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diff --git a/2176-h/2176-h.htm b/2176-h/2176-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..09766cf --- /dev/null +++ b/2176-h/2176-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3894 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=US-ASCII" /> +<title>Seven Discourses on Art</title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + P { margin-top: .75em; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + H1, H2 { + text-align: center; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + } + H3, H4 { + text-align: left; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + } + BODY{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + .blkquot {margin-left: 4em; margin-right: 4em;} /* block indent */ + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h2> +<a href="#startoftext">Seven Discourses on Art, by Joshua Reynolds</a> +</h2> +<pre> +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Seven Discourses on Art, by Joshua Reynolds, +Edited by Henry Morley + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Seven Discourses on Art + + +Author: Joshua Reynolds + +Release Date: May 8, 2005 [eBook #2176] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SEVEN DISCOURSES ON ART*** +</pre> +<p><a name="startoftext"></a></p> +<p>Transcribed from the 1901 Cassell and Company edition by David Price, +email ccx074@coventry.ac.uk. Proofing by David, Dawn Smith, Uzma, +Jane Foster, Juliana Rew, Marie Rhoden and Jo Osment.</p> +<h1>SEVEN DISCOURSES ON ART<br /> +by Joshua Reyonds</h1> +<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2> +<p>It is a happy memory that associates the foundation of our Royal +Academy with the delivery of these inaugural discourses by Sir Joshua +Reynolds, on the opening of the schools, and at the first annual meetings +for the distribution of its prizes. They laid down principles +of art from the point of view of a man of genius who had made his power +felt, and with the clear good sense which is the foundation of all work +that looks upward and may hope to live. The truths here expressed +concerning Art may, with slight adjustment of the way of thought, be +applied to Literature or to any exercise of the best powers of mind +for shaping the delights that raise us to the larger sense of life. +In his separation of the utterance of whole truths from insistance upon +accidents of detail, Reynolds was right, because he guarded the expression +of his view with careful definitions of its limits. In the same +way Boileau was right, as a critic of Literature, in demanding everywhere +good sense, in condemning the paste brilliants of a style then in decay, +and fixing attention upon the masterly simplicity of Roman poets in +the time of Augustus. Critics by rule of thumb reduced the principles +clearly defined by Boileau to a dull convention, against which there +came in course of time a strong reaction. In like manner the teaching +of Reynolds was applied by dull men to much vague and conventional generalisation +in the name of dignity. Nevertheless, Reynolds taught essential +truths of Art. The principles laid down by him will never fail +to give strength to the right artist, or true guidance towards the appreciation +of good art, though here and there we may not wholly assent to some +passing application of them, where the difference may be great between +a fashion of thought in his time and in ours. A righteous enforcement +of exact truth in our day has led many into a readiness to appreciate +more really the minute imitation of a satin dress, or a red herring, +than the noblest figure in the best of Raffaelle’s cartoons. +Much good should come of the diffusion of this wise little book.</p> +<p>Joshua Reynolds was born on the 15th of July, 1723, the son of a +clergyman and schoolmaster, at Plympton in Devonshire. His bent +for Art was clear and strong from his childhood. In 1741 at the +age of nineteen, he began study, and studied for two yours in London +under Thomas Hudson, a successful portrait painter. Then he went +back to Devonshire and painted portraits, aided for some time in his +education by attention to the work of William Gandy of Exeter. +When twenty-six years old, in May, 1749, Reynolds was taken away by +Captain Keppel to the Mediterranean, and brought into contact with the +works of the great painters of Italy. He stayed two years in Rome, +and in accordance with the principles afterwards laid down in these +lectures, he refused, when in Rome, commissions for copying, and gave +his mind to minute observation of the art of the great masters by whose +works he was surrounded. He spent two months in Florence, six +weeks in Venice, a few days in Bologna and Parma. “If,” +he said, “I had never seen any of the fine works of Correggio, +I should never, perhaps, have remarked in Nature the expression which +I find in one of his pieces; or if I had remarked it, I might have thought +it too difficult, or perhaps impossible to execute.”</p> +<p>In 1753 Reynolds came back to England, and stayed three months in +Devonshire before setting up a studio in London, in St. Martin’s +Lane, which was then an artists’ quarter. His success was +rapid. In 1755 he had one hundred and twenty-five sitters. +Samuel Johnson found in him his most congenial friend. He moved +to Newport Street, and he built himself a studio—where there is +now an auction room—at 47, Lincoln’s Inn Fields. There +he remained for life.</p> +<p>In 1760 the artists opened, in a room lent by the Society of Arts, +a free Exhibition for the sale of their works. This was continued +the next year at Spring Gardens, with a charge of a shilling for admission. +In 1765 they obtained a charter of incorporation, and in 1768 the King +gave his support to the foundation of a Royal Academy of Arts by seceders +from the preceding “Incorporated Society of Artists,” into +which personal feelings had brought much division. It was to consist, +like the French Academy, of forty members, and was to maintain Schools +open to all students of good character who could give evidence that +they had fully learnt the rudiments of Art. The foundation by +the King dates from the 10th of December, 1768. The Schools were +opened on the 2nd of January next following, and on that occasion Joshua +Reynolds, who had been elected President—his age was then between +forty-five and forty-six—gave the Inaugural Address which formed +the first of these Seven Discourses. The other six were given +by him, as President, at the next six annual meetings: and they were +all shaped to form, when collected into a volume, a coherent body of +good counsel upon the foundations of the painter’s art.</p> +<p>H. M.</p> +<h2>TO THE KING</h2> +<p>The regular progress of cultivated life is from necessaries to accommodations, +from accommodations to ornaments. By your illustrious predecessors +were established marts for manufactures, and colleges for science; but +for the arts of elegance, those arts by which manufactures are embellished +and science is refined, to found an academy was reserved for your Majesty.</p> +<p>Had such patronage been without effect, there had been reason to +believe that nature had, by some insurmountable impediment, obstructed +our proficiency; but the annual improvement of the exhibitions which +your Majesty has been pleased to encourage shows that only encouragement +had been wanting.</p> +<p>To give advice to those who are contending for royal liberality has +been for some years the duty of my station in the Academy; and these +Discourses hope for your Majesty’s acceptance as well-intended +endeavours to incite that emulation which your notice has kindled, and +direct those studies which your bounty has rewarded.</p> +<p>May it please your Majesty,<br /> +Your Majesty’s<br /> +Most dutiful servant,<br /> +And most faithful subject,<br /> +JOSHUA REYNOLDS.</p> +<h2>TO THE MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY.</h2> +<p>Gentlemen,—That you have ordered the publication of this Discourse +is not only very flattering to me, as it implies your approbation of +the method of study which I have recommended; but likewise, as this +method receives from that act such an additional weight and authority +as demands from the students that deference and respect, which can be +due only to the united sense of so considerable a body of artists.</p> +<p>I am,<br /> +With the greatest esteem and respect,<br /> +GENTLEMEN,<br /> +Your most humble<br /> +And obedient servant,<br /> +JOSHUA REYNOLDS</p> +<h2>SEVEN DISCOURSES ON ART</h2> +<h3>A DISCOURSE<br /> +Delivered at the Opening of the Royal Academy, January 2nd, 1769, by +the President.</h3> +<p>Gentlemen,—An academy in which the polite arts may be regularly +cultivated is at last opened among us by royal munificence. This +must appear an event in the highest degree interesting, not only to +the artists, but to the whole nation.</p> +<p>It is indeed difficult to give any other reason why an Empire like +that of Britain should so long have wanted an ornament so suitable to +its greatness than that slow progression of things which naturally makes +elegance and refinement the last effect of opulence and power.</p> +<p>An institution like this has often been recommended upon considerations +merely mercantile. But an academy founded upon such principles +can never effect even its own narrow purposes. If it has an origin +no higher, no taste can ever be formed in it which can be useful even +in manufactures; but if the higher arts of design flourish, these inferior +ends will be answered of course.</p> +<p>We are happy in having a prince who has conceived the design of such +an institution, according to its true dignity, and promotes the arts, +as the head of a great, a learned, a polite, and a commercial nation; +and I can now congratulate you, gentlemen, on the accomplishment of +your long and ardent wishes.</p> +<p>The numberless and ineffectual consultations that I have had with +many in this assembly, to form plans and concert schemes for an academy, +afford a sufficient proof of the impossibility of succeeding but by +the influence of Majesty. But there have, perhaps, been times +when even the influence of Majesty would have been ineffectual, and +it is pleasing to reflect that we are thus embodied, when every circumstance +seems to concur from which honour and prosperity can probably arise.</p> +<p>There are at this time a greater number of excellent artists than +were ever known before at one period in this nation; there is a general +desire among our nobility to be distinguished as lovers and judges of +the arts; there is a greater superfluity of wealth among the people +to reward the professors; and, above all, we are patronised by a monarch, +who, knowing the value of science and of elegance, thinks every art +worthy of his notice that tends to soften and humanise the mind.</p> +<p>After so much has been done by his Majesty, it will be wholly our +fault if our progress is not in some degree correspondent to the wisdom +and, generosity of the institution; let us show our gratitude in our +diligence, that, though our merit may not answer his expectations, yet, +at least, our industry may deserve his protection.</p> +<p>But whatever may be our proportion of success, of this we may be +sure, that the present institution will at least contribute to advance +our knowledge of the arts, and bring us nearer to that ideal excellence +which it is the lot of genius always to contemplate and never to attain.</p> +<p>The principal advantage of an academy is, that, besides furnishing +able men to direct the student, it will be a repository for the great +examples of the art. These are the materials on which genius is +to work, and without which the strongest intellect may be fruitlessly +or deviously employed. By studying these authentic models, that +idea of excellence which is the result of the accumulated experience +of past ages may be at once acquired, and the tardy and obstructed progress +of our predecessors may teach us a shorter and easier way. The +student receives at one glance the principles which many artists have +spent their whole lives in ascertaining; and, satisfied with their effect, +is spared the painful investigation by which they come to be known and +fixed. How many men of great natural abilities have been lost +to this nation for want of these advantages? They never had an +opportunity of seeing those masterly efforts of genius which at once +kindle the whole soul, and force it into sudden and irresistible approbation.</p> +<p>Raffaelle, it is true, had not the advantage of studying in an academy; +but all Rome, and the works of Michael Angelo in particular, were to +him an academy. On the site of the Capel la Sistina he immediately +from a dry, Gothic, and even insipid manner, which attends to the minute +accidental discriminations of particular and individual objects, assumed +that grand style of painting, which improves partial representation +by the general and invariable ideas of nature.</p> +<p>Every seminary of learning may be said to be surrounded with an atmosphere +of floating knowledge, where every mind may imbibe somewhat congenial +to its own original conceptions. Knowledge, thus obtained, has +always something more popular and useful than that which is forced upon +the mind by private precepts or solitary meditation. Besides, +it is generally found that a youth more easily receives instruction +from the companions of his studies, whose minds are nearly on a level +with his own, than from those who are much his superiors; and it is +from his equals only that he catches the fire of emulation.</p> +<p>One advantage, I will venture to affirm, we shall have in our academy, +which no other nation can boast. We shall have nothing to unlearn. +To this praise the present race of artists have a just claim. +As far as they have yet proceeded they are right. With us the +exertions of genius will henceforward be directed to their proper objects. +It will not be as it has been in other schools, where he that travelled +fastest only wandered farthest from the right way.</p> +<p>Impressed as I am, therefore, with such a favourable opinion of my +associates in this undertaking, it would ill become me to dictate to +any of them. But as these institutions have so often failed in +other nations, and as it is natural to think with regret how much might +have been done, and how little has been done, I must take leave to offer +a few hints, by which those errors may be rectified, and those defects +supplied. These the professors and visitors may reject or adopt +as they shall think proper.</p> +<p>I would chiefly recommend that an implicit obedience to the rules +of art, as established by the great masters, should be exacted from +the <i>young</i> students. That those models, which have passed +through the approbation of ages, should be considered by them as perfect +and infallible guides as subjects for their imitation, not their criticism.</p> +<p>I am confident that this is the only efficacious method of making +a progress in the arts; and that he who sets out with doubting will +find life finished before he becomes master of the rudiments. +For it may be laid down as a maxim, that he who begins by presuming +on his own sense has ended his studies as soon as he has commenced them. +Every opportunity, therefore, should be taken to discountenance that +false and vulgar opinion that rules are the fetters of genius. +They are fetters only to men of no genius; as that armour, which upon +the strong becomes an ornament and a defence, upon the weak and misshapen +turns into a load, and cripples the body which it was made to protect.</p> +<p>How much liberty may be taken to break through those rules, and, +as the poet expresses it,</p> +<blockquote><p>“To snatch a grace beyond the reach of art,”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>may be an after consideration, when the pupils become masters themselves. +It is then, when their genius has received its utmost improvement, that +rules may possibly be dispensed with. But let us not destroy the +scaffold until we have raised the building.</p> +<p>The directors ought more particularly to watch over the genius of +those students who, being more advanced, are arrived at that critical +period of study, on the nice management of which their future turn of +taste depends. At that age it is natural for them to be more captivated +with what is brilliant than with what is solid, and to prefer splendid +negligence to painful and humiliating exactness.</p> +<p>A facility in composing, a lively, and what is called a masterly +handling the chalk or pencil, are, it must be confessed, captivating +qualities to young minds, and become of course the objects of their +ambition. They endeavour to imitate those dazzling excellences, +which they will find no great labour in attaining. After much +time spent in these frivolous pursuits, the difficulty will be to retreat; +but it will be then too late; and there is scarce an instance of return +to scrupulous labour after the mind has been debauched and deceived +by this fallacious mastery.</p> +<p>By this useless industry they are excluded from all power of advancing +in real excellence. Whilst boys, they are arrived at their utmost +perfection; they have taken the shadow for the substance; and make that +mechanical facility the chief excellence of the art, which is only an +ornament, and of the merit of which few but painters themselves are +judges.</p> +<p>This seems to me to be one of the most dangerous sources of corruption; +and I speak of it from experience, not as an error which may possibly +happen, but which has actually infected all foreign academies. +The directors were probably pleased with this premature dexterity in +their pupils, and praised their despatch at the expense of their correctness.</p> +<p>But young men have not only this frivolous ambition of being thought +masterly inciting them on one hand, but also their natural sloth tempting +them on the other. They are terrified at the prospect before them, +of the toil required to attain exactness. The impetuosity of youth +is distrusted at the slow approaches of a regular siege, and desires, +from mere impatience of labour, to take the citadel by storm. +They wish to find some shorter path to excellence, and hope to obtain +the reward of eminence by other means than those which the indispensable +rules of art have prescribed. They must, therefore, be told again +and again that labour is the only price of solid fame, and that whatever +their force of genius may be, there is no easy method of becoming a +good painter.</p> +<p>When we read the lives of the most eminent painters, every page informs +us that no part of their time was spent in dissipation. Even an +increase of fame served only to augment their industry. To be +convinced with what persevering assiduity they pursued their studies, +we need only reflect on their method of proceeding in their most celebrated +works. When they conceived a subject, they first made a variety +of sketches; then a finished drawing of the whole; after that a more +correct drawing of every separate part, heads, hands, feet, and pieces +of drapery; they then painted the picture, and after all re-touched +it from the life. The pictures, thus wrought with such pain, now +appear like the effect of enchantment, and as if some mighty genius +had struck them off at a blow.</p> +<p>But, whilst diligence is thus recommended to the students, the visitors +will take care that their diligence be effectual; that it be well directed +and employed on the proper object. A student is not always advancing +because he is employed; he must apply his strength to that part of the +art where the real difficulties lie; to that part which distinguishes +it as a liberal art, and not by mistaken industry lose his time in that +which is merely ornamental. The students, instead of vying with +each other which shall have the readiest band, should be taught to contend +who shall have the purest and most correct outline, instead of striving +which shall produce the brightest tint, or, curiously trifling endeavour +to give the gloss of stuffs so as to appear real, let their ambition +be directed to contend which shall dispose his drapery in the most graceful +folds, which shall give the most grace and dignity to the human figure.</p> +<p>I must beg leave to submit one thing more to the consideration of +the visitors, which appears to me a matter of very great consequence, +and the omission of which I think a principal defect in the method of +education pursued in all the academies I have ever visited. The +error I mean is, that the students never draw exactly from the living +models which they have before them. It is not indeed their intention, +nor are they directed to do it. Their drawings resemble the model +only in the attitude. They change the form according to their +vague and uncertain ideas of beauty, and make a drawing rather of what +they think the figure ought to be than of what it appears. I have +thought this the obstacle that has stopped the progress of many young +men of real genius; and I very much doubt whether a habit of drawing +correctly what we see will not give a proportionable power of drawing +correctly what we imagine. He who endeavours to copy nicely the +figure before him not only acquires a habit of exactness and precision, +but is continually advancing in his knowledge of the human figure; and +though he seems to superficial observers to make a slower progress, +he will be found at last capable of adding (without running into capricious +wildness) that grace and beauty which is necessary to be given to his +more finished works, and which cannot be got by the moderns, as it was +not acquired by the ancients, but by an attentive and well-compared +study of the human form.</p> +<p>What I think ought to enforce this method is, that it has been the +practice (as may be seen by their drawings) of the great masters in +the art. I will mention a drawing of Raffaelle, “The Dispute +of the Sacrament,” the print of which, by Count Cailus, is in +every hand. It appears that he made his sketch from one model; +and the habit he had of drawing exactly from the form before him appears +by his making all the figures with the same cap, such as his model then +happened to wear; so servile a copyist was this great man, even at a +time when he was allowed to be at his highest pitch of excellence.</p> +<p>I have seen also academy figures by Annibale Caracci, though he was +often sufficiently licentious in his finished works, drawn with all +the peculiarities of an individual model.</p> +<p>This scrupulous exactness is so contrary to the practice of the academies, +that it is not without great deference that I beg leave to recommend +it to the consideration of the visitors, and submit it to them, whether +the neglect of this method is not one of the reasons why students so +often disappoint expectation, and being more than boys at sixteen, become +less than men at thirty.</p> +<p>In short, the method I recommend can only be detrimental when there +are but few living forms to copy; for then students, by always drawing +from one alone, will by habit be taught to overlook defects, and mistake +deformity for beauty. But of this there is no danger, since the +council has determined to supply the academy with a variety of subjects; +and indeed those laws which they have drawn up, and which the secretary +will presently read for your confirmation, have in some measure precluded +me from saying more upon this occasion. Instead, therefore, of +offering my advice, permit me to indulge my wishes, and express my hope, +that this institution may answer the expectations of its royal founder; +that the present age may vie in arts with that of Leo X. and that “the +dignity of the dying art” (to make use of an expression of Pliny) +may be revived under the reign of George III.</p> +<h3>A DISCOURSE<br /> +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy, on the Distribution +of the Prizes, December 11, 1769, by the President.</h3> +<p>Gentlemen,—I congratulate you on the honour which you have +just received. I have the highest opinion of your merits, and +could wish to show my sense of them in something which possibly may +be more useful to you than barren praise. I could wish to lead +you into such a course of study as may render your future progress answerable +to your past improvement; and, whilst I applaud you for what has been +done, remind you of how much yet remains to attain perfection.</p> +<p>I flatter myself, that from the long experience I have had, and the +unceasing assiduity with which I have pursued those studies, in which, +like you, I have been engaged, I shall be acquitted of vanity in offering +some hints to your consideration. They are indeed in a great degree +founded upon my own mistakes in the same pursuit. But the history +of errors properly managed often shortens the road to truth. And +although no method of study that I can offer will of itself conduct +to excellence, yet it may preserve industry from being misapplied.</p> +<p>In speaking to you of the theory of the art, I shall only consider +it as it has a relation to the method of your studies.</p> +<p>Dividing the study of painting into three distinct periods, I shall +address you as having passed through the first of them, which is confined +to the rudiments, including a facility of drawing any object that presents +itself, a tolerable readiness in the management of colours, and an acquaintance +with the most simple and obvious rules of composition.</p> +<p>This first degree of proficiency is, in painting, what grammar is +in literature, a general preparation to whatever species of the art +the student may afterwards choose for his more particular application. +The power of drawing, modelling, and using colours is very properly +called the language of the art; and in this language, the honours you +have just received prove you to have made no inconsiderable progress.</p> +<p>When the artist is once enabled to express himself with some degree +of correctness, he must then endeavour to collect subjects for expression; +to amass a stock of ideas, to be combined and varied as occasion may +require. He is now in the second period of study, in which his +business is to learn all that has hitherto been known and done. +Having hitherto received instructions from a particular master, he is +now to consider the art itself as his master. He must extend his +capacity to more sublime and general instructions. Those perfections +which lie scattered among various masters are now united in one general +idea, which is henceforth to regulate his taste and enlarge his imagination. +With a variety of models thus before him, he will avoid that narrowness +and poverty of conception which attends a bigoted admiration of a single +master, and will cease to follow any favourite where he ceases to excel. +This period is, however, still a time of subjection and discipline. +Though the student will not resign himself blindly to any single authority +when he may have the advantage of consulting many, he must still be +afraid of trusting his own judgment, and of deviating into any track +where he cannot find the footsteps of some former master.</p> +<p>The third and last period emancipates the student from subjection +to any authority but what he shall himself judge to be supported by +reason. Confiding now in his own judgment, he will consider and +separate those different principles to which different modes of beauty +owe their original. In the former period he sought only to know +and combine excellence, wherever it was to be found, into one idea of +perfection; in this he learns, what requires the most attentive survey +and the subtle disquisition, to discriminate perfections that are incompatible +with each other.</p> +<p>He is from this time to regard himself as holding the same rank with +those masters whom he before obeyed as teachers, and as exercising a +sort of sovereignty over those rules which have hitherto restrained +him. Comparing now no longer the performances of art with each +other, but examining the art itself by the standard of nature, he corrects +what is erroneous, supplies what is scanty, and adds by his own observation +what the industry of his predecessors may have yet left wanting to perfection. +Having well established his judgment, and stored his memory, he may +now without fear try the power of his imagination. The mind that +has been thus disciplined may be indulged in the warmest enthusiasm, +and venture to play on the borders of the wildest extravagance. +The habitual dignity, which long converse with the greatest minds has +imparted to him, will display itself in all his attempts, and he will +stand among his instructors, not as an imitator, but a rival.</p> +<p>These are the different stages of the art. But as I now address +myself particularly to those students who have been this day rewarded +for their happy passage through the first period, I can with no propriety +suppose they want any help in the initiatory studies. My present +design is to direct your view to distant excellence, and to show you +the readiest path that leads to it. Of this I shall speak with +such latitude as may leave the province of the professor uninvaded, +and shall not anticipate those precepts which it is his business to +give and your duty to understand.</p> +<p>It is indisputably evident that a great part of every man’s +life must be employed in collecting materials for the exercise of genius. +Invention, strictly speaking, is little more than a new combination +of those images which have been previously gathered and deposited in +the memory. Nothing can come of nothing. He who has laid +up no materials can produce no combinations.</p> +<p>A student unacquainted with the attempts of former adventurers is +always apt to overrate his own abilities, to mistake the most trifling +excursions for discoveries of moment, and every coast new to him for +a new-found country. If by chance he passes beyond his usual limits, +he congratulates his own arrival at those regions which they who have +steered a better course have long left behind them.</p> +<p>The productions of such minds are seldom distinguished by an air +of originality: they are anticipated in their happiest efforts; and +if they are found to differ in anything from their predecessors, it +is only in irregular sallies and trifling conceits. The more extensive +therefore your acquaintance is with the works of those who have excelled +the more extensive will be your powers of invention; and what may appear +still more like a paradox, the more original will be your conceptions. +But the difficulty on this occasion is to determine who ought to be +proposed as models of excellence, and who ought to be considered as +the properest guides.</p> +<p>To a young man just arrived in Italy, many of the present painters +of that country are ready enough to obtrude their precepts, and to offer +their own performances as examples of that perfection which they affect +to recommend. The modern, however, who recommends <i>himself</i> +as a standard, may justly be suspected as ignorant of the true end, +and unacquainted with the proper object of the art which he professes. +To follow such a guide will not only retard the student, but mislead +him.</p> +<p>On whom, then, can he rely, or who shall show him the path that leads +to excellence? The answer is obvious: Those great masters who +have travelled the same road with success are the most likely to conduct +others. The works of those who have stood the test of ages have +a claim to that respect and veneration to which no modern can pretend. +The duration and stability of their fame is sufficient to evince that +it has not been suspended upon the slender thread of fashion and caprice, +but bound to the human heart by every tie of sympathetic approbation.</p> +<p>There is no danger of studying too much the works of those great +men, but how they may be studied to advantage is an inquiry of great +importance.</p> +<p>Some who have never raised their minds to the consideration of the +real dignity of the art, and who rate the works of an artist in proportion +as they excel, or are defective in the mechanical parts, look on theory +as something that may enable them to talk but not to paint better, and +confining themselves entirely to mechanical practice, very assiduously +toil on in the drudgery of copying, and think they make a rapid progress +while they faithfully exhibit the minutest part of a favourite picture. +This appears to me a very tedious, and I think a very erroneous, method +of proceeding. Of every large composition, even of those which +are most admired, a great part may be truly said to be common-place. +This, though it takes up much time in copying, conduces little to improvement. +I consider general copying as a delusive kind of industry; the student +satisfies himself with the appearance of doing something; he falls into +the dangerous habit of imitating without selecting, and of labouring +without any determinate object; as it requires no effort of the mind, +he sleeps over his work; and those powers of invention and composition +which ought particularly to be called out and put in action lie torpid, +and lose their energy for want of exercise.</p> +<p>It is an observation that all must have made, how incapable those +are of producing anything of their own who have spent much of their +time in making finished copies.</p> +<p>To suppose that the complication of powers, and variety of ideas +necessary to that mind which aspires to the first honours ill the art +of painting, can be obtained by the frigid contemplation of a few single +models, is no less absurd than it would be in him who wishes to be a +poet to imagine that by translating a tragedy he can acquire to himself +sufficient knowledge of the appearances of nature, the operations of +the passions, and the incidents of life.</p> +<p>The great use in copying, if it be at all useful, should seem to +be in learning to colour; yet even colouring will never be perfectly +attained by servilely copying the mould before you. An eye critically +nice can only be formed by observing well-coloured pictures with attention: +and by close inspection, and minute examination you will discover, at +last, the manner of handling, the artifices of contrast, glazing, and +other expedients, by which good colourists have raised the value of +their tints, and by which nature has been so happily imitated.</p> +<p>I must inform you, however, that old pictures deservedly celebrated +for their colouring are often so changed by dirt and varnish, that we +ought not to wonder if they do not appear equal to their reputation +in the eyes of unexperienced painters, or young students. An artist +whose judgment is matured by long observation, considers rather what +the picture once was, than what it is at present. He has acquired +a power by habit of seeing the brilliancy of tints through the cloud +by which it is obscured. An exact imitation, therefore, of those +pictures, is likely to fill the student’s mind with false opinions, +and to send him back a colourist of his own formation, with ideas equally +remote from nature and from art, from the genuine practice of the masters +and the real appearances of things.</p> +<p>Following these rules, and using these precautions, when you have +clearly and distinctly learned in what good colouring consists, you +cannot do better than have recourse to nature herself, who is always +at hand, and in comparison of whose true splendour the best coloured +pictures are but faint and feeble.</p> +<p>However, as the practice of copying is not entirely to be excluded, +since the mechanical practice of painting is learned in some measure +by it, let those choice parts only be selected which have recommended +the work to notice. If its excellence consists in its general +effect, it would be proper to make slight sketches of the machinery +and general management of the picture. Those sketches should be +kept always by you for the regulation of your style. Instead of +copying the touches of those great masters, copy only their conceptions. +Instead of treading in their footsteps, endeavour only to keep the same +road. Labour to invent on their general principles and way of +thinking. Possess yourself with their spirit. Consider with +yourself how a Michael Angelo or a Raffaelle would have treated this +subject: and work yourself into a belief that your picture is to be +seen and criticised by them when completed. Even an attempt of +this kind will rouse your powers.</p> +<p>But as mere enthusiasm will carry you but a little way, let me recommend +a practice that may be equivalent, and will perhaps more efficaciously +contribute to your advancement, than even the verbal corrections of +those masters themselves, could they be obtained. What I would +propose is, that you should enter into a kind of competition, by painting +a similar subject, and making a companion to any picture that you consider +as a model. After you have finished your work, place it near the +model, and compare them carefully together. You will then not +only see, but feel your own deficiencies more sensibly than by precepts, +or any other means of instruction. The true principles of painting +will mingle with your thoughts. Ideas thus fixed by sensible objects, +will be certain and definitive; and sinking deep into the mind, will +not only be more just, but more lasting than those presented to you +by precepts only: which will, always be fleeting, variable, and undetermined.</p> +<p>This method of comparing your own efforts with those of some great +master, is indeed a severe and mortifying task, to which none will submit, +but such as have great views, with fortitude sufficient to forego the +gratifications of present vanity for future honour. When the student +has succeeded in some measure to his own satisfaction, and has felicitated +himself on his success, to go voluntarily to a tribunal where he knows +his vanity must be humbled, and all self-approbation must vanish, requires +not only great resolution, but great humility. To him, however, +who has the Ambition to be a real master, the solid satisfaction which +proceeds from a consciousness of his advancement (of which seeing his +own faults is the first step) will very abundantly compensate for the +mortification of present disappointment. There is, besides, this +alleviating circumstance. Every discovery he makes, every acquisition +of knowledge he attains, seems to proceed from his own sagacity; and +thus he acquires a confidence in himself sufficient to keep up the resolution +of perseverance.</p> +<p>We all must have experienced how lazily, and consequently how ineffectually, +instruction is received when forced upon the mind by others. Few +have been taught to any purpose who have not been their own teachers. +We prefer those instructions which we have given ourselves, from our +affection to the instructor; and they are more effectual, from being +received into the mind at the very time when it is most open and eager +to receive them.</p> +<p>With respect to the pictures that you are to choose for your models, +I could wish that you would take the world’s opinion rather than +your own. In other words, I would have you choose those of established +reputation rather than follow your own fancy. If you should not +admire them at first, you will, by endeavouring to imitate them, find +that the world has not been mistaken.</p> +<p>It is not an easy task to point out those various excellences for +your imitation which he distributed amongst the various schools. +An endeavour to do this may perhaps be the subject of some future discourse. +I will, therefore, at present only recommend a model for style in painting, +which is a branch of the art more immediately necessary to the young +student. Style in painting is the same as in writing, a power +over materials, whether words or colours, by which conceptions or sentiments +are conveyed. And in this Lodovico Carrache (I mean in his best +works) appears to me to approach the nearest to perfection. His +unaffected breadth of light and shadow, the simplicity of colouring, +which holding its proper rank, does not draw aside the least part of +the attention from the subject, and the solemn effect of that twilight +which seems diffused over his pictures, appear to me to correspond with +grave and dignified subjects, better than the more artificial brilliancy +of sunshine which enlightens the pictures of Titian. Though Tintoret +thought that Titian’s colouring was the model of perfection, and +would correspond even with the sublime of Michael Angelo; and that if +Angelo had coloured like Titian, or Titian designed like Angelo, the +world would once have had a perfect painter.</p> +<p>It is our misfortune, however, that those works of Carrache which +I would recommend to the student are not often found out of Bologna. +The “St. Francis in the midst of his Friars,” “The +Transfiguration,” “The Birth of St. John the Baptist,” +“The Calling of St. Matthew,” the “St. Jerome,” +the fresco paintings in the Zampieri Palace, are all worthy the attention +of the student. And I think those who travel would do well to +allot a much greater portion of their time to that city than it has +been hitherto the custom to bestow.</p> +<p>In this art, as in others, there are many teachers who profess to +show the nearest way to excellence, and many expedients have been invented +by which the toil of study might be saved. But let no man be seduced +to idleness by specious promises. Excellence is never granted +to man but as the reward of labour. It argues, indeed, no small +strength of mind to persevere in habits of industry, without the pleasure +of perceiving those advances; which, like the hand of a clock, whilst +they make hourly approaches to their point, yet proceed so slowly as +to escape observation. A facility of drawing, like that of playing +upon a musical instrument, cannot be acquired but by an infinite number +of acts. I need not, therefore, enforce by many words the necessity +of continual application; nor tell you that the port-crayon ought to +be for ever in your hands. Various methods will occur to you by +which this power may be acquired. I would particularly recommend +that after your return from the academy (where I suppose your attendance +to be constant) you would endeavour to draw the figure by memory. +I will even venture to add, that by perseverance in this custom, you +will become able to draw the human figure tolerably correct, with as +little effort of the mind as to trace with a pen the letters of the +alphabet.</p> +<p>That this facility is not unattainable, some members in this academy +give a sufficient proof. And, be assured, that if this power is +not acquired whilst you are young, there will be no time for it afterwards: +at least, the attempt will be attended with as much difficulty as those +experience who learn to read or write after they have arrived to the +age of maturity.</p> +<p>But while I mention the port-crayon as the student’s constant +companion, he must still remember that the pencil is the instrument +by which he must hope to obtain eminence. What, therefore, I wish +to impress upon you is, that whenever an opportunity offers, you paint +your studies instead of drawing them. This will give you such +a facility in using colours, that in time they will arrange themselves +under the pencil, even without the attention of the hand that conducts +it. If one act excluded the other, this advice could not with +any propriety be given. But if painting comprises both drawing +and colouring and if by a short struggle of resolute industry the same +expedition is attainable in painting as in drawing on paper, I cannot +see what objection can justly be made to the practice; or why that should +be done by parts, which may be done altogether.</p> +<p>If we turn our eyes to the several schools of painting, and consider +their respective excellences, we shall find that those who excel most +in colouring pursued this method. The Venetian and Flemish schools, +which owe much of their fame to colouring, have enriched the cabinets +of the collectors of drawings with very few examples. Those of +Titian, Paul Veronese, Tintoret, and the Bassans, are in general slight +and undetermined. Their sketches on paper are as rude as their +pictures are excellent in regard to harmony of colouring. Correggio +and Barocci have left few, if any, finished drawings behind them. +And in the Flemish school, Rubens and Vandyke made their designs for +the most part either in colours or in chiaroscuro. It is as common +to find studies of the Venetian and Flemish painters on canvas, as of +the schools of Rome and Florence on paper. Not but that many finished +drawings are sold under the names of those masters. Those, however, +are undoubtedly the productions either of engravers or of their scholars +who copied their works.</p> +<p>These instructions I have ventured to offer from my own experience; +but as they deviate widely from received opinions, I offer them with +diffidence; and when better are suggested, shall retract them without +regret.</p> +<p>There is one precept, however, in which I shall only be opposed by +the vain, the ignorant, and the idle. I am not afraid that I shall +repeat it too often. You must have no dependence on your own genius. +If you have great talents, industry will improve them: if you have but +moderate abilities, industry will supply their deficiency. Nothing +is denied to well-directed labour: nothing is to be obtained without +it. Not to enter into metaphysical discussions on the nature or +essence of genius, I will venture to assert, that assiduity unabated +by difficulty, and a disposition eagerly directed to the object of its +pursuit, will produce effects similar to those which some call the result +of natural powers.</p> +<p>Though a man cannot at all times, and in all places, paint or draw, +yet the mind can prepare itself by laying in proper materials, at all +times, and in all places. Both Livy and Plutarch, in describing +Philopoemen, one of the ablest generals of antiquity, have given us +a striking picture of a mind always intent on its profession, and by +assiduity obtaining those excellences which some all their lives vainly +expect from Nature. I shall quote the passage in Livy at length, +as it runs parallel with the practice I would recommend to the painter, +sculptor, or architect.</p> +<p>“Philopoemen was a man eminent for his sagacity and experience +in choosing ground, and in leading armies; to which he formed his mind +by perpetual meditation, in times of peace as well as war. When, +in any occasional journey, he came to a straight difficult passage, +if he was alone, he considered with himself, and if he was in company +he asked his friends what it would be best to do if in this place they +had found an enemy, either in the front, or in the rear, on the one +side, or on the other. ‘It might happen,’ says he, +‘that the enemy to be opposed might come on drawn up in regular +lines, or in a tumultuous body, formed only by the nature of the place.’ +He then considered a little what ground he should take; what number +of soldiers he should use, and what arms he should give them; where +he should lodge his carriages, his baggage, and the defenceless followers +of his camp; how many guards, and of what kind, he should send to defend +them; and whether it would be better to press forward along the pass, +or recover by retreat his former station: he would consider likewise +where his camp could most commodiously be formed; how much ground he +should enclose within his trenches; where he should have the convenience +of water; and where he might find plenty of wood and forage; and when +he should break up his camp on the following day, through what road +he could most safely pass, and in what form he should dispose his troops. +With such thoughts and disquisitions he had from his early years so +exercised his mind, that on these occasions nothing could happen which +he had not been already accustomed to consider.”</p> +<p>I cannot help imagining that I see a promising young painter, equally +vigilant, whether at home, or abroad in the streets, or in the fields. +Every object that presents itself is to him a lesson. He regards +all nature with a view to his profession; and combines her beauties, +or corrects her defects. He examines the countenance of men under +the influence of passion; and often catches the most pleasing hints +from subjects of turbulence or deformity. Even bad pictures themselves +supply him with useful documents; and, as Leonardo da Vinci has observed, +he improves upon the fanciful images that are sometimes seen in the +fire, or are accidentally sketched upon a discoloured wall.</p> +<p>The artist who has his mind thus filled with ideas, and his hand +made expert by practice, works with ease and readiness; whilst he who +would have you believe that he is waiting for the inspirations of genius, +is in reality at a loss how to beam, and is at last delivered of his +monsters with difficulty and pain.</p> +<p>The well-grounded painter, on the contrary, has only maturely to +consider his subject, and all the mechanical parts of his art follow +without his exertion, Conscious of the difficulty of obtaining what +he possesses he makes no pretensions to secrets, except those of closer +application. Without conceiving the smallest jealousy against +others, he is contented that all shall be as great as himself who are +willing to undergo the same fatigue: and as his pre-eminence depends +not upon a trick, he is free from the painful suspicions of a juggler, +who lives in perpetual fear lest his trick should be discovered.</p> +<h3>A DISCOURSE<br /> +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution of +the Prizes, December, 14, 1770, by the President.</h3> +<p>Gentlemen,—It is not easy to speak with propriety to so many +students of different ages and different degrees of advancement. +The mind requires nourishment adapted to its growth; and what may have +promoted our earlier efforts, might, retard us in our nearer approaches +to perfection.</p> +<p>The first endeavours of a young painter, as I have remarked in a +former discourse, must be employed in the attainment of mechanical dexterity, +and confined to the mere imitation of the object before him. Those +who have advanced beyond the rudiments, may, perhaps, find advantage +in reflecting on the advice which I have likewise given them, when I +recommended the diligent study of the works of our great predecessors; +but I at the same time endeavoured to guard them against an implicit +submission to the authority of any one master, however excellent; or +by a strict imitation of his manner, to preclude ourselves from the +abundance and variety of nature. I will now add that nature herself +is not to be too closely copied. There are excellences in the +art of painting, beyond what is commonly called the imitation of nature: +and these excellences I wish to point out. The students who, having +passed through the initiatory exercises, are more advanced in the art, +and who, sure of their hand, have leisure to exert their understanding, +must now be told that a mere copier of nature can never produce anything +great; can never raise and enlarge the conceptions, or warm the heart +of the spectator.</p> +<p>The wish of the genuine painter must be more extensive: instead of +endeavouring to amuse mankind with the minute neatness of his imitations, +he must endeavour to improve them by the grandeur of his ideas; instead +of seeking praise, by deceiving the superficial sense of the spectator, +he must strive for fame, by captivating the imagination.</p> +<p>The principle now laid down, that the perfection of this art does +not consist in mere imitation, is far from being new or singular. +It is, indeed, supported by the general opinion of the enlightened part +of mankind. The poets, orators, and rhetoricians of antiquity, +are continually enforcing this position, that all the arts receive their +perfection from an ideal beauty, superior to what is to be found in +individual nature. They are ever referring to the practice of +the painters and sculptors of their times, particularly Phidias (the +favourite artist of antiquity), to illustrate their assertions. +As if they could not sufficiently express their admiration of his genius +by what they knew, they have recourse to poetical enthusiasm. +They call it inspiration; a gift from heaven. The artist is supposed +to have ascended the celestial regions, to furnish his mind with this +perfect idea of beauty. “He,” says Proclus, “who +takes for his model such forms as nature produces, and confines himself +to an exact imitation of them, will never attain to what is perfectly +beautiful. For the works of nature are full of disproportion, +and fall very short of the true standard of beauty. So that Phidias, +when he formed his Jupiter, did not copy any object ever presents to +his sight; but contemplated only that image which he had conceived in +his mind from Homer’s description.” And thus Cicero, +speaking of the same Phidias: “Neither did this artist,” +says he, “when he carved the image of Jupiter or Minerva, set +before him any one human figure as a pattern, which he was to copy; +but having a more perfect idea of beauty fixed in his mind, this he +steadily contemplated, and to the imitation of this all his skill and +labour were directed.”</p> +<p>The moderns are not less convinced than the ancients of this superior +power existing in the art; nor less conscious of its effects. +Every language has adopted terms expressive of this excellence. +The <i>Gusto grande</i> of the Italians; the <i>Beau ideal</i> of the +French and the <i>great style</i>, <i>genius</i>, and <i>taste</i> among +the English, are but different appellations of the same thing. +It is this intellectual dignity, they say, that ennobles the painter’s +art; that lays the line between him and the mere mechanic; and produces +those great effects in an instant, which eloquence and poetry, by slow +and repeated efforts, are scarcely able to attain.</p> +<p>Such is the warmth with which both the ancients and moderns speak +of this divine principle of the art; but, as I have formerly observed, +enthusiastic admiration seldom promotes knowledge. Though a student +by such praise may have his attention roused, and a desire excited, +of running in this great career, yet it is possible that what has been +said to excite, may only serve to deter him. He examines his own +mind, and perceives there nothing of that divine inspiration with which +he is told so many others have been favoured. He never travelled +to heaven to gather new ideas; and he finds himself possessed of no +other qualifications than what mere common observation and a plain understanding +can confer. Thus he becomes gloomy amidst the splendour of figurative +declamation, and thinks it hopeless to pursue an object which he supposes +out of the reach of human industry.</p> +<p>But on this, as upon many other occasions, we ought to distinguish +how much is to be given to enthusiasm, and how much to reason. +We ought to allow for, and we ought to commend, that strength of vivid +expression which is necessary to convey, in its full force, the highest +sense of the most complete effect of art; taking care at the same time +not to lose in terms of vague admiration that solidity and truth of +principle upon which alone we can reason, and may be enabled to practise.</p> +<p>It is not easy to define in what this great style consists; nor to +describe, by words, the proper means of acquiring it, if the mind of +the student should be at all capable of such an acquisition. Could +we teach taste or genius by rules, they would be no longer taste and +genius. But though there neither are, nor can be, any precise +invariable rules for the exercise or the acquisition of those great +qualities, yet we may as truly say that they always operate in proportion +to our attention in observing the works of nature, to our skill in selecting, +and to our care in digesting, methodising, and comparing our observations. +There are many beauties in our art, that seem, at first, to lie without +the reach of precept, and yet may easily be reduced to practical principles. +Experience is all in all; but it is not every one who profits by experience; +and most people err, not so much from want of capacity to find their +object, as from not knowing what object to pursue. This great +ideal perfection and beauty are not to be sought in the heavens, but +upon the earth. They are about us, and upon every side of us. +But the power of discovering what is deformed in nature, or in other +words, what is particular and uncommon, can be acquired only by experience; +and the whole beauty and grandeur of the art consists, in my opinion, +in being able to get above all singular forms, local customs, particularities, +and details of every kind.</p> +<p>All the objects which are exhibited to our view by nature, upon close +examination will be found to have their blemishes and defects. +The most beautiful forms have something about them like weakness, minuteness, +or imperfection. But it is not every eye that perceives these +blemishes. It must be an eye long used to the contemplation and +comparison of these forms; and which, by a long habit of observing what +any set of objects of the same kind have in common, that alone can acquire +the power of discerning what each wants in particular. This long +laborious comparison should be the first study of the painter who aims +at the greatest style. By this means, he acquires a just idea +of beautiful forms; he corrects nature by herself, her imperfect state +by her more perfect. His eye being enabled to distinguish the +accidental deficiencies, excrescences, and deformities of things from +their general figures, he makes out an abstract idea of their forms +more perfect than any one original; and what may seem a paradox, he +learns to design naturally by drawing his figures unlike to any one +object. This idea of the perfect state of nature, which the artist +calls the ideal beauty, is the great leading principle by which works +of genius are conducted. By this Phidias acquired his fame. +He wrought upon a sober principle what has so much excited the enthusiasm +of the world; and by this method you, who have courage to tread the +same path, may acquire equal reputation.</p> +<p>This is the idea which has acquired, and which seems to have a right +to the epithet of Divine; as it may be said to preside, like a supreme +judge, over all the productions of nature; appearing to be possessed +of the will and intention of the Creator, as far as they regard the +external form of living beings.</p> +<p>When a man once possesses this idea in its perfection, there is no +danger but that he will he sufficiently warmed by it himself, and be +able to warm and ravish every one else.</p> +<p>Thus it is from a reiterated experience, and a close comparison of +the objects in nature, that an artist becomes possessed of the idea +of that central form, if I may so express it, from which every deviation +is deformity. But the investigation of this form I grant is painful, +and I know but of one method of shortening the road; this is, by a careful +study of the works of the ancient sculptors; who, being indefatigable +in the school of nature, have left models of that perfect form behind +them, which an artist would prefer as supremely beautiful, who had spent +his whole life in that single contemplation. But if industry carried +them thus far, may not you also hope for the same reward from the same +labour? We have the same school opened to us that was opened to +them; for nature denies her instructions to none who desire to become +her pupils.</p> +<p>To the principle I have laid down, that the idea of beauty in each +species of beings is invariably one, it may be objected that in every +particular species there are various central forms, which are separate +and distinct from each other, and yet are undeniably beautiful; that +in the human figure, for instance, the beauty of the Hercules is one, +of the gladiator another, of the Apollo another, which makes so many +different ideas of beauty.</p> +<p>It is true, indeed, that these figures are each perfect in their +kind, though of different characters and proportions; but still none +of them is the representation of an individual, but of a class. +And as there is one general form, which, as I have said, belongs to +the human kind at large, so in each of these classes there is one common +idea and central form, which is the abstract of the various individual +forms belonging to that class. Thus, though the forms of childhood +and age differ exceedingly, there is a common form in childhood, and +a common form in age,—which is the more perfect, as it is more +remote from all peculiarities. But I must add further, that though +the most perfect forms of each of the general divisions of the human +figure are ideal, and superior to any individual form of that class, +yet the highest perfection of the human figure is not to be found in +any one of them. It is not in the Hercules, nor in the gladiator, +nor in the Apollo; but in that form which is taken from them all, and +which partakes equally of the activity of the gladiator, of the delicacy +of the Apollo, and of the muscular strength of the Hercules. For +perfect beauty in any species must combine all the characters which +are beautiful in that species. It cannot consist in any one to +the exclusion of the rest: no one, therefore, must be predominant, that +no one may be deficient.</p> +<p>The knowledge of these different characters, and the power of separating +and distinguishing them, is undoubtedly necessary to the painter, who +is to vary his compositions with figures of various forms and proportions, +though he is never to lose sight of the general idea of perfection in +each kind.</p> +<p>There is, likewise, a kind of symmetry or proportion, which may properly +be said to belong to deformity. A figure lean or corpulent, tall +or short, though deviating from beauty, may still have a certain union +of the various parts, which may contribute to make them, on the whole, +not unpleasing. When the artist has by diligent attention acquired +a clear and distinct idea of beauty and symmetry; when he has reduced +the variety of nature to the abstract idea; his next task will be to +become acquainted with the genuine habits of nature, as distinguished +from those of fashion. For in the same manner, and on the same +principles, as he has acquired the knowledge of the real forms of nature, +distinct from accidental deformity, he must endeavour to separate simple +chaste nature from those adventitious, those affected and forced airs +or actions, with which she is loaded by modern education.</p> +<p>Perhaps I cannot better explain what I mean than by reminding you +of what was taught us by the Professor of Anatomy, in respect to the +natural position and movement of the feet. He observed that the +fashion of turning, them outwards was contrary to the intent of nature, +as might be seen from the structure of the bones, and from the weakness +that proceeded from that manner of standing. To this we may add +the erect position of the head, the projection of the chest, the walking +with straight knees, and many such actions, which are merely the result +of fashion, and what nature never warranted, as we are sure that we +have been taught them when children.</p> +<p>I have mentioned but a few of those instances, in which vanity or +caprice have contrived to distort and disfigure the human form; your +own recollection will add to these a thousand more of ill-understood +methods, that have been practised to disguise nature, among our dancing-masters, +hair-dressers, and tailors, in their various schools of deformity.</p> +<p>However the mechanic and ornamental arts may sacrifice to fashion, +she must be entirely excluded from the art of painting; the painter +must never mistake this capricious changeling for the genuine offspring +of nature; he must divest himself of all prejudices in favour of his +age or country; he must disregard all local and temporary ornaments, +and look only on those general habits that are everywhere and always +the same. He addresses his works to the people of every country +and every age; he calls upon posterity to be his spectators, and says +with Zeuxis, <i>In æternitatem pingo</i>.</p> +<p>The neglect of separating modern fashions from the habits of nature, +leads to that ridiculous style which has been practised by some painters +who have given to Grecian heroes the airs and graces practised in the +court of Louis XIV.; an absurdity almost as great as it would have been +to have dressed them after the fashion of that court.</p> +<p>To avoid this error, however, and to retain the true simplicity of +nature, is a task more difficult than at first sight it may appear. +The prejudices in favour of the fashions and customs that we have been +used to, and which are justly called a second nature, make it too often +difficult to distinguish that which is natural from that which is the +result of education; they frequently even give a predilection in favour +of the artificial mode; and almost every one is apt to be guided by +those local prejudices who has not chastised his mind, and regulated +the instability of his affections, by the eternal invariable idea of +nature.</p> +<p>Here, then, as before, we must have recourse to the ancients as instructors. +It is from a careful study of their works that you will be enabled to +attain to the real simplicity of nature; they will suggest many observations, +which would probably escape you, if your study were confined to nature +alone. And, indeed, I cannot help suspecting, that in this instance +the ancients had an easier task than the moderns. They had, probably, +little or nothing to unlearn, as their manners were nearly approaching +to this desirable simplicity; while the modern artist, before he can +see the truth of things, is obliged to remove a veil, with which the +fashion of the times has thought proper to cover her.</p> +<p>Having gone thus far in our investigation of the great style in painting; +if we now should suppose that the artist has formed the true idea of +beauty, which enables him to give his works a correct and perfect design; +if we should suppose also that he has acquired a knowledge of the unadulterated +habits of nature, which gives him simplicity; the rest of his talk is, +perhaps, less than is generally imagined. Beauty and simplicity +have so great a share in the composition of a great style, that he who +has acquired them has little else to learn. It must not, indeed, +be forgot that there is a nobleness of conception, which goes beyond +anything in the mere exhibition, even of perfect form; there is an art +of animating and dignifying the figures with intellectual grandeur, +of impressing the appearance of philosophic wisdom or heroic virtue. +This can only be acquired by him that enlarges the sphere of his understanding +by a variety of knowledge, and warms his imagination with the best productions +of ancient and modern poetry.</p> +<p>A hand thus exercised, and a mind thus instructed, will bring the +art to a higher degree of excellence than, perhaps, it has hitherto +attained in this country. Such a student will disdain the humbler +walks of painting, which, however profitable, can never assure him a +permanent reputation. He will leave the meaner artist servilely +to suppose that those are the best pictures which are most likely to +deceive the spectator. He will permit the lower painter, like +the florist or collector of shells, to exhibit the minute discriminations +which distinguish one object of the same species from another; while +he, like the philosopher, will consider nature in the abstract, and +represent in every one of his figures the character of its species.</p> +<p>If deceiving the eye were the only business of the art, there is +no doubt, indeed, but the minute painter would be more apt to succeed: +but it is not the eye, it is the mind, which the painter of genius desires +to address; nor will he waste a moment upon these smaller objects, which +only serve to catch the sense, to divide the attention, and to counteract +his great design of speaking to the heart.</p> +<p>This is the ambition I could wish to excite in your minds; and the +object I have had in my view, throughout this discourse, is that one +great idea which gives to painting its true dignity, that entitles it +to the name of a Liberal Art, and ranks it as a sister of poetry.</p> +<p>It may possibly have happened to many young students whose application +was sufficient to overcome all difficulties, and whose minds were capable +of embracing the most extensive views, that they have, by a wrong direction +originally given, spent their lives in the meaner walks of painting, +without ever knowing there was a nobler to pursue. “Albert +Durer,” as Vasari has justly remarked, “would probably have +been one of the first painters of his age (and he lived in an era of +great artists) had he been initiated into those great principles of +the art which were so well understood and practised by his contemporaries +in Italy. But unluckily, having never seen or heard of any other +manner, he considered his own, without doubt, as perfect.”</p> +<p>As for the various departments of painting, which do not presume +to make such high pretensions, they are many. None of them are +without their merit, though none enter into competition with this great +universal presiding idea of the art. The painters who have applied +themselves more particularly to low and vulgar characters, and who express +with precision the various shades of passion, as they are exhibited +by vulgar minds (such as we see in the works of Hogarth) deserve great +praise; but as their genius has been employed on low and confined subjects, +the praise that we give must be as limited as its object. The +merrymaking or quarrelling of the Boors of Teniers; the same sort of +productions of Brouwer, or Ostade, are excellent in their kind; and +the excellence and its praise will be in proportion, as, in those limited +subjects and peculiar forms, they introduce more or less of the expression +of those passions, as they appear in general and more enlarged nature. +This principle may be applied to the battle pieces of Bourgognone, the +French gallantries of Watteau, and even beyond the exhibition of animal +life, to the landscapes of Claude Lorraine, and the sea-views of Vandervelde. +All these painters have, in general, the same right, in different degrees, +to the name of a painter, which a satirist, an epigrammatist, a sonnetteer, +a writer of pastorals, or descriptive poetry, has to that of a poet.</p> +<p>In the same rank, and, perhaps, of not so great merit, is the cold +painter of portraits. But his correct and just imitation of his +object has its merit. Even the painter of still life, whose highest +ambition is to give a minute representation of every part of those low +objects, which he sets before him, deserves praise in proportion to +his attainment; because no part of this excellent art, so much the ornament +of polished life, is destitute of value and use. These, however, +are by no means the views to which the mind of the student ought to +be <i>primarily</i> directed. By aiming at better things, if from +particular inclination, or from the taste of the time and place he lives +in, or from necessity, or from failure in the highest attempts, he is +obliged to descend lower; he will bring into the lower sphere of art +a grandeur of composition and character that will raise and ennoble +his works far above their natural rank.</p> +<p>A man is not weak, though he may not be able to wield the club of +Hercules; nor does a man always practise that which he esteems the beat; +but does that which he can best do. In moderate attempts, there +are many walks open to the artist. But as the idea of beauty is +of necessity but one, so there can be but one great mode of painting; +the leading principle of which I have endeavoured to explain.</p> +<p>I should be sorry if what is here recommended should be at all understood +to countenance a careless or indetermined manner of painting. +For though the painter is to overlook the accidental discriminations +of nature, he is to pronounce distinctly, and with precision, the general +forms of things. A firm and determined outline is one of the characteristics +of the great style in painting; and, let me add, that he who possesses +the knowledge of the exact form, that every part of nature ought to +have, will be fond of expressing that knowledge with correctness and +precision in all his works.</p> +<p>To conclude: I have endeavoured to reduce the idea of beauty to general +principles. And I had the pleasure to observe that the professor +of painting proceeded in the same method, when he showed you that the +artifice of contrast was founded but on one principle. And I am +convinced that this is the only means of advancing science, of clearing +the mind from a confused heap of contradictory observations, that do +but perplex and puzzle the student when he compares them, or misguide +him if he gives himself up to their authority; but bringing them under +one general head can alone give rest and satisfaction to an inquisitive +mind.</p> +<h3>A DISCOURSE<br /> +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution of +the Prizes, December 10, 1771, by the President.</h3> +<p>Gentlemen,—The value and rank of every art is in proportion +to the mental labour employed in it, or the mental pleasure produced +by it. As this principle is observed or neglected, our profession +becomes either a liberal art or a mechanical trade. In the hands +of one man it makes the highest pretensions, as it is addressed to the +noblest faculties, In those of another it is reduced to a mere matter +of ornament, and the painter has but the humble province of furnishing +our apartments with elegance.</p> +<p>This exertion of mind, which is the only circumstance that truly +ennobles our art, makes the great distinction between the Roman and +Venetian schools. I have formerly observed that perfect form is +produced by leaving out particularities, and retaining only general +ideas. I shall now endeavour to show that this principle, which +I have proved to be metaphysically just, extends itself to every part +of the art; that it gives what is called the grand style to invention, +to composition, to expression, and even to colouring and drapery.</p> +<p>Invention in painting does not imply the invention of the subject, +for that is commonly supplied by the poet or historian. With respect +to the choice, no subject can be proper that is not generally interesting. +It ought to be either some eminent instance of heroic action or heroic +suffering. There must be something either in the action or in +the object in which men are universally concerned, and which powerfully +strikes upon the public sympathy.</p> +<p>Strictly speaking, indeed, no subject can be of universal, hardly +can it be of general concern: but there are events and characters so +popularly known in those countries where our art is in request, that +they may be considered as sufficiently general for all our purposes. +Such are the great events of Greek and Roman fable and history, which +early education and the usual course of reading have made familiar and +interesting to all Europe, without being degraded by the vulgarism of +ordinary life in any country. Such, too, are the capital subjects +of Scripture history, which, besides their general notoriety, become +venerable by their connection with our religion.</p> +<p>As it is required that the subject selected should be a general one, +it is no less necessary that it should be kept unembarrassed with whatever +may any way serve to divide the attention of the spectator. Whenever +a story is related, every man forms a picture in his mind of the action +and the expression of the persons employed. The power of representing +this mental picture in canvas is what we call invention in a painter. +And as in the conception of this ideal picture the mind does not enter +into the minute peculiarities of the dress, furniture, or scene of action, +so when the painter comes to represent it he contrives those little +necessary concomitant circumstances in such a manner that they shall +strike the spectator no more than they did himself in his first conception +of the story.</p> +<p>I am very ready to allow that some circumstances of minuteness and +particularity frequently tend to give an air of truth to a piece, and +to interest the spectator in an extraordinary manner. Such circumstances, +therefore, cannot wholly be rejected; but if there be anything in the +art which requires peculiar nicety of discernment, it is the disposition +of these minute circumstantial parts which, according to the judgment +employed in the choice, become so useful to truth or so injurious to +grandeur.</p> +<p>However, the usual and most dangerous error is on the side of minuteness, +and, therefore, I think caution most necessary where most have failed. +The general idea constitutes real excellence. All smaller things, +however perfect in their way, are to be sacrificed without mercy to +the greater. The painter will not inquire what things may be admitted +without much censure. He will not think it enough to show that +they may be there; he will show that they must be there, that their +absence would render his picture maimed and defective.</p> +<p>Thus, though to the principal group a second or third be added, and +a second and third mass of light, care must be yet taken that these +subordinate actions and lights, neither each in particular, nor all +together, come into any degree of competition with the principal; they +should make a part of that whole which would be imperfect without them. +To every part of painting this rule may be applied. Even in portraits, +the grace and, we may add, the likeness, consists more in taking the +general air than in observing the effect similitude of every feature.</p> +<p>Thus figures must have a ground whereon to stand; they must be clothed, +there must be a background, there must be light and shadow; but none +of these ought to appear to have taken up any part of the artist’s +attention. They should be so managed as not even to catch that +of the spectator. We know well enough, when we analyse a piece, +the difficulty and the subtlety with which an artist adjusts the background, +drapery, and masses of light; we know that a considerable part of the +grace and effect of his picture depends upon them; but this art is so +much concealed, even to a judicious eye, that no remains of any of these +subordinate parts occur to memory when the picture is not present.</p> +<p>The great end of the art is to strike the imagination. The +painter is, therefore, to make no ostentation of the means by which +this is done; the spectator is only to feel the result in his bosom. +An inferior artist is unwilling that any part of his industry should +be lost upon the spectator. He takes as much pains to discover, +as the greater artist does to conceal, the marks of his subordinate +assiduity. In works of the lower kind everything appears studied +and encumbered; it is all boastful art and open affectation. The +ignorant often part from such pictures with wonder in their mouths, +and indifference in their hearts.</p> +<p>But it is not enough in invention that the artist should restrain +and keep under all the inferior parts of his subject; he must sometimes +deviate from vulgar and strict historical truth in pursuing the grandeur +of his design.</p> +<p>How much the great style exacts from its professors to conceive and +represent their subjects in a poetical manner, not confined to mere +matter of fact, may be seen in the cartoons of Raffaelle. In all +the pictures in which the painter has represented the apostles, he has +drawn them with great nobleness; he has given them as much dignity as +the human figure is capable of receiving yet we are expressly told in +Scripture they had no such respectable appearance; and of St. Paul in +particular, we are told by himself, that his bodily presence was mean. +Alexander is said to have been of a low stature: a painter ought not +so to represent him. Agesilaus was low, lame, and of a mean appearance. +None of these defects ought to appear in a piece of which he is the +hero. In conformity to custom, I call this part of the art history +painting; it ought to be called poetical, as in reality it is.</p> +<p>All this is not falsifying any fact; it is taking an allowed poetical +licence. A painter of portraits retains the individual likeness; +a painter of history shows the man by showing his actions. A painter +must compensate the natural deficiencies of his art. He has but +one sentence to utter, but one moment to exhibit. He cannot, like +the poet or historian, expatiate, and impress the mind with great veneration +for the character of the hero or saint he represents, though he lets +us know at the same time that the saint was deformed, or the hero lame. +The painter has no other means of giving an idea of the dignity of the +mind, but by that external appearance which grandeur of thought does +generally, though not always, impress on the countenance, and by that +correspondence of figure to sentiment and situation which all men wish, +but cannot command. The painter, who may in this one particular +attain with ease what others desire in vain, ought to give all that +he possibly can, since there are so many circumstances of true greatness +that he cannot give at all. He cannot make his hero talk like +a great man; he must make him look like one. For which reason +he ought to be well studied in the analysis of those circumstances which +constitute dignity of appearance in real life.</p> +<p>As in invention, so likewise in, expression, care must be taken not +to run into particularities, Those expressions alone should be given +to the figures which their respective situations generally produce. +Nor is this enough; each person should also have that expression which +men of his rank generally exhibit. The joy or the grief of a character +of dignity is not to be expressed in the same manner as a similar passion +in a vulgar face. Upon this principle Bernini, perhaps, may be +subject to censure. This sculptor, in many respects admirable, +has given a very mean expression to his statue of David, who is represented +as just going to throw the stone from the sling; and in order to give +it the expression of energy he has made him biting his under-lip. +This expression is far from being general, and still farther from being +dignified. He might have seen it in an instance or two, and he +mistook accident for universality.</p> +<p>With respect to colouring, though it may appear at first a part of +painting merely mechanical, yet it still has its rules, and those grounded +upon that presiding principle which regulates both the great and the +little in the study of a painter. By this, the first effect of +the picture is produced; and as this is performed the spectator, as +he walks the gallery, will stop, or pass along. To give a general +air of grandeur at first view, all trifling or artful play of little +lights or an attention to a variety of tints is to be avoided; a quietness +and simplicity must reign over the whole work; to which a breadth of +uniform and simple colour will very much contribute. Grandeur +of effect is produced by two different ways, which seem entirely opposed +to each other. One is, by reducing the colours to little more +than chiaroscuro, which was often the practice of the Bolognian schools; +and the other, by making the colours very distinct and forcible, such +as we see in those of Rome and Florence; but still, the presiding principle +of both those manners is simplicity. Certainly, nothing can be +more simple than monotony, and the distinct blue, red, and yellow colours +which are seen in the draperies of the Roman and Florentine schools, +though they have not that kind of harmony which is produced by a variety +of broken and transparent colours, have that effect of grandeur that +was intended. Perhaps these distinct colours strike the mind more +forcibly, from there not being any great union between them; as martial +music, which is intended to rouse the noble passions, has its effect +from the sudden and strongly marked transitions from one note to another, +which that style of music requires; whilst in that which is intended +to move the softer passions the notes imperceptibly melt into one another.</p> +<p>In the same manner as the historical painter never enters into the +detail of colours, so neither does he debase his conceptions with minute +attention to the discriminations of drapery. It is the inferior +style that marks the variety of stuffs. With him, the clothing +is neither woollen, nor linen, nor silk, satin, or velvet: it is drapery; +it is nothing more. The art of disposing the foldings of the drapery +make a very considerable part of the painter’s study. To +make it merely natural is a mechanical operation, to which neither genius +or taste are required; whereas, it requires the nicest judgment to dispose +the drapery, so that the folds have an easy communication, and gracefully +follow each other, with such natural negligence as to look like the +effect of chance, and at the same time show the figure under it to the +utmost advantage.</p> +<p>Carlo Maratti was of opinion that the disposition of drapery was +a more difficult art than even that of drawing the human figure; that +a student might be more easily taught the latter than the former; as +the rules of drapery, he said, could not be so well ascertained as those +for delineating a correct form, This, perhaps, is a proof how willingly +we favour our own peculiar excellence. Carlo Maratti is said to +have valued himself particularly upon his skill in this part of the +art yet in him the disposition appears so artificial, that he is inferior +to Raffaelle, even in that which gave him his best claim to reputation.</p> +<p>Such is the great principle by which we must be directed in the nobler +branches of our art. Upon this principle the Roman, the Florentine, +the Bolognese schools, have formed their practice; and by this they +have deservedly obtained the highest praise. These are the three +great schools of the world in the epic style. The best of the +French school, Poussin, Le Sueur, and Le Brun, have formed themselves +upon these models, and consequently may be said, though Frenchmen, to +be a colony from the Roman school. Next to these, but in a very +different style of excellence, we may rank the Venetian, together with +the Flemish and the Dutch schools, all professing to depart from the +great purposes of painting, and catching at applause by inferior qualities.</p> +<p>I am not ignorant that some will censure me for placing the Venetians +in this inferior class, and many of the warmest admirers of painting +will think them unjustly degraded; but I wish not to be misunderstood. +Though I can by no means allow them to hold any rank with the nobler +schools of painting, they accomplished perfectly the thing they attempted. +But as mere elegance is their principal object, as they seem more willing +to dazzle than to affect, it can be no injury to them to suppose that +their practice is useful only to its proper end. But what may +heighten the elegant may degrade the sublime. There is a simplicity, +and I may add, severity, in the great manner, which is, I am afraid, +almost incompatible with this comparatively sensual style.</p> +<p>Tintoret, Paul Veronese, and others of the Venetian schools, seem +to have painted with no other purpose than to be admired for their skill +and expertness in the mechanism of painting, and to make a parade of +that art which, as I before observed, the higher style requires its +followers to conceal.</p> +<p>In a conference of the French Academy, at which were present Le Brun, +Sebastian Bourdon, and all the eminent artists of that age, one of the +academicians desired to have their opinion on the conduct of Paul Veronese, +who, though a painter of great consideration, had, contrary to the strict +rules of art, in his picture of Perseus and Andromeda, represented the +principal figure in shade. To this question no satisfactory answer +was then given. But I will venture to say, that if they had considered +the class of the artist, and ranked him as an ornamental painter, there +would have been no difficulty in answering: “It was unreasonable +to expect what was never intended. His intention was solely to +produce an effect of light and Shadow; everything was to be sacrificed +to that intent, and the capricious composition of that picture suited +very well with the style he professed.”</p> +<p>Young minds are indeed too apt to be captivated by this splendour +of style, and that of the Venetians will be particularly pleasing; for +by them all those parts of the art that give pleasure to the eye or +sense have been cultivated with care, and carried to the degree nearest +to perfection. The powers exerted in the mechanical part of the +art have been called the language of painters; but we must say, that +it is but poor eloquence which only shows that the orator can talk. +Words should be employed as the means, not as the end: language is the +instrument, conviction is the work.</p> +<p>The language of painting must indeed be allowed these masters; but +even in that they have shown more copiousness than choice, and more +luxuriancy than judgment. If we consider the uninteresting subjects +of their invention, or at least the uninteresting manner in which they +are treated; if we attend to their capricious composition, their violent +and affected contrasts, whether of figures, or of light and shadow, +the richness of their drapery, and, at the same time, the mean effect +which the discrimination of stuffs gives to their pictures; if to these +we add their total inattention to expression, and then reflect on the +conceptions and the learning of Michael Angelo, or the simplicity of +Raffaelle, we can no longer dwell on the comparison. Even in colouring, +if we compare the quietness and chastity of the Bolognese pencil to +the bustle and tumult that fills every part of, a Venetian picture, +without the least attempt to interest the passions, their boasted art +will appear a mere struggle without effect; an empty tale told by an +idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing.</p> +<p>Such as suppose that the great style might happily be blended with +the ornamental, that the simple, grave, and majestic dignity of Raffaelle +could unite with the glow and bustle of a Paulo or Tintoret, are totally +mistaken. The principles by which each are attained are so contrary +to each other, that they seem, in my opinion, incompatible, and as impossible +to exist together, as to unite in the mind at the same time the most +sublime ideas and the lowest sensuality.</p> +<p>The subjects of the Venetian painters are mostly such as give them +an opportunity of introducing a great number of figures, such as feasts, +marriages, and processions, public martyrdoms, or miracles. I +can easily conceive that Paul Veronese, if he were asked, would say +that no subject was proper for an historical picture but such as admitted +at least forty figures; for in a less number, he would assert, there +could be no opportunity of the painter’s showing his art in composition, +his dexterity of managing and disposing the masses of light, and groups +of figures, and of introducing a variety of Eastern dresses and characters +in their rich stuffs.</p> +<p>But the thing is very different with a pupil of the greater schools. +Annibale Caracci thought twelve figures sufficient for any story: he +conceived that more would contribute to no end but to fill space; that +they would, be but cold spectators of the general action, or, to use +his own expression, that they would be figures to be let. Besides, +it is impossible for a picture composed of so many parts to have that +effect, so indispensably necessary to grandeur, of one complete whole. +However contradictory it may be in geometry, it is true in taste, that +many little things will not make a great one. The sublime impresses +the mind at once with one great idea; it is a single blow: the elegant +indeed may be produced by a repetition, by an accumulation of many minute +circumstances.</p> +<p>However great the difference is between the composition of the Venetian +and the rest of the Italian schools, there is full as great a disparity +in the effect of their pictures as produced by colours. And though +in this respect the Venetians must be allowed extraordinary skill, yet +even that skill, as they have employed it, will but ill correspond with +the great style. Their colouring is not only too brilliant, but, +I will venture to say, too harmonious to produce that solidity, steadiness, +and simplicity of effect which heroic subjects require, and which simple +or grave colours only can give to a work. That they are to be +cautiously studied by those who are ambitious of treading the great +walk of history is confirmed, if it wants confirmation, by the greatest +of all authorities, Michael Angelo. This wonderful man, after +having seen a picture by Titian, told Vasari, who accompanied him, “that +he liked much his colouring and manner; but then he added, that it was +a pity the Venetian painters did not learn to draw correctly in their +early youth, and adopt a better manner of study.”</p> +<p>By this it appears that the principal attention of the Venetian painters, +in the opinion of Michael Angelo, seemed to be engrossed by the study +of colours, to the neglect of the ideal beauty of form, or propriety +of expression. But if general censure was given to that school +from the sight of a picture of Titian, how much more heavily, and more +justly, would the censure fall on Paulo Veronese, or more especially +on Tintoret? And here I cannot avoid citing Vasari’s opinion +of the style and manner of Tintoret. “Of all the extraordinary +geniuses,” says he, “that have ever practised the art of +painting, for wild, capricious, extravagant, and fantastical inventions, +for furious impetuosity and boldness in the execution of his work, there +is none like Tintoret; his strange whims are even beyond extravagance; +and his works seem to be produced rather by chance than in consequence +of any previous design, as if he wanted to convince the world that, +the art was a trifle, and of the most easy attainment.”</p> +<p>For my own part, when I speak of the Venetian painters, I wish to +be understood to mean Paulo Veronese and Tintoret, to the exclusion +of Titian; for though his style is not so pure as that of many other +of the Italian schools, yet there is a sort of senatorial dignity about +him, which, however awkward in his imitators, seems to become him exceedingly. +His portraits alone, from the nobleness and simplicity of character +which he always gave them, will entitle him to the greatest respect, +as he undoubtedly stands in the first rank in this branch of the art.</p> +<p>It is not with Titian, but with the seducing qualities of the two +former, that I could wish to caution you, against being too much captivated. +These are the persons who may be said to have exhausted all the powers +of florid eloquence, to debauch the young and unexperienced, and have, +without doubt, been the cause of turning off the attention of the connoisseur +and of the patron of art, as well as that of the painter, from those +higher excellences of which the art is capable, and which ought to be +required in every considerable production. By them, and their +imitators, a style merely ornamental has been disseminated throughout +all Europe. Rubens carried it to Flanders, Voet to France, and +Luca Giordano to Spain and Naples.</p> +<p>The Venetian is indeed the most splendid of the schools of elegance; +and it is not without reason that the best performances in this lower +school are valued higher than the second-rate performances of those +above them; for every picture has value when it has a decided character, +and is excellent in its kind. But the student must take care not +to be so much dazzled with this splendour as to be tempted to imitate +what must ultimately lead from perfection. Poussin, whose eye +was always steadily fixed on the sublime, has been often heard to say, +“That a particular attention to colouring was an obstacle to the +student in his progress to the great end and design of the art; and +that he who attaches himself to this principal end will acquire by practice +a reasonably good method of colouring.”</p> +<p>Though it be allowed that elaborate harmony of colouring, a brilliancy +of tints, a soft and gradual transition from one to another, present +to the eye what an harmonious concert of music does to the ear, it must +be remembered that painting is not merely a gratification of the sight. +Such excellence, though properly cultivated where nothing higher than +elegance is intended, is weak and unworthy of regard, when the work +aspires to grandeur and sublimity.</p> +<p>The same reasons that have been urged why a mixture of the Venetian +style cannot improve the great style will hold good in regard to the +Flemish and Dutch schools. Indeed, the Flemish school, of which +Rubens is the head, was formed upon that of the Venetian; like them, +he took his figures too much from the people before him. But it +must be allowed in favour of the Venetians that he was more gross than +they, and carried all their mistaken methods to a far greater excess. +In the Venetian school itself, where they all err from the same cause, +there is a difference in the effect. The difference between Paulo +and Bassano seems to be only that one introduced Venetian gentlemen +into his pictures, and the other the boors of the district of Bassano, +and called them patriarchs and prophets.</p> +<p>The painters of the Dutch school have still more locality. +With them, a history piece is properly a portrait of themselves; whether +they describe the inside or outside of their houses, we have their own +people engaged in their own peculiar occupations, working or drinking, +playing or fighting. The circumstances that enter into a picture +of this kind are so far from giving a general view of human life that +they exhibit all the minute particularities of a nation differing in +several respects from the rest of mankind. Yet, let them have +their share of more humble praise. The painters of this school +are excellent in their own way; they are only ridiculous when they attempt +general history on their own narrow principles, and debase great events +by the meanness of their characters.</p> +<p>Some inferior dexterity, some extraordinary mechanical power, is +apparently that from which they seek distinction. Thus, we see, +that school alone has the custom of representing candle-light, not as +it really appears to us by night, but red, as it would illuminate objects +to a spectator by day. Such tricks, however pardonable in the +little style, where petty effects are the sole end, are inexcusable +in the greater, where the attention should never be drawn aside by trifles, +but should be entirely occupied by the subject itself.</p> +<p>The same local principles which characterise the Dutch school extend +even to their landscape painters; and Rubens himself, who has painted +many landscapes, has sometimes transgressed in this particular. +Their pieces in this way are, I think, always a representation of an +individual spot, and each in its kind a very faithful but very confined +portrait.</p> +<p>Claude Lorraine, on the contrary, was convinced that taking nature +as he found it seldom produced beauty. His pictures are a composition +of the various draughts which he has previously made from various beautiful +scenes and prospects. However, Rubens in some measure has made +amends for the deficiency with which he is charged; he has contrived +to raise and animate his otherwise uninteresting views, by introducing +a rainbow, storm, or some particular accidental effect of light. +That the practice of Claude Lorraine, in respect to his choice, is to +be adopted by landscape painters, in opposition to that of the Flemish +and Dutch schools, there can be no doubt, as its truth is founded upon +the same principle as that by which the historical painter acquires +perfect form. But whether landscape painting has a right to aspire +so far as to reject what the painters call accidents of nature is not +easy to determine. It is certain Claude Lorraine seldom, if ever, +availed himself of those accidents; either he thought that such peculiarities +were contrary to that style of general nature which he professed, or +that it would catch the attention too strongly, and destroy that quietness +and repose which he thought necessary to that kind of painting.</p> +<p>A portrait painter likewise, when he attempts history, unless he +is upon his guard, is likely to enter too much into the detail. +He too frequently makes his historical heads look like portraits; and +this was once the custom amongst those old painters who revived the +art before general ideas were practised or understood. A history +painter paints man in general; a portrait painter, a particular man, +and consequently a defective model.</p> +<p>Thus an habitual practice in the lower exercises of the art will +prevent many from attaining the greater. But such of us who move +in these humbler walks of the profession are not ignorant that, as the +natural dignity of the subject is less, the more all the little ornamental +helps are necessary to its embellishment. It would be ridiculous +for a painter of domestic scenes, of portraits, landscapes, animals, +or of still life, to say that he despised those qualities which have +made the subordinate schools so famous. The art of colouring, +and the skilful management of light and shadow, are essential requisites +in his confined labours. If we descend still lower, what is the +painter of fruit and flowers without the utmost art in colouring, and +what the painters call handling; that is, a lightness of pencil that +implies great practice, and gives the appearance of being done with +ease? Some here, I believe, must remember a flower-painter whose +boast it was that he scorned to paint for the million; no, he professed +to paint in the true Italian taste; and despising the crowd, called +strenuously upon the few to admire him. His idea of the Italian +taste was to paint as black and dirty as he could, and to leave all +clearness and brilliancy of colouring to those who were fonder of money +than of immortality. The consequence was such as might be expected. +For these pretty excellences are here essential beauties; and without +this merit the artist’s work will be more short-lived than the +objects of his imitation.</p> +<p>From what has been advanced, we must now be convinced that there +are two distinct styles in history painting: the grand, and the splendid +or ornamental.</p> +<p>The great style stands alone, and does not require, perhaps does +not so well admit, any addition from inferior beauties. The ornamental +style also possesses its own peculiar merit. However, though the +union of the two may make a sort of composite style, yet that style +is likely to be more imperfect than either of those which go to its +composition. Both kinds have merit, and may be excellent though +in different ranks, if uniformity be preserved, and the general and +particular ideas of nature be not mixed. Even the meanest of them +is difficult enough to attain; and the first place being already occupied +by the great artists in either department, some of those who followed +thought there was less room for them, and feeling the impulse of ambition +and the desire of novelty, and being at the same time perhaps willing +to take the shortest way, they endeavoured to make for themselves a +place between both. This they have effected by forming a union +of the different orders. But as the grave and majestic style would +suffer by a union with the florid and gay, so also has the Venetian +ornament in some respect been injured by attempting an alliance with +simplicity.</p> +<p>It may be asserted that the great style is always more or less contaminated +by any meaner mixture. But it happens in a few instances that +the lower may be improved by borrowing from the grand. Thus, if +a portrait painter is desirous to raise and improve his subject, he +has no other means than by approaching it to a general idea. He +leaves out all the minute breaks and peculiarities in the face, and +changes the dress from a temporary fashion to one more permanent, which +has annexed to it no ideas of meanness from its being familiar to us. +But if an exact resemblance of an individual be considered as the sole +object to be aimed at, the portrait painter will be apt to lose more +than he gains by the acquired dignity taken from general nature. +It is very difficult to ennoble the character of a countenance but at +the expense of the likeness, which is what is most generally required +by such as sit to the painter.</p> +<p>Of those who have practised the composite style, and have succeeded +in this perilous attempt, perhaps the foremost is Correggio. His +style is founded upon modern grace and elegance, to which is super, +added something of the simplicity of the grand style. A breadth +of light and colour, the general ideas of the drapery, an uninterrupted +flow of outline, all conspire to this effect. Next him (perhaps +equal to him) Parmegiano has dignified the genteelness of modern effeminacy +by uniting it with the simplicity of the ancients and the grandeur and +severity of Michael Angelo. It must be confessed, however, that +these two extraordinary men, by endeavouring to give the utmost degree +of grace, have sometimes, perhaps, exceeded its boundaries, and have +fallen into the most hateful of all hateful qualities, affectation. +Indeed, it is the peculiar characteristic of men of genius to be afraid +of coldness and insipidity, from which they think they never can be +too far removed. It particularly happens to these great masters +of grace and elegance. They often boldly drive on to the very +verge of ridicule; the spectator is alarmed, but at the same time admires +their vigour and intrepidity.</p> +<blockquote><p>Strange graces still, and stranger flights they had,<br /> +. . .<br /> +Yet ne’er so sure our passion to create<br /> +Ae when they touch’d the brink of all we hate.</p> +</blockquote> +<p>The errors of genius, however, are pardonable, and none even of the +more exalted painters are wholly free from them; but they have taught +us, by the rectitude of their general practice, to correct their own +affected or accidental deviation. The very first have not been +always upon their guard, and perhaps there is not a fault but what may +take shelter under the most venerable authorities; yet that style only +is perfect in which the noblest principles are uniformly pursued; and +those masters only are entitled to the first rank in, our estimation +who have enlarged the boundaries of their art, and have raised it to +its highest dignity, by exhibiting the general ideas of nature.</p> +<p>On the whole, it seems to me that there is but one presiding principle +which regulates and gives stability to every art. The works, whether +of poets, painters, moralists, or historians, which are built upon general +nature, live for ever; while those which depend for their existence +on particular customs and habits, a partial view of nature, or the fluctuation +of fashion, can only be coeval with that which first raised them from +obscurity. Present time and future maybe considered as rivals, +and he who solicits the one must expect to be discountenanced by the +other.</p> +<h3>A DISCOURSE<br /> +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution of +the Prizes, December 10, 1772, by the President.</h3> +<p>Gentlemen,—I purpose to carry on in this discourse the subject +which I began in my last. It was my wish upon that occasion to +incite you to pursue the higher excellences of the art. But I +fear that in this particular I have been misunderstood. Some are +ready to imagine, when any of their favourite acquirements in the art +are properly classed, that they are utterly disgraced. This is +a very great mistake: nothing has its proper lustre but in its proper +place. That which is most worthy of esteem in its allotted sphere +becomes an object, not of respect, but of derision, when it is forced +into a higher, to which it is not suited; and there it becomes doubly +a source of disorder, by occupying a situation which is not natural +to it, and by putting down from the first place what is in reality of +too much magnitude to become with grace and proportion that subordinate +station, to which something of less value would be much better suited.</p> +<p>My advice in a word is this: keep your principal attention fixed +upon the higher excellences. If you compass them and compass nothing +more, you are still in the first class. We may regret the innumerable +beauties which you may want: you may be very imperfect: but still, you +are an imperfect person of the highest order.</p> +<p>If, when you have got thus far, you can add any, or all, of the subordinate +qualifications, it is my wish and advice that you should not neglect +them.</p> +<p>But this is as much a matter of circumspection and caution at least +as of eagerness and pursuit.</p> +<p>The mind is apt to be distracted by a multiplicity of pursuits; and +that scale of perfection, which I wish always to be preserved, is in +the greatest danger of being totally disordered, and even inverted.</p> +<p>Some excellences bear to be united, and are improved by union, others +are of a discordant nature; and the attempt to join them only produces +a harsher jarring of incongruent principles.</p> +<p>The attempt to unite contrary excellences (of form, for instance) +in a single figure, can never escape degenerating into the monstrous, +but by sinking into the insipid, taking away its marked character, and +weakening its expression.</p> +<p>This remark is true to a certain degree with regard to the passions. +If you mean to preserve the most perfect beauty in its most perfect +state, you cannot express the passions, which produce (all of them) +distortion and deformity, more or less, in the most beautiful faces.</p> +<p>Guido, from want of choice in adapting his subject to his ideas and +his powers, or in attempting to preserve beauty where it could not be +preserved has in this respect succeeded very ill. His figures +are often engaged in subjects that required great expression: yet his +“Judith and Holofernes,” the “Daughter of Herodias +with the Baptist’s Head,” the “Andromeda,” and +even the “Mothers of the Innocents,” have little more expression +than his “Venus attired by the Graces.”</p> +<p>Obvious as these remarks appear, there are many writers on our art, +who, not being of the profession, and consequently not knowing what +can or what cannot be done, have been very liberal of absurd praises +in their descriptions of favourite works. They always find in +them what they are resolved to find. They praise excellences that +can hardly exist together, and above all things are fond of describing +with great exactness the expression of a mixed passion, which more particularly +appears to me out of the reach of our art.</p> +<p>Such are many disquisitions which I have read on some of the cartoons +and other pictures of Raffaelle, where the critics have described their +own imagination; or indeed where the excellent master himself may have +attempted this expression of passions above the powers of the art; and +has, therefore, by an indistinct and imperfect marking, left room for +every imagination, with equal probability to find a passion of his own. +What has been, and what can be done in the art, is sufficiently difficult; +we need not be mortified or discouraged for not being able to execute +the conceptions of a romantic imagination. Art has its boundaries, +though imagination has none. We can easily, like the ancients, +suppose a Jupiter to be possessed of all those powers and perfections +which the subordinate Deities were endowed with separately. Yet, +when they employed their art to represent him, they confined his character +to majesty alone. Pliny, therefore, though we are under great +obligations to him for the information he has given us in relation to +the works of the ancient artists, is very frequently wrong when he speaks +of them, which he does very often in the style of many of our modern +connoisseurs. He observes that in a statue of Paris, by Fuphranor, +you might discover at the same time three different characters; the +dignity of a judge of the goddesses, the lover of Helen, and the conqueror +of Achilles. A statue in which you endeavour to unite stately +dignity, youthful elegance, and stern valour, must surely possess none +of these to any eminent degree.</p> +<p>From hence it appears that there is much difficulty as well as danger +in an endeavour to concentrate upon a single subject those various powers +which, rising from different points, naturally move in different directions.</p> +<p>The summit of excellence seems to be an assemblage of contrary qualities, +but mixed, in such proportions, that no one part is found to counteract +the other. How hard this is to be attained in every art, those +only know who have made the greatest progress in their respective professions.</p> +<p>To conclude what I have to say on this part of the subject, which +I think of great importance, I wish you to understand that I do not +discourage the younger students from the noble attempt of uniting all +the excellences of art, but to make them aware that, besides the difficulties +which attend every arduous attempt, there is a peculiar difficulty in +the choice of the excellences which ought to be united; I wish you to +attend to this, that you may try yourselves, whenever you are capable +of that trial, what you can, and what you cannot do: and that, instead +of dissipating your natural faculties over the immense field of possible +excellence, you may choose some particular walk in which you may exercise +all your powers, in order each of you to be the first in his way. +If any man shall be master of such a transcendant, commanding, and ductile +genius, as to enable him to rise to the highest, and to stoop to the +lowest flights of art, and to sweep over all of them unobstructed and +secure, he is fitter to give example than to receive instruction.</p> +<p>Having said thus much on the union of excellences, I will next say +something of the subordination in which various excellences ought to +be kept.</p> +<p>I am of opinion that the ornamental style, which in my discourse +of last year I cautioned you against considering as principal, may not +be wholly unworthy the attention of those who aim even at the grand +style; when it is properly placed and properly reduced.</p> +<p>But this study will be used with far better effect, if its principles +are employed in softening the harshness and mitigating the rigour of +the great style, than if in attempt to stand forward with any pretensions +of its own to positive and original excellence.</p> +<p>It was thus Lodovico Caracci, whose example I formerly recommended +to you, employed it. He was acquainted with the works both of +Correggio and the Venetian painters, and knew the principles by which +they produced those pleasing effects which at the first glance prepossess +us so much in their favour; but he took only as much from each as would +embellish, but not overpower, that manly strength and energy of style, +which is his peculiar character.</p> +<p>Since I have already expatiated so largely in my former discourse, +and in my present, upon the styles and characters of painting, it will +not be at all unsuitable to my subject if I mention to you some particulars +relative to the leading principles, and capital works of those who excelled +in the great style, that I may bring you from abstraction nearer to +practice, and by exemplifying the propositions which I have laid down, +enable you to understand more clearly what I would enforce.</p> +<p>The principal works of modern art are in fresco, a mode of painting +which excludes attention to minute elegancies: yet these works in fresco +are the productions on which the fame of the greatest masters depend: +such are the pictures of Michael Angelo and Raffaelle in the Vatican, +to which we may add the cartoons, which, though not strictly to be called +fresco, yet may be put under that denomination; and such are the works +of Giulio Romano at Mantua. If these performances were destroyed, +with them would be lost the best part of the reputation of those illustrious +painters, for these are justly considered as the greatest efforts of +our art which the world can boast. To these, therefore, we should +principally direct our attention for higher excellences. As for +the lower arts, as they have been once discovered, they may be easily +attained by those possessed of the former.</p> +<p>Raffaelle, who stands in general foremost of the first painters, +owes his reputation, as I have observed, to his excellence in the higher +parts of the art. Therefore, his works in fresco ought to be the +first object of our study and attention. His easel-works stand +in a lower degree of estimation; for though he continually, to the day +of his death, embellished his works more and more with the addition +of these lower ornaments, which entirely make the merit of some, yet +he never arrived at such perfection as to make him an object of imitation. +He never was able to conquer perfectly that dryness, or even littleness +of manner, which he inherited from his master. He never acquired +that nicety of taste in colours, that breadth of light and shadow, that +art and management of uniting light, to light, and shadow to shadow, +so as to make the object rise out of the ground with that plenitude +of effect so much admired in the works of Correggio. When he painted +in oil, his hand seemed to be so cramped and confined that he not only +lost that facility and spirit, but I think even that correctness of +form, which is so perfect and admirable in his fresco works. I +do not recollect any pictures of his of this kind, except perhaps the +“Transfiguration,” in which there are not some parts that +appear to be even feebly drawn. That this is not a necessary attendant +on oil-painting, we have abundant instances in more modern painters. +Lodovico Caracci, for instance, preserved in his works in oil the same +spirit, vigour, and correctness, which he had in fresco. I have +no desire to degrade Raffaelle from the high rank which he deservedly +holds: but by comparing him with himself, he does not appear to me to +be the same man in oil as in fresco.</p> +<p>From those who have ambition to tread in this great walk of the art, +Michael Angelo claims the next attention. He did not possess so +many excellences as Raffaelle, but those he had were of the highest +kind. He considered the art as consisting of little more than +what may be attained by sculpture, correctness of form, and energy of +character. We ought not to expect more than an artist intends +in his work. He never attempted those lesser elegancies and graces +in the art. Vasari says, he never painted but one picture in oil, +and resolved never to paint another, saying it was an employment only +fit for women and children.</p> +<p>If any man had a right to look down upon the lower accomplishments +as beneath his attention, it was certainly Michael Angelo: nor can it +be thought strange that such a mind should have slighted or have been +withheld from paying due attention to all those graces and embellishments +of art which have diffused such lustre over the works of other painters.</p> +<p>It must be acknowledged likewise, that together with these, which +we wish he had more attended to, he has rejected all the false though +specious ornaments which disgrace the works even of the most esteemed +artists; and I will venture to say, that when those higher excellences +are more known and cultivated by the artists and the patrons of arts, +his fame and credit will increase with our increasing knowledge. +His name will then be held in the same veneration as it was in the enlightened +age of Leo the Tenth: and it is remarkable that the reputation of this +truly great man has been continually declining as the art itself has +declined. For I must remark to you, that it has long been much +on the decline, and that our only hope of its revival will consist in +your being thoroughly sensible of its depravation and decay. It +is to Michael Angelo that we owe even the existence of Raffaelle; it +is to him Raffaelle owes the grandeur of his style. He was taught +by him to elevate his thoughts, and to conceive his subjects with dignity. +His genius, however, formed to blaze and to shine, might, like fire +in combustible matter, for ever have lain dormant if it had not caught +a spark by its contact with Michael Angelo: and though it never burst +out with that extraordinary heat and vehemence, yet it must be acknowledged +to be a more pure, regular, and chaste flame. Though our judgment +will upon the whole decide in favour of Raffaelle: yet he never takes +that firm hold and entire possession of the mind in such a manner as +to desire nothing else, and feel nothing wanting. The effect of +the capital works of Michael Angelo perfectly correspond to what Bourchardon +said he felt from reading Homer. His whole frame appeared to himself +to be enlarged, and all nature which surrounded him diminished to atoms.</p> +<p>If we put those great artists in a light of comparison with each +other, Raffaelle had more taste and fancy, Michael Angelo more genius +and imagination. The one excelled in beauty, the other in energy. +Michael Angelo has more of the poetical inspiration; his ideas are vast +and sublime; his people are a superior order of beings; there is nothing +about them, nothing in the air of their actions or their attitudes, +or the style and cast of their very limbs or features, that puts one +in mind of their belonging, to our own species. Raffaelle’s +imagination is not so elevated; his figures are not so much disjoined +from our own diminutive race of beings, though his ideas are chaste, +noble, and of great conformity to their subjects. Michael Angelo’s +works have a strong, peculiar, and marked character; they seem to proceed +from his own mind entirely, and that mind so rich and abundant, that +he never needed, or seemed to disdain, to look abroad for foreign help. +Raffaelle’s materials are generally borrowed, though the noble +structure is his own. The excellency of this extraordinary man +lay in the propriety, beauty, and majesty of his characters, his judicious +contrivance of his composition, correctness of drawing, purity of taste, +and the skilful accommodation of other men’s conceptions to his +own purpose. Nobody excelled him in that judgment, with which +he united to his own observations on nature the energy of Michael Angelo, +and the beauty and simplicity of the antique. To the question, +therefore, which ought to hold the first rank, Raffaelle or Michael +Angelo, it must be answered, that if it is to be given to him who possessed +a greater combination of the higher qualities of the art than any other +man, there is no doubt but Raffaelle is the first. But if, according +to Longinus, the sublime, being the highest excellence that human composition +can attain to, abundantly compensates the absence of every other beauty, +and atones for all other deficiencies, then Michael Angelo demands the +preference.</p> +<p>These two extraordinary men carried some of the higher excellences +of the art to a greater degree of perfection than probably they ever +arrived at before. They certainly have not been excelled, nor +equalled since. Many of their successors were induced to leave +this great road as a beaten path, endeavouring to surprise and please +by something uncommon or new. When this desire after novelty has +proceeded from mere idleness or caprice, it is not worth the trouble +of criticism; but when it has been in consequence of a busy mind of +a peculiar complexion, it is always striking and interesting, never +insipid.</p> +<p>Such is the great style as it appears in those who possessed it at +its height; in this, search after novelty in conception or in treating +the subject has no place.</p> +<p>But there is another style, which, though inferior to the former, +has still great merit, because it shows that those who cultivated it +were men of lively and vigorous imagination. This I call the original +or characteristical style; this, being less referred to any true architype +existing either in general or particular nature, must be supported by +the painter’s consistency in the principles he has assumed, and +in the union and harmony of his whole design. The excellency of +every style, but I think of the subordinate ones more especially, will +very much depend on preserving that union and harmony between all the +component parts, that they appear to hang well together, as if the whole +proceeded from one mind. It is in the works of art, as in the +characters of men. The faults or defects of some men seem to become +them when they appear to be the natural growth, and of a piece with +the rest of their character. A faithful picture of a mind, though +it be not of the most elevated kind, though it be irregular, wild, and +incorrect, yet if it be marked with that spirit and firmness which characterises +works of genius, will claim attention, and be more striking than a combination +of excellences that do not seem to hang well together, or we may say +than a work that possesses even all excellences, but those in a moderate +degree.</p> +<p>One of the strongest marked characters of this kind, which must be +allowed to be subordinate to the great style, is that of Salvator Rosa. +He gives us a peculiar cast of nature, which, though void of all grace, +elegance, and simplicity; though it has nothing of that elevation and +dignity which belongs to the grand style, yet has that sort of dignity +which belongs to savage and uncultivated nature. But what is most +to be admired in him is the perfect correspondence which he observed +between the subjects which he chose, and his manner of treating them. +Everything is of a piece: his rocks, trees, sky, even to his handling +have the same rude and wild character which animates his figures.</p> +<p>To him we may contrast the character of Carlo Maratti, who, in my +own opinion, had no great vigour of mind or strength of original genius. +He rarely seizes the imagination by exhibiting the higher excellences, +nor does he captivate us by that originality which attends the painter +who thinks for himself. He knew and practised all the rules of +art, and from a composition of Raffaelle, Caracci, and Guido, made up +a style, of which its only fault was, that it had no manifest defects +and no striking beauties, and that the principles of his composition +are never blended together, so as to form one uniform body, original +in its kind, or excellent in any view.</p> +<p>I will mention two other painters who, though entirely dissimilar, +yet by being each consistent with himself, and possessing a manner entirely +his own, have both gained reputation, though for very opposite accomplishments.</p> +<p>The painters I mean are Rubens and Poussin. Rubens I mention +in this place, as I think him a remarkable instance of the same mind +being seen in all the various parts of the art. The whole is so +much of a piece that one can scarce be brought to believe but that if +any one of them had been more correct and perfect, his works would not +be so complete as they now appear. If we should allow a greater +purity and correctness of drawing, his want of simplicity in composition, +colouring, and drapery would appear more gross.</p> +<p>In his composition his art is too apparent. His figures have +expression, and act with energy, but without simplicity or dignity. +His colouring, in which he is eminently skilled, is, notwithstanding, +too much of what we call tinted. Throughout the whole of his works +there is a proportionable want of that nicety of distinction and elegance +of mind which is required in the higher walks of painting; and to this +want it may be in some degree ascribed that those qualities which make +the excellency of this subordinate style appear in him with their greatest +lustre. Indeed, the facility with which he invented, the richness +of his composition, the luxuriant harmony and brilliancy of his colouring, +so dazzle the eye, that whilst his works continue before us we cannot +help thinking that all his deficiencies are fully supplied.</p> +<p>Opposed to this florid, careless, loose, and inaccurate style, that +of the simple, careful, pure, and correct style of Poussin seems to +be a complete contrast.</p> +<p>Yet however opposite their characters, in one thing they agreed, +both of them having a perfect correspondence between all the parts of +their respective manners.</p> +<p>One is not sure but every alteration of what is considered as defective +in either, would destroy the effect of the whole.</p> +<p>Poussin lived and conversed with the ancient statues so long, that +he may be said to be better acquainted with then than with the people +who were about him. I have often thought that he carried his veneration +for them so far as to wish to give his works the air of ancient paintings. +It is certain he copied some of the antique paintings, particularly +the “Marriage in the Albrobrandini Palace at Rome,” which +I believe to be the best relique of those remote ages that has yet been +found.</p> +<p>No works of any modern has so much of the air of antique painting +as those of Poussin. His best performances have a remarkable dryness +of manner, which, though by no means to be recommended for imitation, +yet seems perfectly correspondent to that ancient simplicity which distinguishes +his style. Like Polidoro he studied them so much, that he acquired +a habit of thinking in their way, and seemed to know perfectly the actions +and gestures they would use on every occasion.</p> +<p>Poussin in the latter part of his life changed from his dry manner +to one much softer and richer, where there is a greater union between +the figures and the ground, such as the “Seven Sacraments” +in the Duke of Orleans’ collection; but neither these, nor any +in this manner, are at all comparable to many in his dry manner which +we have in England.</p> +<p>The favourite subjects of Poussin were ancient fables; and no painter +was ever better qualified to paint such subjects, not only from his +being eminently skilled in the knowledge of ceremonies, customs, and +habits of the ancients, but from his being so well acquainted with the +different characters which those who invented them gave their allegorical +figures. Though Rubens has shown great fancy in his Satyrs, Silenuses, +and Fauns, yet they are not that distinct separate class of beings which +is carefully exhibited by the ancients and by Poussin. Certainly +when such subjects of antiquity are represented, nothing in the picture +ought to remind us of modern times. The mind is thrown back into +antiquity, and nothing ought to be introduced that may tend to awaken +it from the illusion.</p> +<p>Poussin seemed to think that the style and the language in which +such stories are told is not the worse for preserving some relish of +the old way of painting which seemed to give a general uniformity to +the whole, so that the mind was thrown back into antiquity not only +by the subject, but the execution.</p> +<p>If Poussin, in imitation of the ancients, represents Apollo driving +his chariot out of the sea by way of representing the sun rising, if +he personifies lakes and rivers, it is no ways offensive in him; but +seems perfectly of a piece with the general air of the picture. +On the contrary, if the figures which people his pictures had a modern +air or countenance, if they appeared like our countrymen, if the draperies +were like cloth or silk of our manufacture, if the landscape had the +appearance of a modern view, how ridiculous would Apollo appear instead +of the sun, an old man or a nymph with an urn instead of a river or +lake.</p> +<p>I cannot avoid mentioning here a circumstance in portrait painting +which may help to confirm what has been said.</p> +<p>When a portrait is painted in the historical style, as it is neither +an exact minute representation of an individual nor completely ideal, +every circumstance ought to correspond to this mixture. The simplicity +of the antique air and attitude, however much to be admired, is ridiculous +when joined to a figure in a modern dress. It is not to my purpose +to enter into the question at present, whether this mixed style ought +to be adopted or not; yet if it is chosen it is necessary it should +be complete and all of a piece: the difference of stuffs, for instance, +which make the clothing, should be distinguished in the same degree +as the head deviates from a general idea.</p> +<p>Without this union, which I have so often recommended, a work can +have no marked and determined character, which is the peculiar and constant +evidence of genius. But when this is accomplished to a high degree, +it becomes in some sort a rival to that style which we have fixed as +the highest.</p> +<p>Thus I have given a sketch of the characters of Rubens and Salvator +Rosa, as they appear to me to have the greatest uniformity of mind throughout +their whole work. But we may add to these, all these artists who +are at the head of the class, and have had a school of imitators from +Michael Angelo down to Watteau. Upon the whole it appears that +setting aside the ornamental style, there are two different paths, either +of which a student may take without degrading the dignity of his art. +The first is to combine the higher excellences and embellish them to +the greatest advantage. The other is to carry one of these excellences +to the highest degree. But those who possess neither must be classed +with them, who, as Shakespeare says, are men of no mark or likelihood.</p> +<p>I inculcate as frequently as I can your forming yourselves upon great +principles and great models. Your time will be much misspent in +every other pursuit. Small excellences should be viewed, not studied; +they ought to be viewed, because nothing ought to escape a painter’s +observation, but for no other reason.</p> +<p>There is another caution which I wish to give you. Be as select +in those whom you endeavour to please, as in those whom you endeavour +to imitate. Without the love of fame you can never do anything +excellent; but by an excessive and undistinguishing thirst after it, +you will come to have vulgar views; you will degrade your style; and +your taste will be entirely corrupted. It is certain that the +lowest style will be the most popular, as it falls within the compass +of ignorance itself; and the vulgar will always be pleased with what +is natural in the confined and misunderstood sense of the word.</p> +<p>One would wish that such depravation of taste should be counteracted, +with such manly pride as Euripides expressed to the Athenians, who criticised +his works, “I do not compose,” says he, “my works +in order to be corrected by you, but to instruct you.” It +is true, to have a right to speak thus, a man must be a Euripides. +However, thus much may be allowed, that when an artist is sure that +he is upon firm ground, supported by the authority and practice of his +predecessors of the greatest reputation, he may then assume the boldness +and intrepidity of genius; at any rate, he must not be tempted out of +the right path by any tide of popularity that always accompanies the +lower styles of painting.</p> +<p>I mention this, because our exhibitions, that produce such admirable +effects by nourishing emulation, and calling out genius, have also a +mischievous tendency by seducing the painter to an ambition of pleasing +indiscriminately the mixed multitude of people who resort to them.</p> +<h3>A DISCOURSE<br /> +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution of +the Prizes, December 10, 1774, by the President.</h3> +<p>Gentlemen,—When I have taken the liberty of addressing you +on the course and order of your studies, I never proposed to enter into +a minute detail of the art. This I have always left to the several +professors, who pursue the end of our institution with the highest honour +to themselves, and with the greatest advantage to the students.</p> +<p>My purpose in the discourses I have held in the Academy is to lay +down certain general ideas, which seem to me proper for the formation +of a sound taste; principles necessary to guard the pupils against those +errors into which the sanguine temper common at their time of life, +has a tendency to lead them, and which have rendered abortive the hopes +of so many successions of promising young men in all parts of Europe.</p> +<p>I wish, also, to intercept and suppress those prejudices which particularly +prevail when the mechanism of painting is come to its perfection, and +which when they do prevail are certain to prevail to the utter destruction +of the higher and more valuable parts of this literate and liberal profession.</p> +<p>These two have been my principal purposes; they are still as much +my concern as ever; and if I repeat my own ideas on the subject, you +who know how fast mistake and prejudice, when neglected, gain ground +upon truth and reason, will easily excuse me. I only attempt to +set the same thing in the greatest variety of lights.</p> +<p>The subject of this discourse will be imitation, as far as a painter +is concerned in it. By imitation I do not mean imitation in its +largest sense, but simply the following of other masters, and the advantage +to be drawn from the study of their works.</p> +<p>Those who have undertaken to write on our art, and have represented +it as a kind of inspiration, as a gift bestowed upon peculiar favourites +at their birth, seem to ensure a much more favourable disposition from +their readers, and have a much more captivating and liberal air, than +he who goes about to examine, coldly, whether there are any means by +which this art may be acquired; how our mind may be strengthened and +expanded, and what guides will show the way to eminence.</p> +<p>It is very natural for those who are unacquainted with the cause +of anything extraordinary to be astonished at the effect, and to consider +it as a kind of magic. They, who have never observed the gradation +by which art is acquired, who see only what is the full result of long +labour and application of an infinite number, and infinite variety of +acts, are apt to conclude from their entire inability to do the same +at once, that it is not only inaccessible to themselves, but can be +done by those only who have some gift of the nature of inspiration bestowed +upon them.</p> +<p>The travellers into the East tell us that when the ignorant inhabitants +of these countries are asked concerning the ruins of stately edifices +yet remaining amongst them, the melancholy monuments of their former +grandeur and long-lost science, they always answer that they were built +by magicians. The untaught mind finds a vast gulf between its +own powers and these works of complicated art which it is utterly unable +to fathom. And it supposes that such a void can be passed only +by supernatural powers.</p> +<p>And, as for artists themselves, it is by no means their interest +to undeceive such judges, however conscious they may be of the very +natural means by which the extraordinary powers were acquired; our art +being intrinsically imitative, rejects this idea of inspiration more, +perhaps, than any other.</p> +<p>It is to avoid this plain confession of truth, as it should seem, +that this imitation of masters—indeed, almost all imitation which +implies a more regular and progressive method of attaining the ends +of painting—has ever been particularly inveighed against with +great keenness, both by ancient and modern writers.</p> +<p>To derive all from native power, to owe nothing to another, is the +praise which men, who do not much think what they are saying, bestow +sometimes upon others, and sometimes on themselves; and their imaginary +dignity is naturally heightened by a supercilious censure of the low, +the barren, the grovelling, the servile imitator. It would be +no wonder if a student, frightened by these terrors and disgraceful +epithets, with which the poor imitators are so often loaded, should +let fall his pencil in mere despair, conscious how much he has been +indebted to the labours of others, how little, how very little of his +art was born with him; and, considering it as hopeless, to set about +acquiring by the imitation of any human master what he is taught to +suppose is matter of inspiration from heaven.</p> +<p>Some allowance must be made for what is said in the gaiety or ambition +of rhetoric. We cannot suppose that any one can really mean to +exclude all imitation of others. A position so wild would scarce +deserve a serious answer, for it is apparent, if we were forbid to make +use of the advantages which our predecessors afford us, the art would +be always to begin, and consequently remain always in its infant state; +and it is a common observation that no art was ever invented and carried +to perfection at the same time.</p> +<p>But to bring us entirely to reason and sobriety, let it be observed, +that a painter must not only be of necessity an imitator of the works +of nature, which alone is sufficient to dispel this phantom of inspiration, +but he must be as necessarily an imitator of the works of other painters. +This appears more humiliating, but it is equally true; and no man can +be an artist, whatever he may suppose, upon any other terms.</p> +<p>However, those who appear more moderate and reasonable allow that +study is to begin by imitation, but that we should no longer use the +thoughts of our predecessors when we are become able to think for ourselves. +They hold that imitation is as hurtful to the more advanced student +as it was advantageous to the beginner.</p> +<p>For my own part, I confess I am not only very much disposed to lay +down the absolute necessity of imitation in the first stages of the +art, but am of opinion that the study of other masters, which I here +call imitation, may be extended throughout our whole life without any +danger of the inconveniences with which it is charged, of enfeebling +the mind, or preventing us from giving that original air which every +work undoubtedly ought always to have.</p> +<p>I am, on the contrary, persuaded that by imitation only, variety, +and even originality of invention is produced.</p> +<p>I will go further; even genius, at least what generally is so called, +is the child of imitation. But as this appears to be contrary +to the general opinion, I must explain my position before I enforce +it.</p> +<p>Genius is supposed to be a power of producing excellences which are +out of the reach of the rules of art—a power which no precepts +can teach, and which no industry can acquire.</p> +<p>This opinion of the impossibility of acquiring those beauties which +stamp the work with the character of genius, supposes that it is something +more fixed than in reality it is, and that we always do, and ever did +agree, about what should be considered as a characteristic of genius.</p> +<p>But the truth is that the degree of excellence which proclaims genius +is different in different times and different places; and what shows +it to be so is that mankind have often changed their opinion upon this +matter.</p> +<p>When the arts were in their infancy, the power of merely drawing +the likeness of any object was considered as one of its greatest efforts.</p> +<p>The common people, ignorant of the principles of art, talk the same +language even to this day. But when it was found that every man +could be taught to do this, and a great deal more, merely by the observance +of certain precepts, the name of genius then shifted its application, +and was given only to those who added the peculiar character of the +object they represented; to those who had invention, expression, grace, +or dignity; or, in short, such qualities or excellences the producing +of which could not then be taught by any known and promulgated rules.</p> +<p>We are very sure that the beauty of form, the expression of the passions, +the art of composition, even the power of giving a general air of grandeur +to your work, is at present very much under the dominion of rules. +These excellences were, heretofore, considered merely as the effects +of genius; and justly, if genius is not taken for inspiration, but as +the effect of close observation and experience.</p> +<p>He who first made any of these observations and digested them, so +as to form an invariable principle for himself to work by, had that +merit; but probably no one went very far at once; and generally the +first who gave the hint did not know how to pursue it steadily and methodically, +at least not in the beginning. He himself worked on it, and improved +it; others worked more, and improved farther, until the secret was discovered, +and the practice made as general as refined practice can be made. +How many more principles may be fixed and ascertained we cannot tell; +but as criticism is likely to go hand in hand with the art which is +its subject, we may venture to say that as that art shall advance, its +powers will be still more and more fixed by rules.</p> +<p>But by whatever strides criticism may gain ground, we need be under +no apprehension that invention will ever be annihilated or subdued, +or intellectual energy be brought entirely within the restraint of written +law. Genius will still have room enough to expatiate, and keep +always the same distance from narrow comprehension and mechanical performance.</p> +<p>What we now call genius begins, not where rules, abstractedly taken, +end, but where known vulgar and trite rules have no longer any place. +It must of necessity be that even works of genius, as well as every +other effect, as it must have its cause, must likewise have its rules; +it cannot be by chance that excellences are produced with any constancy, +or any certainty, for this is not the nature of chance, but the rules +by which men of extraordinary parts, and such as are called men of genius +work, are either such as they discover by their own peculiar observation, +or of such a nice texture as not easily to admit handling or expressing +in words, especially as artists are not very frequently skilful in that +mode of communicating ideas.</p> +<p>Unsubstantial, however, as these rules may seem, and difficult as +it may be to convey them in writing, they are still seen and felt in +the mind of the artist, and he works from them with as much certainty +as if they were embodied, as I may say, upon paper. It is true +these refined principles cannot be always made palpable, like the more +gross rules of art; yet it does not follow but that the mind may be +put in such a train that it shall perceive, by a kind of scientific +sense, that propriety which words, particularly words of unpractised +writers such as we are, can but very feebly suggest.</p> +<p>Invention is one of the great marks of genius, but if we consult +experience, we shall find that it is by being conversant with the inventions +of others that we learn to invent, as by reading the thoughts of others +we learn to think.</p> +<p>Whoever has so far formed his taste as to be able to relish and feel +the beauties of the great masters has gone a great way in his study; +for, merely from a consciousness of this relish of the right, the mind +swells with an inward pride, and is almost as powerfully affected as +if it had itself produced what it admires. Our hearts frequently +warmed in this manner by the contact of those whom we wish to resemble, +will undoubtedly catch something of their way of thinking, and we shall +receive in our own bosoms some radiation at least of their fire and +splendour. That disposition, which is so strong in children, still +continues with us, of catching involuntarily the general air and manner +of those with whom we are most conversant; with this difference only, +that a young mind is naturally pliable and imitative, but in a more +advanced state it grows rigid, and must be warmed and softened before +it will receive a deep impression.</p> +<p>From these considerations, which a little of your reflection will +carry a great way further, it appears of what great consequence it is +that our minds should be habituated to the contemplation of excellence, +and that, far from being contented to make such habits the discipline +of our youth only, we should, to the last moment of our lives, continue +a settled intercourse with all the true examples of grandeur. +Their inventions are not only the food of our infancy, but the substance +which supplies the fullest maturity of our vigour.</p> +<p>The mind is but a barren soil; is a soil soon exhausted, and will +produce no crop, or only one, unless it be continually fertilised and +enriched with foreign matter.</p> +<p>When we have had continually before us the great works of art to +impregnate our minds with kindred ideas, we are then, and not till then, +fit to produce something, of the same species. We behold all about +us with the eyes of these penetrating observers, and our minds, accustomed +to think the thoughts of the noblest and brightest intellects, are prepared +for the discovery and selection of all that is great and noble in nature. +The greatest natural genius cannot subsist on its own stock: he who +resolves never to ransack any mind but his own will be soon reduced, +from mere barrenness, to the poorest of all imitations; he will be obliged +to imitate himself, and to repeat what he has before often repeated. +When we know the subject designed by such men, it will never be difficult +to guess what kind of work is to be produced.</p> +<p>It is vain for painters or poets to endeavour to invent without materials +on which the mind may work, and from which invention must originate. +Nothing can come of nothing.</p> +<p>Homer is supposed to be possessed of all the learning of his time. +And we are certain that Michael Angelo and Raffaelle were equally possessed +of all knowledge in the art which was discoverable in the works of their +predecessors.</p> +<p>A mind enriched by an assemblage of all the treasures of ancient +and modern art will be more elevated and fruitful in resources in proportion +to the number of ideas which have been carefully collected and thoroughly +digested. There can be no doubt that he who has the most materials +has the greatest means of invention; and if he has not the power of +using them, it must proceed from a feebleness of intellect or from the +confused manner in which those collections have been laid up in his +mind.</p> +<p>The addition of other men’s judgment is so far from weakening, +as is the opinion of many, our own, that it will fashion and consolidate +those ideas of excellence which lay in their birth feeble, ill-shaped, +and confused, but which are finished and put in order by the authority +and practice of those whose works may be said to have been consecrated +by having stood the test of ages.</p> +<p>The mind, or genius, has been compared to a spark of fire which is +smothered by a heap of fuel and prevented from blazing into a flame. +This simile, which is made use of by the younger Pliny, may be easily +mistaken for argument or proof.</p> +<p>There is no danger of the mind’s being over-burdened with knowledge, +or the genius extinguished by any addition of images; on the contrary, +these acquisitions may as well, perhaps better, be compared, if comparisons +signified anything in reasoning, to the supply of living embers, which +will contribute to strengthen the spark that without the association +of more would have died away.</p> +<p>The truth is, he whose feebleness is such as to make other men’s +thoughts an incumbrance to him can have no very great strength of mind +or genius of his own to be destroyed, so that not much harm will be +done at worst.</p> +<p>We may oppose to Pliny the greater authority of Cicero, who is continually +enforcing the necessity of this method of study. In his dialogue +on Oratory he makes Crassus say, that one of the first and most important +precepts is to choose a proper model for our imitation. <i>Hoc +fit primum in preceptis meis ut demonstremus quem imitemur</i>.</p> +<p>When I speak of the habitual imitation and continued study of masters, +it is not to be understood that I advise any endeavour to copy the exact +peculiar colour and complexion of another man’s mind; the success +of such an attempt must always be like his who imitates exactly the +air, manner, and gestures of him whom he admires. His model may +be excellent, but the copy will be ridiculous; this ridicule does not +arise from his having imitated, but from his not having chosen the right +mode of imitation.</p> +<p>It is a necessary and warrantable pride to disdain to walk servilely +behind any individual, however elevated his rank. The true and +liberal ground of imitation is an open field, where, though he who precedes +has had the advantage of starting before you, yet it is enough to pursue +his course; you need not tread in his footsteps, and you certainly have +a right to outstrip him if you can.</p> +<p>Nor, whilst I recommend studying the art from artists, can I be supposed +to mean that nature is to be neglected? I take this study in aid +and not in exclusion of the other. Nature is, and must be, the +fountain which alone is inexhaustible; and from which all excellences +must originally flow.</p> +<p>The great use of studying our predecessors is to open the mind, to +shorten our labour, and to give us the result of the selection made +by those great minds of what is grand or beautiful in nature: her rich +stores are all spread out before us; but it is an art, and no easy art, +to know how or what to choose, and how to attain and secure the object +of our choice.</p> +<p>Thus the highest beauty of form must be taken from nature; but it +is an art of long deduction and great experience to know how to find +it.</p> +<p>We must not content ourselves with merely admiring and relishing; +we must enter into the principles on which the work is wrought; these +do not swim on the superficies, and consequently are not open to superficial +observers.</p> +<p>Art in its perfection is not ostentatious; it lies hid, and works +its effect itself unseen. It is the proper study and labour of +an artist to uncover and find out the latent cause of conspicuous beauties, +and from thence form principles for his own conduct; such an examination +is a continual exertion of the mind, as great, perhaps, as that of the +artist whose works he is thus studying.</p> +<p>The sagacious imitator not only remarks what distinguishes the different +manner or genius of each master; he enters into the contrivance in the +composition, how the masses of lights are disposed, the means by which +the effect is produced, how artfully some parts are lost in the ground, +others boldly relieved, and how all these are mutually altered and interchanged +according to the reason and scheme of the work. He admires not +the harmony of colouring alone, but he examines by what artifice one +colour is a foil to its neighbour. He looks close into the tints, +of what colours they are composed, till he has formed clear and distinct +ideas, and has learnt to see in what harmony and good colouring consists. +What is learnt in this manner from the works of others becomes really +our own, sinks deep, and is never forgotten; nay, it is by seizing on +this clue that we proceed forward, and get further and further in enlarging +the principle and improving the practice.</p> +<p>There can be no doubt but the art is better learnt from the works +themselves than from the precepts which are formed upon these works; +but if it is difficult to choose proper models for imitation, it requires +no less circumspection to separate and distinguish what in those models +we ought to imitate.</p> +<p>I cannot avoid mentioning here, though it is not my intention at +present to enter into the art and method of study, an error which students +are too apt to fall into.</p> +<p>He that is forming himself must look with great caution and wariness +on those peculiarities, or prominent parts, which at first force themselves +upon view, and are the marks, or what is commonly called the manner, +by which that individual artist is distinguished.</p> +<p>Peculiar marks I hold to be generally, if not always, defects, however +difficult it may be, wholly to escape them.</p> +<p>Peculiarities in the works of art are like those in the human figure; +it is by them that we are cognisable and distinguished one from another, +but they are always so many blemishes, which, however, both in the one +case and in the other, cease to appear deformities to those who have +them continually before their eyes. In the works of art, even +the most enlightened mind, when warmed by beauties of the highest kind, +will by degrees find a repugnance within him to acknowledge any defects; +nay, his enthusiasm will carry him so far as to transform them into +beauties and objects of imitation.</p> +<p>It must be acknowledged that a peculiarity of style, either from +its novelty, or by seeming to proceed from a peculiar turn of mind, +often escapes blame; on the contrary, it is sometimes striking and pleasing; +but this it is vain labour to endeavour to imitate, because novelty +and peculiarity being its only merit, when it ceases to be new, it ceases +to have value.</p> +<p>A manner, therefore, being a defect, and every painter, however excellent, +having a manner, it seems to follow that all kinds of faults, as well +as beauties, may be learned under the sanction of the greatest authorities.</p> +<p>Even the great name of Michael Angelo may be used to keep in countenance +a deficiency, or rather neglect of colouring, and every other ornamental +part of the art.</p> +<p>If the young student is dry and hard, Poussin is the same. +If his work has a careless and unfinished air, he has most of the Venetian +School to support him. If he makes no selection of objects, but +takes individual nature just as he finds it, he is like Rembrandt. +If he is incorrect in the proportions of his figures, Correggio was +likewise incorrect. If his colours are not blended and united, +Rubens was equally crude.</p> +<p>In short, there is no defect but may be excused, if it is a sufficient +excuse that it can be imputed to considerable artists; but it must be +remembered that it was not by these defects they acquired their reputation: +they have a right to our pardon, but not to our admiration.</p> +<p>However, to imitate peculiarities or mistake defects for beauties +that man will be most liable who confines his imitation to one favourite +master; and, even though he chooses the best, and is capable of distinguishing +the real excellences of his model, it is not by such narrow practice +that a genius or mastery in the art is acquired. A man is as little +likely to form a true idea of the perfection of the art by studying +a single artist as he would be of producing a perfectly beautiful figure +by an exact imitation of any individual living model.</p> +<p>And as the painter, by bringing together in one piece those beauties +which are dispersed amongst a great variety of individuals, produces +a figure more beautiful than can be found in nature, so that artist +who can unite in himself the excellences of the various painters, will +approach nearer to perfection than any one of his masters.</p> +<p>He who confines himself to the imitation of an individual, as he +never proposes to surpass, so he is not likely to equal, the object +of imitation. He professes only to follow, and he that follows +must necessarily be behind.</p> +<p>We should imitate the conduct of the great artists in the course +of their studies, as well as the works which they produced, when they +were perfectly formed. Raffaelle began by imitating implicitly +the manner of Pietro Perugino, under whom he studied; so his first works +are scarce to be distinguished from his master’s; but soon forming +higher and more extensive views, he imitated the grand outline of Michael +Angelo. He learnt the manner of using colours from the works of +Leonardo da Vinci and Fratre Bartolomeo: to all this he added the contemplation +of all the remains of antiquity that were within his reach, and employed +others to draw for him what was in Greece and distant places. +And it is from his having taken so many models that he became himself +a model for all succeeding painters, always imitating, and always original.</p> +<p>If your ambition therefore be to equal Raffaelle, you must do as +Raffaelle did; take many models, and not take even him for your guide +alone to the exclusion of others. And yet the number is infinite +of those who seem, if one may judge by their style, to have seen no +other works but those of their master, or of some favourite whose manner +is their first wish and their last.</p> +<p>I will mention a few that occur to me of this narrow, confined, illiberal, +unscientific, and servile kind of imitators. Guido was thus meanly +copied by Elizabetta Sirani, and Simone Cantarini; Poussin, by Verdier +and Cheron; Parmigiano, by Jeronimo Mazzuoli; Paolo Veronese and Iacomo +Bassan had for their imitators their brothers and sons; Pietro de Cortona +was followed by Ciro Ferri and Romanelli; Rubens, by Jacques Jordans +and Diepenbeck; Guercino, by his own family, the Gennari; Carlo Marratti +was imitated by Giuseppe Chiari and Pietro da Pietri; and Rembrandt, +by Bramer, Eckhout, and Flink. All these, to whom may be added +a much longer list of painters, whose works among the ignorant pass +for those of their masters, are justly to be censured for barrenness +and servility.</p> +<p>To oppose to this list a few that have adopted a more liberal style +of imitation: Pelegrino Tibaldi, Rosso, and Primaticio did not coldly +imitate, but caught something of the fire that animates the works of +Michael Angelo. The Carraches formed their style from Pelegrino +Tibaldi, Correggio, and the Venetian School. Domenichino, Guido, +Lanfranco, Albano, Guercino, Cavidone, Schidone, Tiarini, though it +is sufficiently apparent that they came from the School of the Carraches, +have yet the appearance of men who extended their views beyond the model +that lay before them, and have shown that they had opinions of their +own, and thought for themselves, after they had made themselves masters +of the general principles of their schools.</p> +<p>Le Seure’s first manner resembles very much that of his master +Vovet: but as he soon excelled him, so he differed from him in every +part of the art. Carlo Marratti succeeded better than those I +have first named, and I think owes his superiority to the extension +of his views; besides his master Andrea Sacchi, he imitated Raffaelle, +Guido, and the Carraches. It is true, there is nothing very captivating +in Carlo Marratti; but this proceeded from wants which cannot be completely +supplied; that is, want of strength of parts. In this, certainly +men are not equal, and a man can bring home wares only in proportion +to the capital with which he goes to market. Carlo, by diligence, +made the most of what he had; but there was undoubtedly a heaviness +about him, which extended itself, uniformly to his invention, expression, +his drawing, colouring, and the general effect of his pictures. +The truth is, he never equalled any of his patterns in any one thing, +and he added little of his own.</p> +<p>But we must not rest contented, even in this general study of the +moderns; we must trace back the art to its fountain head, to that source +from whence they drew their principal excellences, the monuments of +pure antiquity.</p> +<p>All the inventions and thoughts of the ancients, whether conveyed +to us in statues, bas-reliefs, intaglios, cameos, or coins, are to be +sought after and carefully studied: The genius that hovers over these +venerable relics may be called the father of modern art.</p> +<p>From the remains of the works of the ancients the modern arts were +revived, and it is by their means that they must be restored a second +time. However it may mortify our vanity, we must be forced to +allow them our masters; and we may venture to prophecy, that when they +shall cease to be studied, arts will no longer flourish, and we shall +again relapse into barbarism.</p> +<p>The fire of the artist’s own genius operating upon these materials +which have been thus diligently collected, will enable him to make new +combinations, perhaps, superior to what had ever before been in the +possession of the art. As in the mixture of the variety of metals, +which are said to have been melted and run together at the burning of +Corinth, a new and till then unknown metal was produced equal in value +to any of those that had contributed to its composition. And though +a curious refiner may come with his crucibles, analyse and separate +its various component parts, yet Corinthian brass would still hold its +rank amongst the most beautiful and valuable of metals.</p> +<p>We have hitherto considered the advantages of imitation as it tends +to form the taste, and as a practice by which a spark of that genius +may be caught which illumines these noble works, that ought always to +be present to our thoughts.</p> +<p>We come now to speak of another kind of imitation; the borrowing +a particular thought, an action, attitude, or figure, and transplanting +it into your own work: this will either come under the charge of plagiarism, +or be warrantable, and deserve commendation, according to the address +with which it is performed. There is some difference likewise +whether it is upon the ancients or the moderns that these depredations +are made. It is generally allowed that no man need be ashamed +of copying the ancients: their works are considered as a magazine of +common property, always open to the public, whence every man has a right +to what materials he pleases; and if he has the art of using them, they +are supposed to become to all intents and purposes his own property.</p> +<p>The collection which Raffaelle made of the thoughts of the ancients +with so much trouble, is a proof of his opinion on this subject. +Such collections may be made with much more ease, by means of an art +scarce known in his time; I mean that of engraving, by which, at an +easy rate, every man may now avail himself of the inventions of antiquity.</p> +<p>It must be acknowledged that the works of the moderns are more the +property of their authors; he who borrows an idea from an artist, or +perhaps from a modern, not his contemporary, and so accommodates it +to his own work that it makes a part of it, with no seam or joining +appearing, can hardly be charged with plagiarism; poets practise this +kind of borrowing without reserve. But an artist should not be +contented with this only; he should enter into a competition with his +original, and endeavour to improve what he is appropriating to his own +work. Such imitation is so far from having anything in it of the +servility of plagiarism, that it is a perpetual exercise of the mind, +a continual invention.</p> +<p>Borrowing or stealing with such art and caution will have a right +to the same lenity as was used by the Lacedemonians; who did not punish +theft, but the want of artifice to conceal it.</p> +<p>In order to encourage you to imitation, to the utmost extent, let +me add, that very finished artists in the inferior branches of the art +will contribute to furnish the mind and give hints of which a skilful +painter, who is sensible of what he wants, and is in no danger of being +infected by the contact of vicious models, will know how to avail himself. +He will pick up from dunghills what by a nice chemistry, passing through +his own mind, shall be converted into pure gold; and, under the rudeness +of Gothic essays, he will find original, rational, and even sublime +inventions.</p> +<p>In the luxuriant style of Paul Veronese, in the capricious compositions +of Tintoret, he will find something that will assist his invention, +and give points, from which his own imagination shall rise and take +flight, when the subject which he treats will, with propriety, admit +of splendid effects.</p> +<p>In every school, whether Venetian, French, or Dutch, he will find +either ingenious compositions, extraordinary effects, some peculiar +expressions, or some mechanical excellence, well worthy his attention +and, in some measure, of his imitation; even in the lower class of the +French painters, great beauties are often found united with great defects.</p> +<p>Though Coypel wanted a simplicity of taste, and mistook a presumptuous +and assuming air for what is grand and majestic; yet he frequently has +good sense and judgment in his manner of telling his stories, great +skill in his compositions, and is not without a considerable power of +expressing the passions, The modern affectation of grace in his works, +as well as in those of Bouche and Watteau, may be said to be separated +by a very thin partition from the more simple and pure grace of Correggio +and Parmigiano.</p> +<p>Amongst the Dutch painters, the correct, firm, and determined pencil, +which was employed by Bamboccio and Jan Miel on vulgar and mean subjects, +might without any change be employed on the highest, to which, indeed, +it seems more properly to belong. The greatest style, if that +style is confined to small figures such as Poussin generally painted, +would receive an additional grace by the elegance and precision of pencil +so admirable in the works of Teniers.</p> +<p>Though this school more particularly excelled in the mechanism of +painting, yet there are many who have shown great abilities in expressing +what must be ranked above mechanical excellences.</p> +<p>In the works of Frank Hals the portrait painter may observe the composition +of a face, the features well put together as the painters express it, +from whence proceeds that strong marked character of individual nature +which is so remarkable in his portraits, and is not to be found in an +equal degree in any other painter. If he had joined to this most +difficult part of the art a patience in finishing what he had so correctly +planned, he might justly have claimed the place which Vandyke, all things +considered, so justly holds as the first of portrait painters.</p> +<p>Others of the same school have shown great power in expressing the +character and passions of those vulgar people which are the subjects +of their study and attention. Amongst those, Jean Stein seems +to be one of the most diligent and accurate observers of what passed +in those scenes which he frequented, and which were to him an academy. +I can easily imagine that if this extraordinary man had had the good +fortune to have been born in Italy instead of Holland, had he lived +in Rome instead of Leyden, and had been blessed with Michael Angelo +and Raffaelle for his masters instead of Brower and Van Gowen, that +the same sagacity and penetration which distinguished so accurately +the different characters and expression in his vulgar figures, would, +when exerted in the selection and imitation of what was great and elevated +in nature, have been equally successful, and his name would have been +now ranged with the great pillars and supporters of our art.</p> +<p>Men who, although thus bound down by the almost invincible powers +of early habits, have still exerted extraordinary abilities within their +narrow and confined circle, and have, from the natural vigour of their +mind, given such an interesting expression, such force and energy to +their works, though they cannot be recommended to be exactly imitated, +may yet invite an artist to endeavour to transfer, by a kind of parody, +those excellences to his own works. Whoever has acquired the power +of making this use of the Flemish, Venetian, and French schools is a +real genius, and has sources of knowledge open to him which were wanting +to the great artists who lived in the great age of painting.</p> +<p>To find excellences however dispersed, to discover beauties however +concealed by the multitude of defects with which they are surrounded, +can be the work only of him who, having a mind always alive to his art, +has extended his views to all ages and to all schools, and has acquired +from that comprehensive mass which he has thus gathered to himself, +a well digested and perfect idea of his art, to which everything is +referred. Like a sovereign judge and arbiter of art, he is possessed +of that presiding power which separates and attracts every excellence +from every school, selects both from what is great and what is little, +brings home knowledge from the east and from the west, making the universe +tributary towards furnishing his mind and enriching his works with originality +and variety of inventions.</p> +<p>Thus I have ventured to give my opinion of what appears to me the +true and only method by which an artist makes himself master of his +profession, which I hold ought to be one continued course of imitation, +that is not to cease but with our lives.</p> +<p>Those who, either from their own engagements and hurry of business, +or from indolence, or from conceit and vanity, have neglected looking +out of themselves, as far as my experience and observation reaches, +have from that time not only ceased to advance and improve in their +performance, but have gone backward. They may be compared to men +who have lived upon their principal till they are reduced to beggary +and left without resources.</p> +<p>I can recommend nothing better, therefore, than that you endeavour +to infuse into your works what you learn from the contemplation of the +works of others. To recommend this has the appearance of needless +and superfluous advice, but it has fallen within my own knowledge that +artists, though they are not wanting in a sincere love for their art, +though they have great pleasure in seeing good pictures, and are well +skilled to distinguish what is excellent or defective in them, yet go +on in their own manner, without any endeavour to give a little of those +beauties which they admire in others, to their own works. It is +difficult to conceive how the present Italian painters, who live in +the midst of the treasures of art, should be contented with their own +style. They proceed in their common-place inventions, and never +think it worth while to visit the works of those great artists with +which they are surrounded.</p> +<p>I remember several years ago to have conversed at Rome with an artist +of great fame throughout Europe; he was not without a considerable degree +of abilities, but those abilities were by no means equal to his own +opinion of them. From the reputation he had acquired he too fondly +concluded that he stood in the same rank, when compared to his predecessors, +as he held with regard to his miserable contemporary rivals.</p> +<p>In conversation about some particulars of the works of Raffaelle, +he seemed to have, or to affect to have, a very obscure memory of them. +He told me that he had not set his foot in the Vatican for fifteen years +together; that indeed he had been in treaty to copy a capital picture +of Raffaelle, but that the business had gone off; however, if the agreement +had held, his copy would have greatly exceeded the original. The +merit of this artist, however great we may suppose it, I am sure would +have been far greater, and his presumption would have been far less +if he had visited the Vatican, as in reason he ought to have done, once +at least every month of his life.</p> +<p>I address myself, gentlemen, to you who have made some progress in +the art, and are to be for the future under the guidance of your own +judgment and discretion.</p> +<p>I consider you as arrived to that period when you have a right to +think for yourselves, and to presume that every man is fallible; to +study the masters with a suspicion that great men are not always exempt +from great faults; to criticise, compare, and rank their works in your +own estimation, as they approach to or recede from that standard of +perfection which you have formed in your own mind, but which those masters +themselves, it must be remembered, have taught you to make, and which +you will cease to make with correctness when you cease to study them. +It is their excellences which have taught you their defects.</p> +<p>I would wish you to forget where you are, and who it is that speaks +to you. I only direct you to higher models and better advisers. +We can teach you here but very little; you are henceforth to be your +own teachers. Do this justice, however, to the English Academy, +to bear in mind, that in this place you contracted no narrow habits, +no false ideas, nothing that could lead you to the imitation of any +living master, who may be the fashionable darling of the day. +As you have not been taught to flatter us, do not learn to flatter yourselves. +We have endeavoured to lead you to the admiration of nothing but what +is truly admirable. If you choose inferior patterns, or if you +make your own <i>former</i> works, your patterns for your <i>latter</i>, +it is your own fault.</p> +<p>The purpose of this discourse, and, indeed, of most of my others, +is to caution you against that false opinion, but too prevalent amongst +artists, of the imaginary power of native genius, and its sufficiency +in great works. This opinion, according to the temper of mind +it meets with, almost always produces, either a vain confidence, or +a sluggish despair, both equally fatal to all proficiency.</p> +<p>Study, therefore, the great works of the great masters for ever. +Study as nearly as you can, in the order, in the manner, on the principles, +on which they studied. Study nature attentively, but always with +those masters in your company; consider them as models which you are +to imitate, and at the same time as rivals which you are to combat.</p> +<h3>A DISCOURSE<br /> +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution of +the Prizes, December 10th, 1776, by the President.</h3> +<p>Gentlemen,—It has been my uniform endeavour, since I first +addressed you from this place, to impress you strongly with one ruling +idea. I wished you to be persuaded, that success in your art depends +almost entirely on your own industry; but the industry which I principally +recommended, is not the industry of the <i>hands</i>, but of the <i>mind</i>.</p> +<p>As our art is not a divine gift, so neither is it a mechanical trade. +Its foundations are laid in solid science. And practice, though +essential to perfection, can never attain that to which it aims, unless +it works under the direction of principle.</p> +<p>Some writers upon art carry this point too far, and suppose that +such a body of universal and profound learning is requisite, that the +very enumeration of its kind is enough to frighten a beginner. +Vitruvius, after going through the many accomplishments of nature, and +the many acquirements of learning, necessary to an architect, proceeds +with great gravity to assert that he ought to be well skilled in the +civil law, that he may not be cheated in the title of the ground he +builds on.</p> +<p>But without such exaggeration, we may go so far as to assert, that +a painter stands in need of more knowledge than is to be picked off +his pallet, or collected by looking on his model, whether it be in life +or in picture. He can never be a great artist who is grossly illiterate.</p> +<p>Every man whose business is description ought to be tolerably conversant +with the poets in some language or other, that he may imbibe a poetical +spirit and enlarge his stock of ideas. He ought to acquire a habit +of comparing and divesting his notions. He ought not to be wholly +unacquainted with that part of philosophy which gives him an insight +into human nature, and relates to the manners, characters, passions, +and affections. He ought to know something concerning the mind, +as well as a great deal concerning the body of man.</p> +<p>For this purpose, it is not necessary that he should go into such +a compass of reading, as must, by distracting his attention, disqualify +him for the practical part of his profession, and make him sink the +performer in the critic. Reading, if it can be made the favourite +recreation of his leisure hours, will improve and enlarge his mind without +retarding his actual industry.</p> +<p>What such partial and desultory reading cannot afford, may be supplied +by the conversation of learned and ingenious men, which is the best +of all substitutes for those who have not the means or opportunities +of deep study. There are many such men in this age; and they will +be pleased with communicating their ideas to artists, when they see +them curious and docile, if they are treated with that respect and deference +which is so justly their due. Into such society, young artists, +if they make it the point of their ambition, will by degrees be admitted. +There, without formal teaching, they will insensibly come to feel and +reason like those they live with, and find a rational and systematic +taste imperceptibly formed in their minds, which they will know how +to reduce to a standard, by applying general truth to their own purposes, +better perhaps than those to whom they owed the original sentiment.</p> +<p>Of these studies and this conversation, the desired and legitimate +offspring is a power of distinguishing right from wrong, which power +applied to works of art is denominated taste. Let me then, without +further introduction, enter upon an examination whether taste be so +far beyond our reach as to be unattainable by care, or be so very vague +and capricious that no care ought to be employed about it.</p> +<p>It has been the fate of arts to be enveloped in mysterious and incomprehensible +language, as if it was thought necessary that even the terms should +correspond to the idea entertained of the instability and uncertainty +of the rules which they expressed.</p> +<p>To speak of genius and taste as any way connected with reason or +common sense, would be, in the opinion of some towering talkers, to +speak like a man who possessed neither, who had never felt that enthusiasm, +or, to use their own inflated language, was never warmed by that Promethean +fire, which animates the canvas and vivifies the marble.</p> +<p>If, in order to be intelligible, I appear to degrade art by bringing +her down from her visionary situation in the clouds, it is only to give +her a more solid mansion upon the earth. It is necessary that +at some time or other we should see things as they really are, and not +impose on ourselves by that false magnitude with which objects appear +when viewed indistinctly as through a mist.</p> +<p>We will allow a poet to express his meaning, when his meaning is +not well known to himself, with a certain degree of obscurity, as it +is one source of the sublime. But when, in plain prose, we gravely +talk of courting the muse in shady bowers, waiting the call and inspiration +of genius, finding out where he inhabits, and where he is to be invoked +with the greatest success; of attending to times and seasons when the +imagination shoots with the greatest vigour, whether at the summer solstice +or the equinox, sagaciously observing how much the wild freedom and +liberty of imagination is cramped by attention to established rules, +and how this same imagination begins to grow dim in advanced age, smothered +and deadened by too much judgment. When we talk such language, +or entertain such sentiments as these, we generally rest contented with +mere words, or at best entertain notions not only groundless, but pernicious.</p> +<p>If all this means what it is very possible was originally intended +only to be meant, that in order to cultivate an art, a man secludes +himself from the commerce of the world, and retires into the country +at particular seasons; or that at one time of the year his body is in +better health, and consequently his mind fitter for the business of +hard thinking than at another time; or that the mind may be fatigued +and grow confused by long and unremitted application; this I can understand. +I can likewise believe that a man eminent when young for possessing +poetical imagination, may, from having taken another road, so neglect +its cultivation as to show less of its powers in his latter life. +But I am persuaded that scarce a poet is to be found, from Homer down +to Dryden, who preserved a sound mind in a sound body, and continued +practising his profession to the very last, whose later works are not +as replete with the fire of imagination as those which were produced +in his more youthful days.</p> +<p>To understand literally these metaphors or ideas expressed in poetical +language, seems to be equally absurd as to conclude that because painters +sometimes represent poets writing from the dictates of a little winged +boy or genius, that this same genius did really inform him in a whisper +what he was to write, and that he is himself but a mere machine, unconscious +of the operations of his own mind.</p> +<p>Opinions generally received and floating in the world, whether true +or false, we naturally adopt and make our own; they may be considered +as a kind of inheritance to which we succeed and are tenants for life, +and which we leave to our posterity very near in the condition in which +we received it; not much being in any one man’s power either to +impair or improve it.</p> +<p>The greatest part of these opinions, like current coin in its circulation, +we are obliged to take without weighing or examining; but by this inevitable +inattention, many adulterated pieces are received, which, when we seriously +estimate our wealth, we must throw away. So the collector of popular +opinions, when he embodies his knowledge, and forms a system, must separate +those which are true from those which are only plausible. But +it becomes more peculiarly a duty to the professors of art not to let +any opinions relating to that art pass unexamined. The caution +and circumspection required in such examination we shall presently have +an opportunity of explaining.</p> +<p>Genius and taste, in their common acceptation, appear to be very +nearly related; the difference lies only in this, that genius has superadded +to it a habit or power of execution. Or we may say, that taste, +when this power is added, changes its name, and is called genius. +They both, in the popular opinion, pretend to an entire exemption from +the restraint of rules. It is supposed that their powers are intuitive; +that under the name of genius great works are produced, and under the +name of taste an exact judgment is given, without our knowing why, and +without being under the least obligation to reason, precept, or experience.</p> +<p>One can scarce state these opinions without exposing their absurdity, +yet they are constantly in the mouths of men, and particularly of artists. +They who have thought seriously on this subject, do not carry the point +so far; yet I am persuaded, that even among those few who may be called +thinkers, the prevalent opinion gives less than it ought to the powers +of reason; and considers the principles of taste, which give all their +authority to the rules of art, as more fluctuating, and as having less +solid foundations than we shall find, upon examination, they really +have.</p> +<p>The common saying, that tastes are not to be disputed, owes its influence, +and its general reception, to the same error which leads us to imagine +it of too high original to submit to the authority of an earthly tribunal. +It will likewise correspond with the notions of those who consider it +as a mere phantom of the imagination, so devoid of substance as to elude +all criticism.</p> +<p>We often appear to differ in sentiments from each other, merely from +the inaccuracy of terms, as we are not obliged to speak always with +critical exactness. Something of this too may arise from want +of words in the language to express the more nice discriminations which +a deep investigation discovers. A great deal, however, of this +difference vanishes when each opinion is tolerably explained and understood +by constancy and precision in the use of terms.</p> +<p>We apply the term taste to that act of the mind by which we like +or dislike, whatever be the subject. Our judgment upon an airy +nothing, a fancy which has no foundation, is called by the same name +which we give to our determination concerning those truths which refer +to the most general and most unalterable principles of human nature, +to works which are only to be produced by the greatest efforts of the +human understanding. However inconvenient this may be, we are +obliged to take words as we find them; all we can do is to distinguish +the things to which they are applied.</p> +<p>We may let pass those things which are at once subjects of taste +and sense, and which having as much certainty as the senses themselves, +give no occasion to inquiry or dispute. The natural appetite or +taste of the human mind is for truth; whether that truth results from +the real agreement or equality of original ideas among themselves; from +the agreement of the representation of any object with the thing represented; +or from the correspondence of the several parts of any arrangement with +each other. It is the very same taste which relishes a demonstration +in geometry, that is pleased with the resemblance of a picture to an +original, and touched with the harmony of music.</p> +<p>All these have unalterable and fixed foundations in nature, and are +therefore equally investigated by reason, and known by study; some with +more, some with less clearness, but all exactly in the same way. +A picture that is unlike, is false. Disproportionate ordinance +of parts is not right because it cannot be true until it ceases to be +a contradiction to assert that the parts have no relation to the whole. +Colouring is true where it is naturally adapted to the eye, from brightness, +from softness, from harmony, from resemblance; because these agree with +their object, nature, and therefore are true: as true as mathematical +demonstration; but known to be true only to those who study these things.</p> +<p>But besides real, there is also apparent truth, or opinion, or prejudice. +With regard to real truth, when it is known, the taste which conforms +to it is, and must be, uniform. With regard to the second sort +of truth, which may be called truth upon sufferance, or truth by courtesy, +it is not fixed, but variable. However, whilst these opinions +and prejudices on which it is founded continue, they operate as truth; +and the art, whose office it is to please the mind, as well as instruct +it, must direct itself according to opinion, or it will not attain its +end.</p> +<p>In proportion as these prejudices are known to be generally diffused, +or long received, the taste which conforms to them approaches nearer +to certainty, and to a sort of resemblance to real science, even where +opinions are found to be no better than prejudices. And since +they deserve, on account of their duration and extent, to be considered +as really true, they become capable of no small decree of stability +and determination by their permanent and uniform nature.</p> +<p>As these prejudices become more narrow, more local, more transitory, +this secondary taste becomes more and more fantastical; recedes from +real science; is less to be approved by reason, and less followed in +practice; though in no case perhaps to be wholly neglected, where it +does not stand, as it sometimes does, in direct defiance of the most +respectable opinions received amongst mankind.</p> +<p>Having laid down these positions, I shall proceed with less method, +because less will serve, to explain and apply them.</p> +<p>We will take it for granted that reason is something invariable and +fixed in the nature of things; and without endeavouring to go back to +an account of first principles, which for ever will elude our search, +we will conclude that whatever goes under the name of taste, which we +can fairly bring under the dominion of reason, must be considered as +equally exempt from change. If therefore, in the course of this +inquiry, we can show that there are rules for the conduct of the artist +which are fixed and invariable, it implies, of course, that the art +of the connoisseur, or, in other words, taste, has likewise invariable +principles.</p> +<p>Of the judgment which we make on the works of art, and the preference +that we give to one class of art over another, if a reason be demanded, +the question is perhaps evaded by answering, “I judge from my +taste”; but it does not follow that a better answer cannot be +given, though for common gazers this may be sufficient. Every +man is not obliged to investigate the causes of his approbation or dislike.</p> +<p>The arts would lie open for ever to caprice and casualty, if those +who are to judge of their excellences had no settled principles by which +they are to regulate their decisions, and the merit or defect of performances +were to be determined by unguided fancy. And indeed we may venture +to assert that whatever speculative knowledge is necessary to the artist, +is equally and indispensably necessary to the connoisseur.</p> +<p>The first idea that occurs in the consideration of what is fixed +in art, or in taste, is that presiding principle of which I have so +frequently spoken in former discourses, the general idea of nature. +The beginning, the middle, and the end of everything that is valuable +in taste, is comprised in the knowledge of what is truly nature; for +whatever ideas are not conformable to those of nature, or universal +opinion, must be considered as more or less capricious.</p> +<p>The idea of nature comprehending not only the forms which nature +produces, but also the nature and internal fabric and organisation, +as I may call it, of the human mind and imagination: general ideas, +beauty, or nature, are but different ways of expressing the same thing, +whether we apply these terms to statues, poetry, or picture. Deformity +is not nature, but an accidental deviation from her accustomed practice. +This general idea therefore ought to be called nature, and nothing else, +correctly speaking, has a right to that name. But we are so far +from speaking, in common conversation, with any such accuracy, that, +on the contrary, when we criticise Rembrandt and other Dutch painters, +who introduced into their historical pictures exact representations +of individual objects with all their imperfections, we say, though it +is not in a good taste, yet it is nature.</p> +<p>This misapplication of terms must be very often perplexing to the +young student. Is not, he may say, art an imitation of nature? +Must he not, therefore, who imitates her with the greatest fidelity +be the best artist? By this mode of reasoning Rembrandt has a +higher place than Raffaelle. But a very little reflection will +serve to show us that these particularities cannot be nature: for how +can that be the nature of man, in which no two individuals are the same?</p> +<p>It plainly appears that as a work is conducted under the influence +of general ideas or partial it is principally to be considered as the +effect of a good or a bad taste.</p> +<p>As beauty therefore does not consist in taking what lies immediately +before you, so neither, in our pursuit of taste, are those opinions +which we first received and adopted the best choice, or the most natural +to the mind and imagination.</p> +<p>In the infancy of our knowledge we seize with greediness the good +that is within our reach; it is by after-consideration, and in consequence +of discipline, that we refuse the present for a greater good at a distance. +The nobility or elevation of all arts, like the excellence of virtue +itself, consists in adopting this enlarged and comprehensive idea, and +all criticism built upon the more confined view of what is natural, +may properly be called shallow criticism, rather than false; its defect +is that the truth is not sufficiently extensive.</p> +<p>It has sometimes happened that some of the greatest men in our art +have been betrayed into errors by this confined mode of reasoning. +Poussin, who, upon the whole, may be produced as an instance of attention +to the most enlarged and extensive ideas of nature, from not having +settled principles on this point, has in one instance at least, I think, +deserted truth for prejudice. He is said to have vindicated the +conduct of Julio Romano, for his inattention to the masses of light +and shade, or grouping the figures, in the battle of Constantine, as +if designedly neglected, the better to correspond with the hurry and +confusion of a battle. Poussin’s own conduct in his representations +of Bacchanalian triumphs and sacrifices, makes us more easily give credit +to this report, since in such subjects, as well indeed as in many others, +it was too much his own practice. The best apology we can make +for this conduct is what proceeds from the association of our ideas, +the prejudice we have in favour of antiquity. Poussin’s +works, as I have formerly observed, have very much the air of the ancient +manner of painting, in which there are not the least traces to make +us think that what we call the keeping, the composition of light and +shade, or distribution of the work into masses, claimed any part of +their attention. But surely whatever apology we may find out for +this neglect, it ought to be ranked among the defects of Poussin, as +well as of the antique paintings; and the moderns have a right to that +praise which is their due, for having given so pleasing an addition +to the splendour of the art.</p> +<p>Perhaps no apology ought to be received for offences committed against +the vehicle (whether it be the organ of seeing or of hearing) by which +our pleasures are conveyed to the mind. We must take the same +care that the eye be not perplexed and distracted by a confusion of +equal parts, or equal lights, as of offending it by an unharmonious +mixture of colours. We may venture to be more confident of the +truth of this observation, since we find that Shakespeare, on a parallel +occasion, has made Hamlet recommend to the players a precept of the +same kind, never to offend the ear by harsh sounds:—“In +the very torrent, tempest, and whirlwind of your passions,” says +he, “you must beget a temperance that may give it smoothness.” +And yet, at the same time, he very justly observes, “The end of +playing, both at the first and now, is to hold, as it were, the mirror +up to nature.” No one can deny but that violent passions +will naturally emit harsh and disagreeable tones; yet this great poet +and critic thought that this imitation of nature would cost too much, +if purchased at the expense of disagreeable sensations, or, as he expresses +it, of “splitting the ear.” The poet and actor, as +well as the painter of genius who is well acquainted with all the variety +and sources of pleasure in the mind and imagination, has little regard +or attention to common nature, or creeping after common sense. +By overleaping those narrow bounds, he more effectually seizes the whole +mind, and more powerfully accomplishes his purpose. This success +is ignorantly imagined to proceed from inattention to all rules, and +in defiance of reason and judgment; whereas it is in truth acting according +to the best rules, and the justest reason.</p> +<p>He who thinks nature, in the narrow sense of the word, is alone to +be followed, will produce but a scanty entertainment for the imagination: +everything is to be done with which it is natural for the mind to be +pleased, whether it proceeds from simplicity or variety, uniformity +or irregularity: whether the scenes are familiar or exotic; rude and +wild, or enriched and cultivated; for it is natural for the mind to +be pleased with all these in their turn. In short, whatever pleases +has in it what is analogous to the mind, and is therefore, in the highest +and best sense of the word, natural.</p> +<p>It is this sense of nature or truth which ought more particularly +to be cultivated by the professors of art; and it may be observed that +many wise and learned men, who have accustomed their minds to admit +nothing for truth but what can be proved by mathematical demonstration, +have seldom any relish for those arts which address themselves to the +fancy, the rectitude and truth of which is known by another kind of +proof: and we may add that the acquisition of this knowledge requires +as much circumspection and sagacity, as to attain those truths which +are more open to demonstration. Reason must ultimately determine +our choice on every occasion; but this reason may still be exerted ineffectually +by applying to taste principles which, though right as far as they go, +yet do not reach the object. No man, for instance, can deny that +it seems at first view very reasonable, that a statue which is to carry +down to posterity the resemblance of an individual should be dressed +in the fashion of the times, in the dress which he himself wore: this +would certainly be true if the dress were part of the man. But +after a time the dress is only an amusement for an antiquarian; and +if it obstructs the general design of the piece, it is to be disregarded +by the artist. Common sense must here give way to a higher sense.</p> +<p>In the naked form, and in the disposition of the drapery, the difference +between one artist and another is principally seen. But if he +is compelled to the modern dress, the naked form is entirely hid, and +the drapery is already disposed by the skill of the tailor. Were +a Phidias to obey such absurd commands, he would please no more than +an ordinary sculptor; since, in the inferior parts of every art, the +learned and the ignorant are nearly upon a level.</p> +<p>These were probably among the reasons that induced the sculptor of +that wonderful figure of Laocoon to exhibit him naked, notwithstanding +he was surprised in the act of sacrificing to Apollo, and consequently +ought to be shown in his sacerdotal habits, if those greater reasons +had not preponderated. Art is not yet in so high estimation with +us as to obtain so great a sacrifice as the ancients made, especially +the Grecians, who suffered themselves to be represented naked, whether +they were generals, lawgivers, or kings.</p> +<p>Under this head of balancing and choosing the greater reason, or +of two evils taking the least, we may consider the conduct of Rubens +in the Luxembourg gallery, of mixing allegorical figures with representations +of real personages, which, though acknowledged to be a fault, yet, if +the artist considered himself as engaged to furnish this gallery with +a rich and splendid ornament, this could not be done, at least in an +equal degree, without peopling the air and water with these allegorical +figures: he therefore accomplished that he purposes. In this case +all lesser considerations, which tend to obstruct the great end of the +work, must yield and give way.</p> +<p>If it is objected that Rubens judged ill at first in thinking it +necessary to make his work so very ornamental, this brings the question +upon new ground. It was his peculiar style; he could paint in +no other; and he was selected for that work, probably, because it was +his style. Nobody will dispute but some of the best of the Roman +or Bolognian schools would have produced a more learned and more noble +work.</p> +<p>This leads us to another important province of taste, of weighing +the value of the different classes of the art, and of estimating them +accordingly.</p> +<p>All arts have means within them of applying themselves with success +both to the intellectual and sensitive part of our natures. It +can be no dispute, supposing both these means put in practice with equal +abilities, to which we ought to give the preference: to him who represents +the heroic arts and more dignified passions of man, or to him who, by +the help of meretricious ornaments, however elegant and graceful, captivates +the sensuality, as it may be called, of our taste. Thus the Roman +and Bolognian schools are reasonably preferred to the Venetian, Flemish, +or Dutch schools, as they address themselves to our best and noblest +faculties.</p> +<p>Well-turned periods in eloquence, or harmony of numbers in poetry, +which are in those arts what colouring is in painting, however highly +we may esteem them, can never be considered as of equal importance with +the art of unfolding truths that are useful to mankind, and which make +us better or wiser. Nor can those works which remind us of the +poverty and meanness of our nature, be considered as of equal rank with +what excites ideas of grandeur, or raises and dignifies humanity; or, +in the words of a late poet, which makes the beholder learn to venerate +himself as man.</p> +<p>It is reason and good sense therefore which ranks and estimates every +art, and every part of that art, according to its importance, from the +painter of animated down to inanimated nature. We will not allow +a man, who shall prefer the inferior style, to say it is his taste; +taste here has nothing, or at least ought to have nothing to do with +the question. He wants not taste, but sense, and soundness of +judgment.</p> +<p>Indeed, perfection in an inferior style may be reasonably preferred +to mediocrity in the highest walks of art. A landscape of Claude +Lorraine may be preferred to a history of Luca Jordano; but hence appears +the necessity of the connoisseur’s knowing in what consists the +excellence of each class, in order to judge how near it approaches to +perfection.</p> +<p>Even in works of the same kind, as in history painting, which is +composed of various parts, excellence of an inferior species, carried +to a very high degree, will make a work very valuable, and in some measure +compensate for the absence of the higher kind of merits. It is +the duty of the connoisseur to know and esteem, as much as it may deserve, +every part of painting; he will not then think even Bassano unworthy +of his notice, who, though totally devoid of expression, sense, grace, +or elegance, may be esteemed on account of his admirable taste of colours, +which, in his best works, are little inferior to those of Titian.</p> +<p>Since I have mentioned Bassano, we must do him likewise the justice +to acknowledge that, though he did not aspire to the dignity of expressing +the characters and passions of men, yet, with respect to the facility +and truth in his manner of touching animals of all kinds, and giving +them what painters call their character, few have ever excelled him.</p> +<p>To Bassano we may add Paul Veronese and Tintoret, for their entire +inattention to what is justly esteemed the most essential part of our +art, the expression of the passions. Notwithstanding these glaring +deficiencies, we justly esteem their works; but it must be remembered +that they do not please from those defects, but from their great excellences +of another kind, and in spite of such transgressions. These excellences, +too, as far as they go, are founded in the truth of general nature. +They tell the truth, though not the whole truth.</p> +<p>By these considerations, which can never be too frequently impressed, +may be obviated two errors which I observed to have been, formerly at +least, the most prevalent, and to be most injurious to artists: that +of thinking taste and genius to have nothing to do with reason, and +that of taking particular living objects for nature.</p> +<p>I shall now say something on that part of taste which, as I have +hinted to you before, does not belong so much to the external form of +things, but is addressed to the mind, and depends on its original frame, +or, to use the expression, the organisation of the soul; I mean the +imagination and the passions. The principles of these are as invariable +as the former, and are to be known and reasoned upon in the same manner, +by an appeal to common sense deciding upon the common feelings of mankind. +This sense, and these feelings, appear to me of equal authority, and +equally conclusive.</p> +<p>Now this appeal implies a general uniformity and agreement in the +minds of men. It would be else an idle and vain endeavour to establish +rules of art; it would be pursuing a phantom to attempt to move affections +with which we were entirely unacquainted. We have no reason to +suspect there is a greater difference between our minds than between +our forms, of which, though there are no two alike, yet there is a general +similitude that goes through the whole race of mankind; and those who +have cultivated their taste can distinguish what is beautiful or deformed, +or, in other words, what agrees with or what deviates from the general +idea of nature, in one case as well as in the other.</p> +<p>The internal fabric of our mind, as well as the external form of +our bodies, being nearly uniform, it seems then to follow, of course, +that as the imagination is incapable of producing anything originally +of itself, and can only vary and combine these ideas with which it is +furnished by means of the senses, there will be, of course, an agreement +in the imaginations as in the senses of men. There being this +agreement, it follows that in all cases, in our lightest amusements +as well as in our most serious actions and engagements of life, we must +regulate our affections of every kind by that of others. The well-disciplined +mind acknowledges this authority, and submits its own opinion to the +public voice.</p> +<p>It is from knowing what are the general feelings and passions of +mankind that we acquire a true idea of what imagination is; though it +appears as if we had nothing to do but to consult our own particular +sensations, and these were sufficient to ensure us from all error and +mistake.</p> +<p>A knowledge of the disposition and character of the human mind can +be acquired only by experience: a great deal will be learned, I admit, +by a habit of examining what passes in our bosoms, what are our own +motives of action, and of what kind of sentiments we are conscious on +any occasion. We may suppose a uniformity, and conclude that the +same effect will be produced by the same cause in the minds of others. +This examination will contribute to suggest to us matters of inquiry; +but we can never be sure that our own sensations are true and right +till they are confirmed by more extensive observation.</p> +<p>One man opposing another determines nothing but a general union of +minds, like a general combination of the forces of all mankind, makes +a strength that is irresistible. In fact, as he who does not know +himself does not know others, so it may be said with equal truth, that +he who does not know others knows himself but very imperfectly.</p> +<p>A man who thinks he is guarding himself against Prejudices by resisting +the authority of others, leaves open every avenue to singularity, vanity, +self-conceit, obstinacy, and many other vices, all tending to warp the +judgment and prevent the natural operation of his faculties.</p> +<p>This submission to others is a deference which we owe, and indeed +are forced involuntarily to pay.</p> +<p>In fact we are never satisfied with our opinions till they are ratified +and confirmed by the suffrages of the rest of mankind. We dispute +and wrangle for ever; we endeavour to get men to come to us when we +do not go to them.</p> +<p>He therefore who is acquainted with the works which have pleased +different ages and different countries, and has formed his opinion on +them, has more materials and more means of knowing what is analogous +to the mind of man than he who is conversant only with the works of +his own age or country. What has pleased, and continues to please, +is likely to please again: hence are derived the rules of art, and on +this immovable foundation they must ever stand.</p> +<p>This search and study of the history of the mind ought not to be +confined to one art only. It is by the analogy that one art bears +to another that many things are ascertained which either were but faintly +seen, or, perhaps, would not have been discovered at all if the inventor +had not received the first hints from the practices of a sister art +on a similar occasion. The frequent allusions which every man +who treats of any art is obliged to draw from others in order to illustrate +and confirm his principles, sufficiently show their near connection +and inseparable relation.</p> +<p>All arts having the same general end, which is to please, and addressing +themselves to the same faculties through the medium of the senses, it +follows that their rules and principles must have as great affinity +as the different materials and the different organs or vehicles by which +they pass to the mind will permit them to retain.</p> +<p>We may therefore conclude that the real substance, as it may be called, +of what goes under the name of taste, is fixed and established in the +nature of things; that there are certain and regular causes by which +the imagination and passions of men are affected; and that the knowledge +of these causes is acquired by a laborious and diligent investigation +of nature, and by the same slow progress as wisdom or knowledge of every +kind, however instantaneous its operations may appear when thus acquired.</p> +<p>It has been often observed that the good and virtuous man alone can +acquire this true or just relish, even of works of art. This opinion +will not appear entirely without foundation when we consider that the +same habit of mind which is acquired by our search after truth in the +more serious duties of life, is only transferred to the pursuit of lighter +amusements: the same disposition, the same desire to find something +steady, substantial, and durable, on which the mind can lean, as it +were, and rest with safety. The subject only is changed. +We pursue the same method in our search after the idea of beauty and +perfection in each; of virtue, by looking forwards beyond ourselves +to society, and to the whole; of arts, by extending our views in the +same manner to all ages and all times.</p> +<p>Every art, like our own, has in its composition fluctuating as well +as fixed principles. It is an attentive inquiry into their difference +that will enable us to determine how far we are influenced by custom +and habit, and what is fixed in the nature of things.</p> +<p>To distinguish how much has solid foundation, we may have recourse +to the same proof by which some hold wit ought to be tried—whether +it preserves itself when translated. That wit is false which can +subsist only in one language; and that picture which pleases only one +age or one nation, owes its reception to some local or accidental association +of ideas.</p> +<p>We may apply this to every custom and habit of life. Thus the +general principles of urbanity, politeness, or civility, have been ever +the same in all nations; but the mode in which they are dressed is continually +varying. The general idea of showing respect is by making yourself +less: but the manner, whether by bowing the body, kneeling, prostration, +pulling off the upper part of our dress, or taking away the lower, is +a matter of habit. It would be unjust to conclude that all ornaments, +because they were at first arbitrarily contrived, are therefore undeserving +of our attention; on the contrary, he who neglects the cultivation of +those ornaments, acts contrarily to nature and reason. As life +would be imperfect without its highest ornaments, the arts, so these +arts themselves would be imperfect without <i>their</i> ornaments.</p> +<p>Though we by no means ought to rank these with positive and substantial +beauties, yet it must be allowed that a knowledge of both is essentially +requisite towards forming a complete, whole, and perfect taste. +It is in reality from the ornaments that arts receive their peculiar +character and complexion; we may add that in them we find the characteristical +mark of a national taste, as by throwing up a feather in the air we +know which way the wind blows, better than by a more heavy matter.</p> +<p>The striking distinction between the works of the Roman, Bolognian, +and Venetian schools, consists more in that general effect which is +produced by colours than in the more profound excellences of the art; +at least it is from thence that each is distinguished and known at first +sight. As it is the ornaments rather than the proportions of architecture +which at the first glance distinguish the different orders from each +other; the Doric is known by its triglyphs, the Ionic by its volutes, +and the Corinthian by its acanthus.</p> +<p>What distinguishes oratory from a cold narration, is a more liberal +though chaste use of these ornaments which go under the name of figurative +and metaphorical expressions; and poetry distinguishes itself from oratory +by words and expressions still more ardent and glowing. What separates +and distinguishes poetry is more particularly the ornament of <i>verse</i>; +it is this which gives it its character, and is an essential, without +which it cannot exist. Custom has appropriated different metre +to different kinds of composition, in which the world is not perfectly +agreed. In England the dispute is not yet settled which is to +be preferred, rhyme or blank verse. But however we disagree about +what these metrical ornaments shall be, that some metre is essentially +necessary is universally acknowledged.</p> +<p>In poetry or eloquence, to determine how far figurative or metaphorical +language may proceed, and when it begins to be affectation or beside +the truth, must be determined by taste, though this taste we must never +forget is regulated and formed by the presiding feelings of mankind, +by those works which have approved themselves to all times and all persons.</p> +<p>Thus, though eloquence has undoubtedly an essential and intrinsic +excellence, and immovable principles common to all languages, founded +in the nature of our passions and affections, yet it has its ornaments +and modes of address which are merely arbitrary. What is approved +in the Eastern nations as grand and majestic, would be considered by +the Greeks and Romans as turgid and inflated; and they, in return, would +be thought by the Orientals to express themselves in a cold and insipid +manner.</p> +<p>We may add likewise to the credit of ornaments, that it is by their +means that art itself accomplishes its purpose. Fresnoy calls +colouring, which is one of the chief ornaments of painting, <i>lena +sororis</i>, that which procures lovers and admirers to the more valuable +excellences of the art.</p> +<p>It appears to be the same right turn of mind which enables a man +to acquire the <i>truth</i>, or the just idea of what is right in the +ornaments, as in the more stable principles of art. It has still +the same centre of perfection, though it is the centre of a smaller +circle.</p> +<p>To illustrate this by the fashion of dress, in which there is allowed +to be a good or, bad taste. The component parts of dress are continually +changing from great to little, from short to long, but the general form +still remains; it is still the same general dress which is comparatively +fixed, though on a very slender foundation, but it is on this which +fashion must rest. He who invents with the most success, or dresses +in, the best taste, would probably, from the same sagacity employed +to greater purposes, have discovered equal skill, or have formed the +same correct taste in the highest labours of art.</p> +<p>I have mentioned taste in dress, which is certainly one of the lowest +subjects to which this word is applied; yet, as I have before observed, +there is a right even here, however narrow its foundation respecting +the fashion of any particular nation. But we have still more slender +means of determining, in regard to the different customs of different +ages or countries, to which to give the preference, since they seem +to be all equally removed from nature.</p> +<p>If an European, when he has cut off his beard, and put false hair +on his head, or bound up his own natural hair in regular hard knots, +as unlike nature as he can possibly make it; and having rendered them +immovable by the help of the fat of hogs, has covered the whole with +flour, laid on by a machine with the utmost regularity; if, when thus +attired he issues forth, he meets a Cherokee Indian, who has bestowed +as much time at his toilet, and laid on with equal care and attention +his yellow and red ochre on particular parts of his forehead or cheeks, +as he judges most becoming; whoever despises the other for this attention +to the fashion of his country, whichever of these two first feels himself +provoked to laugh, is the barbarian.</p> +<p>All these fashions are very innocent, neither worth disquisition, +nor any endeavour to alter them, as the change would, in all probability, +be equally distant from nature. The only circumstances against +which indignation may reasonably be moved, are where the operation is +painful or destructive of health, such as is practised at Otahaiti, +and the straight lacing of the English ladies; of the last of which, +how destructive it must be to health and long life, the professor of +anatomy took an opportunity of proving a few days since in this Academy.</p> +<p>It is in dress as in things of greater consequence. Fashions +originate from those only who have the high and powerful advantages +of rank, birth, and fortune; as many of the ornaments of art, those +at least for which no reason can be given, are transmitted to us, are +adopted, and acquire their consequence from the company in which we +have been used to see them. As Greece and Rome are the fountains +from whence have flowed all kinds of excellence, to that veneration +which they have a right to claim for the pleasure and knowledge which +they have afforded us, we voluntarily add our approbation of every ornament +and every custom that belonged to them, even to the fashion of their +dress. For it may be observed that, not satisfied with them in +their own place, we make no difficulty of dressing statues of modern +heroes or senators in the fashion of the Roman armour or peaceful robe; +we go so far as hardly to bear a statue in any other drapery.</p> +<p>The figures of the great men of those nations have come down to us +in sculpture. In sculpture remain almost all the excellent specimens +of ancient art. We have so far associated personal dignity to +the persons thus represented, and the truth of art to their manner of +representation, that it is not in our power any longer to separate them. +This is not so in painting; because, having no excellent ancient portraits, +that connection was never formed. Indeed, we could no more venture +to paint a general officer in a Roman military habit, than we could +make a statue in the present uniform. But since we have no ancient +portraits, to show how ready we are to adopt those kind of prejudices, +we make the best authority among the moderns serve the same purpose. +The great variety of excellent portraits with which Vandyke has enriched +this nation, we are not content to admire for their real excellence, +but extend our approbation even to the dress which happened to be the +fashion of that age. We all very well remember how common it was +a few years ago for portraits to be drawn in this Gothic dress, and +this custom is not yet entirely laid aside. By this means it must +be acknowledged very ordinary pictures acquired something of the air +and effect of the works of Vandyke, and appeared therefore at first +sight to be better pictures than they really were; they appeared so, +however, to those only who had the means of making this association, +for when made, it was irresistible. But this association is nature, +and refers to that Secondary truth that comes from conformity to general +prejudice and opinion; it is therefore not merely fantastical. +Besides the prejudice which we have in favour of ancient dresses, there +may be likewise other reasons, amongst which we may justly rank the +simplicity of them, consisting of little more than one single piece +of drapery, without those whimsical capricious forms by which all other +dresses are embarrassed.</p> +<p>Thus, though it is from the prejudice we have in favour of the ancients, +who have taught us architecture, that we have adopted likewise their +ornaments; and though we are satisfied that neither nature nor reason +is the foundation of those beauties which we imagine we see in that +art, yet if any one persuaded of this truth should, therefore, invent +new orders of equal beauty, which we will suppose to be possible, yet +they would not please, nor ought he to complain, since the old has that +great advantage of having custom and prejudice on its side. In +this case we leave what has every prejudice in its favour to take that +which will have no advantage over what we have left, but novelty, which +soon destroys itself, and, at any rate, is but a weak antagonist against +custom.</p> +<p>These ornaments, having the right of possession, ought not to be +removed but to make room for not only what has higher pretensions, but +such pretensions as will balance the evil and confusion which innovation +always brings with it.</p> +<p>To this we may add, even the durability of the materials will often +contribute to give a superiority to one object over another. Ornaments +in buildings, with which taste is principally concerned, are composed +of materials which last longer than those of which dress is composed; +it, therefore, makes higher pretensions to our favour and prejudice.</p> +<p>Some attention is surely required to what we can no more get rid +of than we can go out of ourselves. We are creatures of prejudice; +we neither can nor ought to eradicate it; we must only regulate, it +by reason, which regulation by reason is, indeed, little more than obliging +the lesser, the focal and temporary prejudices, to give way to those +which are more durable and lasting.</p> +<p>He, therefore, who in his practice of portrait painting wishes to +dignify his subject, which we will suppose to be a lady, will not paint +her in the modern dress, the familiarity of which alone is sufficient +to destroy all dignity. He takes care that his work shall correspond +to those ideas and that imagination which he knows will regulate the +judgment of others, and, therefore, dresses his figure something with +the general air of the antique for the sake of dignity, and preserves +something of the modern for the sake of likeness. By this conduct +his works correspond with those prejudices which we have in favour of +what we continually see; and the relish of the antique simplicity corresponds +with what we may call the, more learned and scientific prejudice.</p> +<p>There was a statue made not long since of Voltaire, which the sculptor, +not having that respect for the prejudices of mankind which he ought +to have, has made entirely naked, and as meagre and emaciated as the +original is said to be. The consequence is what might be expected; +it has remained in the sculptor’s shop, though it was intended +as a public ornament and a public honour to Voltaire, as it was procured +at the expense of his cotemporary wits and admirers.</p> +<p>Whoever would reform a nation, supposing a bad taste to prevail in +it, will not accomplish his purpose by going directly against the stream +of their prejudices. Men’s minds must be prepared to receive +what is new to them. Reformation is a work of time. A national +taste, however wrong it may be, cannot be totally change at once; we +must yield a little to the prepossession which has taken hold on the +mind, and we may then bring people to adopt what would offend them if +endeavoured to be introduced by storm. When Battisto Franco was +employed, in conjunction with Titian, Paul Veronese, and Tintoret, to +adorn the library of St. Mark, his work, Vasari says, gave less satisfaction +than any of the others: the dry manner of the Roman school was very +ill calculated to please eyes that had been accustomed to the luxuriance, +splendour, and richness of Venetian colouring. Had the Romans +been the judges of this work, probably the determination would have +been just contrary; for in the more noble parts of the art Battisto +Franco was, perhaps, not inferior to any of his rivals.</p> +<p>* * * * *</p> +<p>Gentlemen,—It has been the main scope and principal end of +this discourse to demonstrate the reality of a standard in taste, as +well as in corporeal beauty; that a false or depraved taste is a thing +as well known, as easily discovered, as anything that is deformed, misshapen, +or wrong in our form or outward make; and that this knowledge is derived +from the uniformity of sentiments among mankind, from whence proceeds +the knowledge of what are the general habits of nature, the result of +which is an idea of perfect beauty.</p> +<p>If what has been advanced be true, that besides this beauty or truth +which is formed on the uniform eternal and immutable laws of nature, +and which of necessity can be but one; that besides this one immutable +verity there are likewise what we have called apparent or secondary +truths proceeding from local and temporary prejudices, fancies, fashions, +or accidental connection of ideas; if it appears that these last have +still their foundation, however slender, in the original fabric of our +minds, it follows that all these truths or beauties deserve and require +the attention of the artist in proportion to their stability or duration, +or as their influence is more or less extensive. And let me add +that as they ought not to pass their just bounds, so neither do they, +in a well-regulated taste, at all prevent or weaken the influence of +these general principles, which alone can give to art its true and permanent +dignity.</p> +<p>To form this just taste is undoubtedly in your own power, but it +is to reason and philosophy that you must have recourse; from them we +must borrow the balance by which is to be weighed and estimated the +value of every pretension that intrudes itself on your notice.</p> +<p>The general objection which is made to the introduction of philosophy +into the regions of taste is, that it checks and restrains the flights +of the imagination, and gives that timidity which an over-carefulness +not to err or act contrary to reason is likely to produce.</p> +<p>It is not so. Fear is neither reason nor philosophy. +The true spirit of philosophy by giving knowledge gives a manly confidence, +and substitutes rational firmness in the place of vain presumption. +A man of real taste is always a man of judgment in other respects; and +those inventions which either disdain or shrink from reason, are generally, +I fear, more like the dreams of a distempered brain than the exalted +enthusiasm of a sound and true genius. In the midst of the highest +flights of fancy or imagination, reason ought to preside from first +to last, though I admit her more powerful operation is upon reflection.</p> +<p>I cannot help adding that some of the greatest names of antiquity, +and those who have most distinguished themselves in works of genius +and imagination, were equally eminent for their critical skill. +Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and Horace; and among the moderns, Boileau, +Corneille, Pope, and Dryden, are at least instances of genius not being +destroyed by attention or subjection to rules and science. I should +hope, therefore, that the natural consequence likewise of what has been +said would be to excite in you a desire of knowing the principles and +conduct of the great masters of our art, and respect and veneration +for them when known.</p> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SEVEN DISCOURSES ON ART***</p> +<pre> + + +***** This file should be named 2176-h.htm or 2176-h.zip****** + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/1/7/2176 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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