as in the reign of Mary, but the nave was in
+constant use as a place for gossip and business. The churchyard was the
+usual place for holding lotteries, and here were the shops of a majority
+of the London booksellers. In its northeast corner was Paul's Cross, the
+famous pulpit whence the wishes of the government were announced and
+popularized by the Sunday preachers. And here the variety of London life
+was most fully exhibited. The processions and entertainments at court,
+the ambassadors from afar, the law students from the Temple, the old
+soldiers destitute after service in Flanders, the seamen returned from
+plundering the Spanish gold fleet, the youths from the university come
+to the city to earn their living by their wits, the bishop and the
+puritan, who looked at each other askance, the young squire come to be
+gulled of his lands by the roarers of the tavern, the solid merchant
+with his chain of gold, the wives who aped the court ladies with their
+enormous farthingales and ruffs, the court gallant with his dyed beard
+and huge breeches, the idle apprentices quick to riot, the poor poets in
+prison for debt--these and how many more are familiar to every reader of
+the Elizabethan drama. As often in periods of commercial prosperity,
+luxury became fantastic. Men sold their acres to put costly garments on
+their backs. Clothing was absurd and ran to extreme sizes of ruffs,
+farthingales, and breeches, or to gaudy colors and jewels. Enormous sums
+were spent on feasts, entertainments, and masques, especially in the
+reign of James I. Cleanliness did not thrive, perfumes took the place of
+baths, and rushes, seldom renewed, covered the floor even of the
+presence chamber of Elizabeth. But the comforts and luxuries of life
+increased and spread to all classes. Tobacco, potatoes, and forks were
+first introduced in Shakespeare's time. Building improved, streets were
+widened, and coaches became so common as to excite much animadversion
+and complaint. If some poets spent much time in the debtors' prison,
+others lived well, and some actors gained large fortunes.
+
+[Page Heading: Commercial Prosperity]
+
+The industrious apprentice who refused the allurements of pageants,
+theaters, tailors, and taverns, was sure to have his reward. It was a
+time of commercial expansion, such as the last generation has witnessed
+in Germany and the United States. Bankers, brokers, and merchants gained
+great fortunes and managed to protect them. Industry, thrift, and
+shrewdness were likely to win enough to buy a knighthood. The trade of
+the old East and the new West came to the London wharves, and every one
+was ready to take a risk. The merchants of London had furnished support
+to the policies of Henry VIII and were rich enough to fit out the
+expedition against Flanders and to pay for a third of the fleet that met
+the Armada. It was a time, too, for great enterprises and benefactions
+to charity. Sir Thomas Gresham built the Exchange, Sir Hugh Middleton
+paid for the New River water supply, and there were many gifts to
+hospitals. With all this increase in wealth, the various professions
+prospered, especially that of law. The inns of court were crowded with
+students, not a few of whom forsook the courts for the drama. The age of
+chivalry was over, that of commerce begun. No one gained much glory by a
+military career in the days of Elizabeth. The church, the law, banking,
+commerce, even politics and literature, offered better roads to wealth
+or fame.
+
+The importance of the court in Elizabethan London is not easy to realize
+to-day. It dominated the life of the small city. Its nobles and their
+retainers, its courtiers and hangers-on, made up a considerable portion
+of the population; its shows supplied the entertainment, its gossip the
+politics of the hour. It was the seat of pageantry, the mirror of
+manners, the patron or the oppressor of every one. No one could be so
+humble as to escape coming somehow within its sway, and some of the
+greatest wrecked their lives in efforts to secure its approval. It is no
+wonder that the plays of Shakespeare deal so largely with kings,
+queens, and their courts. Under the Tudors, and still more under the
+Stuarts, the court aimed at increasing the central authority so as to
+bring every affair of its subjects under its direct control. In London,
+however, this effort at centralization met with strong opposition. The
+government was in the hands of the guilds representative of the wealth
+of the city, and was coming face to face with many of the problems of
+modern municipalities. The corporation was in constant clash with the
+court; and in the end the city, which had supported Henry VIII and
+Elizabeth against powerful nobles, became the Puritan London that aided
+in ousting the Stuarts.
+
+[Page Heading: The City and the Court]
+
+This conflict between city and court is illustrated in the regulation of
+the theaters and companies of actors. The actors had a legal status only
+as the license of some nobleman enrolled them as his servants, and they
+relied on the protection of their patron and the court against the
+opposition of the city authorities. The fact that they were employed to
+give plays before the Queen was, indeed, about the only argument that
+won any consideration from the corporation. This opposition was based in
+part on moral or puritan grounds, but was determined still more by the
+fear of three menaces, fire, sedition, and the plague. Wooden buildings
+were already discouraged by statute, and the danger of fire from the
+wooden theaters is shown by the burning of the Globe and the Fortune.
+The gathering of crowds was feared by every property holder, and the
+theaters were frequently the scenes of outbreaks of the apprentices. The
+danger of the plague from the crowd at plays was the greatest of all.
+London was hardly ever free from it, and suffered terrible devastation
+in the years 1593 and 1603. For these reasons the theaters were
+forbidden within the city's jurisdiction, and were driven into the
+outskirts. The best companies appeared frequently at court, and on the
+accession of James I they were licensed directly as servants of various
+members of the royal family. The actors were thereafter under the
+immediate control of the court, and certain "private" theaters were
+established within the city. But this triumph of the court over the long
+opposition of the city was not an unmixed blessing for the drama.
+
+The theaters in 1590 represented the public on which they depended for
+support; by 1616 they were far less representative of the nation or
+London, and more dependent on the court and its following. The
+Blackfriars theater, before which gathered the crowd of coaches that
+annoyed the puritans of the neighborhood, was a symptom of the growth of
+wealth and luxury, and of the increased power of the monarchy; the
+protests of the puritan neighborhood were an indication of the growth of
+a large class hostile alike to an arbitrary court, luxury, and the
+theater.
+
+Shakespeare's lifetime, however, saw little of this sharp division into
+parties or of that narrow moral consistency which Puritanism came to
+require. Looking back on his age in contrast with our own, we are
+perhaps most impressed by its striking incongruities. This London of
+dirt and disease was also the arena for extravagant fashion and princely
+display. This populace that watched with joy the cruel torment of a bear
+or the execution of a Catholic also delighted in the romantic comedies
+of Shakespeare. This people, so appallingly credulous and ignorant, so
+brutal, childish, so mercurial compared with Englishmen of to-day, yet
+set the standard of national greatness. This absurdly decorated gallant
+could stab a rival in the back or write a penitential lyric. Each man
+presents strange, almost inexplicable, contrasts in character, as Bacon
+or Raleigh, or Elizabeth herself. The drama mingles its sentiment and
+fancy with horrors and bloodshed; and no wonder, for poetry was no
+occupation of the cloister. Read the lives of the poets--Surrey, Wyatt,
+Sidney, Spenser, Raleigh, Marlowe, Jonson--and of these, only Spenser
+and Jonson died in their beds, and Ben had killed his man in a duel. The
+student of Elizabethan history and biography will find stranger
+contrasts than in the lives of these poets, for crime, meanness, and
+sexual depravity often appear in the closest juxtaposition with
+imaginative idealism, intellectual freedom, and moral grandeur.
+
+[Page Heading: Elizabethan Incongruities]
+
+The Italian Renaissance, with its mingled passions for beauty, art,
+blood, lust, and intellect, seems for a time transferred to London and
+dwelling alongside of commerce and Puritanism. Yet these incongruities
+of character, manners, and motives that seem so striking to us to-day
+may probably be explained by conditions already described. The
+opportunities created by the changes in church and religion, the new
+education and prosperity, the new America, and the revived classics, all
+tended to create a new thirst for experience. This thirst for experience
+led to excess and incongruity, but it also furnished an unparalleled
+range of human motive for a poet's observation and imitation.
+
+In the wide range of our poet's survey, there is, however, one notable
+omission. The reign of Elizabeth, like those of her three predecessors,
+was one of religious controversy, change, and persecution. But all this
+strife, all this debate, repression, persecution, and all of this great
+turmoil working in the minds of Englishmen, find little reflection in
+Shakespeare's plays, and little in the whole Elizabethan drama.
+Religious controversy had played a part in the drama of the reign of
+Edward and Mary, but it rarely enters the Elizabethan drama, and then
+mainly in the form of ridicule for the puritan. Shakespeare's plays seem
+almost to ignore the most momentous facts of his time. They treat pagan,
+Catholic, and Protestant with cordiality and only smile at the puritan
+or Brownist. His England of the merry wives or Falstaff's justices seems
+strangely untroubled by questions of faith or ritual. There is, to be
+sure, plenty of religion and controversy in the literature of the time,
+but the drama as a whole is singularly non-religious. It reflects
+rather that freedom from restraint, that buoyancy of spirit, that lively
+interest in experience, which had their full course in the few years
+when the old garment was off and the new not quite fitted. The immense
+intellectual and imaginative activity of the period consists precisely
+in this freedom from restrictions, partisanship, dogmas, or caste.
+Things had lost their labels and some time and argument were required to
+find new ones. Ideas were free and not bound to any school, party, or
+cause. You grasped an idea without knowing whether it made you realist,
+romanticist, or classicist; papist, puritan, or pagan. After centuries
+of imprisonment, individuality had its full chance in the world of ideas
+as elsewhere.
+
+[Page Heading: An Age of Freedom]
+
+In a few years this was all over, and your sphere of life and the ideas
+proper to that sphere were prescribed for you. By another century,
+England had fought out the issues of creed and government with expense
+of blood and spirit, and had settled down to the compromise of 1688. In
+Shakespeare's day there was also, of course, some movement toward fixity
+of ideas, and there were great men who strove to convert others to their
+ideas and to dictate belief and conduct. But there was a breathing spell
+in which, comparatively speaking, men were not alike, but individual,
+and in which their motives and ideas revelled in a freedom from ancient
+precedent. In this era of flux the modern drama found its panorama of
+novel and varied experience making and marring character.
+
+Shakespeare lived peaceably in the heyday of this change, nearly of an
+age with Sidney, Raleigh, Spenser, Bacon, Marlowe. Like Marlowe in the
+soliloquies of Barabbas and Faust, he recognized the new possibilities
+that the age opened through money or ideas. He made much out of the
+commercial prosperity of the day, gained such profits as were possible
+from his profession, raised his estate, and acquired wealth. He gave his
+mind not to any cause or party but to the study of men. The drunkards of
+the London inn, the yokels of Warwickshire, and the finest gentlewomen
+of the land alike came under the scrutiny of the creator of Falstaff,
+Dogberry, and Rosalind. And like his great contemporaries, he triumphed
+over incongruities, for he translated his studies of the human mind into
+verse of immortal beauty that yet delighted the public stage which was
+located halfway between the bear dens and the brothels.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+BIOGRAPHICAL FACTS AND TRADITIONS
+
+
+In the time of Shakespeare, the fashion of writing lives of men of
+letters had not yet arisen. The art of biography could hardly be said to
+be even in its infancy, for the most notable early examples, such as the
+lives of Wolsey by Cavendish and of Sir Thomas More by his son-in-law in
+the sixteenth century, and Walton's handful in the seventeenth, are far
+from what the present age regards as scientific biography. The
+preservation of official records makes it possible for the modern
+scholar to reconstruct with considerable fullness the careers of public
+men; but in the case of Shakespeare, as of others of his profession, we
+must needs be content with a few scrappy documents, supplemented by oral
+traditions of varying degrees of authenticity. About Shakespeare himself
+it must be allowed that we have been able to learn more than about most
+of his fellow dramatists and actors.
+
+In a matter which has been the subject of so much controversy, it may
+be an aid to clearness if the facts established by contemporary
+documents be first related, and the less trustworthy reports added
+later. The first indubitable item is trivial and unsavory enough. In
+April, 1552, a certain John Shakespeare, residing in Henley Street,
+Stratford-on-Avon, in the county of Warwick, was fined twelvepence for
+failing to remove a heap of filth from before his door. This John, who
+shared his surname with a multitude of other Shakespeares in the England
+and especially in the Warwickshire of his time, appears, without
+reasonable doubt, to have been the father of the poet. He is described
+in later tradition as a glover and as a butcher; the truth seems to be
+that he did a miscellaneous business in farm products. For twenty years
+or more after this first record he prospered, rising through various
+petty municipal offices to the position of bailiff, or mayor, of the
+town in 1568. His fortunes must have been notably improved by his
+marriage, for the Mary Arden whom he wedded in 1557 was the daughter of
+a well-to-do farmer, Robert Arden, who bequeathed her L6 13_s._ 4_d._ in
+money and a house with fifty acres of land.
+
+To John and Mary Shakespeare was born a son William, whose baptism was
+registered in the Church of the Holy Trinity in Stratford on April 26,
+1564. He was their eldest son, two daughters previously born being
+already dead. Their other children were Gilbert, Joan, Anna, Richard,
+and Edmund. The precise day of William's birth is unknown. The monument
+over his grave states that at his death on April 23, 1616, he was
+"AEtatis 53," which would seem to indicate that he must have been born at
+least as early as April 22; and, since in those days baptism usually
+took place within a very few days of birth, there is no reason for
+pushing the date farther back.
+
+[Page Heading: Marriage]
+
+Of the education of the poet we have no record. Stratford had a free
+grammar school, to which such a boy as the bailiff's son would be sure
+to be sent; and the inference that William Shakespeare was a pupil there
+and studied the usual Latin authors is entirely reasonable. About 1577
+his father began to get into financial difficulties, and it is reported
+that about this time the boy was withdrawn from school to help in his
+father's business. We know nothing certainly, however, until we learn
+from the registry of the Bishop of Worcester that on November 28, 1582,
+two husbandmen of Stratford gave bonds "to defend and save harmless" the
+bishop and his officers for licensing the marriage of William
+Shakespeare and Anne Hathaway. Of the actual marriage there is no
+record. Anne is probably to be identified with Agnes or Anne, the
+daughter of Richard Hathaway of the neighboring hamlet of Shottery, who
+had died in the previous July, and had owned the house of which a part
+still survives and is shown to visitors as "Anne Hathaway's cottage."
+The date on Anne's tombstone indicates that she was eight years older
+than the poet.
+
+A comparison of the bond just mentioned with other documents of the kind
+indicates it to be exceptional in the absence of any mention of consent
+by the bridegroom's parents, a circumstance rendered still more
+remarkable by the fact that he was a minor. The bondsmen were from
+Shottery, and this, along with the considerations already advanced, has
+naturally led to the inference that the marriage was hurried by the
+bride's friends, and to the finding of a motive for their haste in the
+birth within six months of "Susanna, daughter to William Shakespere,"
+who was baptized on May 26, 1583.
+
+[Page Heading: "The only Shake-scene"]
+
+The record of the baptism of Shakespeare's only other children, the
+twins Hamnet and Judith, in February, 1585, practically exhausts the
+documentary evidence concerning the poet in Stratford until 1596. It is
+conjectured, but not known, that about 1586 he found his way to London
+and soon became connected with the theater, according to one tradition,
+as call-boy, to another, as holder of the horses of theatergoers. But by
+1592 we are assured that he had entered the ranks of the playwrights,
+and had achieved enough success to rouse the jealous resentment of a
+rival. Robert Greene, who died on the third of September in that year,
+left unpublished a pamphlet, _Greenes Groatsworth of Witte: bought with
+a Million of Repentaunce_, in which he warned three of his fellows
+against certain plagiarists, "those puppits, I meane, that speake from
+our mouths, those anticks garnisht in our colours." "Yes, trust them
+not," he goes on; "for there is an upstart crow, beautified with our
+feathers, that with his _Tygers heart wrapt in a Players hide_, supposes
+he is as well able to bumbast out a blanke verse as the best of you; and
+being an absolute _Johannes Factotum_, is in his owne conceit the only
+Shake-scene in a countrie. O that I might intreate your rare wits to be
+imployed in more profitable courses, and let those apes imitate your
+past excellence, and never more acquaint them with your admired
+inventions! I know the best husband of you all will never prove an
+usurer, and the kindest of them all wil never proove a kinde nurse; yet,
+whilst you may, seeke you better maisters, for it is pittie men of such
+rare wits should be subject to the pleasures of such rude groomes." The
+phrase about the "tyger's heart" is an obvious parody on the line,
+
+    Oh Tiger's heart wrapt in a woman's hide!
+
+which occurs both in _The True Tragedie of Richard Duke of Yorke_, and
+in the variant of that play which is included in the First Folio as the
+third part of _Henry VI_. "The only Shake-scene" has naturally been
+taken as an allusion to Shakespeare's name; and it is scarcely possible
+to doubt the reference to him throughout the passage. This being so, we
+may infer that by this date Shakespeare had written, with whatever else,
+his share in the three parts of _Henry VI_, and was successful enough to
+seem formidable to the dying Greene. It is noteworthy, too, that thus
+early we have allusion to his double profession: as an actor in the
+words "player's hide" and "Shake-scene," and as an author in the charge
+of plagiarism. That the reference in "beautified with our feathers" is
+to literary plagiarism is confirmed by the following lines from
+_Greene's Funeralls_, by R. B., 1594, which seem to have been suggested
+by Greene's phrase:
+
+    Greene is the ground of everie painters die;
+    Greene gave the ground to all that wrote upon him.
+    Nay, more, the men that so eclipst his fame,
+    _Purloynde his plumes_: can they deny the same?
+
+Somewhat less certain is the allusion in a document closely connected
+with the foregoing. _Greenes Groatsworth_ had been prepared for the
+press by his friend Henry Chettle, and in the address "To the Gentlemen
+Readers" prefixed to his _Kind-Harts Dreame_ (registered December 8,
+1592), Chettle regrets that he has not struck out from Greene's book the
+passages that have been "offensively by one or two of them taken." "With
+neither of them that take offence was I acquainted, and with one of them
+I care not if I never be. The other, whome at that time I did not so
+much spare as since I wish I had, for that as I have moderated the heate
+of living writers, and might have usde my owne discretion,--especially
+in such a case, the Author beeing dead,--that I did not, I am as sory,
+as if the originall fault had beene my fault, because myselfe have seene
+his demeanor no lesse civill, than he exelent in the qualitie[1] he
+professes: Besides, divers of worship have reported his uprightnes of
+dealing, which argues his honesty, and his facetious grace in writing,
+that aprooves his Art." This characterization so well fits in with the
+tone of later contemporary allusions to Shakespeare that it is
+regrettable that Chettle did not make its reference to him beyond a
+doubt.
+
+[1] _I.e._, profession, used especially at that time of the profession
+of acting.
+
+[Page Heading: First Publications]
+
+Within a few months after the disturbance caused by Greene's charges,
+Shakespeare appeared in the field of authorship in quite unambiguous
+fashion. On April 18, 1593, Richard Field, himself a Stratford man,
+entered at Stationers' Hall a book entitled _Venus and Adonis_. The
+dedication, which is to the Earl of Southampton, is signed by "William
+Shakespeare," and the state of the text confirms the inference that the
+poet himself oversaw the publication. The terms of the dedication, read
+in the light of contemporary examples of this kind of writing, do not
+imply any close relation between poet and patron; and the phrase "the
+first heyre of my invention," applied to the poem, need not be taken as
+placing its composition earlier than any of the plays, since writing for
+the stage was then scarcely regarded as practising the art of letters.
+_Lucrece_ was registered May 9, 1594, and appeared likewise without a
+name on the title-page, but with Shakespeare's full signature attached
+to a dedication, somewhat more warmly personal than before, to the same
+nobleman. The frequency of complimentary references to these poems, and
+the number of editions issued during the poet's lifetime (seven of
+_Venus_, and five of _Lucrece_), indicate that it was through them that
+he first obtained literary distinction.
+
+Meanwhile he was gaining a footing as an actor. The accounts of the
+Treasurer of the Chamber for March 15, 1594-5, bear record of
+Shakespeare's having been summoned, along with Kempe and Burbage, as a
+member of the Lord Chamberlain's Company, to present two comedies before
+the Queen at Greenwich Palace in the Christmas season of 1594. This is
+the earliest mention of the poet as sharing with his company a kind of
+recognition as honorable as it was profitable.
+
+The records now take us back to his family. On August 11, 1596, his only
+son Hamnet was buried. In the same year John Shakespeare applied to the
+College of Heralds for a grant of arms, basing the claim on services of
+his ancestors to Henry VII, the continued good reputation of the family,
+and John's marriage to "Mary, daughter and heiress of Robert Arden, of
+Wilmcote, gent." Since there is evidence to show that the financial
+difficulties that had beset John Shakespeare before his son went to
+London had continued, and since the attempts of actors to obtain
+gentility by grants of arms were not uncommon, it is likely that the
+poet was the moving force in this matter. Though a draft granting this
+request was drawn up, it was not executed; but in 1599 a renewed
+application was successful, the heralds giving an exemplification of the
+coat which the applicants claimed had been assigned them in 1568, "Gold,
+on a bend sable, a spear of the first, and for his crest or cognizance a
+falcon, his wings displayed argent, standing on a wreath of his
+colours, supporting a spear gold steeled as aforesaid." The motto is
+"Non Sans Droit." These arms appear on the monument over Shakespeare's
+grave in Trinity Church in Stratford, and, impaled with the Hall arms,
+on the tombstone of his daughter Susanna and her husband John Hall.
+
+[Page Heading: The Purchase of New Place]
+
+A more substantial step towards restoring the standing of the family was
+taken when the poet bought on May 4, 1597, for sixty pounds, New Place,
+the largest house in Stratford. This was only the beginning of a
+considerable series of investments of the profits of his professional
+life in landed and other property in his native district. On his
+father's death in 1601 he inherited the two houses in Henley Street, the
+only real property of which the elder Shakespeare had retained
+possession; and in one of these the poet's mother lived until her death
+in 1608. About a hundred and seven acres of arable land with common
+pasture appertaining to it was conveyed to the poet on May 1, 1602, by
+William and John Combe, of Warwick and Old Stratford respectively, in
+consideration of L320; and twenty acres of pasture land were acquired
+from the same owners in 1610. On September 28, 1602, the Court Rolls of
+the Manor of Rowington record the transfer to Shakespeare from Walter
+Getley of a cottage and garden in Chapel Lane, Stratford. In 1605 he
+paid L440 for the thirty-one years remaining of a lease of the Stratford
+tithes, a purchase which involved him in a considerable amount of
+litigation. It was through this acquisition that he became involved in
+the dispute over the attempted inclosure of certain common fields
+belonging to the town of Stratford. John Combe, who died in July, 1614,
+bequeathing Shakespeare L5, left as heir a son, William, who with Arthur
+Mannering, sought to annex to their respective estates the aforesaid
+common lands. After having secured a deed safeguarding himself as part
+owner of the tithes from any loss that might result from the inclosure,
+Shakespeare seems to have lent his influence to Combe, in spite of the
+requests of the corporation for aid. The inclosure was not carried out.
+
+His investments were not confined to his native county. A deed of sale
+has come down to us concerning the purchase of a house near the
+Blackfriars Theater in London, in March, 1613. The price was L140; but
+on the following day, March 11, Shakespeare gave the previous owner,
+Henry Walker, a mortgage deed for L60, which he never seems to have paid
+off. There is evidence of his ownership of other property in Blackfriars
+in three documents, recently discovered by Professor C. W. Wallace,
+dealing with a suit in Chancery, and dated April 26, May 15, and May 22,
+1615, in which Shakespeare and others sought to obtain from one Matthew
+Bacon possession of certain deeds pertaining to their property within
+the precinct of Blackfriars.
+
+[Page Heading: Litigation]
+
+Other traces of Shakespeare's business transactions suggest that he was
+by no means averse to going to law. After his resumption of relations
+with Stratford in 1596, we find his parents engaged (November, 1597) in
+a lawsuit, the outcome of which does not appear to recover the mortgaged
+estate of Asbies, which had formed part of his mother's inheritance. The
+years 1600, 1604, 1608, and 1609 all contain records of suits by the
+poet to recover small sums of money; and, on the other hand, we find tax
+collectors in London seeking payment of taxes incurred on his goods
+while he lived in the parish of St. Helen's, Bishopgate, in 1593 or
+1594. These claims Shakespeare satisfied some years later when he was
+living across the river in Southwark. The documents of a law case of
+1612, recently discovered by Professor C. W. Wallace in the Public
+Record office, include Shakespeare's deposition as a witness and add
+some interesting information. It appears that, possibly from 1598 to
+1604, he lodged in the house of Christopher Mountjoy, a wigmaker, at the
+corner of Muggle and Silver streets near Cripplegate. In 1604 he had
+aided in arranging the marriage of Mary Mountjoy to her father's
+apprentice, Stephen Bellott. The lawsuit was brought by Bellott against
+his father-in-law to secure the dowry and promise of inheritance.
+Shakespeare's negotiations in regard to the marriage play an important
+part in the various depositions, as the question whether a dowry of L50
+had been promised was crucial to the case. Shakespeare himself was
+examined on September 11, but the poet failed to remember that a
+definite sum had been agreed upon for the dowry.
+
+Further evidence relating to Shakespeare as a man of substance is to be
+found in letters in the Stratford archives, written by prominent
+townsmen. One, from Abraham Sturley to a relative in London on the
+business of the town of Stratford, dated January 24, 1597-8, contains a
+reference to "Mr. Shaksper" as "willing to disburse some money upon some
+odd yard-land or other at Shottery or near about us," and suggests
+urging upon Shakespeare the purchase of the tithes. It seems fairly
+certain from other letters of Sturley's that this one was addressed to
+Richard Quiney, father of Shakespeare's future son-in-law, Thomas
+Quiney. On October 25 of the same year, this Richard Quiney wrote from
+the Bell in Carter Lane, London, "to my loving friend and countryman,
+Mr. Wm. Shackespere," asking for his help with L30. From a letter from
+Abraham Sturley to Richard Quiney on the following fourth of November it
+appears that Quiney was seeking an enlargement of the charter of
+Stratford, with a view to an increase of revenue. In Sturley's previous
+letter reference had been made to an attempt to gain "an ease and
+discharge of such taxes and subsidies wherewith our town is like to be
+charged, and I assure you I am in great fear and doubt by no means able
+to pay." In this extreme condition of affairs Sturley heard with
+satisfaction "that our countryman Mr. Wm. Shak. would procure us money,
+which I will like of as I shall here when, and where, and how; and I
+pray let not go that occasion if it may sort to any indifferent
+conditions." The poet is probably referred to in still another letter,
+of about the same period, to Richard Quiney, this time from his father
+Adrian: "If you bargain with Wm. Sha., or receive money therefor, bring
+your money home that you may." All of these documents carry the
+unmistakable implication that William Shakespeare in London was regarded
+by his fellow-townsmen as a person of resources, likely to be of service
+to his friends in financial stress.
+
+[Page Heading: Professional Progress]
+
+If we return now to the evidences of Shakespeare's professional
+progress, we shall see whence these resources were derived. Confining
+ourselves still to explicit and unambiguous records, we find the year
+1598 marking Shakespeare's emergence as actor and dramatist into a
+somewhat opener publicity. The quarto editions of _Richard II_ and
+_Love's Labour's Lost_, issued that year, are the first plays to exhibit
+his name on the title-page; and in the 1616 folio edition of Ben
+Jonson's works, attached to _Every Man in His Humour_, is the statement:
+"This Comedie was first Acted in the yeere 1598 by the then L.
+Chamberleyne his servants. The principal Comedians were Will.
+Shakespeare, Aug. Philips, Hen. Condel, Will. Slye, Will. Kempe, Ric.
+Burbadge, Joh. Hemings, Tho. Pope, Chr. Beeston, Joh. Dyke." These
+evidences of prominence are more than corroborated by the famous passage
+in the _Palladis Tamia_ (1598) of Francis Meres, in which he not only
+compares the "mellifluous and honey-tongued Shakespeare" with Ovid for
+his _Venus and Adonis_, his _Lucrece_, "his sugred sonnets among his
+private friends," but with Plautus and Seneca for his excellence "in
+both kinds for the stage; for comedy, witness his Gentlemen of Verona,
+his Errors, his Love Labors Lost, his Love Labours Wonne, his Midsummers
+Night Dreame, and his Merchant of Venice; for tragedy, his Richard the
+2, Richard the 3, Henry the 4, King John, Titus Andronicus, and his
+Romeo and Juliet." Barnfield in the same year harps on the
+"honey-flowing vein" of the author of _Venus_ and _Lucrece_, and
+"honey-tongued" is again the opening epithet of John Weever's epigram
+"Ad Gulielmum Shakespeare" (1599), in which "_Romeo_" and "_Richard_"
+share the praises with the narrative poems. From this time on,
+publishers of the plays recognize Shakespeare's reputation by generally
+placing his name on the title-page: a form of compliment which the
+author probably did not appreciate when it was extended, as in the case
+of _The Passionate Pilgrim_ (1599), to pirated works, some of which were
+meant to be private, and others were not by him at all.
+
+Reminiscences or references to his works are frequent in contemporary
+literature. Among these are several passages in two plays, _The Return
+from Parnassus_, acted in St. John's College, Cambridge, about 1601. In
+one passage, Kempe, the famous actor, speaks slightingly of the acting
+qualities of the plays by university pens and continues, "Why here's our
+fellow Shakespeare puts them all down, ay, and Ben Jonson
+too,"--another identification of the actor and the dramatist
+Shakespeare. Another character in these plays prefers Shakespeare to
+Chaucer, Gower, and Spenser. Less enthusiastic though sincerely
+appreciative is John Webster, who, in the address to the Reader prefixed
+to _The White Devil_, 1612, acknowledges his indebtedness to his
+predecessors, Chapman, Jonson, Beaumont, and Fletcher and to "the right
+happy and copious industry of Master Shakespeare, Master Dekker, and
+Master Heywood." Though of widely varying significance and interest, the
+numerous allusions to Shakespeare or to his plays give further testimony
+to his growing reputation.
+
+[Page Heading: Contemporary Allusions]
+
+While it is probable that the sale of Shakespeare's poems brought him in
+some financial return, he is not likely to have profited from the
+publication of his plays. The playwright at that time sold his product
+to the manager or company, and thereby gave up all rights. To the end of
+the sixteenth century managers usually paid from L5 to L11 for a new
+play, adding a bonus in the case of success, and sometimes a share of
+the proceeds of the second performance. During the first decade of
+Shakespeare's activity as a dramatist, then, we may calculate that he
+obtained for about twenty-one plays an average of about L10 each, which,
+making the usual allowance for the greater purchasing power of money,
+would be equivalent to about $400, or an annual income of about $800.
+During his second decade the prices for plays had so risen that he may
+be estimated to have received about twice as much from this source as
+in the early half of his career.
+
+More profitable than playwriting was acting. Lee estimates Shakespeare's
+salary as an actor before 1599 at L100 a year at least, exclusive of
+special rewards for court performances, and we know that by 1635 an
+actor-shareholder, such as Shakespeare latterly was, had a salary of
+L180. Besides this, he became about 1599 a sharer, with Heming, Condell,
+Philips, and others, in the receipts of the Globe Theater, erected in
+1597-8 by Richard and Cuthbert Burbage. The annual income from a single
+share was over L200, and Shakespeare may have had more than one. In 1610
+he became a sharer also in the smaller Blackfriars Theater, after it had
+been acquired by the Burbages.
+
+The evidence thus accumulated of Shakespeare's having acquired a
+substantial fortune is corroborated by what we know of the earnings of
+other members of his profession, and it leaves no mystery about the
+source of the capital which he invested in real property in Stratford
+and London.
+
+The death of Elizabeth and the accession of James I improved rather than
+impaired Shakespeare's prospects. A patent, dated May 19, 1603,
+authorizes the King's servants, "Lawrence Fletcher, William Shakespeare,
+Richard Burbage ... and the rest of their associats freely to use and
+exercise the arte and faculty of playing comedies, tragedies, histories,
+interludes, moralls, pastorals, stage-plaies, and such other like as
+they have already studied, or hereafter shall use or studie, as well
+for the recreation of our lovinge subjects, as for our solace and
+pleasure when we shall thinke good to see them, duringe our pleasure."
+By this document the Lord Chamberlain's Company became the King's, and
+so remained during the rest of Shakespeare's connection with the stage.
+At least a dozen instances are recorded in the Revels Accounts of the
+Company's having acted before his Majesty, and on the occasion of a
+performance before the court at the Earl of Pembroke's mansion of Wilton
+House, L30 was given them "by way of his majesty's reward."
+Shakespeare's name stands first in a list of nine actors who walked in a
+procession on the occasion of James's entry into London, March 15, 1604,
+when each actor was granted four yards and a half of scarlet cloth for
+cloaks for the occasion.
+
+[Page Heading: Growing Prosperity]
+
+This recognition by the court is the latest evidence we have of
+Shakespeare's belonging to the profession of acting. He is mentioned in
+the Jonson Folio of 1616 as playing a part in _Sejanus_ in 1603; but his
+name is absent from the list of the King's servants, as his company had
+now become, when they performed _Volpone_ in 1605, _The Alchemist_ in
+1610, and _Catiline_ in 1611. It would thus seem that he gave up acting
+shortly after the death of Elizabeth.
+
+The date of his withdrawal from London to Stratford is less precisely
+indicated. The likelihood is that the transference was gradual; for
+after 1611, the date usually conjectured for his retirement from the
+metropolis, we have indications of at least occasional activities there,
+as in the collaboration with Fletcher, now generally admitted, in _Henry
+VIII_ and _The Two Noble Kinsmen_, and in the business dealings in
+Blackfriars already described. On the other hand, he had disposed of his
+shares in the theaters before his death; as we have seen, he appears
+frequently in his last years in connection with municipal affairs in
+Stratford; and later formal references are usually to "William
+Shakespeare, gent., of Stratford-on-Avon." It was during this period
+that we find record of the poet serving in a new capacity. There has
+recently been discovered in the Household Book at Belvoir Castle the
+following entry: "Item 31 Martij (1613) to Mr. Shakspeare in gold about
+my Lordes Impreso xiiij s. To Richard Burbadge for paynting and making
+yt in gold xliiij s. (Total) iiij^li viij^s." This means that the Earl
+of Rutland, who took part in a tournament at Whitehall on March 24,
+1613, had the heraldic device for his shield made by Shakespeare and
+Burbage,--Burbage, whose skill as painter is well known, being probably
+responsible for the design and Shakespeare for the motto. Rutland was a
+friend and associate of that Earl of Southampton to whom Shakespeare had
+dedicated his two narrative poems.
+
+The remaining documents are chiefly domestic. On June 5, 1607, his elder
+daughter Susanna married John Hall, a physician of Stratford, who
+succeeded the poet in the occupancy of New Place; and on September 9,
+1608, the Stratford Register records the burial of his mother, "Mayry
+Shaxspere, wydowe." His younger daughter, Judith, married Thomas Quiney
+on February 10, 1616, with such haste and informality as led to the
+imposition of a fine by the ecclesiastical court at Worcester. In the
+previous month Shakespeare had a draft of his will drawn up by Francis
+Collins, a solicitor of Warwick, and after certain changes this was
+signed in March. On the twenty-fifth of April the Registers show the
+burial of "Will. Shakespeare gent." The monument over his grave gives
+the day of his death as April 23 (Old Style). He was buried in the
+chancel of Stratford Church, and on the grave may still be read the much
+discussed lines:
+
+    Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbeare
+    To dig the dust enclosed heare;
+    Bleste be the man that spares these stones,
+    And curst be he that moves my bones.
+
+William Hall, who visited Stratford in 1694, records the tradition that
+the poet himself composed the lines in a style calculated to impress
+sextons and prevent them from digging up his bones and throwing them
+into the adjacent charnel house. However this may be, the grave has
+remained unopened.
+
+[Page Heading: Death and Burial]
+
+Seven years later, thirty-six of Shakespeare's plays were collected by
+two of his former colleagues of the theater, Heming and Condell, whom he
+had remembered in his will, and published in the famous First Folio.
+The preliminary documents in this volume, printed in our appendix, close
+significantly the contemporary records of the man, and bind together the
+burgess of Stratford with the actor of London and the dramatist of the
+world.
+
+Of Shakespeare's handwriting nothing that can be called his with
+complete assurance has survived except six signatures; one to the
+deposition in the matter of the Mountjoy marriage; one to the deed of
+the house he bought in Blackfriars in 1613, one to the mortgage-deed on
+the same house, executed on the day after the purchase, and one on each
+of the three sheets of paper containing his will, the last of which has
+in addition the words "By me." All six are somewhat crabbed specimens of
+the old English style of handwriting, which is the character he would
+naturally acquire in such a school as that at Stratford in the sixteenth
+century, as we learn from surviving examples of the copy-books of the
+period. The manuscripts of his plays have gone the way of all, or almost
+all, the autographs of the men of letters of his time, nor is it likely
+that future research will add materially to what we have. The exact
+signatures, though it is difficult to be certain of all the letters,
+seem to show a variation in spelling--Shakspere, Shakespere, or
+Shakspeare. His father's name appears in the records of the town in
+sixteen different forms, an illustration of the inconsistency in the
+orthography of proper names, as of other words, which was common with
+people of that time of greater worldly consequence and education than
+the poet or his father. The form of the name used in the present edition
+is that which generally appears on the title-pages of plays ascribed to
+him; it is that which he himself used in signing the dedications of his
+two poems to the Earl of Southampton; it is that which occurs in the
+legal documents having to do with his property; and it is the common
+spelling in the literary allusions of the seventeenth century.
+
+[Page Heading: Signatures and Portraits]
+
+[Illustration: THREE AUTOGRAPH SIGNATURES WRITTEN BY SHAKESPEARE ON
+THREE SHEETS OF HIS WILL
+
+From the document now at Somerset House, London]
+
+Our knowledge of Shakespeare's personal appearance is also far from
+being definite. The bust on the monument in the church at Stratford was
+cut apparently before 1623 by a Dutch stone cutter called Gerard
+Janssen. It was originally colored; probably the eyes light hazel, and
+the hair auburn. Its crude workmanship renders it unreliable as a
+likeness. The frontispiece to the First Folio was engraved for that work
+by Martin Droeshout, who was only twenty-two years old at the time, so
+that he is more likely to have made it from a portrait than from memory.
+No portrait has been found that seems actually to have served this
+purpose, though there are resemblances between the engraving and the
+portrait, dated 1609, presented to the Memorial Picture Gallery at
+Stratford by Mrs. Charles Flower. The numerous other portraits that have
+been claimed as likenesses of the dramatist have varying degrees of
+probability, but none has a pedigree without a flaw. Those with most
+claim to interest are the Ely Palace portrait, the Chandos portrait,
+the Garrick Club bust, and the Kesselstadt death-mask.[2]
+
+[2] See frontispieces in the Tudor Shakespeare to editions of _Henry V_
+(Droeshout original), _King Lear_ (Ely Palace), _Romeo and Juliet_
+(Chandos), _Pericles_ (Garrick Club bust), and _The Tempest_
+(Death-mask). The Stratford Monument and the Droeshout engraving are
+reproduced in the present volume.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Such is the very considerable body of authenticated facts about the life
+of Shakespeare. Lacking though they are in intimate and personal
+touches, they can hardly be said to leave the main outlines of his
+career shadowy or mysterious. But they do not by any means exhaust the
+data at our disposal for forming an impression of the poet's
+personality. A large mass of tradition, of less than legal validity but
+much of it of a high degree of probability, has come down to us, the
+sources of which may now be detailed.
+
+In the seventeenth century we have several biographical and critical
+collections in which Shakespeare figures, the most important being
+these: Fuller's _Worthies of England_ (1662), Aubrey's _Lives of Eminent
+Men_ (compiled 1669-1696), Phillips's _Theatrum Poetarum_ (1675), and
+Langbaine's _English Dramatic Poets_ (1691). The two last are for
+strictly biographical purposes negligible, though interesting as early
+criticism. Fuller began his work in 1643, so that he may be supposed to
+have had access to oral tradition from men who actually knew
+Shakespeare. He gives few facts, but some hints as to temperament.
+"Though his genius generally was jocular and inclining him to
+festivity, yet he could, when so disposed, be solemn and serious....
+Many were the wit-combats betwixt him and Ben Jonson; which two I beheld
+like a Spanish great galleon and an English man-of-war; master Jonson
+(like the former) was built far higher in learning; solid, but slow, in
+his performances. Shakespeare, with the English man-of-war, lesser in
+bulk, but lighter in sailing, could turn with all tides, tack about, and
+take advantage of all winds, by the quickness of his wit and invention."
+
+[Page Heading: Sources of Traditions]
+
+Among the actors who, with Shakespeare, took part in the first
+production of Jonson's _Every Man in His Humour_ was Christopher
+Beeston, who when he died in 1637 was manager of the Cockpit Theater in
+Drury Lane. He was succeeded in this office by his son William, who
+became in his old age the revered transmitter to Restoration players and
+playwrights of the traditions of the great age in which he had spent his
+youth. From him, and from another actor of the same period, John Lacy,
+as well as from other sources, the antiquary John Aubrey collected
+fragments of gossip for his lives of the English poets. According to
+Aubrey's notes, confused and unequal in value, Shakespeare "did act
+exceeding well"; "understood Latin pretty well, for he had been in his
+younger years a schoolmaster in the country"; "was a handsome,
+well-shaped man, very good company, and of a very ready and pleasant
+smooth wit." It is Aubrey, too, that reports that John Shakespeare was
+a butcher, and he adds, "I have been told heretofore by some of the
+neighbours that when he was a boy he exercised his father's trade....
+When he killed a calf, he would doe it in a high style and make a
+speech. There was at that time another butcher's son in this towne, that
+was held not at all inferior to him for a naturall wit, his
+acquaintance, and coetanean, but dyed young." The same writer is
+authority for the statement that it was at Grendon, near Oxford, on the
+road from Stratford to London, that the dramatist "happened to take the
+humour of the constable in Midsummer Night's Dream"--a remark that may
+refer loosely either to Bottom and his friends, or to Dogberry and
+Verges. He also ascribes to the poet an apocryphal epigram on a
+Stratford usurer, John Combe.
+
+The Rev. John Ward, vicar of Stratford-on-Avon for 1662 to 1668, kept
+about the time of his coming to this charge a diary in which he relates
+certain echoes of the conversation of the town at a time when the poet's
+nephews were still living there. From him we hear that in his elder days
+Shakespeare retired to Stratford; that in his most active period he
+wrote two plays a year; that he spent at the rate of L1000 a year; and
+that his death was due to a fever following a "merry meeting" in
+Stratford with Jonson and Drayton.
+
+An additional reference to the tradition of Shakespeare's convivial
+tendencies is to be found in the legend of his visit to Bidford, six
+miles from Stratford, with a group of cronies to compare capacities
+with the Bidford Drinkers. According to the earliest version of this
+somewhat widespread tale, that of a visitor to Stratford in 1762, "he
+enquired of a shepherd for the Bidford Drinkers, who replied they were
+absent but the Bidford sippers were at home, and, I suppose, continued
+the sheepkeeper, they will be sufficient for you; and so, indeed, they
+were; he was forced to take up his lodging under that tree [the
+crab-tree, long pointed out] for some hours."
+
+[Page Heading: Traditions]
+
+The earliest description of Shakespeare as "a glover's son" is found in
+the memoranda of Archdeacon Plume of Rochester, written about 1656.
+Plume adds, "Sir John Mennes saw once his old father in his shop--a
+merry cheeked old man that said, 'Will was a good honest fellow, but he
+darest have crackt a jeast with him at any time.'" No Sir John Mennes
+who could have seen John Shakespeare is known, but the saying may well
+be the echo of contemporary gossip.
+
+A manuscript preserved at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, contains
+certain notes made before 1688 by the Rev. William Fulman. Among them
+are interpolated others (given here in italics) by the Rev. Richard
+Davies previously to 1708. "William Shakespeare was born at
+Stratford-on-Avon in Warwickshire about 1563-4. _Much given to all
+unluckinesse in stealing venison and rabbits, particularly from Sr. ...
+Lucy, who had him whipt and sometimes imprisoned, and at last made him
+fly his native country to his great advancement; but his reveng was so
+sweet that he is his Justice Clodpate, and calls him a great man, and
+that in allusion to his name bore three lowses rampant for his arms._
+From an actor of playes he became a composer. He dyed Apr. 23, 1616,
+aetat 53, probably at Stratford, for there he is buried, and hath a
+monument (Dugd. p. 520), _on which he lays a heavy curse upon any one
+who shall remove his bones. He dyed a papist."_ The inaccuracy of
+Davies's version of facts otherwise known warns us against too great a
+reliance on his individual contribution.
+
+A certain John Dowdall left a short account of places he visited in
+Warwickshire in 1693. He describes the monument and tombstone, giving
+inscriptions, and adds, "The clarke that shew'd me this church is above
+80 years old; he says that this Shakespeare was formerly in this towne
+bound apprentice to a butcher, but that he run from his master to
+London, and there was received into the play-house as a serviture, and
+by this means had an opportunity to be what he afterwards prov'd. He was
+the best of his family, but the male line is extinguished. Not one for
+feare of the curse abovesaid dare touch his gravestone, tho his wife and
+daughters did earnestly desire to be leyd in the same grave with him."
+The traditional explanation of the curse as reported by William Hall,
+has already been given (p. 35).
+
+[Page Heading: Rowe's Biography]
+
+The first regular biography of Shakespeare is that by Nicholas Rowe,
+written as a preface to his edition of the plays which, issued in 1709,
+stands at the beginning of modern Shakespearean interpretation. Though
+compiled nearly a century after the poet's death, Rowe's life has claims
+upon our credit more substantial than might be expected. His chief
+source of information was the great actor Betterton, a Shakespeare
+enthusiast, who had himself taken pains to accumulate facts concerning
+his hero. Much of Betterton's material came to him through John Lowin
+and Joseph Taylor, two actors who had been colleagues of Shakespeare's
+and who lived into the Restoration period. According to John Downes, a
+theatrical prompter in the end of the seventeenth century, these
+veterans brought to the new generation the actual instruction they had
+received from the dramatist himself on the playing of the parts
+respectively of Henry VIII and Hamlet. Theatrical and other traditions
+reached Rowe also through Sir William D'Avenant, the leading figure in
+the revival of the stage after 1660. D'Avenant's father was host of the
+Crown Inn at Oxford, where, according to the statements of Aubrey and of
+Anthony Wood in 1692, Shakespeare was accustomed to put up on his
+journeys between London and Stratford. Wood reports that the elder
+D'Avenant was a "man of grave and saturnine disposition, yet an admirer
+of plays and play-makers, especially Shakespeare," and that Mrs.
+D'Avenant was "a very beautiful woman, of a good wit and conversation."
+William D'Avenant was generally reputed to be Shakespeare's godson, and
+Aubrey, whose gossip must be accepted with great hesitation, says that
+he was not averse to being taken as his son. In spite of the fact of
+this scandal's appearance in various seventeenth century anecdotes, the
+more careful account of the D'Avenants by Wood points to its rejection.
+The story is usually linked with another recorded by the lawyer
+Manningham in his Diary, March 13, 1602, that Burbage, who had been
+playing Richard III, was overheard by Shakespeare making an appointment
+with a lady in the audience. When the tragedian arrived at the
+rendez-vous, he found Shakespeare in possession; and on knocking was
+answered that "William the Conqueror was before Richard the Third."
+
+To return to the D'Avenants, the elder son, Robert, used to tell that
+when he was a child Shakespeare had given him "a hundred kisses." Sir
+William was Rowe's authority for the statement that the Earl of
+Southampton once gave the poet L1000 "to enable him to go through with a
+purchase which he heard he had a mind to"; but no purchase of this
+magnitude by Shakespeare is recorded. D'Avenant himself was said to own
+a complimentary letter written to Shakespeare by James I, and the
+publisher Lintot says that the Duke of Buckinghamshire claimed to have
+examined the document. The story about Shakespeare's first connection
+with the theater consisting in his holding horses outside, told first in
+a manuscript note preserved in the Library of the University of
+Edinburgh, 1748, is also credited to D'Avenant. According to this
+tradition, frequently repeated, the future dramatist organized a regular
+corps of boys and monopolized the business, so that "as long as the
+practice of riding to the play-house continued the waiters that held the
+horses retained the appellation of Shakespeare's Boys."
+
+[Page Heading: Further Traditions]
+
+Many of the natural inferences to be drawn from the data in the first
+part of the chapter are given by Rowe as facts. Thus he states
+positively that Shakespeare attended a free school, from which he was
+withdrawn owing to "the narrowness of his circumstances, and the want of
+assistance at home." He repeats the deer-stealing anecdote, with further
+detail. As to his acting, Rowe reports, "Tho' I have inquir'd, I could
+never meet with any further account of him this way than that the top of
+his performance was the ghost in his own Hamlet." He corroborates the
+general contemporary opinion of Shakespeare's fluency and spontaneity in
+composition. As to his personality, he says, "Besides the advantages of
+his wit, he was in himself a good-natur'd man, of great sweetness in his
+manners and a most agreeable companion." Rowe credits Shakespeare with
+having prevented his company from rejecting one of Jonson's plays at a
+time when Jonson was altogether unknown, and is inclined to consider the
+latter ungenerous in his critical remarks on Shakespeare.
+
+William Oldys, in his manuscript _Adversaria_, now in the British
+Museum, reports a few further fragments of gossip, the chief of which
+is that Shakespeare's brother Gilbert was discovered still living about
+1660 and was questioned by some actors as to his memory of William. All
+he could give them was a vague recollection of his having played the
+part of Adam in _As You Like It_.
+
+Such are the most significant details which tradition, unauthenticated
+but often plausible, has added to our knowledge of the documents. There
+exists also a very considerable amount of literary allusion to
+Shakespeare's productions from 1594 onwards, which is easily accessible
+in collected form. The most notable of these are the comments of his
+friend and contemporary, Ben Jonson. Besides the splendid eulogy
+prefixed to the First Folio, Jonson talked of Shakespeare's lack of art
+to Drummond of Hawthornden, and expressed himself with affection and
+discrimination in the famous passage in _Timber_.
+
+After all allowances have been made for the inaccuracies of oral
+tradition, we may safely gather from those concerning Shakespeare some
+inferences which help to clothe the naked skeleton of the documented
+facts. It is clear that, within a generation after Shakespeare's death,
+common opinion both in Stratford and London recognized that in the actor
+and dramatist a great man had passed away, that he had been in a worldly
+sense highly successful, though starting from unpropitious beginnings,
+that he wrote with great swiftness and ease, and that in his personal
+relations he was gentle, kindly, genial, and witty. That the bailiff's
+son who returned to his native town as a prosperous gentleman, is to be
+identified with the actor and shareholder of the London theaters, and
+with the author of the plays and poems, it is difficult to see how there
+can remain any reasonable doubt; and, though the facts which prove this
+identity contain little to illuminate the vast intellect and soaring
+imagination which created Hamlet and Lear, they contain nothing
+irreconcilable with the personality, which these creations imply rather
+than reveal.
+
+[Page Heading: Evidence of the Sonnets]
+
+One further source of information about Shakespeare's personality has
+figured largely in some biographies. The _Sonnets_ were published in
+1609, evidently without Shakespeare's cooeperation or consent, with a
+dedication by the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, to a Mr. W. H., "the onlie
+begetter of these insuing sonnets." All attempts to identify this Mr. W.
+H. have failed. He may have been merely the person who procured the
+manuscript for Thorpe, though the language of the dedication seems to
+imply that he was the young gentleman who is the subject of a
+considerable number of the poems. Of this young gentleman and of a dark
+lady who seems to have been the occasion of other of the sonnets, much
+has been written, but no facts of Shakespeare's life have been
+established beyond those which are obvious to every reader: that
+Shakespeare wrote admiring and flattering sonnets to a young man who is
+urged to marry (and who may have been the Earl of Southampton, or an
+unknown Mr. W. H., or another); and that he treats of an intrigue with
+some unknown woman. The identification of the young man of the first
+seventeen sonnets with other friends who are praised in later sonnets is
+not certain, though in some cases probable; and much research and
+conjecture have entirely failed to make clear the relations between the
+poet, the rival poet, the lady, and the friend. The _Sonnets_ furnish us
+with no knowledge of Shakespeare's personal affairs, and only a meager
+basis even for gossip as to some of his experiences with men and women.
+
+Another kind of inquiry has sought to discover in the sonnets not facts
+or incidents of Shakespeare's life, but indications of his emotional
+experiences. The results of such inquiry are manifestly outside the
+scope of this chapter. For their discussion, the reader must be referred
+to Professor Alden's introduction to the Tudor edition of the _Sonnets_.
+Shakespeare's personality as it is reflected from his works will also be
+considered in the concluding chapter of this volume. So much stress,
+however, has been placed on interpretations of the sonnets, and these
+have so often occupied an exaggerated place in his biography, that it
+may be worth while to remark that whether these lyrical poems are
+genuine and personal or are conventional and literary, and whether they
+make the poet more clearly discernible or not, they must certainly be
+taken not alone by themselves, but in connection with the dramas as
+affording us an impression of the man who wrote them. Of the sonnets,
+it may be said in almost the same words just now used of the documents
+and traditions, that whether they contain much or little to illuminate
+the vast intellect and soaring imagination which created Hamlet and
+Lear, they contain nothing irreconcilable with the personality which
+these creations imply rather than reveal.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+SHAKESPEARE'S READING
+
+
+We have called the present chapter "Shakespeare's Reading" rather than
+"The Learning of Shakespeare," because, apart from the famous line in
+which Ben Jonson stated that the poet had "small Latin and less Greek,"
+it is evident from the allusions throughout the plays that Shakespeare
+was a reader rather than a scholar. In other words, he used books for
+what interested him; he did not study them for complete mastery; and
+many and varied as are the traces of his literary interests, they have
+the air of being detached fragments that have stuck in a plastic and
+retentive mind, not pieces of systematic erudition. It is true that many
+books have been written to show that Shakespeare had the knowledge of a
+professional in law, medicine, navigation, theology, conveyancing,
+hunting and hawking, horsemanship, politics, and other fields; but such
+works are usually the products of enthusiasts in single subjects, who
+are apt to forget how much a man of acute mind and keen observation can
+pick up of a technical matter that interests him for the time, and how
+intelligently he can use it. The cross-examination of an expert witness
+by an able lawyer is an everyday illustration; and in the literature of
+our own day this kind of versatility is strikingly exemplified in the
+work of such a writer as Mr. Kipling.
+
+[Page Heading: School-Books]
+
+How Shakespeare learned to read and write his own tongue we do not know;
+that he did learn hardly needs to be argued. The free grammar school at
+Stratford-on-Avon, like other schools of its type, was named from its
+function of teaching Latin grammar; and we may make what is known of the
+curricula of such schools in the sixteenth century the basis for our
+inferences as to what Shakespeare learned there.
+
+The accidence, with which the course began, was studied in Lily's
+Grammar, and clear echoes of this well-known work are heard in the
+conversation between Sir Hugh Evans and William Page in _The Merry Wives
+of Windsor_, IV. i, in _1 Henry IV_, II. i. 104, in _Much Ado_, IV. i.
+22, in _Love's Labour's Lost_, IV. ii. 82 (and perhaps, V. i. 10 and
+84), in _Twelfth Night_, II. iii. 2, in _The Taming of the Shrew_, I. i.
+167,--a line of Terence altered by Lily,--and in _Titus Andronicus_, IV.
+ii. 20-23, where Demetrius reads two lines from Horace, and Chiron says,
+
+    O, 'tis a verse in Horace; I know it well.
+    I read it in the grammar long ago.
+
+Such fragments of Latin as we find in the dialogue between Holofernes
+and Nathaniel in _Love's Labour's Lost_, IV. ii, and V. i, are probably
+due to some elementary phrase-book no longer to be identified. It is to
+be noted how prominently this early comedy figures in the list of
+evidences of his school-day memories.
+
+Among the first pieces of connected Latin prose read in the Elizabethan
+schools was _AEsop's Fables_, a collection which, after centuries of
+rewriting and re-compiling for adults, had come in the sixteenth century
+to be regarded chiefly as a school-book, but allusions to which are
+everywhere to be found in the literature of the day. In _2 Henry VI_,
+III. i. 343, and _Richard II_, III. ii. 129, we find references to the
+fable of "The Countryman and a Snake"; in _2 Henry VI_, III. i. 69, and
+_Timon of Athens_, II. i. 28, to "The Crow in Borrowed Feathers"; in _2
+Henry VI_, III. i. 77, to "The Wolf in the Sheep's Skin"; in _King
+John_, II. i. 139, to "The Ass in the Lion's Skin"; in _Henry V_, IV.
+iii. 91, to "The Hunter and the Bear"; in _As You Like It_, I. i. 87, to
+"The Dog that Lost his Teeth"; in _All's Well_, II. i. 71, to "The Fox
+and the Grapes"; besides a number of slighter and less definite
+allusions. The most detailed fable in Shakespeare, that of "The Belly
+and the Members," in _Coriolanus_, I. i. 99, is derived, not from
+_AEsop_, but from Plutarch's _Life of Coriolanus_.
+
+The traces of the well-known collection of sayings from various writers
+called _Sententiae Pueriles_, and of the so-called _Distichs of Cato_,
+both of which were commonly read in the second and third years, are only
+slight. Battista Spagnuoli Mantuanus, whose _Eclogues_, written about
+1500, had become a text-book, is honored with explicit mention as well
+as quotation in _Love's Labour's Lost_, IV. ii. 95. Cicero, who was read
+from the fourth year, has left his mark on only a phrase or two, in
+spite of his importance in Renaissance culture; but Ovid is much more
+important. The motto on the title-page of _Venus and Adonis_ is from the
+_Amores_, and the matter of the poem is from _Metamorphoses_, X. 519
+ff., with features from the stories of Hermaphroditus and Salmacis
+(_Meta._ IV. 285 ff.), and the hunting in Calydon (_Meta._ VIII. 270
+ff.). Ovid is quoted in Latin in three early plays; and even where a
+translation was available, the phrasing of Shakespeare's allusions
+sometimes shows knowledge of the original. Most of Ovid had been
+translated into English before Shakespeare began to write, and Golding's
+version of the _Metamorphoses_ (1567) was used for the references to the
+Actaeon myth in _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_, IV. i. 107 ff., and for a
+famous passage in _The Tempest_, V. i. 33. Livy, who had been translated
+in 1545 according to Malone, seems to have been the chief source of
+_Lucrece_, with some aid from Ovid's _Fasti_, II. 721 ff. Among other
+Ovidian allusions are those to the story of Philomela, so pervasive in
+_Titus Andronicus_; to the Medea myth in four or five passages; to
+Narcissus and Echo, Phaeton, Niobe, Hercules, and a score more of the
+familiar names of classical mythology. Pyramus and Thisbe Shakespeare
+may have read about in Chaucer as well as in Ovid, but Bottom's
+treatment of this story in _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_ gives but a
+slight basis for proving literary relations.
+
+[Page Heading: Ovid]
+
+Virgil followed Ovid in the fifth year, and with Virgil, Terence. Of
+direct knowledge of the latter the plays bear no trace, but of the
+former there seems to be an influence in the description of the painting
+of Troy in _Lucrece_, 1366 ff., and in two short Latin sentences in _2
+Henry VI_, II. i. 24, and IV. i. 117. Horace, Plautus, Juvenal, Persius,
+and Seneca were the new authors taken up in the last years in school.
+All the Horace in the plays may have been taken from other works, like
+the passage already quoted from Lily's Grammar. Juvenal and Persius have
+left no mark. The _Menaechmi_ and _Amphitruo_ of Plautus furnish the
+basis for _The Comedy of Errors_, and no English translation of either
+of these is known before that of the _Menaechmi_ in 1595, which some
+critics think Shakespeare may have seen in manuscript. But no verbal
+similarities confirm this conjecture, and there is no reason why the
+dramatist should not have known both plays at first hand.
+
+The influence of Seneca is dramatically the most important among the
+classical authors. All the plays that go by his name had been translated
+into English in the first part of Elizabeth's reign; he was the main
+channel through which the forms of classical tragedy reached the
+Renaissance; and when Shakespeare began to write he was the dominant
+force in the field of tragedy. This makes it hard to say whether the
+Senecan features in _Titus Andronicus_, _Richard III_, and even
+_Hamlet_, are due to Seneca directly, or to the tradition already well
+established among Shakespeare's earlier contemporaries.
+
+[Page Heading: Results of Schooling]
+
+The impression which the evidence from the textbooks as a whole leaves
+on one is that Shakespeare took from school enough Latin to handle an
+occasional quotation[3] and to extract the plot of a play, but that he
+probably preferred to use a translation when one was to be had. The
+slight acquaintance shown with authors not always read at school,
+Caesar, Livy, Lucan, and Pliny, does not materially alter this
+impression. Much more conclusive as to the effect of his Latin training
+than the literary allusions are the numerous words of Latin origin
+either coined by Shakespeare, or used in such a way as to imply a
+knowledge of their derivation. The discovery of a lost translation may
+modify our views as to whether a particular author was used by him in
+the original, but the evidence from his use of Romance words gives clear
+proof that his schooling was no unimportant element in his mastery of
+speech.
+
+[3] See the list in the appendix to Schmidt's _Lexicon_.
+
+Greek was occasionally begun in the Elizabethan grammar school, but we
+do not know whether this was the case in Stratford. Certainly we have no
+reason to believe that Shakespeare could read Greek, as all his
+knowledge of Greek authors could have been obtained from translations,
+and only two Greek words, _misanthropos_ and _threnos_, occur in his
+writings. Yet no single author was so important in providing material
+for the plays as the Greek Plutarch. His _Lives of Julius Caesar, Marcus
+Brutus, Marcus Antonius_, and _Caius Martius Coriolanus_, in Sir Thomas
+North's translation, are the direct sources of the great Roman
+tragedies, and in a less important way the _Lives of Antonius_ and
+_Alcibiades_ were used in _Timon of Athens_. Homeric elements are
+discoverable in _Troilus and Cressida_, which derives mainly from the
+medieval tradition. As the Trojan story was already familiar on the
+stage, these need not have come from Chapman's Homer. The knowledge of
+Lucian which seems implied in _Timon_ was probably not gained from the
+Greek original. The late Greek romances, which were popular in
+translation, may have been read by Shakespeare, since the reference to
+the "Egyptian thief" in _Twelfth Night_, V. i. 120, is from the
+_AEthiopica_ of Heliodorus, translated in 1569. Attempts have been made
+by the assembling of parallel passages to prove a knowledge of Greek
+tragedy on the part of Shakespeare, but such parallelisms are more
+naturally explained as coincidences arising from the treatment of
+analogous themes and situations.
+
+Of modern languages, French was the easiest for an Elizabethan
+Englishman to acquire, and the French passages and scenes in _Henry V_
+make it fairly certain that Shakespeare had a working knowledge of this
+tongue. Yet, as in the case of Latin, he seems to have preferred a
+translation to an original when he could find it. Montaigne, whose
+influence some have found pervasive in Shakespeare, he certainly used in
+Gonzalo's account of his ideal commonwealth in _The Tempest_, II. i.
+143 ff., but it seems that he employed Florio's translation here.
+Rabelais's Gargantua is explicitly mentioned in _As You Like It_, III,
+ii. 238, and the great humorist is possibly the inspirer of some of Sir
+Andrew's nonsense in _Twelfth Night_, II. iii. 23. Many of the Sonnets
+contain reminiscences of the French sonneteers of the sixteenth century,
+and it is thought that in some cases Shakespeare shows direct
+acquaintance with Ronsard. He was thus acquainted with the three
+greatest French writers of his century, and French may well have been
+the medium through which he reached authors in other languages.
+
+[Page Heading: French and Italian]
+
+The class of Italian literature with which Shakespeare shows most
+acquaintance is that of the _novelle_, though there is no proof that he
+could read the language. The _Decameron_ of Boccaccio contains the
+love-story of _Cymbeline_, though there may have been an intermediary;
+the plot of _All's Well_ came from the same collection, but had been
+translated by Painter in his _Palace of Pleasure_; and the story of the
+caskets in _The Merchant of Venice_ is found in a form closer to
+Shakespeare's in the English translation of the _Gesta Romanorum_ than
+in the _Decameron_. Thus we cannot conclude that the poet knew this work
+as a whole. Similarly with Bandello and Cinthio. The plot of _Much Ado_
+is found in the former, and is translated by Belleforest into French,
+but at least one detail seems to come from Ariosto, and here again an
+intermediary is commonly conjectured. The novel from Cinthio's
+_Hecatommithi_ which formed the basis of _Othello_ existed in a French
+translation; and his form of the plot of _Measure for Measure_ came to
+Shakespeare through the English dramatic version of George Whetstone.
+The version of the bond story in _The Merchant of Venice_ closest to the
+play is in _Il Pecorone_ of Sir Giovanni Fiorentino, but the tale is
+widespread. Incidents in _The Merry Wives_ have sources or parallels in
+the same work, in Straparola's _Piacevoli Notti_, and in Bandello, but
+in both cases English versions were available. A mass of Italian and
+French prototypes lies behind the plot of _Twelfth Night_, but most of
+the details are to be found in the English _Apolonius and Silla_ of
+Barnabe Riche, and there is reason to conjecture a lost English play on
+the subject. _The Taming of the Shrew_, based on an extant older play,
+draws also on Gascoigne's version of Ariosto's _I Suppositi_; and the
+echoes of Petrarch in the Sonnets may well have come through French and
+English imitators. The introduction of stock types from the Italian
+drama, such as the pedant and the braggart-soldier, can be accounted for
+by the previous knowledge of these in England, and does not imply a
+first-hand reading of Italian literature. The negative position is still
+stronger in the case of Spanish, where the use of episodes from George
+of Montemayor's _Diana_ in _The Two Gentlemen_, _Twelfth Night_, and _A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream_, can be supposed to be due to the author's
+having access to Yonge's translation in manuscript, especially since
+there is no other trace of Spanish influence.
+
+[Page Heading: Early English]
+
+The conclusion with regard to Italian and Spanish, then, seems to be
+that Shakespeare in his search for plots was aware of the riches of the
+_novelle_, but that he found what he wanted as a rule in English or
+French versions; and that we have no evidence of his knowledge of
+anything but fiction from these literatures.
+
+Turning now to English, we find Shakespeare's knowledge of books in his
+own tongue beginning after the Conquest. The romances of the Middle Ages
+were in the Elizabethan time rapidly undergoing the process of
+degradation that was soon to end in the chap-books, but the material was
+still widely known. The particular versions read by the dramatist can
+rarely be determined on account of the slight nature of most of the
+references, but we find allusions to the Arthurian romances, to _Guy of
+Warwick_, _Bevis of Hampton_, _The Squire of Low Degree_, Roland and
+Oliver, and to _Huon of Bordeaux_, from which last came the name of
+Oberon as king of the fairies. Among popular ballads, those of Robin
+Hood are frequently alluded to; the story of _King Cophetua and the
+Beggar Maid_ appears in no fewer than five plays; Hamlet knew a ballad
+on Jephtha's daughter, and Sir Toby one on the chaste Susanna. A large
+number of popular songs appear in fragments; and rimes and spells,
+current jests and anecdotes, combine with the fairy-lore of _A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream_, _Romeo and Juliet_, and _The Merry Wives_ to
+assure us that Shakespeare was thoroughly versed in the literature and
+traditions of the people.
+
+His acquaintance with more formal letters begins with Chaucer, whose
+_Knight's Tale_ contributed some details to _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_,
+and the main plot of _The Two Noble Kinsmen_, in which Shakespeare is
+now usually supposed to have had a hand. This story had, however, been
+already dramatized by Richard Edwardes. More certainly direct is his
+knowledge of Chaucer's _Troilus_, which, with Caxton's _Recuyell of the
+Historyes of Troye_, is the main source of _Troilus and Cressida_. The
+references to the leprosy of Cressida are due to Henryson's _Testament
+of Creseide_, a Scots sequel to Chaucer's poem, printed in the sixteenth
+century editions of the older poet's works. In the _Legend of Good
+Women_ he may have found the story of Pyramus, and a version of the
+tragedy of Lucrece, to supplement his main sources in Livy and Ovid.
+Chaucer's contemporary Gower contributed to his stock the story of
+Florent (_Taming of the Shrew_, I. ii. 69) from the _Confessio Amantis_,
+and from the same collection a version of the tale of _Apollonius of
+Tyre_, dramatized by Shakespeare and another in _Pericles_.
+
+[Page Heading: Contemporary Literature]
+
+With the non-dramatic literature produced by Shakespeare's
+contemporaries, we naturally find most evidence of his acquaintance in
+the case of those books which provided material for his plays. Thus the
+otherwise obscure Arthur Brooke, whose poem _Romeus and Juliet_ is the
+chief source of the tragedy, is much more prominent in such an
+enumeration as the present than he probably was in Shakespeare's view of
+the literature of the day. Painter, whose version of the same story in
+his _Palace of Pleasure_ cannot be shown to have been used much, if at
+all, by the dramatist, seems nevertheless to have been known to him; and
+we hardly need evidence that Shakespeare must have kept a watchful eye
+on similar collections of stories, such as Whetstone's, Riche's, and
+Pettie's. Of the greater writers of imaginative literature there is none
+missing from the list of those he knew, though, as has been implied, the
+evidence is not always proportionate to the greatness; and some
+prominent figures in other fields, such as Hooker and Bacon, do not
+appear. Spenser, who is supposed to have alluded to Shakespeare in
+_Colin Clout's come home again_ and, less probably, in _The Teares of
+the Muses_, is in turn alluded to in _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_, V. i.
+52; and his version of the story of Lear in _The Faerie Queene_, II. x,
+is believed to have given Shakespeare his form of the name Cordelia.
+Evidence is more abundant in the case of Sir Philip Sidney. The
+under-plot of _King Lear_ is based on the story of the blind king of
+Paphlagonia in the _Arcadia_, and Sidney's sonnets, along with those of
+Daniel, Drayton, Constable, Watson, and Barnes, formed the main channel
+through which the French and Italian influences reached Shakespeare's.
+However we may estimate the original element in his sonnets, and in our
+opinion it is very great, there is no question of the author's having
+had a thorough familiarity with contemporary sonnetteers.
+
+Similarly we can be certain that he had read many of the elaborate
+narrative poems then in vogue, a class to which he contributed _Venus
+and Adonis_, _Lucrece_, and _A Lover's Complaint_. Daniel's _Rosamond_
+and Marlowe's _Hero and Leander_ especially have left many traces, and
+Daniel's _Barons' Wars_ is intimately related to _Richard II_ and _Henry
+IV_. The longer prose fictions of the time he also watched, and Lyly's
+_Euphues_ contributed the germ of a number of passages, as Lodge's
+_Rosalynde_ and Greene's _Pandosto_ supplied the plots of _As You Like
+It_ and _The Winter's Tale_ respectively.
+
+Reference has already been made to his knowledge of folk beliefs about
+fairies. To this should be added other supernatural beliefs, especially
+as to ghosts, devils, and witches, evidence of his familiarity with
+which will occur to every one. Matters of this sort were much discussed
+in his time, the frequency of ghosts in Senecan plays having made them
+conspicuous in Elizabethan imitations, and religious controversy having
+stimulated interest in demonology. Several important books appeared on
+the subject, and one of these at least Shakespeare read, Harsnett's
+_Declaration of Egregious Popish Impostures_, for from it Edgar, as Poor
+Tom in _King Lear_, derived many of the names and phrases which occur in
+his pretended ravings.
+
+The most useful book in all his reading, if we judge by the amount of
+his work that is based on it, was the second edition of the _Chronicles
+of England, Scotland, and Ireland_, compiled by Raphael Holinshed. With
+it he used the work by Hall on _The Union of Lancaster and York_, the
+_Chronicles_ of Grafton and of Fabyan, and the _Annals_ of John Stowe.
+On these were based the greater number of the historical plays,
+_Macbeth_, and the political part of _Cymbeline_. In the case of _Henry
+VIII_ there should be added the _Acts and Monuments_, better known as
+the _Book of Martyrs_, of John Foxe.
+
+[Page Heading: Contemporary Drama]
+
+To deal adequately with Shakespeare's reading in the plays of his time
+would be to write a history of the Elizabethan drama. Older dramatists,
+like Preston, Gascoigne, and Whetstone, he knew, for he quotes
+_Cambyses_, and from the two last he derives material for the plots of
+_The Taming of the Shrew_ and _Measure for Measure_. Anonymous writers
+supplied the older plays on which he based _King John, King Lear_, and
+_Hamlet_, parts of _Henry V_ and _VI_, and of _Richard III_, and
+probably others. Allusions prove a familiarity with all of Marlowe's
+dramas; _Hamlet_ is indebted to the tradition of which Kyd was one of
+the founders; Lyly taught him much in the handling of light comic
+dialogue; and he quotes lines from Peele. Greene's contribution is less
+specifically marked; but Shakespeare's profession of acting, as well as
+that of play-writing, of necessity made him acquainted with the whole
+dramatic production of the time. Thus, as has been stated in a previous
+chapter, he acted in several of Jonson's plays, and a good case has been
+made out for his modelling his last comedies on the new successes of
+Beaumont and Fletcher.
+
+No Englishman of that day was insensible to what was going on in
+exploration and conquest of the Western World; and in _The Tempest_,
+_Othello_, and other plays we have clear ground for stating that
+Shakespeare shared this interest, and read books like Eden's _History of
+Travayle in the West and East Indies_, Raleigh's _Discoverie of Guiana_,
+and such pamphlets as were used in the vast compilation of Richard
+Hakluyt. The scientific knowledge implied in the plays reflects current
+beliefs, and must have been derived from such works as Pliny, _Batman
+uppon Bartholome his Booke De Proprietatibus Rerum_, and from
+conversation.
+
+Finally, Shakespeare knew his Bible. Several volumes have been written
+to exhibit the extent of this knowledge, and it has been shown by Anders
+that he knew both the Genevan and the Great Bible, as well as the Prayer
+Book.
+
+Taken all together, the amount of literature indicated by this summary
+account of the evidences in the plays and poems abundantly proves the
+statement that Shakespeare, if not a scholar, was a man of wide and
+varied reading. When it is further considered that only a fraction of
+what any author reads leaves a mark that can be identified on what he
+writes, we shall readily allow that in the matter of study Shakespeare
+showed an activity and receptivity of mind that harmonizes with the
+impression received from his creative work.
+
+[Page Heading: His Reading Typical]
+
+It agrees with our impressions of him derived from other sources also,
+that his reading reflects not so much idiosyncrasies of taste as the
+prevalent literary interests of the day. Thus in Latin literature the
+most conspicuous author among general readers, as distinguished from
+scholars, was Ovid, whose romantic narratives appealed to a time which
+reveled in tales gathered from all quarters; and this same prominence of
+Ovid has been shown to exist among the classical authors known to the
+dramatist. Similarly his use of chronicles like that of Holinshed merely
+reflects a widespread interest in national history; and Shakespeare
+shared the popular interest in the translations of _novelle_ and the
+like that poured in from the Continent. The age of Elizabeth was an age
+of great expansion in reading--especially in the literature of
+entertainment. For the first time since the introduction of printing the
+people were free to indulge in books as a recreation, and the enormous
+growth of publishing in this era indicates the response to the new
+demand. In all this Shakespeare took part, and the evidences appear in
+his works so far as the nature of their themes permitted it. But the
+drama gave no opportunity for anything but passing allusions to
+scientific, philosophical, and religious matters, so that direct
+evidence is lacking as to how far Shakespeare was acquainted with what
+was being written in these fields. On the other hand, the profundity of
+his insight into human motive and behavior, the evidences of prolonged
+and severe meditation on human life and the ways of the world, and the
+richness of the philosophical generalizations that lie just below the
+surface of his greater plays, make it difficult to believe that in these
+fields also he did not join in the intellectual activity of his day.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CHRONOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT
+
+
+The value of a knowledge of the order in which an author's works were
+composed no longer needs to be argued. The development of power and
+skill which such knowledge reveals is an important part of biography,
+and an individual work is more surely interpreted when we know the
+period and the circumstances of the author's life in which it was
+written, and what other works, by himself and his fellows, lie nearest
+in point of time. Without a knowledge of chronology, the indebtedness of
+contemporary authors to one another and the growth of literary forms
+cannot be determined.
+
+The fact, so often to be insisted upon, that at the beginning of
+Shakespeare's career stage plays were hardly regarded as literature at
+all and were not published by their authors, deprives us of the evidence
+usually afforded by date of publication. We are thus forced to have
+recourse to a variety of more or less casually recorded data, and to
+indications of differences of maturity in style and matter which are
+often much less clear than could be wished. Before giving the results of
+the research that has been pursued for a century and a half, it will be
+worth while to enumerate the most fruitful methods which have been
+employed, and the sorts of evidence available.
+
+Of purely external evidence, the chief kinds are these: records of the
+performance of plays in letters, diaries, accounts, and the like;
+quotation, allusion, imitation, or parody in other works; entries in the
+books of the Master of the Revels at Court, and in the Register of the
+Stationers' Company; dates on the title-pages of the plays themselves;
+facts and traditions about the life of the author; dates in the lives of
+actors and in the careers of companies known to have performed the
+plays, and in the histories of theaters in which they were presented.
+Instances of some of these are the manuscript which tells of a
+performance of _The Comedy of Errors_ at Gray's Inn in 1594; the diary
+of the quack, Dr. Simon Forman, who witnessed performances of _Macbeth,
+Cymbeline_, and _The Winter's Tale_ at the Globe in 1610 and 1611; the
+appreciation of Shakespeare, with a list of a dozen plays by him, in the
+_Palladis Tamia_[4] of Francis Meres, 1598; and the pamphlets on
+Somers's voyage to Virginia, which offered suggestions for _The
+Tempest_.
+
+[4] See Appendix A, 13.
+
+Partly external and partly internal are the evidences derived from
+allusions in the plays to current events, personal or political, such as
+the reference in the Prologue to _Henry V_ to the expedition of Essex to
+Ireland in 1599; references to other books, like the quotation from
+Marlowe in _As You Like It_, III. v. 82; references from one play of
+Shakespeare's to another, like the promise in the Epilogue to _2 Henry
+IV_ to "continue the story, with Sir John in it, and make you merry with
+fair Katherine of France."
+
+[Page Heading: Kinds of Evidence]
+
+The purely internal evidence is seldom as specific as the external, and
+requires to be handled with much judgment and caution. Most difficult in
+this class is the weighing of considerations of a moral or esthetic
+nature; for, though these are often powerful in their effect on the
+individual reader, they are usually incapable of proof to another person
+with different tastes and a different point of view. Of such tests,
+those afforded by a study of the methods used in the treatment of plot
+and in the development of character are perhaps the least subjective.
+Somewhat more palpable are the changing characteristics of style. The
+number and nature of classical allusions and Latin words and quotations;
+the kind and degree of elaboration of figures of speech, puns, conceits,
+and the like; diffuseness or concentration in the expression of thought;
+artificiality or lifelikeness in the treatment of dialogue; the use of
+prose or verse; the employment of oaths, checked by statute shortly
+after the accession of James I: these are the main aspects of style
+which can be used in determining, not exact dates, but the period of
+Shakespeare's activity within which a given work falls. More capable of
+mechanical calculation than the tests of either matter or style are
+those derived from changes in versification, though here too there is
+often a subjective element in the reckoning. The more important metrical
+tests include the following: the frequency of rhyme, whether in the
+heroic couplet or, as not uncommonly occurs in early plays, in
+alternates and even such elaborate arrangements as the sonnet; doggerel
+lines; alexandrines, or lines of twelve syllables; the presence of an
+extra syllable before a pause within the line; short lines, especially
+at the end of speeches; the substitution of other feet for the regular
+iambic movement of blank verse; weak and light endings; and, most
+valuable, the position of the pause in the line ("end-stopped" or "run
+on"), and feminine endings or hypermetrical lines, such as
+
+    "These many summers in a sea of glor-y."
+
+Many of these variable features were not consciously manipulated by the
+author; and, even when a general drift in a certain direction is clearly
+observable in his practice with regard to them, it is not to be assumed
+that his progress was perfectly regular, without leaps forward and
+occasional returns to an earlier usage. It is to be noted also that the
+subject and atmosphere of a particular play might induce a metrical
+treatment of a special kind, in which case the verse tests would yield
+evidence not primarily chronological at all. Nevertheless, when all
+allowances have been made and all due caution exercised, it will be
+found that the indications of the versification corroborate and
+supplement the external evidences in a valuable way.
+
+[Page Heading: Metrical Tests]
+
+
+TABLE I
+
+=========================================================================
+            |      |      |      |      |   %   |      |   %    |
+            |      |      |      |      |BLANK  |      |SPEECHES|NO. OF
+            |TOTAL |      |      |PENTA-|VERSE  |  %   |ENDING  |LIGHT
+            |NO. OF|      |BLANK |METER |W. FEM.|RUN-ON|WITHIN  |AND WEAK
+            |LINES |PROSE |VERSE |RHYMES|ENDINGS|LINES |THE LINE|ENDINGS
+------------+------+------+------+------+-------+------+--------+--------
+L. L. L.    | 2789 | 1086 |  579 | 1028 |   7.7 | 18.4 |  10.0  |    3
+C. of E.    | 1770 |  240 | 1150 |  380 |  16.6 | 12.9 |   0.6  |    0
+T. G. V.    | 2060 |  409 | 1510 |  116 |  18.4 | 12.4 |   5.8  |    0
+R. III      | 3599 |   55 | 3374 |  170 |  19.5 | 13.1 |   2.9  |    4
+K. J.       | 2553 |    0 | 2403 |  150 |   6.3 | 17.7 |  12.7  |    7
+R. & J.     | 3002 |  405 | 2111 |  486 |   8.2 | 14.2 |  14.9  |    7
+M. N. D.    | 2251 |  441 |  878 |  731 |   7.3 | 13.2 |  17.3  |    1
+R. II       | 2644 |    0 | 2107 |  537 |  11.0 | 19.9 |   7.3  |    4
+Merch.      | 2705 |  673 | 1896 |   93 |  17.6 | 21.5 |  22.2  |    7
+1 Hy. IV    | 3170 | 1464 | 1622 |   84 |   5.1 | 22.8 |  14.2  |    7
+2 Hy. IV    | 3437 | 1860 | 1417 |   74 |  16.3 | 21.4 |  16.8  |    1
+M. W. W.    | 3018 | 2703 |  227 |   69 |  27.2 | 20.1 |  20.5  |    1
+Hy. V       | 3320 | 1531 | 1678 |  101 |  20.5 | 21.8 |  18.3  |    2
+M. Ado.     | 2823 | 2106 |  643 |   40 |  22.9 | 19.3 |  20.7  |    2
+J. C.       | 2440 |  165 | 2241 |   34 |  19.7 | 19.3 |  20.3  |   10
+A. Y. L. I. | 2904 | 1681 |  925 |   71 |  25.5 | 17.1 |  21.6  |    2
+T. N.       | 2684 | 1741 |  763 |  120 |  25.6 | 14.7 |  36.3  |    4
+T. & C.     | 3423 | 1186 | 2025 |  196 |  23.8 | 27.4 |  31.3  |    6
+A. W. W.    | 2981 | 1453 | 1234 |  280 |  29.4 | 28.4 |  74.0  |   13
+Hml.        | 3924 | 1208 | 2490 |   81 |  22.6 | 23.1 |  51.6  |    8
+Meas.       | 2809 | 1134 | 1574 |   73 |  26.1 | 23.0 |  51.4  |    7
+Oth.        | 3324 |  541 | 2672 |   86 |  28.1 | 19.5 |  41.4  |    2
+Lear.       | 3298 |  903 | 2238 |   74 |  28.5 | 29.3 |  60.9  |    6
+Mcb.        | 1993 |  158 | 1588 |  118 |  26.3 | 36.6 |  77.2  |   23
+A. & C.     | 3064 |  255 | 2761 |   42 |  26.5 | 43.3 |  77.5  |   99
+Cor.        | 3392 |  829 | 2521 |   42 |  28.4 | 45.9 |  79.0  |  104
+Cym.        | 3448 |  638 | 2505 |  107 |  30.7 | 46.0 |  85.0  |  130
+W. T.       | 2750 |  844 | 1825 |    0 |  32.9 | 37.5 |  87.6  |  100
+Tmp.        | 2068 |  458 | 1458 |    2 |  35.4 | 41.5 |  84.5  |   67
+=========================================================================
+
+
+TABLE II
+
+COLLABORATED PLAYS
+
+=========================================================================
+            |      |      |      |      |   %   |      |   %    |
+            |      |      |      |      |BLANK  |      |SPEECHES|NO. OF
+            |TOTAL |      |      |PENTA-|VERSE  |  %   |ENDING  |LIGHT
+            |NO. OF|      |BLANK |METER |W. FEM.|RUN-ON|WITHIN  |AND WEAK
+            |LINES |PROSE |VERSE |RHYMES|ENDINGS|LINES |THE LINE|ENDINGS
+------------+------+------+------+------+-------+------+--------+--------
+1 Hy. VI    | 2693 |    0 | 2379 |  314 |   8.2 | 10.4 |   0.5  |  4
+2 Hy. VI    | 3032 |  448 | 2562 |  122 |  13.7 | 11.4 |   1.1  |  3
+3 Hy. VI    | 2904 |    0 | 2749 |  155 |  13.7 |  9.5 |   0.9  |  3
+T. And.     | 2525 |   43 | 2338 |  144 |   8.6 | 12.0 |   2.5  |  5
+T. of S.    | 2671 |  516 | 1971 |  169 |  17.7 |  8.1 |   3.6  | 14
+T. of A.    | 2358 |  596 | 1560 |  184 |  24.7 | 32.5 |  62.8  | 30 (S)
+Per.        | 2386 |  418 | 1436 |  225 |  20.2 | 18.2 |  71.0  | 82 (S)
+Hy. VIII    | 2754 |   67 | 2613 |   16 |  47.3 | 46.3 |  72.4  | 84 (S)
+T. N. K.    | 2734 |  179 | 2468 |   54 |  43.7 |      |        |
+=========================================================================
+
+The accompanying Tables[5] give the detailed results of investigations
+along these lines, and a study of the data therein contained will reveal
+both their possibilities and their limitations. In Tables I and II the
+order of the plays is approximately that of the dates of their
+composition (virtually the same as the dates of first performance). The
+second and third columns cannot be regarded as giving any clue to
+chronology, except that they show that in the dramas written under the
+influence of Marlowe prose is comparatively rare. Elsewhere Shakespeare
+employed prose for a variety of purposes: for low comedy, as in the
+tavern scenes in _Henry IV_, and the scenes in which Sir Toby figures in
+_Twelfth Night_; for repartee, as in the wit-combats of Beatrice and
+Benedick; for purely intellectual and moralizing speeches, such as
+Hamlet's over the skull of Yorick. On the other hand, highly emotional
+scenes are usually in verse, as are romantic passages like the
+conversation of Lorenzo and Jessica in the moonlight at Belmont, or the
+dialogues of Fenton and Anne Page, which contrast with the realistic
+prose of the rest of the _Merry Wives_ and also the artificial
+pastoralism of Silvius and Ph[oe]be in _As You Like It_. Few absolute
+rules can be laid down in the matter, but study of Shakespeare's
+practice reveals an admirable tact in his choice of medium.
+
+[5] The figures here given are based in columns 1, 2, 3, and 4 on the
+calculations of Fleay; in 5, 6, and 7 on those of Koenig; and in 8 on
+those of Ingram. (S) = Shakespeare's scenes.
+
+[Page Heading: Metrical Tests]
+
+The frequency of rhyme, as shown in the fourth column, has more relation
+to date. While there is no very steady gradation, it is clear that in
+his earlier plays he used rhyme freely, while at the close of his career
+he had practically abandoned it. The large number of rhymes in _A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream_ and _Romeo and Juliet_ is accounted for mainly
+by the prevailing lyrical tone of a great part of these plays, while, on
+the other hand, in _All's Well_ it probably points to survivals of an
+earlier first form of this comedy. It ought to be noted that, in the
+figures given here, the rhyming lines in the play scene in _Hamlet_, the
+vision in _Cymbeline_, the masque in _The Tempest_, and the Prologue
+and Epilogue of _Henry VIII_ are not reckoned.
+
+More significant are the percentages in columns five, six, and seven.
+Before 1598, feminine endings never reach twenty per cent of the total
+number of pentameter lines; after that date they are practically always
+above that number, and show a fairly steady increase to the thirty-five
+per cent of _The Tempest_. The variations of run-on lines (which, of
+course, carry with them the frequency of pauses within the line, and
+inversely the growing rarity of end-stopped lines) are closely parallel
+to those of the feminine endings; while the increase in the proportion
+of speeches ending within the line is still more striking. In _The
+Comedy of Errors_ this phenomenon hardly occurs at all; in _The Tempest_
+it happens in over eighty-four per cent of the speeches, the increase
+being especially regular after 1598. Yet in some cases other causes are
+operative. Thus cuts and revisions of plays were apt to leave broken
+lines at the ends of speeches, and the comparatively high percentages in
+_Love's Labour's Lost_, _Romeo and Juliet_, and _All's Well_ are
+probably in part due to these causes.
+
+The phenomena recorded in the last column are peculiar. Previous to the
+date of _Macbeth_ it appears that Shakespeare practically avoided ending
+a line with light or weak words such as prepositions, conjunctions, and
+auxiliary verbs, but that from about 1606 to the end he employed them in
+proportions ranging from 3.53 per cent in _Antony and Cleopatra_ to
+7.14 per cent in his part of _Henry VIII_.
+
+[Page Heading: Risks of Error]
+
+The figures for plays not wholly written by Shakespeare are naturally
+less significant, and have therefore been given separately; yet, on the
+whole, they show the same general tendencies in the use of meter.
+
+It will be observed that while the developments suggested by the
+different columns are fairly consistent, they do not absolutely agree in
+any two cases, and can obviously be used, as has been said, only to
+corroborate other evidence in placing a play in a period, not to fix a
+precise year. Further, in the calculations involved, there are many
+doubtful cases calling for the exercise of individual judgment,
+especially as to what constitutes a run-on line, or a light or weak
+ending. Thus Professor Bradley differs from Koenig in several cases as to
+the figures given in the seventh column, counting the percentage of
+speeches ending within the line as 57 for _Hamlet_, 54 for _Othello_, 69
+for _King Lear_, and 75 for _Macbeth_. For Acts III, IV, and V of
+_Pericles_, the 71 per cent is Bradley's, for which Koenig's 17.1 is
+clearly a mistake. Serious as are such discrepancies, and suggestive of
+a need for a general re-counting of all the more significant phenomena,
+they are not so great as to shake the faith of any scholar who has
+seriously studied the matter in the usefulness of metrical tests as an
+aid in the settling of the chronology.
+
+
+TABLE III
+
+==========================================================================
+ PERIODS |       COMEDIES        |    HISTORIES    |       TRAGEDIES
+---------+-----------------------+-----------------+----------------------
+         | L. L. L.    1591      | 1 Hy. VI 1590-1 |
+         | C. of E.    1591      | 2 Hy. VI 1590-2 |
+    I    | T. G. of V. 1591-2    | 3 Hy. VI 1590-2 |
+         |                       | R. III   1593   |
+         |                       | K. J.    1593   | T. And.    1593-4
+---------+-----------------------+-----------------+----------------------
+         | M. N. D.    1594-5    | R. II    1595   | R. and J.  1594-5
+         | M. of V.    1595-6    |                 |
+         | T. of S.    1596-7    | 1 Hy. IV 1597   |
+   II    | M. W. of W. 1598      | 2 Hy. IV 1598   |
+         | M. Ado      1599      | Hy. V    1599   | J. Caes.    1599
+         | A. Y. L. I. 1599-1600 |                 |
+         | Tw. N.      1601      |                 |
+---------+-----------------------+-----------------+----------------------
+         | T. & C.     1601-2    |                 |
+         | A. Well     1602      |                 |
+         | Meas.       1603      |                 | Ham.       1602, 1603
+         |                       |                 | Oth.       1604
+   III   |                       |                 | Lear       1605-6
+         |                       |                 | Mach.      1606
+         |                       |                 | T. of Ath. 1607
+         | Per.        1607-8    |                 | A. & Cl.   1607-8
+         |                       |                 | Cor.       1609
+---------+-----------------------+-----------------+----------------------
+         | Cymb.       1610      |                 |
+         | W. Tale     1611      |                 |
+   IV    | Temp.       1611      |                 |
+         | T. N. K.    1612-13   | Hy. VIII 1612   |
+         |                       |                 |
+==========================================================================
+
+[Page Heading: First Period]
+
+Table III gives a summary of the results of all the kinds of evidence
+available as recorded in the introduction to individual plays in the
+Tudor Shakespeare. The classification into Comedies, Histories, and
+Tragedies draws attention at once to the changes in the type of drama on
+which Shakespeare concentrated his main attention, and suggests the
+usual division of his activity into four periods. In the first of these,
+extending from the beginning of his writing (perhaps earlier than 1590)
+to the end of 1593, he attempted practically all the forms of drama then
+in vogue. Plays which were given him to revise, or in which he was
+invited to collaborate, may naturally be supposed to have preceded
+independent efforts, and his still undetermined share in _Henry VI_ is
+usually regarded as his earliest dramatic production. What he learned in
+this field of tragic history from his more experienced fellows may be
+seen in _Richard III_, in which he can be observed following in the
+footsteps of Marlowe in the treatment of meter, in the rhetorical and
+lyrical nature of the dialogue, and in the conception of the central
+character. Even less of his individual quality is to be discerned in the
+field of tragedy, for the most that can be claimed for him in _Titus
+Andronicus_ is the re-combination of the repellent episodes of that
+crude specimen of the tragedy of blood, and the rewriting of the lines
+which occasionally cloak the horrors with passages of poetry. If, as is
+unlikely, the first form of _Romeo and Juliet_ was written in this
+period, the extant form must show it so radically revised that it leaves
+us little ground for generalization as to his power in tragedy in this
+first period.
+
+It was in comedy that Shakespeare first showed originality. _Love's
+Labour's Lost_ is one of the few plays whose plots seem to have been due
+to his own invention; and full of sparkle and grace as it is, it bears
+obvious marks of the _tour de force_, the young writer's conscious
+testing of his powers in social satire, in comic situation, and most of
+all in verbal mastery and the manipulation of dialogue. In _The Comedy
+of Errors_ he had the advantage of a definite model in the well-defined
+type of the Plautian comedy; but here again in the doubling of the twins
+and the elaboration of the entanglements there are traces of the
+beginner's delight in technic for its own sake. The clearly contrasted
+types in the two pairs of heroes and heroines of _The Two Gentlemen of
+Verona_ point to a conscious effort in characterization, as the author's
+attention had been concentrated on dialogue and on situation in the
+other two comedies of this group. Thus, regarding the variety of kind
+and the nature of his achievement in these first eight or nine plays, we
+can hardly fail to acquiesce in the general opinion that views the first
+period as one of experiment.
+
+[Page Heading: Second Period]
+
+The chronicle history was the Elizabethan dramatic form whose
+possibilities were first exhausted. _King John_ had been only a making
+over of an earlier work, and perhaps the most significant single change
+Shakespeare made was the excision of the anti-Romanist bias which in the
+older play had made John a Protestant hero. Yet this history voices,
+too, in the speeches of Faulconbridge, that patriotic enthusiasm which
+finds fuller expression in the dying Gaunt's eulogy of England in
+_Richard II_, and culminates in the triumphant heroics of _Henry V_.
+This national enthusiasm, especially ebullient in the years following
+the Great Armada, is justly to be regarded as an important condition of
+the flourishing of these plays on English history; and it is natural to
+suppose that the ebbing of this spirit in the closing years of
+Elizabeth's reign is not unconnected with the decline of this dramatic
+type. There are, however, other causes clearly perceptible. The material
+was nearly exhausted. Almost every prominent national figure for the
+three hundred years before the founding of the Tudor dynasty had been
+put upon the stage; and to come down to more recent times was to meddle
+with matters of controversy, the ashes of which were not yet cold. The
+reign of Henry VIII was not touched till after the death of Elizabeth,
+and the nature of the treatment given to the court of her father by
+Shakespeare and Fletcher corroborates our view. Further, the growing
+mastery of technic which is so clearly perceptible in the comedies of
+the second period must have been accompanied by a restlessness under the
+hampering conditions as to the manipulation of character and plot which
+were imposed by the less plastic material of the chronicles. Some effort
+towards greater freedom the dramatist made in the later histories. The
+earlier plays of this class had been prevailingly tragic; but now he
+supplemented and enlivened the political element with the comic scenes
+which gave us Falstaff; yet these scenes, brilliant as they are in
+dialogue and superb in characterization, are of necessity little more
+than episodes. The form had served its purpose as an outlet for national
+feeling, but it was now outgrown. So distinguished, however, is
+Shakespeare's achievement in this kind that we might be almost justified
+in calling this second period that of the culmination of the chronicle
+history.
+
+The main objection to this title lies in his contemporary
+accomplishment in comedy. _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_ and _The Merchant
+of Venice_, the one in its graceful poetic fancy and dainty lyricism,
+the other in its balanced treatment of all the elements of dramatic
+effectiveness--action, character, and dialogue,--exhibit the dramatist
+in complete control of his technical instruments, the creator of
+masterpieces of romantic comedy. _The Taming of the Shrew_ is a more or
+less perfunctory revision, probably in collaboration, of an older farce
+comedy; _The Merry Wives of Windsor_ bears on its face corroboration of
+the tradition that it was written to order in a fortnight. The power in
+high comedy first fully shown in _The Merchant of Venice_ reaches its
+supreme pitch in the three plays composed at the turn of the century,
+_Much Ado about Nothing_, _As You Like It_, and _Twelfth Night_. In each
+of these a romantic love-tale, laid in some remote holiday world, is
+taken up, given a specific atmosphere, acted out by a group of
+delightful creations who are endowed with intellect, wit, and natural
+affection, bathed in poetic imagination, and yet handled with sufficient
+naturalism to awaken and hold our human sympathies. No more purely
+delightful form of dramatic art has ever been contrived; none has ever
+been treated so as to yield more fully its appropriate charm; so that in
+view of the completeness of the artist's success we are bound to call
+the period which closed with the first year of the seventeenth century
+the triumph of comedy.
+
+[Page Heading: Third Period]
+
+_Julius Caesar_, the first of the plays dealing with Roman history, may
+have been written before 1600, but, whether it preceded _Hamlet_ by one
+year or three, it forms a gradual introduction to the group of the great
+tragedies. Masterly as it is in its delineation of types, rich in
+political wisdom and the knowledge of human nature, splendid in
+rhetoric, it still fails to rise to the intensity of passion that marks
+the succeeding dramas. In _Hamlet_, _Othello_, _King Lear_, and
+_Macbeth_, Shakespeare at length faced the great fundamental forces that
+operate in individual, family, and social life, realized especially
+those that make for moral and physical disaster, took account alike of
+the deepest tendencies in character and of the mystery of external fate
+or accident, exhibited these in action and reaction, in their simplicity
+and their complexity, and wrought out a series of spectacles of the pity
+and terror of human suffering and human sin without parallel in the
+modern world. In these stupendous tragedies he availed himself of all
+the powers with which he was endowed and all the skill which he had
+acquired. His verse has liberated itself from the formalism and monotony
+that had marked it in the earlier plays, and is now free, varied,
+responsive to every mood and every type of passion; the language is
+laden almost to the breaking point with the weight of thought; the
+dialogue ranges from the lightest irony to heart-rending pathos and
+intolerable denunciation; the characters lose all semblance of
+artificial creations and challenge criticism and analysis like any
+personage in history; the action is pregnant with the profoundest
+significance. Hardly, if at all, less powerful are the later tragedies
+of the Roman group. _Antony and Cleopatra_ is unsurpassed for the
+intensity of its picture of passion, for its superb mastery of language,
+for its relentless truth. The more somber scenes of _Coriolanus_ convey
+a tragedy which either on its personal or its political side scarcely
+yields to its predecessors in poignancy and gloom. Whatever else he may
+have written in these years, here is surely the period of tragedy.
+
+Nor do the plays classed as comedies and falling in the first three
+years of the new century seriously modify this impression of the
+prevailing tone of the period. _Troilus and Cressida_, _All's Well that
+Ends Well_, and _Measure for Measure_ present a marked contrast to the
+romantic comedy of the preceding stage. The love-story of the first
+deals with a coquette and ends sordidly; while in the political plot,
+though it gives occasion for speeches full of weighty thinking, jealousy
+and intrigue overwhelm the heroic element. The second, alone of
+Shakespeare's comedies, has a hero who is a rake; and, skilful as is the
+delineation of Helena, it needs all the dramatist's power to hold our
+sympathy and to force us to an unwilling assent to the title. _Measure
+for Measure_ has its scene laid in a city seething in moral corruption:
+out of this rises the central situation of the play; and the presence of
+the most idealistic of Shakespeare's heroines does not avail to
+counterbalance the atmosphere of sin and death that mocks the
+conventional happy ending, and makes this play, even more than the two
+others, seem more in place among the tragedies than among the comedies.
+
+[Page Heading: Fourth Period]
+
+The plays of the last period are, in the Folio, classed with comedies,
+and such no doubt they are if judged merely by the nature of their
+denouements. But if we consider their characteristic note, and the fact
+that through the greater part of each play the forces and passions
+involved are rather those operative in tragedy than in comedy, we easily
+perceive why they have been classed as tragi-comedies or dramatic
+romances. _Pericles_ in many respects stands apart from the other three
+in nature as well as in date, for it is a dramatization of an old Greek
+romance, and in it the hand of another than Shakespeare is only too
+evident. Yet it shares with the others certain common features: like
+_The Tempest_ it has scenes at sea; all four deal with the separation
+and reuniting of families; all show us sympathetic figures deeply
+wronged and finally overcoming their injurers by forgiveness. The
+abounding high spirits of the earlier comedies are here replaced by a
+mood of calm assurance of the ultimate triumph of good and a placid
+faith that survives a rude acquaintance with the evil that is in men's
+hearts. No period has a more distinctive quality than this of the
+dramatic romances, in which the dramatist, on the eve of his retirement
+from London, gave his imagination free play, and in both character and
+action stamped his last creations with the mark of a lofty idealism.
+
+[Page Heading: Interpretation of Periods]
+
+The obvious fitness of this fourfold division into periods inevitably
+raises the question of its causes, and attempts at an answer have run
+along two main lines. One of these has been followed out with much
+eloquence and persuasiveness by Professor Dowden, whose phrases "In the
+Workshop," "In the World," "In the Depths," "On the Heights," to
+describe the four periods, point clearly enough to the kind of
+significance which he finds in the changes in mood and type of play.
+With the first of these phrases few will be disposed to quarrel. In his
+period of experiment Shakespeare's style was as yet comparatively
+unformed, and his attention was so much occupied with problems of
+technic that even the most psychological of critics finds here little
+revelation of personality, and must be content to describe the stage as
+one of professional apprenticeship. In the terms used of the three later
+periods, however, there is an implication that the tone and mood of the
+plays in each are the direct reflection of the emotional experiences
+through which the poet himself was passing at the period of their
+composition. But this is to take for granted a theory of the relation
+between artist and production which has against it the general testimony
+of creator and critic alike. It is not at the pitch of an emotional
+experience that an artist successfully transmutes his life into art, but
+in retrospect, when his recollective imagination reproduces his mood in
+a form capable of being expressed without being dissipated. Of course,
+Shakespeare must have lived and enjoyed and suffered intensely; but this
+does not commit us to a belief in an immediate turning to account of
+personal experience in the writing of drama. His boy, Hamnet, died in
+1596, about the time that he was writing _The Merchant of Venice_ and
+the rollicking farce of _The Taming of the Shrew_, and just before he
+conceived Falstaff; it was fourteen years later that he gave us the
+pathetic figure of the young Mamillius in _The Winter's Tale_. From all
+we know of his personal life, the years of _King Lear_ and _Othello_
+were years of abounding prosperity. The _lacrimae rerum_ that touch the
+mind in these stupendous tragedies are the outcome of profound
+meditation and vivid imagination, not the accompaniment of a cry of
+instant pain. However we are to reconstruct the spiritual biography of
+Shakespeare, it is clear that it is by no such simple reading of his
+life in terms of his treatment of comic or tragic themes.
+
+The other line of explanation will suggest itself to any thoughtful
+student who contemplates the facts summed up in Chapter V on the
+Elizabethan drama. Whatever Shakespeare's preeminence in the quality of
+his work, he was not singular for innovations in kind. Not only are the
+plays of his experimental stage preceded by models easily discerned, but
+throughout his career one can see him eagerly taking up and developing
+varieties of drama on which less capable men had stumbled and for which
+the public had shown relish. Chronicle history, romantic comedy,
+tragedies of blood and revenge, dramatic romance, had all been invented
+by others, and Shakespeare never hesitated to follow their trail when it
+promised to lead to popular success. This does not mean that he did not
+put conscience into his work, but only that the change in type of play
+perceptible from period to period is more safely to be explained by
+changes of theatrical fashion and public taste than by conjectures as to
+the inner life of the dramatist. Nor are we prevented from finding here
+too that great good fortune as to occasion and opportunity that is
+needed, along with whatever natural endowment, to explain the
+achievement of Shakespeare. The return of the vogue of tragedy after he
+had attained maturity and seen life was indeed happy for him and for us;
+as was the rise of the imaginative type of dramatic romance when the
+storm and stress of his youth had gone by. Had the theatrical demand
+called for tragedy when Shakespeare was in the early thirties and light
+comedy when he was in the forties, it seems likely that he would have
+responded to the demand, though we can hardly suppose that the result
+would have been as fortunate as in the existing state of things it
+proved to be.
+
+[Page Heading: Dates of the Poems]
+
+The foregoing discussion has been confined to Shakespeare's plays; the
+poems present problems of their own. _Venus and Adonis_ (1593) and
+_Lucrece_ (1594), indeed, resemble the plays of the first period, with
+which they are contemporary, both in conforming to a familiar type then
+much in vogue, the re-telling in ornate style of classical legends drawn
+chiefly from Ovid, and in exhibiting marks of the conscious exercise of
+technical dexterity. They show the Shakespeare of the dramas mainly in
+their revelation of a remarkable power of detailed observation and their
+richness of phrase and fluency of versification. Vivid and eloquent
+though they are, they can hardly be regarded as affording a sure
+prophecy of the passion and power of characterization that mark his
+mature dramatic production.
+
+The case of the _Sonnets_ is very different. From Meres's mention of
+them in 1598 we know that some had been written and were being
+circulated in manuscript by that date, and certain critics have sought
+to assign the main body of them to the first half of the last decade of
+the sixteenth century. But they were not published till 1609, and many
+of the greatest strike a note of emotion more profound than can be heard
+before the date of _Hamlet_. In writing them, Shakespeare was, to be
+sure, following a vogue, but as Professor Alden has pointed out in his
+introduction to them in the Tudor Shakespeare, they stand apart in
+important respects from the ordinary sonnet sequences of the time. All
+our researches have failed to tell us to whom they were addressed, if,
+indeed, they were addressed to any actual person at all; it is hardly
+necessary to urge that Shakespeare was capable of profound and
+passionate utterance under the impulse of imagination alone. The
+probability is that they were produced at intervals over a period of
+perhaps a dozen years, and that they represent a great variety of moods,
+impulses, and suggestions. While some of them betray signs of youth and
+remind us of the apprentice workman of _Loves Labour's Lost_, others
+display in their depth of thought, intensity of feeling, and superb
+power of incisive and concentrated expression, the full maturity of the
+man and the artist. Hardly in the great tragedies themselves is there
+clearer proof of Shakespeare's supremacy in thought and language.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE ELIZABETHAN DRAMA
+
+
+Shakespeare's lifetime was coincident with a period of extraordinary
+activity and achievement in the drama. By the date of his birth Europe
+was witnessing the passing of the religious drama that had held its
+course for some five centuries, and the creation of new and mixed forms
+under the incentive of classical tragedy and comedy. These new forms
+were at first mainly written by scholars and performed by amateurs, but
+in England, as everywhere else in western Europe, the growth of a class
+of professional actors was threatening to make the drama popular,
+whether it should be new or old, classical or medieval, literary or
+farcical. Court, school, organizations of amateurs, and the strolling
+actors were all rivals in supplying a widespread desire for dramatic
+entertainment; and no boy who went to a grammar school could be ignorant
+that the drama was a form of literature which gave glory to Greece and
+Rome and might yet bestow its laurels on England.
+
+When Shakespeare was twelve years old the first public playhouse was
+built in London. For a time literature held aloof from this public
+stage. Plays aiming at literary distinction were written for schools or
+court, or for the choir boys of St. Paul's and the royal chapel, who,
+however, gave plays in public as well as at court. But the professional
+companies prospered in their permanent theaters, and university men with
+literary ambitions were quick to turn to these theaters as offering a
+means of livelihood. By the time that Shakespeare was twenty-five, Lyly,
+Peele, and Greene had made comedies that were at once popular and
+literary; Kyd had written a tragedy that crowded the pit; and Marlowe
+had brought poetry and genius to triumph on the common stage--where they
+had played no part since the death of Euripides. A native literary drama
+had been created, its alliance with the public playhouses established,
+and at least some of its great traditions had been begun.
+
+The development of the Elizabethan drama for the next twenty-five years
+is of exceptional interest to students of literary history, for in this
+brief period, in connection with the half-dozen theaters of a growing
+city and the demands of its varied population, we may trace the
+beginning, growth, florescence, and decay of many kinds of plays, and of
+many great careers. Actors, audiences, and dramatists all contributed to
+changes in taste and practice and to a development of unexampled
+rapidity and variety. In every detail of dramatic art there was change
+and improvement, a constant addition of new subject-matter, a mastery of
+new methods of technic, and an invention of new kinds of plays. The
+popular successes of Marlowe and Kyd and the early plays of Shakespeare
+himself seemed old-fashioned and crude to the taste of twenty years
+after, yet the triumphs of Shakespeare's maturity failed to exhaust the
+opportunities for innovation and advance. We are amazed to-day at the
+mere number of plays produced, as well as by the number of dramatists
+writing at the same time for this London of two hundred thousand
+inhabitants. To realize how great was the dramatic activity, we must
+remember further that hosts of plays have been lost, and that probably
+there is no author of note whose entire work has survived. By the time,
+however, that Shakespeare withdrew from London to Stratford the drama
+had reached its height. The dozen years from 1600 to 1612 included not
+only Shakespeare's great tragedies, but the best plays of Jonson,
+Chapman, and Webster, and the entire collaboration of Beaumont and
+Fletcher. The only other decades comparable with this in the history of
+the drama are that which heard plays by Sophocles, Euripides, and
+Aristophanes and that other which saw the masterpieces of Racine and
+Moliere.
+
+[Page Heading: Elizabethan Drama]
+
+The greatness of the drama, however, by no means ended with the
+retirement and death of Shakespeare. Some of those who had been his
+early associates continued to write for the stage, and younger men, as
+Fletcher, Massinger, Ford, and Shirley, carried on the traditions of
+their predecessors. If, as in other forms of literature, there was
+decline and decadence during the next twenty-five years, the drama also
+retained initiative, poetry, and intellectual force until the end. It
+was not dead or dying when the outbreak of the Civil War cut short its
+course; in fact, its plays, its traditions, even some of its theaters,
+actors, and dramatists survived the suppression of twenty years and
+helped to start the drama of the Restoration. Had Shakespeare lived to
+the age of seventy-eight he would have seen the closing of the theaters,
+and his lifetime would have covered the crowded history of the drama's
+development from such semi-moralities as _Cambises_ and _The Nice
+Wanton_ to the last plays of Massinger and Shirley.
+
+For nearly a quarter of a century he was a sharer in this dramatic
+movement, working in London as actor, manager, and playwright. While no
+playwright was more desirous than he to find in the stage full
+opportunity for his genius, he was as keen as any in gauging the
+immediate theatrical demand and in meeting the varying conditions of a
+highly competitive profession. As we have already noted, he began by
+imitating those who had won success, and to the end he was adroit in
+taking advantage of a new dramatic fashion or discovery. Like his
+fellows, he often took his plots from novels, histories, or other
+narratives; but his very choice of stories might be determined by the
+theatrical taste of the moment, and in his treatment of those stories he
+shows in person, situation, or scene, a consideration of current
+practices, traditions, and conventions. In every field of literature, a
+writer is conditioned by the work of his predecessors and
+contemporaries, and this dependence on current taste is especially
+important in the drama, where practice tends to fix itself in
+convention, and where innovation to be successful requires cooeperation
+from the actors and approval from the audience as well as genius from
+the author. Though Shakespeare is for all time, he is part and parcel of
+the Elizabethan drama. If his plays are Elizabethan in their defects and
+limitations, such as their trivial puns and word-play, their overcrowded
+imagery, their loose and broken structure, their paucity of female
+roles, their mixture of comic and tragic, their reliance on disguise and
+mistaken identity as motives, their use of improbable or absurd stories;
+they are Elizabethan also in the qualities of their greatness, their
+variety of subject, their intense interest in the portrayal of
+character, the flexibility and audacity of their language, their noble
+and opulent verse, the exquisite idealism of their romantic love, and
+their profound analysis of the sources of human tragedy.
+
+[Page Heading: Beginnings of the Drama]
+
+The Elizabethan drama was a continuation of the medieval drama
+transformed by the influence of classical models, especially the
+comedies of Terence and Plautus and the tragedies of Seneca. In England,
+by the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Miracle and Mystery plays
+were declining and were soon to disappear. The most common type of drama
+for the next sixty years was the Morality, which symbolized life as a
+conflict of vices and virtues or of the body and the soul. The drama was
+rapidly changing from long out-door performances to brief plays that
+could be given almost anywhere by a few actors. The term Interludes
+became common for all such entertainments, and allegorical frameworks
+served to contain a wide variety of matter, farce, pedagogy, politics,
+religion, history, or pageant. Close imitations of the classical forms
+were soon attempted by scholars and men of letters; but as the
+professional actors grew in importance the development of a national
+comedy and tragedy went on without much direction from critics or
+theorists, but rather in response to the demands of actors and audiences
+and to the initiative of authors.
+
+The developments of comedy were numerous. Allegory gradually
+disappeared, and the Morality ceased to exist as a definite type, though
+its symbolization of life and its concern with conduct were handed along
+to the later drama. The plays of Robert Wilson, about 1580, show an
+interesting use of allegory for the purposes of social satire, and
+realism and satire long continued to characterize Elizabethan comedy,
+though for a time confined mostly to incidental scenes. Common and
+incidental also was farce, which is found in most plays of the century
+whether tragic, comic, or moral in their main purpose. Further, it was
+soon discovered that the Plautian scheme of comedy was well suited to
+farcical incident, as in _Gammer Gurton's Needle_ (1552).[6] The
+classical models or their Italian imitations also produced other and
+less domestic imitations, as in Gascoigne's translation of Ariosto's _I
+Suppositi_ (pr. 1566) and Udall's _Ralph Roister Doister_ (1540); a
+little later, Lyly's _Mother Bombie_, Munday's _Two Italian Gentlemen_,
+and Shakespeare's _Comedy of Errors_. Indeed such adaptations continued
+much later and resulted in some of the best farces, or realistic
+comedies of intrigue, as Shakespeare's _Merry Wives of Windsor_ (1598),
+Heywood's _Wise Woman of Hogsdon_ (1604), Jonson's _Epicene_ (1609) and
+_Alchemist_ (1610).
+
+[6] In this chapter the dates appended to the plays indicate the
+conjectured year of presentation. Dates of publication are prefixed by
+_pr_.
+
+[Page Heading: Influence of Plautus]
+
+The Plautian model, however, was far more influential than can be
+indicated by these close adaptations or by any list of direct imitations
+or borrowings. For the Elizabethan it offered a standard of comedy, and
+its plots, persons, and devices were freely used in all kinds of plays,
+romantic as well as realistic, sentimental as well as satirical or
+farcical. The plots of Plautus and Terence offer a series of tricks in
+which the complications are often increased by having the trickster
+tricked. Certain fixed types of character play the parts of gulls or
+gullers, as the old parents, the young lovers, the parasite, the
+braggart soldier, and the clever slave. The intrigue is forwarded by the
+use of disguise, mistaken identity, and most surprising coincidences;
+and it is accomplished by dialogue, often gross and abusive, but usually
+lively. This model served every nation of western Europe, reappearing
+with prolonged vitality in the inventions of Lope de Vega, the "commedia
+del arte" of Italy, and in the masterpieces of Moliere. Much in its
+scheme that seems artificial and theatrical to-day was, we must
+remember, accepted without question by Europe of the sixteenth century
+as essential and desirable in comedy, especially in realistic comedy of
+intrigue or manners.
+
+The plots of Terence, notably that of the _Andria_, also gave some
+encouragement to the modern fondness for adventure and sentimental love,
+and some classical sanction to the abundant romantic material that was
+knocking at the doors of comedy. If by romantic we mean what is strange
+and removed from ordinary experience and what has the attractions of
+wonder, thrill, and idealization, then for the Elizabethan the world of
+romance was a wide one. It included the medieval stories of knights and
+their gests, and also the fresher tales of classical mythology; the
+Americas and Indies of contemporary adventure and the artificial
+Arcadias of humanist imitators of Virgil and Theocritus. Ovid and
+Malory, Homer and Boccaccio, Drake and Sanazzaro, were all contributors.
+The union of this romance with comedy on the stage began in two ways,
+and principally under the innovation of two writers, Lyly and Greene.
+
+The taste for pageants, processions, and tableaux grew and flourished
+under the patronage of the court; and music, dancing, and spectacle were
+combined with dialogue in various court exhibitions and plays given by
+the child actors. John Lyly, writing for these choir boys, developed
+this type of entertainment into a distinct species of comedy. Of his
+eight plays, written at intervals from 1580 to 1593, all but one were in
+prose, and all except the Plautian _Mother Bombie_ adhere loosely to a
+common formula. Classical myth or story, with pastoral elements, and
+occasionally an allegory of contemporary politics, furnish the basis of
+plots with similar love complications. Gods, goddesses, nymphs, fairies,
+and many others add to the spectacle and mingle in the love intrigue,
+and all rise to a graceful dialogue, which quickens to brisk repartee
+when the pages or servants appear. The witty page supersedes the rude
+buffoon of earlier plays, and everything is graceful and ingenious,
+slight in serious interest, but relieved by movement and song.
+
+[Page Heading: Lyly and Greene]
+
+This is the form of comedy which Shakespeare adopted for _Love's
+Labour's Lost_ and perfected in _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_. But Lyly's
+contribution should not be defined merely by this type of drama,
+original as it is in its departure from medieval or classical
+precedents. He showed how comedy might be a courtly and literary
+entertainment and also the playground of fancy and wit.
+
+The second development of romantic comedy came through the dramatization
+of stories of love, adventure, and marvels. To such stories Robert
+Greene gave a heightened charm through the idealization of his heroines.
+His _Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay_ (1590) is a magic play with an
+historical setting; but the interest gathers and centers on the love
+story of Margaret, the Keeper's daughter. In _James IV_ (_c._ 1591) the
+pseudo-historical setting frames the stories of the noble Ida and the
+wronged but faithful Dorothea. In the incidents of the plot, with its
+woman disguised as a page, the faithless lover, and the final
+reconciliation, and also in the sweetness, modesty, and loyalty of the
+heroine, the play reminds us of Shakespeare's comedies and is indeed
+very close to _The Two Gentlemen of Verona_, in which he was clearly
+adopting Greene's formula.
+
+Tragedy naturally lagged somewhat behind comedy as a form of popular
+entertainment. So far as we can judge from the extant plays, there was
+until the appearance of Kyd and Marlowe no real union between Senecan
+imitations like _Gorboduc_ (1562), _Jocasta_ (1566), and _The
+Misfortunes of Arthur_ (1588), on the one hand, and popular medleys of
+morality, tragedy, and farce like _Cambises_ (1565), _Horestes_ (_pr._
+1567), and _Appius and Virginia_ (1563), on the other. Marlowe's
+_Tamburlaine_ (1587) was an epoch-making play because it brought to the
+popular drama true poetry and genuine passion; but it and its successors
+also established a new type of tragedy. Marlowe made no effort to retain
+the structure or themes of classical tragedy; on the contrary, he made
+his plays loosely connected series of scenes dealing with the life and
+death of the hero, crowded with persons and with startling action. In
+this he was conforming to the method of the dramatic narratives that
+pleased the theaters. But each play centers its dramatic interest on a
+mighty protagonist battling with his overweening desires and their
+inevitable disappointment. With the spectacle and sensation, the rant
+and absurdity, there is also dramatic structure and tragic significance
+in the revelation of these protagonists, their volitional struggles, and
+their direful catastrophes. These plays set the key for all Elizabethan
+tragedy, including Shakespeare's _Lear_, _Othello_, and _Macbeth_. They
+were immediately followed by dozens of imitators. All blank verse echoed
+Marlowe's mighty line, and tragedy was filled with ranting conquerors
+like Tamburlaine, monstrous villains like Barabbas, and murders like
+that of Edward II. Shakespeare was his pupil in the _2_ and _3 Henry
+VI_, mastered his methods in _Richard III_, and still wrote in
+emulation, though no longer in imitation, in _Richard II_ and _The
+Merchant of Venice_.
+
+[Page Heading: Marlowe and Kyd]
+
+Within a few months of _Tamburlaine_, appeared a play of almost equal
+influence on subsequent drama, Kyd's _Spanish Tragedy_. Kyd was a
+student of Seneca, a translator of Garnier's _Cornelia_, a Senecan
+imitation; and he adapted some elements of classical tragedy to the
+English stage. The ten plays ascribed to Seneca were the accepted models
+of tragedy in the Renaissance. Their presentation of the more horrible
+stories of Greek tragedy, their rhetorical and aphoristic style, their
+moralizing and their psychology, were all greatly admired. They were
+believed by the Elizabethans to have been acted, and their murders and
+violence seemed to warrant such action on the modern stage; though the
+Elizabethans found less adaptable their use of the chorus, the
+restriction of the number of persons speaking, their long monologues,
+and the limitation of the action to the last phase of a story. Kyd
+modeled his rhetoric on Seneca and retained a vestige of the chorus,
+long soliloquies, and some other traits of Senecan structure; but his
+main borrowing was the essential story of a crime and its punishment. He
+thus brought to the Elizabethan stage the classical theme of
+retribution. In his _Spanish Tragedy_, a murder is avenged under the
+direction of a ghost, by a hesitating and soliloquizing protagonist, who
+is driven through doubt and speculation almost to madness, and then to
+craft, with which he outwits the wily villain and brings all the leading
+_dramatis personae_ to a final slaughter.
+
+Blood revenge was established as the favorite motive of tragedy; the
+conflict of craft between protagonist and villain made up the action,
+and the speculations of the avenger gave a chance for wisdom and
+eloquence. One other play, probably by Kyd, the lost _Hamlet_, also
+presented these features and later formed the basis for Shakespeare's
+tragedy. Other plays, as _Soliman and Perseda_, _The True Tragedy of
+Richard III_, and _Locrine_ immediately adopted Kyd's theme and technic;
+indeed the stage for half a dozen years abounded in avenging heroes,
+diabolical villains, shrieking ghosts, and long soliloquies on fate,
+death, retribution, and kindred themes. _Titus Andronicus_ is quite in
+the Kydian vein. Many plays combined the salient traits of Marlowe and
+Kyd, and henceforth no one wrote tragedy without paying homage to their
+inventions.
+
+[Page Heading: English History Plays]
+
+We have now noticed the most important developments in comedy and
+tragedy made by the time that Shakespeare began writing for the
+theaters; and he made quick use of the progress accomplished by Plautian
+and Lylyan comedy, by Greene's romances, and by the tragedies of Kyd and
+Marlowe. There were other plays not easily classified under these names
+and of less service to Shakespeare. But to the critical playgoer of 1590
+few plays would have seemed either 'right comedies' or 'right
+tragedies.' The majority were mere dramatizations of story without close
+construction or selection of material, seeking merely varied and
+abundant action. They drew their material from all kinds of narrative
+sources, Italian _novelle_, current pamphlets, Latin historians, or
+English chronicles; and, whether historical or fictitious, were usually
+known as Histories, _i.e._, stories.
+
+The patriotic interest in English history fostered the presentation of
+its scenes upon the stage. The chronicles of Halle and Holinshed
+furnished abundant material; and embassies, processions, and pitched
+battles filled the stage with movement. Historical plays might, indeed,
+draw from classical history or from current foreign history, but from
+1590 to 1603 a very large number of plays give scenic representation to
+the reigns of English kings.
+
+Some of these form a distinct class, since, however mixed with comic
+matter, they imitate Kyd or Marlowe and recast the chronicle of a reign
+to fit the accepted subjects of tragedy, the downfall of a prince, the
+revenge for a crime, the overthrow of a tyrant, or the retribution
+brought upon a conspirator or usurper. Conceived under Marlowe's
+influence, and perhaps owing something to his hand, is the tetralogy
+that includes the three parts of _Henry VI_ and _Richard III_.
+
+Those history plays, however, that do not follow the formulas for
+tragedy, are a heterogeneous group not easily classified. They usually
+keep to the loose chronicle method that presented a series of scenes
+without much regard to unity or coherence. Farce, comedy, magic,
+spectacle, heroics, and everything that might have happened was
+permissible in these plays, and perhaps the only thing indispensable was
+a pitched field with opposing armies. Biographical, comic, popular,
+patriotic, or what not, these plays brought a variety of scenes to the
+theaters, but offered only a loose and flexible form rather than any
+dramatic direction or model to the creator of Falstaff.
+
+The early deaths of Greene and Marlowe and the retirement of Lyly left
+Shakespeare the heir of their inventions. Though his plays were at first
+imitative, he soon surpassed his predecessors in gift of expression, in
+depiction of character, and in deftness of dramatic technic. The years
+from 1593 to near the turn of the century are particularly lacking in
+records of plays or theaters; but it seems clear that the main
+developments of the drama were in romantic comedy and chronicle history;
+and it is also clear that Shakespeare was the unquestioned leader in
+both of these forms.
+
+[Page Heading: Shakespeare's Leadership]
+
+In comparison with his associates, he was now the master, relying on his
+own experience rather than on their innovations. Neither the crude but
+popular _Mucedorus_ (1595) nor Dekker's poetical extravagance, _Old
+Fortunatus_ (1596), could contribute to his development of romantic
+comedy; and domestic comedy could not instruct the inventor of Launce
+and Launcelot. Incidental relationships may indeed be noted. _As You
+Like It_, for example, dramatizes a pastoral novel with the addition of
+scenes that recall Robin Hood's forest life, and may owe something to
+the suggestion of two Robin Hood plays by Chettle and Munday, _The
+Downfall and Death of Robert Earl of Huntingdon_ (1598). But, on the
+whole, the indebtedness was on the other side, and imitations indicate
+that men of Shakespeare's day realized that romantic comedy and history
+could not be carried farther.
+
+In fact, a certain reaction set in against these forms of drama. Near
+the close of the century new tendencies became manifest. Comedy tended
+to become more realistic and satiric. Chapman, Marston, Middleton, and
+Jonson, all began writing romantic comedy, but changed shortly to
+realistic. Jonson, in his _Every Man in His Humour_ (1598), announced
+his opposition to the lawless drama which had preceded--whether
+romantic comedy or chronicle history--and proposed the creation of a new
+satirical comedy of manners. He was moved partly by a desire to break
+from past methods in order to bring comedy closer to classical example,
+and partly by a desire for realism, a faithful presentation, analysis,
+and criticism of current manners. The growth of London and the increase
+in luxury and immorality seem to have encouraged such a movement, and
+for the decade after 1598 there were many comedies of London life,
+mostly satiric, and nearly all realistic. Many varieties are to be
+found, from gross representation of the seamy side of city life to
+serious discussion of social questions, and from sympathetic picturing
+of certain trades to satiric exposure of the evils of society.
+
+Jonson's emulation of Aristophanes led him into arrogant personal satire
+in the _Poetaster_ (1601), and there ensued the so-called war of the
+theaters, in which Marston, Dekker, and, according to report,
+Shakespeare were Jonson's opponents. If Shakespeare, indeed, had a share
+in this war, he showed only slight interest in the prevailing comedy.
+_Measure for Measure_ uses the device of a spying duke employed in
+Marston's _Malcontent_, and discusses sexual relationships somewhat in
+the tone of the time, while the scenes dealing with houses of ill fame
+are not unlike similar scenes in the contemporary plays of Middleton,
+Webster, and others. _Troilus and Cressida_, also, show more of a
+satiric temper than is usual in Shakespeare. But neither of these plays
+partakes to any extent of the prevailing satire on contemporary London.
+Wide as was the range of Shakespeare's genius, it seems to have avoided
+the field of satire.
+
+[Page Heading: Realistic Comedy]
+
+A review of the drama must, however, at least remark the importance of
+this development of realistic comedy which flourished in the decade
+after 1598 and continued to the end. Jonson's comedy of 'humors'
+includes _Volpone_ (1605), which overstepped the bounds of comedy in its
+denunciation of evil, the _Alchemist_ (1611), perhaps the best English
+play on the Latin model, and _Bartholomew Fair_ (1614), most original
+and English of them all. Dekker's fine drama of middle class life, _The
+Honest Whore_ (1604), and Heywood's masterpiece, _A Woman Killed with
+Kindness_ (1603), a play suggesting both the sentimental comedy of the
+eighteenth century and the problem play of to-day, also belong to this
+very remarkable era of domestic themes and serious realism.
+
+If Shakespeare did not turn to satire or realism or current social
+problems, he did turn away from chronicle history plays and romantic
+comedies. As we saw in the last chapter, for a period of eight or nine
+years, from _Julius Caesar_ to _Antony and Cleopatra_, he gave his best
+efforts of his maturity to tragedy. The day for mere imitation of
+Seneca, Kyd, or Marlowe, was past; and scholars like Jonson and Chapman
+as well as Shakespeare sought in the tragedy of the public theater, an
+opportunity for wisdom and poetry and a criticism of life.
+
+For models, Shakespeare did not need to go back farther than his own
+_Romeo and Juliet_ and _Richard II_, nor to imitate any other than
+himself. Yet his great plays may have seemed to his contemporaries to
+adopt rather than to depart from current dramatic practices. They belong
+to the Elizabethan 'tragedy of blood'; against a background of courts
+and battles they present the downfall of princes; they rest on
+improbable stories that end in fearful slaughter; they invariably set
+forth great crimes, compact of murder, lust, villainous intrigue, and
+ferocious cruelty. Some of them follow Kyd in recounting a story of
+blood vengeance presided over by ghosts, or discover the retribution due
+for crime in physical torments. Nearly all follow Marlowe in centering
+the tragic interest in the fate of a supernormal protagonist who is
+swayed by an overpowering emotion, and in elevating these human desires
+and passions into tremendous forces that work their waste of devastation
+and ruin on character and life.
+
+[Page Heading: Tragedy]
+
+The contemporary tragedy is brought closest to Shakespeare in the
+relations of the revenge plays to _Hamlet_. The type, introduced by Kyd
+in _The Spanish Tragedy_ and the original _Hamlet_, underwent a special
+development in Marston's _Antonio's Revenge_ (1598) and several other
+plays appearing from 1598 to 1603, that dealt with the blood vengeance
+of a son for a father. At the same time Shakespeare turned to the
+remaking of the old _Hamlet_ and to a new treatment of the old theme,
+yet retained many of the old accessories. Marston reproduces the
+essential story of blood vengeance, presided over by a ghost, crossed by
+both lust and sentimental love, commented on by long soliloquies, and
+accompanied by pretended madness. Chettle, in _Hoffman_, amplifies the
+horrors and villainy and brings the story of the mad girl into closer
+juncture with the main plot than is the case in _Hamlet_. Tourneur,
+writing independently of Shakespeare, introduces, among all sorts of
+horrors, a Christian ghost who forbids blood vengeance and commands
+submission to Providence. Ben Jonson, in his additions to the old
+_Spanish Tragedy_, gives fine imaginative interpretation of the wavering
+moods of meditation, irony, and frenzy with which Kyd had dealt only
+crudely. The later development of this type proceeded without much
+regard to Shakespeare's _Hamlet_, but rather in the direction started by
+Marston's tragedies and his influential tragi-comedy, _The Malcontent_.
+While _Hamlet_ may be described as centering attention on a meditative
+and high-minded avenger, Tourneur, Webster, Middleton, and later
+dramatists found greater interest in the study of villainy and intrigue.
+Revenge is born of depravity rather than duty, and given a setting of
+physical horrors and unnatural lust. Tourneur's _Revenger's Tragedy_
+(1606) and Webster's _White Devil_ (1610) and _Duchess of Malfi_ (1611)
+represent the culmination of this play of revenge, lust, and horror, and
+supply a sort of standard for tragedy until the Civil War. Webster, it
+must be added, was hardly less interested than Shakespeare in character
+and motive, though he chose to study these in a chamber of horrors.
+
+Shakespeare's Roman tragedies also suggest comparison with contemporary
+plays, those either on Roman or on contemporary foreign history.
+Tragedies dealing with Roman history had preceded _Julius Caesar_, but
+that play doubtless stimulated Jonson's _Sejanus_ (1603) and _Catiline_
+(1611). Both these plays attempted an approach to classical structure
+and a thorough study and digest of classical history. This effort to
+make tragedy a serious and authoritative interpretation of history was
+also shared by Chapman in his plays dealing with contemporary French
+history, _1_ and _2 Bussy D'Ambois_ (1601-1607) and _1_ and _2 Biron_
+(1608). While Jonson strove to free his style from the abundance of
+conceits, figures, and passages of description that had characterized
+earlier drama, Chapman used every chance to crowd his verse with
+far-stretched figure and weighty apothegm. At its worst it is peculiarly
+representative of Elizabethan confusion and bombast; at its best it is
+closest of all in its resemblance to Shakespeare's. Like Jonson and
+Chapman, Shakespeare sought historical backgrounds for his characters
+and found a fascination in the interpretation of the motives of the
+great protagonists of the world of antiquity. It is worthy of note,
+however, that he seems to have taken no interest in another class of
+subjects much favored by his contemporaries. Contemporary crimes
+treated with an excess of realism and didactic conclusions are common in
+drama from _Arden of Feversham_ (1590) on, and engaged the services of
+Jonson, Webster, Ford, Dekker, and others.
+
+[Page Heading: Beaumont and Fletcher]
+
+About 1607 a new departure appeared in the work of the dramatic
+collaborators, Beaumont and Fletcher. After some experiments, they won,
+in their tragi-comedies, _Philaster_ (1608) and _A King and No King_
+(1610), and their tragedy, _The Maid's Tragedy_ (1609), great theatrical
+successes, and in these and similar plays established a new kind of
+dramatic romance. The realistic comedies of Jonson and Middleton, which,
+along with the great tragedies of Shakespeare, crowd the stage history
+of the preceding ten years, had offered nothing similar to these
+romances which joined tragic and idyllic material in scenes of brilliant
+theatrical effectiveness, abounding in transitions from suspense to
+surprise, and culminating in telling denouements. This new realm of
+romance is an artificial one, contrasting pure love with horrid
+entanglements of lust, and ever bringing love in conflict with duty,
+friendship, or the code of honor. In its intriguing courts, or in nearby
+forests where the idyls are placed, love of one kind or another is the
+ruling and vehement passion, riding high-handed over tottering thrones,
+rebellious subjects, usurping tyrants, and checked, if checked at all,
+only by the unexampled force of honor. Romance, in short, depends on
+situation, on the artificial but skilful juxtaposition of emotions and
+persons, and on the new technic that sacrifices consistency of
+characterization for surprise. Characterization tends to become typical,
+and motives tend to be based on fixed conventions, such as the code of
+honor might dictate to a seventeenth-century gentleman; but the lack of
+individuality in character is counterbalanced by the vividness with
+which the lovers, tyrants, faithful friends, evil women, and sentimental
+heroines are presented, and by the fluent and lucid style which varies
+to any emotional requirement and rises to the demands of the most
+sensational situations.
+
+_Cymbeline_ in its plot bears some close resemblances to _Philaster_,
+and it seems likely that Shakespeare was adopting the methods and
+materials of the new romance. At all events, he turned from tragedy to
+romance, and in _Cymbeline_ and the far more original and successful
+_Winter's Tale_ and _Tempest_ produced tragi-comedies that, like
+Beaumont and Fletcher's, rely on a contrast of tragic and idyllic and on
+surprising plots and idealized heroines. After Beaumont's retirement in
+1611 or 1612, it seems probable that Fletcher and Shakespeare
+collaborated together on _Henry VIII_ and _The Two Noble Kinsmen_.
+
+There is ample evidence that the plays of Beaumont and Fletcher won a
+great popular renown, surpassing for a time those of Shakespeare and all
+others. Beaumont did not live long after he ceased to write for the
+stage, dying at thirty, in the same year as Shakespeare. Jonson had
+given up dramatic writing for the time, and Fletcher was left the chief
+writer for Shakespeare's old company and the undoubted leader of the
+theater. Including the plays written in collaboration with Beaumont,
+Shakespeare, and later with Massinger, he left some sixty dramas of many
+kinds, varying from farcical comedy of manners to the most extreme
+tragedy. The comedies of manners present the affairs of women, and spice
+their lively conversation and surprising situations with a wit that
+often reminds one of the Restoration; indeed they carry the development
+of comedy nearly to the point where Wycherley and Congreve began. The
+tragi-comedies, which display the qualities already noted as belonging
+to the romances, have the technical advantage that the disentanglement
+of their rapid plots and sub-plots is left hanging in the balance until
+the very end. The happy ending to tragic entanglements won a favor it
+has never lost on the English stage, and tragi-comedy of the Fletcherian
+type continued the most popular form of the drama until Dryden.
+
+[Page Heading: Tragi-Comedy]
+
+It is unnecessary here to dwell long over the drama after Shakespeare's
+death. Jonson, Dekker, Heywood, and Webster wrote from time to time, and
+Middleton devoted his versatile talent to whatever kind of play was in
+vogue, now rather to Websterian tragedy and Fletcherian tragi-comedy
+than to realistic comedy. Yet, in collaboration with Rowley, he produced
+the powerful tragedy, _The Changeling_, and the much-admired
+tragi-comedy, _A Fair Quarrel_. After Fletcher's death in 1625,
+Massinger took his place as leader of the stage, and his work, with that
+of Ford and Shirley, carry on the great traditions of the drama to the
+very end. A host of minor writers, as Brome, D'Avenant, Suckling,
+Cartwright, offer little that is new; but no survey of the drama,
+however brief, can neglect to mention the skilful exposition, admirable
+psychology, and sound structural principles that characterized the best
+of Massinger's many plays, the unique and amazing dramatic genius shown
+in Ford's masterpieces, _The Broken Heart_ and _'Tis Pity She's a
+Whore_, and the ingenuity in plot, adroitness in characterization, and
+genuine poetic gifts of Shirley.
+
+Comedies from 1616 to 1642 reveal two chief influences; they are
+realistic and satiric, following Jonson, or they are light-hearted,
+lively combinations of manners and intrigue, after Fletcher. In the
+former class are Massinger's two great comedies, _The City Madam_ and _A
+New Way to Pay Old Debts_. To the latter class belong most of the
+comedies of Shirley. Tragi-comedies follow Fletcher with the variations
+due to the authors' ingenuity, and include perhaps the most attractive
+plays of Massinger and Shirley. Tragedies usually mingle lust, devilish
+intrigue, physical horror, after the fashion of Webster and Tourneur,
+but now often with romantic variation on the theme of love, and a
+technic of suspense and surprise similar to Beaumont and Fletcher. These
+are the main tendencies in the last twenty years of the drama, and
+characterize in the large the work of the greater men as well as of the
+less. Shakespeare's influence is widespread, but appears incidentally in
+particular scene, situation, character, or phrase, rather than as
+affecting the main course and fashions of the drama. After the
+publication of his plays in 1623, this incidental influence increased,
+and is distinctly noticeable in the plays of Ford and Shirley.
+
+[Page Heading: Pastoral and Masque]
+
+A glance must suffice for two dramatic forms that had only slight
+connection with the public theaters, the Pastoral Play and the Court
+Masque. Pastoral elements are found in many early entertainments and in
+the plays of Lyly and Peele. Later, in imitation of Guarini's _Il Pastor
+Fido_, attempts were made to inaugurate a pastoral drama, presenting a
+full-fledged dramatic exposition of the golden age. Daniel's _Queen's
+Arcadia_ (1605) and Fletcher's _Faithful Shepherdess_ (1609) had many
+later followers, but the form won no permanent hold on the popular
+taste. Traces of its influence, however, may often be seen, as in
+Shakespeare's _As You Like It_, or Beaumont and Fletcher's _Philaster_.
+The masque, originally only a masquerade, soon acquired some dramatic
+accompaniment, and in the court of James I developed into an elaborate
+form of entertainment. The masked dance of the ladies and gentlemen of
+the court was merely the focus for dialogue, elaborate setting,
+spectacle, music, and grotesque dances by professionals. These shows,
+costing vast sums for staging, costumes, and music, depended for their
+success mainly on the architect Inigo Jones, but in some degree also on
+Ben Jonson, who was the creator of the Court Masque as a literary form.
+Such expensive spectacles were far beyond the reach of the public
+theater, but provoked considerable imitation, as in Shakespeare's
+_Tempest_, or several of Beaumont and Fletcher's plays. Later Milton
+immortalized the form in _Comus_.
+
+The most hasty review of the Elizabethan drama must suggest how
+constantly Shakespeare responded to its prevailing conditions. There
+are, of course, great variations in the signs which different plays
+offer of contemporary influence and peculiarity. So it is with most of
+his fellow dramatists. _Lear_ and _Othello_ were perhaps written within
+the same year, yet _Othello_, in its unity, its technical excellence,
+and its depiction of character, is the most modern of the tragedies,
+while _Lear_, with its impossible story, its horrors, its treatment of
+madness, its likeness to the chronicle plays, its prolonged passage from
+crisis to catastrophe, in its very conception, is the most Elizabethan,
+though perhaps the most impressive of the tragedies. _Twelfth Night_ is
+suited to any stage, but _Troilus and Cressida_ and _Pericles_ are
+hardly conceivable except on the Elizabethan. Despite such variations,
+however, Shakespeare's relations to the contemporary drama were
+manifestly constant and immediate. If it was rarely a question with him
+what the ancients had written, it was always a question what was being
+acted and what was successful at the moment. His own growth in dramatic
+power goes step by step with the rapid and varied development of the
+drama, and the measure for comparison must be, not by decades, but by
+years or months.
+
+[Page Heading: Shakespeare and His Contemporaries]
+
+A study of the Elizabethan drama may help to excuse some of the faults
+and limitations of Shakespeare, but it also enforces his merits. Both
+faults and merits are often to be understood in the efforts of lesser
+men to do what he did. We admire his triumphs the more as we consider
+their failures. Yet they often had admirable success, and their triumphs
+as well as his are due in part to the dramatic conditions which gave the
+freest opportunity for individual initiative in language, verse, story,
+and construction. Noble bursts of poetry, richness and variety of life,
+an intense interest in human nature, comic or tragic--these are the
+great merits of that drama. That in a superlative degree they are also
+the characteristics of Shakespeare is not due solely to his exceptional
+genius, but to the fact that his genius worked in a favorable
+environment.
+
+[Illustration: A TYPICAL SHAKESPEREAN STAGE
+
+From Albright's _Shaksperian Stage_]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE ELIZABETHAN THEATER
+
+
+In 1576, James Burbage, father of the great actor, Richard Burbage, and
+himself a member of the Earl of Leicester's company, built the first
+London playhouse, the Theater in Shoreditch. In the next year a second
+playhouse, the Curtain, was erected nearby, and these seem to have
+remained the only theaters until 1587-1588, when probably the Rose, on
+the Bankside, was built by Henslowe. In 1599 Richard and Cuthbert
+Burbage, after some difficulty over their lease, demolished the old
+Theater and used the timber for the Globe, near the Rose, on the
+Bankside. The Swan, another theater, had been built there in 1594,
+somewhat to the west; and in 1614 the Hope was erected hard by the old
+Rose and the new Globe, which in 1613 had replaced the old Globe.
+Meantime the Fortune had been built by Henslowe and Alleyn in 1600 in
+Golden Lane to the north of Cripplegate, on the model of the Globe, and
+the Red Bull was erected in the upper end of St. John's Street about
+1603-1607. These were all public theaters, open to the air, built of
+wood, outside the city limits and the jurisdiction of the city
+corporation.
+
+Before the Theater, plays had been acted in various places about the
+city, and especially in inn-yards, some of which long continued to be
+used for dramatic performances. At an early date also, the companies of
+children actors connected with the choirs of St. Paul's and the Queen's
+Chapel had given public performances, probably indoors, at places near
+St. Paul's and in Blackfriars. When the Burbages were in difficulties
+about the Theater, they had leased certain rooms in the dismantled
+monastery of Blackfriars, but had then released these to a company of
+children which acted there for some years. In 1608 the Burbages regained
+possession of this property, and Shakespeare's company began acting
+there. This Blackfriars theater was known as a private theater in order
+to avoid the application of certain statutes directed against the public
+theaters, but it differed from them merely in being indoors, with
+artificial lights, and higher prices. It was used by Shakespeare's
+company as a winter theater, while the Globe served for summer
+performances, and it was the model for various other private theaters,
+two of which survived the Protectorate and became in turn the models for
+the Restoration Theater. Drury Lane and Covent Garden, indeed, trace
+their ancestry back directly to the Blackfriars through the Cockpit and
+the Salisbury Court playhouses.
+
+The companies of actors which occupied these theaters were cooeperative
+organizations. Eight or ten actors formed a company, leased a theater,
+hired supernumeraries, bought plays, and shared in the profits. In
+Elizabeth's reign they secured a legal position by obtaining a license
+from some nobleman, and so were known as the Earl of Leicester's men,
+Lord Admiral's men, and so on. On the accession of James I, the leading
+London companies were taken directly under patronage of members of the
+royal family. During Shakespeare's time there were innumerable
+companies, but the tendency was for the best actors to become associated
+in a few companies, and for each company to keep to a particular
+theater; so that at the accession of James I, there were only five adult
+companies in London with permanent theaters. The best companies were
+frequently employed to act at court, and during the summer or when the
+plague was raging in London, they often toured the country. The
+children's companies flourished from time to time, and especially from
+1599-1607 they were, as we learn from _Hamlet_, formidable rivals of the
+men.
+
+[Page Heading: Companies of Actors]
+
+The history of the adult companies shows the growth of two distinct
+interests, that of Henslowe and Alleyn, and that of the Burbages.
+Henslowe, whose diary is one of the chief documents for the history of
+the theater, built the Rose, and in partnership with his son-in-law, the
+famous actor Alleyn, controlled the Fortune and the Hope, and the
+companies known as the Admiral's and the Earl of Worcester's men, and
+later on the Queen's and the Prince's men. The Burbages owned the
+Theater, the Globe, and the Blackfriars, and were in control of
+Shakespeare's company. This company, at first the Earl of Leicester's
+men, was known by the names of its various patrons, Strange's, Derby's,
+Hunsdon's, and the Lord Chamberlain's, until in 1603 it became the
+King's men. For a short time, as Lord Strange's men, it acted at the
+Rose, and apparently later at the playhouse in Newington Butts, but its
+regular theaters were the Theater, the Globe, and Blackfriars. With this
+company Shakespeare was connected from the beginning, and he aided in
+making it the chief London company. For a time, Alleyn and the Admiral's
+men were its close rivals, but even before the accession of James I,
+Shakespeare and Burbage had given it a supremacy that it maintained to
+the closing of the theaters.
+
+There are various pictures of the exterior of Elizabethan theaters in
+the contemporary maps or views of London, the best representation of the
+four Bankside theaters being the engraving of Hollar printed in the
+Tudor edition of _Twelfth Night_. This was first published in
+_Londinopolis_, 1657, but represents the Bankside as it was about 1620.
+Four pictures of interiors have been preserved, that from Kirkman's
+_Drolls_, those from the title-pages of _Roxana_ and _Messalina_, and
+the DeWitt drawing of the Swan, reproduced in the Tudor Shakespeare, _1
+Henry VI_. The drawing from Kirkman's _Drolls_ is usually known as the
+Red Bull stage, but it was not issued until 1679, and does not seem to
+have anything to do with the Red Bull or with any other regular
+theater. The _Messalina_ and _Roxana_ pictures are small, and both show
+a rear curtain and a projecting stage. The DeWitt drawing was done from
+hearsay evidence, is inaccurate in details, and represents a theater
+with a movable stage, probably not long regularly used for plays; it
+gives little idea of the stage, but does afford a good general notion of
+the interior of a public theater. The contract for the Fortune theater,
+built on the model of the Globe, except that it was square instead of
+octagonal, has been preserved and enables us to complete this view of
+the interior in detail.
+
+[Page Heading: Public Theaters]
+
+The public theaters were usually round, or nearly round, wooden
+buildings of three stories. These stories were occupied by tiers of
+galleries encircling the pit, which was open to the air. The stage
+projected halfway into the pit, and was provided with dressing rooms in
+the rear, and a protecting roof overhead, supported in some cases by
+pillars. At the top was the 'hut', a room used to provide apparatus for
+raising and lowering persons or properties from the stage, Light when
+needed was provided by torches. Admission to standing room in the pit
+was usually only a penny, but seats in the gallery or boxes or on the
+stage cost much more, rising as high as half a crown. Performances were
+given on every fair day except Sunday, and a flag flying from the hut
+indicated that a play was to be performed. Some of the public playhouses
+were used for acrobats, fencing, or even bear-baiting as well as for
+plays; but the better theaters, as the Globe and Fortune, seem to have
+been limited to dramatic performances.
+
+The size and arrangement of the stage doubtless varied somewhat with the
+different theaters, and considerable changes seem to have been
+introduced by the indoor private theaters. But the Curtain was used from
+1577 to 1642, some new theaters were modeled closely on the old, and the
+same plays were acted on different stages, so it is apparent that in all
+the stage was the same in its main features. For clearness these may be
+again enumerated. The stage was a platform projecting into the pit, open
+on three sides, and without any front curtain. In the rear were two
+doors, and between them, an alcove, or inner stage, separated from the
+front stage by curtains. Above the inner stage was a gallery, also
+provided with curtains, and over the doors were windows or balconies.
+The arrangement of doors, inner stage, gallery, and curtain may have
+varied somewhat, but the essential elements are a curtained space at the
+rear, and a gallery above. Trap-doors were also provided, and the hut
+overhead supplied the machinery for ascents and descents of gods and
+goddesses.
+
+[Page Heading: The Fortune Theater]
+
+Our diagram for the ground floor of the Fortune shows a square-cornered
+stage with doors flat on the rear, while the perspective drawing from
+Dr. Albright's _Shaksperian Stage_ shows a tapering stage, as in the
+_Messalina_ picture, with doors on the bias. Some stages may have had
+rounded corners with doors in the side. The pillars were not necessary
+in the private theaters; or in some public houses where other means were
+found for supporting the roof.
+
+[Illustration: GROUND PLAN OF THE FORTUNE THEATER
+
+Dimensions: 80 ft. square on the outside; 55 ft. square on the inside,
+the stage 43 ft. wide and extending to the middle of the pit.]
+
+The performance of a play differed in many ways from one to-day. There
+was no scenery and there were no women actors. Though scenes were used
+in court performances as early as 1604, they do not seem to have been
+employed by the professional companies to any extent until after the
+Restoration. Female parts were taken by boys, and, except in plays acted
+by the children's companies, there were rarely more than two important
+female characters in a play. Though without scenery, the Elizabethan
+stage was by no means devoid of spectacle. Processions, battles, all
+kinds of mythological beings, ascents to heaven, descents to hell,
+fire-works, and elaborate properties, were employed. Numerous
+contemporary plays indicate that neither the fairyland of _A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream_, nor the magnificent court of _Henry VIII_, was
+devised without an eye to the resources of the stage. Large sums of
+money were lavished on costumes, the cost of a coat often exceeding the
+price paid an author for a play. Costume was anachronistic; Cleopatra
+was impersonated by a boy in stays and farthingale; and Caesar, probably
+by Burbage, in a costume much like that worn by the Earl of Essex. Some
+attention, however, was paid to appropriateness. Shepherds were clothed
+in white, hunters in green; and doubtless mermaids, fairies, Venuses,
+and satyrs were given as appropriate a dress as fancy could devise. The
+action of a play seems usually to have been completed in two hours.
+There was sometimes music between the acts, but there were no long
+waits, and little stage business.
+
+[Page Heading: Stage Presentation]
+
+The peculiarities in the presentation of a play due to the arrangement
+of the stage were considerable, and have been the subject of much
+discussion and misunderstanding among investigators. There is, however,
+no doubt that the action was largely on the front stage, and that most
+of the scenes, at least in Shakespeare's lifetime, were designed for
+presentation on this projecting platform. Since there was no
+drop-curtain, actors had some distance to traverse, on entrances and
+exits, between the doors and the front. At the end of a scene or a play,
+all must retire, and the bodies of the dead must be carried out. Hence a
+tragedy often ends with a funeral procession, a comedy with a dance. The
+indications of scene supplied by modern editors for Shakespeare's plays
+help to visualize a modern presentation, but are misleading as to
+Shakespeare's intentions or an Elizabethan performance. The majority of
+scenes in his plays differ strikingly from those in a modern play in
+that they offer no hints as to the exact locality. Often it is not clear
+from the text whether the scene is conceived as indoors or outdoors, in
+the palace, or the courtyard, or before the entrance. Even when the
+scene is presumably within a room, there is often no indication of the
+nature of the furnishings, never any of the elaborate attention to
+details of setting, such as we find in a play by Pinero or Shaw.
+Sometimes placards were hung up indicating the scene of a play, but
+apparently these merely gave the general scene, as "Venice" or "Verona,"
+and did not often designate localities more closely. In fact the
+majority of the scenes were probably written with no precise conception
+of their setting. They were written to be acted on a front stage, bare
+of scenery, projecting out into the audience. This did not represent a
+particular locality, but rather any locality whatever.
+
+The inner stage and the gallery above, and to some extent the doors and
+the windows, were used to indicate specific localities when these were
+necessary. The gallery represented the wall of a town, an upper story of
+a house, or any elevated locality. The doors represented doors to houses
+or gates to a city, and the windows or balconies over them were often
+used for the windows of the houses. The inner stage was used in various
+ways to indicate a specific locality requiring properties, and this use
+apparently increased as time went on, and especially in the indoor,
+artificially lighted private theaters. In any case, however, when the
+curtains were opened, the inner stage became a part of the main stage,
+and while action might take place there, it might also serve as a
+background for action proceeding in the front. Properties could be
+brought on and off the inner stage, behind the closed curtains, hence
+large properties were confined to its precincts. Furniture, as chairs,
+tables, or even beds, could, however, be pushed or carried out from the
+inner to the outer stage. A play might be given on the front stage
+without using the curtained recess at all, but numerous references to
+curtains make it clear that the inner stage was used from the early days
+of the theater.
+
+[Page Heading: Inner Stage]
+
+The uses of the inner stage have been much discussed and are still in
+dispute, but they may be summarized briefly. _First_, the inner stage
+was used for a specific, restricted, and usually propertied locality--a
+cave, a study, a shop, a prison. _Second_, the inner stage was used for
+scenes requiring discovery or tableaux. Numerous stage directions
+indicate the drawing of the curtains to present a scene set on the inner
+stage, as Bethsabe at her bath, Friar Bungay in bed with his magical
+apparatus about him, Ferdinand and Miranda playing chess. _Third_, the
+use of the inner stage was extended so that it represented any
+propertied background, especially for scenes in a forest, church, or
+temple. In _As You Like It_, for example, the last four acts are located
+in the Forest of Arden. "This is the Forest of Arden," says Rosalind as
+soon as she arrives there; and even before this, Duke senior alludes to
+"these woods," and later we learn that there are practicable trees on
+which Orlando hangs his verses. The forest setting, consisting of trees
+and rocks, was placed on the inner stage and served to give a scenic
+background. Of course, different places in the forest are to be
+presumed, but one forest background would be sufficient for all. In the
+course of the four acts, however, there are three scenes (II. ii; II.
+iii; III. i) that are not in the forest, but at unspecified and
+unpropertied places about the palace and Oliver's house. For these
+scenes the curtain would be closed, shutting off the forest background
+and transferring the spectators to the unspecified localities of Act I,
+_i.e._, to the bare front stage. _Fourth._ An extension of this last use
+made it possible to employ the curtain to indicate change of scene.
+Several scenes, where no heavy properties were required, might succeed
+one another on the front stage with the curtains closed; but the opening
+of the curtains would reveal a special background and a manifest change
+of scene. One instance of this use of the inner stage is seen in the
+immediate change from an outdoor to an indoor scene, or _vice versa_.
+The scene is in the street, _i.e._, on the front stage; the person
+knocks at one of the doors and is admitted to a house; when he
+reappears, it is through the inner stage, the curtains of which have
+been drawn, disclosing the setting of a room. Or this process is
+reversed. In _A Yorkshire Tragedy_, there is an interesting case of such
+an alternation from indoors to outdoors, with one character remaining on
+the stage all of the time. A more extensive use of this "alternation"
+could be employed to indicate marked changes of place. As long as the
+action remains in Venice, the bare front stage will do, but a transfer
+to Portia's house at Belmont can be made by means of the curtains and
+the inner stage. In the later plays at the private theaters this use of
+the inner stage, then better lighted, seems to have increased,
+especially in the change from a street or general hall to special
+apartments.
+
+[Page Heading: Evolution of the Theater]
+
+These uses of the inner stage, together with that of the upper stage or
+gallery, gave a chance for considerable variety in the action, and
+rendered the rapid succession of scenes less bewildering than one would
+at first suppose. Shakespeare's stage was the outcome of the peculiar
+conditions of acting by professionals in the sixteenth century, but it
+was also a natural step in the evolution from the medieval to the modern
+stage. On the medieval stage there was a neutral place or _platea_ and
+special localized and propertied places called _sedes_, _domus_, _loca_.
+On the Elizabethan stage the front stage is the _platea_, the inner and
+upper stages the _domus_ or _loca_. In the Restoration theater the
+scenery was placed on the inner stage and shut off from the outer stage
+by a curtain. With the use of scenery, the inner stage became more
+important, and the projecting apron of the front stage was gradually cut
+down. The proscenium doors in front of the curtain long survived their
+original use as entrances, but, as a rule, they have now finally
+disappeared with the front stage. The modern picture-frame stage of
+to-day is the evolution of the inner stage of the Elizabethans.
+Similarly the method of stage presentation has changed only gradually
+from Shakespeare's day to ours. The alternation from outer to inner
+stage was very common in the Restoration theaters, where flat scenes
+were used instead of a curtain, and it may still be seen in the
+production of melodrama or of Shakespeare's plays. A painted drop shuts
+off a few feet of the stage, which becomes a street or a hall, while
+properties and scenery are being arranged in the rear. When the drop
+goes up, we pass from the street or the court of the wicked Duke to the
+Forest of Arden, just as the Elizabethans did.
+
+The Elizabethan stage affected Shakespeare's dramatic art in many ways.
+The absence of scenery, of women actors, and of a front curtain, the use
+of a bare stage that served for neutral or unspecified localities,
+naturally influenced the composition of every play. But the theatrical
+presentation was by no means as crude or as medieval as these
+differences from modern practice seem to indicate. The intimacy
+established between actors and audience by the projecting stage, the
+rapidity of action hastened by the lack of scenery or furniture, the
+possibilities of rapid changes of scene rendered intelligible by the use
+of the inner stage, were all manifest advantages in encouraging dramatic
+invention. The traditions formed in this theater for the presentation of
+_Hamlet_, _Romeo and Juliet_, and the other plays, were handed on from
+Shakespeare and Burbage to Lowin and Taylor, to Betterton, Cibber, and
+Garrick, down to the present day; and have perhaps been less
+revolutionized by scenery and electric lights than we might imagine.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE TEXT OF SHAKESPEARE
+
+
+The main difficulties that stand in the way of determining the actual
+form in which Shakespeare left his plays are due, first, to the total
+absence of manuscripts, and, secondly, to the fact that he, like his
+contemporaries, regarded dramatic literature as material for performance
+on the stage, not as something to be read in the library. The most
+obvious evidence of this lies in his having himself issued with every
+appearance of personal attention his poems of _Venus and Adonis_ and
+_Lucrece_, while he permitted his plays to find their way into print
+without any trace of supervision and, in some cases, apparently without
+his consent. When the author sold a play to the theatrical company which
+was to perform it, he appears to have regarded himself as having no
+longer any rights in it; and when a play was published, we are in
+general justified in supposing either that it had been obtained
+surreptitiously, or that it had been disposed of by the company.
+Exceptions to this begin to appear in the first half of the seventeenth
+century, notably in the case of Heywood, who defended his action on the
+plea of protecting the text from mutilation, and in that of Ben Jonson,
+who issued in 1616, in the face of ridicule for his presumption, a
+folio volume of his "Works." But, though Shakespeare is reported to have
+felt annoyance at the pirating of his productions, there is no evidence
+of his having been led to protect himself or the integrity of his
+writings by departing from the usual practice in his profession.
+
+Among the various documents which make us aware of this situation, so
+general then, but so strongly in contrast with modern methods, three
+explicit statements by Heywood are so illuminating that they deserve
+quotation. One occurs in the preface to his _Rape of Lucrece_, 1630:
+
+    To the Reader.--It hath beene no custome in mee of all other men
+    (courteous Reader) to commit my plaies to the presse: the reason
+    though some may attribute to my owne insufficiencie, I had rather
+    subscribe in that to their seuare censure then by seeking to auoide
+    the imputation of weaknes to incurre greater suspition of honestie:
+    for though some haue vsed a double sale of their labours, first to
+    the Stage, and after to the presse, For my owne part I heere
+    proclaime my selfe euer faithfull in the first, and neuer guiltie of
+    the last: yet since some of my plaies haue (vnknowne to me, and
+    without any of my direction) accidentally come into the Printers
+    hands, and therefore so corrupt and mangled, (coppied only by the
+    eare) that I have bin as vnable to know them, as ashamed to chalenge
+    them, This therefore, I was the willinger to furnish out in his
+    natiue habit: first being by consent, next because the rest haue
+    beene so wronged in being publisht in such sauadge and ragged
+    ornaments: accept it courteous Gentlemen, and prooue as fauorable
+    Readers as we haue found you gratious Auditors. Yours T. H.
+
+[Page Heading: The Right to Print]
+
+The second is in Heywood's _Pleasant Dialogues and Dramas_, 1637, the
+prologue to _If you know not me, you know no bodie; Or, The troubles of
+Queen Elizabeth_. It is as follows:
+
+    A Prologve to the Play of Queene Elizabeth as it was last revived at
+    the Cock-pit, in which the Author taxeth the most corrupted copy now
+    imprinted, which was published without his consent.
+
+    PROLOGUE
+
+    Playes have a fate in their conception lent,
+    Some so short liv'd, no sooner shew'd than spent;
+    But borne to-day, to morrow buried, and
+    Though taught to speake, neither to goe nor stand.
+    This: (by what fate I know not) sure no merit,
+    That it disclaimes, may for the age inherit.
+    Writing 'bove one and twenty: but ill nurst,
+    And yet receiv'd as well performed at first,
+    Grac't and frequented, for the cradle age,
+    Did throng the Seates, the Boxes, and the Stage
+    So much: that some by Stenography drew
+    The plot: put it in print: (scarce one word trew:)
+    And in that lamenesse it hath limp't so long,
+    The Author now to vindicate that wrong
+    Hath tooke the paines, upright upon its feete
+    To teache it walke, so please you sit, and see't.
+
+The third passage occurs in the address to the reader prefixed to _The
+English Traveller_, 1633:
+
+    True it is that my plays are not exposed to the world in volumes, to
+    bear the titles of Works (as others). One reason is that many of
+    them by shifting and changing of companies have been negligently
+    lost; others of them are still retained in the hands of some actors
+    who think it against their peculiar profit to have them come in
+    print; and a third that it was never any great ambition in me in
+    this kind to be voluminously read.
+
+From these passages we gather that Heywood considered it dishonest to
+sell the same play to the stage and to the press; that some of his plays
+were stolen through stenographic reports taken in the theater and were
+printed in corrupt forms; that, in order to counteract this, he obtained
+the consent of the theatrical owners to his publication of a correct
+edition; that some actors considered the printing of plays against their
+interest (presumably because they thought that if a man could read a
+play, he would not care to see it acted); and that many plays were lost
+through negligence and the changes in the theatrical companies. That we
+are here dealing with the conditions of Shakespeare's time is clear
+enough, since the edition of _If you know not me_ on which Heywood casts
+reflections was published in 1605, and in 1604 Marston supplies
+corroboration in the preface to his _Malcontent_:
+
+    I would fain leave the paper; only one thing afflicts me, to think
+    that scenes, invented merely to be spoken, should be enforcively
+    published to be read, and that the least hurt I can receive is to do
+    myself the wrong. But since others otherwise would do me more, the
+    least inconvenience is to be accepted. I have myself, therefore, set
+    forth this comedy; but so, that my enforced absence must much rely
+    upon the printer's discretion: but I shall entreat slight errors in
+    orthography may be as slightly overpassed, and that the unhandsome
+    shape which this trifle in reading presents, may be pardoned for
+    the pleasure it once afforded you when it was presented with the
+    soul of lively action.
+
+[Page Heading: Pirated Editions]
+
+The only form in which any of Shakespeare's plays found their way into
+print during his lifetime was that of small pamphlets, called Quartos,
+which were sold at sixpence each.[7] In the case of five of these there
+is general agreement that they came to the press by the surreptitious
+method of reporting described by Heywood: the first Quarto versions of
+_Romeo and Juliet_, _Henry V_, _The Merry Wives_, _Hamlet_, and
+_Pericles_. All of these bear clear traces of the effects of such
+mutilation as would naturally result from the attempt to write down the
+dialogue during the performance, and patch up the gaps later. The first
+Quartos of _Richard III_ and _King Lear_, though much superior to the
+five mentioned, yet contain so many variants from the text of the Folio
+which seem to be due to mistakes of the ear and to slips of memory on
+the part of the actors, that probably they should also be included in
+the list of those surreptitiously obtained.
+
+[7] For facsimile reproductions see Bibliography, Appendix D.
+
+Redress for such pirating as is implied in these publications was
+difficult on account of the absence of a law of copyright. The chief
+pieces of legislation affecting the book trade were the law of licensing
+and the charter of the Stationers' Company. According to the first, all
+books, with a few exceptions, such as academic publications, had to be
+licensed before publication by the Bishop of London or the Archbishop
+of Canterbury. This was an unworkable provision, and in fact the
+responsibility for all books not likely to raise political or
+theological controversy was left to the Stationers' Company. This close
+corporation of printers and publishers exercised its powers for the
+protection of its members rather than of authors. A publisher wishing to
+establish a monopoly in a book he had acquired entered it on the
+Stationers' Register, paying a fee of sixpence, and was thereby
+protected against piracy. When the copy so registered was improperly
+acquired, the state of the case is not so clear. At times the officials
+showed hesitation about registering a book until the applicant "hath
+gotten sufficient authoritye for yt," and _As You Like It_, for example,
+appears in the Register only "to be staied," which it was until the
+publication of the first Folio. Further, the pirated _Romeo and Juliet_
+and _Henry V_ were never entered at all; the pirated _Hamlet_ and
+_Pericles_ were entered, but to other publishers, who in the case of
+_Hamlet_ brought out a more correct text in the following year; the
+pirated _Merry Wives_ was transferred from one publisher to another on
+the day of entry, and actually issued by the second. Thus this group of
+plays does not support the view that the Stationers' Company stood ready
+to give perpetual copyright to their members even for obviously stolen
+goods. It is to be noted, too, that the previous publication of these
+surreptitious copies formed no hindrance to the later issue of an
+authentic copy. The second Quarto of _Hamlet_, printed from a complete
+manuscript, followed, as has been said, the first the next year, and the
+same thing happened in the case of _Romeo and Juliet_.
+
+[Page Heading: Publisher's Copyright]
+
+On the other hand, the great majority of the Quartos printed from
+playhouse copies of the plays were regularly entered, and the rights of
+the original publisher preserved to him. The appearance of groups of
+plays in the market following interference with theatrical activity such
+as came from the plague in 1594, from the breaking up of companies, or
+from Puritan attempts at restriction, confirm the belief that these
+better Quartos were honorably acquired by the publishers from the
+companies owning them, when the actors thought that there was more to
+gain than to lose by giving them to the press.
+
+[Page Heading: Table of Quarto Editions]
+
+The accompanying "Table of Quarto Editions" gives the names of all the
+Shakespearean plays issued in this form before the publication of the
+collected edition in 1623, known as the First Folio. In the cases of
+_Romeo and Juliet_, _1 Henry IV_, _Love's Labour's Lost_, _Merchant of
+Venice_, _Much Ado_, _A Midsummer-Night's Dream_, and _Richard II_, a
+Quarto, usually the most recent, provided the text from which the
+version in the Folio was printed. Hence, though in several cases the
+copy of the Quarto thus employed seems to have been one used by the
+actors and containing corrections of some value, the extant Quarto
+rather than the Folio is the prime authority for the text to-day. The
+same is true of _Titus Andronicus_, except that in this case the Folio
+restores from some manuscript source a scene which had been dropped from
+the Quarto. If, as some hold, the Folio texts of _Richard III_ and _King
+Lear_ were printed from Quartos, there must have been available also a
+manuscript version, which is so heavily drawn upon that the Folio text
+virtually represents an independent source, as it does in the case of
+four of the five plays acknowledged to be due to surreptitious
+reporting. _Pericles_, the fifth of these, was first admitted to the
+collected works in the third Folio, and is the only "reported" text
+forming our sole authority.[8]
+
+
+TABLE OF QUARTO EDITIONS BEFORE 1623
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+  The following abbreviations are used in the "SOURCE OF Q TEXT" column:
+  D--Disputed;
+  P--Playhouse;
+  R--Reported.
+
+==========================================================================
+      |              |           DATES OF             |      |
+      | ENTRIES IN   |--------------------------------|SOURCE|
+      | STATIONERS'  |    |      |     |    |    |    | OF Q | SOURCE OF
+      |  REGISTER    |Q1  | Q2   |Q3   |Q4  |Q5  |Q6  | TEXT |  F1 TEXT
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+------+--------------+----+------+-----+----+----+----+------+------------
+T.A.  |Feb. 6, 1594  |1594|  1600| 1611|    |    |    |P     |Q3 completed
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      | & corrected
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+R. II |Aug. 29, 1597 |1597|  1598| 1608|1615|    |    |P     |Q4 corrected
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+R. III|Oct. 19, 1597 |1597|  1598| 1602|1605|1612|1622|D     |Disputed
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+R.J.  |No entry      |1597|  1599| 1609|n.d.|    |    |{Q1 R |Q3 from Q2
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |{Q2 P |
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+1 H.IV|Feb. 25, 1598 |1598|  1599| 1604|1608|1613|1622|P     |Q5 corrected
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+L.L.L.|No entry      |1598|      |     |    |    |    |P     |Q1
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+Merch.|July 22, 1598 |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |(conditional) |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    | {1600|     |    |    |    |      |
+      |Oct. 28, 1600 |1600| { or |     |    |    |    |P     |Q1 (Heyes)
+      |              |    | {1619|     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    |      |{1608|    |    |    |      |
+H.V.  |[Aug. 4, 1600]|1600|  1602|{ or |    |    |    |R     |Independent
+      |"to be stayed"|    |      |{1619|    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+M.Ado |[Aug. 4, 1600]|    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |"to be stayed"|    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |Aug. 23, 1600 |1600|      |     |    |    |    |P     |Q1 corrected
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+2 H.IV|Aug. 23, 1600 |1600|      |     |    |    |    |P     |Independent
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    | {1600|     |    |    |    |      |
+M.N.D.|Oct. 8, 1600  |1600| {or  |     |    |    |    |P     |Q2 corrected
+      |              |    | {1619|     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+M.W.  |Jan. 18, 1602 |1602|  1619|     |    |    |    |R     |Independent
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+Hml.  |July 26, 1602 |1603|1604,5| 1611|    |    |    |{Q1 R |Independent
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |{Q2 P |
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+      |              |    | {1608|     |    |    |    |      |Disputed (Q1
+Lear  |Nov. 26, 1607 |1608| { or |     |    |    |    |D     | in several
+      |              |    | {1619|     |    |    |    |      | states)
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+T.C.  |Feb. 7, 1603 }|    |      |     |    |    |    |      |Independent
+      |(conditional)}|1609|      |     |    |    |    |P     | (Q1 in two
+      |Jan. 28, 1609}|    |      |     |    |    |    |      | issues)
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+Per.  |May 20, 1608  |1609|  1609| 1611|1619|    |    |R     |Not in F1
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |F3 from Q4
+      |              |    |      |     |    |    |    |      |
+Oth.  |Oct. 6, 1621  |1622|      |     |    |    |    |P     |Independent
+==========================================================================
+
+[8] In the table of Quarto editions may be noted four entries with the
+words "or 1619" added to the date which appears on the title-page. These
+four plays, the Roberts Quartos of _The Merchant of Venice_ and _A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream_ of 1600, the third Quarto of _Henry V_, 1608,
+the second Quarto of _King Lear_, 1608, along with the 1619 Quartos of
+_The Merry Wives_ and _Pericles_, an undated Quarto of _The Whole
+Contention_ (the earlier form of _2_ and _3 Henry VI_), the Quarto of
+_Sir John Oldcastle_, dated 1600, and the Quarto of _A Yorkshire
+Tragedie_, dated 1619, have been shown by Mr. A. W. Pollard, with the
+cooeperation of Mr. W. W. Greg, to have been put on the market at the
+same time, and Mr. W. J. Neidig has proved from typographical evidence
+that the title-pages of all nine were set up in succession in 1619. A
+very curious problem is thus presented, and the motives for the
+deception practised, apparently by the printers Pavier and Jaggard, have
+not been satisfactorily cleared up; but at present it appears likely
+that in the case of these nine Quartos the correct date of publication
+should be 1619, and that, in the case of the first two mentioned, the
+question of the comparative authority of the Heyes and Fisher Quartos
+respectively as against that of the Roberts Quartos should be settled
+against the latter. This last point is the only part of this remarkable
+discovery which is of importance in determining the text, as the Quartos
+dated 1608 and 1619 were already known to be mere reprints of earlier
+ones.
+
+[Page Heading: The First Folio]
+
+We come now to the publication of the First Folio, the most important
+single volume in the history of the text of Shakespeare. On November 8,
+1623, the following entry occurs in the Stationers' Register:
+
+    Mr. Blount: Isaak Jaggard. Entred for their copie under the hands of
+    M^r Doctor Worrall and M^r Cole, Warden, M^r William Shakspeers
+    Comedyes, Histories and Tragedyes, soe manie of the said copyes as
+    are not formerly entred to other men viz^t, Comedyes. The Tempest.
+    The two gentlemen of Verona. Measure for Measure. The Comedy of
+    Errors. As you like it. All's well that ends well. Twelft Night. The
+    winters tale. Histories. The thirde part of Henry the sixt. Henry
+    the eight. Tragedies. Coriolanus. Timon of Athens. Julius Caesar.
+    Mackbeth. Anthonie and Cleopatra. Cymbeline.
+
+One notes here the omission of _1_ and _2 Henry VI_, _King John_, and
+_The Taming of the Shrew_, which had neither been previously entered nor
+issued in Quarto. This is probably due to the fact that three of these
+are based on older plays of which Quartos exist, which may have seemed
+to the publishers reason enough to save their sixpences. If we assume
+that "The thirde part of Henry the sixt" is a misprint for "The first
+part," the explanation covers the whole case. The registration of
+_Antony and Cleopatra_ was superfluous, as it had been entered, though
+not printed, so far as we know, on May 20, 1608.
+
+There are thus in the First Folio, the publication of which immediately
+followed this entry in 1623, twenty plays not before issued, for which
+the text of this volume is our sole authority. The emphasis so commonly
+placed on the supreme value of the text of the First Folio is justified
+with regard to these twenty plays; as for the remaining seventeen, its
+importance is shared, in proportions varying from play to play, with the
+texts of the Quartos. The sources from which the compilers of the Folio
+obtained their new material were in all probability playhouse copies, as
+in the case of the better Quartos. Heminge and Condell, Shakespeare's
+actor colleagues and friends, who sign the Address to the Readers,[9]
+would obviously be the instruments for obtaining such copies. As for the
+so-called "private transcripts" which some have postulated as a source
+of material, there is no evidence that at this date any such existed.
+Whether any of the playhouse manuscripts provided by Heminge and Condell
+were in Shakespeare's autograph we can neither affirm nor deny, but it
+is well to be cautious in accepting at its face value the implication
+contained in their words that they had "scarce received from him a blot
+in his papers."
+
+[9] For this and other prefatory matter from the First Folio, see
+Appendix A.
+
+[Illustration: THE TITLE PAGE OF THE FIRST FOLIO
+
+(_From the copy in the New York Public Library._)]
+
+[Page Heading: The First Folio]
+
+The First Folio is a large volume of 908 pages, measuring in the tallest
+extant copy 13-3/8 x 8-1/2 inches. A reduced facsimile of the title page
+with the familiar wood-cut portrait appears on the opposite page. The
+text is printed in two columns with sixty-six lines to a column. The
+typography is only fairly good, and many mistakes occur in the
+pagination. Extant copies, of which there are at least 156, vary in some
+respects, on account of the practice of making corrections while the
+sheets were being printed. The printer was William Jaggard, and his
+associates in the publishing enterprise were his son Isaac and the
+booksellers, William Aspley, John Smethwick, and Edward Blount.
+Estimates of the size of the edition vary from five to six hundred.
+
+Many of the causes which made the text of these early editions
+inaccurate are common to all the plays, while some are peculiar to those
+obtained by reporters in the theater. Of the first, the most fundamental
+is, of course, the illegibility or ambiguity of the author's original
+manuscript. Such flaws were perpetuated and multiplied with each
+successive transcript, and when the manuscript copy came into the
+printer's hands, the errors of the compositor--confusion of words
+sounding alike, of words looking alike, unconscious substitution of
+synonyms, mere manual slips, and the like--were added to those already
+existing. The absence of any uniform spelling, and carelessness in
+punctuation, which led to these being freely modified by the printer,
+increased the risk of corruption. The punctuation of both Quartos and
+Folio, though by no means without weight, cannot be regarded as having
+the author's sanction, and all modernized editions re-punctuate with
+greater or less freedom. Most nineteenth-century editors carry on with
+minor modifications the punctuation of Pope, so that their texts show a
+composite of sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth century
+methods; the text used in the Tudor edition is frankly punctuated, as
+far as the syntax permits, according to modern methods, with, it is
+believed, no loss in authority. There is no clear evidence that, in such
+productions as plays, proof was read outside of the printing-office. The
+theory, insisted on by Dr. Furness in successive volumes of the _New
+Variorum Shakespeare_, that the Elizabethan compositor set type to
+dictation is without foundation, the phenomena which he seeks to explain
+by it occurring commonly to-day when there is no question of such a
+practice.
+
+Another class of variation in text arose from the treatment of the
+manuscript in the playhouse. Cuts, additions, and alterations were made
+for acting purposes, stage directions were added with or without the
+assistance of the author, revivals of the play called for revision by
+the original writer or another. The majority of stage directions in
+modern editions, except exits and entrances, are due to editors from
+Rowe onwards, and these unauthorized additions are distinguished in the
+Tudor edition by brackets. Almost all notes of place at the beginnings
+of scenes belong to this class.
+
+[Page Heading: Corruptions of Text]
+
+The defects to which the texts of the surreptitiously obtained Quartos
+are particularly subject include omissions and alterations due to lapse
+of memory on the part of the actors, additions due to the tendency to
+improvise which Shakespeare censures in _Hamlet_, omissions due to the
+reporter's failure to hear or to write quickly enough, garbled
+paraphrases made up to supply such omissions, and the writing of prose
+as verse and verse as prose.
+
+Such are the most important of the causes of the corruptions which the
+long series of editors of Shakespeare have devoted their study and their
+ingenuity to remedying. The series really begins with the second Folio
+of 1632 and is continued with but slight improvements in the third Folio
+of 1663, reprinted with the addition of _Pericles_ and six spurious
+plays in 1664, and in the fourth Folio of 1685. The emendations made in
+the seventeenth-century editions are mainly modernizations in spelling
+and such minor changes as occurred to members of the printing staff. In
+no case do they have any authority except such as may be supposed to
+belong to a man not far removed from Shakespeare in date; and they add
+about as many mistakes as they remove.
+
+The difficulty of the task of the modern editor varies greatly from play
+to play. It is least in the twenty plays for which the First Folio is
+the sole authority, greater in the eight in which the Folio reprints a
+Quarto with some variations, greatest in the nine in which Folio and
+Quarto represent rival versions. In these last cases, it is the duty of
+the editor to decide from all the accessible data which version has the
+best claim to represent the author's intention, and to make that a basis
+to be departed from only in clear cases of corruption. The temptation,
+which no editor has completely resisted, is naturally towards an
+eclecticism which adopts the reading that seems most plausible in
+itself, without giving due weight to the general authority of the text
+chosen as a basis. If carried far, such eclecticism results in a
+patchwork quite distinct from any version that Shakespeare can have
+known.
+
+The first editor of Shakespeare, in the modern sense, was Nicholas Rowe,
+poet laureate under Queen Anne. He published in 1709 an edition of the
+plays in six octavo volumes, preceded by the first formal memoir of the
+dramatist, and furnished with notes. The poems were issued in the
+following year in similar form, with essays by Gildon. Rowe based his
+text upon that of the fourth Folio, with hardly any collation of
+previous editions. He corrected a large number of the more obvious
+corruptions, the most notable of his emendations being perhaps the
+phrase in _Twelfth Night_, "Some are become great," which he changed to
+"Some are born great." On the external aspect of the plays Rowe has left
+a deeper mark than any subsequent editor. In the Folios only eight of
+the plays had lists of _dramatis personae_; Rowe supplied them for the
+rest. In the Folios the division into acts and scenes is carried out
+completely in only seventeen cases, it is partially done in thirteen,
+and in six it is not attempted at all. Rowe again completed the work,
+and though some of his divisions have been modified and others should
+be, he performed this task with care and intelligence. He modernized the
+spelling and the punctuation, completed the exits and entrances,
+corrected many corrupt speech-tags, and arranged many passages where the
+verse was disordered. In virtue of these services, he must, in spite of
+his leaving much undone, be regarded as one of the most important agents
+in the formation of our modern text.
+
+[Page Heading: Rowe and Pope]
+
+A second edition of Rowe's Shakespeare was published in 1714, and in
+1725 appeared a splendid quarto edition in six volumes, edited by
+Alexander Pope. In his preface Pope made strong professions of his good
+faith in dealing with the text. "I have discharged," he said, "the dull
+duty of an editor to my best judgment, with more labor than I expect
+thanks, with a religious abhorrence of all innovation, and without any
+indulgence to my private sense or conjecture.... The various readings
+are fairly put in the margin, so that anyone may compare 'em; and those
+I have preferred into the text are constantly _ex fide codicum_, upon
+authority.... The more obsolete or unusual words are explained." Hardly
+one of these statements is entirely true. Pope possessed copies of the
+first and second Folios, and at least one Quarto of each play that had
+been printed before 1623, except _Much Ado_, but these he consulted only
+occasionally, and seldom registered the variants as he said he had done.
+When he did, he gave no clue to their source. He constantly inserted his
+private conjectures without notice, and his explanations of difficult
+expressions are few and frequently wrong. Passages considered by him
+inferior or spurious he relegated to the foot of the pages; others he
+merely omitted without notice. His ear was often jarred by the freedom
+of Shakespeare's verse, and he did his best to make it "regular" by
+eighteenth-century standards. Yet Pope spent much ingenuity in striving
+to better the text, and no small number of restorations and emendations
+are to be credited to him, especially in connection with the arrangement
+of the verse. He is to be credited also with discernment in rejecting
+the seven plays added to the Shakespearean canon in the third Folio, of
+which only _Pericles_ has since been restored.
+
+The weaknesses of Pope's edition did not long remain hidden. In the
+spring of 1726 appeared "Shakespeare Restored: or, a Specimen of the
+many Errors, as well committed, as unamended, by Mr. Pope in his late
+edition of this Poet. Designed not only to correct the said edition, but
+to restore the True Reading of Shakespeare in all the Editions ever yet
+publish'd." Lewis Theobald, the author, was a translator and scholar,
+much better equipped than Pope for the work of editing, and his
+merciless exposure of Pope's defects gave a foretaste of the critical
+ability later displayed in the edition of Shakespeare which he published
+in 1734. Lovers of Shakespeare discerned at the time the service
+performed by Theobald in this attack on Pope, but the publication in
+1728 of the first edition of the _Dunciad_, with Theobald as hero, gave
+Pope his revenge, and cast over the reputation of his critic a cloud
+which is only now dispersing. Modern scholarship, however, has come to
+recognize the primacy of Theobald among emendators of Shakespeare's
+text, and the most famous of his contributions, his correction of "a
+table of green fields" to "'a babled of green fields," in Quickly's
+account of the death of Falstaff in _Henry V_, II. iii. 17, is only a
+specially brilliant example of the combination of acuteness, learning,
+and sympathy which made his edition a landmark in the history of the
+text. For many of his troubles, however, Theobald was himself to blame;
+he attacked his opponents with unnecessary vehemence, as he expressed
+his appreciation of his own work with unnecessary emphasis; he was not
+always candid as to what he owed to others, even to the despised edition
+of Pope, from which he printed; and he indulged his appetite for
+conjecture at times beyond reasonable bounds.
+
+[Page Heading: Theobald and Hanmer]
+
+Theobald's edition was followed in 1744 by that of Sir Thomas Hanmer in
+six beautifully printed volumes. This edition is based on that of Pope,
+and even goes farther than Pope's in relegating to the foot of the page
+passages supposed unworthy. Hanmer performed no collating worth
+mentioning, but made some acute conjectures.
+
+The student is apt to be prejudiced against the work of William
+Warburton on account of the extravagance of his claims and his
+ungenerous treatment of predecessors to whom he was greatly indebted.
+"The Genuine Text," he announced, "(collated with all former editions
+and then corrected and emended) is here settled: Being restored from the
+Blunders of the first editors and the Interpolations of the two Last";
+yet he based his text on Theobald's and joined Pope's name with his own
+on the title-page. Whatever value belongs to Warburton's edition (1747)
+lies in a number of probable conjectural emendations, some of which he
+had previously allowed Theobald to use, and in the amusing bombast and
+arrogance of many of his notes. The feeble support that lay behind the
+pretensions of this editor was exposed by a number of critics such as
+John Upton, Zachary Grey, Benjamin Heath, and Thomas Edwards, who did
+not issue new editions, but contributed a considerable number of
+corrections and interpretations.
+
+The value of Dr. Johnson's edition (1765) does not lie in his
+emendations, which are usually, though not always, poor, or in his
+collation of older editions, for which he was too indolent, but in the
+sturdy common-sense of his interpretations and the consummate skill
+frequently shown in paraphrases of obscure passages. His Preface to the
+edition was the most weighty general estimate of Shakespeare so far
+produced, and remains a valuable piece of criticism. In scientific
+treatment of the text, involving full use of all the Quartos and Folios
+then accessible, Johnson and his predecessors were far surpassed by
+Edward Capell, who issued his edition in ten volumes in 1768.
+Unfortunately, the enormous labor Capell underwent did not bear its full
+fruit, for he suppressed much of his textual material in the interests
+of a well-printed page, and his preface and notes are written in a
+crabbed style that obscures the acuteness of his editorial intelligence.
+He elaborated stage directions, and carried farther the correction of
+disarranged meter; but, like most of his fellow-editors in that century,
+he did less than justice to his predecessors and was too indulgent to
+his own conjectures. This edition was supplemented by volumes of notes
+published in 1775 (1 vol.) and 1779-1783 (3 vols.).
+
+[Page Heading: Johnson and Capell]
+
+Before the publication of Capell's text, the antiquary George Steevens
+had issued in 1766 reprints of twenty of the early Quartos; and in 1773
+he produced, in association with Johnson, an edition with a good text in
+which he benefited from Capell's labors (though he denies this). Through
+his knowledge of Elizabethan literature he made substantial
+contributions to the interpretation of difficult passages. He restored
+_Pericles_ to a place in the canon, but excluded the _Poems_, because
+"the strongest Act of Parliament that could be framed would fail to
+compel readers into their service." To the second edition of Johnson and
+Steevens's text (1778) Edmund Malone contributed his famous "Essay on
+the Chronology of Shakespeare's Plays," which began modern investigation
+of this subject. The third edition was revised in 1785 by Isaac Reed;
+and this was succeeded by the edition of Malone in 1790, in which the
+vast learning and conscientious care of that scholar combined to produce
+the most trustworthy text so far published. Malone was not brilliant,
+but he was extremely erudite and candid, and his so-called "Third
+Variorum" edition in twenty-one volumes, brought out after his death by
+James Boswell in 1821, is a mine of information on theatrical history
+and cognate matters, which will probably always be of value to students
+of the period. The name of "First Variorum Edition" is given to the
+fifth edition of Johnson and Steevens, revised by Reed in 1803, and
+"Second Variorum" to the sixth edition of the same, 1813. Meantime
+occasional critiques of complete editions contributed something to the
+text. Johnson's edition called forth comment by Kendrick in 1765 and
+Tyrwhitt in 1766, and the Johnson and Steevens text was criticized by
+Joseph Ritson in 1783 and 1788, and by J. Monck Mason in 1785. The first
+American edition was published in Philadelphia in 1795-1796 from
+Johnson's text; the first continental edition at Brunswick in 1797-1801
+by C. Wagner.
+
+[Page Heading: Nineteenth-Century Editors]
+
+The editions of the nineteenth century are too numerous for detailed
+mention here. Passing by the "family" Shakespeare of T. Bowdler, 1807
+and 1820, and the editions of Harness, 1825, and Singer, 1826, we note
+the editions of 1838-1842, and 1842-1844 in which Charles Knight
+resorted to the text of the First Folio as an exclusive authority. J. P.
+Collier in his edition of 1844 leaned, on the other hand, to the side of
+the Quartos, but later became a clever if somewhat rash emendator, who
+spoiled his reputation by seeking to obtain authority for his guesses by
+forging them in a seventeenth-century hand in a copy of the second
+Folio. The colossal volumes of J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps's edition,
+1853-1865, contain stores of antiquarian illustration; and in the
+edition of Delius, 1854-1861, we have the chief contribution of Germany
+to the text of Shakespeare. Delius, like Knight, though not to the same
+extreme, exaggerated the authority of the First Folio; but for the plays
+for which that is the sole source, his text has earned high respect.
+Alexander Dyce, wisest of Elizabethan scholars, produced in 1857 a
+characteristically sane text, on the whole the best to this date; while
+in America in 1857-1860 and 1859-1865 the brilliant but erratic Richard
+Grant White produced editions which show a commendable if puzzling
+openness to conviction in successive changes of opinion.
+
+From 1863 to 1866 appeared the first issue of the Cambridge Shakespeare,
+edited originally by W. G. Clark, J. Glover, and W. A. Wright. The
+responsibility for the later revised edition of 1891-3 is Dr. Wright's.
+The exceedingly careful and exhaustive collation of all previous textual
+readings in the notes of this edition make it indispensable for the
+serious student, and its text, substantially reprinted in the Globe
+edition, is the most widely accepted form of the works of Shakespeare
+which has ever been circulated. The over-emphasis on the First Folio
+which has been noted in Knight and Delius is no longer found here, and
+in general the comparative value of Quarto and Folio is weighed in the
+case of each play. Occasionally, in cases like that of _Richard III_,
+where both Quarto and Folio are good but vary widely, the Cambridge
+editors seem more eclectic than their general theory warrants, and the
+punctuation is still archaic, clinging to the eighteenth-century
+tradition. But the acceptance of this careful and conservative text has
+been a wholesome influence in Shakespearean study.
+
+The only completely reedited texts which have been issued since the
+revised Cambridge edition are that of the Oxford Shakespeare, by W. J.
+Craig, on principles very similar to the Cambridge, and the Neilson
+text, originally published in one volume in 1906 and revised and
+reprinted in the Tudor Shakespeare. The massive volumes of Dr. H. H.
+Furness's _New Variorum Shakespeare_, begun in 1871 (17 volumes issued),
+now reprint the text of the First Folio, and show marked traces of the
+tendency to follow this authority without due discrimination. This
+monumental abstract of all previous criticism is of great value to the
+professional student of Shakespeare, and its textual apparatus has the
+advantage over the Cambridge edition of recording not only the first
+occurrence of a reading, but the names of the chief editors who have
+adopted it. It thus gives a compendious history of editorial judgment on
+all disputed points.
+
+[Page Heading: Recent Editors]
+
+The conjectural emendation of Shakespeare still goes on, but since Dyce,
+comparatively few suggestions find general acceptance. More progress has
+been made in interpretation through the greater accessibility of
+contemporary documents and the advance in recent years in our knowledge
+of Elizabethan theatrical conditions. But, in view of the circumstances
+under which the original editions were printed, there will always be
+room for variations of individual opinion in many cases, both as to what
+Shakespeare wrote and as to what he meant.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+QUESTIONS OF AUTHENTICITY
+
+
+Owing to the conditions of publication described in Chapter VII there
+are questions as to the authenticity of a number of the poems and plays
+ascribed to Shakespeare. Of the poems, "The Ph[oe]nix and the Turtle"
+and "A Lover's Complaint" have been sometimes rejected as unworthy, but
+there is no other evidence against the ascription to him by the original
+publishers. The case of _The Passionate Pilgrim_ is different and is
+interesting as illustrating the methods of piracy practised by
+booksellers and as affording the only record of a protest by Shakespeare
+against the free use which they made of his name. This anthology was
+published by W. Jaggard in 1599 as "by W. Shakespeare." The third
+edition in 1612 added two pieces by Thomas Heywood. Heywood immediately
+protested and in the postscript to his _Apologie for Actors_, 1612,
+declared that Shakespeare was "much offended with M. Jaggard that
+(altogether unknown to him) presumed to make so bold with his name." Of
+the twenty poems that made up the volume, only five are certainly by
+Shakespeare, two appearing also in _The Sonnets_ and three in _Love's
+Labour's Lost_. Six others can be assigned to contemporary poets. The
+authorship of the remaining nine is unknown, but probably only one or
+two are by Shakespeare.
+
+[Page Heading: The Shakespeare Apocrypha]
+
+In addition to the thirty-seven plays now included in all editions of
+Shakespeare, some forty others have been, for one reason or another,
+attributed to him. The First Folio contained thirty-six plays; and it is
+a strong evidence of the honesty and information of its editors, Heming
+and Condell, that subsequent criticism has been satisfied to retain the
+plays of their choice and to make but one addition, _Pericles_. Of these
+plays, however, it is now generally agreed that a number are not
+entirely the work of Shakespeare, but were written by him in part in
+collaboration with other writers, _e.g._, _Titus Andronicus_, _1_, _2_,
+and, _3 Henry VI_, _Timon of Athens_, _Pericles_, and _Henry VIII_. Of two
+of these, _Titus Andronicus_ and _1 Henry VI_, some students refuse to
+give Shakespeare any share. Of the forty doubtful plays, there is not
+one which in its entirety is now credited to Shakespeare; and only three
+or four in which any number of competent critics see traces of his hand.
+Only in the case of _The Two Noble Kinsmen_ is there any weight of
+evidence or opinion that he had a considerable share.
+
+The second Folio kept to the thirty-six plays of the First Folio; but
+the second printing of the third Folio (1664) added seven plays:
+_Pericles Prince of Tyre_, _The London Prodigal_, _The History of Thomas
+Lord Cromwell_, _Sir John Oldcastle_, _Lord Cobham_, _The Puritan
+Widow_, _A Yorkshire Tragedy_, _The Tragedy of Locrine_. These seven
+plays were also included in the fourth Folio, and as supplementary
+volumes to Rowe's, Pope's, and some later editions. They were all
+originally published in quarto as by W. S., or William Shakespeare, but
+except in the case of _Pericles_, this has been regarded as a
+bookseller's mistake or deception without warrant. _Locrine_, "newly set
+forth, overseen, and corrected by W. S., 1595," is a play of about the
+date of _Titus Andronicus_, and is probably by Greene, Peele, or some
+imitator of Marlowe and Kyd. _Sir John Oldcastle_ appeared in 1600 in
+two quartos, one of which ascribed it to William Shakespeare, but it was
+clearly composed for the Admiral's men as a rival to the Falstaff plays
+which the Chamberlain's men had been acting. _Thomas Lord Cromwell_
+(1602) and _The Puritan_ (1607) were ascribed to W. S., on their
+title-pages, but offer no possible resemblances to Shakespeare. _The
+London Prodigal_ (1605) and _A Yorkshire Tragedy_ (1608) were both acted
+by Shakespeare's company, and bore his name on their first editions, and
+the latter also on a second edition, 1619. The external evidence for his
+authorship is virtually the same as in the case of _Pericles_, which
+also was acted by his company, appeared under his name during his
+lifetime, but was rejected by the editors of the First Folio. No one,
+however, can discover any suggestion of Shakespeare in _The London
+Prodigal_. _A Yorkshire Tragedy_ is a domestic tragedy in one act,
+dealing with a contemporary murder. It gives the conclusion of a story
+also treated in a play, _The Miseries of Enforced Marriage_ (1607) by
+George Wilkins, the author of a novel _The Painful Adventures of
+Pericles_, and sometimes suggested as a collaborator on the play
+_Pericles_. _A Yorkshire Tragedy_ is very unlike Shakespeare, but it has
+a few passages of extraordinarily vivid prose, which might conceivably
+owe something to him.
+
+[Page Heading: The Two Noble Kinsmen]
+
+_The Two Noble Kinsmen_ was registered April 8, 1634, and appeared in
+the same year with the following title-page "The Two Noble Kinsmen:
+Presented at the Blackfriars by the Kings Maiesties servants, with great
+applause: Written by the memorable Worthies of their time;
+
+    Mr. John Fletcher, and }
+                           } Gent.
+    Mr. William Shakespeare}
+
+Printed at London by the Tho. Cotes for Iohn Waterson; and are to be
+sold at the signe of the Crowne in Paul's Church-yard. 1634." The
+exclusion of the play from the First Folio may be explained on the same
+basis as the exclusion of _Pericles_; for in each play Shakespeare wrote
+the minor part. There is now general agreement that _The Two Noble
+Kinsmen_ was written by two authors with distinct styles, and that the
+author of the larger portion is Fletcher. The attribution of the
+non-Fletcherian part to Shakespeare has been upheld by Lamb, Coleridge,
+De Quincey, Spalding (in a notable Letter on Shakespeare's Authorship of
+_The Two Noble Kinsmen_, 1833), Furness, and Littledale (who edited the
+play for _The New Shakespeare Society_, Series II, 1, 8, 15, London,
+1876-1885); but there are still many critics who do not believe that
+Shakespeare had any part in the play. This question will probably always
+remain a matter of opinion; but the evidence of various verse tests
+confirms esthetic judgment in assigning about two fifths of the verse to
+Shakespeare. The Shakespearean portion, here and there possibly touched
+by Fletcher, includes, I. i; I. ii; I. iii; I. iv. 1-28; III. i; III.
+ii; V. i. 17-73; V. iii. 1-104; V. iv, and perhaps the prose II. i and
+IV. iii.
+
+The dance in the play is borrowed from an anti-masque in Beaumont's
+_Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn_, presented at court,
+February 20, 1613. This fixes the date of composition for the play in
+1613, the same year as _Henry VIII_, on which it is now generally agreed
+that Shakespeare and Fletcher collaborated. On both of the plays the
+collaboration seems to have been direct; _i.e._, after making a fairly
+detailed outline, each writer took certain scenes, and, to all intents,
+completed these scenes after his own fashion.
+
+One other play must be mentioned in connection with _The Two Noble
+Kinsmen_. _Cardenio_, entered on the Stationers' Register, 1653, was
+described as "by Fletcher and Shakespeare." It seems probably identical
+with a _Cardenno_ acted at court by the King's men in May, 1613, and a
+_Cardenna_ in June, 1613. Attempts have been made to connect it with
+_Double Falsehood_, assigned to Shakespeare by Theobald on its
+publication in 1728.
+
+[Page Heading: Last Ascriptions]
+
+Other non-extant plays ascribed to Shakespeare after 1642 require no
+attention, nor do a number of Elizabethan plays assigned to him in
+certain of their later quartos. Among these are _The Troublesome Reign
+of King John_, on which Shakespeare's _King John_ was based; _The First
+Part of The Contention_, and (the Second Part) _The True Tragedy of
+Richard Duke of York_ (versions of _2 Henry VI_ and _3 Henry VI_); and
+_The Taming of a Shrew_, the basis of Shakespeare's play. The relation
+of Shakespeare's plays to these earlier versions is discussed in the
+introductions to the respective volumes of the Tudor Shakespeare. Other
+plays assigned, without grounds, to Shakespeare by late
+seventeenth-century booksellers are _The Merry Devil of Edmonton, The
+Arraignment of Paris, Fair Em, Mucedorus_, and _The Birth of Merlin_.
+
+A few other anonymous plays have been ascribed to Shakespeare by modern
+critics. Of chief note are _Arden of Feversham_, 1592, first attributed
+to Shakespeare by Edward Jacob in 1770; _Edward III_, 1596, included
+with other false attributions to Shakespeare in a bookseller's list of
+1659, and edited and assigned to Shakespeare by Capell in 1760; _Sir
+Thomas More_, an old play of about 1587, preserved in manuscript until
+edited by Dyce in 1844 and assigned to Shakespeare by Richard Simpson in
+1871. There is no evidence for the ascription of various portions of
+these plays to Shakespeare, except that certain passages seem to some
+critics characteristic of him. But at the date when the three plays
+were written his style had not attained its characteristic
+individuality; and the assignment of these anonymous plays to any
+particular author neglects the obvious fact that many writers of that
+period present similar traits of versification and imagery. The
+attribution to Shakespeare of the Countess of Salisbury episode in
+_Edward III_, parts of the insurrection scenes in _Sir Thomas More_, and
+a few passages in _Arden of Feversham_ has scarcely any warrant beyond
+the enthusiastic admiration of certain critics for these passages.
+
+Thus only one play of the Shakespeare Apocrypha has any considerable
+claim to admission into the canon. The evidence for his participation in
+_The Two Noble Kinsmen_ is about as strong as in _Pericles_, and the
+part assigned to him is fairly comparable with his contribution to
+_Henry VIII_.
+
+An account of the Shakespeare Apocrypha is, however, incomplete without
+reference to the forgeries of documents or plays. Theobald published
+_Double Falsehood_ in 1728, as based on a seventeenth-century manuscript
+which he conjectured to be by Shakespeare. John Jordan, a resident of
+Stratford, forged the will of Shakespeare's father, and probably some
+other papers in his _Collections_, 1780; William Henry Ireland, with the
+aid of his father, produced in 1796 a volume of forged papers purporting
+to relate to Shakespeare's career, and on April 2, 1796, Sheridan and
+Kemble presented at Drury Lane the tragedy of _Vortigern_, really by
+Ireland, but said by him to have been found among Shakespeare's
+manuscripts. Ireland was exposed by Malone, and he published a
+confession of his forgeries in 1805. More skilful and far more
+disturbing to Shakespearean scholarship are the forgeries of John Payne
+Collier, extending over a period from 1835 to 1849. These included
+manuscript corrections in a copy of the second Folio, and many documents
+concerning the biography of Shakespeare and the history of the
+Elizabethan theater. These forgeries have vitiated many of Collier's
+most important publications, as his _Memoirs of Edward Alleyn_, and
+_History of English Dramatic Poetry_.
+
+[Page Heading: Forgeries]
+
+We turn now from attempts to increase Shakespeare's writings to an
+extraordinary effort to deny him the authorship of all his plays. Doubts
+on this score seem to have been raised by Joseph C. Hart in his _Romance
+of Yachting_, 1848, and by an article in _Chambers' Journal_, August 7,
+1852. In 1856, Mr. W. H. Smith first proposed Bacon's authorship in a
+letter to Lord Ellesmere, "Was Lord Bacon the author of Shakespeare's
+plays?" These were followed by an article by Miss Delia Bacon in
+_Putnam's Monthly_, 1856, and a volume, _The Philosophy of the Plays of
+Shakespeare unfolded by Delia Bacon_. Since Miss Bacon's book, her
+hypothesis has resulted in the publication of hundreds of volumes and
+pamphlets supporting many variations of the theory. Some are content to
+view the authorship as a mystery, assigning the plays to an unknown
+author. Others attribute the authorship to a club of distinguished men,
+or to Sir Anthony Shirley, or the Earl of Rutland, or another. Others
+give Bacon only a portion of the plays, as those containing many legal
+terms. The majority, however, are thoroughgoing "Baconians," and the
+most prodigious cases of misapplied ingenuity have been the efforts to
+find in the First Folio a cipher, by which certain letters are selected
+which proclaim Bacon's authorship; as _The Great Cryptogram_, 1887, by
+Ignatius Donnelly, and _The Bi-Literal Cypher of Francis Bacon_, 1900,
+by Mrs. Gallup. Such cyphers are mutually destructive, and their
+absurdity has been repeatedly demonstrated. Either they will not work
+without much arbitrary manipulation, or they work too well and are found
+to indicate Bacon's authorship of literature written before his birth
+and after his death. Yet similar 'discoveries' continue to be announced.
+
+The evidences supporting Shakespeare's authorship have been set forth
+sufficiently in this volume and offer no basis for an attitude of
+skepticism. A few considerations may be recalled as correctives for a
+partial or mistaken reading of the evidence. (1) Though the records of
+Shakespeare's life are meager, they are fuller than for any other
+Elizabethan dramatist. Indeed we know little of the biography of any men
+of the sixteenth century unless their lives affected church or politics
+and hence found preservation in the records. There is no 'mystery' about
+Shakespeare. (2) Records amply establish the identity between
+Shakespeare the actor and the writer. Moreover, the plays contain many
+words and phrases natural to an actor, many references to the actor's
+art, and show a wide and detailed knowledge of the ways and
+peculiarities of the theater. (3) The extent of observation and
+knowledge in the plays is, indeed, remarkable, but it is not accompanied
+by any indication of thorough scholarship, or a detailed connection with
+any profession outside of the theater, or a profound knowledge of the
+science or philosophy of the time. (4) The law terms are numerous, and
+usually correct, but do not establish any great knowledge of the law.
+Elizabethan London was full of law students who were among frequent
+patrons of the theater. Through acquaintance with these gentlemen
+Shakespeare might have readily acquired all the law that he displays.
+Moreover Shakespeare had an opportunity to gain a considerable
+familiarity with the law through the frequent litigations in which he
+and his father were concerned. (5) The dedication, commendatory poems,
+and address to the readers prefixed to the First Folio ought in
+themselves to be sufficient to remove the skepticism as to Shakespeare's
+authorship.
+
+[Page Heading: The "Baconian" Question]
+
+The following considerations apply to the attribution to Bacon, so far
+as that rests on any tangible basis: (1) Sir Tobie Matthews writes in a
+letter to Bacon, written some time later than January, 1621, "The most
+prodigious wit that ever I knew of my nation and of this side of the sea
+is of your Lordship's name, though he be known by another." The
+sentence probably refers to Father Thomas Southwell, a Jesuit, whose
+real surname was Bacon. There is nothing to connect it with Shakespeare.
+(2) The parallelisms between passages in Shakespeare and Bacon deal with
+phrases in common use and fail to establish any connection between the
+two men. (3) The few surviving examples of Bacon's verse suggest no
+ability as a poet. (4) Bacon's life is well known, and it offers no hint
+of connection with the theaters and no space in its crowded annals for
+the production of Shakespeare's plays. In fact, if we had to find an
+author for Shakespeare's plays among writers of the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, Bacon would be about the last person
+conceivable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+SHAKESPEARE SINCE 1616
+
+
+During Shakespeare's lifetime, his plays were mentioned and imitated as
+often as those of any of his contemporaries. The more important
+documents bearing on his growing reputation have already been noted in
+this volume. This popularity, however, was confined to theater-goers and
+the readers of the sixteen plays that had appeared before 1616. There
+was no opportunity for a full estimate of his plays as literature until
+their publication in the Folio of 1623. This is given full and worthy
+expression in the fine verses which Ben Jonson contributed as a preface
+to the Folio. He had girded at several of Shakespeare's plays, and his
+own views of the principles and practices of the dramatic art were
+largely opposed to Shakespeare's, but he took this opportunity to
+express unstinted appreciation of Shakespeare's greatness. He notes with
+discrimination that Shakespeare learned his art in an earlier day, but
+far outshone Kyd, Lyly, and Marlowe.
+
+                    Soul of the Age
+    The applause! delight! the wonder of our Stage!
+
+He may challenge comparison with the great Greek tragedians, or in
+comedies
+
+    Of all that insolent Greece or haughty Rome
+    Sent forth, or since did from their ashes come.
+
+    He was not of an age but for all time!
+
+The magnitude of Shakespeare's achievement was thus enthusiastically
+proclaimed by the literary dictator of the time.
+
+From 1623, until the closing of the theaters, the plays continued
+favorites on the stage, though they yielded somewhat in the current
+taste to the theatrical successes of Fletcher and Massinger. After 1623,
+they continued to be read and admired, as is shown by the publication of
+the second and third folios in 1632 and 1663-1664, and by many
+appreciations, including those of D'Avenant, Suckling, the Duchess of
+Newcastle, and Milton. At the Restoration many of the plays were at once
+revived on the stage, and Dryden's essay _Of Dramatick Poesie_ (1668)
+summed up in a masterly fashion contemporary opinion on Shakespeare. He
+is compared with other great dramatists, and is declared less correct
+than Jonson and less popular and modern than Beaumont and Fletcher, yet
+is "the man who of all Moderns, and perhaps Ancient Poets, had the
+largest and most comprehensive soul."
+
+[Page Heading: The Seventeenth Century]
+
+The Restoration was in some doubt about Shakespeare, for while it found
+in him much to admire, it also found much to condemn. His plays now had
+the advantage of women actors for the female parts, but they
+encountered changed fashions in the theater. The romantic comedies were
+not to the taste of the time, and disappeared from the stage until
+toward the middle of the eighteenth century. Meanwhile, _The Merry Wives
+of Windsor_ was the most popular and most highly esteemed of his
+comedies. The tragedies attracted the genius of Betterton and were
+constantly acted, but these were subject to revision of various kinds.
+_Hamlet_ and _Othello_ held their places without alterations, but Nahum
+Tate's tame version of _King Lear_ and Cibber's version of _Richard III_
+superseded the originals for many years. _Romeo and Juliet_, too, gave
+way to Otway's _Caius Marius_, 1692, which kept large portions of
+Shakespeare's play; and _Antony and Cleopatra_ yielded place on the
+stage to Dryden's fine _All for Love_ (1678), in the style of which he
+professes to imitate the "divine Shakespeare." By 1692, adaptations had
+also been made of _Troilus and Cressida_, _The Tempest_, _Macbeth_, _The
+Two Noble Kinsmen_, _Timon_, _Richard II_, _Coriolanus_, _Henry VI_,
+_Cymbeline_, _Titus Andronicus_, _Julius Caesar_. A great deal of
+contempt has been visited upon these revisions of Shakespeare, and their
+attempts to improve on him are usually feeble enough; but sufficient
+recognition has not been given to the testimony that these revisors bear
+to a great appreciation and admiration of Shakespeare. They tried to
+adapt him to current metrical conventions, to current literary fashions,
+to an idea of art quite foreign to his, but they made these efforts
+because they admired his genius. If they did not admire everything in
+his thirty-seven plays, they admired a great deal.
+
+Further, these revisions are the outcome of critical strictures on the
+plays which were then common and, in essence, have been frequently
+repeated. Critics objected to the irregularity and confusion of their
+structure, to their disregard of the unities of action, their mixture of
+tragic and comic, their obscurity and archaism of diction, their mixed
+and confused figures, their occasional puns and bombast. These are
+substantially the criticisms that Dryden offers when under the influence
+of Rymer. Rymer himself (_A Short View of Tragedy_, 1693) goes much
+farther. He desires tragedy to give a rationalized view of life, dealing
+poetic justice to various typical persons, and consequently condemns
+Shakespeare's persons as too individual, his plots as too irregular, and
+the total effect of his plays as insufficiently didactic and moral. This
+view of tragedy was mainly due to the rationalistic and classical ideas
+which continued for a century to dominate European criticism. But before
+the seventeenth century was over, Shakespeare's growing reputation had
+proved itself a rock against which the tendencies in criticism had
+broken like unavailing waves. However much they might insist on rules in
+art, critics were generally willing to hail Shakespeare as the great
+exception. Champions were ready to answer Rymer and to defend
+Shakespeare. _Othello_, selected by Rymer for special analysis and
+condemnation, continued to hold its place on the stage and to incite
+dramatists to emulation. The plays continued to be read, and new
+editions were demanded. In the forty years from 1660 to 1700, in spite
+of great changes in theatrical conditions, in spite of changes of taste
+in readers that relegated most of Elizabethan drama to neglect, and in
+spite of the formation of a criticism doubtful or neglectful of the very
+qualities in literature that his plays present, Shakespeare continued to
+win admirers. By 1700 he was recognized as a dramatist and poet who was
+one of the great possessions of the English race.
+
+[Page Heading: Widening Influence]
+
+In the two centuries since, Shakespeare's fame and influence have spread
+and multiplied to an extent difficult to characterize justly in a brief
+summary. Some important evidences of this growth may indeed be collected
+and analyzed. The position and importance of his plays on the stage, the
+ever increasing number of editions, the changing attitudes of critics
+and men of letters--on these matters it is not difficult to draw
+conclusions as to Shakespeare's influence at home and abroad. But it is
+not so easy to say what his influence was on the literature of any
+generation, and still less easy to summarize with certainty the effects
+on thought and feeling and conduct which made up his continuing power
+over generation after generation of readers. This much is clear, that a
+study of Shakespeare's influence is in part a study of changing ideas
+and ideals in literature--that as he survived the Restoration taste, so
+he survived the new classicism of the eighteenth and the romanticism of
+the early nineteenth century. It is also clear that a full record of the
+influence of Shakespeare on English-speaking readers would touch on
+almost all the varied changes of thought and conduct that have entered
+into the history of two centuries.
+
+The most important of the successive editions of Shakespeare from that
+of Nicholas Rowe, 1709, to the present time, have been noted in the
+history of the text in Chapter VII. It must be observed that these
+various publications indicate not only progress toward establishing a
+sound text, but also a constantly increasing number of readers. The
+multiplication of editions kept pace with the vast extension of the
+middle-class interest in literature. By the end of the eighteenth
+century, the works of Shakespeare were in the possession of everyone who
+had a library, and with a text and notes that left few difficulties for
+a person of any education.
+
+The nineteenth century well maintained the tradition of earlier
+scholarship. Malone's extensive antiquarian knowledge of Elizabethan
+drama and theater served as the basis for further research in these
+fields by Dyce, Ward, Fleay, and others. The chronological order of the
+plays, which Malone was the first to investigate, was determined with
+considerable certainty and gave a new significance to the study of
+Shakespeare's work as a whole. Dyce, Sidney Walker, and Wright, Delius
+of the Germans, Richard Grant White of the Americans, are a few among
+the long list of scholars who have added notable emendations and
+illustrative notes. Editions of the collected works indeed soon became
+almost too numerous for record, and the number of readings, notes, and
+illustrations too great for collection even in the largest variorum.
+To-day the task of scholarship may lie in the restriction,
+simplification, and final determination of certain varying editorial
+practices rather than in the accumulation of further illustrative and
+appreciative comment. But to the work of adding new editions there can
+be no end so long as the number of readers increases. Volumes of all
+sizes, for many classes, following various editorial methods, are likely
+to continue to meet the changing but ever increasing demands of
+English-speaking readers. At the end of the nineteenth century
+Shakespeare's works were not merely a household possession, they were to
+be had in every possible form to suit every possible taste or
+convenience.
+
+[Page Heading: On the Stage]
+
+The extension of Shakespeare's popularity on the stage was concurrent
+with this widening range of readers. In the first thirty years of the
+eighteenth century, which marked a revolution in the nature of the drama
+and the taste of the audiences, Shakespeare's tragedies continued to be
+among the most frequently acted stock plays at the two patented
+theaters. The middle of the century saw the revival of most of the
+romantic comedies and the appearance of David Garrick. Some of the
+adaptations continued, but others were displaced by genuine
+Shakespeare, as in _Macbeth_, _The Merchant of Venice_, and _Romeo and
+Juliet_. _All's Well That Ends Well_, _As You Like It_, _Cymbeline_,
+_Much Ado_, _Twelfth Night_, _The Winter's Tale_, were all revived. In
+fact, if we include adaptations, every play of Shakespeare was seen on
+the stage during the eighteenth century, with the exceptions of _2_ and
+_3 Henry VI_, only parts of these appearing, and of _Love's Labour's
+Lost_, of which a version prepared for acting was published in 1762 but
+not produced.
+
+The traditions of Betterton had been carried on by Wilks (1670-1732),
+Barton Booth (1681-1733), Colley Cibber (1671-1757), and others. But the
+prevailing manner was condemned as stiff and lifeless in comparison with
+the energy of Garrick's presentation. From his first triumph in Richard
+III in 1741, to his farewell performance of Lear in 1776, he won a
+series of signal successes in both tragedy and comedy, in Hamlet, Lear,
+Macbeth, Richard III, Falconbridge, Romeo, Hotspur, Iago, Leontes,
+Posthumus, Benedick, and Antony. Garrick's services to Shakespeare
+extended beyond the parts which he impersonated. He revived many plays,
+and though he garbled the texts freely, yet in comparison with earlier
+practice he really had some right to boast that he had restored the text
+of Shakespeare to the stage. Further, his example led to an increased
+popularity of Shakespeare in the theater and afforded new incentives for
+other actors. Mrs. Clive, Mrs. Cibber, and Mrs. Pritchard were among
+the women who acted with Garrick. Macklin, by his revival of Shylock as
+a tragic character, Henderson by his impersonation of Falstaff, and John
+Palmer in secondary characters, as Iago, Mercutio, Touchstone, and Sir
+Toby, were his contemporaries most famous in their day.
+
+[Page Heading: Kemble and Kean]
+
+Garrick's place at the head of the English stage was taken by John
+Philip Kemble (1757-1823), an actor of great dignity of presence and
+manner, who won general admiration in the great tragic parts, especially
+those offering opportunities for declamation. His sister, Mrs. Sarah
+Siddons, was doubtless the greatest of English actresses; her Lady
+Macbeth, Queen Katherine, and Constance overwhelmed her audiences by
+their majesty and passion. Kemble's reputation was surpassed by Edmund
+Kean, whose appearance as Shylock in 1819, at Drury Lane, was the first
+of a series of great successes in most of the tragic parts, including
+Hamlet, Lear, Othello, and Richard III. In contrast to Kemble's
+declamation, Kean's acting was vehement and passionate. Coleridge
+declared that to see him was "reading Shakespeare by flashes of
+lightning." Readers of the dramatic criticism of Hazlitt and Lamb will
+recall tributes to Kean and to other favorite actors, especially perhaps
+their praise of Mrs. Jordan's Viola and Rosalind. Macready for forty
+years maintained the great traditions of English acting, and during his
+managements of Drury Lane sought to retain for Shakespeare's plays their
+preeminence on the stage. Associated with his many impersonations were
+those of Mrs. Warner and Helen Faucit (Lady Martin). From Garrick's
+debut to the retirement of Macready (1851) is a century of great actors
+and actresses who brought to the interpretation of the many characters
+of the plays a skill and intelligence that satisfied the most critical
+theater-goers and extended vastly the appreciation and knowledge of
+Shakespeare's men and women.
+
+Shakespeare's position on the stage was, however, maintained only with
+difficulty against the melodramas, musical farces, and spectacles that
+absorbed the theaters. Yet from 1844 to 1862, Samuel Phelps, at Sadler's
+Wells, presented thirty-one of the plays. Since then the stage has
+hardly seen an equally important revival; but the great traditions of
+acting have been carried on by many eminent actors: Sir Henry Irving,
+Ellen Terry, Forbes Robertson, in England; Edwin Forrest, Edwin Booth,
+Junius Brutus Booth, Charlotte Cushman, Ada Rehan, Julia Marlowe, and
+Edward Sothern in America. Lately, successful attempts have been made to
+perform plays in the Elizabethan manner, and perhaps there is a tendency
+to pay less attention to elaborate scenic presentation than was the
+habit during the last of the nineteenth century. In one respect, at
+least, the present offers a decided improvement on the past, for there
+is now a strong sentiment in favor of as close an adherence as possible
+to an authorized text of the plays.
+
+[Page Heading: The Eighteenth Century]
+
+Shakespeare has held his place on the stage in spite of many and great
+changes in theatrical conditions and dramatic taste. He will probably
+survive changes greater than those which separate the picture stage with
+its electric lights from the projecting open-air platform of his own
+day, or than those which separate the dramas of Ibsen, Shaw, and Barrie
+from those of Marlowe and Fletcher, or the cinematograph and comic opera
+from the bear-baiting and jugglery which rivaled the Globe. The visitor
+who scans, in the Stratford Museum, the curious collection of portraits
+of actors and actresses in Shakespearean parts may wonder what
+peculiarities of costume, manner, and expression will be devised for the
+admired interpretations of the centuries to come. But it hardly seems
+possible that any actor of the future will influence as greatly the
+appreciation of Shakespeare's characters and speeches as did Garrick and
+Mrs. Siddons in England or Edwin Booth in America.
+
+Shakespearean criticism in the eighteenth century was, as has been
+noted, largely textual, but there was also a considerable discussion of
+Shakespeare's learning, his art, and its violations of neo-classical
+theory. John Dennis, in his _Letters_, 1711, proved a sturdy admirer,
+and the consensus of opinion of following writers was that of Sedley's
+couplet which described Shakespeare as
+
+    The pride of Nature, and the shame of Schools,
+    Born to Create, and not to Learn from Rules.
+
+Voltaire's attacks brought rejoinders from Mrs. Elizabeth Montagu in
+1769 and from Dr. Johnson in the preface to his edition, 1765. In fact,
+admiration for Shakespeare was a powerful factor in forcing the
+rejection of rules and standards of French criticism. Johnson's Preface
+finds fault with Shakespeare's neglect of poetic justice and dwells at
+length on the faults in plots and diction, but Johnson defends the
+violation of the unities, and his praise is a discriminating summary of
+the merits that the eighteenth century had found in Shakespeare. It is
+praise that is likely to endure.
+
+Within another generation, however, reverence for Shakespeare had
+increased to an intensity that made Johnson's admiration seem feeble and
+niggardly. This transformation was due to many causes, but in the main
+it was a part of the vast changes in European literature known as the
+Romantic movement. This resulted in a rejection of the rules and models
+of neo-classicism, a new interest in the literature and manners of the
+Middle Ages, a conception of poetry as the expression of individuality,
+attention to the individual man in all orders of society, a fresh
+concern for external nature, an emphasis on the emotions rather than
+mere reason, a desire for wonder and mystery, and an exaltation of
+natural instincts and intuitions as opposed to general truths or social
+conventions. In each of these particulars, Shakespeare seemed the
+complete fulfilment of the new tendencies--which indeed his growing
+influence had undoubtedly encouraged. More than Spenser or Milton or
+the old ballads, he was the inspiration and guide for new endeavors in
+literature. It seemed to the new age of critics and poets that they had
+rediscovered him, and they hastened to raise him from neglect to the
+throne of omniscience. He was no longer a wayward genius, he was the
+model from whom art and wisdom were to be learned.
+
+[Page Heading: Appreciative Criticism]
+
+This new criticism was esthetic and appreciative. It did not try to
+balance Shakespeare's merits and faults, or to test him by codes of arts
+or morals. It recognized him as supreme, and its discipleship was
+devoted to reverent interpretation and enthusiastic admiration.
+Believing in the importance of the poetic imagination in the affairs of
+men, it found in him a gospel and an example for its creed. Its
+delightful task was to find new beauties and to search out the
+hiding-places that revealed the god of its idolatry. If the genius of
+the master-poet was the source of art and wisdom, the personality of the
+critic gained a new refulgence through its service of reflecting the
+rays of glory. The interest in the study of individual characters had
+resulted, even in Johnson's day, in some notable interpretive essays, as
+Maurice Morgann's on Falstaff (1777). In the next generation, Coleridge,
+Lamb, and Hazlitt in England, and Schlegel and Goethe in Germany,
+brought the keenest intelligence and most sympathetic taste to a
+criticism that aspired to reveal the full range and height of
+Shakespeare's creative faculty.
+
+The results of this criticism may be more specifically summarized. (1)
+It viewed the individual characters of the plays as if they were real
+persons, analyzing their motives and elaborating or repainting their
+portraits, as in the analyses of Hamlet by Goethe and Coleridge, or in
+the brilliant sketches of Hazlitt. The few hundred lines spoken by a
+leading character have thus been expanded by the impressions made on
+successive critics into volumes of biography. (2) Shakespeare's works
+were studied as a whole in an effort to study the development of his art
+and mind. Schlegel and Coleridge gave a unity to the phenomena of the
+thirty-seven plays that had not been recognized hitherto; but they and
+their followers naturally tended to make of their author a sort of
+nineteenth-century romanticist. (3) Exalting the services of poetry and
+the creative imagination, they viewed Shakespeare's exhibition of human
+nature and his incidental wisdom as profound, consistent, and immensely
+valuable for the human race. Hence they were ever seeking in his work
+for a philosophy, a synthetic ethics, and making the widest applications
+of his words to conduct. Believing that he could do no wrong, they
+inevitably came to attribute to him ideas and morals that were of their
+own creation.
+
+The defects of this criticism are most apparent in critics like Ulrici
+and Gervinus who carry its methods to extremes. Personal, fanciful,
+unhistorical, idolatrous, it is yet a tremendous tribute and an amazing
+record of the sway that Shakespeare has exerted on the human mind. The
+writings of no other man have been studied so intimately by so many
+sympathetic readers, or have excited such different impressions.
+Throughout the nineteenth century this appreciative criticism has
+continued, and Shakespeare has been interpreted through the personality
+of many critics, German and American, as well as British, more recently
+through the delicate sensibility of Professor Dowden, and the
+penetrating reflection of Professor A. C. Bradley.
+
+[Page Heading: The Nineteenth Century]
+
+At the end of the nineteenth century, Shakespearean criticism has become
+too varied for a brief survey. Textual and esthetic criticism both
+continue. The biography has been established on a sound basis of fact by
+Halliwell-Phillipps and Sidney Lee; and still new facts reward patient
+investigators of the legal and court documents, almost the only records
+preserved that can possibly bear on Shakespeare's life. Special studies
+of all sorts have been numerous, as to his reading, religion, folk-lore,
+and so on. More significant in its effect on our general view have been
+the efforts of historical criticism. As our knowledge of Elizabethan
+literature, drama, theater, have increased, it has been possible to see
+Shakespeare in relation to his time and environment. The study of
+Shakespeare as a sixteenth-century dramatist aims not merely at a better
+appreciation of his work, but also to explain his development and to
+account for some of the qualities of his achievement. Its attitude is
+that of the scientific historian examining the records of any great
+human activity, and trying to understand its causes, results, and
+meaning. Somewhat allied to this has been technical dramatic criticism,
+which is uniting knowledge of the Elizabethan theater with interest in
+drama as a peculiar form, and thereby studying Shakespeare as a
+dramatist rather than as a poet or philosopher. In fact, Shakespeare is
+no longer merely man, poet, dramatist, philosopher, or genius. Jonson's
+tribute, Dryden's summary, Johnson's judicial essay, or Coleridge's
+admiring studies, all seem hopelessly inadequate to express the range of
+his dominion. He has become the source of the most various and extensive
+interests, a continent that ever expands its fields for exploration, an
+epoch that ever extends the years of its duration, a race that never
+dies, though its progeny ever multiplies.
+
+[Page Heading: In Germany]
+
+It is in the nineteenth century that Shakespeare's dominance becomes
+international. Four of his plays were acted at Dresden and elsewhere
+early in the seventeenth century, but there seems to have been no
+literary acquaintance with the plays in Germany until about the middle
+of the eighteenth century, when two poor translations of _Julius Caesar_
+and _Romeo and Juliet_ appeared, and J. C. Gottsched severely criticized
+Shakespeare's art. In 1759, in a journal, "Litteraturbriefe," Lessing
+began a warm defense of Shakespeare and declared his superiority to
+Racine and Corneille. His _Hamburgische Dramaturgie_ (1767) went far in
+directing the change of taste from French classicism and in
+establishing Shakespeare in German thought as the greatest of poets,
+whether ancient or modern. A prose translation was begun by Wieland in
+1762 and completed by Eschenburg in 1789. What is perhaps the best
+translation of Shakespeare into any foreign tongue was begun in 1797 by
+A. W. von Schlegel and Ludwig Tieck, two leaders of German romanticism,
+and finally completed in 1853. Schlegel's lectures on _Shakespeare and
+the Drama_ were delivered in Vienna in 1808, and present both the
+romanticist's idolizing of Shakespeare and a new kind of esthetic
+criticism destined to exercise great influence on Coleridge and the
+English critics. Meanwhile Goethe was adapting _Romeo and Juliet_ for
+the Weimar theater (1801) and Schiller was arranging _Macbeth_ for
+presentation at Stuttgart (1801). Goethe indeed was, throughout his
+life, an enthusiastic admirer of Shakespeare, and his works are full of
+discriminating criticism, of which perhaps the most famous passage is
+the analysis of Hamlet in _Wilhelm Meister_. Since Lessing and Herder,
+German poetry and drama have felt Shakespeare's influence, and in both
+textual and esthetic criticism, Germany has rivaled England and the
+United States. Delius and Schmidt, whose _Shakespeare-Lexicon_ (1874) is
+one of the great monuments of Shakespeare scholarship, are perhaps first
+among textual students; since 1865 the German Shakespeare Society has
+published yearly contributions of all kinds to Shakespeare criticism,
+and especially an excellent bibliography. On the stage Shakespeare has
+been constantly acted since the beginning of the century, and has
+engaged the services of some of the greatest actors, as Schroeder, the
+two Devrients, and Barnay. At present a large number of his plays are
+performed annually, in the smaller as well as the larger cities, and
+more frequently than in Britain or America. Twenty-six of the plays were
+acted in 1911, _Othello_ leading with 158 performances. For the years
+1909, 1910, 1911, _Hamlet_, _Othello_, _The Merchant of Venice_ have
+been the favorites, with _The Taming of the Shrew_ and _A
+Midsummer-Night's Dream_ the most popular of the comedies. For over a
+century Shakespeare has profoundly influenced German life and letters.
+Rarely, if ever, has a great people been so powerfully affected by a
+writer in a foreign tongue.
+
+In France, during the eighteenth century, Shakespeare's reputation was
+both aided and hindered by Voltaire. Though there are a few earlier
+notices of the English dramatist, Voltaire, after his visit to England,
+1720-1729, was virtually the first to win attention for Shakespeare. He
+admired Shakespeare, acknowledged his influence, but deplored his
+deficiencies in taste and art, "le Corneille de Londres, grand fou
+d'ailleurs, mais il a des morceaux admirables." Voltaire's criticism
+provoked replies in England and a defense from Diderot, who shared with
+Lessing the effort to emancipate the drama from some of its
+neo-classical restriction. Translations of twelve plays by La Place
+(1745-1748) and all of the plays by Le Tourneur (1776-1782) gave an
+opportunity for greater acquaintance with his work. A version of
+_Hamlet_ by Ducis was acted at Paris in 1769. But even at the end of the
+century, French literary opinion, though partly won by Le Tourneur's
+praise of Shakespeare, still sympathized with Voltaire, now engaged in
+an attack on Englishmen and their favorite. His last opinion (1778)
+declares, "Shakespeare est un sauvage avec des etincelles de genie qui
+brillent dans une nuit horrible."
+
+[Page Heading: In France]
+
+The nineteenth century saw a reaction from this criticism, indicated by
+the praise of Madame de Stael (_De la Litterature_, 1804), by Guizot's
+essay accompanying a revision of Le Tourneur's translation (1821), and
+later in the appreciation of Mezieres's _Shakespeare ses [OE]uvres et
+ses Critiques_ (1860), in several translations, and in Victor Hugo's
+eulogy (1869). The best of the translations is by the poet's son,
+Francois Victor Hugo in prose (1859-1866). On the Paris stage, the
+leading English actors have appeared from time to time, and French
+versions of _Hamlet_, _Macbeth_, and _Othello_ have made a permanent
+place. M. Jusserand is the chief authority for the history of
+Shakespeare in France and an ambassador of peace between the conflicting
+literary tastes of the two nations.
+
+In Italy, Holland, Russia, Poland, and Hungary, during the nineteenth
+century, many of the plays have been regularly acted, and from Italy
+have come great actors and actresses, as Ristori, Salvini, and Rossi.
+Complete translations have been published in these countries and in
+Bohemian, Swedish, Danish, Finnish, and Spanish; and separate plays have
+been translated and acted in many other languages including those of
+India, Japan, and China.
+
+In music and painting Shakespeare's influence has also been
+international. Books have been devoted to the history of Shakespeare's
+music, and such surveys include nearly every English composer of note,
+and also Schubert, Schumann, Mendelssohn, Berlioz, Ambroise Thomas,
+Saint Saens, Rossini, and Verdi. In painting as well, the persons and
+scenes of the play have excited the efforts of English, German, and
+American artists.
+
+In America, as has already been indicated, the interest in Shakespeare
+is hardly separable from that in Great Britain. Editors, critics,
+scholars, have been numerous and their contributions important, and the
+plays have been acted constantly and widely through the country.
+Probably there is no part of the world to-day where the study of
+Shakespeare is so active and where the interest in his work is so
+widespread. In one respect, at least, the United States in recent years
+has carried this study and interest beyond England, in the fields of
+education. As the study of the mother tongue has become the basis of
+American education, so Shakespeare has come to play a more and more
+important part in the training of youth. The universities offer training
+in the various departments of Shakespearean scholarship, every college
+offers courses on his plays, a number of them are prescribed for reading
+and study in the high schools; a few of them are read and extracts
+memorized in the primary schools. The child begins his education with
+Ariel and the fairies, and until his schooling is completed is kept in
+almost daily intercourse with the poetry and persons of the dramas.
+Homer was not better known in Athens. In a democracy still young and
+widely separated from older nations and cultures, Shakespeare has become
+one of the links that bind the American public not only to the common
+inheritances of the English-speaking races, but to the traditional
+culture of Europe.
+
+[Page Heading: In the United States]
+
+Known in the literature and theater of every civilized nation, the
+subject of a vast and increasing amount of discussion and criticism, the
+source of a scholarship rivaling that devoted to the writers of
+antiquity, the familiar theme for music and painting, the household
+possession of Great Britain, Germany, and America, influencing thought
+and conduct as few books have ever influenced them, and now an important
+element in the education of a great democracy,--the plays of Shakespeare
+occupy a position whence imagination "can not pierce a wink beyond, but
+doubt discovery there." His reputation and influence must change greatly
+in the years to come; but this at least is secure--three hundred years
+of an ever increasing sway over the human mind.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+The purpose of this volume has been to summarize what we know about
+Shakespeare. The documentary records and early traditions of his life
+have been supplemented by information in regard to the times and places
+in which he lived, the literature which he read, and the theaters for
+which he worked. The evolution of the drama that grew up in those
+theaters has been reviewed, and its manifest connections with
+Shakespeare's own development have been indicated. That development has
+been traced by means of a careful determination of the chronology of the
+plays; and the recognition of this growth of his powers has been shown
+to be a necessary basis for a just estimate of their achievement.
+
+If, now, in conclusion, we attempt to define our general impression of
+the man and his work, this must inevitably take into account
+considerations of environment and development. The man belonged to his
+era, his city, and his profession. The documents make it plain that he
+did not live apart, but in close contact with the affairs of his day and
+generation. The plays make it clear that few men ever became so
+intimately familiar with the manners, morals, and ideas of their own
+time. There is no doubt that he drank deeply of the experience that
+Elizabethan London offered him. Still more, the plays make it clear that
+his life was one of constant and extraordinary intellectual and
+spiritual growth. Though, from the objective nature of the dramas, it is
+impossible to translate them into terms of personal experience or into
+exact stages of mental growth, yet it is none the less evident that the
+progress from the author of _Love's Labour's Lost_ to the author of _The
+Tempest_, from the creator of Richard III and Valentine to the creator
+of Iago and Antony, was marked, not only by a widening experience, but
+also by a development of personal character.
+
+[Page Heading: The Sonnets]
+
+To understand a man's surroundings does not, however, reveal the man;
+and to measure the growth of genius does not interpret its quality.
+Lovers of the plays are likely always to query: What manner of man was
+this? Taken out of his London, at any time in his career, how would he
+seem if we could know him as a man? Of what nature is this companion and
+friend whose presence we have felt through all his verses and in all of
+his characters? The few clues offered by records or tradition, and the
+difficulties in separating the creator from the thousand men and women
+of his creation, have driven many to seek answers to these questions in
+the sonnets. There he speaks in the first person, and there are revealed
+not merely some dubious hints of actual incidents, but the surer
+indications of emotional conflicts that went to the heart of the man's
+nature. At their worst, the sonnets may have been only literary
+exercises on conventional themes, but at their best they are surely both
+superb poetry and the result of genuine emotion. Can we doubt that the
+poet knew the pitfalls that beset the course of human passion or that he
+had faith in the triumphant beauty of love and friendship? Yet the most
+splendid of these lyrical declarations of faith add little to what we
+knew of the creator of the lovers and friends of the dramas. The
+trivialities and the sublimities, the sin and the idealism of the
+sonnets coalesce with the emotional effects of the comedies and
+tragedies. In forming our impression of the man, whatever we may derive
+from the sonnets does not contradict and does not largely affect the
+impressions made by the poetry and humanity of the plays. For the
+conception which each one forms of Shakespeare the man must be derived
+in the main from the impressions of personality implied by the plays.
+Such a conception is bound to be individual and without validity that
+can rest on proofs, but in the main it has not varied greatly from
+individual to individual or from generation to generation. From Jonson
+and Dryden to Goethe and Tennyson, there has been no great difference in
+the essentials of this estimate of the man.
+
+[Page Heading: Personality of Shakespeare]
+
+If the plays do not throw a clear light on matters of conduct and
+exercise of the will, they certainly tell of no lack of self-control
+and no weakness or feverishness of action. The traditions of
+conviviality and the records of a life of constant industry that secured
+wealth and social position are both in accord with the impressions
+derived from the plays of an eagerness for experience controlled by a
+self-mastery and a serenity of purpose. If one were to search for a
+modern writer most like Shakespeare, one would select Scott, rather than
+Shelley, or Byron, or Wordsworth. As to the intellectual quality of the
+author of the plays, it is clear that he was not a Galileo or a Bacon.
+If we judge intellectual power by its creation of system or synthesis,
+we shall probably estimate Shakespeare less highly than if we remember
+that intellect of the highest order is often displayed by maintaining
+openness and largeness of view in face of the solicitations of theory or
+prejudice. No one can read the plays in connection with the literature
+of the time, or of any time, without marveling at their freedom from
+vulgarity, pettiness, or narrowness of mental attitude. If they do not
+afford evidences of a profound culture in philosophy, letters, or
+science, they offer no trace of intellectual blindness or conceit, and
+they leave no doubt that their author had thought greatly and freely.
+Even more certain is their assurance of the range and intensity of his
+emotional life. In these respects again, no one can compare his work
+with that of other writers without feeling the effect of his
+personality. Fletcher, perhaps next to him among the Elizabethans in a
+versatile expression of a wide range of emotions, gives no sign of the
+sincere, profound, and searching interest in humankind which we are sure
+was Shakespeare's. Bacon, surpassing him perhaps in intellectual
+curiosity and thoroughness, manifestly gives no evidence in his writings
+of the warmth of sympathy, the quickness of emotional response, the fire
+of passion which we find in the author of Shakespeare's plays. It is
+difficult to disbelieve that their imaginative participation in the
+height and breadth of human feeling was the creation of a man who united
+intellectual greatness with an emotional susceptibility of extraordinary
+range and delicacy, and with a sympathy, genial, wide, tolerant, but
+also heartfelt, deep, and passionate. Such is the ineffaceable
+impression of the man which has been shared by many generations of
+readers, and which found expression two hundred and fifty years ago in
+Dryden's carefully considered estimate, "The man who of all Moderns, and
+perhaps Ancient Poets, had the largest and most comprehensive soul."
+
+What of the plays themselves? Is there any fixed and universal estimate
+of their quality and significance as literature? In this volume we have
+been concerned in reviewing our knowledge about them rather than in
+their interpretation or evaluation. We have noted the sources from which
+their plots were drawn, the conditions under which they were produced in
+the playhouses, the influences at work in the contemporary drama which
+determined in some measure their subjects and treatment. Starting with
+the probable dates of their composition, we have traced them from the
+theater to the printer, through the hands of many editors, and through
+the long history of their effects on theatergoers and readers. In their
+history they have played a part in the changes of taste and opinion of
+three centuries, and if they have grown greatly in men's estimation,
+this has not been without much variability of appreciation and
+uncertainty as to their value. What, then, are the qualities of the
+plays that raised them at once above the measure of contemporary
+influence and rivalry? Are these the qualities that have continued to
+win the most general appreciation? Despite all the stress we are to-day
+taught to place on change, growth, evolution, are there qualities in
+these plays which insure them a continued preeminence in literature?
+
+[Page Heading: Qualities of the Plays]
+
+Differences of opinion testify, indeed, to the comprehensive appeal of
+the plays to different minds, nations, or epochs, but they have not
+greatly affected the essential elements in men's admiration. If some
+critic brings into new prominence a quality that has partly escaped
+attention, his discovery is not likely to affect the more permanent
+elements of their reputation. If for a time attention is turned to the
+plays as plays rather than as poems and to the merits of Shakespeare as
+a dramatist, this criticism does not lead to any lasting disregard of
+their poetic quality or to the permanent acceptance of skill in dramatic
+structure as a chief element in their literary preeminence. Nor is such
+an element discoverable in their philosophical synthesis or their
+incidental wisdom, although some of the most brilliant criticism has
+exalted that wisdom or sought to formulate and expound their view of
+life. Concerning the essential elements of their greatness no real
+difference of opinion has arisen from the time they were written down to
+the present day. They were lifted at once above the level of
+contemporary endeavor, and they have continued to grow in reputation
+chiefly because of their poetry and their characterization.
+
+Concerning the nature and quality of these there is little difference of
+opinion, though critics may vary in estimating their beauty or value.
+One may prefer the verse of Homer or of Milton, but he will not deny the
+traits that distinguish Shakespeare's. Another may prefer the
+well-ordered study of human motives in Sophocles, or the realistic
+analysis of a modern realist like Turgenieff, but he will recognize the
+qualities in Shakespeare's characterization that are the basis of
+general admiration. Still another may condemn that admiration, but he
+will not differ from us as to the chief sources of its existence.
+
+These two sources are hardly to be separated, for the persons are
+revealed through the beauty of the verse, and the poetry is ever adapted
+to the speakers. In the early plays the poet's fancy often refuses to be
+bound by the requirements of his characters and escapes in lyric or
+descriptive excursions; but as his art becomes more masterly, the
+poetry adapts itself with increasing devotion to the dramatic task,
+discarding the limitations of the verse form and even at times
+sacrificing clarity and harmony of expression in its effort to make a
+few lines significant of the thought and emotion of some individual. An
+enormous vocabulary is treated with daring freedom; words are coined,
+changed, or restamped in order to let nothing of significance escape.
+The effect is not primarily that of finished workmanship or elaborate
+harmony, though these may be found in many passages and notably in the
+greatest of the sonnets. Broken rather than completed images, richness
+of suggestion rather than unity of impressiveness, surprise and novelty
+in words rather than their delicate adjustment, make up an effect of
+bewildering enchantment rather than of perfected form. This is true even
+in an early play like _Romeo and Juliet_, where the verse becomes
+undramatic in order to make the most of every opportunity for fancy or
+melody, and it is true also in _Othello_, where poetry and
+characterization are wedded with consummate art. The reader's pleasure
+is not in finding each idea finally developed or each motive given full
+elaboration. It is rather in the flow of words which endow each person
+and moment with their wealth of color and suggestion, and somehow carry
+on to the reader both their impression of life and the transforming
+power of their dignity and splendor.
+
+[Page Heading: Poetry of the Plays]
+
+In a last analysis the quality of the poetry is less dependent on the
+music of line or passage than on the imagery of the words themselves. It
+seems as if the imagination had hurried on Ariel's wing around the
+universe in order to freight each phrase with a fresh trope and an
+unexpected meaning. Sometimes, to be sure, there results an excess or
+mixture of figures; but restrained to character and situation, bound by
+the measure of the pentameter, the carnival of words becomes a gorgeous
+yet ordered pageant, the very spectacle of beauty.
+
+Let us take but one passage, not from the great crises of passion, nor
+from those unsurpassable revelations of the tortured spirit, but from
+the opening of a play where the purpose is chiefly expository, and where
+indeed the language is not free from that mixture of figures which some
+condemn. The wonderful first scene of _Antony and Cleopatra_, which
+within the compass of its sixty-two lines presents the two protagonists
+and their background of empire and war, opens thus in the speech of a
+subordinate.
+
+    Nay, but this dotage of our general's
+    O'erflows the measure. Those his goodly eyes,
+    That o'er the files and musters of the war
+    Have glow'd like plated Mars, now bend, now turn
+    The office and devotion of their view
+    Upon a tawny front; his captain's heart,
+    Which in the scuffles of great fights hath burst
+    The buckles on his breast, reneges all temper,
+    And is become the bellows and the fan
+    To cool a gipsy's lust.
+
+[Page Heading: Characterization]
+
+A few lines further on Antony speaks thus, as he embraces Cleopatra.
+
+    Let Rome in Tiber melt, and the wide arch
+    Of the rang'd Empire fall! Here is my space.
+    Kingdoms are clay; our dungy earth alike
+    Feeds beast as man; the nobleness of life
+    Is to do thus, when such a mutual pair
+    And such a twain can do't, in which I bind,
+    On pain of punishment, the world to wit
+    We stand up peerless.
+
+No other man ever wrote verse like this; and it is hard to believe that
+words will ever again respond to such a magician.
+
+This poetry is the fitting accompaniment of a characterization, the
+range and vitality of which, the world to wit, stand up peerless. While
+these are in general qualities of the Elizabethan drama, it is
+noteworthy that almost from the beginning Shakespeare outstripped his
+rivals. Launce, Richard III, Shylock, Juliet, were enough to establish a
+supremacy. The years that followed with their maturing thought and
+experience gave an amazing development to what was manifestly the native
+bent of his genius. Whatever else one may find in the plays, indeed
+whatever one finds there of wisdom or beauty, truth or art, it cannot be
+separated from their revelation of human nature.
+
+It is this primarily that makes the dramas great and lasting. The
+histories, with all their pomp and movement and patriotism, reveal kings
+and lords and peasants as alike the subjects of changing fortune, alike
+human beings for our pity, admiration, or laughter. The comedies with
+their fancy and sentiment and fun, and their perennial sunshine on the
+self-deceived and selfish, are ruled by the most charming and refined of
+womankind. The tragedies with their presentation of the waste and
+suffering of life, though here depravity may seem to fill the scene and
+innocence share in the punishment and ruin, yet redeem us from the
+terror of their devastation by their assurances of both the majesty and
+the loveliness of men and women.
+
+Shakespeare's methods in characterization have seemed to some haphazard
+and bewildering. He does not fit his men and women into an analysis of
+the constitution of society or into an obvious view of man's relations
+in the universe. Nor does he use his characters to illustrate fixed
+conceptions or processes of cause and effect. He usually started with an
+old story, with certain types of character, and he was not forgetful of
+theatrical necessities or dramatic construction. But as he went on he
+brought all his astounding interest in human nature to focus on the old
+plot and the stock type. Hamlet, the hesitating avenger, becomes the
+sentimentalist, the idealist, the thinker at war with himself, the
+embodiment of that conflict between circumstance and a nature unfitted
+to its task, which in some measure we have all encountered in life. An
+arrogant and doting old man, by the force of creative imagination,
+transcends the nursery tale from which he came, and carries to us all
+the implications of suffering and love that surround the aging of
+parents and the growth of children. Cleopatra is a wanton, but no
+analysis can explain the subtleties with which the idealism and
+animalism, the sacrifice and frivolity--and how much else--of human
+passion are bound together in the few hundred lines which she speaks. It
+is impossible to affirm that each of the great characters is thoroughly
+consistent or offers a strictly accurate motivation. Rather, they are
+magnificent portraits--like the Mona Lisa--crowded with a penetrating
+but question-provoking psychology. Into such parts and situations as the
+drama could afford are impressed every possible revelation of our
+motives; but his model was always reality and he never yielded truth to
+whim or prepossession.
+
+[Page Heading: Human Nature]
+
+Human nature, at its best or worst, droll or tragic, is thus given
+magnitude and potency. This idealization, rendered still more effective
+by the verse, persuades us as we read that here are our own attributes
+and conflicts exalted, now into serene beauty, again into torment and
+horror, and again into the Olympic warfare of unknown supermen. No doubt
+there is confusion because of the complexity of motives depicted and the
+multiplicity of impressions created, but there is also a final message
+of the greatness and comprehensiveness of human souls. In this world of
+sin and weakness and death, it is human beings, however mocked or
+maltreated by circumstance or by themselves, that are still triumphant
+and interesting. Out of his strifes and failures, the individual man yet
+emerges, the object of our contemplation and the assurance of our faith.
+
+In periods or persons when interest in the individual gives way to
+thought about class or system or some form of organization, it is likely
+that admiration for Shakespeare's plays will suffer a decline. In
+periods or persons when the individual assumes a larger place in thought
+and his power to affect and dominate the world is emphasized, the plays
+are likely to acquire a new regard. As long, however, as the study of
+human nature is a chief occupation of mankind and as long as we believe
+that a great purpose of imaginative literature is to enlarge our
+knowledge and sympathy for our fellows, so long, we may be sure, these
+dramas will not lose their preeminence in literature.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICES
+
+
+
+
+Appendix A
+
+BIOGRAPHICAL DOCUMENTS AND AUTHORITIES
+
+
+I. REPOSITORIES OF DOCUMENTS
+
+L. refers to Lambert's _Shakespeare Documents_ and H.-P. to
+Halliwell-Phillipps's _Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare_. 7th ed.
+
+
+1
+
+THE PARISH REGISTERS OF STRATFORD-ON-AVON are the authority for the
+baptisms of John Shakespeare's seven children (L. 1-7); for the burials
+of Anne and Edmund (L. 10); for the baptisms of William Shakespeare's
+daughter Susanna (L. 13) and the twins, Hamnet and Judith (L. 14); for
+the burials of Hamnet (L. 28), of the poet's father, John (L. 75), of
+his mother, Mary (L. 110), of the poet himself (L. 146), and of his
+widow (L. 159). These Registers have been edited for the Parish
+Registers Society, by R. Savage, 1898-9.
+
+
+2
+
+THE CORPORATION RECORDS OF STRATFORD-ON-AVON contain the Quiney-Sturley
+correspondence (L. 39, 43, 44; H.-P. II. 57-60); a return of the
+quantities of corn and malt held by the inhabitants of the ward in which
+New Place was situated, "Wm. Shackespere" being down for ten quarters
+(L. 53); a Bill of Complaint presented by R. Lane, T. Green, and William
+Shakespeare respecting the tithes of Stratford-upon-Avon (L. 125); the
+answer of William Combe to the foregoing Bill (L. 126).
+
+[Page Heading: Biographical Documents]
+
+
+3
+
+THE PUBLIC RECORD OFFICE IN LONDON preserves the following: record of
+the purchase by John Shakespeare of two houses on Henley Street,
+Stratford-on-Avon (L. 8); record of a mortgage on an estate at "Awston
+Cawntlett" given to Edmund Lambert by John and Mary Shakespeare (L. 9);
+Bill of Complaint brought by John Shakespeare against John, son of
+Edmund Lambert, respecting an estate at Wilmecote, near Stratford (L.
+15); Ms. accounts of the Treasurer of the Chamber, "To Willm. Kempe,
+Willm. Shakespeare & Richarde Burbage, servaunts to the Lord
+Chamberleyne, upon the Councelles warrant dated at Whitehall xv^to
+Marcij 1594 for twoe severall Comedies or enterludes shewed by them
+before her Majestic in Christmas tyme laste paste, viz: upon St.
+Stephens daye and Innocentes daye xiij.li. vj.s. viijd., and by waye of
+her Majesties rewarde vj.li. xiii.s. iiijd. in all xx.li." (L. 25);
+record of the purchase of New Place by Shakespeare (L. 32); papers in a
+Chancery suit relating to the estate at Wilmecote mortgaged to Edmund
+Lambert, and consisting of a Bill of Complaint by John and Mary
+Shakespeare against John Lambert for his refusal to accept L40 and
+reconvey the property to the complainants, John Lambert's answer, and
+the replication of John and Mary Shakespeare to the answer (L. 35); a
+subsidy roll showing William Shakespeare as a defaulter in respect of a
+tax of five shillings, October, 1596, and of thirteen shillings and four
+pence, October, 1598, based on an assessment made about 1598 or 1594,
+when the poet was living in St. Helen's, Bishopsgate, and paid after he
+had moved to Southwark (_Athenaeum_, March 16, 1906, and L. 42); Royal
+Warrant for a Patent and the Patent itself (May 19, 1603) licensing the
+company of actors, "Laurence Fletcher, William Shakespeare, Richard
+Burbage, Augustine Phillippes, John Hemmings, Henrie Condell, William
+Sly, Robert Armyn, Richard Cowly and the rest of their associates" as
+the King's Servants (L. 87, 88); the Accounts of the Revels at Court in
+the reigns of Elizabeth and James, containing entries showing
+performances at Court of "The Moor of Venis," "The Merry Wives of
+Winsor," "Mesur for Mesur" by "Shaxberd," "the plaie of Errors" by
+"Shaxberd," "Loves Labours lost," "Henry the fift," and "the Martchant
+of Venis" by "Shaxberd" (twice, being "againe commanded by the Kings
+Ma^tie"), all in 1604 (O.S.), of "the Tempest" and "y^e winters nightes
+Tayle" in 1611, all by the King's men, and of the performance before the
+Court at Wilton, Dec. 2, 1603 (L. 96, 133, _Notes in the History of the
+Revels Office under the Tudors_, ed. by E. K. Chambers, and _Supposed
+Shakespeare Forgeries_, by Ernest Law); record of the purchase in 1610
+of an estate in Old Stratford and Stratford-on-Avon by Shakespeare from
+William and John Combe (L. 127); three documents in a Chancery suit
+relating to the ownership of property in Blackfriars, April 26, May 15,
+May 22, 1615 (C. W. Wallace in _Englische Studien_, April, 1906, and
+Preface to New Edition of Lee's _Life_, xxii ff.); the grant for cloaks
+for the King's entry into London, March 15, 1604 (Ld. Chamberlain's
+Papers, No. 600); the documents in the law suit among the heirs of
+Richard Burbage (1635), relating to the ownership of the Globe and the
+Blackfriars theaters, and giving much information on the value of
+theatrical shares, actors' salaries, etc. (H.-P. i. 312-319); and the
+documents in the lawsuit of Bellots _vs._ Mountjoy (1612), including
+Shakespeare's deposition (_New Shakespeare Discoveries_, C. W. Wallace,
+_Harper's Magazine_, March, 1910).
+
+
+4
+
+THE SHAKESPEARE'S BIRTHPLACE MUSEUM IN STRATFORD-ON-AVON contains
+several documents of importance: record of the conveyance in 1602 of an
+estate in Old Stratford from William and John Combe to William
+Shakespeare (L. 79, H.-P. II, 17-19); extract from the Court Rolls of
+the Manor of Rowington, transferring from Walter Getley to William
+Shakespeare certain premises in Chapel Lane, Stratford-on-Avon (L. 81);
+the conveyance to Shakespeare from Ralph Hubande of the residue of a
+lease of a moiety of the tithes of Stratford-on-Avon, Old Stratford,
+Welcombe, and Bishopton (L. 99); the diary of one Thomas Greene,
+containing a reference to the dispute as to the inclosing of common
+lands (reproduced in facsimile in C. M. Ingleby's _Shakespeare and the
+Enclosure of Common Fields at Welcombe_, 1885).
+
+
+5
+
+THE BRITISH MUSEUM possesses the Ms. diary of John Manningham of the
+Middle Temple, which, under the date of Feb. 2, 1601, records a
+performance of _Twelfth Night_, and the anecdote recorded above, p. 44
+(L. 77; Ms. Harl. 5353, ed. Camden Soc., p. 39); also the Mortgage Deed
+from Shakespeare to Henry Walker on the property in Blackfriars conveyed
+to Shakespeare and others on the day previous, March 10, 1612/13.
+
+
+6
+
+THE BODLEIAN LIBRARY AT OXFORD has the Ms. diary of Dr. Simon Forman
+describing performances of _Winter's Tale, Cymbeline_, and _Macbeth_ in
+1610 and 1611 (L. 128; Ms. Ashmol. 208, fol. 201_b_); and the Accounts
+of Lord Stanhope of Harrington, Treasurer of the Chamber to James I,
+containing the following entry: "1613, May 20. Item paid to John
+Heminges uppon the cowncells warrant dated att Whitehall xx^o die Maii
+1613 for presentinge before the Princes highnes the La: Elizabeth and
+the Prince Pallatyne Elector fowerteene severall playes viz ... Much
+adoe abowte nothinge ... The Tempest ... The Winters Tale, S^r John
+Falstafe, The Moore of Venice ... Caesars Tragedye ... All w^ch Playes
+weare played within the tyme of this Accompte, viz p^d the some of iiij.
+(xx.) xiij.li. vj.s. viij.d.
+
+[Page Heading: Biographical Documents]
+
+"Item paid to the said John Heminges uppon the lyke warrant dated att
+Whitehall xx^o die Maij 1613 for presenting sixe severall playes viz.
+one playe called ... And one other called Benidicte and Betteris all
+played within the tyme of this Accompte viz p^d ffortie powndes And by
+waye of his Ma^tis rewarde twentie powndes In all ... lx li." (L. 138;
+Ms. Rawl. A. 239).
+
+
+7
+
+THE EPISCOPAL REGISTER OF THE DIOCESE OF WORCESTER contains the bond
+given by Sandells and others for the marriage of Shakespeare and Anne
+Hathaway (L. 12).
+
+
+8
+
+THE LIBRARY OF THE GUILDHALL IN LONDON has the indenture prepared for
+the purchaser in the sale of the house in Blackfriars on March 10, 1613,
+by Henry Walker to William Shakespeare and others (L. 136). The
+indenture held by the seller is in the library of Mr. Marsden J. Perry,
+Providence, R. I.
+
+
+9
+
+THE PRINCIPAL PROBATE REGISTRY, Somerset House, London, contains
+Shakespeare's Will, which runs as follows:
+
+[Page Heading: Shakespeare's Will]
+
+    [10]VICESIMO quinto die [Januarii] _Martii_, anno regni domini
+    nostri Jacobi, nunc regis Angliae, &c., decimo quarto, et Scotiae
+    xlix^o, annoque Domini 1616.
+
+    --T. WMI. SHACKSPEARE
+
+    In the name of God, Amen! I William Shackspeare, of Stratford upon
+    Avon in the countie of Warr., gent., in perfect health and memorie,
+    God be praysed, doe make and ordayne this my last will and testament
+    in manner and forme followeing, that ys to saye, ffirst, I comend my
+    soule into the handes of God my Creator, hoping and assuredlie
+    beleeving, through thonelie merittes, of Jesus Christe my Saviour,
+    to be made partaker of lyfe everlastinge, and my bodye to the earth
+    whereof yt ys made. Item, I gyve and bequeath unto my [sonne
+    and][11] daughter Judyth one hundred and fyftie poundes of lawfull
+    English money, to be paied unto her in the manner and forme
+    foloweng, that ys to saye, one hundred poundes _in discharge of her
+    marriage porcion_ within one yeare after my deceas, with
+    consideracion after the rate of twoe shillinges in the pound for soe
+    long tyme as the same shalbe unpaied unto her after my deceas, and
+    the fyftie poundes residwe thereof upon her surrendring _of_, or
+    gyving of such sufficient securitie as the overseers of this my will
+    shall like of, to surrender or graunte all her estate and right that
+    shall discend or come unto her after my deceas, or _that shee_ nowe
+    hath, of, in, or to, one copiehold tenemente, with thappurtenaunces,
+    lyeing and being in Stratford upon Avon aforesaied in the saied
+    countye of Warr., being parcell or holden of the mannour of
+    Rowington, unto my daughter Susanna Hall and her heires for ever.
+    Item, I gyveand bequeath unto my saied daughter Judith one hundred
+    and fyftie poundes more, if shee or anie issue of her bodie be
+    lyvinge att thend of three yeares next ensueing the daie of the date
+    of this my will, during which tyme my executours are to paie her
+    consideracion from my deceas according to the rate aforesaied; and
+    if she dye within the saied tearme without issue of her bodye, then
+    my will ys, and I doe gyve and bequeath one hundred poundes thereof
+    to my neece Elizabeth Hall, and the fiftie poundes to be sett fourth
+    by my executours during the lief of my sister Johane Harte, and the
+    use and proffitt thereof cominge shalbe payed to my saied sister
+    Jone, and after her deceas the saied l.^_li._ shall remaine amongst
+    the children of my saied sister, equallie to be divided amongst
+    them; but if my saied daughter Judith be lyving att thend of the
+    saied three yeares, or anie yssue of her bodye, then my will ys, and
+    soe I devise and bequeath the saied hundred and fyftie poundes to be
+    sett out _by my executours and overseers_ for the best benefitt of
+    her and her issue, and _the stock_ not _to be_ paied unto her soe
+    long as she shalbe marryed and covert baron [by my executours and
+    overseers]; but my will ys, that she shall have the consideracion
+    yearelie paied unto her during her lief, and, after her deceas, the
+    saied stock and consideracion to bee paied to her children, if she
+    have anie, and if not, to her executours or assignes, she lyving the
+    saied terme after my deceas. Provided that yf suche husbond as she
+    shall att thend of the saied three years be marryed unto, or att
+    anie after (_sic_), doe sufficientlie assure unto her and thissue of
+    her bodie landes awnswereable to the porcion by this my will gyven
+    unto her, and to be adjudged soe by my executours and overseers,
+    then my will ys, that the said cl.^_li._ shalbe paied to such
+    husbond as shall make such assurance, to his owne use. Item, I gyve
+    and bequeath unto my saied sister Jone xx.^_li_ and all my wearing
+    apparrell, to be paied and delivered within one yeare after my
+    deceas; and I doe will and devise unto her _the house_ with
+    thappurtenaunces in Stratford, wherein she dwelleth, for her
+    naturall lief, under the yearlie rent of xij.^_d._ Item, I gyve and
+    bequeath unto her three sonnes, William Harte, ... Hart, and
+    Michaell Harte, fyve pounds a peece, to be paied within one yeare
+    after my deceas [to be sett out for her within one yeare after my
+    deceas by my executours, with thadvise and direccions of my
+    overseers, for her best profitt, untill her mariage, and then the
+    same with the increase thereof to be paied unto her]. Item, I gyve
+    and bequeath unto [her] _the saied Elizabeth Hall_, all my plate,
+    _except my brod silver and gilt bole_, that I now have att the date
+    of this my will. Item, I gyve and bequeath unto the poore of
+    Stratford aforesaied tenn poundes; to Mr. Thomas Combe my sword; to
+    Thomas Russell esquier fyve poundes; and to Frauncis Collins, of the
+    borough of Warr. in the countie of Warr. gentleman, thirteene
+    poundes, sixe shillinges, and eight pence, to be paied within one
+    yeare after my deceas. Item, I gyve and bequeath to [Mr. Richard
+    Tyler thelder] _Hamlett Sadler_ xxvj.^_s._ viij.^_d._ to buy him a
+    ringe; to _William Raynoldes gent., xxvj.^s. viij.^d. to buy him a
+    ringe_; to my godson William Walker xx^_s._ in gold; to Anthonye
+    Nashe gent., xxvj.^_s._ viij.^_d._; and to Mr. John Nashe xxvj.^_s._
+    _viij.^d._ [in gold]; _and to my fellowes John Hemynges, Richard
+    Burbage, and Henry Cundell, xxvj.^s. viij.^d. a peece to buy them
+    ringes_. Item, I gyve, will, bequeath, and devise, unto my daughter
+    Susanna Hall, _for better enabling of her to performe this my will,
+    and towards the performans thereof_, all that capitall messuage or
+    tenemente with thappurtenaunces, _in Stratford aforesaid_, called
+    the New Place, wherein I nowe dwell, and two messuages or tenementes
+    with thappurtenaunces, scituat, lyeing, and being in Henley
+    streete, within the borough of Stratford aforesaied; and all my
+    barnes, stables, orchardes, gardens, landes, tenementes, and
+    hereditamentes, whatsoever, scituat, lyeing, and being, or to be
+    had, receyved, perceyved, or taken, within the townes, hamletes,
+    villages, fieldes, and groundes, of Stratford upon Avon,
+    Oldstratford, Bushopton, and Welcombe, or in anie of them in the
+    saied countie of Warr. And alsoe all that messuage or tenemente with
+    thappurtenaunces, wherein one John Robinson dwelleth, scituat,
+    lyeing and being, in the Blackfriers in London, nere the Wardrobe;
+    and all my other landes, tenementes, and hereditamentes whatsoever,
+    To have and to hold all and singuler the saied premisses, with
+    theire appurtenaunces, unto the saied Susanna Hall, for and during
+    the terme of her naturall lief, and after her deceas, to the first
+    sonne of her bodie lawfullie yssueing, and to the heires males of
+    the bodie of the saied first sonne lawfullie yssueinge; and for
+    defalt of such issue, to the second sonne of her bodie, lawfullie
+    issueinge, and [of] to the heires males of the bodie of the saied
+    second sonne lawfullie yssueinge; and for defalt of such heires, to
+    the third sonne of the bodie of the saied Susanna lawfullie
+    yssueing, and of the heires males of the bodie of the saied third
+    sonne lawfullie yssueing; and for defalt of such issue, the same soe
+    to be and remaine to the ffourth [sonne], ffyfth, sixte, and
+    seaventh sonnes of her bodie lawfullie issueing, one after another,
+    and to the heires males of the bodies of the saied fourth, fifth,
+    sixte, and seaventh sonnes lawfullie yssueing, in such manner as yt
+    ys before lymitted to be and remaine to the first, second, and third
+    sonns of her bodie, and to theire heires males; and for defalt of
+    such issue, the said premisses to be and remaine to my sayed neece
+    Hall, and the heires males of her bodie lawfullie yssueinge; and for
+    defalt of such issue, to my daughter Judith, and the heires males
+    of her bodie lawfullie issueinge; and for defalt of such issue, to
+    the right heires of me the saied William Shakspeare for ever. _Item,
+    I gyve unto my wief my second best bed with the furniture._ Item, I
+    gyve and bequeath to my saied daughter Judith my broad silver gilt
+    bole. All the rest of my goodes, chattels, leases, plate, jewels,
+    and household stuffe whatsoever, after my dettes and legasies paied,
+    and my funerall expenses dischardged, I give, devise, and bequeath
+    to my sonne in lawe, John Hall gent., and my daughter Susanna, his
+    wief, whom I ordaine and make executours of this my last will and
+    testament. And I doe intreat and appoint _the saied_ Thomas Russell
+    esquier and Frauncis Collins gent, to be overseers hereof, and doe
+    revoke all former wills, and publishe this to be my last will and
+    testament. In witness whereof I have hereunto put my [seale] _hand_,
+    the daie and yeare first abovewritten.
+
+                                            By me WILLIAM SHAKSPEARE.
+
+      Witnes to the publyshing hereof,
+        FRA: COLLYNS,[12]
+        JULYUS SHAWE,
+        JOHN ROBINSON,
+        HAMNET SADLER,
+        ROBERT WHATTCOTT.
+
+    Probatum coram magistro Willielmo Byrde, legum doctore comiss. &c.
+    xxij^do. die mensis Junii anno Domini 1616, juramento Johannis Hall,
+    unius executorum, &c. cui &c. de bene &c. jurat. reservat. potestate
+    &c. Susannae Hall, alteri executorum &c. cum venerit petitur, &c.
+    (Inv. ex.)
+
+[10] The words which have been erased are put between brackets; those
+which have been interlined are printed in italics.
+
+[11] So Lambert, Halliwell-Phillipps reads "sonne in L."
+
+[12] Francis Collyns was the lawyer at Warwick who prepared the will, of
+which the draft only was executed, no time being possible for an
+engrossed copy.--Note by Lambert.
+
+[Page Heading: Biographical Documents]
+
+
+10
+
+THE HERALDS' COLLEGE has the two drafts of a grant of arms to John
+Shakespeare in 1596 (Ms. Vincent. Coll. Arm. 157, arts. 23, 24); and the
+confirmation of the grant in 1599 (L. 30, 55). For further details on
+the matter of the coat of arms, see _Herald and Genealogist_, i. 510,
+and for facsimiles, _Miscellanea Genealogica et Heraldica_, 2d ser.
+1886, i. 109. On the criticism of the herald's complaisance in the
+matter of the Shakespeare and similar grants, see Preface to New Edition
+(1909) of Lee's _Life_, pp. xi-xv.
+
+
+11
+
+THE STATIONERS' REGISTER, accessible in the _Transcript_ edited by E.
+Arber, 5 vols. 1875-94, contains the records of the entries of those of
+Shakespeare's works which were registered either with or without his
+name. The Shakespearean entries are gathered out of the great mass
+contained in these volumes by Lambert, Fleay, Stokes, H. P.,
+_Chronological Order of Shakespeare's Plays_, 1878, Appendix V, and
+others.
+
+
+12. MISCELLANEOUS
+
+The literary allusions to Shakespeare in the sixteenth and earlier
+seventeenth centuries have been collected in _Shakespeare's Century of
+Praise_, revised and reedited by J. Munro as _The Shakespeare Allusion
+Books_, London, 1909.
+
+Greene's attack in _Greenes Groatsworth_ will be found in its context in
+his works, ed. A. B. Grosart, 1881-1886, and Chettle's Apology in his
+_Kind Hartes Dreame_, Percy Society, 1874.
+
+_The Historical MSS. Commission's Report on the Historical MSS. of
+Belvoir Castle_, IV. 494, contains the entry from the Belvoir Household
+Book as to Rutland's "impresa." See also _Times_, December 27, 1905,
+and Preface to New Edition of Lee's _Life_, pp. xvi-xxii.
+
+
+13. EXTRACTS FROM MERES'S _PALLADIS TAMIA_, 1598
+
+As the Greeke tongue is made famous and eloquent by _Homer_, _Hesiod_,
+_Euripedes_, _AEschilus_, _Sophocles_, _Pindarus_, _Phocylides_ and
+_Aristophanes_; and the Latine tongue by _Virgill_, _Ovid_, _Horace_,
+_Silius Italicus_, _Lucanus_, _Lucretius_, _Ausonius_ and _Claudianus_:
+so the English tongue is mightily enriched, and gorgeouslie invested in
+rare ornaments and resplendent abiliments by sir _Philip Sidney_,
+_Spencer_, _Daniel_, _Drayton_, _Warner_, _Shakespeare_, _Marlow_ and
+_Chapman_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+As the soule of _Euphorbus_ was thought to live in _Pythagoras_: so the
+sweete wittie soule of _Ovid_ lives in mellifluous & hony-tongued
+Shakespeare, witnes his _Venus_ and _Adonis_, his _Lucrece_, his sugred
+Sonnets among his private friends, &c.
+
+As _Plautus_ and _Seneca_ are accounted the best for Comedy and Tragedy
+among the Latines, so _Shakespeare_ among y^e English is the most
+excellent in both kinds for the stage; for Comedy, witnes his
+_G[~e]tlem[~e] of Verona_, his _Errors_, his _Love labors lost_, his
+_Love labours wonne_, his _Midsummers night dreame_, & his _Merchant of
+Venice_: for Tragedy, his _Richard the 2, Richard the 3, Henry the 4,
+King Iohn, Titus Andronicus_, and his _Romeo_ and _Iuliet_.
+
+As _Epius Stolo_ said, that the Muses would speake with _Plautus_
+tongue, if they would speak Latin: so I say that the Muses would speak
+with _Shakespeares_ fine filed phrase, if they would speake English.
+
+As _Ovid_ saith of his worke:
+
+    Iamque opus exegi, quod nec Iovis ira, nec ignis,
+    Nec poterit ferrum, nec edax abolere vetustas.
+
+[Page Heading: Extracts from Meres]
+
+And as _Horace_ saith of his; _Exegi monumentum aere perennius;
+Regalique; situ pyramidum altius; Quod non imber edax; Non Aquilo
+impotens possit diruere; aut innumerabilis annorum feries &c fuga
+temporum_: so say I severally of sir _Philip Sidneys_, _Spencers_,
+_Daniels_, _Draytons_, _Shakespeares_, and _Warners workes_;
+
+As _Pindarus_, _Anacreon_ and _Callimachus_ among the Greekes; and
+_Horace_ and _Catullus_ among the Latines are the best Lyrick Poets: so
+in this faculty the best among our Poets are _Spencer_ (who excelleth in
+all kinds) _Daniel_, _Drayton_, _Shakespeare_, _Bretton_.
+
+As ... so these are our best for Tragedie, the Lorde _Buckhurst_, Doctor
+_Leg_ of Cambridge, Doctor _Edes_ of Oxforde, maister _Edward Ferris_,
+the Authour of the _Mirrour for Magistrates_, _Marlow_, _Peele_,
+_Watson_, _Kid_, _Shakespeare_, _Drayton_, _Chapman_, _Decker_, and
+_Benjamin Johnson_.
+
+... so the best for Comedy amongst us bee, _Edward_ Earle of Oxforde,
+Doctor _Gager_ of Oxforde, Maister _Rowley_ once a rare Scholler of
+learned Pembroke Hall in Cambridge, Maister _Edwardes_ one of her
+Maiesties Chappell, eloquent and wittie _John Lilly_, _Lodge_,
+_Gascoyne_, _Greene_, _Shakespeare_, _Thomas Nash_, _Thomas Heywood_,
+_Anthony Mundye_ our best plotter, _Chapman_, _Porter_, _Wilson_,
+_Hathway_, and _Henry Chettle._
+
+... so these are the most passionate among us to bewaile and bemoane the
+perplexities of Love, _Henrie Howard_ Earle of Surrey, sir _Thomas Wyat_
+the elder, sir _Francis Brian_, sir _Philip Sidney_, sir _Walter
+Rawley_, sir _Edward Dyer_, _Spencer_, _Daniel_, _Drayton_,
+_Shakespeare_, _Whetstone_, _Gascoyne_, _Samuell Page_ sometimes fellowe
+of _Corpus Christi_ Colledge in Oxford, _Churchyard, Bretton_.
+
+
+14. THE INSCRIPTION ON SHAKESPEARE'S MONUMENT IN THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY
+TRINITY, STRATFORD-ON-AVON
+
+        Judicio Pylium, genio Socratem, arte Maronem
+          Terra tegit, populus maeret, Olympus habet.
+
+    Stay, passenger, why goest thou by so fast?
+    Read, if thou canst, whom envious death hath plast
+    Within this monument: Shakespeare with whome
+    Quick nature dide; whose name doth deck ys tombe
+    Far more than cost; sith all yt he hath writt
+    Leaves living art but page to serve his witt.
+
+                    Obiit ano. doi 1616. AEtatis 53. Die 23 Ap.
+
+[Page Heading: The First Folio]
+
+
+15. THE INTRODUCTORY MATTER IN THE FIRST FOLIO
+
+                        TO THE MOST NOBLE
+                               AND
+                  INCOMPARABLE PAIRE OF BRETHREN.
+                             WILLIAM
+         Earle of Pembroke, &c.  Lord Chamberlaine to the
+                  _Kings most Excellent Maiesty_.
+                               AND
+                              PHILIP
+Earle of Montgomery, &c. Gentleman of his Maiesties Bed-Chamber.
+       Both Knights of the most Noble Order of the Garter,
+                   and our singular good LORDS.
+
+    Right Honourable,
+
+Whilst we studie to be thankful in our particular, for the many fauors
+we haue receiued from your L. L. we are falne vpon the ill fortune, to
+mingle two the most diuerse things that can bee, feare, and rashnesse;
+rashnesse in the enterprize, and feare of the successe. For, when we
+valew the places your H. H. sustaine, we cannot but know their dignity
+greater, then to descend to the reading of these trifles: and, while we
+name them trifles, we haue depriu'd our selues of the defence of our
+Dedication. But since your L. L. haue beene pleas'd to thinke these
+trifles some-thing, heeretofore; and haue prosequuted both them, and
+their Authour liuing, with so much fauour: we hope, that (they
+out-liuing him, and he not hauing the fate, common with some, to be
+exequutor to his owne writings) you will vse the like indulgence toward
+them, you haue done vnto their parent. There is a great difference,
+whether any Booke choose his Patrones, or finde them: This hath done
+both. For, so much were your L. L. likings of the seuerall parts, when
+they were acted, as before they were published, the Volume ask'd to be
+yours. We haue but collected them, and done an office to the dead, to
+procure his Orphanes, Guardians: without ambition either of
+selfe-profit, or fame: onely to keepe the memory of so worthy a Friend,
+& Fellow aliue, as was our SHAKESPEARE, by humble offer of his playes,
+to your most noble patronage. Wherein, as we haue iustly obserued, no
+man to come neere your L. L. but with a kind of religious addresse; it
+hath bin the height of our care, who are the Presenters, to make the
+present worthy of your H. H. by the perfection. But, there we must also
+craue our abilities to be considerd, my Lords. We cannot go beyond our
+owne powers. Country hands reach foorth milke, creame, fruites, or what
+they haue: and many Nations (we haue heard) that had not gummes &
+incense, obtained their requests with a leauened Cake. It was no fault
+to approch their Gods, by what meanes they could: And the most, though
+meanest, of things are made more precious, when they are dedicated to
+Temples. In that name therefore, we most humbly consecrate to your H. H.
+these remaines of your seruant SHAKESPEARE; that what delight is in
+them, may be euer your L. L. the reputation his, & the faults ours, if
+any be committed, by a payre so carefull to shew their gratitude both to
+the liuing, and the dead, as is
+
+                                        Your Lordshippes most bounden,
+                                                  IOHN HEMINGE.
+                                                  HENRY CONDELL.
+
+
+_To the Great Variety of Readers._--From the most able to him that can
+but spell;--there you are number'd. We had rather you were weighd,
+especially when the fate of all bookes depends upon your capacities, and
+not of your heads alone, but of your purses. Well! It is now publique,
+and you will stand for your privileges wee know; to read and censure. Do
+so, but buy it first. That doth best commend a booke, the stationer
+saies. Then, how odde soever your braines be, or your wisedomes, make
+your licence the same and spare not. Judge your sixe-pen'orth, your
+shillings worth, your five shillings worth at a time, or higher, so you
+rise to the just rates, and welcome. But, whatever you do, buy. Censure
+will not drive a trade or make the jacke go. And though you be a
+magistrate of wit, and sit on the stage at Black-Friers or the Cock-pit
+to arraigne playes dailie, know, these playes have had their triall
+alreadie, and stood out all appeales, and do now come forth quitted
+rather by a Decree of Court than any purchas'd letters of commendation.
+
+It had bene a thing, we confesse, worthie to have bene wished, that the
+author himselfe had liv'd to have set forth and overseen his owne
+writings; but since it hath bin ordain'd otherwise, and he by death
+departed from that right, we pray you do not envie his friends the
+office of their care and paine to have collected and publish'd them; and
+so to have publish'd them, as where (before) you were abus'd with
+diverse stolne and surreptitious copies, maimed and deformed by the
+frauds and stealthes of injurious impostors that expos'd them; even
+those are now offer'd to your view cur'd and perfect of their limbes,
+and all the rest absolute in their numbers as he conceived them; who, as
+he was a happie imitator of Nature, was a most gentle expresser of it.
+His mind and hand went together; and what he thought, he uttered with
+that easinesse that wee have scarse received from him a blot in his
+papers. But it is not our province, who onely gather his works and give
+them you, to praise him. It is yours that reade him. And there we hope,
+to your divers capacities, you will finde enough both to draw and hold
+you; for his wit can no more lie hid then it could be lost. Reade him,
+therefore; and againe and againe; and if then you doe not like him,
+surely you are in some manifest danger not to understand him. And so we
+leave you to other of his friends, whom, if you need, can bee your
+guides. If you neede them not, you can leade yourselves and others; and
+such readers we wish him.--_Iohn Heminge._--_Henrie Condell._
+
+
+[Page Heading: Ben Jonson's Eulogy]
+
+              TO THE MEMORY OF MY BELOUED,
+
+                       THE AVTHOR
+
+                MR. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE:
+                          AND
+                 what he hath left vs.
+
+    To draw no enuy (_Shakespeare_) on thy name,
+      Am I thus ample to thy Booke, and Fame:
+    While I confesse thy writings to be such,
+      As neither _Man_, nor _Muse_, can praise too much.
+    'Tis true, and all mens suffrage. But these wayes
+      Were not the paths I meant vnto thy praise:
+    For seeliest Ignorance on these may light,
+      Which, when it sounds at best, but eccho's right;
+    Or blinde Affection, which doth ne're aduance
+      The truth, but gropes, and vrgeth all by chance;
+    Or crafty Malice, might pretend this praise,
+      And thinke to ruine, where it seem'd to raise.
+    These are, as some infamous Baud, or Whore,
+      Should praise a Matron. What could hurt her more?
+    But thou art proofe against them, and indeed
+      Aboue th' ill fortune of them, or the need.
+    I, therefore will begin. Soule of the Age!
+      The applause! delight! the wonder of our Stage!
+    My _Shakespeare_, rise; I will not lodge thee by
+      _Chaucer_, or _Spenser_, or bid _Beaumont_ lye
+    A little further, to make thee a roome:
+      Thou art a Moniment, without a tombe,
+    And art aliue still, while thy Booke doth liue,
+      And we haue wits to read, and praise to giue.
+    That I not mixe thee so, my braine excuses;
+      I meane with great, but disproportion'd _Muses_:
+    For, if I thought my iudgement were of yeeres,
+      I should commit thee surely with thy peeres,
+    And tell, how farre thou didstst our _Lily_ out-shine,
+      Or sporting _Kid_, or _Marlowes_ mighty line.
+    And though thou hadst small _Latine_, and lesse _Greeke_,
+      From thence to honour thee, I would not seeke
+    For names; but call forth thund'ring _AEschilus_,
+      _Euripides_, and _Sophocles_ to vs,
+    _Paccuuius_, _Accius_, him of _Cordoua_ dead,
+      To life againe, to heare thy Buskin tread,
+    And shake a Stage: Or, when thy Sockes were on,
+      Leaue thee alone, for the comparison
+    Of all, that insolent _Greece_, or haughtie _Rome_
+      Sent forth, or since did from their ashes come.
+    Triumph, my _Britaine_, thou hast one to showe,
+      To whom all Scenes of _Europe_ homage owe.
+    He was not of an age, but for all time!
+      And all the _Muses_ still were in their prime,
+    When like _Apollo_ he came forth to warme
+      Our eares, or like a _Mercury_ to charme!
+    Nature her selfe was proud of his designes,
+      And ioy'd to weare the dressing of his lines!
+    Which were so richly spun, and wouen so fit,
+      As, since, she will vouchsafe no other Wit.
+    The merry _Greeke_, tart _Aristophanes_,
+      Neat _Terence_, witty _Plautus_, now not please;
+    But antiquated, and deserted lye
+      As they were not of Natures family.
+    Yet must I not giue Nature all: Thy Art,
+      My gentle _Shakespeare_, must enioy a part.
+    For though the _Poets_ matter, Nature be,
+      His Art doth giue the fashion. And, that he,
+    Who casts to write a liuing line, must sweat,
+      (Such as thine are) and strike the second heat
+    Vpon the _Muses_ anuile: turne the same,
+      (And himselfe with it) that he thinkes to frame;
+    Or for the lawrell, he may gaine a scorne,
+      For a good _Poet's_ made, as well as borne.
+    And such wert thou. Looke how the fathers face
+      Liues in his issue, euen so, the race
+    Of _Shakespeares_ minde, and manners brightly shines
+      In his well torned, and true-filed lines:
+    In each of which, he seemes to shake a Lance,
+      As brandish't at the eyes of Ignorance.
+    Sweet Swan of _Auon_! what a sight it were
+      To see thee in our waters yet appeare,
+    And make those flights vpon the bankes of _Thames_,
+      That so did take _Eliza_, and our _Iames_!
+    But stay, I see thee in the _Hemisphere_
+      Aduanc'd, and made a Constellation there!
+    Shine forth, thou Starre of _Poets_, and with rage,
+      Or influence, chide, or cheere the drooping Stage;
+    Which, since thy flight fro hence, hath mourn'd like night,
+      And despaires day, but for thy Volumes light.
+
+                                                  BEN: IONSON.
+
+
+VPON THE LINES AND LIFE OF THE FAMOUS
+
+Scenicke Poet, Master WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
+
+    Those hands, which you so clapt, go now, and wring
+    You _Britaines_ braue; for done are _Shakespeares_ dayes:
+    His dayes are done, that made the dainty Playes,
+    Which made the Globe of heau'n and earth to ring.
+    Dry'de is that veine, dry'd is the _Thespian_ Spring,
+    Turn'd all to teares, and _Ph[oe]bus_ clouds his rayes:
+    That corp's, that coffin now besticke those bayes,
+    Which crown'd him _Poet_ first, then _Poets_ King.
+    If _Tragedies_ might any _Prologue_ haue,
+    All those he made, would scarse make one to this:
+    Where _Fame_, now that he gone is to the graue
+    (Deaths publique tyring-house) the _Nuncius_ is.
+      For though his line of life went soone about,
+      The life yet of his lines shall neuer out.
+
+                                                  HVGH HOLLAND.
+
+
+[Page Heading: The First Folio]
+
+                        TO THE MEMORIE
+
+                of the deceased Authour Maister
+
+                        W. SHAKESPEARE
+
+    _Shake-speare_, at length thy pious fellowes giue
+    The world thy Workes: thy Workes, by which, out-liue
+    Thy Tombe, thy name must: when that stone is rent,
+    And Time dissolues thy _Stratford_ Moniment,
+    Here we aliue shall view thee still. This Booke,
+    When Brasse and Marble fade, shall make thee looke
+    Fresh to all Ages: when Posteritie
+    Shall loath what's new, thinke all is prodegie
+    That is not _Shake-speares_ eu'ry Line, each Verse
+    Here shall reuiue, redeeme thee from thy Herse.
+    Nor Fire, nor cankring Age, as _Naso_ said,
+    Of his, thy wit-fraught Booke shall once inuade.
+    Nor shall I e're beleeue, or thinke thee dead
+    (Though mist) vntill our bankrout Stage be sped
+    (Jmpossible) with some new straine t'out-do
+    Passions of _Iuliet_, and her _Romeo_;
+    Or till J heare a Scene more nobly take,
+    Then when thy half-Sword parlying _Romans_ spake.
+    Till these, till any of thy Volumes rest
+    Shall with more fire, more feeling be exprest,
+    Be sure, our _Shake-speare_, thou canst neuer dye,
+    But crown'd with Lawrell, liue eternally.
+
+                                                  L. DIGGES.
+
+
+To the memorie of M. _W. Shake-speare_.
+
+    WEE wondred (_Shake-speare_) that thou went'st so soone
+    From the Worlds-Stage, to the Graues-Tyring-roome.
+    Wee thought thee dead, but this thy printed worth,
+    Tels thy Spectators, that thou went'st but forth
+    To enter with applause. An Actors Art,
+    Can dye, and liue, to acte a second part.
+    That's but an _Exit_ of Mortalitie;
+    This, a Re-entrance to a Plaudite.
+
+                                                  I. M.
+
+
+_The Workes of William Shakespeare, containing all his Comedies,
+Histories, and Tragedies; truely set forth according to their first
+Originall._--_The names of the Principall Actors in all these
+playes._--William Shakespeare; Richard Burbadge; John Hemmings;
+Augustine Phillips; William Kempt; Thomas Poope; George Bryan; Henry
+Condell; William Slye; Richard Cowly; John Lowine; Samuell Crosse;
+Alexander Cooke; Samuel Gilburne; Robert Armin; William Ostler; Nathan
+Field; John Underwood; Nicholas Tooley; William Ecclestone; Joseph
+Taylor; Robert Benfeld; Robert Goughe; Richard Robinson; John Shancke;
+John Rice.
+
+_A Catalogue of the severall Comedies, Histories, and Tragedies
+contained in this Volume._--COMEDIES. The Tempest, folio 1; The Two
+Gentlemen of Verona, 20; The Merry Wives of Windsor, 38; Measure for
+Measure, 61; The Comedy of Errours, 85; Much adoo about Nothing, 101;
+Loves Labour lost, 122; Midsommer Nights Dreame, 145; The Merchant of
+Venice, 163; As You Like it, 185; The Taming of the Shrew, 208; All is
+well that Ends well, 230; Twelfe-Night, or what you will, 255; The
+Winters Tale, 304.--HISTORIES. The Life and Death of King John, fol. 1;
+The Life and Death of Richard the Second, 23; The First Part of King
+Henry the Fourth, 46; The Second Part of K. Henry the fourth, 74; The
+Life of King Henry the Fift, 69; The First part of King Henry the Sixt,
+96; The Second part of King Hen. the Sixt, 120; The Third part of King
+Henry the Sixt, 147; The Life and Death of Richard the Third, 173; The
+Life of King Henry the Eight, 205.--TRAGEDIES. The Tragedy of
+Coriolanus, fol. 1; Titus Andronicus, 31; Romeo and Juliet, 53; Timon of
+Athens, 80; The Life and death of Julius Caesar, 109; The Tragedy of
+Macbeth, 131; The Tragedy of Hamlet, 152; King Lear, 283; Othello, the
+Moore of Venice, 310; Anthony and Cleopater, 346; Cymbeline King of
+Britaine, 369.
+
+
+[Page Heading: Traditional Material]
+
+II. SOURCES OF TRADITIONAL MATERIAL
+
+Fuller's Worthies of England. 1662.
+
+Aubrey's Lives of Eminent Men, 2 vols. Ed. A. Clark. Oxford, 1895.
+
+Diary of Rev. John Ward (1661-1663). Ed. C. A. Severn, 1839.
+
+Rev. William Fulman's and Rev. Richard Davies's Mss. Corpus Christi
+College, Oxford.
+
+John Dowdall's Travels in Warwickshire (1693). London, 1838.
+
+William Hall (1694), Letter in Bodleian Mss. London, 1884.
+
+William Oldys, Ms. Adversaria in British Museum, printed in Appendix to
+Yeowell's Memoir of Oldys, 1862.
+
+Archdeacon Plume's Ms. memoranda at Maldon, Essex. See Lee, _Nineteenth
+Century_, May, 1906, and Preface to New Edition (1909) of _Life_.
+
+For the anecdote of the Bidford Drinkers, see H.-P. and Greene's Legend
+of the Crab Tree, 1857.
+
+Antony Wood. Athenae Oxonienses, 1692.
+
+
+
+
+Appendix B
+
+INDEX TO THE CHARACTERS IN SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS
+
+
+[Page Heading: Index to Characters]
+
+This Index records the act and scene in which each character first
+speaks, not necessarily the same as that in which he first appears. Only
+persons who speak are included, except a few marked with asterisk.
+
+
+Aaron. TA. II. i.
+
+Abbess, Lady. CofE. V. i.
+
+Abergavenny, Lord. H8. I. i.
+
+Abhorson. Meas. IV. ii.
+
+Abraham. R&J. I. i.
+
+Achilles. T&C. II. i.
+
+Adam. AYLI. I. i.
+
+Adrian. Tmp. II. i.
+
+Adriana. CofE. II. i.
+
+AEdile, an. Cor. III. i.
+
+AEgeon. CofE. I. i.
+
+AEmilia. CofE. V. i.
+
+AEmilius. TA. IV. iv.
+
+AEneas. T&C. I. i.
+
+Agamemnon. T&C. I. iii.
+
+Agrippa. A&C. II. ii.
+
+Aguecheek, Sir Andrew. TwN. I. iii.
+
+Ajax. T&C. II. i.
+
+Alarbus. TA.*
+
+Albany, Duke of. Lear I. i.
+
+Alcibiades. Tim. I. i.
+
+Alencon, Duke of. 1H6. I. ii.
+
+Alexander. T&C. I. ii.
+
+Alexas. A&C. I. ii.
+
+Alice. H5. III. iv.
+
+Alonso. Tmp. I. i.
+
+Ambassadors:
+  Hml. V. ii;
+  H5. I. ii;
+  1H6. V. i.
+
+Amiens. AYLI. II. i. v.
+
+Andromache. T&C. V. iii.
+
+Andronicus. _See_ Titus, Marcus.
+
+Angelo. CofE. III. i.
+
+Angelo. Meas. I. i.
+
+Angus. Mcb. I. ii.
+
+Anne Bullen, Queen. H8. I. iv.
+
+Anne, Lady. R3. I. ii.
+
+Anne Page. MWW. I. i.
+
+Antigonus. WT. II. i.
+
+Antiochus, King of Antioch. Per. I. i.
+
+Antipholus of Ephesus. CofE. III. i.
+
+Antipholus of Syracuse. CofE. I. ii.
+
+Antonio. Merch. I. i.
+
+Antonio. MAdo. I. ii.
+
+Antonio. Tmp. I. i.
+
+Antonio. TGV. I. iii.
+
+Antonio. TwN. II. i.
+
+Antony.
+  JC. I. ii;
+  A&C. I. i.
+
+Apemantus. Tim. I. i.
+
+Apothecary. R&J. V. i.
+
+Apparitions. Mcb. IV. i.
+
+Archbishop. _See_ York, Canterbury.
+
+Archidamus. WT. I. i.
+
+Ariel. Tmp. I. ii.
+
+Armado, Don. LLL. I. ii.
+
+Arragon, Prince of. Merch. II. ix.
+
+Artemidorus. JC. II. iii.
+
+Arthur, Duke of Bretagne. John II. i.
+
+Arviragus. Cym. III. iii.
+
+Astringer, Gentle. AWEW. V. i.
+
+Attendants.
+  A&C. I. ii;
+  Hml. IV. vi. _See_ Servants.
+
+Audrey. AYLI. III. iii.
+
+Aufidius, Tullus. Cor. I. ii.
+
+Aumerle, Duke of. R2. I. iii.
+
+Austria, Archduke of.
+  John II. i.
+  _See_ Lymoges.
+
+Autolycus. WT. IV. iii.
+
+Auvergne, Countess of. 1H6. II. iii.
+
+
+Bagot. R2. II. ii.
+
+Balthasar. MAdo. II. iii.
+
+Balthazar. CofE. III. i.
+
+Balthazar. Merch. III. iv.
+
+Balthazar. R&J. I. i.
+
+Banditti. Tim. IV. iii.
+
+Banquo. Mcb. I. iii.
+
+Baptista. TofS. I. i.
+
+Bardolph.
+  1H4. II. ii;
+  2H4. II. i;
+  H5. II. i;
+  MWW. I. i.
+
+Bardolph, Lord. 2H4. I. i.
+
+Barnardine. Meas. IV. iii.
+
+Bassanio. Merch. I. i.
+
+Bassanius. TA. I. i.
+
+Basset. 1H6. III. iv.
+
+Bastard of Orleans. 1H6. I. ii.
+
+Bastard. _See_ Edmund, Faulconbridge, and Margarelon.
+
+Bates. H5. IV. i.
+
+Bawd.
+  Per. IV. ii.
+  _See_ Overdone.
+
+Beadles.
+  2H4. V. iv;
+  2H6. II. i.
+
+Beatrice. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Beaufort, Henry, Bishop of Winchester, and Cardinal.
+  1H6. I. i;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Beaufort, John, Duke of Somerset.
+  1H6. II. iv;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Beaufort, Thomas, Duke of Exeter.
+  H5. I. ii;
+  1H6. I. i.
+
+Bedford, Duke of. H5. II. ii.
+
+Bedford, Duke of. 1H6. I. i.
+
+Belarius. Cym. III. iii.
+
+Belch, Sir Toby. TwN. I. iii.
+
+Benedick. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Benvolio. R&J. I. i.
+
+Berkeley. R3. I. iii.*
+
+Berkeley, Lord. R2. II. iii.
+
+Bernardo. Hml. I i.*
+
+Bertram, Count of Rousillon. AWEW. I. i.
+
+Bevis, George. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Bianca. Oth. III. iv.
+
+Bianca. TofS. I. i.
+
+Bigot, Lord. John IV. iii.
+
+Biondello. TofS. I. i.
+
+Biron. LLL. I. i.
+
+Blanche of Spain. John II. i.
+
+Blunt, Sir James. R3. V. ii.
+
+Blunt, Sir Walter. 1H4. I. iii.
+
+Boatswain. Tmp. I. i.
+
+Bolingbroke, Roger. 2H6. I. iv.
+
+Bolingbroke, afterwards King Henry IV. R2. I. i.
+
+Bona. 3H6. III. iii.
+
+Borachio. MAdo. I. iii.
+
+Bottom. MND. I. ii.
+
+Boult. Per. IV. ii.
+
+Bourbon, Duke of. H5. III. v.
+
+Bourchier, Cardinal. R3. III. i.
+
+Boyet. LLL. II. i.
+
+Boys:
+  H5. II. i;
+  1H6. I. iv;
+  H8. V. i;
+  Mcb. IV. ii;
+  Meas. IV. i;
+  MAdo. II. iii;
+  R3. II. ii;
+  T&C. I. ii.
+  _See_ Pages.
+
+Brabantio. Oth. I. i.
+
+Brakenbury, Sir Robert. R3. I. i.
+
+Brandon. H8. I. i.
+
+Brothers, to Posthumus, ghosts. Cym. V. iv.
+
+Brutus, Decius. JC. II. i.
+
+Brutus, Junius. Cor. I. i.
+
+Brutus, Marcus. JC. I. ii.
+
+Buckingham, Duke of.
+  2H6. I. i;
+  R3. I. iii.
+
+Buckingham, Duke of. H8. I. i.
+
+Bullcalf. 2H4. III. ii.
+
+Bullen, Anne. H8. I. iv.
+
+Burgundy, Duke of. H5. V. ii.
+
+Burgundy, Duke of. 1H6. II. i.
+
+Burgundy, Duke of. Lear I. i.
+
+Bushy. R2. I. iv.
+
+Butts, Doctor. H8. V. ii.
+
+
+Cade, John. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Caesar. _See_ Julius _and_ Octavius.
+
+Caithness. Mcb. V. ii.
+
+Caius. TA.*
+
+Caius, Doctor. MWW. I. iv.
+
+Caius Ligarius. JC. II. i.
+
+Caius Lucius. Cym. III. i.
+
+Caius Marcius (Coriolanus). Cor. I. i.
+
+Calchas. T&C. III. iii.
+
+Caliban. Tmp. I. ii.
+
+Calpurnia. JC. I. ii.
+
+Cambridge, Earl of. H5. II. ii.
+
+Camillo. WT. I. i.
+
+Campeius, Cardinal. H8. II. ii.
+
+Canidius. A&C. III. x.
+
+Canterbury, Archbishop of.
+  H5. I. i.
+  _See_ Bourchier, Cranmer.
+
+Caphis. Tim. II. i.
+
+Captains:
+  A&C. IV. iv;
+  Cym. IV. ii, V. iii;
+  Hml. IV. iv;
+  1H6. II. ii;
+  Lear V. iii;
+  Mcb. I. ii;
+  R2. II. iv;
+  TA. I. i.
+  _See_ Sea Captain.
+
+Capucius. H8. IV. ii.
+
+Capulet. R&J. I. i.
+
+Capulet, Lady. R&J. I. i.
+
+Capulet, second. R&J. I. v.
+
+Cardinal. _See_ Bourchier, Winchester.
+
+Carlisle, Bishop of. R2. III. ii.
+
+Carpenter. JC. I. i.
+
+Carriers. 1H4. II. i.
+
+Casca. JC. I. ii.
+
+Cassandra. T&C. II. ii.
+
+Cassio. Oth. I. ii.
+
+Cassius. JC. I. ii.
+
+Catesby, Sir William. R3. I. iii.
+
+Cato, young. JC. V. iii.
+
+Celia. AYLI. I. ii.
+
+Ceres. Tmp. IV. i.
+
+Cerimon. Per. III. ii.
+
+Chamberlain. 1H4. II. i.
+
+Chamberlain, Lord. H8. I. iii.
+
+Chancellor, Lord. H8. V. iii.
+
+Charles, a wrestler. AYLI. I. i.
+
+Charles, the dauphin, later King of France. 1H6. I. ii.
+
+Charles VI, King of France. H5. II. iv.
+
+Charmian. A&C. I. ii.
+
+Chatillon, ambassador. John I. i.
+
+Chief Justice. 2H4. I. ii.
+
+Chiron. TA. I. i.
+
+Chorus.
+  H5;
+  Per;
+  R&J;
+  WT.
+
+Cicero. JC. I. iii.
+
+Cimber, Metellus. JC. II. i.
+
+Cinna, a conspirator. JC. I. iii.
+
+Cinna, a poet. JC. III. iii.
+
+Citizens.
+  Cor. I. i;
+  2H6. IV. v;
+  John II. i;
+  R3. II. iii;
+  R&J. III. i.
+
+Clarence, George, Duke of.
+  3H6. II. ii;
+  R3. I. i.
+
+Clarence, Thomas, Duke of. 2H4. IV. iv.
+
+Clarence, son and daughter of. R3. II. ii.
+
+Claudio. Meas. I. ii.
+
+Claudio. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Claudius, King of Denmark. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Claudius. JC. IV. iii.
+
+Cleomenes. WT. III. i.
+
+Cleon. Per. I. iv.
+
+Cleopatra. A&C. I. i.
+
+Clerk. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Clifford, Lord.
+  2H6. IV. viii;
+  3H6. I. i.
+
+Clifford, young, son of preceding. 2H6. V. i.
+
+Clitus. JC. V. v.
+
+Cloten. Cym. I. ii.
+
+Clowns:
+  A&C. V. ii;
+  AWEW. I. iii;
+  Hml. V. ii;
+  LLL. I. ii;
+  Oth. III. i;
+  TA. IV. iii;
+  WT. IV. iii.
+  _See_ Feste, Peter, Pompey, etc.
+
+Cobbler. JC. I. i.
+
+Cobweb. MND. III. i.
+
+Colville, Sir John. 2H4. IV. iii.
+
+Cominius. Cor. I. i.
+
+Commons. 2H6. III. ii.
+
+Conrade. MAdo. I. iii.
+
+Conspirators. Cor. V. vi.
+
+Constable (Dull). LLL. I. i.
+
+Constable of France. H5. II. iv.
+
+Constance. John II. i.
+
+Cordelia. Lear I. i.
+
+Corin. AYLI. II. iv.
+
+Coriolanus. Cor. I. i.
+
+Cornelius, a physician. Cym. I. v.
+
+Cornelius. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Cornwall, Duke of. Lear I. i.
+
+Costard. LLL. I. i.
+
+Court. H5. IV. i.
+
+Courtesan. CofE. IV. iii.
+
+Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury. H8. V. i.
+
+Cressida. T&C. I. ii.
+
+Crier. H8. II. iv.
+
+Cromwell. H8. III. ii.
+
+Cupid. Tim. I. ii.
+
+Curan. Lear II. i.
+
+Curio. TwN. I. i.
+
+Curtis. TofS. IV. i.
+
+Cymbeline, King. Cym. I. i.
+
+
+Dancer, A. 2H4. Epi.
+
+Dardanius. JC. V. v.
+
+Daughter of Antiochus. Per. I. iv.
+
+Dauphin. H5. II. iv.
+
+Davy. 2H4. V. i.
+
+Deiphobus. T&C. IV. i.
+
+Demetrius. A&C. I. i.
+
+Demetrius. MND. I. i.
+
+Demetrius. TA. I. i.
+
+Dennis. AYLI. I. i.
+
+Denny, Sir Anthony. H8. V. i.
+
+Derby, Earl of. R3. I. iii.
+
+Dercetas. A&C. IV. xiv.
+
+Desdemona. Oth. I. iii.
+
+Diana. Per.*
+
+Diana. AWEW. III. v.
+
+Dick, butcher. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Diomedes. T&C. II. iii.
+
+Diomedes. A&C. IV. xiv.
+
+Dion. WT. III. i.
+
+Dionyza. Per. I. iv.
+
+Doctor. Lear IV. iv.
+
+Doctor, English Mcb. IV. iii.
+
+Doctor, Scotch. Mcb. V. i.
+
+Dogberry. MAdo. III. iii.
+
+Dolabella. A&C. III. xii.
+
+Doll Tearsheet. 2H4. II. iv.
+
+Don Adriano de Armado. LLL. I. ii.
+
+Donalbain. Mcb. II. iii.
+
+Don John. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Don Pedro. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Dorcas. WT. IV. iv.
+
+Dorset, Marquis of. R3. I. iii.
+
+Douglas Archibald, Earl of. 1H4. IV. i.
+
+Drawers. 2H4. II. iv.
+
+Dromio of Ephesus. CofE. I. ii.
+
+Dromio of Syracuse. CofE. I. ii.
+
+Duke, in banishment. AYLI. II. i.
+
+Duke Frederick. AYLI. I. ii.
+
+Duke of Milan. TGV. II. iv.
+
+Dull. LLL. I. i.
+
+Dumain. LLL. I. i.
+
+Duncan, King. Mcb. I. ii.
+
+
+Edgar. Lear I. ii.
+
+Edmund. Lear I. i.
+
+Edmund, Earl of Rutland. 3H6. I. iii.
+
+Edward, Earl of March, later Edward IV.
+  3H6. I. i;
+  R3. II. i.
+
+Edward IV, King.
+  3H6. I. i;
+  R3. II. i.
+
+Edward V, King. R3. III. i.
+
+Edward, Prince of Wales, afterwards Edward V. R3. III. i.
+
+Edward Plantagenet, Prince of Wales. 3H6. I. i.
+
+Egeus. MND. I. i.
+
+Eglamour. TGV. IV. iii.
+
+Egyptian. A&C. V. i.
+
+Elbow. Meas. II. i.
+
+Eleanor, Duchess of Gloucester. 2H6. I. ii.
+
+Eleanor, Queen. John I. i.
+
+Elizabeth, Queen (as L. Grey).
+  3H6. III. ii;
+  R3. I. iii.
+
+Ely, Bishop of. H5. I. i.
+
+Ely, Bishop of. R3. III. iv.
+
+Emilia. Oth. II. ii.
+
+Emilia. WT. II. ii.
+
+Enobarbus. A&C. I. ii.
+
+Eros. A&C. III. v.
+
+Erpingham, Sir Thomas. H5. IV. i.
+
+Escalus, Prince. R&J. I. i.
+
+Escalus. Meas. I. i.
+
+Escanes. Per. II. iv.
+
+Essex, Earl of. John I. i.
+
+Euphronius. A&C. III. xii.
+
+Evans, Sir Hugh. MWW. I. i
+
+Executioners. John IV. i.
+
+Exeter (Beaufort), Duke of.
+  H5. I. ii;
+  1H6. I. i.
+
+Exeter, Duke of. 3H6. I. i.
+
+Exton, Sir Pierce of. R2. V. iv.
+
+
+Fabian. TwN. II. v.
+
+Fairies.
+  MND. II. i;
+  MWW. V. iv.
+
+Falstaff, Sir John.
+  1H4. I. ii;
+  2H4. I. ii;
+  MWW. I. i.
+
+Fang. 2H4. II. i.
+
+Fastolfe, Sir John. 1H6. III. ii.
+
+Father that hath killed his son. 3H6. II. v.
+
+Faulconbridge, Lady. John I. i.
+
+Faulconbridge, Philip the Bastard. John I. i.
+
+Faulconbridge, Robert. John I. i.
+
+Feeble. 2H4. III. ii.
+
+Fenton. MWW. I. iv.
+
+Ferdinand. Tmp. I. ii.
+
+Ferdinand, King of Navarre. LLL. I. i.
+
+Feste. TwN. I. v.
+
+Fisherman. Per. II. i.
+
+Fitzwater, Lord. R2. IV. i.
+
+Flaminius. Tim. III. i.
+
+Flavius. JC. I. i.
+
+Flavius. Tim. I. ii.
+
+Fleance. Mcb. II. i.
+
+Florence, Duke of. AWEW. III. i.
+
+Florizel. WT. IV. iv.
+
+Fluellen. H5. III. ii.
+
+Flute. MND. I. ii.
+
+Fool.
+  Lear I. iv;
+  Tim. II. ii.
+
+Ford. MWW. II. i.
+
+Ford, Mistress. MWW. II. i.
+
+Forester.
+  AYLI. IV. ii;
+  LLL. IV. i.
+
+Fortinbras. Hml. IV. iv.
+
+France, King of. AWEW. I. ii.
+
+France, King of. Lear I. i.
+
+France, Princess of. LLL. II. i.
+
+Francis. 1H4. II. iv.
+
+Francisca. Meas. I. iv.
+
+Francisco. Hml. I. i.
+
+Francisco. Tmp. II. i.
+
+Frederick, Duke. AYLI. I. ii.
+
+Frenchman, A. Cym. I. iv.
+
+Friar Francis. MAdo. IV. i.
+
+Friar John. R&J. V. 2.
+
+Friar Lawrence. R&J. II. 3.
+
+Friar Peter. Meas. IV. vi.
+
+Friar Thomas. Meas. I. iii.
+
+Froth. Meas. II. i.
+
+
+Gadshill. 1H4. II. i.
+
+Gaolers:
+  CofE. I. i;
+  Cym. V. iv;
+  1H6. II. v;
+  Merch. III. iii;
+  WT. II. ii.
+
+Gallus. A&C. V. i.
+
+Gardener. R2. III. iv.
+
+Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester. H8. V. i.
+
+Gargrave, Sir Thomas. 1H6. I. iv.
+
+Gaunt, John, Duke of Lancaster. R2. I. i.
+
+Gentleman Usher. H8. II. iv.
+
+Gentlemen:
+  AWEW. V. iii;
+  Cym. I. i;
+  Hml. IV. v;
+  2H6. IV. i;
+  H8. II. i;
+  Lear I. v;
+  Meas. I. ii;
+  Per. III. ii;
+  Oth. II. i;
+  WT. V. ii.
+
+Gentlewomen.
+  Cor. I. iii;
+  Mcb. V. i.
+
+George, Duke of Clarence.
+  3H6. II. ii;
+  R3. I. i.
+
+Gertrude, Queen of Denmark. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Ghosts of:
+  Caesar, JC. IV. iii;
+  of Hamlet's father, Hml. I. v;
+  Sicilius Leonatus, wife, two sons, Cym. V. iv;
+  Banquo,* Mcb. III. iv;
+  Prince Edward, Henry VI, Clarence, Rivers, Grey, Vaughan, Hastings,
+      two young princes, Lady Anne, and Buckingham, R3. V. iii.
+
+Glansdale, Sir William. 1H6. I. iv.
+
+Glendower, Owen. 1H4. III.
+
+Gloucester, Humphrey, Duke of.
+  2H4. IV. iv;
+  H5. III. vii;
+  1H6. I. i;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Gloucester, Richard, Duke of.
+  3H6. I. i;
+  R3. I. i.
+
+Gloucester, Duchess of. 2H6. I. ii.
+
+Gloucester, Duchess of. R2. I. ii.
+
+Gloucester, Earl of. Lear I. i.
+
+Gobbo, Launcelot. Merch. II. ii.
+
+Gobbo, Old, father of Launcelot. Merch. II. ii.
+
+Goffe, Matthew. 2H6.*
+
+Goneril. Lear I. i.
+
+Gonzalo. Tmp. I. i.
+
+Goths. TA. V. i.
+
+Governor of Harfleur. H5. III. iii.
+
+Governor of Paris. 1H6. IV. i.
+
+Gower.
+  2H4. II. i;
+  H5. III. ii.
+
+Gower, chorus. Per.
+
+Grandpre. H5. IV. ii.
+
+Gratiano. Merch. I. i.
+
+Gratiano. Oth. V. ii.
+
+Gravediggers. Hml. V. i.
+
+Green. R2. I. iv.
+
+Gregory. R&J. I. i.
+
+Gremio. TofS. I. i.
+
+Grey, Lady, later Queen Elizabeth.
+  3H6. III. ii;
+  R3. I. iii.
+
+Grey, Lord. R3. I. iii.
+
+Grey, Sir Thomas. H5. II. ii.
+
+Griffith. H8. IV. ii.
+
+Grooms.
+  2H4. V. v;
+  R2. V. v.
+
+Grumio. TofS. I. i.
+
+Guard. A&C. IV. xiv.
+
+Guiderius. Cym. III. iii.
+
+Guildenstern. Hml. II. ii.
+
+Guildford, Sir Henry. H8. I. iv.
+
+Gurney, James. John I. i.
+
+
+Haberdasher. TofS. IV. iii.
+
+Hamlet. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Harcourt. 2H4. IV. iv.
+
+Hastings, Lord. 2H4. I. iii.
+
+Hastings, Lord.
+  3H6. IV. i;
+  R3. I. i.
+
+Hecate. Mcb. III. v.
+
+Hector. T&C. II. ii.
+
+Helen, an attendant. Cym. II. ii.
+
+Helen. T&C. III. i.
+
+Helena. AWEW. I. i.
+
+Helena. MND. I. i.
+
+Helenus. T&C. II. ii.
+
+Helicanus. Per. I. ii.
+
+Henry IV, King (Bolingbroke).
+  1H4. I. i;
+  2H4. III. i;
+  R2. I. i.
+
+Henry V, King (first, Henry, Prince of Wales).
+  1H4. I. ii;
+  2H4. II. ii;
+  H5. I. ii.
+
+Henry, Prince.
+  1H4. I. ii;
+  2H4. II. ii.
+
+Henry, Prince, son of King John. John V. vii.
+
+Henry VI, King.
+  1H6. III. i;
+  2H6. I. i;
+  3H6. I. i.
+
+Henry VII, King, first Earl of Richmond.
+  3H6.*
+  R3. V. iii.
+
+Henry VIII, King. H8. I. ii.
+
+Heralds.
+  Cor. II. i;
+  H5. III. vi, IV. viii;
+  2H6. II. iv;
+  John II. i;
+  Lear V. iii;
+  Oth. II. ii;
+  R2. I. iii.
+
+Herbert, Sir Walter. R3. V. ii.
+
+Hereford, Duke of.
+  _See_ Henry IV.
+  R2. I. i.
+
+Hermia. MND. I. i.
+
+Hermione. WT. I. ii.
+
+Hero. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Hippolyta. MND. I. i.
+
+Holland, John. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Holofernes. LLL. IV. ii.
+
+Horatio. Hml. I. i.
+
+Horner, Roger. 2H6. I. iii.
+
+Hortensio. TofS. I. i.
+
+Hortensius. Tim. III. iv.
+
+Host. TGV. IV. ii.
+
+Host of the Garter Inn. MWW. I. iii.
+
+Hostess.
+  H5. II. i.
+  _See_ Quickly.
+
+Hostess. TofS. Ind.
+
+Hotspur.
+  1H4. I. iii.
+  _See_ Percy.
+
+Hubert de Burgh. John III. iii.
+
+Hume, John. 2H6. I. ii.
+
+Humphrey of Gloucester.
+  2H4. IV. iv;
+  H5. III. vii;
+  1H6. I. i;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Huntsmen.
+  3H6. IV. v;
+  TofS. Ind.
+
+Hymen. AYLI. V. iv.
+
+
+Iachimo. Cym. I. iv.
+
+Iago. Oth. I. i.
+
+Iden, Alexander. 2H6. IV. x.
+
+Imogen. Cym. I. i.
+
+Interpreter. AWEW. IV. iii.
+
+Iras. A&C. I. ii.
+
+Iris. Tmp. IV. i.
+
+Isabel, Queen of France. H5. V. ii.
+
+Isabella. Meas. I. iv.
+
+Isadore, servant. Tim. II. ii.
+
+
+Jamy. H5. III. ii.
+
+Jaquenetta. LLL. I. ii.
+
+Jaques. AYLI. II. v.
+
+Jaques, son of Sir Roland de Boys. AYLI.*
+
+Jessica. Merch. II. iii.
+
+Jeweller. Tim. I. i.
+
+Joan la Pucelle (Joan of Arc). 1H6. I. ii.
+
+John, King. John I. i.
+
+John of Lancaster.
+  1H4. V. iv;
+  2H4. IV. ii.
+
+Jordan, Margery. 2H6. I. iv.
+
+Julia. TGV. I. ii.
+
+Juliet. Meas. I. ii.
+
+Juliet. R&J. I. iii.
+
+Julius Caesar. JC. I. ii.
+
+Juno. Tmp. IV. i.
+
+Jupiter. Cym. V. iv.
+
+
+Katherina. TofS. I. i.
+
+Katherine. LLL. II. i.
+
+Katherine, Princess of France. H5. III. iv.
+
+Katherine, Queen. H8. I. ii.
+
+Keepers:
+  3H6. III. i;
+  H8. V. ii; R2. V. v;
+  R3. I. iv.
+  _See_ Gaolers.
+
+Kent, Earl of. Lear I. i.
+
+Knights:
+  Lear I. iv;
+  Per. II. iii.
+
+
+Ladies:
+  Cor. II. i;
+  Cym. I. v;
+  R2. III. iv;
+  Tim. I. ii;
+  WT. II. i.
+
+Laertes. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Lafeu, Lord. AWEW. I. i.
+
+Lamprius. A&C. I. ii.
+
+Launce. TGV. II. iii.
+
+Launcelot Gobbo. Merch. II. ii.
+
+Lavache, a clown. AWEW. I. iii.
+
+Lavinia. TA. I. i.
+
+Lawyer, a. 1H6. II. iv.
+
+Lear, King. Lear I. i.
+
+Le Beau. AYLI. I. ii.
+
+Legate. 1H6. V. i.
+
+Lennox. Mcb. I. ii.
+
+Leonardo. Merch. II. ii.
+
+Leonato. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Leonatus, Posthumus. Cym. I. i.
+
+Leonine. Per. IV. i.
+
+Leontes. WT. I. ii.
+
+Lepidus.
+  JC. IV. i;
+  A&C. I. iv.
+
+Lewis, the Dauphin. H5. II. iv.
+
+Lewis, the Dauphin. John II. i.
+
+Lewis XI, King of France. 3H6. III. iii.
+
+Lieutenant:
+  Cor. IV. vii;
+  2H6. IV. i;
+  3H6. IV. vi.
+
+Ligarius. JC. II. i.
+
+Lincoln, Bishop of. H8. II. iv.
+
+Lion. MND. V. i.
+
+Longaville. LLL. I. i.
+
+Lords:
+  AWEW. I. ii, III. i;
+  AYLI. II. i;
+  Cor. V. vi;
+  Cym. I. ii;
+  Hml. V. ii;
+  LLL. II. i;
+  Mcb. III. iv;
+  Per. I. ii;
+  R3. V. iii;
+  TofS. Ind.;
+  Tim. I. i;
+  WT. II. ii.
+
+Lorenzo. Merch. I. i.
+
+Lovel, Lord. R3. III. iv.
+
+Lovell, Sir Thomas. H8. I. iii.
+
+Luce. CofE. III. i.
+
+Lucentio. TofS. I. i.
+
+Lucetta. TGV. I. ii.
+
+Luciana. CofE. II. i.
+
+Lucianus. Hml. III. ii.
+
+Lucilius. JC. IV. ii.
+
+Lucilius. Tim. I. i.
+
+Lucio. Meas. I. ii.
+
+Lucius, Caius. Cym. III. i.
+
+Lucius. JC. II. i.
+
+Lucius. TA. I. i.
+
+Lucius, young. TA. III. ii.
+
+Lucius. Tim. III. ii;
+  servant. Tim. III. iv.
+
+Lucullus. Tim. III. i.
+
+Lucy, Sir William. 1H6. IV. iii.
+
+Ludovico. Oth. IV. i.
+
+Lychorida. Per. III. i.
+
+Lymoges, Duke of Austria. John II. i.
+
+Lysander. MND. I. i.
+
+Lysimachus. Per. IV. vi.
+
+
+Macbeth. Mcb. I. iii.
+
+Macbeth, Lady. Mcb. I. v.
+
+Macduff. Mcb. II. iii.
+
+Macduff, Lady. Mcb. IV. ii.
+
+Macduff's son. Mcb. IV. ii.
+
+Macmorris. H5. III. ii.
+
+Maecenas. A&C. II. ii.
+
+Malcolm. Mcb. I. ii.
+
+Malvolio. TwN. I. v.
+
+Mamillius. WT. I. ii.
+
+Marcellus. Hml. I. i.
+
+Marcus Andronicus. TA. I. i.
+
+Marcus Antonius (Antony).
+  JC. I. ii;
+  A&C. I. i.
+
+Mardian. A&C. I. v.
+
+Margarelon. T&C. V. vi.
+
+Margaret. MAdo. II. i.
+
+Margaret, Queen.
+  1H6. V. iii;
+  2H6. I. i;
+  3H6. I. i;
+  R3. I. iii.
+
+Margaret Plantagenet, daughter of Clarence. R3. II. ii.
+
+Maria. LLL. II. i.
+
+Maria. TwN. I. iii.
+
+Mariana. AWEW. III. v.
+
+Mariana. Meas. IV. i.
+
+Marina. Per. IV. i.
+
+Mariner.
+  WT. III. iii;
+  Tmp. I. i.
+
+Marshal. Per. II. iii.
+
+Marshal, Lord. R2. I. iii.
+
+Martext, Sir Oliver. AYLI. III. iii.
+
+Martius. TA. I. i.
+
+Marullus. JC. I. i.
+
+Master. 2H6. IV. i.
+
+Master gunner. 1H6. I. iv.
+
+Master, of a ship.
+  Tmp. I. i;
+  2H6. IV. i.
+
+Master's Mate. 2H6. IV. i.
+
+Mayor of London.
+  1H6. III. i;
+  R3. III. i.
+
+Mayor of St. Albans. 2H6. II. i.
+
+Mayor of York. 3H6. IV. vii.
+
+Melun. John V. iv.
+
+Menas. A&C. II. i.
+
+Menecrates. A&C. II. i.
+
+Menelaus. T&C. I. iii.
+
+Menenius Agrippa. Cor. I. i.
+
+Menteith. Mcb. V. ii.
+
+Mercade. LLL. V. ii.
+
+Merchants:
+  CofE. I. ii;
+  Tim. I. i.
+
+Mercutio. R&J. I. iv.
+
+Messala. JC. IV. iii.
+
+Messengers:
+  A&C. I. i;
+  AWEW. IV. iii;
+  CofE. V. i;
+  Cor. I. i;
+  Cym. V. iv;
+  Hml. IV. v;
+  1H4. IV. i;
+  2H4. IV. i;
+  H5. II. v;
+  1H6. I. i;
+  2H6. I. ii;
+  3H6. I. ii;
+  H8. IV. ii;
+  John IV. ii;
+  JC. IV. iii;
+  Lear IV. ii;
+  LLL. V. ii;
+  Mcb. I. v;
+  Meas. IV. ii;
+  Merch. II. ix;
+  MAdo. I. i;
+  Oth. I. iii;
+  Per. I. i;
+  R3. III. ii;
+  TofS. III. i;
+  Tim. I. i;
+  TA. III. i.
+
+Metellus Cimber. JC. II. i.
+
+Michael. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Michael, Sir. 1H4. IV. iv.
+
+Milan, Duke of. TGV. II. iv.
+
+Miranda. Tmp. I. ii.
+
+Montague. R&J. I. i.
+
+Montague, Lady. R&J. I. i.
+
+Montague, Marquess of. 3H6. I. i.
+
+Montano. Oth. II. i.
+
+Montgomery, Sir John. 3H6. IV. vii.
+
+Montjoy. H5. III. vi.
+
+Moonshine. MND. V. i.
+
+Mopsa. WT. IV. iv.
+
+Morocco, Prince of. Merch. II. i.
+
+Mortimer, Edmund, Earl of March. 1H4. III. i.
+
+Mortimer, Edmund, Earl of March. 1H6. II. v.
+
+Mortimer, Lady. 1H4. III. i.
+
+Mortimer, Sir Hugh.* 3H6. I. ii.
+
+Mortimer, Sir John. 3H6. I. ii.
+
+Morton. 2H4. I. i.
+
+Morton, John, Bishop of Ely. R3. III. iv.
+
+Moth. LLL. I. ii.
+
+Moth. MND. III. i.
+
+Mother to Posthumus, a ghost. Cym. V. iv.
+
+Mouldy. 2H4. III. ii.
+
+Mowbray, Lord. 2H4. I. iii.
+
+Mowbray, Thomas, Duke of Norfolk. R2. I. i.
+
+Murderers:
+  2H6. III. ii;
+  Mcb. III. i;
+  R3. I. iii.
+
+Musicians:
+  Merch. V. i;
+  Oth. III. i;
+  R&J. IV. v;
+  TGV. IV. ii.
+
+Mustardseed. MND. III. i.
+
+Mutius. TA. I. i.
+
+
+Nathaniel, Sir. LLL. IV. ii.
+
+Neighbors. 2H6. II. iii.
+
+Nerissa. Merch. I. ii.
+
+Nestor. T&C. I. iii.
+
+Noble, a. Cor. III. ii.
+
+Nobleman, a. 3H6. III. ii.
+
+Norfolk, Duke of.
+  3H6. I. i;
+  R3. V. iii.
+
+Norfolk, Duke of, Thomas Mowbray. R2. I. i.
+
+Norfolk, Duke of. H8. I. i.
+
+Northumberland. _See_ Percy.
+
+Northumberland, Earl of. 3H6. I. i.
+
+Northumberland, Lady. 2H4. II. iii.
+
+Nurse. R&J. I. 3.
+
+Nurse. TA. IV. ii.
+
+Nym.
+  H5. II. i;
+  MWW. I. i.
+
+
+Oberon. MND. II. i.
+
+Octavia. A&C. III. ii.
+
+Octavius Caesar (Augustus).
+  JC. IV. i;
+  A&C. I. iv.
+
+Officers:
+  CofE. IV. i;
+  Cor. II. ii;
+  Oth. I. iii;
+  R&J. I. i;
+  TwN. III. iv;
+  WT. III. ii.
+
+Old Athenian. Tim. I. i.
+
+Old Lady. H8. II. iii.
+
+Old Man.
+  Lear IV. i;
+  Mcb. II. iv.
+
+Oliver. AYLI. I. i.
+
+Oliver Martext, Sir. AYLI. III. iii.
+
+Olivia. TwN. I. v.
+
+Ophelia. Hml. I. iii.
+
+Orlando. AYLI. I. i.
+
+Orleans, bastard of. 1H6. I. ii.
+
+Orleans, Duke of. H5. III. vii.
+
+Orsino, Duke of Illyria. TwN. I. i.
+
+Osric. Hml. V. ii.
+
+Ostler. 1H4. II. i.
+
+Oswald. Lear I. iii.
+
+Othello. Oth. I. ii.
+
+Outlaws. TGV. IV. i.
+
+Overdone, Mrs. Meas. I. ii.
+
+Oxford, Earl of. 3H6. III. iii.
+
+Oxford, Earl of. R3. V. ii.
+
+
+Page. MWW. I. i.
+
+Page, Mistress. MWW. II. i.
+
+Page, Mistress Anne, a daughter. MWW. I. i.
+
+Page, William, a son. MWW. IV. i.
+
+Pages:
+  AWEW. I. i;
+  AYLI. V. iii;
+  2H4. I. ii;
+  H8. V. i;
+  R3. IV. ii;
+  R&J. V. ii;
+  Tim. II. ii.
+  _See_ Boys.
+
+Painter. Tim. I. i.
+
+Pandar. Per. IV. ii.
+
+Pandarus. T&C. I. i.
+
+Pandulph, Cardinal. John III. i.
+
+Panthino. TGV. I. iii.
+
+Paris. R&J. I. ii.
+
+Paris. T&C. II. ii.
+
+Parolles. AWEW. I. i.
+
+Patience. H8. IV. ii.
+
+Patrician. Cor. III. i.
+
+Patroclus. T&C. II. i.
+
+Paulina. WT. II. ii.
+
+Peaseblossom. MND. III. i.
+
+Pedant. TofS. IV. ii.
+
+Pedro, Don. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Pembroke, Earl of. 3H6. IV. i.
+
+Pembroke, Earl of. John IV. ii.
+
+Percy, Henry, Earl of Northumberland.
+  1H4. I. iii;
+  2H4. I. i;
+  R2. III. i.
+
+Percy, Henry (Hotspur).
+  1H4. I. iii;
+  R2. II. iii.
+
+Percy, Lady (wife of Hotspur).
+  1H4. II. iii;
+  2H4. II. iii.
+
+Percy, Thomas, Earl of Worcester. 1H4. I. iii.
+
+Perdita. WT. IV. iv.
+
+Pericles. Per. I. i.
+
+Peter. 2H6. I. iii.
+
+Peter. R&J. II. iv.
+
+Peter of Pomfret. John IV. ii.
+
+Petitioners. 2H6. I. iii.
+
+Peto.
+  1H4. II. ii;
+  2H4. II. iv.
+
+Petruchio. TofS. I. i.
+
+Phebe. AYLI. III. v.
+
+Philario. Cym. I. iv.
+
+Philemon. Per. III. ii.
+
+Philip, King of France. John II. i.
+
+Philo. A&C. I. i.
+
+Philostrate. MND. V. i.
+
+Philotus. Tim. III. iv.
+
+Phrynia. Tim. IV. iii.
+
+Physicians:
+  Cym. I. v;
+  Lear IV. iv;
+  Mcb. IV. iii.
+
+Pierce, Sir, of Exton. R2. V. iv.
+
+Pinch. CofE. IV. iv.
+
+Pindarus. JC. IV. ii.
+
+Pirates. Per. IV. i.
+
+Pisanio. Cym. I. i.
+
+Pistol.
+  2H4. II. iv;
+  H5. II. i;
+  MWW. I. i.
+
+Plantagenet. _See_ Richard.
+
+Player King. Hml. III. ii.
+
+Player Queen. Hml. III. ii.
+
+Players.
+  Hml. II. ii;
+  TofS. Ind.
+
+Plebeians.
+  JC. III. ii.
+  _See_ Citizens.
+
+Poet. Tim. I. i.
+
+Poet. JC. IV. iii.
+
+Poins.
+  1H4. I. ii;
+  2H4. II. ii.
+
+Polixenes. WT. I. ii.
+
+Polonius. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Pompeius, Sextus. A&C. II. i.
+
+Pompey. Meas. I. ii.
+
+Popilius. JC. III. i.
+
+Porters:
+  2H4. I. i;
+  1H6. II. iii;
+  H8. V. iv;
+  Mcb. II. iii.
+
+Porter's Man. H8. V. iv.
+
+Portia. JC. II. i.
+
+Portia. Merch. I. ii.
+
+Post.
+  2H6. III. i;
+  3H6. III. iii.
+
+Posthumus Leonatus. Cym. I. i.
+
+Prentices. 2H6. II. iii.
+
+Priam, King of Troy. T&C. II. ii.
+
+Priests:
+  Hml. V. i;
+  R3. III. ii;
+  TwN. V. i.
+
+Princess of France. LLL. II. i.
+
+Proculeius. A&C. V. i.
+
+Prologue.
+  R&J;
+  H5;
+  MND;
+  Hml. III, ii;
+  H8;
+  T&C.
+
+Prospero. Tmp. I. ii.
+
+Proteus. TGV. I. i.
+
+Provost. Meas. I. ii.
+
+Publius. JC. II. ii.
+
+Publius. TA. IV. iii.
+
+Puck, Robin Goodfellow. MND. II. i.
+
+Pursuivant. R3. III. ii.
+
+Pyramus. MND. V. i.
+
+
+Queen, wife of Cymbeline. Cym. I. i.
+
+Queen, wife of Richard II. R2. II. i.
+
+Quickly, Mrs.
+  1H4. II. iv;
+  2H4. II. i;
+  H5. II. i;
+  MWW. I. iv.
+
+Quince. MND. I. ii.
+
+Quintus. TA. I. i.
+
+
+Rambures. H5. III. vii.
+
+Ratcliff, Sir Richard. R3. III. iii.
+
+Regan. Lear I. i.
+
+Reignier, Duke of Anjou. 1H6. I. ii.
+
+Reynaldo. Hml. II. i.
+
+Richard II, King. R2. I. i.
+
+Richard II, Queen to. R2. II. i.
+
+Richard III, King (at first Gloucester).
+  3H6. I. i;
+  R3. I. i.
+
+Richard, Duke of York, son of Edward IV. R3. II. iv.
+
+Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York.
+  1H6. II. iv;
+  2H6. I. i;
+  3H6. I. i.
+
+Richard Plantagenet, son of preceding.
+  2H6*;
+  3H6. I. i.
+
+Richmond, Earl of, later Henry VII.
+  3H6*;
+  R3. V. iii.
+
+Rivers, Lord.
+  3H6. IV. iv;
+  R3. I. iii.
+
+Robin. MWW. I. iii.
+
+Robin Goodfellow. MND. II. i.
+
+Roderigo. Oth. I. i.
+
+Roman, a.
+  Cor. IV. iii.
+  _See_ Citizens.
+
+Romeo. R&J. I. i.
+
+Rosalind. AYLI. I. ii.
+
+Rosaline. LLL. II. i.
+
+Rosencrantz. Hml. II. ii.
+
+Ross. Mcb. I. ii.
+
+Ross, Lord. R2. II. i.
+
+Rotherham, Thomas. Archbishop of York. R3. II. iv.
+
+Rousillon, Count. _See_ Bertram.
+
+Rousillon, Countess. AWEW. I. i.
+
+Rugby, John. MWW. I. iv.
+
+Rumour. 2H4. Ind.
+
+Rutland, Edmund, Earl of. 3H6. I. iii.
+
+
+Sailors:
+  Hml. IV. vi;
+  Oth. I. iii;
+  Per. III. i.
+
+Salanio. Merch. I. i.
+
+Salarino. Merch. I. i.
+
+Salerio. Merch. III. ii.
+
+Salisbury, Earl of.
+  H5. IV. iii;
+  1H6. I. iv.
+
+Salisbury, Earl of. 2H6. I. i.
+
+Salisbury, Earl of. John III. i.
+
+Salisbury, Earl of. R2. II. iv.
+
+Sampson. R&J. I. i.
+
+Sandys, William (Lord). H8. I. iii.
+
+Saturninus. TA. I. i.
+
+Say, Lord. 2H6. IV. iv.
+
+Scales, Lord. 2H6. IV. v.
+
+Scarus. A&C. III. x.
+
+Scout. 1H6. V. ii.
+
+Scribe. H8. II. iv.
+
+Scrivener. R3. III. vi.
+
+Scroop, Lord. H5. II. ii.
+
+Scroop, Richard, Archbishop of York.
+  1H4. IV. iv;
+  2H4. I. iii.
+
+Scroop, Sir Stephen. R2. III. ii.
+
+Sea-Captain (Lieut.).
+  2H6. IV. i;
+  TwN. I. ii.
+
+Sebastian. Tmp. I. i.
+
+Sebastian. TwN. II. i.
+
+Secretary. H8. I i.
+
+Seleucus. A&C. V. ii.
+
+Sempronius. TA.*
+
+Sempronius. Tim. III. iii.
+
+Senators,
+  Roman.
+    Cor. I. i;
+    Cym. III. vii;
+  Venetian. Oth. I. iii;
+  Athenian. Tim. II. i;
+  Coriolanian. Cor. I. ii.
+
+Sentinels. 1H6. II. i.
+
+Sentry. A&C. IV. ix.
+
+Sergeant. 1H6. II. i;
+  (at arms) H8. I. i.
+
+Servants:
+  A&C. II. vii;
+  Hml. IV. vi;
+  1H4. II. iii;
+  2H4. I. ii;
+  H8. I. iv;
+  JC. II. ii;
+  Lear III. vii;
+  Mcb. III. i;
+  Meas. II. ii;
+  Merch. III. i;
+  Per. III. ii;
+  R2. II. ii;
+  TofS. IV. i;
+  Tim. I. ii;
+  T&C. III. i;
+  TwN. III. iv;
+  WT. II. iii.
+
+Servilius. Tim. III. ii.
+
+Servingmen:
+  Cor. IV. v;
+  1H6. I. iii;
+  2H6. II. iv;
+  Merch. I. ii;
+  TofS. Ind.
+
+Seyton. Mcb. V. iii.
+
+Sexton. MAdo. I. i.
+
+Sextus Pompeius. A&C. II. i.
+
+Shadow. 2H4. III. ii.
+
+Shallow, Justice.
+  2H4. III. ii;
+  MWW. I. i.
+
+Shepherd. 1H6. V. iv.
+
+Shepherd, Old. WT. III. iii.
+
+Sheriff.
+  1H4. II. iv;
+  2H6. II. iv;
+  R3. V. i.
+
+Shrewsbury, Talbot, Earl of. 1H6. I. iv.
+
+Shylock. Merch. I. iii.
+
+Sicilius Leonatus, a ghost. Cym. V. iv.
+
+Sicinius Velutus. Cor. I. i.
+
+Silence. 2H4. III. ii.
+
+Silius. A&C. III. i.
+
+Silvia. TGV. II. i.
+
+Silvius. AYLI. II. iv.
+
+Simonides, King of Pentapolis. Per. II. ii.
+
+Simpcox. 2H6. II. i.
+
+Simpcox's wife. 2H6. II. i.
+
+Simple, Peter. MWW. I. i.
+
+Siward. Mcb. V. iv.
+
+Siward, young. Mcb. V. vii.
+
+Slender, Abraham. MWW. I. i.
+
+Sly, Christopher. TofS. Ind.
+
+Smith. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Snare. 2H4. II. i.
+
+Snout. MND. I. ii.
+
+Snug. MND. I. ii.
+
+Soldiers:
+  A&C. III. vii;
+  AWEW. IV. i;
+  Cor. I. iv;
+  H5. IV. iv;
+  1H6. II. i;
+  2H6. IV. vi;
+  3H6. IV. viii;
+  JC. IV. ii;
+  Mcb. V. iv;
+  Tim. V. iv;
+  T&C. V. ix.
+
+Solinus, Duke of Ephesus. CofE. I. i.
+
+Somerset, Duke of.
+  1H6. II. iv;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Somerset, Duke of. 3H6. IV. i.
+
+Somerville, Sir John. 3H6. V. i.
+
+Son that hath killed his father. 3H6. II. v.
+
+Soothsayers.
+  A&C. I. ii;
+  Cym. IV. ii;
+  JC. I. ii.
+
+Southwell, John. 2H6. I. iv.
+
+Speed. TGV. I. i.
+
+Spirits. 2H6. I. iv.
+
+Spring (Ver). LLL. V. ii.
+
+Stafford, Lord. 3H6.*
+
+Stafford, Sir Humphrey. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Stafford, William. 2H6. IV. ii.
+
+Stanley, Lord, Earl of Derby. R3. I. iii.
+
+Stanley, Sir John. 2H6. II. iv.
+
+Stanley, Sir William. 3H6. IV. v.*
+
+Starveling. MND. I. ii.
+
+Stephano. Merch.*
+
+Stephano. Tmp. II. ii.
+
+Steward. AWEW. I. iii.
+
+Strangers. Tim. III. ii.
+
+Strato. JC. V. v.
+
+Suffolk, Earl and Duke of.
+  1H6. II. iv;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Suffolk, Duke of. H8. II. ii.
+
+Surrey, Earl of. 2H4.*
+
+Surrey, Earl of. R2. IV. i.
+
+Surrey, Earl of. R3. V. iii.
+
+Surrey, Lord. H8. III. ii.
+
+Surveyor. H8. I. ii.
+
+
+Tailor. TofS. IV. ii.
+
+Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury. 1H6. I. iv.
+
+Talbot, John. 1H6. I. iv.
+
+Tamora, Queen of Goths. TA. I. i.
+
+Taurus. A&C. III. viii.
+
+Thaisa. Per. II. ii.
+
+Thaliard. Per. I. i.
+
+Thersites. T&C. II. i.
+
+Theseus. MND. I. i.
+
+Thieves. 1H4. II. ii.
+
+Thisbe. MND. V. i.
+
+Thomas, Friar. Meas. I. iii.
+
+Thurio. TGV. II. iv.
+
+Thyreus (Thidias). A&C. III. xii.
+
+Timandra. Tim. IV. iii.
+
+Time (chorus). WT. IV. i.
+
+Timon. Tim. I. i.
+
+Titania. MND. II. i.
+
+Titinius. JC. IV. iii.
+
+Titus. Tim. III. iv.
+
+Titus Andronicus. TA. I. i.
+
+Titus Lartius. Cor. I. i.
+
+Touchstone. AYLI. I. ii.
+
+Townsmen of St. Albans. 2H6. II. i.
+
+Tranio. TofS. I. i.
+
+Travellers. 1H4. II. ii.
+
+Travers. 2H4. I. i.
+
+Trebonius. JC. II. i.
+
+Tressel. R3. I. iii.*
+
+Tribunes, Roman:
+  Cym. III. vii;
+  TA. I. i.
+
+Trinculo. Tmp. II. ii.
+
+Troilus. T&C. I. i.
+
+Tubal. Merch. III. i.
+
+Tullus Aufidius. Cor. I. ii.
+
+Tutor. 3H6. I. iii.
+
+Tybalt. R&J. I. i.
+
+Tyrrel, Sir James. R3. IV. ii.
+
+
+Ulysses. T&C. I. iii.
+
+Ursula. MAdo. II. i.
+
+Urswick, Christopher. R3. IV. v.
+
+
+Valentine. TwN. I. iv.
+
+Valentine. TGV. I. i.
+
+Valentine. TA.*
+
+Valeria. Cor. I. iii.
+
+Varrius. A&C. II. i.
+
+Varro, servant. Tim. II. ii.
+
+Varro. JC. IV. iii.
+
+Vaughan, Sir Thomas. R3. III. iii.
+
+Vaux. 2H6. III. ii.
+
+Vaux, Sir Nicholas. H8. II. i.
+
+Venice, Duke of. Merch. IV. i.
+
+Venice, Duke of. Oth. I. iii.
+
+Ventidius. A&C. III. i.
+
+Ventidius. Tim. I. ii.
+
+Verges. MAdo. III. iii.
+
+Vernon. 1H6. II. iv.
+
+Vernon, Sir Richard. 1H4. IV. i.
+
+Vincentio. TofS. IV. v.
+
+Vincentio, Duke. Meas. I. i.
+
+Vintner. 1H4. II. iv.
+
+Viola. TwN. I. ii.
+
+Violenta. AWEW. III. v.
+
+Virgilia. Cor. I. iii.
+
+Volsce, a. Cor. IV. iii.
+
+Voltimand. Hml. I. ii.
+
+Volumnia. Cor. I. iii.
+
+Volumnius. JC. V. v.
+
+
+Wall, MND. V. i.
+
+Warders. 1H6. I. iii.
+
+Wart. 2H4. III. ii.
+
+Warwick (Beauchamp), Earl of.
+  2H4. III. i;
+  H5. IV. viii;
+  1H6. II. iv.
+
+Warwick (Nevil), Earl of.
+  2H6. I. i;
+  3H6. I. i.
+
+Watchmen:
+  Cor. V. ii;
+  3H6. IV. iii;
+  MAdo. III. iii;
+  R&J. V. iii.
+
+Westminster, Abbot of. R2. IV. i.
+
+Westmoreland, Earl of.
+  1H4. I. i;
+  2H4. IV. i;
+  H5. I. ii.
+
+Westmoreland, Earl of. 3H6. I. i.
+
+Whitmore, Walter. 2H6. IV. i.
+
+Widow. TofS. V. ii.
+
+Widow, of Florence. AWEW. III. v.
+
+William. AYLI. V. i.
+
+Williams. H5. IV. i.
+
+Willoughby, Lord. R2. II. i.
+
+Winchester, Bishop of.
+  1H6. I. i;
+  2H6. I. i.
+
+Winchester (Gardiner), Bishop of. H8. V. i.
+
+Witches. Mcb. I. i.
+
+Wolsey, Cardinal. H8. I. i.
+
+Woodville. 1H6. I. iii.
+
+Worcester, Earl of. 1H4. I. iii.
+
+
+York, Archbishop of. _See_ Rotherham and Scroop.
+
+York, Duchess of. R2. V. ii.
+
+York, Duchess of. R3. II. ii.
+
+York, Duke of. H5. IV. iii.
+
+York, Duke of. _See_ Richard.
+
+York, Duke of. _See_ Richard, son of Edward IV.
+
+York, Edmund Langley, Duke of. R2. II. i.
+
+Young Marcius. Cor. V. iii.
+
+
+
+
+Appendix C
+
+INDEX OF THE SONGS IN SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS
+
+
+[Page Heading: Index of Songs]
+
+The first lines are given. In a few cases it is doubtful whether the
+verses were sung or spoken.
+
+
+A cup of wine that's brisk and fine, 2H4. V. iii.
+
+And let me the canakin clink, clink; Oth. II. iii.
+
+And will he not come again? Hml. IV. v.
+
+An old hare hoar, R&J. II. iv.
+
+
+Be merry, be merry, my wife has all; 2H4. V. iii.
+
+Blow, blow, thou winter wind. AYLI. II. vii.
+
+By gis, and by Saint Charity, Hml. IV. v.
+
+
+Come away, come away, Mcb. III. v.
+
+Come away, come away, death, TN. II. iv.
+
+Come, thou monarch of the vine, A&C. II. vii.
+
+Come unto these yellow sands, Tmp. I. ii.
+
+
+Do me right, 2H4. V. iii.
+
+Do nothing but eat, and make good cheer, 2H4. V. iii.
+
+
+Farewell, master; farewell, farewell! Tmp. II. iii.
+
+Fear no more the heat o' the sun, Cym. IV. ii.
+
+Fie on sinful fantasy! MWW. V. v.
+
+Fill the cup, and let it come; 2H4. V. iii.
+
+Flout 'em and scout 'em. Tmp. III. ii.
+
+Fools had ne'er less grace in a year; Lear I. iv.
+
+For bonny sweet Robin is all my joy. Hml. IV. v.
+
+Full fathom five thy father lies; Tmp. I. ii.
+
+
+Get you hence, for I must go. WT. IV. iv.
+
+
+Hark, hark! the lark at heaven's gate sings, Cym. II. iii.
+
+He that has and a little tiny wit,-- Lear. III. ii.
+
+Honour, riches, marriage-blessing, Tmp. IV. i.
+
+How should I your true love know. Hml. IV. v.
+
+
+I am gone, sir, TN. IV. ii.
+
+If it do come to pass, AYLI. II. vi.
+
+In youth, when I did love, did love, Hml. V. i.
+
+I shall no more to sea, to sea, Tmp. II. ii.
+
+It was a lover and his lass, AYLI. V. iii.
+
+
+Jog, jog on, the foot-path way, WT. IV. iii.
+
+
+King Stephen was and a worthy peer, Oth. II. iii.
+
+
+Lawn as white as driven snow; WT. IV. iv.
+
+Love, love, nothing but love, still more! T&C. III. i.
+
+
+No more dams I'll make for fish; Tmp, II. ii.
+
+No more, thou thunder-master, show. Cym. V. iv.
+
+
+Oh mistress mine, where are you roaming? TN. II. iii.
+
+On the ground, MND. IV. i.
+
+Orpheus with his lute made trees. (Fletcher?) H8. III. i.
+
+Over hill, over dale, MND. II. i.
+
+
+Pardon, goddess of the night, MAdo. V. iv.
+
+
+Round about the cauldron go; Mcb. IV. i.
+
+
+Sigh no more, ladies, sigh no more, MAdo. II. iii.
+
+
+Take, O, take those lips away, Meas. IV. i.
+
+Tell me where is fancy bred, Merch. III. ii.
+
+The god of love, MAdo. V. ii.
+
+The master, the swabber, the boatswain, and I, Tmp. II. ii.
+
+The ousel cock so black of hue, MND. III. ii.
+
+The poor soul sat sighing by a sycamore tree, Oth. IV. iii.
+
+They bore him barefac'd on the bier; Hml. IV. v.
+
+To-morrow is Saint Valentine's day, Hml. IV. v.
+
+To shallow rivers, to whose falls. MWW. III. i.
+
+
+Under the greenwood tree, AYLI. II. vi.
+
+
+Was this fair face the cause, quoth she, AWEW. I. iii.
+
+Wedding is great Juno's crown. AYLI. V. iv.
+
+What shall he have that killed the deer? AYLI. IV. ii.
+
+When daffodils begin to peer, WT. IV. i.
+
+When daisies pied and violets blue. LLL. V. ii.
+
+When that I was and a little tiny boy, TN. V. i.
+
+Where the bee sucks, there suck I. Tmp. V. i.
+
+While you here do snoring lie, Tmp. II. i.
+
+Who doth ambition shun, AYLI. II. vi.
+
+Who is Silvia? What is she, TGV. IV. iii.
+
+Will you buy any tape, WT. IV. iv.
+
+
+You spotted snakes with double tongue, MND. II. ii.
+
+
+
+
+Appendix D
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+[Page Heading: Bibliography]
+
+This Bibliography is arranged in divisions corresponding to the chapters
+of this volume. It aims to include those books most important for the
+student, and to furnish guidance for those interested in more
+specialized fields of study.
+
+The following are the chief general bibliographies:
+
+Shakespeare Bibliography, by William Jaggard, Stratford-on-Avon, 1911.
+This is the most important and useful attempt that has yet been made
+toward a complete bibliography of works in the English language; but it
+is far from being exhaustive or accurate.
+
+Catalogue of the Barton Collection of the Boston Public Library, part i,
+Shakespeare's Works and Shakesperiana, 1878-1888. Probably the best
+bibliography up to the date of its publication.
+
+Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakespeare-Gesellschaft. Weimar, 1865-. The
+bibliographies, with indexes, issued in this annual provide the best
+bibliography of all recent Shakespearean literature in all languages.
+They include references to periodicals and to book reviews.
+
+The Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. v, chaps. viii-xii.
+Cambridge, 1910. The best recent short selected bibliography.
+
+Other useful bibliographical aids are: the article on Shakespeare
+Encycl. Brit., Eleventh ed., 1911; the British Museum Catalogue of
+Printed Books, 1897; the Catalogue of the Lenox Library, New York, 1880;
+and the Index to the Shakespeare Memorial Library, Birmingham, 1900.
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+SHAKESPEARE'S ENGLAND AND LONDON
+
+See bibliographies in the Cambridge Modern History, vol. iii, chap. x,
+and the Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. v, chap. xiv. The
+two most accessible and important works on the subject are: William
+Harrison's _Description of Britaine and England_, in Holinshed's
+Chronicle, 1577, reprinted in the Shaks. Soc. Publ. 1877-1888, in the
+Scott Library, 1899, and in Everyman's Library; and John Stow's _Survey
+of London_, 1st ed., 1598, reprinted in Everyman's Library. J. D.
+Wilson's _Life in Shakespeare's England_ (Cambridge, 1911) is an
+excellent anthology drawn from Elizabethan publications.
+
+The following list includes only more important and more recent books.
+
+Aiken, L. Memoirs of the Court of James I. 2d ed., 1822.
+
+Ashton, J. Humour, Wit, and Society in the Seventeenth Century. 1883.
+
+Besant, Sir W. London. 1892.
+
+---- London in the Times of the Tudors. 1908.
+
+Creighton, M. The Age of Elizabeth. 1892.
+
+Creizenach, W. Geschichte des neueren Dramas, Halle, 1893. See vol. iv,
+part i, book iii, Religios-sittliche und politisch-soziale Anschauungen
+der Theaterdichter.
+
+Douce, F. Illustrations of Shakespeare and of Ancient Manners. 1839.
+
+An English Garner. New ed., 1903. See vols.: Social England Illustrated;
+Tudor Tracts, 1532-1582; Stuart Tracts, 1603-1693.
+
+Froude, J. A. History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat
+of the Armada. 1856-1870. Reprinted in Everyman's Library.
+
+Gildersleeve, V. Government Regulation of the Elizabethan Drama. New
+York, 1908.
+
+Hall, H. Society in the Elizabethan Age. 4th ed., 1901.
+
+Jusserand, J. J. Histoire litteraire du peuple Anglais. Paris, 1904.
+English trans., 1909. See especially vol. ii, book v, chap. i.
+
+Lee, S. Stratford-on-Avon from the Earliest Times to the Death of
+Shakespeare. 1907.
+
+---- An Account of Shakespeare's England, a survey of social life and
+conditions in the Elizabethan age (in preparation).
+
+Nicholls, J. The Progresses and Processions of Queen Elizabeth. New ed.,
+3 vols., 1823.
+
+---- The Progresses, Processions, and Festivities of King James I. 4
+vols., 1828.
+
+Stephenson, H. T. Shakespeare's London. New York, 1905.
+
+---- The Elizabethan People. New York, 1910.
+
+Strutt, J. Sports and Pastimes of the People of England. 1801. New ed.,
+1903.
+
+Thompson, E. N. S. The Controversy between the Puritans and the Stage.
+Yale Studies in English, vol. xx. New York, 1903.
+
+Traill, H. D. Social England. 3d ed., 1904. See vols. iii and iv.
+
+Wakeman, H. O. The Church and the Puritans, 1570-1660. New ed., 1902.
+
+Wheatley, H. B. London Past and Present. 3 vols. 1891.
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+BIOGRAPHICAL FACTS AND TRADITIONS
+
+Halliwell-Phillipps, J. O. Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare. 2 vols.
+7th ed., 1887. Later eds. are reprints. With illustrations, facsimiles,
+and a full collection of documents.
+
+Lambert, D. H. Shakespeare Documents. (Published originally as Cartae
+Shakespeareanae, 1904.) A chronological catalogue of extant evidence.
+
+Lee, Sidney. A Life of William Shakespeare, London and New York, 1898.
+New and revised ed., 1909.
+
+---- Shakespeare in Oral Tradition, Chap. III in Shakespeare and the
+Modern Stage, 1906.
+
+The preceding are the most important books, but the following are useful
+in various ways: William Shakespeare. K. Elze. Halle, 1876. Eng. trans,
+by L. D. Schmitz, 1888. A Chronicle History of the Life and Works of
+Shakspere. F. G. Fleay. London, 1886. Shakespeare's Marriage. J. W.
+Gray. 1905. Shakespeare's Family. C. C. Stopes. 1901. Shakespeare's
+Warwickshire Contemporaries. C. C. Stopes. 1907. New Shakespeare
+Discoveries. C. W. Wallace. Harper's Magazine, March, 1910. Catalogues
+of the books, manuscripts, works of art, antiquities, and relics at
+present exhibited in Shakespeare's birthplace, Stratford-on-Avon, 1910.
+For discussion of portraits of Shakespeare, see Portraits of
+Shakespeare, J. P. Norris, Philadelphia, 1885; M. R. Spielmann in
+Stratford-Town Shakespeare, vol. x; and in Encycl. Brit., 11th ed.,
+article on Shakespeare. On a Portrait of Shakespeare in the Shakespeare
+Memorial at Stratford-on-Avon, L. Cust, Proc. Soc. Antiq., 1895.
+
+See also Sources of Traditional Material, Appendix A, p. 225.
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+SHAKESPEARE'S READING
+
+Shakespeare's Books: A dissertation on Shakespeare's reading and the
+immediate sources of his works. By H. R. D. Anders. Berlin, 1904. The
+best book on the subject.
+
+Shakespeare's Studies, T. S. Baynes, 1893.
+
+Shakespeare's Holinshed. Ed. W. G. Boswell-Stone. 1896. New ed., 1907. A
+reprint of the passages in Holinshed's Chronicles which Shakespeare
+used.
+
+Shakespeare's Plutarch. Ed. W. W. Skeat. 1875.
+
+The English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare. J. J. Jusserand, trans. E.
+Lee. 1890.
+
+The Shakespeare Classics, gen. ed. L. Gollancz (in progress, 1907-),
+reprints the chief sources of the plays: Lodge's Rosalynde, Greene's
+Pandosto, Brooke's Romeo and Juliet, the Chronicle History of King Leir,
+The Taming of a Shrew, The Sources and Analogues of A Mid-summer-Night's
+Dream, Shakespeare's Plutarch. Most of these, with other valuable
+material, are found also in W. C. Hazlitt's revision of Collier's
+Shakespeare Library. 6 vols. 1875 (out of print).
+
+Many translations which Shakespeare may have known are included in the
+long series of the Tudor Translations, ed. W. E. Henley and Charles
+Whibley (mostly out of print).
+
+For drama see Bibliography, chap. vi; for contemporary literature see
+bibliography in Cambridge History of English Literature; or any short
+manual, as Saintsbury's Elizabethan Literature, or Seccombe and Allen's
+Age of Shakespeare. 2 vols.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CHRONOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT
+
+The first thorough attempt to determine the chronology of Shakespeare's
+plays was made in Malone's "Attempt to ascertain the order in which the
+plays attributed to Shakespeare were written," published in Steevens's
+edition of 1778. His final conclusions on the subject are to be found in
+the preliminary volumes of the 1821 Variorum. Since then, discussions of
+chronology and development have appeared in almost every edition of
+Shakespeare's Works and in many volumes discussing his life and art.
+(See Bibliography for Chaps. II and VIII.) The following are the most
+important contributions to the general question of the chronology.
+
+Hertzberg, W. G. Preface to Cymbeline in Ulrici's ed. of Schlegel and
+Tieck's trans. of Shakespeare, 1871.
+
+---- Metrisches, grammatisches, chronologisches zu Shakespeares Dramen.
+Jahrbuch, xiii, 1878.
+
+Fleay, F. G. Shakspere Manual, 1878.
+
+New Shakspere Society. Publications for 1874 contain Fleay's tests as
+originally proposed with discussions by Furnivall, Ingram, et al.
+Publications for 1877-9 contain F. S. Pulling's essay on The
+Speech-ending test, p. 457.
+
+Ingram, J. K. On the weak endings of Shakspere with some account of the
+verse-tests in general. N. S. S. Publ. 1874.
+
+Koenig, G. Der Vers in Shaksperes Dramen. Quellen und Forschungen vol.
+61, 1888. The fullest presentation of numerical results for various
+verse tests.
+
+Furnivall, F. J. Preface to the Leopold Shakespeare, 1876.
+
+Hales, J. W. The Succession of Shakespeare's plays. 1874.
+
+Stokes, H. P. Attempt to determine the chronological order of
+Shakespeare's plays, 1878.
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE ELIZABETHAN DRAMA
+
+Full bibliographies of both plays and critical works are to be found in
+Schelling's Elizabethan Drama and in the Cambridge History of English
+Literature, vols. v and vi.
+
+
+1. EDITIONS OF PLAYS
+
+Convenient collections, often with valuable introductions and notes,
+are: Dodsley's Old English Plays, ed. W. C. Hazlitt, 15 vols.,
+1874-1876; Manly's Pre-Shaksperean Drama, 2 vols., Boston; Neilson's
+Chief Elizabethan Dramatists, Boston, 1911 (30 plays in one volume); the
+Mermaid Series of the Old Dramatists (4 or 5 plays by one author in each
+vol.); the Belles Lettres Edition (with excellent bibliographies),
+Boston; Masterpieces of the English Drama, New York; Temple Dramatists.
+Valuable reprints of old plays and documents are found in the following
+series now in progress: The Tudor Facsimile Texts, ed. J. S. Farmer, 43
+vols., 1907; Materialien zur Kunde des aelteren englischen Dramas, ed. W.
+Bang, Louvain, 1902; Publications of the Malone Society, 1906.
+
+Collected editions of the chief dramatists include those of Greene,
+Peele, Webster, Ford, Beaumont and Fletcher, and Shirley, ed. by
+Alexander Dyce; of Middleton, Marston, Marlowe, and Webster, by A. H.
+Bullen, and the more recent editions from the Clarendon Press,--Greene,
+ed. J. Churton Collins; Kyd, by F. S. Boas; Lyly, by W. Bond; Nash, by
+McKerrow; Marlowe, by Tucker Brooke. Massinger and Jonson exist only in
+the early nineteenth-century editions of Gifford. There are also recent
+editions of Beaumont and Fletcher by A. R. Waller, Cambridge, and by A.
+H. Bullen _et al._ (in progress), and an edition of Chapman by T.
+Parrott.
+
+
+2. CRITICAL AND HISTORICAL
+
+Die Geschichte des neueren Dramas. W. Creizenach (in progress). Halle,
+1893-. This is the standard history of the modern drama, vol. iv dealing
+in a masterly fashion with the Shakespearean period. There is no English
+translation.
+
+History of English Dramatic Literature to the Death of Queen Anne. A. W.
+Ward. 2d ed. 3 vols. 1899.
+
+Elizabethan Drama. F. E. Schelling. 2 vols. Boston, 1902. This contains
+valuable bibliographies and a finding list for the plays.
+
+The Mediaeval Stage. E. K. Chambers. 2 vols. Oxford, 1903. Authoritative
+for the pre-Elizabethan drama, with valuable bibliography and
+appendices.
+
+A Bibliographical Chronicle of the English Drama. F. G. Fleay.
+1559-1642. A work of great value to scholars, but not of much service to
+the general reader.
+
+Other works less comprehensive in scope, but dealing with special
+aspects or divisions of the drama, are: Tragedy, A. H. Thorndike,
+Boston, 1908; Shakespeare and his Predecessors, F. S. Boas, 1896; Tudor
+Drama, C. F. Tucker Brooke, Boston, 1912.
+
+Special treatises which have also been drawn upon for this chapter are:
+F. E. Schelling's English Chronicle Play, New York, 1902; A. H.
+Thorndike's Influence of Beaumont and Fletcher on Shakspere, Lemcke and
+Buechner, N. Y., 1901; and Hamlet and the Revenge Plays, Publ. Mod.
+Lang. Assn., 1902; E. E. Stoll's John Webster, 1905; F. H. Ristine's
+English Tragi-Comedy, 1910; Reyher's Les Masques Anglais, Paris, 1909;
+W. W. Greg's Pastoral Poetry and Pastoral Drama, 1906.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE ELIZABETHAN THEATER
+
+None of the books here listed gives a comprehensive account of the
+theater. Greg's admirable edition of Henslowe's Diary, Fleay's
+researches, and Murray's supplements to them are all valuable for
+students. The account of the stage and the method of performance given
+in this chapter are based in part on Albright. During the last ten years
+there has been much controversy on this subject; and those interested
+should consult the bibliographies in the Shakespeare Jahrbuch under
+Albright, Brodmeier, Archer, Chambers, Corbin, Lawrence, Reynolds,
+Wegener. For contemporary documents, see the Bibliography to chap, x,
+vol. vi, of the Cambridge History of English Literature.
+
+Albright, V. E. The Shakespearian Stage. New York, 1909.
+
+Archer, W. The Elizabethan Stage. Quarterly Review, April, 1908.
+
+Brodmeier, C. Die Shakespeare-Buehne nach der alten Buehnenanweisungen.
+Weimar, 1904.
+
+Chambers, E. K. The Stage of the Globe. Stratford Ed. Shakespeare's
+Works, vol. x.
+
+Collier, J. P. Memoirs of the Principal Actors in the Plays of
+Shakespeare. Shaks. Soc., 1846.
+
+Feuillerat, A. Documents relating to the Office of the Revels in the
+time of Queen Elizabeth. Louvain, 1908.
+
+Fleay, F. G. A Chronicle History of the London Stage. 1890.
+
+---- A Biographical Chronicle of the English Drama, 1559-1642. 2 vols.,
+1891.
+
+Gildersleeve, V. Government Regulation of the Elizabethan Theater. New
+York, 1908.
+
+Greg, W. W., ed. Henslowe's Diary, 2 parts. London, 1907-1908.
+
+---- Henslowe Papers. 1907.
+
+Lawrence, W. J. The Elizabethan Playhouse and other studies. Stratford.
+1912.
+
+Mantzius, R. A History of Theatrical Art in Ancient and Modern Times.
+1904. Cf. vol. iii.
+
+Murray, J. T. English Dramatic Companies, 1558-1642. 1910.
+
+Ordish, T. F. Early London Theaters. 1894.
+
+Rendle, W. Old Southwark and its People. 1878.
+
+Reynolds, G. F. Some Principles of Elizabethan Staging. Reprinted from
+Modern Philology. Chicago, 1905.
+
+---- What we know of the Elizabethan Stage, Modern Philology, July,
+1911. With bibliography of recent discussions.
+
+Wallace, C. W. The Children of the Chapel at Blackfriars, 1597-1603.
+Univ. of Nebraska, 1908.
+
+---- Evolution of the English drama up to Shakespeare: with a history of
+the first Blackfriars theatre. Stechert. 1912.
+
+These two volumes contain some newly discovered material, but their
+discussions of theatrical history are not valuable.
+
+Wegener, R. Die Buehneneinrichtung des Shakespeareschen Theaters nach der
+zeitgenoessischen Dramen. Halle, 1907.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+HISTORY OF THE TEXT
+
+
+1. COMPLETE EDITIONS
+
+
+_In one volume._
+
+The Globe Edition, ed. W. G. Clark and W. Aldis Wright 1864.
+
+The 'Oxford' Edition, ed. W. J. Craig. Oxford, 1904.
+
+The 'Cambridge Poets' Edition, ed. with introductions to each play, ed.
+W. A. Neilson. Boston, 1906 (the text used in the Tudor Shakespeare).
+
+
+_Annotated Library Editions._
+
+The Cambridge Shakespeare, ed. W. Aldis Wright. 9 vols. 1863-1866. 2d
+ed., 1891-1893. The text known as the Cambridge text is very near to
+that of the Globe ed., and these have been generally used in recent
+editions.
+
+A new Variorum Edition, ed. H. Howard Furness and H. H. Furness, Jr. (in
+progress). Philadelphia, 1871. This ed. prints (latterly) the First
+Folio text with exhaustive variants and annotations. The appendices
+supply much illustrative matter. The following plays have appeared:
+Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth (2d ed.), Hamlet (2 vols.), Lear, Othello,
+Merchant of Venice, As You Like It, The Tempest, A Midsummer-Night's
+Dream, A Winter's Tale, Much Ado About Nothing, Twelfth Night, Love's
+Labour's Lost, Antony and Cleopatra, Richard III, Julius Caesar.
+
+The Arden Shakespeare, general ed. W. J. Craig, in progress, 1899. Publ.
+in the U. S. without special title by Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis.
+
+The Eversley Edition, ed. by C. H. Herford. 10 vols., 1901-1907.
+
+Among other recent editions are the Rolfe ed., 40 vols., 1871, revised
+1896; Temple, ed. I. Gollancz, 40 vols., 1894, 1895; First Folio, ed. C.
+Porter and H. Clarke (following and defending the text of the First
+Folio). New York, 1903; Caxton, general ed. S. Lee, 1910.
+
+
+_Historical Editions._
+
+The most valuable is the Third Variorum, Boswell and Malone, 21 vols.,
+1821. The other principal editions are discussed in this volume, and
+include: Rowe, 1709, 1714; Pope, 1723-1725; Theobald, 1733; Hanmer,
+1744; Warburton, 1747; Johnson, 1765; Steevens (20 plays), 1766; Capell,
+1768; Steevens (and Johnson), 1773; Malone, 1790; Reed (Steevens and
+Johnson), 1st Variorum, 1803; 2d Variorum, 1813; Knight, 1838-1842,
+second ed., 1842-1844; Hudson, 1851-1856; Delius, 1854-1861; Dyce, 1857,
+second ed., 1864-1867; White, 1857-1860, second ed., 1859-1865.
+
+
+2. FACSIMILE REPRINTS
+
+For a discussion of conditions of publication of early editions, see A.
+W. Pollard's Shakespeare's Folios and Quartos. 1909.
+
+The First Folio, With introd. by Sidney Lee. Oxford, 1902.
+
+The First, Second, Third, and Fourth Folios. Methuen, 1904-1910.
+
+The First Folio, reprint, L. Booth, 1869.
+
+The First Folio, in reduced facsimile, J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, 1876.
+Very small type.
+
+Quarto Facsimiles. E. W. Ashbee. 48 vols. 1862-1871.
+
+Quarto Facsimiles reproduced by photographic process, J. W. Griggs,
+under the superintendence of F. J. Furnivall. 43 vols. 1883-1889.
+
+Shakespeare's Poems and Pericles, with introduction by Sidney Lee. 5
+vols. Oxford, 1905.
+
+
+3. GLOSSARIES, GRAMMARS, ETC.
+
+The standard concordance is Bartlett's _New and Complete Concordance_,
+1894. The standard dictionary and one of the great monuments of
+Shakespeare scholarship is Alexander Schmidt's _Shakespeare-Lexikon_. 2
+vols. Berlin, 1894, 1895. 3d ed., 1902. This contains valuable
+appendices on syntax. The most recent brief glossary is C. T. Onion's
+_Shakespeare Glossary_. Oxford, 1911. It makes partial use of the
+valuable material in the New English Dictionary. The best grammar in
+English, though now somewhat out of date, is F. A. Abbott's
+_Shakespearian Grammar_, 1869, often reprinted.
+
+The following are also of value:
+
+Cunliffe, R. J. A New Shakespearean Dictionary. 1910.
+
+Dyce, A. A Glossary to the Works of Shakespeare. 1867. Revised by H.
+Littledale, 1902.
+
+Ellis, A. J. On Early English Pronunciation, with especial reference to
+Shakspere and Chaucer. 5 parts. E. E. T. S., 1869-1889.
+
+Franz, W. Shakespeare-Grammatik. 2 parts. Halle, 1898-1900. 2d ed.,
+Heidelberg, 1905. No English translation.
+
+Vietor, W. A Shakespeare Phonology, Marburg and London, 1906.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+QUESTIONS OF AUTHENTICITY
+
+
+1. THE DOUBTFUL PLAYS
+
+The Shakespeare Apocrypha. Ed. C. F. T. Brooke. Oxford, 1908. This
+contains texts of fourteen of the plays discussed in this chapter.
+
+Pseudo-Shakespearean Plays. Ed. K. Warnke and L. Proescholdt. 5 vols.
+Halle, 1883, 1888. Contains only 5 plays.
+
+The Two Noble Kinsmen. Ed. H. Littledale. New Shaks. Soc. Publ., 1876.
+
+Doubtful Plays of William Shakespeare. Ed. M. Moltke. Leipsig, 1869.
+Contains 6 plays.
+
+A good bibliography for the critical matter on these plays is to be
+found in the Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. v, pp.
+442-444. As to Cardenio, connected with Double Falsehood, see Bradford,
+G., Jr., Mod. Lang. Notes, February, 1910.
+
+
+2. FORGERIES
+
+Ingleby, C. M. The Shakespeare Fabrications. 1859. A complete review of
+the Collier forgeries, with bibliography.
+
+Ireland, W. H. Confessions containing the particulars of his fabrication
+of the Shakespeare manuscripts. 1808.
+
+Malone, E. Inquiry into the Authenticity (of the Ireland Ms.). 1796.
+
+Law, E. Some Supposed Shakespeare Forgeries. 1911.
+
+Wheatley, H. B. Notes on the life of John Payne Collier. 1884. Gives a
+list and account of the spurious documents.
+
+
+3. THE BACON CONTROVERSY
+
+Allen, C. Notes on the Bacon-Shakespeare question. Boston, 1900. An
+account of Shakespeare's legal phrases.
+
+Bacon, Delia. The Philosophy of the Plays of Shakespeare Unfolded. 1857.
+
+Bacon, Francis. Life and Letters. Ed. J. Spedding. 7 vols. 1861-1872.
+
+Beeching, H. C. William Shakespeare: Player, Play maker and Poet. A
+reply to Mr. George Greenwood. 1908.
+
+Bompas, G. C. The Problem of Shakespeare's Plays. 1902.
+
+Booth, W. S. Some Acrostic Signatures of Francis Bacon. Boston, 1909.
+
+Donnelly, I. The Great Cryptogram. 2 vols. Chicago, 1887.
+
+Fiske, John. Forty Years of Bacon-Shakespeare Folly. Atlantic Monthly,
+1897; reprinted in Century of Science, 1899.
+
+Gallup, E. W. The Bi-literal Cypher of Francis Bacon.
+
+Greenwood, G. G. The Shakespeare Problem restated. Lane, 1908.
+
+---- In re Shakespeare Beeching _v._ Greenwood. Lane, 1909.
+
+Lang, A. Shakespeare, Bacon, and the Great Unknown. 1912.
+
+Pott, Mrs. H. Did Francis Bacon write Shakespeare? Chicago, 1891.
+
+Robertson, J. M. The Baconian heresy, 1913.
+
+Wyman, W. H. Bibliography of the Shakespeare-Baconian controversy.
+Cincinnati, 1884. Continued in Shakespeariana. Philadelphia.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+SHAKESPEARE SINCE 1616
+
+
+1. THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+The Shakespeare Allusion Books. Ed. J. Munro. 2 vols. This reprints
+references to Shakespeare before 1700.
+
+Eighteenth Century Essays on Shakespeare. Ed. D. Nichol Smith. Glasgow.
+Contains Rowe's, Pope's, Theobald's, Johnson's prefaces, Farmer's essay
+on Shakespeare's learning, Morgann's essay on Falstaff, etc.
+
+Shakespearian Wars. T. R. Lounsbury. i. Shakespeare as a Dramatic
+Artist, ii. Shakespeare and Voltaire. 2 vols. Yale Univ., 1901.
+
+First Editors of Shakespeare or The Text of Shakespeare (Pope and
+Theobald). T. R. Lounsbury. 1906.
+
+Shakespeare en France sous l'ancien regime. J. J. Jusserand. Paris.
+1898. Eng. trans. London, 1899.
+
+Considerable matter in the following volumes from the Clarendon Press
+bears on the early criticism of Shakespeare: Elizabethan Critical
+Essays, ed. Gregory Smith, 2 vols.; Seventeenth Century Critical Essays,
+ed. J. E. Spingarn, 3 vols.; Dryden's Essays, ed. W. P. Ker, 2 vols.
+
+
+2. THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES
+
+Baker, G. P. The Development of Shakespeare as a Dramatist. Macmillan,
+1907.
+
+Boas, F. S. Shakespeare and his Predecessors. 1895.
+
+Bradley, A. C. Shakespearean Tragedy. Macmillan, 1904.
+
+---- Oxford Lectures on Poetry. Macmillan, 1909.
+
+Brandes, G. William Shakespeare. Copenhagen, 1896. Eng. trans. 2 vols.,
+1898.
+
+Coleridge, S. T. Notes and Lectures on Shakespeare, etc. 2 vols. 1849.
+Reprinted in Everyman's Library, the New Universal Library, and Bohn's
+Library.
+
+Collins, J. C. Studies in Shakespeare. 1904.
+
+Dowden, E. Shakspeare: His Mind and Art. 1874.
+
+---- A Shakspere Primer. 1877.
+
+---- Introduction to Shakespeare. 1893.
+
+Elze, K. William Shakespeare. Halle, 1876. Eng. trans., 1888.
+
+Goethe. Wilhelm Meister, book IV, chaps. 13-16, contains an analysis of
+Hamlet.
+
+---- Wahrheit und Dichtung, and Eckermann's Reports of Goethe's
+conversations contain references. An essay "Shakespeare und kein Ende"
+appears in his collected works.
+
+Hazlitt, W. Characters of Shakespeare's plays, 1817. Reprinted in
+Everyman's Library, New Universal Library, Bohn's Library.
+
+Heine, Heinrich. Shakespeare's Maidens and Women, in Works. Eng. trans.
+Heinemann, 1851.
+
+Jameson, Mrs. Shakespeare's Heroines. Temple Classics.
+
+Kreyssig, F. S. T. Vorlesungen ueber Shakespeare. 2 vols. 3d ed. Berlin,
+1876.
+
+Lamb, Charles. On Some of the Old Actors (Essays of Elia). Reprinted in
+Everyman's Library.
+
+---- On the Tragedies of Shakespeare (Misc. essays). Reprinted in Temple
+Classics.
+
+Lee, Sidney. Shakespeare and the Modern Stage. 1906.
+
+Lessing, G. E. Laokooen, and Dramatic Notes. Eng. trans., Bohn's
+Library.
+
+MacCallum, M. W. Shakespeare's Roman Plays and their Background. 1910.
+
+Martin, Lady (Helen Faucit). On Some of Shakespeare's Female Characters.
+1885.
+
+Matthews, Brander. Shakespeare as a Playwright. In preparation.
+
+Moulton, R. G. Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist. Oxford, 1885.
+
+---- The Moral System of Shakespeare. 1903.
+
+Raleigh, W. Shakespeare (English Men of Letters). 1907.
+
+Schlegel, A. W. von. Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature. Reprinted
+in Bohn's Library.
+
+Swinburne, A. C. A Study of Shakespeare. 1880.
+
+Thorndike, A. H. The Influence of Beaumont and Fletcher on Shakespeare.
+Lemcke and Buechner, N. Y., 1901.
+
+Wendell, B. William Shakspere. 1894.
+
+White, R. G. Studies in Shakespeare. 9th ed. 1896.
+
+---- Shakespeare's Scholar. 1854.
+
+Important critical and interpretative aids will also be found in the
+bibliographies for earlier chapters, as in the complete editions of
+Shakespeare's works, in histories of literature and the drama, or in
+special studies, as Anders's Shakespeare's Books, and Madden's Diary of
+Master William Silence.
+
+For a handy bibliography of studies of botany, folk-lore, law, medicine,
+the supernatural in Shakespeare, etc., see the Cambridge History of
+English Literature, vol. v, pp. 450, 451, to which may be added Freytag,
+G., Technique of the Drama, Eng. trans. 1891; Matthew, B., A Study of
+the Drama, 1910; Arnold, M. E., Soliloquies of Shakespeare, New York,
+1911; Fansler, H. E., Evolution of Technic in Elizabethan Tragedy, 1914;
+Archer, W., Play Making, 1912.
+
+In the New Variorum Furness gives a summary of the interpretation and
+criticism for each play; but he is often quite neglectful of recent
+tendencies in criticism.
+
+
+3. STAGE HISTORY
+
+The standard work for the English stage is _Some Account of the English
+Stage, from the Restoration in 1660 to 1830_, by J. Genest, 10 vols.,
+Bath, 1832. There is no authoritative history of the stage since 1832.
+Information in regard to the Shakespearean plays may be had in the lives
+of the actors, as Colley Cibber's Apology; Davies's Memoirs of Garrick,
+1790; Murphy's Life of Garrick, 1801; Boaden's Memoirs of Mrs. Siddons,
+1827, and Memoirs of Kemble, 1825; Cumberland's Memoir, 1806; Boaden's
+Memoirs of Mrs. Inchbald; Private Correspondence of David Garrick,
+1831-1832; Cooke's Memoirs of Charles Macklin, 1808; Macready's
+Reminiscences, 1878; Archer's Life of Macready, 1890; Molloy's Life of
+Edmund Kean, 1888; Winter's Life and Art of Edwin Booth, 1893;
+Brereton's Life of Sir Henry Irving, London, 1908.
+
+Baker, H. B. The London Stage, 1576-1903. 1904.
+
+Brown, J. S. A History of the New York Stage, 1732-1901. 3 vols. New
+York, 1903.
+
+Doran, J. Their Majesties' Servants. 1888. Ed. R. W. Lowe.
+
+Dunlap, W. A History of the American Theater. 1832.
+
+Fitzgerald, P. A New History of the English Stage. 2 vols. London, 1882.
+
+Hazlitt, W. A View of the English Stage. 1818.
+
+Home, R. H. New Spirit of the Age. 1884.
+
+Lowe, R. W. Thomas Betterton, New York, 1891.
+
+Lowe, R. W. Bibliographical Account of English Dramatic Literature.
+1888.
+
+Phelps, W. M., and Forbes Robertson, J. Life and Works of Samuel Phelps.
+London, 1886.
+
+Seilhamer, G. O. A History of the American Theater, 3 vols.
+Philadelphia, 1891.
+
+
+4. SHAKESPEARE ON THE CONTINENT
+
+A good selected bibliography is to be found in the Cambridge History of
+English Literature, vol. v, pp. 456-472, and a full bibliography
+annually in the Shakespeare Jahrbuch. Only a few of the most important
+titles are given here, including some already noted.
+
+Boehtling, A. R. A. Goethe und Shakespeare. Leipzig, 1909.
+
+Burckhardt, C. A. H. Das Repertoire des Weimarischen Theaters unter
+Goethes Leitung. Hamburg, 1901.
+
+Chateaubriand, F. R. de. Shakespeare. 1801.
+
+Cohn, A. Shakespeare in Germany in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth
+Centuries. Berlin, 1865.
+
+Creizenach, W. Die Schauspiele der englischen Komoedianten. Stuttgart,
+1889.
+
+Delius, N. Saemmtliche Werke, Kritische Ausgabe. 1854-1861. 5th ed.,
+1882.
+
+Elze, K. William Shakespeare. Halle, 1876.
+
+Genee, R. Geschichte der Shakespeareschen Dramen in Deutschland.
+Leipzig, 1870.
+
+Guizot, F. De Shakespeare et de la Poesie dramatique. Paris, 1822.
+
+Heine, H. Shakespeares Maedchen und Frauen, in saemmtliche Werke. vol. v,
+1839. Eng. trans., 1895.
+
+Hugo, F. V. [OE]uvres completes de Shakespeare, traduites. 18 vols.
+Paris, 1856-1867.
+
+Hugo, Victor. Cromwell, Preface. Paris, 1827.
+
+---- William Shakespeare. Paris, 1864.
+
+Jusserand, J. J. Shakespeare en France sous l'ancien regime. Paris,
+1898. Eng. trans. London, 1899.
+
+Koeppel, E. Studien ueber Shakespeare's Wirkung auf zeitgenoessische
+Dramatiker. Louvain, 1905.
+
+Kreyssig, F. Vorlesungen ueber Shakespeare und seine Werke. 1858. 3d ed.,
+1877.
+
+Lee, Sidney. Shakespeare in France. In Shakespeare and the Modern Stage.
+
+Lessing, G. E. Hamburgische Dramaturgie. Nos. 12, 15, 73. 1767, 1768.
+
+Lounsbury, T. R. Shakespeare and Voltaire. 1902.
+
+Mezieres, A. Shakespeare, ses [oe]uvres et ses critiques. Paris, 1860.
+
+Renan, E. Caliban, Suite de la Tempete. Paris, 1878.
+
+Schlegel, A. W. Ueber dramatische Kunst und Literatur. Heidelberg,
+1809-1811.
+
+---- Shakespeare's Dramatische Werke, uebersetzt. 1797-1810. Neue
+Ausgabe, ergaenzt und erlaeutert von L. Tieck. 9 vols. 1825, 1880-1883.
+Revised by Ulrici, 1867-1871, by Grandl, 1897-1899, by H. Conrad, 1905.
+
+Stendhal (Henri Bergh) Racine et Shakespeare. Paris, 1823.
+
+Taine, H. Histoire de la litterature anglaise. Paris, 1844. Eng. trans.,
+rev. ed., 1873.
+
+Ten Brink, B. Shakespeare. Strassburg, 1893.
+
+Tolstoi, L. N. Shakespeare. 1906.
+
+Ward, A. W. History of English Dramatic Literature. vol. i, pp. 534
+ff.
+
+
+
+
+Index
+
+
+[Page Heading: Index]
+
+_Adversaria_, 45.
+
+_AEsop's Fables_, 52.
+
+_AEthiopica_ of Heliodorus, 56.
+
+Albright, V. E., 116, 122.
+
+_Alchemist_, 33, 95, 105.
+
+Alden, R. M., 48, 88.
+
+Alleyn, Edward, 117, 119, 120.
+
+_All for Love_, 169.
+
+_All's Well that Ends Well_, 52, 57, 73, 74, 82, 174.
+
+_Amores_, 53.
+
+_Amphitruo_, 54.
+
+_Andria_, 96.
+
+_Antonio's Revenge_, 106.
+
+_Antony and Cleopatra_, 75, 82, 105, 142, 169, 196, 197.
+
+_Apollonius of Tyre_, 60.
+
+_Apologie for Actors_, 156.
+
+_Apolonius and Silla_, 58.
+
+_Appius and Virginia_, 98.
+
+_Arcadia_, 61.
+
+Archbishop of Canterbury, 136.
+
+_Arden of Feversham_, 109, 161, 162.
+
+Ariosto, 57, 58, 95.
+
+Aristophanes, 91, 104.
+
+_Arraignment of Paris_, 161.
+
+Aspley, William, 143.
+
+_As You Like It_, 46, 52, 57, 62, 68, 73, 80, 113, 127, 136, 174.
+
+Aubrey, John, 38, 39, 43, 44.
+
+Autographs, facsimiles of, 36.
+
+
+Bacon, Delia, 163.
+
+Bacon, Francis, 2, 13, 16, 61, 163-166, 191, 192.
+
+Bacon, Matthew, 26.
+
+"Baconians," 163-166.
+
+Bandello, 57, 58.
+
+Bankside, 7, 117, 120.
+
+Barnay, L., 184.
+
+Barnes, Barnabe, 61.
+
+_Barons' Wars_, 62.
+
+Barrie, J. M., 177.
+
+_Bartholomew Fair_, 105.
+
+_Batman upon Bartholome_, 64.
+
+Beaumont and Fletcher, 64, 91, 109, 110, 112, 113, 168.
+
+Beaumont, Francis, 31, 110.
+  _See_ Beaumont and Fletcher.
+
+Belleforest, 57.
+
+Beeston, Christopher, 29, 39.
+
+Betterton, Thomas, 43, 130, 169, 174.
+
+_Bevis of Hampton_, 59.
+
+Bible, the, 1, 64.
+
+Bidford, 40, 41.
+
+_Bi-Literal Cypher of Francis Bacon_, 164.
+
+_Biron_, 108.
+
+_Birth of Merlin_, 161.
+
+Blackfriars,
+  property in, 26;
+  theater, 12, 26, 32, 118, 120, 159.
+
+Blount, Edward, 143.
+
+Boccaccio, 57, 96.
+
+Booth, Barton, 174.
+
+Booth, Edwin, 176, 177.
+
+Booth, Junius Brutus, 176.
+
+Boswell, J., 152.
+
+Bowdler, T., 153.
+
+Bradley, A. C., 5, 181.
+
+_Broken Heart_, 112.
+
+Brome, R., 112.
+
+Brooke, Arthur, 60.
+
+Buckinghamshire, Duke of, 44.
+
+Burbage, Cuthbert, 32, 117, 118, 119.
+
+Burbage, James, 117.
+
+Burbage, Richard, 24, 29, 32, 34, 44, 117, 118, 119, 124, 130.
+
+_Bussy d'Ambois_, 108.
+
+Byron, Lord, 191.
+
+
+Caesar, Julius 55, 124.
+
+_Cambridge Shakespeare_, 153, 154, 155.
+
+_Cambyses_, 63, 92, 98.
+
+Capell, Edward, 151, 161.
+
+_Cardenio_, 160.
+
+Cartwright, W., 112.
+
+_Catiline_, 33, 108.
+
+Caxton, 60.
+
+_Chambers' Journal_, 163.
+
+Chandos portrait, 38.
+
+_Changeling_, 111.
+
+Chapman, George, 31, 56, 91, 103, 105, 108.
+
+Chaucer, 31, 53, 60.
+
+Chettle, Henry, 22, 23, 103, 107.
+
+Cibber, Colley, 130, 169, 174.
+
+Cibber, Mrs., 174.
+
+Cicero, 52.
+
+Cinthio, Giraldi, 57, 58.
+
+_City Madam_, 112.
+
+Clark, W. G., 154.
+
+Clive, Mrs., 174.
+
+Cockpit theater, 39, 118.
+
+Coleridge, S. T., 159, 175, 179, 180, 182.
+
+_Colin Clout_, 61.
+
+Collier, J. P., 153, 163.
+
+Collins, Francis, 35.
+
+Combe, John, 25, 26, 40.
+
+Combe, William, 25.
+
+_Comedy of Errors_, 54, 68, 74, 78, 95.
+
+Condell Henry, 29, 32, 35, 142, 157.
+
+_Confessio Amantis_, 60.
+
+Congreve, William, 111.
+
+Constable, Henry, 61.
+
+_Contention of York and Lancaster_, 161.
+
+_Coriolanus_, 52, 82, 169.
+
+Corneille, 182.
+
+_Cornelia_, 99.
+
+Covent Garden theater, 118.
+
+Craig, W. J., 154.
+
+Curtain theater, 117, 122.
+
+Cushman, Charlotte, 176.
+
+_Cymbeline_, 57, 63, 68, 73, 110, 169, 174.
+
+
+Daniel, Samuel, 61, 62, 113.
+
+D'Avenant, Sir William, 43, 44, 45, 112, 168.
+
+Davies, Rev. R., 41.
+
+_Decameron_, 57.
+
+Dekker, T., 31, 103, 104, 105, 109, 111.
+
+_De la Litterature_, 185.
+
+Delius, N., 153, 154, 172.
+
+Dennis, John, 177.
+
+_De proprietatibus rerum_, 64.
+
+De Quincey, T., 159.
+
+Derby's men, 120.
+
+Devrients, the, 184.
+
+De Witt drawing of Swan theater, 120, 121.
+
+_Diana_ of Montemayor, 58.
+
+Diderot, D., 184.
+
+_Discovery of Guiana_, 64.
+
+_Distichs of Cato_, 52.
+
+Donnelly, I., 164.
+
+_Double Falsehood_, 160, 162.
+
+Dowdall, John, 42.
+
+Dowden, E., 84, 181.
+
+Downes, John, 43.
+
+_Downfall and Death of Huntington_, 103.
+
+Drake, Sir F., 96.
+
+Drayton, Michael, 40, 61.
+
+Droeshout, Martin, 37, 38 n.
+
+Drummond, W., 46.
+
+Drury Lane theater, 118, 175.
+
+Dryden, John, 111, 168, 169, 170, 182, 190, 192.
+
+Ducis, J. F., 185.
+
+_Dunciad_, 149.
+
+Dyce, A., 153, 155, 161, 172.
+
+Dyke, John, 29.
+
+
+Earl of Leicester's men, 119, 120.
+
+Earl of Worcester's men, 119.
+
+Eden's _History of Travayle_, 64.
+
+_Edward III_, 161, 162.
+
+Edwards, Richard, 60.
+
+Edwards, T., 150.
+
+Elizabeth, Queen, 1, 2, 9, 10, 11, 32, 79, 119, 133.
+
+Ellesmere, Lord, 163.
+
+Ely Palace portrait, 37, 38 n.
+
+_English Dramatic Poets_, 38.
+
+_English Traveller_, quoted, 133.
+
+_Epicene_, 95.
+
+_Essay of Dramatic Poesie_, 168.
+
+Essex, Earl of, 68, 124.
+
+_Euphues_, 62.
+
+Euripides, 90, 91.
+
+Evans, Sir Hugh, 51.
+
+_Everyman in His Humour_, 39, 103.
+
+
+Fables in Shakespeare, 52.
+
+Fabyan's _Chronicles_, 63.
+
+_Faerie Queen_, 61.
+
+_Fair Em_, 161.
+
+_Fair Quarrel_, 111.
+
+_Faithful Shepherdess_, 113.
+
+_Fasti_, 53.
+
+Faucit, Helen, 176.
+
+Field, Richard, 23.
+
+First Folio, 167;
+  described, 141-143;
+  facsimile of title-page, 143;
+  introductory matter in, _see_ APPENDIX A.
+
+Fisher Quarto, 141 n.
+
+Fleay, F. G., 72 n, 172.
+
+Fletcher, John, 9, 91, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 168, 177, 191;
+  collaboration on _Two Noble Kinsman_, 159, 160.
+  _See_ Beaumont and Fletcher.
+
+Fletcher, Lawrence, 32.
+
+Florio, John, 57.
+  _See_ Montaigne.
+
+Flower, Mrs. Charles, 37.
+
+Folios, Second, Third, Fourth, 145, 157.
+
+Ford, John, 91, 109, 112, 113.
+
+Forman, Dr. Simon, 68.
+
+Forrest, Edwin, 176.
+
+Fortune theater, 11, 117, 119, 121, 122;
+  diagram of, 123.
+
+Foxe, John, _Book of Martyrs_, 63.
+
+_Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay_, 97.
+
+Fuller, Thomas, 38.
+
+Fulman, Rev. W., 41.
+
+Furness, H. H., 144, 154, 159.
+
+
+Galileo, 191.
+
+Gallup, Mrs., 164.
+
+_Gammer Gurton's Needle_, 94.
+
+Garrick Club bust, 38.
+
+Garrick, David, 130, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177.
+
+Gascoigne, George, 5, 58, 63.
+
+Gervinus, 180.
+
+_Gesta Romanorum_, 57.
+
+Getley, Walter, 25.
+
+Gildon, C., 146.
+
+Goethe, 179, 180, 183, 190.
+
+_Globe Shakespeare_, 154.
+
+Globe theater, 11, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 124, 177.
+
+Glover, J., 154.
+
+Golding, Arthur, 53.
+
+_Gorboduc_, 98.
+
+Gottsched, J. C., 182.
+
+Gower, 31.
+
+Grafton's _Chronicles_, 63.
+
+_Great Cryptogram_, 164.
+
+Greene, Robert, 62, 63, 90, 96, 97, 101, 102, 158;
+  attack on S., 20-23.
+
+_Greene's Funeralls_, 21, 22.
+
+Greene's _Groatsworth of Wit_, 20-22.
+
+Greg, W. W., 140 n.
+
+Gresham, Sir Thomas, 10.
+
+Grey, Z., 150.
+
+Guarini, G. B., 113.
+
+Guizot, F., 185.
+
+_Guy of Warwick_, 59.
+
+
+Hakluyt, Richard, 64.
+
+Hall, John, 25, 34.
+
+Hall, Susanna, 25, 34.
+
+Hall, William, 35, 42.
+
+Halliwell-Phillipps, J. O., 153, 181.
+
+Hall's _Union of Lancaster and York_, 63, 101.
+
+_Hamburgische Dramaturgie_, 182.
+
+_Hamlet_, 43, 45, 47, 49, 54, 63, 73, 75, 81, 87, 100, 106, 107, 119,
+    135, 136, 137, 145, 169, 184, 185.
+
+_Hamlet_, the lost, 100, 106, 107.
+
+Hanmer, Sir T., 149, 150.
+
+Harness, W., 153.
+
+Harsnett's _Popish Impostures_, 62.
+
+Hart, J. C., 163.
+
+Hazlitt, William, 175, 179, 180.
+
+Heath, B., 150.
+
+_Hecatommithi_, 58.
+
+Heliodorus, 56.
+
+Heminge, John, 29, 32, 35, 142, 157.
+
+Henderson, J., 175.
+
+_1 Henry IV_, 30, 62, 73, 137.
+
+_2 Henry IV_, 30, 62, 69.
+
+_Henry V_, 52, 56, 63, 68, 79, 135, 136, 149.
+
+_1 Henry VI_, 63, 77, 102, 120, 141, 157.
+
+_2 Henry VI_, 52, 54, 63, 77, 99, 102, 141, 157, 161.
+
+_3 Henry VI_, 21, 63, 77, 99, 102, 157, 161, 169.
+
+_Henry VIII_, 34, 63, 74, 124, 157, 160, 162.
+
+Henry VIII, 10, 11, 43, 79.
+
+Henryson, Robert, 60.
+
+Henslowe, P., 117, 119.
+
+Herder, J. G., 183.
+
+_Hero and Leander_, 62.
+
+Heyes Quarto, 141 n.
+
+Heywood, Thomas, 31, 95, 105, 111, 131;
+  quoted in publishing, 132-134, 135, 156.
+
+_History of English Dramatic Poetry_, 163.
+
+_Hoffman_, 107.
+
+Hollar, W., 120.
+
+Hollinshed's _Chronicles_, 63, 65, 101.
+
+Homer, 56, 96, 187, 194.
+
+_Honest Whore_, 105.
+
+Hooker, Richard, 2, 61.
+
+Hope theater, 117, 119.
+
+Horace, 51, 54.
+
+_Horestes_, 98.
+
+Hugo, F. V., 185.
+
+Hugo, Victor, 185.
+
+Hunsdon's men, 120.
+
+_Huon of Bordeaux_, 59.
+
+
+Ibsen, H., 177.
+
+_If you know not me you know nobodie_, quoted, 133, 134.
+
+Ingram, J. K., 72 n.
+
+Ireland, W. H., 162, 163.
+
+Irving, Sir Henry, 176.
+
+
+Jacob, E., 161.
+
+Jaggard, Isaac, 143.
+
+Jaggard, William, 140 n, 143, 156.
+
+James I, 9, 12, 32, 44, 69, 119, 120.
+
+_James IV_, 98.
+
+Janssen, Gerard, 37.
+
+_Jocasta_, 98.
+
+Johnson, Samuel, 150, 151, 152, 178, 179, 182.
+
+John, King, 78.
+
+Jonson, Ben, 13, 29, 30, 31, 33, 39, 40, 45, 46, 50, 63, 91, 95, 103,
+    105, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 114, 131, 182, 190;
+  eulogy of S., 167, 168.
+
+Jordan's _Collections_, 162.
+
+Jordan, Mrs., 175.
+
+_Julius Caesar_, 81, 105, 108, 169, 182.
+
+Jusserand, J. J., 185.
+
+Juvenal, 54.
+
+
+Kean, Edmund, 175.
+
+Kemble, J. P., 162, 175.
+
+Kempe, Will., 24.
+
+Kendrick, 152.
+
+Kesselstadt, death-mask, 38.
+
+_Kind-Heart's Dream_, 22.
+
+_King and No King_, 109.
+
+_King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid_, 59.
+
+_King John_, 30, 52, 63, 78, 141, 161.
+
+King's men, 120.
+
+Kipling, Rudyard, 51.
+
+Kirkman's _Drolls_, 120.
+
+Knight, Charles, 153, 154.
+
+_Knight's Tale_, 60.
+
+Koenig, G., 72 n, 75.
+
+Kyd, Thomas, 63, 90, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 105, 106, 107, 158, 167.
+
+
+Lacy, John, 39.
+
+Lamb, Charles, 159, 175, 179.
+
+Langbaine, G., 38.
+
+La Place's translation, 184.
+
+_Lear_, 47, 49, 61, 62, 63, 75, 81, 85, 99, 114, 135, 140, 140 n, 169.
+
+Lee, Sidney, 181.
+
+_Legend of Good Women_, 60.
+
+Leicester, Earl of, 5, 119.
+
+Lessing, G. E., 182.
+
+Le Tourneur, P., 184, 185.
+
+Lily's Grammar, 51, 54.
+
+Littledale, H., 159.
+
+_Lives of eminent men_, 38.
+
+Livy, 55, 60.
+
+_Locrine_, 100, 157, 158.
+
+Lodge, Thomas, 62.
+
+_Londinopolis_, 120.
+
+London, described, 6-12.
+
+_London Prodigal_, 157, 158.
+
+Lope de Vega, 95.
+
+Lord Admiral's men, 119, 120.
+
+Lord Chamberlain's men, 120.
+
+_Lover's Complaint, A_, 62, 156.
+
+_Love's Labour's Lost_, 29, 30, 51, 52, 74, 78, 88, 97, 137, 156, 189.
+
+_Love's Labour's Won_, 30.
+
+Lowin, John, 43, 130.
+
+Lucan, 55.
+
+Lucian, 56.
+
+_Lucrece_, 23, 29, 30, 53, 54, 62, 87, 131.
+
+Lucy, Sir T., 41.
+
+Lyly, John, 63, 90, 95, 96, 97, 102, 113, 167.
+
+
+_Macbeth_, 68, 74, 75, 81, 99, 169, 174, 183, 185.
+
+Macklin, C., 175.
+
+Macready, W., 176.
+
+_Maid's Tragedy_, 109.
+
+_Malcontent_, 104;
+  quoted, 134.
+
+Malone, Edmund, 152, 163, 172.
+
+Malory, Sir T., 96.
+
+Mannering, Arthur, 26.
+
+Manningham, John, 44.
+
+Mantuan's _Eclogues_, 52.
+
+Marlowe, Christopher, 13, 16, 62, 63, 68, 72, 90, 98, 99, 101, 102, 104,
+    105, 106, 158, 167, 177.
+
+Marlowe, Julia, 176.
+
+Marston, J., 103, 104, 106, 107, 134.
+
+Mason, J. M., 152.
+
+_Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn_, 160.
+
+Massinger, Philip, 91, 92, 111, 112, 168.
+
+Matthews, Sir T., 165.
+
+_Measure for Measure_, 58, 63, 82, 83, 104.
+
+_Memoirs of Edward Alleyn_, 163.
+
+Mennes, Sir John, 41.
+
+_Menaechmi_, 54.
+
+_Merchant of Venice_, 30, 57, 58, 80, 85, 99, 137, 140 n, 174, 184.
+
+Meres,  Francis,  _Palladis Tamia_, 27, 68.
+
+_Merry Devil of Edmonton_, 161.
+
+_Merry Wives of Windsor_, 51, 58, 60, 73, 80, 95, 135, 136, 140 n, 169.
+
+_Messalina_, 120, 121, 122.
+
+_Metamorphoses_, 53.
+
+Mezieres, A., 185.
+
+Middleton, Sir Hugh, 10.
+
+Middleton, T., 103, 104, 107, 109.
+
+_Midsummer Night's Dream_, 30, 40, 53, 58, 59, 60, 61, 73, 80, 97, 124,
+    137, 140 n, 184.
+
+Milton, John, 114, 168, 194.
+
+Miracle plays, 5, 93.
+
+_Miseries of Enforced Marriage_, 159.
+
+_Misfortunes of Arthur_, 98.
+
+Moliere, 91, 95.
+
+Montagu, Mrs. Elizabeth, 178.
+
+Montaigne, 56.
+
+Montemayor, George of, 58.
+
+Morality plays, 93, 94.
+
+More, Sir Thomas, life of, 17.
+
+Morgann, M., 179.
+
+_Mother Bombie_, 95, 97.
+
+Mountjoy, Christopher, 27.
+
+_Much Ado About Nothing_, 51, 57, 80, 137, 148, 174.
+
+_Mucedorus_, 103, 161.
+
+Munday, A., 95, 103.
+
+Music, Shakespeare in, 186.
+
+
+Neidig, W. J., 140 n.
+
+Neilson Text, 154.
+
+Newcastle, Duchess of, 168.
+
+Newington Butts theater, 120.
+
+_New Variorum_, 144, 154.
+
+_New Way to Pay Old Debts_, 112.
+
+_Nice Wanton_, 92.
+
+North, Sir Thomas, 56.
+  _See_ Plutarch.
+
+
+_Oldcastle, Sir John_, 140 n.
+
+_Old Fortunatus_, 103.
+
+Oldys, William, 45.
+
+_Othello_, 58, 64, 75, 81, 85, 99, 114, 169, 170, 184, 185, 195.
+
+Otway, T., 169.
+
+Ovid, 53, 60, 65, 87, 96.
+
+_Oxford Shakespeare_, 154.
+
+
+_Painful Adventures of Pericles_, 159.
+
+Painter's _Palace of Pleasure_, 57, 61.
+
+Palmer, J., 175.
+
+_Palladis Tamia_, 29, 30, 68.
+
+_Pandosto_, 62.
+
+_Passionate Pilgrim_, 30, 156.
+
+_Pastor Fido_, 113.
+
+Pavier, T., 140 n.
+
+_Pecorone, Il._, 58.
+
+Peele, George, 63, 90, 113, 158.
+
+_Pericles_, 60, 75, 83, 114, 135, 136, 140, 140 n, 145, 148, 151, 157, 158.
+
+Persius, 54.
+
+Petrarch, 58.
+
+Phelps, S., 176.
+
+_Philaster_, 109, 110, 113.
+
+Philip, Augustus, 29, 32.
+
+Phillips, Edward, 38.
+
+_Philosophy of the Plays of S._, 163.
+
+_Ph[oe]nix and the Turtle_, 156.
+
+_Piacevoli Notti_, 58.
+
+Plautus, 54, 93, 95.
+
+_Pleasant Dialogues and Dramas_, 133.
+
+Pliny, 55, 64.
+
+Plume, Archdeacon, 41.
+
+_Plutarch's Lives_, 52, 55, 56.
+
+_Poetaster_, 104.
+
+Pollard, A. W., 140 n.
+
+Pope, Alexander, 144, 147, 148, 149, 158.
+
+Pope, Thomas, 29.
+
+Preston, T., 63.
+
+Pritchard, Mrs., 174.
+
+Prince's men, 119.
+
+_Puritan, the_ 158.
+
+_Puritan Widow_, 157.
+
+_Putnam's Monthly_, 163.
+
+
+Quartos, 135-140;
+  table of, 138, 139;
+  of apocryphal plays, 158.
+
+_Queen's Arcadia_, 113.
+
+Queen's Chapel boys, 118.
+
+Queen's men, 119.
+
+Quiney, Richard, 28.
+
+Quiney, Thomas, son-in-law of S., 28.
+
+
+Rabelais, 57.
+
+Racine, 91, 182.
+
+Raleigh, Sir Walter, 13, 16, 64.
+
+_Ralph Royster Doyster_, 95.
+
+_Rape of Lucrece_, quoted, 132.
+
+_Recuyell of Troy_, 60.
+
+Red Bull theater, 117, 120.
+
+Reed, I., 152.
+
+Rehan, Ada, 176.
+
+_Return from Parnassus_, 30.
+
+_Revenger's Tragedy_, 107.
+
+_Richard II_, 29, 36, 52, 62, 79, 99, 106, 169.
+
+_Richard III_, 36, 54, 63, 77, 99, 102, 135, 140, 154, 169.
+
+Riche, Barnaby, 58, 61.
+
+Ristori, Madame, 185.
+
+Ritson, T., 152.
+
+Roberts Quartos, 140 n, 141 n.
+
+Robertson, Sir Forbes, 176.
+
+Robin Hood, 159.
+
+Robin Hood plays, 103.
+
+_Romance of Yachting_, 163.
+
+_Romeo and Juliet_, 30, 60, 73, 74, 77, 106, 135, 136, 137, 169, 174,
+    182, 183, 195.
+
+_Romeus and Juliet_, 60.
+
+Ronsard, 57.
+
+_Rosalynde_, 62.
+
+_Rosamond_, 62.
+
+Rose theater, 117, 119, 120.
+
+Rossi, 185.
+
+Rowe, Nicholas, 42, 43, 45, 146, 147, 158, 172.
+
+Rowley, W., 111.
+
+_Roxana_, 120, 121.
+
+Rutland, Earl of, 164.
+
+Rymer, T., 170.
+
+
+Sadler's Wells, 176.
+
+Salisbury Court theater, 118.
+
+Salvini, T., 185.
+
+Sanazzaro, 96.
+
+Schlegel, A. W., 180, 183.
+
+Schmidt's _Lexicon_, 183.
+
+Schroeder, F., 184.
+
+Scott, Sir Walter, 191.
+
+_Sejanus_, 33, 108.
+
+Seneca, 54, 93, 99, 100, 105.
+
+_Sententiae Pueriles_, 52.
+
+Shakespeare, Anna, 18.
+
+Shakespeare, Anne (Hathaway), 19.
+
+Shakespeare, Edmund, 18.
+
+Shakespeare, Gilbert, 18, 46.
+
+Shakespeare, Hamnet, 20, 85.
+
+Shakespeare, Joan, 18.
+
+Shakespeare, John, 4, 5, 18, 24, 40, 41.
+
+Shakespeare, Judith, 20, 35.
+
+Shakespeare, Mary Arden, 18, 24, 35.
+
+Shakespeare, Richard, 18.
+
+Shakespeare, Susanna, 25, 34.
+
+Shakespeare, William. _See_ CONTENTS.
+  Monument of, frontispiece;
+  facsimile autographs of, 36;
+  portrait of in First Folio, 143.
+
+_Shakespeare and the Drama_, Schlegel's, 183.
+
+_Shakespeare Restored_, 148.
+
+Shakespeare Society, New, 160.
+
+Shaw, G. B., 177.
+
+Shelley, P. B. 191.
+
+Sheridan, T., 162.
+
+Shirley, James, 91, 92, 112, 113.
+
+Shirley, Sir A., 164.
+
+_Short View of Tragedy_, 170.
+
+Siddons, Mrs. Sarah, 175, 177.
+
+Sidney, Sir Philip, 13, 16, 61.
+
+Simpson, R., 161.
+
+Singer, S. W., 153.
+
+_Sir Thomas More_, 161, 162.
+
+_Sir Thomas Oldcastle_, 157, 158.
+
+Slye, William, 29.
+
+Smethwick, John, 143.
+
+Smith, W. H., 163.
+
+_Soliman and Perseda_, 100.
+
+Somers, Sir George, 68.
+
+_Sonnets_, 57, 58;
+  date of, 87, 156;
+  evidence of, 47-49;
+  personality in, 189, 190.
+
+Sophocles, 184.
+
+Sothern, Edward, 176.
+
+Southampton, Earl of, 23, 47.
+
+Southwell, T., 166.
+
+Spalding, William, 159.
+
+Spenser, Edmund, 2, 16, 61, 178.
+
+_Spanish Tragedy_, 99, 100, 106, 107.
+
+_Squire of Low Degree_, 59.
+
+St. Paul's, 7, 8, 90, 118, 159.
+
+Stael, Madame de, 185.
+
+Stage, typical Shakespearean, illustration, 116.
+
+Stationers' Company, 68, 135, 136.
+
+Steevens, G., 151, 152.
+
+Stowe, John, _Annals_, 63.
+
+Strange's men, 120.
+
+Stratford, described, 4, 6;
+  Shakespeare at, 18-35.
+
+Sturley, Abraham, 28.
+
+Suckling, Sir John, 112, 168.
+
+_Supposoti, I_, 58, 95.
+
+Surrey, Earl of, 13.
+
+Swan theater, 117, 119, 120.
+
+
+Tables of metrical tests, 71, 72;
+  of chronology of plays, 76;
+  of quarto editions, 138, 139.
+
+_Tamburlaine_, 98.
+
+_Taming of a Shrew_, 161.
+
+_Taming of the Shrew_, 51, 58, 60, 63, 80, 85, 141, 184.
+
+Taylor, Joseph, 43, 130.
+
+_Tears of the Muses_, 61.
+
+_Tempest, The_, 53, 57, 64, 68, 73, 74, 83, 110, 114, 169, 189.
+
+Tennyson, A., 190.
+
+Terence, 51, 54, 93, 95, 96.
+
+Terry, Ellen, 176.
+
+_Testament of Cressid_, 60.
+
+Theater, in Shoreditch, 117, 118, 119, 120.
+
+_Theatrum Poetarum_, 38
+
+Theobald L., 148, 149, 150, 162.
+
+Theocritus, 96.
+
+_Thomas Lord Cromwell_, 157, 158.
+
+Thorpe, Thomas, 47.
+
+Tieck, L., 183.
+
+_Timber_, 46.
+
+_Timon of Athens_, 56, 157, 169.
+
+_'Tis Pity She's a Whore_, 112.
+
+_Titus Andronicus_, 30, 51, 53, 54, 77, 100, 140, 157, 158, 169.
+
+Tourgenieff, 194.
+
+Tourneur, C., 107, 112.
+
+Troilus and Cressida, 56, 60, 82, 104, 114, 169.
+
+_Troilus and Cressida_, (Chaucer's), 60.
+
+_Troublesome Reign of King John_, 161.
+
+_True Tragedy of Richard III_, 100.
+
+_True Tragedy of Richard Duke of York_, 21, 161.
+
+_Tudor Shakespeare_, 38 n, 154, 161.
+
+_Twelfth Night_, 51, 56, 57, 58, 73, 80, 114, 120, 146, 174.
+
+_Two Gentlemen of Verona_, 30, 58, 78, 98.
+
+_Two Italian Gentlemen_, 95.
+
+_Two Noble Kinsmen, The_, 34, 60, 110, 157, 159, 160, 162, 169.
+
+Tyrwhitt, T., 152.
+
+
+Udall, N., 95.
+
+Ulrici, 180.
+
+Upton, J., 150.
+
+
+_Venus and Adonis_, 23, 29, 30, 53, 62, 87, 131.
+
+Virgil, 53, 96.
+
+_Volpone_, 33, 105.
+
+Voltaire, 178, 184, 185.
+
+_Vortigern_, 162.
+
+
+Wagner, C., 152.
+
+Walker, Henry, 26.
+
+Walker, Sidney, 172.
+
+Wallace, C. W., 26, 27.
+
+Walton's _Lives_, 17.
+
+Warburton, W., 150.
+
+Ward, Rev. J., 40.
+
+Ward, W. A., 172
+
+Warner, Mrs., 176.
+
+Watson, Thomas, 61.
+
+Webster, John, 31, 91, 104, 107, 109, 111, 112.
+
+Weever, John, 30.
+
+Whetstone, George, 58, 60, 63.
+
+_White Devil_ 31, 107.
+
+White, R. G., 153, 172.
+
+Wieland, 183.
+
+_Wilhelm Meister_, 183.
+
+Wilson, Robert, 94.
+
+Winchester, Bishop of, 7.
+
+_Winter's Tale_, 62, 85, 110, 174.
+
+_Wise Woman of Hogsdon_, 95.
+
+Wolsey, life of, 17.
+
+_Woman Killed with Kindness_, 105.
+
+Wood, Anthony, 43.
+
+Wordsworth, 191.
+
+_Worthies of England_, 38.
+
+Wright, W. A., 154, 172.
+
+Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 13.
+
+Wycherley, W., 111.
+
+
+_Yorkshire Tragedy_, 128, 140 n, 157, 158, 159.
+
+
+
+Printed in the United States of America.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Endnotes
+
+
+Corrections:
+
+    Page 41. Chapter II. "certains" corrected to _certain_.
+      "... contains certain notes made before 1688 by the ..."
+
+    Page 72. Table 2. "LINES" corrected to _LINE_.
+      "... ENDING WITHIN THE LINE ..."
+
+    Page 89. Chapter V. "comedy These" corrected to _comedy. These_.
+      "... of classical tragedy and comedy. These new forms ..."
+
+    Page 234. Appendix B. "St. Alban's" corrected to _St. Albans_.
+      "... Mayor of St. Albans. 2H6. II. i."
+
+    Page 265. Index entry. "Bi-Lateral" corrected to _Bi-Literal_.
+      "... Bi-Literal Cypher of Francis Bacon ..."
+
+    Page 268. Index Hamlet entry. "160" corrected to _106_.
+      "... 87, 100, 106, 107, 119 ..."
+
+
+Re-sequenced Index entries:
+
+    First Folio, described, 141-143; facsimile of title-page, 143; 167;
+    introductory matter in, _see_ Appendix A.
+
+    Fletcher, John, 9, 91, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114; collaboration on
+    _Two Noble Kinsman_, 159, 160; 168, 177, 191. _See_ Beaumont and
+    Fletcher.
+
+    Florio, John. _See_ Montaigne, 57.
+
+    Greene, Robert, attack on S., 20-23: 62, 63, 90, 96, 97, 101, 102,
+    158.
+
+    Jonson, Ben, 13, 29, 30, 31, 33, 39, 40, 45, 46, 50, 63, 91, 95,
+    103, 105, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 114, 131; eulogy of S., 167, 168;
+    182, 190.
+
+    _Sonnets_, evidence of, 47-49; 57, 58; date of, 87, 156; personality
+    in, 189, 190.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Facts About Shakespeare, by
+William Allan Nielson and Ashley Horace Thorndike
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