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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/2176-h.zip b/2176-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1b5131e --- /dev/null +++ b/2176-h.zip diff --git a/2176-h/2176-h.htm b/2176-h/2176-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..09766cf --- /dev/null +++ b/2176-h/2176-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3894 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=US-ASCII" /> +<title>Seven Discourses on Art</title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + P { margin-top: .75em; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + H1, H2 { + text-align: center; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + } + H3, H4 { + text-align: left; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + } + BODY{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + .blkquot {margin-left: 4em; margin-right: 4em;} /* block indent */ + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h2> +<a href="#startoftext">Seven Discourses on Art, by Joshua Reynolds</a> +</h2> +<pre> +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Seven Discourses on Art, by Joshua Reynolds, +Edited by Henry Morley + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Seven Discourses on Art + + +Author: Joshua Reynolds + +Release Date: May 8, 2005 [eBook #2176] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SEVEN DISCOURSES ON ART*** +</pre> +<p><a name="startoftext"></a></p> +<p>Transcribed from the 1901 Cassell and Company edition by David Price, +email ccx074@coventry.ac.uk. Proofing by David, Dawn Smith, Uzma, +Jane Foster, Juliana Rew, Marie Rhoden and Jo Osment.</p> +<h1>SEVEN DISCOURSES ON ART<br /> +by Joshua Reyonds</h1> +<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2> +<p>It is a happy memory that associates the foundation of our Royal +Academy with the delivery of these inaugural discourses by Sir Joshua +Reynolds, on the opening of the schools, and at the first annual meetings +for the distribution of its prizes. They laid down principles +of art from the point of view of a man of genius who had made his power +felt, and with the clear good sense which is the foundation of all work +that looks upward and may hope to live. The truths here expressed +concerning Art may, with slight adjustment of the way of thought, be +applied to Literature or to any exercise of the best powers of mind +for shaping the delights that raise us to the larger sense of life. +In his separation of the utterance of whole truths from insistance upon +accidents of detail, Reynolds was right, because he guarded the expression +of his view with careful definitions of its limits. In the same +way Boileau was right, as a critic of Literature, in demanding everywhere +good sense, in condemning the paste brilliants of a style then in decay, +and fixing attention upon the masterly simplicity of Roman poets in +the time of Augustus. Critics by rule of thumb reduced the principles +clearly defined by Boileau to a dull convention, against which there +came in course of time a strong reaction. In like manner the teaching +of Reynolds was applied by dull men to much vague and conventional generalisation +in the name of dignity. Nevertheless, Reynolds taught essential +truths of Art. The principles laid down by him will never fail +to give strength to the right artist, or true guidance towards the appreciation +of good art, though here and there we may not wholly assent to some +passing application of them, where the difference may be great between +a fashion of thought in his time and in ours. A righteous enforcement +of exact truth in our day has led many into a readiness to appreciate +more really the minute imitation of a satin dress, or a red herring, +than the noblest figure in the best of Raffaelle’s cartoons. +Much good should come of the diffusion of this wise little book.</p> +<p>Joshua Reynolds was born on the 15th of July, 1723, the son of a +clergyman and schoolmaster, at Plympton in Devonshire. His bent +for Art was clear and strong from his childhood. In 1741 at the +age of nineteen, he began study, and studied for two yours in London +under Thomas Hudson, a successful portrait painter. Then he went +back to Devonshire and painted portraits, aided for some time in his +education by attention to the work of William Gandy of Exeter. +When twenty-six years old, in May, 1749, Reynolds was taken away by +Captain Keppel to the Mediterranean, and brought into contact with the +works of the great painters of Italy. He stayed two years in Rome, +and in accordance with the principles afterwards laid down in these +lectures, he refused, when in Rome, commissions for copying, and gave +his mind to minute observation of the art of the great masters by whose +works he was surrounded. He spent two months in Florence, six +weeks in Venice, a few days in Bologna and Parma. “If,” +he said, “I had never seen any of the fine works of Correggio, +I should never, perhaps, have remarked in Nature the expression which +I find in one of his pieces; or if I had remarked it, I might have thought +it too difficult, or perhaps impossible to execute.”</p> +<p>In 1753 Reynolds came back to England, and stayed three months in +Devonshire before setting up a studio in London, in St. Martin’s +Lane, which was then an artists’ quarter. His success was +rapid. In 1755 he had one hundred and twenty-five sitters. +Samuel Johnson found in him his most congenial friend. He moved +to Newport Street, and he built himself a studio—where there is +now an auction room—at 47, Lincoln’s Inn Fields. There +he remained for life.</p> +<p>In 1760 the artists opened, in a room lent by the Society of Arts, +a free Exhibition for the sale of their works. This was continued +the next year at Spring Gardens, with a charge of a shilling for admission. +In 1765 they obtained a charter of incorporation, and in 1768 the King +gave his support to the foundation of a Royal Academy of Arts by seceders +from the preceding “Incorporated Society of Artists,” into +which personal feelings had brought much division. It was to consist, +like the French Academy, of forty members, and was to maintain Schools +open to all students of good character who could give evidence that +they had fully learnt the rudiments of Art. The foundation by +the King dates from the 10th of December, 1768. The Schools were +opened on the 2nd of January next following, and on that occasion Joshua +Reynolds, who had been elected President—his age was then between +forty-five and forty-six—gave the Inaugural Address which formed +the first of these Seven Discourses. The other six were given +by him, as President, at the next six annual meetings: and they were +all shaped to form, when collected into a volume, a coherent body of +good counsel upon the foundations of the painter’s art.</p> +<p>H. M.</p> +<h2>TO THE KING</h2> +<p>The regular progress of cultivated life is from necessaries to accommodations, +from accommodations to ornaments. By your illustrious predecessors +were established marts for manufactures, and colleges for science; but +for the arts of elegance, those arts by which manufactures are embellished +and science is refined, to found an academy was reserved for your Majesty.</p> +<p>Had such patronage been without effect, there had been reason to +believe that nature had, by some insurmountable impediment, obstructed +our proficiency; but the annual improvement of the exhibitions which +your Majesty has been pleased to encourage shows that only encouragement +had been wanting.</p> +<p>To give advice to those who are contending for royal liberality has +been for some years the duty of my station in the Academy; and these +Discourses hope for your Majesty’s acceptance as well-intended +endeavours to incite that emulation which your notice has kindled, and +direct those studies which your bounty has rewarded.</p> +<p>May it please your Majesty,<br /> +Your Majesty’s<br /> +Most dutiful servant,<br /> +And most faithful subject,<br /> +JOSHUA REYNOLDS.</p> +<h2>TO THE MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY.</h2> +<p>Gentlemen,—That you have ordered the publication of this Discourse +is not only very flattering to me, as it implies your approbation of +the method of study which I have recommended; but likewise, as this +method receives from that act such an additional weight and authority +as demands from the students that deference and respect, which can be +due only to the united sense of so considerable a body of artists.</p> +<p>I am,<br /> +With the greatest esteem and respect,<br /> +GENTLEMEN,<br /> +Your most humble<br /> +And obedient servant,<br /> +JOSHUA REYNOLDS</p> +<h2>SEVEN DISCOURSES ON ART</h2> +<h3>A DISCOURSE<br /> +Delivered at the Opening of the Royal Academy, January 2nd, 1769, by +the President.</h3> +<p>Gentlemen,—An academy in which the polite arts may be regularly +cultivated is at last opened among us by royal munificence. This +must appear an event in the highest degree interesting, not only to +the artists, but to the whole nation.</p> +<p>It is indeed difficult to give any other reason why an Empire like +that of Britain should so long have wanted an ornament so suitable to +its greatness than that slow progression of things which naturally makes +elegance and refinement the last effect of opulence and power.</p> +<p>An institution like this has often been recommended upon considerations +merely mercantile. But an academy founded upon such principles +can never effect even its own narrow purposes. If it has an origin +no higher, no taste can ever be formed in it which can be useful even +in manufactures; but if the higher arts of design flourish, these inferior +ends will be answered of course.</p> +<p>We are happy in having a prince who has conceived the design of such +an institution, according to its true dignity, and promotes the arts, +as the head of a great, a learned, a polite, and a commercial nation; +and I can now congratulate you, gentlemen, on the accomplishment of +your long and ardent wishes.</p> +<p>The numberless and ineffectual consultations that I have had with +many in this assembly, to form plans and concert schemes for an academy, +afford a sufficient proof of the impossibility of succeeding but by +the influence of Majesty. But there have, perhaps, been times +when even the influence of Majesty would have been ineffectual, and +it is pleasing to reflect that we are thus embodied, when every circumstance +seems to concur from which honour and prosperity can probably arise.</p> +<p>There are at this time a greater number of excellent artists than +were ever known before at one period in this nation; there is a general +desire among our nobility to be distinguished as lovers and judges of +the arts; there is a greater superfluity of wealth among the people +to reward the professors; and, above all, we are patronised by a monarch, +who, knowing the value of science and of elegance, thinks every art +worthy of his notice that tends to soften and humanise the mind.</p> +<p>After so much has been done by his Majesty, it will be wholly our +fault if our progress is not in some degree correspondent to the wisdom +and, generosity of the institution; let us show our gratitude in our +diligence, that, though our merit may not answer his expectations, yet, +at least, our industry may deserve his protection.</p> +<p>But whatever may be our proportion of success, of this we may be +sure, that the present institution will at least contribute to advance +our knowledge of the arts, and bring us nearer to that ideal excellence +which it is the lot of genius always to contemplate and never to attain.</p> +<p>The principal advantage of an academy is, that, besides furnishing +able men to direct the student, it will be a repository for the great +examples of the art. These are the materials on which genius is +to work, and without which the strongest intellect may be fruitlessly +or deviously employed. By studying these authentic models, that +idea of excellence which is the result of the accumulated experience +of past ages may be at once acquired, and the tardy and obstructed progress +of our predecessors may teach us a shorter and easier way. The +student receives at one glance the principles which many artists have +spent their whole lives in ascertaining; and, satisfied with their effect, +is spared the painful investigation by which they come to be known and +fixed. How many men of great natural abilities have been lost +to this nation for want of these advantages? They never had an +opportunity of seeing those masterly efforts of genius which at once +kindle the whole soul, and force it into sudden and irresistible approbation.</p> +<p>Raffaelle, it is true, had not the advantage of studying in an academy; +but all Rome, and the works of Michael Angelo in particular, were to +him an academy. On the site of the Capel la Sistina he immediately +from a dry, Gothic, and even insipid manner, which attends to the minute +accidental discriminations of particular and individual objects, assumed +that grand style of painting, which improves partial representation +by the general and invariable ideas of nature.</p> +<p>Every seminary of learning may be said to be surrounded with an atmosphere +of floating knowledge, where every mind may imbibe somewhat congenial +to its own original conceptions. Knowledge, thus obtained, has +always something more popular and useful than that which is forced upon +the mind by private precepts or solitary meditation. Besides, +it is generally found that a youth more easily receives instruction +from the companions of his studies, whose minds are nearly on a level +with his own, than from those who are much his superiors; and it is +from his equals only that he catches the fire of emulation.</p> +<p>One advantage, I will venture to affirm, we shall have in our academy, +which no other nation can boast. We shall have nothing to unlearn. +To this praise the present race of artists have a just claim. +As far as they have yet proceeded they are right. With us the +exertions of genius will henceforward be directed to their proper objects. +It will not be as it has been in other schools, where he that travelled +fastest only wandered farthest from the right way.</p> +<p>Impressed as I am, therefore, with such a favourable opinion of my +associates in this undertaking, it would ill become me to dictate to +any of them. But as these institutions have so often failed in +other nations, and as it is natural to think with regret how much might +have been done, and how little has been done, I must take leave to offer +a few hints, by which those errors may be rectified, and those defects +supplied. These the professors and visitors may reject or adopt +as they shall think proper.</p> +<p>I would chiefly recommend that an implicit obedience to the rules +of art, as established by the great masters, should be exacted from +the <i>young</i> students. That those models, which have passed +through the approbation of ages, should be considered by them as perfect +and infallible guides as subjects for their imitation, not their criticism.</p> +<p>I am confident that this is the only efficacious method of making +a progress in the arts; and that he who sets out with doubting will +find life finished before he becomes master of the rudiments. +For it may be laid down as a maxim, that he who begins by presuming +on his own sense has ended his studies as soon as he has commenced them. +Every opportunity, therefore, should be taken to discountenance that +false and vulgar opinion that rules are the fetters of genius. +They are fetters only to men of no genius; as that armour, which upon +the strong becomes an ornament and a defence, upon the weak and misshapen +turns into a load, and cripples the body which it was made to protect.</p> +<p>How much liberty may be taken to break through those rules, and, +as the poet expresses it,</p> +<blockquote><p>“To snatch a grace beyond the reach of art,”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>may be an after consideration, when the pupils become masters themselves. +It is then, when their genius has received its utmost improvement, that +rules may possibly be dispensed with. But let us not destroy the +scaffold until we have raised the building.</p> +<p>The directors ought more particularly to watch over the genius of +those students who, being more advanced, are arrived at that critical +period of study, on the nice management of which their future turn of +taste depends. At that age it is natural for them to be more captivated +with what is brilliant than with what is solid, and to prefer splendid +negligence to painful and humiliating exactness.</p> +<p>A facility in composing, a lively, and what is called a masterly +handling the chalk or pencil, are, it must be confessed, captivating +qualities to young minds, and become of course the objects of their +ambition. They endeavour to imitate those dazzling excellences, +which they will find no great labour in attaining. After much +time spent in these frivolous pursuits, the difficulty will be to retreat; +but it will be then too late; and there is scarce an instance of return +to scrupulous labour after the mind has been debauched and deceived +by this fallacious mastery.</p> +<p>By this useless industry they are excluded from all power of advancing +in real excellence. Whilst boys, they are arrived at their utmost +perfection; they have taken the shadow for the substance; and make that +mechanical facility the chief excellence of the art, which is only an +ornament, and of the merit of which few but painters themselves are +judges.</p> +<p>This seems to me to be one of the most dangerous sources of corruption; +and I speak of it from experience, not as an error which may possibly +happen, but which has actually infected all foreign academies. +The directors were probably pleased with this premature dexterity in +their pupils, and praised their despatch at the expense of their correctness.</p> +<p>But young men have not only this frivolous ambition of being thought +masterly inciting them on one hand, but also their natural sloth tempting +them on the other. They are terrified at the prospect before them, +of the toil required to attain exactness. The impetuosity of youth +is distrusted at the slow approaches of a regular siege, and desires, +from mere impatience of labour, to take the citadel by storm. +They wish to find some shorter path to excellence, and hope to obtain +the reward of eminence by other means than those which the indispensable +rules of art have prescribed. They must, therefore, be told again +and again that labour is the only price of solid fame, and that whatever +their force of genius may be, there is no easy method of becoming a +good painter.</p> +<p>When we read the lives of the most eminent painters, every page informs +us that no part of their time was spent in dissipation. Even an +increase of fame served only to augment their industry. To be +convinced with what persevering assiduity they pursued their studies, +we need only reflect on their method of proceeding in their most celebrated +works. When they conceived a subject, they first made a variety +of sketches; then a finished drawing of the whole; after that a more +correct drawing of every separate part, heads, hands, feet, and pieces +of drapery; they then painted the picture, and after all re-touched +it from the life. The pictures, thus wrought with such pain, now +appear like the effect of enchantment, and as if some mighty genius +had struck them off at a blow.</p> +<p>But, whilst diligence is thus recommended to the students, the visitors +will take care that their diligence be effectual; that it be well directed +and employed on the proper object. A student is not always advancing +because he is employed; he must apply his strength to that part of the +art where the real difficulties lie; to that part which distinguishes +it as a liberal art, and not by mistaken industry lose his time in that +which is merely ornamental. The students, instead of vying with +each other which shall have the readiest band, should be taught to contend +who shall have the purest and most correct outline, instead of striving +which shall produce the brightest tint, or, curiously trifling endeavour +to give the gloss of stuffs so as to appear real, let their ambition +be directed to contend which shall dispose his drapery in the most graceful +folds, which shall give the most grace and dignity to the human figure.</p> +<p>I must beg leave to submit one thing more to the consideration of +the visitors, which appears to me a matter of very great consequence, +and the omission of which I think a principal defect in the method of +education pursued in all the academies I have ever visited. The +error I mean is, that the students never draw exactly from the living +models which they have before them. It is not indeed their intention, +nor are they directed to do it. Their drawings resemble the model +only in the attitude. They change the form according to their +vague and uncertain ideas of beauty, and make a drawing rather of what +they think the figure ought to be than of what it appears. I have +thought this the obstacle that has stopped the progress of many young +men of real genius; and I very much doubt whether a habit of drawing +correctly what we see will not give a proportionable power of drawing +correctly what we imagine. He who endeavours to copy nicely the +figure before him not only acquires a habit of exactness and precision, +but is continually advancing in his knowledge of the human figure; and +though he seems to superficial observers to make a slower progress, +he will be found at last capable of adding (without running into capricious +wildness) that grace and beauty which is necessary to be given to his +more finished works, and which cannot be got by the moderns, as it was +not acquired by the ancients, but by an attentive and well-compared +study of the human form.</p> +<p>What I think ought to enforce this method is, that it has been the +practice (as may be seen by their drawings) of the great masters in +the art. I will mention a drawing of Raffaelle, “The Dispute +of the Sacrament,” the print of which, by Count Cailus, is in +every hand. It appears that he made his sketch from one model; +and the habit he had of drawing exactly from the form before him appears +by his making all the figures with the same cap, such as his model then +happened to wear; so servile a copyist was this great man, even at a +time when he was allowed to be at his highest pitch of excellence.</p> +<p>I have seen also academy figures by Annibale Caracci, though he was +often sufficiently licentious in his finished works, drawn with all +the peculiarities of an individual model.</p> +<p>This scrupulous exactness is so contrary to the practice of the academies, +that it is not without great deference that I beg leave to recommend +it to the consideration of the visitors, and submit it to them, whether +the neglect of this method is not one of the reasons why students so +often disappoint expectation, and being more than boys at sixteen, become +less than men at thirty.</p> +<p>In short, the method I recommend can only be detrimental when there +are but few living forms to copy; for then students, by always drawing +from one alone, will by habit be taught to overlook defects, and mistake +deformity for beauty. But of this there is no danger, since the +council has determined to supply the academy with a variety of subjects; +and indeed those laws which they have drawn up, and which the secretary +will presently read for your confirmation, have in some measure precluded +me from saying more upon this occasion. Instead, therefore, of +offering my advice, permit me to indulge my wishes, and express my hope, +that this institution may answer the expectations of its royal founder; +that the present age may vie in arts with that of Leo X. and that “the +dignity of the dying art” (to make use of an expression of Pliny) +may be revived under the reign of George III.</p> +<h3>A DISCOURSE<br /> +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy, on the Distribution +of the Prizes, December 11, 1769, by the President.</h3> +<p>Gentlemen,—I congratulate you on the honour which you have +just received. I have the highest opinion of your merits, and +could wish to show my sense of them in something which possibly may +be more useful to you than barren praise. I could wish to lead +you into such a course of study as may render your future progress answerable +to your past improvement; and, whilst I applaud you for what has been +done, remind you of how much yet remains to attain perfection.</p> +<p>I flatter myself, that from the long experience I have had, and the +unceasing assiduity with which I have pursued those studies, in which, +like you, I have been engaged, I shall be acquitted of vanity in offering +some hints to your consideration. They are indeed in a great degree +founded upon my own mistakes in the same pursuit. But the history +of errors properly managed often shortens the road to truth. And +although no method of study that I can offer will of itself conduct +to excellence, yet it may preserve industry from being misapplied.</p> +<p>In speaking to you of the theory of the art, I shall only consider +it as it has a relation to the method of your studies.</p> +<p>Dividing the study of painting into three distinct periods, I shall +address you as having passed through the first of them, which is confined +to the rudiments, including a facility of drawing any object that presents +itself, a tolerable readiness in the management of colours, and an acquaintance +with the most simple and obvious rules of composition.</p> +<p>This first degree of proficiency is, in painting, what grammar is +in literature, a general preparation to whatever species of the art +the student may afterwards choose for his more particular application. +The power of drawing, modelling, and using colours is very properly +called the language of the art; and in this language, the honours you +have just received prove you to have made no inconsiderable progress.</p> +<p>When the artist is once enabled to express himself with some degree +of correctness, he must then endeavour to collect subjects for expression; +to amass a stock of ideas, to be combined and varied as occasion may +require. He is now in the second period of study, in which his +business is to learn all that has hitherto been known and done. +Having hitherto received instructions from a particular master, he is +now to consider the art itself as his master. He must extend his +capacity to more sublime and general instructions. Those perfections +which lie scattered among various masters are now united in one general +idea, which is henceforth to regulate his taste and enlarge his imagination. +With a variety of models thus before him, he will avoid that narrowness +and poverty of conception which attends a bigoted admiration of a single +master, and will cease to follow any favourite where he ceases to excel. +This period is, however, still a time of subjection and discipline. +Though the student will not resign himself blindly to any single authority +when he may have the advantage of consulting many, he must still be +afraid of trusting his own judgment, and of deviating into any track +where he cannot find the footsteps of some former master.</p> +<p>The third and last period emancipates the student from subjection +to any authority but what he shall himself judge to be supported by +reason. Confiding now in his own judgment, he will consider and +separate those different principles to which different modes of beauty +owe their original. In the former period he sought only to know +and combine excellence, wherever it was to be found, into one idea of +perfection; in this he learns, what requires the most attentive survey +and the subtle disquisition, to discriminate perfections that are incompatible +with each other.</p> +<p>He is from this time to regard himself as holding the same rank with +those masters whom he before obeyed as teachers, and as exercising a +sort of sovereignty over those rules which have hitherto restrained +him. Comparing now no longer the performances of art with each +other, but examining the art itself by the standard of nature, he corrects +what is erroneous, supplies what is scanty, and adds by his own observation +what the industry of his predecessors may have yet left wanting to perfection. +Having well established his judgment, and stored his memory, he may +now without fear try the power of his imagination. The mind that +has been thus disciplined may be indulged in the warmest enthusiasm, +and venture to play on the borders of the wildest extravagance. +The habitual dignity, which long converse with the greatest minds has +imparted to him, will display itself in all his attempts, and he will +stand among his instructors, not as an imitator, but a rival.</p> +<p>These are the different stages of the art. But as I now address +myself particularly to those students who have been this day rewarded +for their happy passage through the first period, I can with no propriety +suppose they want any help in the initiatory studies. My present +design is to direct your view to distant excellence, and to show you +the readiest path that leads to it. Of this I shall speak with +such latitude as may leave the province of the professor uninvaded, +and shall not anticipate those precepts which it is his business to +give and your duty to understand.</p> +<p>It is indisputably evident that a great part of every man’s +life must be employed in collecting materials for the exercise of genius. +Invention, strictly speaking, is little more than a new combination +of those images which have been previously gathered and deposited in +the memory. Nothing can come of nothing. He who has laid +up no materials can produce no combinations.</p> +<p>A student unacquainted with the attempts of former adventurers is +always apt to overrate his own abilities, to mistake the most trifling +excursions for discoveries of moment, and every coast new to him for +a new-found country. If by chance he passes beyond his usual limits, +he congratulates his own arrival at those regions which they who have +steered a better course have long left behind them.</p> +<p>The productions of such minds are seldom distinguished by an air +of originality: they are anticipated in their happiest efforts; and +if they are found to differ in anything from their predecessors, it +is only in irregular sallies and trifling conceits. The more extensive +therefore your acquaintance is with the works of those who have excelled +the more extensive will be your powers of invention; and what may appear +still more like a paradox, the more original will be your conceptions. +But the difficulty on this occasion is to determine who ought to be +proposed as models of excellence, and who ought to be considered as +the properest guides.</p> +<p>To a young man just arrived in Italy, many of the present painters +of that country are ready enough to obtrude their precepts, and to offer +their own performances as examples of that perfection which they affect +to recommend. The modern, however, who recommends <i>himself</i> +as a standard, may justly be suspected as ignorant of the true end, +and unacquainted with the proper object of the art which he professes. +To follow such a guide will not only retard the student, but mislead +him.</p> +<p>On whom, then, can he rely, or who shall show him the path that leads +to excellence? The answer is obvious: Those great masters who +have travelled the same road with success are the most likely to conduct +others. The works of those who have stood the test of ages have +a claim to that respect and veneration to which no modern can pretend. +The duration and stability of their fame is sufficient to evince that +it has not been suspended upon the slender thread of fashion and caprice, +but bound to the human heart by every tie of sympathetic approbation.</p> +<p>There is no danger of studying too much the works of those great +men, but how they may be studied to advantage is an inquiry of great +importance.</p> +<p>Some who have never raised their minds to the consideration of the +real dignity of the art, and who rate the works of an artist in proportion +as they excel, or are defective in the mechanical parts, look on theory +as something that may enable them to talk but not to paint better, and +confining themselves entirely to mechanical practice, very assiduously +toil on in the drudgery of copying, and think they make a rapid progress +while they faithfully exhibit the minutest part of a favourite picture. +This appears to me a very tedious, and I think a very erroneous, method +of proceeding. Of every large composition, even of those which +are most admired, a great part may be truly said to be common-place. +This, though it takes up much time in copying, conduces little to improvement. +I consider general copying as a delusive kind of industry; the student +satisfies himself with the appearance of doing something; he falls into +the dangerous habit of imitating without selecting, and of labouring +without any determinate object; as it requires no effort of the mind, +he sleeps over his work; and those powers of invention and composition +which ought particularly to be called out and put in action lie torpid, +and lose their energy for want of exercise.</p> +<p>It is an observation that all must have made, how incapable those +are of producing anything of their own who have spent much of their +time in making finished copies.</p> +<p>To suppose that the complication of powers, and variety of ideas +necessary to that mind which aspires to the first honours ill the art +of painting, can be obtained by the frigid contemplation of a few single +models, is no less absurd than it would be in him who wishes to be a +poet to imagine that by translating a tragedy he can acquire to himself +sufficient knowledge of the appearances of nature, the operations of +the passions, and the incidents of life.</p> +<p>The great use in copying, if it be at all useful, should seem to +be in learning to colour; yet even colouring will never be perfectly +attained by servilely copying the mould before you. An eye critically +nice can only be formed by observing well-coloured pictures with attention: +and by close inspection, and minute examination you will discover, at +last, the manner of handling, the artifices of contrast, glazing, and +other expedients, by which good colourists have raised the value of +their tints, and by which nature has been so happily imitated.</p> +<p>I must inform you, however, that old pictures deservedly celebrated +for their colouring are often so changed by dirt and varnish, that we +ought not to wonder if they do not appear equal to their reputation +in the eyes of unexperienced painters, or young students. An artist +whose judgment is matured by long observation, considers rather what +the picture once was, than what it is at present. He has acquired +a power by habit of seeing the brilliancy of tints through the cloud +by which it is obscured. An exact imitation, therefore, of those +pictures, is likely to fill the student’s mind with false opinions, +and to send him back a colourist of his own formation, with ideas equally +remote from nature and from art, from the genuine practice of the masters +and the real appearances of things.</p> +<p>Following these rules, and using these precautions, when you have +clearly and distinctly learned in what good colouring consists, you +cannot do better than have recourse to nature herself, who is always +at hand, and in comparison of whose true splendour the best coloured +pictures are but faint and feeble.</p> +<p>However, as the practice of copying is not entirely to be excluded, +since the mechanical practice of painting is learned in some measure +by it, let those choice parts only be selected which have recommended +the work to notice. If its excellence consists in its general +effect, it would be proper to make slight sketches of the machinery +and general management of the picture. Those sketches should be +kept always by you for the regulation of your style. Instead of +copying the touches of those great masters, copy only their conceptions. +Instead of treading in their footsteps, endeavour only to keep the same +road. Labour to invent on their general principles and way of +thinking. Possess yourself with their spirit. Consider with +yourself how a Michael Angelo or a Raffaelle would have treated this +subject: and work yourself into a belief that your picture is to be +seen and criticised by them when completed. Even an attempt of +this kind will rouse your powers.</p> +<p>But as mere enthusiasm will carry you but a little way, let me recommend +a practice that may be equivalent, and will perhaps more efficaciously +contribute to your advancement, than even the verbal corrections of +those masters themselves, could they be obtained. What I would +propose is, that you should enter into a kind of competition, by painting +a similar subject, and making a companion to any picture that you consider +as a model. After you have finished your work, place it near the +model, and compare them carefully together. You will then not +only see, but feel your own deficiencies more sensibly than by precepts, +or any other means of instruction. The true principles of painting +will mingle with your thoughts. Ideas thus fixed by sensible objects, +will be certain and definitive; and sinking deep into the mind, will +not only be more just, but more lasting than those presented to you +by precepts only: which will, always be fleeting, variable, and undetermined.</p> +<p>This method of comparing your own efforts with those of some great +master, is indeed a severe and mortifying task, to which none will submit, +but such as have great views, with fortitude sufficient to forego the +gratifications of present vanity for future honour. When the student +has succeeded in some measure to his own satisfaction, and has felicitated +himself on his success, to go voluntarily to a tribunal where he knows +his vanity must be humbled, and all self-approbation must vanish, requires +not only great resolution, but great humility. To him, however, +who has the Ambition to be a real master, the solid satisfaction which +proceeds from a consciousness of his advancement (of which seeing his +own faults is the first step) will very abundantly compensate for the +mortification of present disappointment. There is, besides, this +alleviating circumstance. Every discovery he makes, every acquisition +of knowledge he attains, seems to proceed from his own sagacity; and +thus he acquires a confidence in himself sufficient to keep up the resolution +of perseverance.</p> +<p>We all must have experienced how lazily, and consequently how ineffectually, +instruction is received when forced upon the mind by others. Few +have been taught to any purpose who have not been their own teachers. +We prefer those instructions which we have given ourselves, from our +affection to the instructor; and they are more effectual, from being +received into the mind at the very time when it is most open and eager +to receive them.</p> +<p>With respect to the pictures that you are to choose for your models, +I could wish that you would take the world’s opinion rather than +your own. In other words, I would have you choose those of established +reputation rather than follow your own fancy. If you should not +admire them at first, you will, by endeavouring to imitate them, find +that the world has not been mistaken.</p> +<p>It is not an easy task to point out those various excellences for +your imitation which he distributed amongst the various schools. +An endeavour to do this may perhaps be the subject of some future discourse. +I will, therefore, at present only recommend a model for style in painting, +which is a branch of the art more immediately necessary to the young +student. Style in painting is the same as in writing, a power +over materials, whether words or colours, by which conceptions or sentiments +are conveyed. And in this Lodovico Carrache (I mean in his best +works) appears to me to approach the nearest to perfection. His +unaffected breadth of light and shadow, the simplicity of colouring, +which holding its proper rank, does not draw aside the least part of +the attention from the subject, and the solemn effect of that twilight +which seems diffused over his pictures, appear to me to correspond with +grave and dignified subjects, better than the more artificial brilliancy +of sunshine which enlightens the pictures of Titian. Though Tintoret +thought that Titian’s colouring was the model of perfection, and +would correspond even with the sublime of Michael Angelo; and that if +Angelo had coloured like Titian, or Titian designed like Angelo, the +world would once have had a perfect painter.</p> +<p>It is our misfortune, however, that those works of Carrache which +I would recommend to the student are not often found out of Bologna. +The “St. Francis in the midst of his Friars,” “The +Transfiguration,” “The Birth of St. John the Baptist,” +“The Calling of St. Matthew,” the “St. Jerome,” +the fresco paintings in the Zampieri Palace, are all worthy the attention +of the student. And I think those who travel would do well to +allot a much greater portion of their time to that city than it has +been hitherto the custom to bestow.</p> +<p>In this art, as in others, there are many teachers who profess to +show the nearest way to excellence, and many expedients have been invented +by which the toil of study might be saved. But let no man be seduced +to idleness by specious promises. Excellence is never granted +to man but as the reward of labour. It argues, indeed, no small +strength of mind to persevere in habits of industry, without the pleasure +of perceiving those advances; which, like the hand of a clock, whilst +they make hourly approaches to their point, yet proceed so slowly as +to escape observation. A facility of drawing, like that of playing +upon a musical instrument, cannot be acquired but by an infinite number +of acts. I need not, therefore, enforce by many words the necessity +of continual application; nor tell you that the port-crayon ought to +be for ever in your hands. Various methods will occur to you by +which this power may be acquired. I would particularly recommend +that after your return from the academy (where I suppose your attendance +to be constant) you would endeavour to draw the figure by memory. +I will even venture to add, that by perseverance in this custom, you +will become able to draw the human figure tolerably correct, with as +little effort of the mind as to trace with a pen the letters of the +alphabet.</p> +<p>That this facility is not unattainable, some members in this academy +give a sufficient proof. And, be assured, that if this power is +not acquired whilst you are young, there will be no time for it afterwards: +at least, the attempt will be attended with as much difficulty as those +experience who learn to read or write after they have arrived to the +age of maturity.</p> +<p>But while I mention the port-crayon as the student’s constant +companion, he must still remember that the pencil is the instrument +by which he must hope to obtain eminence. What, therefore, I wish +to impress upon you is, that whenever an opportunity offers, you paint +your studies instead of drawing them. This will give you such +a facility in using colours, that in time they will arrange themselves +under the pencil, even without the attention of the hand that conducts +it. If one act excluded the other, this advice could not with +any propriety be given. But if painting comprises both drawing +and colouring and if by a short struggle of resolute industry the same +expedition is attainable in painting as in drawing on paper, I cannot +see what objection can justly be made to the practice; or why that should +be done by parts, which may be done altogether.</p> +<p>If we turn our eyes to the several schools of painting, and consider +their respective excellences, we shall find that those who excel most +in colouring pursued this method. The Venetian and Flemish schools, +which owe much of their fame to colouring, have enriched the cabinets +of the collectors of drawings with very few examples. Those of +Titian, Paul Veronese, Tintoret, and the Bassans, are in general slight +and undetermined. Their sketches on paper are as rude as their +pictures are excellent in regard to harmony of colouring. Correggio +and Barocci have left few, if any, finished drawings behind them. +And in the Flemish school, Rubens and Vandyke made their designs for +the most part either in colours or in chiaroscuro. It is as common +to find studies of the Venetian and Flemish painters on canvas, as of +the schools of Rome and Florence on paper. Not but that many finished +drawings are sold under the names of those masters. Those, however, +are undoubtedly the productions either of engravers or of their scholars +who copied their works.</p> +<p>These instructions I have ventured to offer from my own experience; +but as they deviate widely from received opinions, I offer them with +diffidence; and when better are suggested, shall retract them without +regret.</p> +<p>There is one precept, however, in which I shall only be opposed by +the vain, the ignorant, and the idle. I am not afraid that I shall +repeat it too often. You must have no dependence on your own genius. +If you have great talents, industry will improve them: if you have but +moderate abilities, industry will supply their deficiency. Nothing +is denied to well-directed labour: nothing is to be obtained without +it. Not to enter into metaphysical discussions on the nature or +essence of genius, I will venture to assert, that assiduity unabated +by difficulty, and a disposition eagerly directed to the object of its +pursuit, will produce effects similar to those which some call the result +of natural powers.</p> +<p>Though a man cannot at all times, and in all places, paint or draw, +yet the mind can prepare itself by laying in proper materials, at all +times, and in all places. Both Livy and Plutarch, in describing +Philopoemen, one of the ablest generals of antiquity, have given us +a striking picture of a mind always intent on its profession, and by +assiduity obtaining those excellences which some all their lives vainly +expect from Nature. I shall quote the passage in Livy at length, +as it runs parallel with the practice I would recommend to the painter, +sculptor, or architect.</p> +<p>“Philopoemen was a man eminent for his sagacity and experience +in choosing ground, and in leading armies; to which he formed his mind +by perpetual meditation, in times of peace as well as war. When, +in any occasional journey, he came to a straight difficult passage, +if he was alone, he considered with himself, and if he was in company +he asked his friends what it would be best to do if in this place they +had found an enemy, either in the front, or in the rear, on the one +side, or on the other. ‘It might happen,’ says he, +‘that the enemy to be opposed might come on drawn up in regular +lines, or in a tumultuous body, formed only by the nature of the place.’ +He then considered a little what ground he should take; what number +of soldiers he should use, and what arms he should give them; where +he should lodge his carriages, his baggage, and the defenceless followers +of his camp; how many guards, and of what kind, he should send to defend +them; and whether it would be better to press forward along the pass, +or recover by retreat his former station: he would consider likewise +where his camp could most commodiously be formed; how much ground he +should enclose within his trenches; where he should have the convenience +of water; and where he might find plenty of wood and forage; and when +he should break up his camp on the following day, through what road +he could most safely pass, and in what form he should dispose his troops. +With such thoughts and disquisitions he had from his early years so +exercised his mind, that on these occasions nothing could happen which +he had not been already accustomed to consider.”</p> +<p>I cannot help imagining that I see a promising young painter, equally +vigilant, whether at home, or abroad in the streets, or in the fields. +Every object that presents itself is to him a lesson. He regards +all nature with a view to his profession; and combines her beauties, +or corrects her defects. He examines the countenance of men under +the influence of passion; and often catches the most pleasing hints +from subjects of turbulence or deformity. Even bad pictures themselves +supply him with useful documents; and, as Leonardo da Vinci has observed, +he improves upon the fanciful images that are sometimes seen in the +fire, or are accidentally sketched upon a discoloured wall.</p> +<p>The artist who has his mind thus filled with ideas, and his hand +made expert by practice, works with ease and readiness; whilst he who +would have you believe that he is waiting for the inspirations of genius, +is in reality at a loss how to beam, and is at last delivered of his +monsters with difficulty and pain.</p> +<p>The well-grounded painter, on the contrary, has only maturely to +consider his subject, and all the mechanical parts of his art follow +without his exertion, Conscious of the difficulty of obtaining what +he possesses he makes no pretensions to secrets, except those of closer +application. Without conceiving the smallest jealousy against +others, he is contented that all shall be as great as himself who are +willing to undergo the same fatigue: and as his pre-eminence depends +not upon a trick, he is free from the painful suspicions of a juggler, +who lives in perpetual fear lest his trick should be discovered.</p> +<h3>A DISCOURSE<br /> +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution of +the Prizes, December, 14, 1770, by the President.</h3> +<p>Gentlemen,—It is not easy to speak with propriety to so many +students of different ages and different degrees of advancement. +The mind requires nourishment adapted to its growth; and what may have +promoted our earlier efforts, might, retard us in our nearer approaches +to perfection.</p> +<p>The first endeavours of a young painter, as I have remarked in a +former discourse, must be employed in the attainment of mechanical dexterity, +and confined to the mere imitation of the object before him. Those +who have advanced beyond the rudiments, may, perhaps, find advantage +in reflecting on the advice which I have likewise given them, when I +recommended the diligent study of the works of our great predecessors; +but I at the same time endeavoured to guard them against an implicit +submission to the authority of any one master, however excellent; or +by a strict imitation of his manner, to preclude ourselves from the +abundance and variety of nature. I will now add that nature herself +is not to be too closely copied. There are excellences in the +art of painting, beyond what is commonly called the imitation of nature: +and these excellences I wish to point out. The students who, having +passed through the initiatory exercises, are more advanced in the art, +and who, sure of their hand, have leisure to exert their understanding, +must now be told that a mere copier of nature can never produce anything +great; can never raise and enlarge the conceptions, or warm the heart +of the spectator.</p> +<p>The wish of the genuine painter must be more extensive: instead of +endeavouring to amuse mankind with the minute neatness of his imitations, +he must endeavour to improve them by the grandeur of his ideas; instead +of seeking praise, by deceiving the superficial sense of the spectator, +he must strive for fame, by captivating the imagination.</p> +<p>The principle now laid down, that the perfection of this art does +not consist in mere imitation, is far from being new or singular. +It is, indeed, supported by the general opinion of the enlightened part +of mankind. The poets, orators, and rhetoricians of antiquity, +are continually enforcing this position, that all the arts receive their +perfection from an ideal beauty, superior to what is to be found in +individual nature. They are ever referring to the practice of +the painters and sculptors of their times, particularly Phidias (the +favourite artist of antiquity), to illustrate their assertions. +As if they could not sufficiently express their admiration of his genius +by what they knew, they have recourse to poetical enthusiasm. +They call it inspiration; a gift from heaven. The artist is supposed +to have ascended the celestial regions, to furnish his mind with this +perfect idea of beauty. “He,” says Proclus, “who +takes for his model such forms as nature produces, and confines himself +to an exact imitation of them, will never attain to what is perfectly +beautiful. For the works of nature are full of disproportion, +and fall very short of the true standard of beauty. So that Phidias, +when he formed his Jupiter, did not copy any object ever presents to +his sight; but contemplated only that image which he had conceived in +his mind from Homer’s description.” And thus Cicero, +speaking of the same Phidias: “Neither did this artist,” +says he, “when he carved the image of Jupiter or Minerva, set +before him any one human figure as a pattern, which he was to copy; +but having a more perfect idea of beauty fixed in his mind, this he +steadily contemplated, and to the imitation of this all his skill and +labour were directed.”</p> +<p>The moderns are not less convinced than the ancients of this superior +power existing in the art; nor less conscious of its effects. +Every language has adopted terms expressive of this excellence. +The <i>Gusto grande</i> of the Italians; the <i>Beau ideal</i> of the +French and the <i>great style</i>, <i>genius</i>, and <i>taste</i> among +the English, are but different appellations of the same thing. +It is this intellectual dignity, they say, that ennobles the painter’s +art; that lays the line between him and the mere mechanic; and produces +those great effects in an instant, which eloquence and poetry, by slow +and repeated efforts, are scarcely able to attain.</p> +<p>Such is the warmth with which both the ancients and moderns speak +of this divine principle of the art; but, as I have formerly observed, +enthusiastic admiration seldom promotes knowledge. Though a student +by such praise may have his attention roused, and a desire excited, +of running in this great career, yet it is possible that what has been +said to excite, may only serve to deter him. He examines his own +mind, and perceives there nothing of that divine inspiration with which +he is told so many others have been favoured. He never travelled +to heaven to gather new ideas; and he finds himself possessed of no +other qualifications than what mere common observation and a plain understanding +can confer. Thus he becomes gloomy amidst the splendour of figurative +declamation, and thinks it hopeless to pursue an object which he supposes +out of the reach of human industry.</p> +<p>But on this, as upon many other occasions, we ought to distinguish +how much is to be given to enthusiasm, and how much to reason. +We ought to allow for, and we ought to commend, that strength of vivid +expression which is necessary to convey, in its full force, the highest +sense of the most complete effect of art; taking care at the same time +not to lose in terms of vague admiration that solidity and truth of +principle upon which alone we can reason, and may be enabled to practise.</p> +<p>It is not easy to define in what this great style consists; nor to +describe, by words, the proper means of acquiring it, if the mind of +the student should be at all capable of such an acquisition. Could +we teach taste or genius by rules, they would be no longer taste and +genius. But though there neither are, nor can be, any precise +invariable rules for the exercise or the acquisition of those great +qualities, yet we may as truly say that they always operate in proportion +to our attention in observing the works of nature, to our skill in selecting, +and to our care in digesting, methodising, and comparing our observations. +There are many beauties in our art, that seem, at first, to lie without +the reach of precept, and yet may easily be reduced to practical principles. +Experience is all in all; but it is not every one who profits by experience; +and most people err, not so much from want of capacity to find their +object, as from not knowing what object to pursue. This great +ideal perfection and beauty are not to be sought in the heavens, but +upon the earth. They are about us, and upon every side of us. +But the power of discovering what is deformed in nature, or in other +words, what is particular and uncommon, can be acquired only by experience; +and the whole beauty and grandeur of the art consists, in my opinion, +in being able to get above all singular forms, local customs, particularities, +and details of every kind.</p> +<p>All the objects which are exhibited to our view by nature, upon close +examination will be found to have their blemishes and defects. +The most beautiful forms have something about them like weakness, minuteness, +or imperfection. But it is not every eye that perceives these +blemishes. It must be an eye long used to the contemplation and +comparison of these forms; and which, by a long habit of observing what +any set of objects of the same kind have in common, that alone can acquire +the power of discerning what each wants in particular. This long +laborious comparison should be the first study of the painter who aims +at the greatest style. By this means, he acquires a just idea +of beautiful forms; he corrects nature by herself, her imperfect state +by her more perfect. His eye being enabled to distinguish the +accidental deficiencies, excrescences, and deformities of things from +their general figures, he makes out an abstract idea of their forms +more perfect than any one original; and what may seem a paradox, he +learns to design naturally by drawing his figures unlike to any one +object. This idea of the perfect state of nature, which the artist +calls the ideal beauty, is the great leading principle by which works +of genius are conducted. By this Phidias acquired his fame. +He wrought upon a sober principle what has so much excited the enthusiasm +of the world; and by this method you, who have courage to tread the +same path, may acquire equal reputation.</p> +<p>This is the idea which has acquired, and which seems to have a right +to the epithet of Divine; as it may be said to preside, like a supreme +judge, over all the productions of nature; appearing to be possessed +of the will and intention of the Creator, as far as they regard the +external form of living beings.</p> +<p>When a man once possesses this idea in its perfection, there is no +danger but that he will he sufficiently warmed by it himself, and be +able to warm and ravish every one else.</p> +<p>Thus it is from a reiterated experience, and a close comparison of +the objects in nature, that an artist becomes possessed of the idea +of that central form, if I may so express it, from which every deviation +is deformity. But the investigation of this form I grant is painful, +and I know but of one method of shortening the road; this is, by a careful +study of the works of the ancient sculptors; who, being indefatigable +in the school of nature, have left models of that perfect form behind +them, which an artist would prefer as supremely beautiful, who had spent +his whole life in that single contemplation. But if industry carried +them thus far, may not you also hope for the same reward from the same +labour? We have the same school opened to us that was opened to +them; for nature denies her instructions to none who desire to become +her pupils.</p> +<p>To the principle I have laid down, that the idea of beauty in each +species of beings is invariably one, it may be objected that in every +particular species there are various central forms, which are separate +and distinct from each other, and yet are undeniably beautiful; that +in the human figure, for instance, the beauty of the Hercules is one, +of the gladiator another, of the Apollo another, which makes so many +different ideas of beauty.</p> +<p>It is true, indeed, that these figures are each perfect in their +kind, though of different characters and proportions; but still none +of them is the representation of an individual, but of a class. +And as there is one general form, which, as I have said, belongs to +the human kind at large, so in each of these classes there is one common +idea and central form, which is the abstract of the various individual +forms belonging to that class. Thus, though the forms of childhood +and age differ exceedingly, there is a common form in childhood, and +a common form in age,—which is the more perfect, as it is more +remote from all peculiarities. But I must add further, that though +the most perfect forms of each of the general divisions of the human +figure are ideal, and superior to any individual form of that class, +yet the highest perfection of the human figure is not to be found in +any one of them. It is not in the Hercules, nor in the gladiator, +nor in the Apollo; but in that form which is taken from them all, and +which partakes equally of the activity of the gladiator, of the delicacy +of the Apollo, and of the muscular strength of the Hercules. For +perfect beauty in any species must combine all the characters which +are beautiful in that species. It cannot consist in any one to +the exclusion of the rest: no one, therefore, must be predominant, that +no one may be deficient.</p> +<p>The knowledge of these different characters, and the power of separating +and distinguishing them, is undoubtedly necessary to the painter, who +is to vary his compositions with figures of various forms and proportions, +though he is never to lose sight of the general idea of perfection in +each kind.</p> +<p>There is, likewise, a kind of symmetry or proportion, which may properly +be said to belong to deformity. A figure lean or corpulent, tall +or short, though deviating from beauty, may still have a certain union +of the various parts, which may contribute to make them, on the whole, +not unpleasing. When the artist has by diligent attention acquired +a clear and distinct idea of beauty and symmetry; when he has reduced +the variety of nature to the abstract idea; his next task will be to +become acquainted with the genuine habits of nature, as distinguished +from those of fashion. For in the same manner, and on the same +principles, as he has acquired the knowledge of the real forms of nature, +distinct from accidental deformity, he must endeavour to separate simple +chaste nature from those adventitious, those affected and forced airs +or actions, with which she is loaded by modern education.</p> +<p>Perhaps I cannot better explain what I mean than by reminding you +of what was taught us by the Professor of Anatomy, in respect to the +natural position and movement of the feet. He observed that the +fashion of turning, them outwards was contrary to the intent of nature, +as might be seen from the structure of the bones, and from the weakness +that proceeded from that manner of standing. To this we may add +the erect position of the head, the projection of the chest, the walking +with straight knees, and many such actions, which are merely the result +of fashion, and what nature never warranted, as we are sure that we +have been taught them when children.</p> +<p>I have mentioned but a few of those instances, in which vanity or +caprice have contrived to distort and disfigure the human form; your +own recollection will add to these a thousand more of ill-understood +methods, that have been practised to disguise nature, among our dancing-masters, +hair-dressers, and tailors, in their various schools of deformity.</p> +<p>However the mechanic and ornamental arts may sacrifice to fashion, +she must be entirely excluded from the art of painting; the painter +must never mistake this capricious changeling for the genuine offspring +of nature; he must divest himself of all prejudices in favour of his +age or country; he must disregard all local and temporary ornaments, +and look only on those general habits that are everywhere and always +the same. He addresses his works to the people of every country +and every age; he calls upon posterity to be his spectators, and says +with Zeuxis, <i>In æternitatem pingo</i>.</p> +<p>The neglect of separating modern fashions from the habits of nature, +leads to that ridiculous style which has been practised by some painters +who have given to Grecian heroes the airs and graces practised in the +court of Louis XIV.; an absurdity almost as great as it would have been +to have dressed them after the fashion of that court.</p> +<p>To avoid this error, however, and to retain the true simplicity of +nature, is a task more difficult than at first sight it may appear. +The prejudices in favour of the fashions and customs that we have been +used to, and which are justly called a second nature, make it too often +difficult to distinguish that which is natural from that which is the +result of education; they frequently even give a predilection in favour +of the artificial mode; and almost every one is apt to be guided by +those local prejudices who has not chastised his mind, and regulated +the instability of his affections, by the eternal invariable idea of +nature.</p> +<p>Here, then, as before, we must have recourse to the ancients as instructors. +It is from a careful study of their works that you will be enabled to +attain to the real simplicity of nature; they will suggest many observations, +which would probably escape you, if your study were confined to nature +alone. And, indeed, I cannot help suspecting, that in this instance +the ancients had an easier task than the moderns. They had, probably, +little or nothing to unlearn, as their manners were nearly approaching +to this desirable simplicity; while the modern artist, before he can +see the truth of things, is obliged to remove a veil, with which the +fashion of the times has thought proper to cover her.</p> +<p>Having gone thus far in our investigation of the great style in painting; +if we now should suppose that the artist has formed the true idea of +beauty, which enables him to give his works a correct and perfect design; +if we should suppose also that he has acquired a knowledge of the unadulterated +habits of nature, which gives him simplicity; the rest of his talk is, +perhaps, less than is generally imagined. Beauty and simplicity +have so great a share in the composition of a great style, that he who +has acquired them has little else to learn. It must not, indeed, +be forgot that there is a nobleness of conception, which goes beyond +anything in the mere exhibition, even of perfect form; there is an art +of animating and dignifying the figures with intellectual grandeur, +of impressing the appearance of philosophic wisdom or heroic virtue. +This can only be acquired by him that enlarges the sphere of his understanding +by a variety of knowledge, and warms his imagination with the best productions +of ancient and modern poetry.</p> +<p>A hand thus exercised, and a mind thus instructed, will bring the +art to a higher degree of excellence than, perhaps, it has hitherto +attained in this country. Such a student will disdain the humbler +walks of painting, which, however profitable, can never assure him a +permanent reputation. He will leave the meaner artist servilely +to suppose that those are the best pictures which are most likely to +deceive the spectator. He will permit the lower painter, like +the florist or collector of shells, to exhibit the minute discriminations +which distinguish one object of the same species from another; while +he, like the philosopher, will consider nature in the abstract, and +represent in every one of his figures the character of its species.</p> +<p>If deceiving the eye were the only business of the art, there is +no doubt, indeed, but the minute painter would be more apt to succeed: +but it is not the eye, it is the mind, which the painter of genius desires +to address; nor will he waste a moment upon these smaller objects, which +only serve to catch the sense, to divide the attention, and to counteract +his great design of speaking to the heart.</p> +<p>This is the ambition I could wish to excite in your minds; and the +object I have had in my view, throughout this discourse, is that one +great idea which gives to painting its true dignity, that entitles it +to the name of a Liberal Art, and ranks it as a sister of poetry.</p> +<p>It may possibly have happened to many young students whose application +was sufficient to overcome all difficulties, and whose minds were capable +of embracing the most extensive views, that they have, by a wrong direction +originally given, spent their lives in the meaner walks of painting, +without ever knowing there was a nobler to pursue. “Albert +Durer,” as Vasari has justly remarked, “would probably have +been one of the first painters of his age (and he lived in an era of +great artists) had he been initiated into those great principles of +the art which were so well understood and practised by his contemporaries +in Italy. But unluckily, having never seen or heard of any other +manner, he considered his own, without doubt, as perfect.”</p> +<p>As for the various departments of painting, which do not presume +to make such high pretensions, they are many. None of them are +without their merit, though none enter into competition with this great +universal presiding idea of the art. The painters who have applied +themselves more particularly to low and vulgar characters, and who express +with precision the various shades of passion, as they are exhibited +by vulgar minds (such as we see in the works of Hogarth) deserve great +praise; but as their genius has been employed on low and confined subjects, +the praise that we give must be as limited as its object. The +merrymaking or quarrelling of the Boors of Teniers; the same sort of +productions of Brouwer, or Ostade, are excellent in their kind; and +the excellence and its praise will be in proportion, as, in those limited +subjects and peculiar forms, they introduce more or less of the expression +of those passions, as they appear in general and more enlarged nature. +This principle may be applied to the battle pieces of Bourgognone, the +French gallantries of Watteau, and even beyond the exhibition of animal +life, to the landscapes of Claude Lorraine, and the sea-views of Vandervelde. +All these painters have, in general, the same right, in different degrees, +to the name of a painter, which a satirist, an epigrammatist, a sonnetteer, +a writer of pastorals, or descriptive poetry, has to that of a poet.</p> +<p>In the same rank, and, perhaps, of not so great merit, is the cold +painter of portraits. But his correct and just imitation of his +object has its merit. Even the painter of still life, whose highest +ambition is to give a minute representation of every part of those low +objects, which he sets before him, deserves praise in proportion to +his attainment; because no part of this excellent art, so much the ornament +of polished life, is destitute of value and use. These, however, +are by no means the views to which the mind of the student ought to +be <i>primarily</i> directed. By aiming at better things, if from +particular inclination, or from the taste of the time and place he lives +in, or from necessity, or from failure in the highest attempts, he is +obliged to descend lower; he will bring into the lower sphere of art +a grandeur of composition and character that will raise and ennoble +his works far above their natural rank.</p> +<p>A man is not weak, though he may not be able to wield the club of +Hercules; nor does a man always practise that which he esteems the beat; +but does that which he can best do. In moderate attempts, there +are many walks open to the artist. But as the idea of beauty is +of necessity but one, so there can be but one great mode of painting; +the leading principle of which I have endeavoured to explain.</p> +<p>I should be sorry if what is here recommended should be at all understood +to countenance a careless or indetermined manner of painting. +For though the painter is to overlook the accidental discriminations +of nature, he is to pronounce distinctly, and with precision, the general +forms of things. A firm and determined outline is one of the characteristics +of the great style in painting; and, let me add, that he who possesses +the knowledge of the exact form, that every part of nature ought to +have, will be fond of expressing that knowledge with correctness and +precision in all his works.</p> +<p>To conclude: I have endeavoured to reduce the idea of beauty to general +principles. And I had the pleasure to observe that the professor +of painting proceeded in the same method, when he showed you that the +artifice of contrast was founded but on one principle. And I am +convinced that this is the only means of advancing science, of clearing +the mind from a confused heap of contradictory observations, that do +but perplex and puzzle the student when he compares them, or misguide +him if he gives himself up to their authority; but bringing them under +one general head can alone give rest and satisfaction to an inquisitive +mind.</p> +<h3>A DISCOURSE<br /> +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution of +the Prizes, December 10, 1771, by the President.</h3> +<p>Gentlemen,—The value and rank of every art is in proportion +to the mental labour employed in it, or the mental pleasure produced +by it. As this principle is observed or neglected, our profession +becomes either a liberal art or a mechanical trade. In the hands +of one man it makes the highest pretensions, as it is addressed to the +noblest faculties, In those of another it is reduced to a mere matter +of ornament, and the painter has but the humble province of furnishing +our apartments with elegance.</p> +<p>This exertion of mind, which is the only circumstance that truly +ennobles our art, makes the great distinction between the Roman and +Venetian schools. I have formerly observed that perfect form is +produced by leaving out particularities, and retaining only general +ideas. I shall now endeavour to show that this principle, which +I have proved to be metaphysically just, extends itself to every part +of the art; that it gives what is called the grand style to invention, +to composition, to expression, and even to colouring and drapery.</p> +<p>Invention in painting does not imply the invention of the subject, +for that is commonly supplied by the poet or historian. With respect +to the choice, no subject can be proper that is not generally interesting. +It ought to be either some eminent instance of heroic action or heroic +suffering. There must be something either in the action or in +the object in which men are universally concerned, and which powerfully +strikes upon the public sympathy.</p> +<p>Strictly speaking, indeed, no subject can be of universal, hardly +can it be of general concern: but there are events and characters so +popularly known in those countries where our art is in request, that +they may be considered as sufficiently general for all our purposes. +Such are the great events of Greek and Roman fable and history, which +early education and the usual course of reading have made familiar and +interesting to all Europe, without being degraded by the vulgarism of +ordinary life in any country. Such, too, are the capital subjects +of Scripture history, which, besides their general notoriety, become +venerable by their connection with our religion.</p> +<p>As it is required that the subject selected should be a general one, +it is no less necessary that it should be kept unembarrassed with whatever +may any way serve to divide the attention of the spectator. Whenever +a story is related, every man forms a picture in his mind of the action +and the expression of the persons employed. The power of representing +this mental picture in canvas is what we call invention in a painter. +And as in the conception of this ideal picture the mind does not enter +into the minute peculiarities of the dress, furniture, or scene of action, +so when the painter comes to represent it he contrives those little +necessary concomitant circumstances in such a manner that they shall +strike the spectator no more than they did himself in his first conception +of the story.</p> +<p>I am very ready to allow that some circumstances of minuteness and +particularity frequently tend to give an air of truth to a piece, and +to interest the spectator in an extraordinary manner. Such circumstances, +therefore, cannot wholly be rejected; but if there be anything in the +art which requires peculiar nicety of discernment, it is the disposition +of these minute circumstantial parts which, according to the judgment +employed in the choice, become so useful to truth or so injurious to +grandeur.</p> +<p>However, the usual and most dangerous error is on the side of minuteness, +and, therefore, I think caution most necessary where most have failed. +The general idea constitutes real excellence. All smaller things, +however perfect in their way, are to be sacrificed without mercy to +the greater. The painter will not inquire what things may be admitted +without much censure. He will not think it enough to show that +they may be there; he will show that they must be there, that their +absence would render his picture maimed and defective.</p> +<p>Thus, though to the principal group a second or third be added, and +a second and third mass of light, care must be yet taken that these +subordinate actions and lights, neither each in particular, nor all +together, come into any degree of competition with the principal; they +should make a part of that whole which would be imperfect without them. +To every part of painting this rule may be applied. Even in portraits, +the grace and, we may add, the likeness, consists more in taking the +general air than in observing the effect similitude of every feature.</p> +<p>Thus figures must have a ground whereon to stand; they must be clothed, +there must be a background, there must be light and shadow; but none +of these ought to appear to have taken up any part of the artist’s +attention. They should be so managed as not even to catch that +of the spectator. We know well enough, when we analyse a piece, +the difficulty and the subtlety with which an artist adjusts the background, +drapery, and masses of light; we know that a considerable part of the +grace and effect of his picture depends upon them; but this art is so +much concealed, even to a judicious eye, that no remains of any of these +subordinate parts occur to memory when the picture is not present.</p> +<p>The great end of the art is to strike the imagination. The +painter is, therefore, to make no ostentation of the means by which +this is done; the spectator is only to feel the result in his bosom. +An inferior artist is unwilling that any part of his industry should +be lost upon the spectator. He takes as much pains to discover, +as the greater artist does to conceal, the marks of his subordinate +assiduity. In works of the lower kind everything appears studied +and encumbered; it is all boastful art and open affectation. The +ignorant often part from such pictures with wonder in their mouths, +and indifference in their hearts.</p> +<p>But it is not enough in invention that the artist should restrain +and keep under all the inferior parts of his subject; he must sometimes +deviate from vulgar and strict historical truth in pursuing the grandeur +of his design.</p> +<p>How much the great style exacts from its professors to conceive and +represent their subjects in a poetical manner, not confined to mere +matter of fact, may be seen in the cartoons of Raffaelle. In all +the pictures in which the painter has represented the apostles, he has +drawn them with great nobleness; he has given them as much dignity as +the human figure is capable of receiving yet we are expressly told in +Scripture they had no such respectable appearance; and of St. Paul in +particular, we are told by himself, that his bodily presence was mean. +Alexander is said to have been of a low stature: a painter ought not +so to represent him. Agesilaus was low, lame, and of a mean appearance. +None of these defects ought to appear in a piece of which he is the +hero. In conformity to custom, I call this part of the art history +painting; it ought to be called poetical, as in reality it is.</p> +<p>All this is not falsifying any fact; it is taking an allowed poetical +licence. A painter of portraits retains the individual likeness; +a painter of history shows the man by showing his actions. A painter +must compensate the natural deficiencies of his art. He has but +one sentence to utter, but one moment to exhibit. He cannot, like +the poet or historian, expatiate, and impress the mind with great veneration +for the character of the hero or saint he represents, though he lets +us know at the same time that the saint was deformed, or the hero lame. +The painter has no other means of giving an idea of the dignity of the +mind, but by that external appearance which grandeur of thought does +generally, though not always, impress on the countenance, and by that +correspondence of figure to sentiment and situation which all men wish, +but cannot command. The painter, who may in this one particular +attain with ease what others desire in vain, ought to give all that +he possibly can, since there are so many circumstances of true greatness +that he cannot give at all. He cannot make his hero talk like +a great man; he must make him look like one. For which reason +he ought to be well studied in the analysis of those circumstances which +constitute dignity of appearance in real life.</p> +<p>As in invention, so likewise in, expression, care must be taken not +to run into particularities, Those expressions alone should be given +to the figures which their respective situations generally produce. +Nor is this enough; each person should also have that expression which +men of his rank generally exhibit. The joy or the grief of a character +of dignity is not to be expressed in the same manner as a similar passion +in a vulgar face. Upon this principle Bernini, perhaps, may be +subject to censure. This sculptor, in many respects admirable, +has given a very mean expression to his statue of David, who is represented +as just going to throw the stone from the sling; and in order to give +it the expression of energy he has made him biting his under-lip. +This expression is far from being general, and still farther from being +dignified. He might have seen it in an instance or two, and he +mistook accident for universality.</p> +<p>With respect to colouring, though it may appear at first a part of +painting merely mechanical, yet it still has its rules, and those grounded +upon that presiding principle which regulates both the great and the +little in the study of a painter. By this, the first effect of +the picture is produced; and as this is performed the spectator, as +he walks the gallery, will stop, or pass along. To give a general +air of grandeur at first view, all trifling or artful play of little +lights or an attention to a variety of tints is to be avoided; a quietness +and simplicity must reign over the whole work; to which a breadth of +uniform and simple colour will very much contribute. Grandeur +of effect is produced by two different ways, which seem entirely opposed +to each other. One is, by reducing the colours to little more +than chiaroscuro, which was often the practice of the Bolognian schools; +and the other, by making the colours very distinct and forcible, such +as we see in those of Rome and Florence; but still, the presiding principle +of both those manners is simplicity. Certainly, nothing can be +more simple than monotony, and the distinct blue, red, and yellow colours +which are seen in the draperies of the Roman and Florentine schools, +though they have not that kind of harmony which is produced by a variety +of broken and transparent colours, have that effect of grandeur that +was intended. Perhaps these distinct colours strike the mind more +forcibly, from there not being any great union between them; as martial +music, which is intended to rouse the noble passions, has its effect +from the sudden and strongly marked transitions from one note to another, +which that style of music requires; whilst in that which is intended +to move the softer passions the notes imperceptibly melt into one another.</p> +<p>In the same manner as the historical painter never enters into the +detail of colours, so neither does he debase his conceptions with minute +attention to the discriminations of drapery. It is the inferior +style that marks the variety of stuffs. With him, the clothing +is neither woollen, nor linen, nor silk, satin, or velvet: it is drapery; +it is nothing more. The art of disposing the foldings of the drapery +make a very considerable part of the painter’s study. To +make it merely natural is a mechanical operation, to which neither genius +or taste are required; whereas, it requires the nicest judgment to dispose +the drapery, so that the folds have an easy communication, and gracefully +follow each other, with such natural negligence as to look like the +effect of chance, and at the same time show the figure under it to the +utmost advantage.</p> +<p>Carlo Maratti was of opinion that the disposition of drapery was +a more difficult art than even that of drawing the human figure; that +a student might be more easily taught the latter than the former; as +the rules of drapery, he said, could not be so well ascertained as those +for delineating a correct form, This, perhaps, is a proof how willingly +we favour our own peculiar excellence. Carlo Maratti is said to +have valued himself particularly upon his skill in this part of the +art yet in him the disposition appears so artificial, that he is inferior +to Raffaelle, even in that which gave him his best claim to reputation.</p> +<p>Such is the great principle by which we must be directed in the nobler +branches of our art. Upon this principle the Roman, the Florentine, +the Bolognese schools, have formed their practice; and by this they +have deservedly obtained the highest praise. These are the three +great schools of the world in the epic style. The best of the +French school, Poussin, Le Sueur, and Le Brun, have formed themselves +upon these models, and consequently may be said, though Frenchmen, to +be a colony from the Roman school. Next to these, but in a very +different style of excellence, we may rank the Venetian, together with +the Flemish and the Dutch schools, all professing to depart from the +great purposes of painting, and catching at applause by inferior qualities.</p> +<p>I am not ignorant that some will censure me for placing the Venetians +in this inferior class, and many of the warmest admirers of painting +will think them unjustly degraded; but I wish not to be misunderstood. +Though I can by no means allow them to hold any rank with the nobler +schools of painting, they accomplished perfectly the thing they attempted. +But as mere elegance is their principal object, as they seem more willing +to dazzle than to affect, it can be no injury to them to suppose that +their practice is useful only to its proper end. But what may +heighten the elegant may degrade the sublime. There is a simplicity, +and I may add, severity, in the great manner, which is, I am afraid, +almost incompatible with this comparatively sensual style.</p> +<p>Tintoret, Paul Veronese, and others of the Venetian schools, seem +to have painted with no other purpose than to be admired for their skill +and expertness in the mechanism of painting, and to make a parade of +that art which, as I before observed, the higher style requires its +followers to conceal.</p> +<p>In a conference of the French Academy, at which were present Le Brun, +Sebastian Bourdon, and all the eminent artists of that age, one of the +academicians desired to have their opinion on the conduct of Paul Veronese, +who, though a painter of great consideration, had, contrary to the strict +rules of art, in his picture of Perseus and Andromeda, represented the +principal figure in shade. To this question no satisfactory answer +was then given. But I will venture to say, that if they had considered +the class of the artist, and ranked him as an ornamental painter, there +would have been no difficulty in answering: “It was unreasonable +to expect what was never intended. His intention was solely to +produce an effect of light and Shadow; everything was to be sacrificed +to that intent, and the capricious composition of that picture suited +very well with the style he professed.”</p> +<p>Young minds are indeed too apt to be captivated by this splendour +of style, and that of the Venetians will be particularly pleasing; for +by them all those parts of the art that give pleasure to the eye or +sense have been cultivated with care, and carried to the degree nearest +to perfection. The powers exerted in the mechanical part of the +art have been called the language of painters; but we must say, that +it is but poor eloquence which only shows that the orator can talk. +Words should be employed as the means, not as the end: language is the +instrument, conviction is the work.</p> +<p>The language of painting must indeed be allowed these masters; but +even in that they have shown more copiousness than choice, and more +luxuriancy than judgment. If we consider the uninteresting subjects +of their invention, or at least the uninteresting manner in which they +are treated; if we attend to their capricious composition, their violent +and affected contrasts, whether of figures, or of light and shadow, +the richness of their drapery, and, at the same time, the mean effect +which the discrimination of stuffs gives to their pictures; if to these +we add their total inattention to expression, and then reflect on the +conceptions and the learning of Michael Angelo, or the simplicity of +Raffaelle, we can no longer dwell on the comparison. Even in colouring, +if we compare the quietness and chastity of the Bolognese pencil to +the bustle and tumult that fills every part of, a Venetian picture, +without the least attempt to interest the passions, their boasted art +will appear a mere struggle without effect; an empty tale told by an +idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing.</p> +<p>Such as suppose that the great style might happily be blended with +the ornamental, that the simple, grave, and majestic dignity of Raffaelle +could unite with the glow and bustle of a Paulo or Tintoret, are totally +mistaken. The principles by which each are attained are so contrary +to each other, that they seem, in my opinion, incompatible, and as impossible +to exist together, as to unite in the mind at the same time the most +sublime ideas and the lowest sensuality.</p> +<p>The subjects of the Venetian painters are mostly such as give them +an opportunity of introducing a great number of figures, such as feasts, +marriages, and processions, public martyrdoms, or miracles. I +can easily conceive that Paul Veronese, if he were asked, would say +that no subject was proper for an historical picture but such as admitted +at least forty figures; for in a less number, he would assert, there +could be no opportunity of the painter’s showing his art in composition, +his dexterity of managing and disposing the masses of light, and groups +of figures, and of introducing a variety of Eastern dresses and characters +in their rich stuffs.</p> +<p>But the thing is very different with a pupil of the greater schools. +Annibale Caracci thought twelve figures sufficient for any story: he +conceived that more would contribute to no end but to fill space; that +they would, be but cold spectators of the general action, or, to use +his own expression, that they would be figures to be let. Besides, +it is impossible for a picture composed of so many parts to have that +effect, so indispensably necessary to grandeur, of one complete whole. +However contradictory it may be in geometry, it is true in taste, that +many little things will not make a great one. The sublime impresses +the mind at once with one great idea; it is a single blow: the elegant +indeed may be produced by a repetition, by an accumulation of many minute +circumstances.</p> +<p>However great the difference is between the composition of the Venetian +and the rest of the Italian schools, there is full as great a disparity +in the effect of their pictures as produced by colours. And though +in this respect the Venetians must be allowed extraordinary skill, yet +even that skill, as they have employed it, will but ill correspond with +the great style. Their colouring is not only too brilliant, but, +I will venture to say, too harmonious to produce that solidity, steadiness, +and simplicity of effect which heroic subjects require, and which simple +or grave colours only can give to a work. That they are to be +cautiously studied by those who are ambitious of treading the great +walk of history is confirmed, if it wants confirmation, by the greatest +of all authorities, Michael Angelo. This wonderful man, after +having seen a picture by Titian, told Vasari, who accompanied him, “that +he liked much his colouring and manner; but then he added, that it was +a pity the Venetian painters did not learn to draw correctly in their +early youth, and adopt a better manner of study.”</p> +<p>By this it appears that the principal attention of the Venetian painters, +in the opinion of Michael Angelo, seemed to be engrossed by the study +of colours, to the neglect of the ideal beauty of form, or propriety +of expression. But if general censure was given to that school +from the sight of a picture of Titian, how much more heavily, and more +justly, would the censure fall on Paulo Veronese, or more especially +on Tintoret? And here I cannot avoid citing Vasari’s opinion +of the style and manner of Tintoret. “Of all the extraordinary +geniuses,” says he, “that have ever practised the art of +painting, for wild, capricious, extravagant, and fantastical inventions, +for furious impetuosity and boldness in the execution of his work, there +is none like Tintoret; his strange whims are even beyond extravagance; +and his works seem to be produced rather by chance than in consequence +of any previous design, as if he wanted to convince the world that, +the art was a trifle, and of the most easy attainment.”</p> +<p>For my own part, when I speak of the Venetian painters, I wish to +be understood to mean Paulo Veronese and Tintoret, to the exclusion +of Titian; for though his style is not so pure as that of many other +of the Italian schools, yet there is a sort of senatorial dignity about +him, which, however awkward in his imitators, seems to become him exceedingly. +His portraits alone, from the nobleness and simplicity of character +which he always gave them, will entitle him to the greatest respect, +as he undoubtedly stands in the first rank in this branch of the art.</p> +<p>It is not with Titian, but with the seducing qualities of the two +former, that I could wish to caution you, against being too much captivated. +These are the persons who may be said to have exhausted all the powers +of florid eloquence, to debauch the young and unexperienced, and have, +without doubt, been the cause of turning off the attention of the connoisseur +and of the patron of art, as well as that of the painter, from those +higher excellences of which the art is capable, and which ought to be +required in every considerable production. By them, and their +imitators, a style merely ornamental has been disseminated throughout +all Europe. Rubens carried it to Flanders, Voet to France, and +Luca Giordano to Spain and Naples.</p> +<p>The Venetian is indeed the most splendid of the schools of elegance; +and it is not without reason that the best performances in this lower +school are valued higher than the second-rate performances of those +above them; for every picture has value when it has a decided character, +and is excellent in its kind. But the student must take care not +to be so much dazzled with this splendour as to be tempted to imitate +what must ultimately lead from perfection. Poussin, whose eye +was always steadily fixed on the sublime, has been often heard to say, +“That a particular attention to colouring was an obstacle to the +student in his progress to the great end and design of the art; and +that he who attaches himself to this principal end will acquire by practice +a reasonably good method of colouring.”</p> +<p>Though it be allowed that elaborate harmony of colouring, a brilliancy +of tints, a soft and gradual transition from one to another, present +to the eye what an harmonious concert of music does to the ear, it must +be remembered that painting is not merely a gratification of the sight. +Such excellence, though properly cultivated where nothing higher than +elegance is intended, is weak and unworthy of regard, when the work +aspires to grandeur and sublimity.</p> +<p>The same reasons that have been urged why a mixture of the Venetian +style cannot improve the great style will hold good in regard to the +Flemish and Dutch schools. Indeed, the Flemish school, of which +Rubens is the head, was formed upon that of the Venetian; like them, +he took his figures too much from the people before him. But it +must be allowed in favour of the Venetians that he was more gross than +they, and carried all their mistaken methods to a far greater excess. +In the Venetian school itself, where they all err from the same cause, +there is a difference in the effect. The difference between Paulo +and Bassano seems to be only that one introduced Venetian gentlemen +into his pictures, and the other the boors of the district of Bassano, +and called them patriarchs and prophets.</p> +<p>The painters of the Dutch school have still more locality. +With them, a history piece is properly a portrait of themselves; whether +they describe the inside or outside of their houses, we have their own +people engaged in their own peculiar occupations, working or drinking, +playing or fighting. The circumstances that enter into a picture +of this kind are so far from giving a general view of human life that +they exhibit all the minute particularities of a nation differing in +several respects from the rest of mankind. Yet, let them have +their share of more humble praise. The painters of this school +are excellent in their own way; they are only ridiculous when they attempt +general history on their own narrow principles, and debase great events +by the meanness of their characters.</p> +<p>Some inferior dexterity, some extraordinary mechanical power, is +apparently that from which they seek distinction. Thus, we see, +that school alone has the custom of representing candle-light, not as +it really appears to us by night, but red, as it would illuminate objects +to a spectator by day. Such tricks, however pardonable in the +little style, where petty effects are the sole end, are inexcusable +in the greater, where the attention should never be drawn aside by trifles, +but should be entirely occupied by the subject itself.</p> +<p>The same local principles which characterise the Dutch school extend +even to their landscape painters; and Rubens himself, who has painted +many landscapes, has sometimes transgressed in this particular. +Their pieces in this way are, I think, always a representation of an +individual spot, and each in its kind a very faithful but very confined +portrait.</p> +<p>Claude Lorraine, on the contrary, was convinced that taking nature +as he found it seldom produced beauty. His pictures are a composition +of the various draughts which he has previously made from various beautiful +scenes and prospects. However, Rubens in some measure has made +amends for the deficiency with which he is charged; he has contrived +to raise and animate his otherwise uninteresting views, by introducing +a rainbow, storm, or some particular accidental effect of light. +That the practice of Claude Lorraine, in respect to his choice, is to +be adopted by landscape painters, in opposition to that of the Flemish +and Dutch schools, there can be no doubt, as its truth is founded upon +the same principle as that by which the historical painter acquires +perfect form. But whether landscape painting has a right to aspire +so far as to reject what the painters call accidents of nature is not +easy to determine. It is certain Claude Lorraine seldom, if ever, +availed himself of those accidents; either he thought that such peculiarities +were contrary to that style of general nature which he professed, or +that it would catch the attention too strongly, and destroy that quietness +and repose which he thought necessary to that kind of painting.</p> +<p>A portrait painter likewise, when he attempts history, unless he +is upon his guard, is likely to enter too much into the detail. +He too frequently makes his historical heads look like portraits; and +this was once the custom amongst those old painters who revived the +art before general ideas were practised or understood. A history +painter paints man in general; a portrait painter, a particular man, +and consequently a defective model.</p> +<p>Thus an habitual practice in the lower exercises of the art will +prevent many from attaining the greater. But such of us who move +in these humbler walks of the profession are not ignorant that, as the +natural dignity of the subject is less, the more all the little ornamental +helps are necessary to its embellishment. It would be ridiculous +for a painter of domestic scenes, of portraits, landscapes, animals, +or of still life, to say that he despised those qualities which have +made the subordinate schools so famous. The art of colouring, +and the skilful management of light and shadow, are essential requisites +in his confined labours. If we descend still lower, what is the +painter of fruit and flowers without the utmost art in colouring, and +what the painters call handling; that is, a lightness of pencil that +implies great practice, and gives the appearance of being done with +ease? Some here, I believe, must remember a flower-painter whose +boast it was that he scorned to paint for the million; no, he professed +to paint in the true Italian taste; and despising the crowd, called +strenuously upon the few to admire him. His idea of the Italian +taste was to paint as black and dirty as he could, and to leave all +clearness and brilliancy of colouring to those who were fonder of money +than of immortality. The consequence was such as might be expected. +For these pretty excellences are here essential beauties; and without +this merit the artist’s work will be more short-lived than the +objects of his imitation.</p> +<p>From what has been advanced, we must now be convinced that there +are two distinct styles in history painting: the grand, and the splendid +or ornamental.</p> +<p>The great style stands alone, and does not require, perhaps does +not so well admit, any addition from inferior beauties. The ornamental +style also possesses its own peculiar merit. However, though the +union of the two may make a sort of composite style, yet that style +is likely to be more imperfect than either of those which go to its +composition. Both kinds have merit, and may be excellent though +in different ranks, if uniformity be preserved, and the general and +particular ideas of nature be not mixed. Even the meanest of them +is difficult enough to attain; and the first place being already occupied +by the great artists in either department, some of those who followed +thought there was less room for them, and feeling the impulse of ambition +and the desire of novelty, and being at the same time perhaps willing +to take the shortest way, they endeavoured to make for themselves a +place between both. This they have effected by forming a union +of the different orders. But as the grave and majestic style would +suffer by a union with the florid and gay, so also has the Venetian +ornament in some respect been injured by attempting an alliance with +simplicity.</p> +<p>It may be asserted that the great style is always more or less contaminated +by any meaner mixture. But it happens in a few instances that +the lower may be improved by borrowing from the grand. Thus, if +a portrait painter is desirous to raise and improve his subject, he +has no other means than by approaching it to a general idea. He +leaves out all the minute breaks and peculiarities in the face, and +changes the dress from a temporary fashion to one more permanent, which +has annexed to it no ideas of meanness from its being familiar to us. +But if an exact resemblance of an individual be considered as the sole +object to be aimed at, the portrait painter will be apt to lose more +than he gains by the acquired dignity taken from general nature. +It is very difficult to ennoble the character of a countenance but at +the expense of the likeness, which is what is most generally required +by such as sit to the painter.</p> +<p>Of those who have practised the composite style, and have succeeded +in this perilous attempt, perhaps the foremost is Correggio. His +style is founded upon modern grace and elegance, to which is super, +added something of the simplicity of the grand style. A breadth +of light and colour, the general ideas of the drapery, an uninterrupted +flow of outline, all conspire to this effect. Next him (perhaps +equal to him) Parmegiano has dignified the genteelness of modern effeminacy +by uniting it with the simplicity of the ancients and the grandeur and +severity of Michael Angelo. It must be confessed, however, that +these two extraordinary men, by endeavouring to give the utmost degree +of grace, have sometimes, perhaps, exceeded its boundaries, and have +fallen into the most hateful of all hateful qualities, affectation. +Indeed, it is the peculiar characteristic of men of genius to be afraid +of coldness and insipidity, from which they think they never can be +too far removed. It particularly happens to these great masters +of grace and elegance. They often boldly drive on to the very +verge of ridicule; the spectator is alarmed, but at the same time admires +their vigour and intrepidity.</p> +<blockquote><p>Strange graces still, and stranger flights they had,<br /> +. . .<br /> +Yet ne’er so sure our passion to create<br /> +Ae when they touch’d the brink of all we hate.</p> +</blockquote> +<p>The errors of genius, however, are pardonable, and none even of the +more exalted painters are wholly free from them; but they have taught +us, by the rectitude of their general practice, to correct their own +affected or accidental deviation. The very first have not been +always upon their guard, and perhaps there is not a fault but what may +take shelter under the most venerable authorities; yet that style only +is perfect in which the noblest principles are uniformly pursued; and +those masters only are entitled to the first rank in, our estimation +who have enlarged the boundaries of their art, and have raised it to +its highest dignity, by exhibiting the general ideas of nature.</p> +<p>On the whole, it seems to me that there is but one presiding principle +which regulates and gives stability to every art. The works, whether +of poets, painters, moralists, or historians, which are built upon general +nature, live for ever; while those which depend for their existence +on particular customs and habits, a partial view of nature, or the fluctuation +of fashion, can only be coeval with that which first raised them from +obscurity. Present time and future maybe considered as rivals, +and he who solicits the one must expect to be discountenanced by the +other.</p> +<h3>A DISCOURSE<br /> +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution of +the Prizes, December 10, 1772, by the President.</h3> +<p>Gentlemen,—I purpose to carry on in this discourse the subject +which I began in my last. It was my wish upon that occasion to +incite you to pursue the higher excellences of the art. But I +fear that in this particular I have been misunderstood. Some are +ready to imagine, when any of their favourite acquirements in the art +are properly classed, that they are utterly disgraced. This is +a very great mistake: nothing has its proper lustre but in its proper +place. That which is most worthy of esteem in its allotted sphere +becomes an object, not of respect, but of derision, when it is forced +into a higher, to which it is not suited; and there it becomes doubly +a source of disorder, by occupying a situation which is not natural +to it, and by putting down from the first place what is in reality of +too much magnitude to become with grace and proportion that subordinate +station, to which something of less value would be much better suited.</p> +<p>My advice in a word is this: keep your principal attention fixed +upon the higher excellences. If you compass them and compass nothing +more, you are still in the first class. We may regret the innumerable +beauties which you may want: you may be very imperfect: but still, you +are an imperfect person of the highest order.</p> +<p>If, when you have got thus far, you can add any, or all, of the subordinate +qualifications, it is my wish and advice that you should not neglect +them.</p> +<p>But this is as much a matter of circumspection and caution at least +as of eagerness and pursuit.</p> +<p>The mind is apt to be distracted by a multiplicity of pursuits; and +that scale of perfection, which I wish always to be preserved, is in +the greatest danger of being totally disordered, and even inverted.</p> +<p>Some excellences bear to be united, and are improved by union, others +are of a discordant nature; and the attempt to join them only produces +a harsher jarring of incongruent principles.</p> +<p>The attempt to unite contrary excellences (of form, for instance) +in a single figure, can never escape degenerating into the monstrous, +but by sinking into the insipid, taking away its marked character, and +weakening its expression.</p> +<p>This remark is true to a certain degree with regard to the passions. +If you mean to preserve the most perfect beauty in its most perfect +state, you cannot express the passions, which produce (all of them) +distortion and deformity, more or less, in the most beautiful faces.</p> +<p>Guido, from want of choice in adapting his subject to his ideas and +his powers, or in attempting to preserve beauty where it could not be +preserved has in this respect succeeded very ill. His figures +are often engaged in subjects that required great expression: yet his +“Judith and Holofernes,” the “Daughter of Herodias +with the Baptist’s Head,” the “Andromeda,” and +even the “Mothers of the Innocents,” have little more expression +than his “Venus attired by the Graces.”</p> +<p>Obvious as these remarks appear, there are many writers on our art, +who, not being of the profession, and consequently not knowing what +can or what cannot be done, have been very liberal of absurd praises +in their descriptions of favourite works. They always find in +them what they are resolved to find. They praise excellences that +can hardly exist together, and above all things are fond of describing +with great exactness the expression of a mixed passion, which more particularly +appears to me out of the reach of our art.</p> +<p>Such are many disquisitions which I have read on some of the cartoons +and other pictures of Raffaelle, where the critics have described their +own imagination; or indeed where the excellent master himself may have +attempted this expression of passions above the powers of the art; and +has, therefore, by an indistinct and imperfect marking, left room for +every imagination, with equal probability to find a passion of his own. +What has been, and what can be done in the art, is sufficiently difficult; +we need not be mortified or discouraged for not being able to execute +the conceptions of a romantic imagination. Art has its boundaries, +though imagination has none. We can easily, like the ancients, +suppose a Jupiter to be possessed of all those powers and perfections +which the subordinate Deities were endowed with separately. Yet, +when they employed their art to represent him, they confined his character +to majesty alone. Pliny, therefore, though we are under great +obligations to him for the information he has given us in relation to +the works of the ancient artists, is very frequently wrong when he speaks +of them, which he does very often in the style of many of our modern +connoisseurs. He observes that in a statue of Paris, by Fuphranor, +you might discover at the same time three different characters; the +dignity of a judge of the goddesses, the lover of Helen, and the conqueror +of Achilles. A statue in which you endeavour to unite stately +dignity, youthful elegance, and stern valour, must surely possess none +of these to any eminent degree.</p> +<p>From hence it appears that there is much difficulty as well as danger +in an endeavour to concentrate upon a single subject those various powers +which, rising from different points, naturally move in different directions.</p> +<p>The summit of excellence seems to be an assemblage of contrary qualities, +but mixed, in such proportions, that no one part is found to counteract +the other. How hard this is to be attained in every art, those +only know who have made the greatest progress in their respective professions.</p> +<p>To conclude what I have to say on this part of the subject, which +I think of great importance, I wish you to understand that I do not +discourage the younger students from the noble attempt of uniting all +the excellences of art, but to make them aware that, besides the difficulties +which attend every arduous attempt, there is a peculiar difficulty in +the choice of the excellences which ought to be united; I wish you to +attend to this, that you may try yourselves, whenever you are capable +of that trial, what you can, and what you cannot do: and that, instead +of dissipating your natural faculties over the immense field of possible +excellence, you may choose some particular walk in which you may exercise +all your powers, in order each of you to be the first in his way. +If any man shall be master of such a transcendant, commanding, and ductile +genius, as to enable him to rise to the highest, and to stoop to the +lowest flights of art, and to sweep over all of them unobstructed and +secure, he is fitter to give example than to receive instruction.</p> +<p>Having said thus much on the union of excellences, I will next say +something of the subordination in which various excellences ought to +be kept.</p> +<p>I am of opinion that the ornamental style, which in my discourse +of last year I cautioned you against considering as principal, may not +be wholly unworthy the attention of those who aim even at the grand +style; when it is properly placed and properly reduced.</p> +<p>But this study will be used with far better effect, if its principles +are employed in softening the harshness and mitigating the rigour of +the great style, than if in attempt to stand forward with any pretensions +of its own to positive and original excellence.</p> +<p>It was thus Lodovico Caracci, whose example I formerly recommended +to you, employed it. He was acquainted with the works both of +Correggio and the Venetian painters, and knew the principles by which +they produced those pleasing effects which at the first glance prepossess +us so much in their favour; but he took only as much from each as would +embellish, but not overpower, that manly strength and energy of style, +which is his peculiar character.</p> +<p>Since I have already expatiated so largely in my former discourse, +and in my present, upon the styles and characters of painting, it will +not be at all unsuitable to my subject if I mention to you some particulars +relative to the leading principles, and capital works of those who excelled +in the great style, that I may bring you from abstraction nearer to +practice, and by exemplifying the propositions which I have laid down, +enable you to understand more clearly what I would enforce.</p> +<p>The principal works of modern art are in fresco, a mode of painting +which excludes attention to minute elegancies: yet these works in fresco +are the productions on which the fame of the greatest masters depend: +such are the pictures of Michael Angelo and Raffaelle in the Vatican, +to which we may add the cartoons, which, though not strictly to be called +fresco, yet may be put under that denomination; and such are the works +of Giulio Romano at Mantua. If these performances were destroyed, +with them would be lost the best part of the reputation of those illustrious +painters, for these are justly considered as the greatest efforts of +our art which the world can boast. To these, therefore, we should +principally direct our attention for higher excellences. As for +the lower arts, as they have been once discovered, they may be easily +attained by those possessed of the former.</p> +<p>Raffaelle, who stands in general foremost of the first painters, +owes his reputation, as I have observed, to his excellence in the higher +parts of the art. Therefore, his works in fresco ought to be the +first object of our study and attention. His easel-works stand +in a lower degree of estimation; for though he continually, to the day +of his death, embellished his works more and more with the addition +of these lower ornaments, which entirely make the merit of some, yet +he never arrived at such perfection as to make him an object of imitation. +He never was able to conquer perfectly that dryness, or even littleness +of manner, which he inherited from his master. He never acquired +that nicety of taste in colours, that breadth of light and shadow, that +art and management of uniting light, to light, and shadow to shadow, +so as to make the object rise out of the ground with that plenitude +of effect so much admired in the works of Correggio. When he painted +in oil, his hand seemed to be so cramped and confined that he not only +lost that facility and spirit, but I think even that correctness of +form, which is so perfect and admirable in his fresco works. I +do not recollect any pictures of his of this kind, except perhaps the +“Transfiguration,” in which there are not some parts that +appear to be even feebly drawn. That this is not a necessary attendant +on oil-painting, we have abundant instances in more modern painters. +Lodovico Caracci, for instance, preserved in his works in oil the same +spirit, vigour, and correctness, which he had in fresco. I have +no desire to degrade Raffaelle from the high rank which he deservedly +holds: but by comparing him with himself, he does not appear to me to +be the same man in oil as in fresco.</p> +<p>From those who have ambition to tread in this great walk of the art, +Michael Angelo claims the next attention. He did not possess so +many excellences as Raffaelle, but those he had were of the highest +kind. He considered the art as consisting of little more than +what may be attained by sculpture, correctness of form, and energy of +character. We ought not to expect more than an artist intends +in his work. He never attempted those lesser elegancies and graces +in the art. Vasari says, he never painted but one picture in oil, +and resolved never to paint another, saying it was an employment only +fit for women and children.</p> +<p>If any man had a right to look down upon the lower accomplishments +as beneath his attention, it was certainly Michael Angelo: nor can it +be thought strange that such a mind should have slighted or have been +withheld from paying due attention to all those graces and embellishments +of art which have diffused such lustre over the works of other painters.</p> +<p>It must be acknowledged likewise, that together with these, which +we wish he had more attended to, he has rejected all the false though +specious ornaments which disgrace the works even of the most esteemed +artists; and I will venture to say, that when those higher excellences +are more known and cultivated by the artists and the patrons of arts, +his fame and credit will increase with our increasing knowledge. +His name will then be held in the same veneration as it was in the enlightened +age of Leo the Tenth: and it is remarkable that the reputation of this +truly great man has been continually declining as the art itself has +declined. For I must remark to you, that it has long been much +on the decline, and that our only hope of its revival will consist in +your being thoroughly sensible of its depravation and decay. It +is to Michael Angelo that we owe even the existence of Raffaelle; it +is to him Raffaelle owes the grandeur of his style. He was taught +by him to elevate his thoughts, and to conceive his subjects with dignity. +His genius, however, formed to blaze and to shine, might, like fire +in combustible matter, for ever have lain dormant if it had not caught +a spark by its contact with Michael Angelo: and though it never burst +out with that extraordinary heat and vehemence, yet it must be acknowledged +to be a more pure, regular, and chaste flame. Though our judgment +will upon the whole decide in favour of Raffaelle: yet he never takes +that firm hold and entire possession of the mind in such a manner as +to desire nothing else, and feel nothing wanting. The effect of +the capital works of Michael Angelo perfectly correspond to what Bourchardon +said he felt from reading Homer. His whole frame appeared to himself +to be enlarged, and all nature which surrounded him diminished to atoms.</p> +<p>If we put those great artists in a light of comparison with each +other, Raffaelle had more taste and fancy, Michael Angelo more genius +and imagination. The one excelled in beauty, the other in energy. +Michael Angelo has more of the poetical inspiration; his ideas are vast +and sublime; his people are a superior order of beings; there is nothing +about them, nothing in the air of their actions or their attitudes, +or the style and cast of their very limbs or features, that puts one +in mind of their belonging, to our own species. Raffaelle’s +imagination is not so elevated; his figures are not so much disjoined +from our own diminutive race of beings, though his ideas are chaste, +noble, and of great conformity to their subjects. Michael Angelo’s +works have a strong, peculiar, and marked character; they seem to proceed +from his own mind entirely, and that mind so rich and abundant, that +he never needed, or seemed to disdain, to look abroad for foreign help. +Raffaelle’s materials are generally borrowed, though the noble +structure is his own. The excellency of this extraordinary man +lay in the propriety, beauty, and majesty of his characters, his judicious +contrivance of his composition, correctness of drawing, purity of taste, +and the skilful accommodation of other men’s conceptions to his +own purpose. Nobody excelled him in that judgment, with which +he united to his own observations on nature the energy of Michael Angelo, +and the beauty and simplicity of the antique. To the question, +therefore, which ought to hold the first rank, Raffaelle or Michael +Angelo, it must be answered, that if it is to be given to him who possessed +a greater combination of the higher qualities of the art than any other +man, there is no doubt but Raffaelle is the first. But if, according +to Longinus, the sublime, being the highest excellence that human composition +can attain to, abundantly compensates the absence of every other beauty, +and atones for all other deficiencies, then Michael Angelo demands the +preference.</p> +<p>These two extraordinary men carried some of the higher excellences +of the art to a greater degree of perfection than probably they ever +arrived at before. They certainly have not been excelled, nor +equalled since. Many of their successors were induced to leave +this great road as a beaten path, endeavouring to surprise and please +by something uncommon or new. When this desire after novelty has +proceeded from mere idleness or caprice, it is not worth the trouble +of criticism; but when it has been in consequence of a busy mind of +a peculiar complexion, it is always striking and interesting, never +insipid.</p> +<p>Such is the great style as it appears in those who possessed it at +its height; in this, search after novelty in conception or in treating +the subject has no place.</p> +<p>But there is another style, which, though inferior to the former, +has still great merit, because it shows that those who cultivated it +were men of lively and vigorous imagination. This I call the original +or characteristical style; this, being less referred to any true architype +existing either in general or particular nature, must be supported by +the painter’s consistency in the principles he has assumed, and +in the union and harmony of his whole design. The excellency of +every style, but I think of the subordinate ones more especially, will +very much depend on preserving that union and harmony between all the +component parts, that they appear to hang well together, as if the whole +proceeded from one mind. It is in the works of art, as in the +characters of men. The faults or defects of some men seem to become +them when they appear to be the natural growth, and of a piece with +the rest of their character. A faithful picture of a mind, though +it be not of the most elevated kind, though it be irregular, wild, and +incorrect, yet if it be marked with that spirit and firmness which characterises +works of genius, will claim attention, and be more striking than a combination +of excellences that do not seem to hang well together, or we may say +than a work that possesses even all excellences, but those in a moderate +degree.</p> +<p>One of the strongest marked characters of this kind, which must be +allowed to be subordinate to the great style, is that of Salvator Rosa. +He gives us a peculiar cast of nature, which, though void of all grace, +elegance, and simplicity; though it has nothing of that elevation and +dignity which belongs to the grand style, yet has that sort of dignity +which belongs to savage and uncultivated nature. But what is most +to be admired in him is the perfect correspondence which he observed +between the subjects which he chose, and his manner of treating them. +Everything is of a piece: his rocks, trees, sky, even to his handling +have the same rude and wild character which animates his figures.</p> +<p>To him we may contrast the character of Carlo Maratti, who, in my +own opinion, had no great vigour of mind or strength of original genius. +He rarely seizes the imagination by exhibiting the higher excellences, +nor does he captivate us by that originality which attends the painter +who thinks for himself. He knew and practised all the rules of +art, and from a composition of Raffaelle, Caracci, and Guido, made up +a style, of which its only fault was, that it had no manifest defects +and no striking beauties, and that the principles of his composition +are never blended together, so as to form one uniform body, original +in its kind, or excellent in any view.</p> +<p>I will mention two other painters who, though entirely dissimilar, +yet by being each consistent with himself, and possessing a manner entirely +his own, have both gained reputation, though for very opposite accomplishments.</p> +<p>The painters I mean are Rubens and Poussin. Rubens I mention +in this place, as I think him a remarkable instance of the same mind +being seen in all the various parts of the art. The whole is so +much of a piece that one can scarce be brought to believe but that if +any one of them had been more correct and perfect, his works would not +be so complete as they now appear. If we should allow a greater +purity and correctness of drawing, his want of simplicity in composition, +colouring, and drapery would appear more gross.</p> +<p>In his composition his art is too apparent. His figures have +expression, and act with energy, but without simplicity or dignity. +His colouring, in which he is eminently skilled, is, notwithstanding, +too much of what we call tinted. Throughout the whole of his works +there is a proportionable want of that nicety of distinction and elegance +of mind which is required in the higher walks of painting; and to this +want it may be in some degree ascribed that those qualities which make +the excellency of this subordinate style appear in him with their greatest +lustre. Indeed, the facility with which he invented, the richness +of his composition, the luxuriant harmony and brilliancy of his colouring, +so dazzle the eye, that whilst his works continue before us we cannot +help thinking that all his deficiencies are fully supplied.</p> +<p>Opposed to this florid, careless, loose, and inaccurate style, that +of the simple, careful, pure, and correct style of Poussin seems to +be a complete contrast.</p> +<p>Yet however opposite their characters, in one thing they agreed, +both of them having a perfect correspondence between all the parts of +their respective manners.</p> +<p>One is not sure but every alteration of what is considered as defective +in either, would destroy the effect of the whole.</p> +<p>Poussin lived and conversed with the ancient statues so long, that +he may be said to be better acquainted with then than with the people +who were about him. I have often thought that he carried his veneration +for them so far as to wish to give his works the air of ancient paintings. +It is certain he copied some of the antique paintings, particularly +the “Marriage in the Albrobrandini Palace at Rome,” which +I believe to be the best relique of those remote ages that has yet been +found.</p> +<p>No works of any modern has so much of the air of antique painting +as those of Poussin. His best performances have a remarkable dryness +of manner, which, though by no means to be recommended for imitation, +yet seems perfectly correspondent to that ancient simplicity which distinguishes +his style. Like Polidoro he studied them so much, that he acquired +a habit of thinking in their way, and seemed to know perfectly the actions +and gestures they would use on every occasion.</p> +<p>Poussin in the latter part of his life changed from his dry manner +to one much softer and richer, where there is a greater union between +the figures and the ground, such as the “Seven Sacraments” +in the Duke of Orleans’ collection; but neither these, nor any +in this manner, are at all comparable to many in his dry manner which +we have in England.</p> +<p>The favourite subjects of Poussin were ancient fables; and no painter +was ever better qualified to paint such subjects, not only from his +being eminently skilled in the knowledge of ceremonies, customs, and +habits of the ancients, but from his being so well acquainted with the +different characters which those who invented them gave their allegorical +figures. Though Rubens has shown great fancy in his Satyrs, Silenuses, +and Fauns, yet they are not that distinct separate class of beings which +is carefully exhibited by the ancients and by Poussin. Certainly +when such subjects of antiquity are represented, nothing in the picture +ought to remind us of modern times. The mind is thrown back into +antiquity, and nothing ought to be introduced that may tend to awaken +it from the illusion.</p> +<p>Poussin seemed to think that the style and the language in which +such stories are told is not the worse for preserving some relish of +the old way of painting which seemed to give a general uniformity to +the whole, so that the mind was thrown back into antiquity not only +by the subject, but the execution.</p> +<p>If Poussin, in imitation of the ancients, represents Apollo driving +his chariot out of the sea by way of representing the sun rising, if +he personifies lakes and rivers, it is no ways offensive in him; but +seems perfectly of a piece with the general air of the picture. +On the contrary, if the figures which people his pictures had a modern +air or countenance, if they appeared like our countrymen, if the draperies +were like cloth or silk of our manufacture, if the landscape had the +appearance of a modern view, how ridiculous would Apollo appear instead +of the sun, an old man or a nymph with an urn instead of a river or +lake.</p> +<p>I cannot avoid mentioning here a circumstance in portrait painting +which may help to confirm what has been said.</p> +<p>When a portrait is painted in the historical style, as it is neither +an exact minute representation of an individual nor completely ideal, +every circumstance ought to correspond to this mixture. The simplicity +of the antique air and attitude, however much to be admired, is ridiculous +when joined to a figure in a modern dress. It is not to my purpose +to enter into the question at present, whether this mixed style ought +to be adopted or not; yet if it is chosen it is necessary it should +be complete and all of a piece: the difference of stuffs, for instance, +which make the clothing, should be distinguished in the same degree +as the head deviates from a general idea.</p> +<p>Without this union, which I have so often recommended, a work can +have no marked and determined character, which is the peculiar and constant +evidence of genius. But when this is accomplished to a high degree, +it becomes in some sort a rival to that style which we have fixed as +the highest.</p> +<p>Thus I have given a sketch of the characters of Rubens and Salvator +Rosa, as they appear to me to have the greatest uniformity of mind throughout +their whole work. But we may add to these, all these artists who +are at the head of the class, and have had a school of imitators from +Michael Angelo down to Watteau. Upon the whole it appears that +setting aside the ornamental style, there are two different paths, either +of which a student may take without degrading the dignity of his art. +The first is to combine the higher excellences and embellish them to +the greatest advantage. The other is to carry one of these excellences +to the highest degree. But those who possess neither must be classed +with them, who, as Shakespeare says, are men of no mark or likelihood.</p> +<p>I inculcate as frequently as I can your forming yourselves upon great +principles and great models. Your time will be much misspent in +every other pursuit. Small excellences should be viewed, not studied; +they ought to be viewed, because nothing ought to escape a painter’s +observation, but for no other reason.</p> +<p>There is another caution which I wish to give you. Be as select +in those whom you endeavour to please, as in those whom you endeavour +to imitate. Without the love of fame you can never do anything +excellent; but by an excessive and undistinguishing thirst after it, +you will come to have vulgar views; you will degrade your style; and +your taste will be entirely corrupted. It is certain that the +lowest style will be the most popular, as it falls within the compass +of ignorance itself; and the vulgar will always be pleased with what +is natural in the confined and misunderstood sense of the word.</p> +<p>One would wish that such depravation of taste should be counteracted, +with such manly pride as Euripides expressed to the Athenians, who criticised +his works, “I do not compose,” says he, “my works +in order to be corrected by you, but to instruct you.” It +is true, to have a right to speak thus, a man must be a Euripides. +However, thus much may be allowed, that when an artist is sure that +he is upon firm ground, supported by the authority and practice of his +predecessors of the greatest reputation, he may then assume the boldness +and intrepidity of genius; at any rate, he must not be tempted out of +the right path by any tide of popularity that always accompanies the +lower styles of painting.</p> +<p>I mention this, because our exhibitions, that produce such admirable +effects by nourishing emulation, and calling out genius, have also a +mischievous tendency by seducing the painter to an ambition of pleasing +indiscriminately the mixed multitude of people who resort to them.</p> +<h3>A DISCOURSE<br /> +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution of +the Prizes, December 10, 1774, by the President.</h3> +<p>Gentlemen,—When I have taken the liberty of addressing you +on the course and order of your studies, I never proposed to enter into +a minute detail of the art. This I have always left to the several +professors, who pursue the end of our institution with the highest honour +to themselves, and with the greatest advantage to the students.</p> +<p>My purpose in the discourses I have held in the Academy is to lay +down certain general ideas, which seem to me proper for the formation +of a sound taste; principles necessary to guard the pupils against those +errors into which the sanguine temper common at their time of life, +has a tendency to lead them, and which have rendered abortive the hopes +of so many successions of promising young men in all parts of Europe.</p> +<p>I wish, also, to intercept and suppress those prejudices which particularly +prevail when the mechanism of painting is come to its perfection, and +which when they do prevail are certain to prevail to the utter destruction +of the higher and more valuable parts of this literate and liberal profession.</p> +<p>These two have been my principal purposes; they are still as much +my concern as ever; and if I repeat my own ideas on the subject, you +who know how fast mistake and prejudice, when neglected, gain ground +upon truth and reason, will easily excuse me. I only attempt to +set the same thing in the greatest variety of lights.</p> +<p>The subject of this discourse will be imitation, as far as a painter +is concerned in it. By imitation I do not mean imitation in its +largest sense, but simply the following of other masters, and the advantage +to be drawn from the study of their works.</p> +<p>Those who have undertaken to write on our art, and have represented +it as a kind of inspiration, as a gift bestowed upon peculiar favourites +at their birth, seem to ensure a much more favourable disposition from +their readers, and have a much more captivating and liberal air, than +he who goes about to examine, coldly, whether there are any means by +which this art may be acquired; how our mind may be strengthened and +expanded, and what guides will show the way to eminence.</p> +<p>It is very natural for those who are unacquainted with the cause +of anything extraordinary to be astonished at the effect, and to consider +it as a kind of magic. They, who have never observed the gradation +by which art is acquired, who see only what is the full result of long +labour and application of an infinite number, and infinite variety of +acts, are apt to conclude from their entire inability to do the same +at once, that it is not only inaccessible to themselves, but can be +done by those only who have some gift of the nature of inspiration bestowed +upon them.</p> +<p>The travellers into the East tell us that when the ignorant inhabitants +of these countries are asked concerning the ruins of stately edifices +yet remaining amongst them, the melancholy monuments of their former +grandeur and long-lost science, they always answer that they were built +by magicians. The untaught mind finds a vast gulf between its +own powers and these works of complicated art which it is utterly unable +to fathom. And it supposes that such a void can be passed only +by supernatural powers.</p> +<p>And, as for artists themselves, it is by no means their interest +to undeceive such judges, however conscious they may be of the very +natural means by which the extraordinary powers were acquired; our art +being intrinsically imitative, rejects this idea of inspiration more, +perhaps, than any other.</p> +<p>It is to avoid this plain confession of truth, as it should seem, +that this imitation of masters—indeed, almost all imitation which +implies a more regular and progressive method of attaining the ends +of painting—has ever been particularly inveighed against with +great keenness, both by ancient and modern writers.</p> +<p>To derive all from native power, to owe nothing to another, is the +praise which men, who do not much think what they are saying, bestow +sometimes upon others, and sometimes on themselves; and their imaginary +dignity is naturally heightened by a supercilious censure of the low, +the barren, the grovelling, the servile imitator. It would be +no wonder if a student, frightened by these terrors and disgraceful +epithets, with which the poor imitators are so often loaded, should +let fall his pencil in mere despair, conscious how much he has been +indebted to the labours of others, how little, how very little of his +art was born with him; and, considering it as hopeless, to set about +acquiring by the imitation of any human master what he is taught to +suppose is matter of inspiration from heaven.</p> +<p>Some allowance must be made for what is said in the gaiety or ambition +of rhetoric. We cannot suppose that any one can really mean to +exclude all imitation of others. A position so wild would scarce +deserve a serious answer, for it is apparent, if we were forbid to make +use of the advantages which our predecessors afford us, the art would +be always to begin, and consequently remain always in its infant state; +and it is a common observation that no art was ever invented and carried +to perfection at the same time.</p> +<p>But to bring us entirely to reason and sobriety, let it be observed, +that a painter must not only be of necessity an imitator of the works +of nature, which alone is sufficient to dispel this phantom of inspiration, +but he must be as necessarily an imitator of the works of other painters. +This appears more humiliating, but it is equally true; and no man can +be an artist, whatever he may suppose, upon any other terms.</p> +<p>However, those who appear more moderate and reasonable allow that +study is to begin by imitation, but that we should no longer use the +thoughts of our predecessors when we are become able to think for ourselves. +They hold that imitation is as hurtful to the more advanced student +as it was advantageous to the beginner.</p> +<p>For my own part, I confess I am not only very much disposed to lay +down the absolute necessity of imitation in the first stages of the +art, but am of opinion that the study of other masters, which I here +call imitation, may be extended throughout our whole life without any +danger of the inconveniences with which it is charged, of enfeebling +the mind, or preventing us from giving that original air which every +work undoubtedly ought always to have.</p> +<p>I am, on the contrary, persuaded that by imitation only, variety, +and even originality of invention is produced.</p> +<p>I will go further; even genius, at least what generally is so called, +is the child of imitation. But as this appears to be contrary +to the general opinion, I must explain my position before I enforce +it.</p> +<p>Genius is supposed to be a power of producing excellences which are +out of the reach of the rules of art—a power which no precepts +can teach, and which no industry can acquire.</p> +<p>This opinion of the impossibility of acquiring those beauties which +stamp the work with the character of genius, supposes that it is something +more fixed than in reality it is, and that we always do, and ever did +agree, about what should be considered as a characteristic of genius.</p> +<p>But the truth is that the degree of excellence which proclaims genius +is different in different times and different places; and what shows +it to be so is that mankind have often changed their opinion upon this +matter.</p> +<p>When the arts were in their infancy, the power of merely drawing +the likeness of any object was considered as one of its greatest efforts.</p> +<p>The common people, ignorant of the principles of art, talk the same +language even to this day. But when it was found that every man +could be taught to do this, and a great deal more, merely by the observance +of certain precepts, the name of genius then shifted its application, +and was given only to those who added the peculiar character of the +object they represented; to those who had invention, expression, grace, +or dignity; or, in short, such qualities or excellences the producing +of which could not then be taught by any known and promulgated rules.</p> +<p>We are very sure that the beauty of form, the expression of the passions, +the art of composition, even the power of giving a general air of grandeur +to your work, is at present very much under the dominion of rules. +These excellences were, heretofore, considered merely as the effects +of genius; and justly, if genius is not taken for inspiration, but as +the effect of close observation and experience.</p> +<p>He who first made any of these observations and digested them, so +as to form an invariable principle for himself to work by, had that +merit; but probably no one went very far at once; and generally the +first who gave the hint did not know how to pursue it steadily and methodically, +at least not in the beginning. He himself worked on it, and improved +it; others worked more, and improved farther, until the secret was discovered, +and the practice made as general as refined practice can be made. +How many more principles may be fixed and ascertained we cannot tell; +but as criticism is likely to go hand in hand with the art which is +its subject, we may venture to say that as that art shall advance, its +powers will be still more and more fixed by rules.</p> +<p>But by whatever strides criticism may gain ground, we need be under +no apprehension that invention will ever be annihilated or subdued, +or intellectual energy be brought entirely within the restraint of written +law. Genius will still have room enough to expatiate, and keep +always the same distance from narrow comprehension and mechanical performance.</p> +<p>What we now call genius begins, not where rules, abstractedly taken, +end, but where known vulgar and trite rules have no longer any place. +It must of necessity be that even works of genius, as well as every +other effect, as it must have its cause, must likewise have its rules; +it cannot be by chance that excellences are produced with any constancy, +or any certainty, for this is not the nature of chance, but the rules +by which men of extraordinary parts, and such as are called men of genius +work, are either such as they discover by their own peculiar observation, +or of such a nice texture as not easily to admit handling or expressing +in words, especially as artists are not very frequently skilful in that +mode of communicating ideas.</p> +<p>Unsubstantial, however, as these rules may seem, and difficult as +it may be to convey them in writing, they are still seen and felt in +the mind of the artist, and he works from them with as much certainty +as if they were embodied, as I may say, upon paper. It is true +these refined principles cannot be always made palpable, like the more +gross rules of art; yet it does not follow but that the mind may be +put in such a train that it shall perceive, by a kind of scientific +sense, that propriety which words, particularly words of unpractised +writers such as we are, can but very feebly suggest.</p> +<p>Invention is one of the great marks of genius, but if we consult +experience, we shall find that it is by being conversant with the inventions +of others that we learn to invent, as by reading the thoughts of others +we learn to think.</p> +<p>Whoever has so far formed his taste as to be able to relish and feel +the beauties of the great masters has gone a great way in his study; +for, merely from a consciousness of this relish of the right, the mind +swells with an inward pride, and is almost as powerfully affected as +if it had itself produced what it admires. Our hearts frequently +warmed in this manner by the contact of those whom we wish to resemble, +will undoubtedly catch something of their way of thinking, and we shall +receive in our own bosoms some radiation at least of their fire and +splendour. That disposition, which is so strong in children, still +continues with us, of catching involuntarily the general air and manner +of those with whom we are most conversant; with this difference only, +that a young mind is naturally pliable and imitative, but in a more +advanced state it grows rigid, and must be warmed and softened before +it will receive a deep impression.</p> +<p>From these considerations, which a little of your reflection will +carry a great way further, it appears of what great consequence it is +that our minds should be habituated to the contemplation of excellence, +and that, far from being contented to make such habits the discipline +of our youth only, we should, to the last moment of our lives, continue +a settled intercourse with all the true examples of grandeur. +Their inventions are not only the food of our infancy, but the substance +which supplies the fullest maturity of our vigour.</p> +<p>The mind is but a barren soil; is a soil soon exhausted, and will +produce no crop, or only one, unless it be continually fertilised and +enriched with foreign matter.</p> +<p>When we have had continually before us the great works of art to +impregnate our minds with kindred ideas, we are then, and not till then, +fit to produce something, of the same species. We behold all about +us with the eyes of these penetrating observers, and our minds, accustomed +to think the thoughts of the noblest and brightest intellects, are prepared +for the discovery and selection of all that is great and noble in nature. +The greatest natural genius cannot subsist on its own stock: he who +resolves never to ransack any mind but his own will be soon reduced, +from mere barrenness, to the poorest of all imitations; he will be obliged +to imitate himself, and to repeat what he has before often repeated. +When we know the subject designed by such men, it will never be difficult +to guess what kind of work is to be produced.</p> +<p>It is vain for painters or poets to endeavour to invent without materials +on which the mind may work, and from which invention must originate. +Nothing can come of nothing.</p> +<p>Homer is supposed to be possessed of all the learning of his time. +And we are certain that Michael Angelo and Raffaelle were equally possessed +of all knowledge in the art which was discoverable in the works of their +predecessors.</p> +<p>A mind enriched by an assemblage of all the treasures of ancient +and modern art will be more elevated and fruitful in resources in proportion +to the number of ideas which have been carefully collected and thoroughly +digested. There can be no doubt that he who has the most materials +has the greatest means of invention; and if he has not the power of +using them, it must proceed from a feebleness of intellect or from the +confused manner in which those collections have been laid up in his +mind.</p> +<p>The addition of other men’s judgment is so far from weakening, +as is the opinion of many, our own, that it will fashion and consolidate +those ideas of excellence which lay in their birth feeble, ill-shaped, +and confused, but which are finished and put in order by the authority +and practice of those whose works may be said to have been consecrated +by having stood the test of ages.</p> +<p>The mind, or genius, has been compared to a spark of fire which is +smothered by a heap of fuel and prevented from blazing into a flame. +This simile, which is made use of by the younger Pliny, may be easily +mistaken for argument or proof.</p> +<p>There is no danger of the mind’s being over-burdened with knowledge, +or the genius extinguished by any addition of images; on the contrary, +these acquisitions may as well, perhaps better, be compared, if comparisons +signified anything in reasoning, to the supply of living embers, which +will contribute to strengthen the spark that without the association +of more would have died away.</p> +<p>The truth is, he whose feebleness is such as to make other men’s +thoughts an incumbrance to him can have no very great strength of mind +or genius of his own to be destroyed, so that not much harm will be +done at worst.</p> +<p>We may oppose to Pliny the greater authority of Cicero, who is continually +enforcing the necessity of this method of study. In his dialogue +on Oratory he makes Crassus say, that one of the first and most important +precepts is to choose a proper model for our imitation. <i>Hoc +fit primum in preceptis meis ut demonstremus quem imitemur</i>.</p> +<p>When I speak of the habitual imitation and continued study of masters, +it is not to be understood that I advise any endeavour to copy the exact +peculiar colour and complexion of another man’s mind; the success +of such an attempt must always be like his who imitates exactly the +air, manner, and gestures of him whom he admires. His model may +be excellent, but the copy will be ridiculous; this ridicule does not +arise from his having imitated, but from his not having chosen the right +mode of imitation.</p> +<p>It is a necessary and warrantable pride to disdain to walk servilely +behind any individual, however elevated his rank. The true and +liberal ground of imitation is an open field, where, though he who precedes +has had the advantage of starting before you, yet it is enough to pursue +his course; you need not tread in his footsteps, and you certainly have +a right to outstrip him if you can.</p> +<p>Nor, whilst I recommend studying the art from artists, can I be supposed +to mean that nature is to be neglected? I take this study in aid +and not in exclusion of the other. Nature is, and must be, the +fountain which alone is inexhaustible; and from which all excellences +must originally flow.</p> +<p>The great use of studying our predecessors is to open the mind, to +shorten our labour, and to give us the result of the selection made +by those great minds of what is grand or beautiful in nature: her rich +stores are all spread out before us; but it is an art, and no easy art, +to know how or what to choose, and how to attain and secure the object +of our choice.</p> +<p>Thus the highest beauty of form must be taken from nature; but it +is an art of long deduction and great experience to know how to find +it.</p> +<p>We must not content ourselves with merely admiring and relishing; +we must enter into the principles on which the work is wrought; these +do not swim on the superficies, and consequently are not open to superficial +observers.</p> +<p>Art in its perfection is not ostentatious; it lies hid, and works +its effect itself unseen. It is the proper study and labour of +an artist to uncover and find out the latent cause of conspicuous beauties, +and from thence form principles for his own conduct; such an examination +is a continual exertion of the mind, as great, perhaps, as that of the +artist whose works he is thus studying.</p> +<p>The sagacious imitator not only remarks what distinguishes the different +manner or genius of each master; he enters into the contrivance in the +composition, how the masses of lights are disposed, the means by which +the effect is produced, how artfully some parts are lost in the ground, +others boldly relieved, and how all these are mutually altered and interchanged +according to the reason and scheme of the work. He admires not +the harmony of colouring alone, but he examines by what artifice one +colour is a foil to its neighbour. He looks close into the tints, +of what colours they are composed, till he has formed clear and distinct +ideas, and has learnt to see in what harmony and good colouring consists. +What is learnt in this manner from the works of others becomes really +our own, sinks deep, and is never forgotten; nay, it is by seizing on +this clue that we proceed forward, and get further and further in enlarging +the principle and improving the practice.</p> +<p>There can be no doubt but the art is better learnt from the works +themselves than from the precepts which are formed upon these works; +but if it is difficult to choose proper models for imitation, it requires +no less circumspection to separate and distinguish what in those models +we ought to imitate.</p> +<p>I cannot avoid mentioning here, though it is not my intention at +present to enter into the art and method of study, an error which students +are too apt to fall into.</p> +<p>He that is forming himself must look with great caution and wariness +on those peculiarities, or prominent parts, which at first force themselves +upon view, and are the marks, or what is commonly called the manner, +by which that individual artist is distinguished.</p> +<p>Peculiar marks I hold to be generally, if not always, defects, however +difficult it may be, wholly to escape them.</p> +<p>Peculiarities in the works of art are like those in the human figure; +it is by them that we are cognisable and distinguished one from another, +but they are always so many blemishes, which, however, both in the one +case and in the other, cease to appear deformities to those who have +them continually before their eyes. In the works of art, even +the most enlightened mind, when warmed by beauties of the highest kind, +will by degrees find a repugnance within him to acknowledge any defects; +nay, his enthusiasm will carry him so far as to transform them into +beauties and objects of imitation.</p> +<p>It must be acknowledged that a peculiarity of style, either from +its novelty, or by seeming to proceed from a peculiar turn of mind, +often escapes blame; on the contrary, it is sometimes striking and pleasing; +but this it is vain labour to endeavour to imitate, because novelty +and peculiarity being its only merit, when it ceases to be new, it ceases +to have value.</p> +<p>A manner, therefore, being a defect, and every painter, however excellent, +having a manner, it seems to follow that all kinds of faults, as well +as beauties, may be learned under the sanction of the greatest authorities.</p> +<p>Even the great name of Michael Angelo may be used to keep in countenance +a deficiency, or rather neglect of colouring, and every other ornamental +part of the art.</p> +<p>If the young student is dry and hard, Poussin is the same. +If his work has a careless and unfinished air, he has most of the Venetian +School to support him. If he makes no selection of objects, but +takes individual nature just as he finds it, he is like Rembrandt. +If he is incorrect in the proportions of his figures, Correggio was +likewise incorrect. If his colours are not blended and united, +Rubens was equally crude.</p> +<p>In short, there is no defect but may be excused, if it is a sufficient +excuse that it can be imputed to considerable artists; but it must be +remembered that it was not by these defects they acquired their reputation: +they have a right to our pardon, but not to our admiration.</p> +<p>However, to imitate peculiarities or mistake defects for beauties +that man will be most liable who confines his imitation to one favourite +master; and, even though he chooses the best, and is capable of distinguishing +the real excellences of his model, it is not by such narrow practice +that a genius or mastery in the art is acquired. A man is as little +likely to form a true idea of the perfection of the art by studying +a single artist as he would be of producing a perfectly beautiful figure +by an exact imitation of any individual living model.</p> +<p>And as the painter, by bringing together in one piece those beauties +which are dispersed amongst a great variety of individuals, produces +a figure more beautiful than can be found in nature, so that artist +who can unite in himself the excellences of the various painters, will +approach nearer to perfection than any one of his masters.</p> +<p>He who confines himself to the imitation of an individual, as he +never proposes to surpass, so he is not likely to equal, the object +of imitation. He professes only to follow, and he that follows +must necessarily be behind.</p> +<p>We should imitate the conduct of the great artists in the course +of their studies, as well as the works which they produced, when they +were perfectly formed. Raffaelle began by imitating implicitly +the manner of Pietro Perugino, under whom he studied; so his first works +are scarce to be distinguished from his master’s; but soon forming +higher and more extensive views, he imitated the grand outline of Michael +Angelo. He learnt the manner of using colours from the works of +Leonardo da Vinci and Fratre Bartolomeo: to all this he added the contemplation +of all the remains of antiquity that were within his reach, and employed +others to draw for him what was in Greece and distant places. +And it is from his having taken so many models that he became himself +a model for all succeeding painters, always imitating, and always original.</p> +<p>If your ambition therefore be to equal Raffaelle, you must do as +Raffaelle did; take many models, and not take even him for your guide +alone to the exclusion of others. And yet the number is infinite +of those who seem, if one may judge by their style, to have seen no +other works but those of their master, or of some favourite whose manner +is their first wish and their last.</p> +<p>I will mention a few that occur to me of this narrow, confined, illiberal, +unscientific, and servile kind of imitators. Guido was thus meanly +copied by Elizabetta Sirani, and Simone Cantarini; Poussin, by Verdier +and Cheron; Parmigiano, by Jeronimo Mazzuoli; Paolo Veronese and Iacomo +Bassan had for their imitators their brothers and sons; Pietro de Cortona +was followed by Ciro Ferri and Romanelli; Rubens, by Jacques Jordans +and Diepenbeck; Guercino, by his own family, the Gennari; Carlo Marratti +was imitated by Giuseppe Chiari and Pietro da Pietri; and Rembrandt, +by Bramer, Eckhout, and Flink. All these, to whom may be added +a much longer list of painters, whose works among the ignorant pass +for those of their masters, are justly to be censured for barrenness +and servility.</p> +<p>To oppose to this list a few that have adopted a more liberal style +of imitation: Pelegrino Tibaldi, Rosso, and Primaticio did not coldly +imitate, but caught something of the fire that animates the works of +Michael Angelo. The Carraches formed their style from Pelegrino +Tibaldi, Correggio, and the Venetian School. Domenichino, Guido, +Lanfranco, Albano, Guercino, Cavidone, Schidone, Tiarini, though it +is sufficiently apparent that they came from the School of the Carraches, +have yet the appearance of men who extended their views beyond the model +that lay before them, and have shown that they had opinions of their +own, and thought for themselves, after they had made themselves masters +of the general principles of their schools.</p> +<p>Le Seure’s first manner resembles very much that of his master +Vovet: but as he soon excelled him, so he differed from him in every +part of the art. Carlo Marratti succeeded better than those I +have first named, and I think owes his superiority to the extension +of his views; besides his master Andrea Sacchi, he imitated Raffaelle, +Guido, and the Carraches. It is true, there is nothing very captivating +in Carlo Marratti; but this proceeded from wants which cannot be completely +supplied; that is, want of strength of parts. In this, certainly +men are not equal, and a man can bring home wares only in proportion +to the capital with which he goes to market. Carlo, by diligence, +made the most of what he had; but there was undoubtedly a heaviness +about him, which extended itself, uniformly to his invention, expression, +his drawing, colouring, and the general effect of his pictures. +The truth is, he never equalled any of his patterns in any one thing, +and he added little of his own.</p> +<p>But we must not rest contented, even in this general study of the +moderns; we must trace back the art to its fountain head, to that source +from whence they drew their principal excellences, the monuments of +pure antiquity.</p> +<p>All the inventions and thoughts of the ancients, whether conveyed +to us in statues, bas-reliefs, intaglios, cameos, or coins, are to be +sought after and carefully studied: The genius that hovers over these +venerable relics may be called the father of modern art.</p> +<p>From the remains of the works of the ancients the modern arts were +revived, and it is by their means that they must be restored a second +time. However it may mortify our vanity, we must be forced to +allow them our masters; and we may venture to prophecy, that when they +shall cease to be studied, arts will no longer flourish, and we shall +again relapse into barbarism.</p> +<p>The fire of the artist’s own genius operating upon these materials +which have been thus diligently collected, will enable him to make new +combinations, perhaps, superior to what had ever before been in the +possession of the art. As in the mixture of the variety of metals, +which are said to have been melted and run together at the burning of +Corinth, a new and till then unknown metal was produced equal in value +to any of those that had contributed to its composition. And though +a curious refiner may come with his crucibles, analyse and separate +its various component parts, yet Corinthian brass would still hold its +rank amongst the most beautiful and valuable of metals.</p> +<p>We have hitherto considered the advantages of imitation as it tends +to form the taste, and as a practice by which a spark of that genius +may be caught which illumines these noble works, that ought always to +be present to our thoughts.</p> +<p>We come now to speak of another kind of imitation; the borrowing +a particular thought, an action, attitude, or figure, and transplanting +it into your own work: this will either come under the charge of plagiarism, +or be warrantable, and deserve commendation, according to the address +with which it is performed. There is some difference likewise +whether it is upon the ancients or the moderns that these depredations +are made. It is generally allowed that no man need be ashamed +of copying the ancients: their works are considered as a magazine of +common property, always open to the public, whence every man has a right +to what materials he pleases; and if he has the art of using them, they +are supposed to become to all intents and purposes his own property.</p> +<p>The collection which Raffaelle made of the thoughts of the ancients +with so much trouble, is a proof of his opinion on this subject. +Such collections may be made with much more ease, by means of an art +scarce known in his time; I mean that of engraving, by which, at an +easy rate, every man may now avail himself of the inventions of antiquity.</p> +<p>It must be acknowledged that the works of the moderns are more the +property of their authors; he who borrows an idea from an artist, or +perhaps from a modern, not his contemporary, and so accommodates it +to his own work that it makes a part of it, with no seam or joining +appearing, can hardly be charged with plagiarism; poets practise this +kind of borrowing without reserve. But an artist should not be +contented with this only; he should enter into a competition with his +original, and endeavour to improve what he is appropriating to his own +work. Such imitation is so far from having anything in it of the +servility of plagiarism, that it is a perpetual exercise of the mind, +a continual invention.</p> +<p>Borrowing or stealing with such art and caution will have a right +to the same lenity as was used by the Lacedemonians; who did not punish +theft, but the want of artifice to conceal it.</p> +<p>In order to encourage you to imitation, to the utmost extent, let +me add, that very finished artists in the inferior branches of the art +will contribute to furnish the mind and give hints of which a skilful +painter, who is sensible of what he wants, and is in no danger of being +infected by the contact of vicious models, will know how to avail himself. +He will pick up from dunghills what by a nice chemistry, passing through +his own mind, shall be converted into pure gold; and, under the rudeness +of Gothic essays, he will find original, rational, and even sublime +inventions.</p> +<p>In the luxuriant style of Paul Veronese, in the capricious compositions +of Tintoret, he will find something that will assist his invention, +and give points, from which his own imagination shall rise and take +flight, when the subject which he treats will, with propriety, admit +of splendid effects.</p> +<p>In every school, whether Venetian, French, or Dutch, he will find +either ingenious compositions, extraordinary effects, some peculiar +expressions, or some mechanical excellence, well worthy his attention +and, in some measure, of his imitation; even in the lower class of the +French painters, great beauties are often found united with great defects.</p> +<p>Though Coypel wanted a simplicity of taste, and mistook a presumptuous +and assuming air for what is grand and majestic; yet he frequently has +good sense and judgment in his manner of telling his stories, great +skill in his compositions, and is not without a considerable power of +expressing the passions, The modern affectation of grace in his works, +as well as in those of Bouche and Watteau, may be said to be separated +by a very thin partition from the more simple and pure grace of Correggio +and Parmigiano.</p> +<p>Amongst the Dutch painters, the correct, firm, and determined pencil, +which was employed by Bamboccio and Jan Miel on vulgar and mean subjects, +might without any change be employed on the highest, to which, indeed, +it seems more properly to belong. The greatest style, if that +style is confined to small figures such as Poussin generally painted, +would receive an additional grace by the elegance and precision of pencil +so admirable in the works of Teniers.</p> +<p>Though this school more particularly excelled in the mechanism of +painting, yet there are many who have shown great abilities in expressing +what must be ranked above mechanical excellences.</p> +<p>In the works of Frank Hals the portrait painter may observe the composition +of a face, the features well put together as the painters express it, +from whence proceeds that strong marked character of individual nature +which is so remarkable in his portraits, and is not to be found in an +equal degree in any other painter. If he had joined to this most +difficult part of the art a patience in finishing what he had so correctly +planned, he might justly have claimed the place which Vandyke, all things +considered, so justly holds as the first of portrait painters.</p> +<p>Others of the same school have shown great power in expressing the +character and passions of those vulgar people which are the subjects +of their study and attention. Amongst those, Jean Stein seems +to be one of the most diligent and accurate observers of what passed +in those scenes which he frequented, and which were to him an academy. +I can easily imagine that if this extraordinary man had had the good +fortune to have been born in Italy instead of Holland, had he lived +in Rome instead of Leyden, and had been blessed with Michael Angelo +and Raffaelle for his masters instead of Brower and Van Gowen, that +the same sagacity and penetration which distinguished so accurately +the different characters and expression in his vulgar figures, would, +when exerted in the selection and imitation of what was great and elevated +in nature, have been equally successful, and his name would have been +now ranged with the great pillars and supporters of our art.</p> +<p>Men who, although thus bound down by the almost invincible powers +of early habits, have still exerted extraordinary abilities within their +narrow and confined circle, and have, from the natural vigour of their +mind, given such an interesting expression, such force and energy to +their works, though they cannot be recommended to be exactly imitated, +may yet invite an artist to endeavour to transfer, by a kind of parody, +those excellences to his own works. Whoever has acquired the power +of making this use of the Flemish, Venetian, and French schools is a +real genius, and has sources of knowledge open to him which were wanting +to the great artists who lived in the great age of painting.</p> +<p>To find excellences however dispersed, to discover beauties however +concealed by the multitude of defects with which they are surrounded, +can be the work only of him who, having a mind always alive to his art, +has extended his views to all ages and to all schools, and has acquired +from that comprehensive mass which he has thus gathered to himself, +a well digested and perfect idea of his art, to which everything is +referred. Like a sovereign judge and arbiter of art, he is possessed +of that presiding power which separates and attracts every excellence +from every school, selects both from what is great and what is little, +brings home knowledge from the east and from the west, making the universe +tributary towards furnishing his mind and enriching his works with originality +and variety of inventions.</p> +<p>Thus I have ventured to give my opinion of what appears to me the +true and only method by which an artist makes himself master of his +profession, which I hold ought to be one continued course of imitation, +that is not to cease but with our lives.</p> +<p>Those who, either from their own engagements and hurry of business, +or from indolence, or from conceit and vanity, have neglected looking +out of themselves, as far as my experience and observation reaches, +have from that time not only ceased to advance and improve in their +performance, but have gone backward. They may be compared to men +who have lived upon their principal till they are reduced to beggary +and left without resources.</p> +<p>I can recommend nothing better, therefore, than that you endeavour +to infuse into your works what you learn from the contemplation of the +works of others. To recommend this has the appearance of needless +and superfluous advice, but it has fallen within my own knowledge that +artists, though they are not wanting in a sincere love for their art, +though they have great pleasure in seeing good pictures, and are well +skilled to distinguish what is excellent or defective in them, yet go +on in their own manner, without any endeavour to give a little of those +beauties which they admire in others, to their own works. It is +difficult to conceive how the present Italian painters, who live in +the midst of the treasures of art, should be contented with their own +style. They proceed in their common-place inventions, and never +think it worth while to visit the works of those great artists with +which they are surrounded.</p> +<p>I remember several years ago to have conversed at Rome with an artist +of great fame throughout Europe; he was not without a considerable degree +of abilities, but those abilities were by no means equal to his own +opinion of them. From the reputation he had acquired he too fondly +concluded that he stood in the same rank, when compared to his predecessors, +as he held with regard to his miserable contemporary rivals.</p> +<p>In conversation about some particulars of the works of Raffaelle, +he seemed to have, or to affect to have, a very obscure memory of them. +He told me that he had not set his foot in the Vatican for fifteen years +together; that indeed he had been in treaty to copy a capital picture +of Raffaelle, but that the business had gone off; however, if the agreement +had held, his copy would have greatly exceeded the original. The +merit of this artist, however great we may suppose it, I am sure would +have been far greater, and his presumption would have been far less +if he had visited the Vatican, as in reason he ought to have done, once +at least every month of his life.</p> +<p>I address myself, gentlemen, to you who have made some progress in +the art, and are to be for the future under the guidance of your own +judgment and discretion.</p> +<p>I consider you as arrived to that period when you have a right to +think for yourselves, and to presume that every man is fallible; to +study the masters with a suspicion that great men are not always exempt +from great faults; to criticise, compare, and rank their works in your +own estimation, as they approach to or recede from that standard of +perfection which you have formed in your own mind, but which those masters +themselves, it must be remembered, have taught you to make, and which +you will cease to make with correctness when you cease to study them. +It is their excellences which have taught you their defects.</p> +<p>I would wish you to forget where you are, and who it is that speaks +to you. I only direct you to higher models and better advisers. +We can teach you here but very little; you are henceforth to be your +own teachers. Do this justice, however, to the English Academy, +to bear in mind, that in this place you contracted no narrow habits, +no false ideas, nothing that could lead you to the imitation of any +living master, who may be the fashionable darling of the day. +As you have not been taught to flatter us, do not learn to flatter yourselves. +We have endeavoured to lead you to the admiration of nothing but what +is truly admirable. If you choose inferior patterns, or if you +make your own <i>former</i> works, your patterns for your <i>latter</i>, +it is your own fault.</p> +<p>The purpose of this discourse, and, indeed, of most of my others, +is to caution you against that false opinion, but too prevalent amongst +artists, of the imaginary power of native genius, and its sufficiency +in great works. This opinion, according to the temper of mind +it meets with, almost always produces, either a vain confidence, or +a sluggish despair, both equally fatal to all proficiency.</p> +<p>Study, therefore, the great works of the great masters for ever. +Study as nearly as you can, in the order, in the manner, on the principles, +on which they studied. Study nature attentively, but always with +those masters in your company; consider them as models which you are +to imitate, and at the same time as rivals which you are to combat.</p> +<h3>A DISCOURSE<br /> +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution of +the Prizes, December 10th, 1776, by the President.</h3> +<p>Gentlemen,—It has been my uniform endeavour, since I first +addressed you from this place, to impress you strongly with one ruling +idea. I wished you to be persuaded, that success in your art depends +almost entirely on your own industry; but the industry which I principally +recommended, is not the industry of the <i>hands</i>, but of the <i>mind</i>.</p> +<p>As our art is not a divine gift, so neither is it a mechanical trade. +Its foundations are laid in solid science. And practice, though +essential to perfection, can never attain that to which it aims, unless +it works under the direction of principle.</p> +<p>Some writers upon art carry this point too far, and suppose that +such a body of universal and profound learning is requisite, that the +very enumeration of its kind is enough to frighten a beginner. +Vitruvius, after going through the many accomplishments of nature, and +the many acquirements of learning, necessary to an architect, proceeds +with great gravity to assert that he ought to be well skilled in the +civil law, that he may not be cheated in the title of the ground he +builds on.</p> +<p>But without such exaggeration, we may go so far as to assert, that +a painter stands in need of more knowledge than is to be picked off +his pallet, or collected by looking on his model, whether it be in life +or in picture. He can never be a great artist who is grossly illiterate.</p> +<p>Every man whose business is description ought to be tolerably conversant +with the poets in some language or other, that he may imbibe a poetical +spirit and enlarge his stock of ideas. He ought to acquire a habit +of comparing and divesting his notions. He ought not to be wholly +unacquainted with that part of philosophy which gives him an insight +into human nature, and relates to the manners, characters, passions, +and affections. He ought to know something concerning the mind, +as well as a great deal concerning the body of man.</p> +<p>For this purpose, it is not necessary that he should go into such +a compass of reading, as must, by distracting his attention, disqualify +him for the practical part of his profession, and make him sink the +performer in the critic. Reading, if it can be made the favourite +recreation of his leisure hours, will improve and enlarge his mind without +retarding his actual industry.</p> +<p>What such partial and desultory reading cannot afford, may be supplied +by the conversation of learned and ingenious men, which is the best +of all substitutes for those who have not the means or opportunities +of deep study. There are many such men in this age; and they will +be pleased with communicating their ideas to artists, when they see +them curious and docile, if they are treated with that respect and deference +which is so justly their due. Into such society, young artists, +if they make it the point of their ambition, will by degrees be admitted. +There, without formal teaching, they will insensibly come to feel and +reason like those they live with, and find a rational and systematic +taste imperceptibly formed in their minds, which they will know how +to reduce to a standard, by applying general truth to their own purposes, +better perhaps than those to whom they owed the original sentiment.</p> +<p>Of these studies and this conversation, the desired and legitimate +offspring is a power of distinguishing right from wrong, which power +applied to works of art is denominated taste. Let me then, without +further introduction, enter upon an examination whether taste be so +far beyond our reach as to be unattainable by care, or be so very vague +and capricious that no care ought to be employed about it.</p> +<p>It has been the fate of arts to be enveloped in mysterious and incomprehensible +language, as if it was thought necessary that even the terms should +correspond to the idea entertained of the instability and uncertainty +of the rules which they expressed.</p> +<p>To speak of genius and taste as any way connected with reason or +common sense, would be, in the opinion of some towering talkers, to +speak like a man who possessed neither, who had never felt that enthusiasm, +or, to use their own inflated language, was never warmed by that Promethean +fire, which animates the canvas and vivifies the marble.</p> +<p>If, in order to be intelligible, I appear to degrade art by bringing +her down from her visionary situation in the clouds, it is only to give +her a more solid mansion upon the earth. It is necessary that +at some time or other we should see things as they really are, and not +impose on ourselves by that false magnitude with which objects appear +when viewed indistinctly as through a mist.</p> +<p>We will allow a poet to express his meaning, when his meaning is +not well known to himself, with a certain degree of obscurity, as it +is one source of the sublime. But when, in plain prose, we gravely +talk of courting the muse in shady bowers, waiting the call and inspiration +of genius, finding out where he inhabits, and where he is to be invoked +with the greatest success; of attending to times and seasons when the +imagination shoots with the greatest vigour, whether at the summer solstice +or the equinox, sagaciously observing how much the wild freedom and +liberty of imagination is cramped by attention to established rules, +and how this same imagination begins to grow dim in advanced age, smothered +and deadened by too much judgment. When we talk such language, +or entertain such sentiments as these, we generally rest contented with +mere words, or at best entertain notions not only groundless, but pernicious.</p> +<p>If all this means what it is very possible was originally intended +only to be meant, that in order to cultivate an art, a man secludes +himself from the commerce of the world, and retires into the country +at particular seasons; or that at one time of the year his body is in +better health, and consequently his mind fitter for the business of +hard thinking than at another time; or that the mind may be fatigued +and grow confused by long and unremitted application; this I can understand. +I can likewise believe that a man eminent when young for possessing +poetical imagination, may, from having taken another road, so neglect +its cultivation as to show less of its powers in his latter life. +But I am persuaded that scarce a poet is to be found, from Homer down +to Dryden, who preserved a sound mind in a sound body, and continued +practising his profession to the very last, whose later works are not +as replete with the fire of imagination as those which were produced +in his more youthful days.</p> +<p>To understand literally these metaphors or ideas expressed in poetical +language, seems to be equally absurd as to conclude that because painters +sometimes represent poets writing from the dictates of a little winged +boy or genius, that this same genius did really inform him in a whisper +what he was to write, and that he is himself but a mere machine, unconscious +of the operations of his own mind.</p> +<p>Opinions generally received and floating in the world, whether true +or false, we naturally adopt and make our own; they may be considered +as a kind of inheritance to which we succeed and are tenants for life, +and which we leave to our posterity very near in the condition in which +we received it; not much being in any one man’s power either to +impair or improve it.</p> +<p>The greatest part of these opinions, like current coin in its circulation, +we are obliged to take without weighing or examining; but by this inevitable +inattention, many adulterated pieces are received, which, when we seriously +estimate our wealth, we must throw away. So the collector of popular +opinions, when he embodies his knowledge, and forms a system, must separate +those which are true from those which are only plausible. But +it becomes more peculiarly a duty to the professors of art not to let +any opinions relating to that art pass unexamined. The caution +and circumspection required in such examination we shall presently have +an opportunity of explaining.</p> +<p>Genius and taste, in their common acceptation, appear to be very +nearly related; the difference lies only in this, that genius has superadded +to it a habit or power of execution. Or we may say, that taste, +when this power is added, changes its name, and is called genius. +They both, in the popular opinion, pretend to an entire exemption from +the restraint of rules. It is supposed that their powers are intuitive; +that under the name of genius great works are produced, and under the +name of taste an exact judgment is given, without our knowing why, and +without being under the least obligation to reason, precept, or experience.</p> +<p>One can scarce state these opinions without exposing their absurdity, +yet they are constantly in the mouths of men, and particularly of artists. +They who have thought seriously on this subject, do not carry the point +so far; yet I am persuaded, that even among those few who may be called +thinkers, the prevalent opinion gives less than it ought to the powers +of reason; and considers the principles of taste, which give all their +authority to the rules of art, as more fluctuating, and as having less +solid foundations than we shall find, upon examination, they really +have.</p> +<p>The common saying, that tastes are not to be disputed, owes its influence, +and its general reception, to the same error which leads us to imagine +it of too high original to submit to the authority of an earthly tribunal. +It will likewise correspond with the notions of those who consider it +as a mere phantom of the imagination, so devoid of substance as to elude +all criticism.</p> +<p>We often appear to differ in sentiments from each other, merely from +the inaccuracy of terms, as we are not obliged to speak always with +critical exactness. Something of this too may arise from want +of words in the language to express the more nice discriminations which +a deep investigation discovers. A great deal, however, of this +difference vanishes when each opinion is tolerably explained and understood +by constancy and precision in the use of terms.</p> +<p>We apply the term taste to that act of the mind by which we like +or dislike, whatever be the subject. Our judgment upon an airy +nothing, a fancy which has no foundation, is called by the same name +which we give to our determination concerning those truths which refer +to the most general and most unalterable principles of human nature, +to works which are only to be produced by the greatest efforts of the +human understanding. However inconvenient this may be, we are +obliged to take words as we find them; all we can do is to distinguish +the things to which they are applied.</p> +<p>We may let pass those things which are at once subjects of taste +and sense, and which having as much certainty as the senses themselves, +give no occasion to inquiry or dispute. The natural appetite or +taste of the human mind is for truth; whether that truth results from +the real agreement or equality of original ideas among themselves; from +the agreement of the representation of any object with the thing represented; +or from the correspondence of the several parts of any arrangement with +each other. It is the very same taste which relishes a demonstration +in geometry, that is pleased with the resemblance of a picture to an +original, and touched with the harmony of music.</p> +<p>All these have unalterable and fixed foundations in nature, and are +therefore equally investigated by reason, and known by study; some with +more, some with less clearness, but all exactly in the same way. +A picture that is unlike, is false. Disproportionate ordinance +of parts is not right because it cannot be true until it ceases to be +a contradiction to assert that the parts have no relation to the whole. +Colouring is true where it is naturally adapted to the eye, from brightness, +from softness, from harmony, from resemblance; because these agree with +their object, nature, and therefore are true: as true as mathematical +demonstration; but known to be true only to those who study these things.</p> +<p>But besides real, there is also apparent truth, or opinion, or prejudice. +With regard to real truth, when it is known, the taste which conforms +to it is, and must be, uniform. With regard to the second sort +of truth, which may be called truth upon sufferance, or truth by courtesy, +it is not fixed, but variable. However, whilst these opinions +and prejudices on which it is founded continue, they operate as truth; +and the art, whose office it is to please the mind, as well as instruct +it, must direct itself according to opinion, or it will not attain its +end.</p> +<p>In proportion as these prejudices are known to be generally diffused, +or long received, the taste which conforms to them approaches nearer +to certainty, and to a sort of resemblance to real science, even where +opinions are found to be no better than prejudices. And since +they deserve, on account of their duration and extent, to be considered +as really true, they become capable of no small decree of stability +and determination by their permanent and uniform nature.</p> +<p>As these prejudices become more narrow, more local, more transitory, +this secondary taste becomes more and more fantastical; recedes from +real science; is less to be approved by reason, and less followed in +practice; though in no case perhaps to be wholly neglected, where it +does not stand, as it sometimes does, in direct defiance of the most +respectable opinions received amongst mankind.</p> +<p>Having laid down these positions, I shall proceed with less method, +because less will serve, to explain and apply them.</p> +<p>We will take it for granted that reason is something invariable and +fixed in the nature of things; and without endeavouring to go back to +an account of first principles, which for ever will elude our search, +we will conclude that whatever goes under the name of taste, which we +can fairly bring under the dominion of reason, must be considered as +equally exempt from change. If therefore, in the course of this +inquiry, we can show that there are rules for the conduct of the artist +which are fixed and invariable, it implies, of course, that the art +of the connoisseur, or, in other words, taste, has likewise invariable +principles.</p> +<p>Of the judgment which we make on the works of art, and the preference +that we give to one class of art over another, if a reason be demanded, +the question is perhaps evaded by answering, “I judge from my +taste”; but it does not follow that a better answer cannot be +given, though for common gazers this may be sufficient. Every +man is not obliged to investigate the causes of his approbation or dislike.</p> +<p>The arts would lie open for ever to caprice and casualty, if those +who are to judge of their excellences had no settled principles by which +they are to regulate their decisions, and the merit or defect of performances +were to be determined by unguided fancy. And indeed we may venture +to assert that whatever speculative knowledge is necessary to the artist, +is equally and indispensably necessary to the connoisseur.</p> +<p>The first idea that occurs in the consideration of what is fixed +in art, or in taste, is that presiding principle of which I have so +frequently spoken in former discourses, the general idea of nature. +The beginning, the middle, and the end of everything that is valuable +in taste, is comprised in the knowledge of what is truly nature; for +whatever ideas are not conformable to those of nature, or universal +opinion, must be considered as more or less capricious.</p> +<p>The idea of nature comprehending not only the forms which nature +produces, but also the nature and internal fabric and organisation, +as I may call it, of the human mind and imagination: general ideas, +beauty, or nature, are but different ways of expressing the same thing, +whether we apply these terms to statues, poetry, or picture. Deformity +is not nature, but an accidental deviation from her accustomed practice. +This general idea therefore ought to be called nature, and nothing else, +correctly speaking, has a right to that name. But we are so far +from speaking, in common conversation, with any such accuracy, that, +on the contrary, when we criticise Rembrandt and other Dutch painters, +who introduced into their historical pictures exact representations +of individual objects with all their imperfections, we say, though it +is not in a good taste, yet it is nature.</p> +<p>This misapplication of terms must be very often perplexing to the +young student. Is not, he may say, art an imitation of nature? +Must he not, therefore, who imitates her with the greatest fidelity +be the best artist? By this mode of reasoning Rembrandt has a +higher place than Raffaelle. But a very little reflection will +serve to show us that these particularities cannot be nature: for how +can that be the nature of man, in which no two individuals are the same?</p> +<p>It plainly appears that as a work is conducted under the influence +of general ideas or partial it is principally to be considered as the +effect of a good or a bad taste.</p> +<p>As beauty therefore does not consist in taking what lies immediately +before you, so neither, in our pursuit of taste, are those opinions +which we first received and adopted the best choice, or the most natural +to the mind and imagination.</p> +<p>In the infancy of our knowledge we seize with greediness the good +that is within our reach; it is by after-consideration, and in consequence +of discipline, that we refuse the present for a greater good at a distance. +The nobility or elevation of all arts, like the excellence of virtue +itself, consists in adopting this enlarged and comprehensive idea, and +all criticism built upon the more confined view of what is natural, +may properly be called shallow criticism, rather than false; its defect +is that the truth is not sufficiently extensive.</p> +<p>It has sometimes happened that some of the greatest men in our art +have been betrayed into errors by this confined mode of reasoning. +Poussin, who, upon the whole, may be produced as an instance of attention +to the most enlarged and extensive ideas of nature, from not having +settled principles on this point, has in one instance at least, I think, +deserted truth for prejudice. He is said to have vindicated the +conduct of Julio Romano, for his inattention to the masses of light +and shade, or grouping the figures, in the battle of Constantine, as +if designedly neglected, the better to correspond with the hurry and +confusion of a battle. Poussin’s own conduct in his representations +of Bacchanalian triumphs and sacrifices, makes us more easily give credit +to this report, since in such subjects, as well indeed as in many others, +it was too much his own practice. The best apology we can make +for this conduct is what proceeds from the association of our ideas, +the prejudice we have in favour of antiquity. Poussin’s +works, as I have formerly observed, have very much the air of the ancient +manner of painting, in which there are not the least traces to make +us think that what we call the keeping, the composition of light and +shade, or distribution of the work into masses, claimed any part of +their attention. But surely whatever apology we may find out for +this neglect, it ought to be ranked among the defects of Poussin, as +well as of the antique paintings; and the moderns have a right to that +praise which is their due, for having given so pleasing an addition +to the splendour of the art.</p> +<p>Perhaps no apology ought to be received for offences committed against +the vehicle (whether it be the organ of seeing or of hearing) by which +our pleasures are conveyed to the mind. We must take the same +care that the eye be not perplexed and distracted by a confusion of +equal parts, or equal lights, as of offending it by an unharmonious +mixture of colours. We may venture to be more confident of the +truth of this observation, since we find that Shakespeare, on a parallel +occasion, has made Hamlet recommend to the players a precept of the +same kind, never to offend the ear by harsh sounds:—“In +the very torrent, tempest, and whirlwind of your passions,” says +he, “you must beget a temperance that may give it smoothness.” +And yet, at the same time, he very justly observes, “The end of +playing, both at the first and now, is to hold, as it were, the mirror +up to nature.” No one can deny but that violent passions +will naturally emit harsh and disagreeable tones; yet this great poet +and critic thought that this imitation of nature would cost too much, +if purchased at the expense of disagreeable sensations, or, as he expresses +it, of “splitting the ear.” The poet and actor, as +well as the painter of genius who is well acquainted with all the variety +and sources of pleasure in the mind and imagination, has little regard +or attention to common nature, or creeping after common sense. +By overleaping those narrow bounds, he more effectually seizes the whole +mind, and more powerfully accomplishes his purpose. This success +is ignorantly imagined to proceed from inattention to all rules, and +in defiance of reason and judgment; whereas it is in truth acting according +to the best rules, and the justest reason.</p> +<p>He who thinks nature, in the narrow sense of the word, is alone to +be followed, will produce but a scanty entertainment for the imagination: +everything is to be done with which it is natural for the mind to be +pleased, whether it proceeds from simplicity or variety, uniformity +or irregularity: whether the scenes are familiar or exotic; rude and +wild, or enriched and cultivated; for it is natural for the mind to +be pleased with all these in their turn. In short, whatever pleases +has in it what is analogous to the mind, and is therefore, in the highest +and best sense of the word, natural.</p> +<p>It is this sense of nature or truth which ought more particularly +to be cultivated by the professors of art; and it may be observed that +many wise and learned men, who have accustomed their minds to admit +nothing for truth but what can be proved by mathematical demonstration, +have seldom any relish for those arts which address themselves to the +fancy, the rectitude and truth of which is known by another kind of +proof: and we may add that the acquisition of this knowledge requires +as much circumspection and sagacity, as to attain those truths which +are more open to demonstration. Reason must ultimately determine +our choice on every occasion; but this reason may still be exerted ineffectually +by applying to taste principles which, though right as far as they go, +yet do not reach the object. No man, for instance, can deny that +it seems at first view very reasonable, that a statue which is to carry +down to posterity the resemblance of an individual should be dressed +in the fashion of the times, in the dress which he himself wore: this +would certainly be true if the dress were part of the man. But +after a time the dress is only an amusement for an antiquarian; and +if it obstructs the general design of the piece, it is to be disregarded +by the artist. Common sense must here give way to a higher sense.</p> +<p>In the naked form, and in the disposition of the drapery, the difference +between one artist and another is principally seen. But if he +is compelled to the modern dress, the naked form is entirely hid, and +the drapery is already disposed by the skill of the tailor. Were +a Phidias to obey such absurd commands, he would please no more than +an ordinary sculptor; since, in the inferior parts of every art, the +learned and the ignorant are nearly upon a level.</p> +<p>These were probably among the reasons that induced the sculptor of +that wonderful figure of Laocoon to exhibit him naked, notwithstanding +he was surprised in the act of sacrificing to Apollo, and consequently +ought to be shown in his sacerdotal habits, if those greater reasons +had not preponderated. Art is not yet in so high estimation with +us as to obtain so great a sacrifice as the ancients made, especially +the Grecians, who suffered themselves to be represented naked, whether +they were generals, lawgivers, or kings.</p> +<p>Under this head of balancing and choosing the greater reason, or +of two evils taking the least, we may consider the conduct of Rubens +in the Luxembourg gallery, of mixing allegorical figures with representations +of real personages, which, though acknowledged to be a fault, yet, if +the artist considered himself as engaged to furnish this gallery with +a rich and splendid ornament, this could not be done, at least in an +equal degree, without peopling the air and water with these allegorical +figures: he therefore accomplished that he purposes. In this case +all lesser considerations, which tend to obstruct the great end of the +work, must yield and give way.</p> +<p>If it is objected that Rubens judged ill at first in thinking it +necessary to make his work so very ornamental, this brings the question +upon new ground. It was his peculiar style; he could paint in +no other; and he was selected for that work, probably, because it was +his style. Nobody will dispute but some of the best of the Roman +or Bolognian schools would have produced a more learned and more noble +work.</p> +<p>This leads us to another important province of taste, of weighing +the value of the different classes of the art, and of estimating them +accordingly.</p> +<p>All arts have means within them of applying themselves with success +both to the intellectual and sensitive part of our natures. It +can be no dispute, supposing both these means put in practice with equal +abilities, to which we ought to give the preference: to him who represents +the heroic arts and more dignified passions of man, or to him who, by +the help of meretricious ornaments, however elegant and graceful, captivates +the sensuality, as it may be called, of our taste. Thus the Roman +and Bolognian schools are reasonably preferred to the Venetian, Flemish, +or Dutch schools, as they address themselves to our best and noblest +faculties.</p> +<p>Well-turned periods in eloquence, or harmony of numbers in poetry, +which are in those arts what colouring is in painting, however highly +we may esteem them, can never be considered as of equal importance with +the art of unfolding truths that are useful to mankind, and which make +us better or wiser. Nor can those works which remind us of the +poverty and meanness of our nature, be considered as of equal rank with +what excites ideas of grandeur, or raises and dignifies humanity; or, +in the words of a late poet, which makes the beholder learn to venerate +himself as man.</p> +<p>It is reason and good sense therefore which ranks and estimates every +art, and every part of that art, according to its importance, from the +painter of animated down to inanimated nature. We will not allow +a man, who shall prefer the inferior style, to say it is his taste; +taste here has nothing, or at least ought to have nothing to do with +the question. He wants not taste, but sense, and soundness of +judgment.</p> +<p>Indeed, perfection in an inferior style may be reasonably preferred +to mediocrity in the highest walks of art. A landscape of Claude +Lorraine may be preferred to a history of Luca Jordano; but hence appears +the necessity of the connoisseur’s knowing in what consists the +excellence of each class, in order to judge how near it approaches to +perfection.</p> +<p>Even in works of the same kind, as in history painting, which is +composed of various parts, excellence of an inferior species, carried +to a very high degree, will make a work very valuable, and in some measure +compensate for the absence of the higher kind of merits. It is +the duty of the connoisseur to know and esteem, as much as it may deserve, +every part of painting; he will not then think even Bassano unworthy +of his notice, who, though totally devoid of expression, sense, grace, +or elegance, may be esteemed on account of his admirable taste of colours, +which, in his best works, are little inferior to those of Titian.</p> +<p>Since I have mentioned Bassano, we must do him likewise the justice +to acknowledge that, though he did not aspire to the dignity of expressing +the characters and passions of men, yet, with respect to the facility +and truth in his manner of touching animals of all kinds, and giving +them what painters call their character, few have ever excelled him.</p> +<p>To Bassano we may add Paul Veronese and Tintoret, for their entire +inattention to what is justly esteemed the most essential part of our +art, the expression of the passions. Notwithstanding these glaring +deficiencies, we justly esteem their works; but it must be remembered +that they do not please from those defects, but from their great excellences +of another kind, and in spite of such transgressions. These excellences, +too, as far as they go, are founded in the truth of general nature. +They tell the truth, though not the whole truth.</p> +<p>By these considerations, which can never be too frequently impressed, +may be obviated two errors which I observed to have been, formerly at +least, the most prevalent, and to be most injurious to artists: that +of thinking taste and genius to have nothing to do with reason, and +that of taking particular living objects for nature.</p> +<p>I shall now say something on that part of taste which, as I have +hinted to you before, does not belong so much to the external form of +things, but is addressed to the mind, and depends on its original frame, +or, to use the expression, the organisation of the soul; I mean the +imagination and the passions. The principles of these are as invariable +as the former, and are to be known and reasoned upon in the same manner, +by an appeal to common sense deciding upon the common feelings of mankind. +This sense, and these feelings, appear to me of equal authority, and +equally conclusive.</p> +<p>Now this appeal implies a general uniformity and agreement in the +minds of men. It would be else an idle and vain endeavour to establish +rules of art; it would be pursuing a phantom to attempt to move affections +with which we were entirely unacquainted. We have no reason to +suspect there is a greater difference between our minds than between +our forms, of which, though there are no two alike, yet there is a general +similitude that goes through the whole race of mankind; and those who +have cultivated their taste can distinguish what is beautiful or deformed, +or, in other words, what agrees with or what deviates from the general +idea of nature, in one case as well as in the other.</p> +<p>The internal fabric of our mind, as well as the external form of +our bodies, being nearly uniform, it seems then to follow, of course, +that as the imagination is incapable of producing anything originally +of itself, and can only vary and combine these ideas with which it is +furnished by means of the senses, there will be, of course, an agreement +in the imaginations as in the senses of men. There being this +agreement, it follows that in all cases, in our lightest amusements +as well as in our most serious actions and engagements of life, we must +regulate our affections of every kind by that of others. The well-disciplined +mind acknowledges this authority, and submits its own opinion to the +public voice.</p> +<p>It is from knowing what are the general feelings and passions of +mankind that we acquire a true idea of what imagination is; though it +appears as if we had nothing to do but to consult our own particular +sensations, and these were sufficient to ensure us from all error and +mistake.</p> +<p>A knowledge of the disposition and character of the human mind can +be acquired only by experience: a great deal will be learned, I admit, +by a habit of examining what passes in our bosoms, what are our own +motives of action, and of what kind of sentiments we are conscious on +any occasion. We may suppose a uniformity, and conclude that the +same effect will be produced by the same cause in the minds of others. +This examination will contribute to suggest to us matters of inquiry; +but we can never be sure that our own sensations are true and right +till they are confirmed by more extensive observation.</p> +<p>One man opposing another determines nothing but a general union of +minds, like a general combination of the forces of all mankind, makes +a strength that is irresistible. In fact, as he who does not know +himself does not know others, so it may be said with equal truth, that +he who does not know others knows himself but very imperfectly.</p> +<p>A man who thinks he is guarding himself against Prejudices by resisting +the authority of others, leaves open every avenue to singularity, vanity, +self-conceit, obstinacy, and many other vices, all tending to warp the +judgment and prevent the natural operation of his faculties.</p> +<p>This submission to others is a deference which we owe, and indeed +are forced involuntarily to pay.</p> +<p>In fact we are never satisfied with our opinions till they are ratified +and confirmed by the suffrages of the rest of mankind. We dispute +and wrangle for ever; we endeavour to get men to come to us when we +do not go to them.</p> +<p>He therefore who is acquainted with the works which have pleased +different ages and different countries, and has formed his opinion on +them, has more materials and more means of knowing what is analogous +to the mind of man than he who is conversant only with the works of +his own age or country. What has pleased, and continues to please, +is likely to please again: hence are derived the rules of art, and on +this immovable foundation they must ever stand.</p> +<p>This search and study of the history of the mind ought not to be +confined to one art only. It is by the analogy that one art bears +to another that many things are ascertained which either were but faintly +seen, or, perhaps, would not have been discovered at all if the inventor +had not received the first hints from the practices of a sister art +on a similar occasion. The frequent allusions which every man +who treats of any art is obliged to draw from others in order to illustrate +and confirm his principles, sufficiently show their near connection +and inseparable relation.</p> +<p>All arts having the same general end, which is to please, and addressing +themselves to the same faculties through the medium of the senses, it +follows that their rules and principles must have as great affinity +as the different materials and the different organs or vehicles by which +they pass to the mind will permit them to retain.</p> +<p>We may therefore conclude that the real substance, as it may be called, +of what goes under the name of taste, is fixed and established in the +nature of things; that there are certain and regular causes by which +the imagination and passions of men are affected; and that the knowledge +of these causes is acquired by a laborious and diligent investigation +of nature, and by the same slow progress as wisdom or knowledge of every +kind, however instantaneous its operations may appear when thus acquired.</p> +<p>It has been often observed that the good and virtuous man alone can +acquire this true or just relish, even of works of art. This opinion +will not appear entirely without foundation when we consider that the +same habit of mind which is acquired by our search after truth in the +more serious duties of life, is only transferred to the pursuit of lighter +amusements: the same disposition, the same desire to find something +steady, substantial, and durable, on which the mind can lean, as it +were, and rest with safety. The subject only is changed. +We pursue the same method in our search after the idea of beauty and +perfection in each; of virtue, by looking forwards beyond ourselves +to society, and to the whole; of arts, by extending our views in the +same manner to all ages and all times.</p> +<p>Every art, like our own, has in its composition fluctuating as well +as fixed principles. It is an attentive inquiry into their difference +that will enable us to determine how far we are influenced by custom +and habit, and what is fixed in the nature of things.</p> +<p>To distinguish how much has solid foundation, we may have recourse +to the same proof by which some hold wit ought to be tried—whether +it preserves itself when translated. That wit is false which can +subsist only in one language; and that picture which pleases only one +age or one nation, owes its reception to some local or accidental association +of ideas.</p> +<p>We may apply this to every custom and habit of life. Thus the +general principles of urbanity, politeness, or civility, have been ever +the same in all nations; but the mode in which they are dressed is continually +varying. The general idea of showing respect is by making yourself +less: but the manner, whether by bowing the body, kneeling, prostration, +pulling off the upper part of our dress, or taking away the lower, is +a matter of habit. It would be unjust to conclude that all ornaments, +because they were at first arbitrarily contrived, are therefore undeserving +of our attention; on the contrary, he who neglects the cultivation of +those ornaments, acts contrarily to nature and reason. As life +would be imperfect without its highest ornaments, the arts, so these +arts themselves would be imperfect without <i>their</i> ornaments.</p> +<p>Though we by no means ought to rank these with positive and substantial +beauties, yet it must be allowed that a knowledge of both is essentially +requisite towards forming a complete, whole, and perfect taste. +It is in reality from the ornaments that arts receive their peculiar +character and complexion; we may add that in them we find the characteristical +mark of a national taste, as by throwing up a feather in the air we +know which way the wind blows, better than by a more heavy matter.</p> +<p>The striking distinction between the works of the Roman, Bolognian, +and Venetian schools, consists more in that general effect which is +produced by colours than in the more profound excellences of the art; +at least it is from thence that each is distinguished and known at first +sight. As it is the ornaments rather than the proportions of architecture +which at the first glance distinguish the different orders from each +other; the Doric is known by its triglyphs, the Ionic by its volutes, +and the Corinthian by its acanthus.</p> +<p>What distinguishes oratory from a cold narration, is a more liberal +though chaste use of these ornaments which go under the name of figurative +and metaphorical expressions; and poetry distinguishes itself from oratory +by words and expressions still more ardent and glowing. What separates +and distinguishes poetry is more particularly the ornament of <i>verse</i>; +it is this which gives it its character, and is an essential, without +which it cannot exist. Custom has appropriated different metre +to different kinds of composition, in which the world is not perfectly +agreed. In England the dispute is not yet settled which is to +be preferred, rhyme or blank verse. But however we disagree about +what these metrical ornaments shall be, that some metre is essentially +necessary is universally acknowledged.</p> +<p>In poetry or eloquence, to determine how far figurative or metaphorical +language may proceed, and when it begins to be affectation or beside +the truth, must be determined by taste, though this taste we must never +forget is regulated and formed by the presiding feelings of mankind, +by those works which have approved themselves to all times and all persons.</p> +<p>Thus, though eloquence has undoubtedly an essential and intrinsic +excellence, and immovable principles common to all languages, founded +in the nature of our passions and affections, yet it has its ornaments +and modes of address which are merely arbitrary. What is approved +in the Eastern nations as grand and majestic, would be considered by +the Greeks and Romans as turgid and inflated; and they, in return, would +be thought by the Orientals to express themselves in a cold and insipid +manner.</p> +<p>We may add likewise to the credit of ornaments, that it is by their +means that art itself accomplishes its purpose. Fresnoy calls +colouring, which is one of the chief ornaments of painting, <i>lena +sororis</i>, that which procures lovers and admirers to the more valuable +excellences of the art.</p> +<p>It appears to be the same right turn of mind which enables a man +to acquire the <i>truth</i>, or the just idea of what is right in the +ornaments, as in the more stable principles of art. It has still +the same centre of perfection, though it is the centre of a smaller +circle.</p> +<p>To illustrate this by the fashion of dress, in which there is allowed +to be a good or, bad taste. The component parts of dress are continually +changing from great to little, from short to long, but the general form +still remains; it is still the same general dress which is comparatively +fixed, though on a very slender foundation, but it is on this which +fashion must rest. He who invents with the most success, or dresses +in, the best taste, would probably, from the same sagacity employed +to greater purposes, have discovered equal skill, or have formed the +same correct taste in the highest labours of art.</p> +<p>I have mentioned taste in dress, which is certainly one of the lowest +subjects to which this word is applied; yet, as I have before observed, +there is a right even here, however narrow its foundation respecting +the fashion of any particular nation. But we have still more slender +means of determining, in regard to the different customs of different +ages or countries, to which to give the preference, since they seem +to be all equally removed from nature.</p> +<p>If an European, when he has cut off his beard, and put false hair +on his head, or bound up his own natural hair in regular hard knots, +as unlike nature as he can possibly make it; and having rendered them +immovable by the help of the fat of hogs, has covered the whole with +flour, laid on by a machine with the utmost regularity; if, when thus +attired he issues forth, he meets a Cherokee Indian, who has bestowed +as much time at his toilet, and laid on with equal care and attention +his yellow and red ochre on particular parts of his forehead or cheeks, +as he judges most becoming; whoever despises the other for this attention +to the fashion of his country, whichever of these two first feels himself +provoked to laugh, is the barbarian.</p> +<p>All these fashions are very innocent, neither worth disquisition, +nor any endeavour to alter them, as the change would, in all probability, +be equally distant from nature. The only circumstances against +which indignation may reasonably be moved, are where the operation is +painful or destructive of health, such as is practised at Otahaiti, +and the straight lacing of the English ladies; of the last of which, +how destructive it must be to health and long life, the professor of +anatomy took an opportunity of proving a few days since in this Academy.</p> +<p>It is in dress as in things of greater consequence. Fashions +originate from those only who have the high and powerful advantages +of rank, birth, and fortune; as many of the ornaments of art, those +at least for which no reason can be given, are transmitted to us, are +adopted, and acquire their consequence from the company in which we +have been used to see them. As Greece and Rome are the fountains +from whence have flowed all kinds of excellence, to that veneration +which they have a right to claim for the pleasure and knowledge which +they have afforded us, we voluntarily add our approbation of every ornament +and every custom that belonged to them, even to the fashion of their +dress. For it may be observed that, not satisfied with them in +their own place, we make no difficulty of dressing statues of modern +heroes or senators in the fashion of the Roman armour or peaceful robe; +we go so far as hardly to bear a statue in any other drapery.</p> +<p>The figures of the great men of those nations have come down to us +in sculpture. In sculpture remain almost all the excellent specimens +of ancient art. We have so far associated personal dignity to +the persons thus represented, and the truth of art to their manner of +representation, that it is not in our power any longer to separate them. +This is not so in painting; because, having no excellent ancient portraits, +that connection was never formed. Indeed, we could no more venture +to paint a general officer in a Roman military habit, than we could +make a statue in the present uniform. But since we have no ancient +portraits, to show how ready we are to adopt those kind of prejudices, +we make the best authority among the moderns serve the same purpose. +The great variety of excellent portraits with which Vandyke has enriched +this nation, we are not content to admire for their real excellence, +but extend our approbation even to the dress which happened to be the +fashion of that age. We all very well remember how common it was +a few years ago for portraits to be drawn in this Gothic dress, and +this custom is not yet entirely laid aside. By this means it must +be acknowledged very ordinary pictures acquired something of the air +and effect of the works of Vandyke, and appeared therefore at first +sight to be better pictures than they really were; they appeared so, +however, to those only who had the means of making this association, +for when made, it was irresistible. But this association is nature, +and refers to that Secondary truth that comes from conformity to general +prejudice and opinion; it is therefore not merely fantastical. +Besides the prejudice which we have in favour of ancient dresses, there +may be likewise other reasons, amongst which we may justly rank the +simplicity of them, consisting of little more than one single piece +of drapery, without those whimsical capricious forms by which all other +dresses are embarrassed.</p> +<p>Thus, though it is from the prejudice we have in favour of the ancients, +who have taught us architecture, that we have adopted likewise their +ornaments; and though we are satisfied that neither nature nor reason +is the foundation of those beauties which we imagine we see in that +art, yet if any one persuaded of this truth should, therefore, invent +new orders of equal beauty, which we will suppose to be possible, yet +they would not please, nor ought he to complain, since the old has that +great advantage of having custom and prejudice on its side. In +this case we leave what has every prejudice in its favour to take that +which will have no advantage over what we have left, but novelty, which +soon destroys itself, and, at any rate, is but a weak antagonist against +custom.</p> +<p>These ornaments, having the right of possession, ought not to be +removed but to make room for not only what has higher pretensions, but +such pretensions as will balance the evil and confusion which innovation +always brings with it.</p> +<p>To this we may add, even the durability of the materials will often +contribute to give a superiority to one object over another. Ornaments +in buildings, with which taste is principally concerned, are composed +of materials which last longer than those of which dress is composed; +it, therefore, makes higher pretensions to our favour and prejudice.</p> +<p>Some attention is surely required to what we can no more get rid +of than we can go out of ourselves. We are creatures of prejudice; +we neither can nor ought to eradicate it; we must only regulate, it +by reason, which regulation by reason is, indeed, little more than obliging +the lesser, the focal and temporary prejudices, to give way to those +which are more durable and lasting.</p> +<p>He, therefore, who in his practice of portrait painting wishes to +dignify his subject, which we will suppose to be a lady, will not paint +her in the modern dress, the familiarity of which alone is sufficient +to destroy all dignity. He takes care that his work shall correspond +to those ideas and that imagination which he knows will regulate the +judgment of others, and, therefore, dresses his figure something with +the general air of the antique for the sake of dignity, and preserves +something of the modern for the sake of likeness. By this conduct +his works correspond with those prejudices which we have in favour of +what we continually see; and the relish of the antique simplicity corresponds +with what we may call the, more learned and scientific prejudice.</p> +<p>There was a statue made not long since of Voltaire, which the sculptor, +not having that respect for the prejudices of mankind which he ought +to have, has made entirely naked, and as meagre and emaciated as the +original is said to be. The consequence is what might be expected; +it has remained in the sculptor’s shop, though it was intended +as a public ornament and a public honour to Voltaire, as it was procured +at the expense of his cotemporary wits and admirers.</p> +<p>Whoever would reform a nation, supposing a bad taste to prevail in +it, will not accomplish his purpose by going directly against the stream +of their prejudices. Men’s minds must be prepared to receive +what is new to them. Reformation is a work of time. A national +taste, however wrong it may be, cannot be totally change at once; we +must yield a little to the prepossession which has taken hold on the +mind, and we may then bring people to adopt what would offend them if +endeavoured to be introduced by storm. When Battisto Franco was +employed, in conjunction with Titian, Paul Veronese, and Tintoret, to +adorn the library of St. Mark, his work, Vasari says, gave less satisfaction +than any of the others: the dry manner of the Roman school was very +ill calculated to please eyes that had been accustomed to the luxuriance, +splendour, and richness of Venetian colouring. Had the Romans +been the judges of this work, probably the determination would have +been just contrary; for in the more noble parts of the art Battisto +Franco was, perhaps, not inferior to any of his rivals.</p> +<p>* * * * *</p> +<p>Gentlemen,—It has been the main scope and principal end of +this discourse to demonstrate the reality of a standard in taste, as +well as in corporeal beauty; that a false or depraved taste is a thing +as well known, as easily discovered, as anything that is deformed, misshapen, +or wrong in our form or outward make; and that this knowledge is derived +from the uniformity of sentiments among mankind, from whence proceeds +the knowledge of what are the general habits of nature, the result of +which is an idea of perfect beauty.</p> +<p>If what has been advanced be true, that besides this beauty or truth +which is formed on the uniform eternal and immutable laws of nature, +and which of necessity can be but one; that besides this one immutable +verity there are likewise what we have called apparent or secondary +truths proceeding from local and temporary prejudices, fancies, fashions, +or accidental connection of ideas; if it appears that these last have +still their foundation, however slender, in the original fabric of our +minds, it follows that all these truths or beauties deserve and require +the attention of the artist in proportion to their stability or duration, +or as their influence is more or less extensive. And let me add +that as they ought not to pass their just bounds, so neither do they, +in a well-regulated taste, at all prevent or weaken the influence of +these general principles, which alone can give to art its true and permanent +dignity.</p> +<p>To form this just taste is undoubtedly in your own power, but it +is to reason and philosophy that you must have recourse; from them we +must borrow the balance by which is to be weighed and estimated the +value of every pretension that intrudes itself on your notice.</p> +<p>The general objection which is made to the introduction of philosophy +into the regions of taste is, that it checks and restrains the flights +of the imagination, and gives that timidity which an over-carefulness +not to err or act contrary to reason is likely to produce.</p> +<p>It is not so. Fear is neither reason nor philosophy. +The true spirit of philosophy by giving knowledge gives a manly confidence, +and substitutes rational firmness in the place of vain presumption. +A man of real taste is always a man of judgment in other respects; and +those inventions which either disdain or shrink from reason, are generally, +I fear, more like the dreams of a distempered brain than the exalted +enthusiasm of a sound and true genius. In the midst of the highest +flights of fancy or imagination, reason ought to preside from first +to last, though I admit her more powerful operation is upon reflection.</p> +<p>I cannot help adding that some of the greatest names of antiquity, +and those who have most distinguished themselves in works of genius +and imagination, were equally eminent for their critical skill. +Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and Horace; and among the moderns, Boileau, +Corneille, Pope, and Dryden, are at least instances of genius not being +destroyed by attention or subjection to rules and science. I should +hope, therefore, that the natural consequence likewise of what has been +said would be to excite in you a desire of knowing the principles and +conduct of the great masters of our art, and respect and veneration +for them when known.</p> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SEVEN DISCOURSES ON ART***</p> +<pre> + + +***** This file should be named 2176-h.htm or 2176-h.zip****** + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/1/7/2176 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Seven Discourses on Art + + +Author: Joshua Reynolds + +Release Date: May 8, 2005 [eBook #2176] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SEVEN DISCOURSES ON ART*** + + + + + +Transcribed from the 1901 Cassell and Company edition by David Price, +email ccx074@coventry.ac.uk. Proofing by David, Dawn Smith, Uzma, Jane +Foster, Juliana Rew, Marie Rhoden and Jo Osment. + + + + + +SEVEN DISCOURSES ON ART +by Joshua Reyonds + + +INTRODUCTION + + +It is a happy memory that associates the foundation of our Royal Academy +with the delivery of these inaugural discourses by Sir Joshua Reynolds, +on the opening of the schools, and at the first annual meetings for the +distribution of its prizes. They laid down principles of art from the +point of view of a man of genius who had made his power felt, and with +the clear good sense which is the foundation of all work that looks +upward and may hope to live. The truths here expressed concerning Art +may, with slight adjustment of the way of thought, be applied to +Literature or to any exercise of the best powers of mind for shaping the +delights that raise us to the larger sense of life. In his separation of +the utterance of whole truths from insistance upon accidents of detail, +Reynolds was right, because he guarded the expression of his view with +careful definitions of its limits. In the same way Boileau was right, as +a critic of Literature, in demanding everywhere good sense, in condemning +the paste brilliants of a style then in decay, and fixing attention upon +the masterly simplicity of Roman poets in the time of Augustus. Critics +by rule of thumb reduced the principles clearly defined by Boileau to a +dull convention, against which there came in course of time a strong +reaction. In like manner the teaching of Reynolds was applied by dull +men to much vague and conventional generalisation in the name of dignity. +Nevertheless, Reynolds taught essential truths of Art. The principles +laid down by him will never fail to give strength to the right artist, or +true guidance towards the appreciation of good art, though here and there +we may not wholly assent to some passing application of them, where the +difference may be great between a fashion of thought in his time and in +ours. A righteous enforcement of exact truth in our day has led many +into a readiness to appreciate more really the minute imitation of a +satin dress, or a red herring, than the noblest figure in the best of +Raffaelle's cartoons. Much good should come of the diffusion of this +wise little book. + +Joshua Reynolds was born on the 15th of July, 1723, the son of a +clergyman and schoolmaster, at Plympton in Devonshire. His bent for Art +was clear and strong from his childhood. In 1741 at the age of nineteen, +he began study, and studied for two yours in London under Thomas Hudson, +a successful portrait painter. Then he went back to Devonshire and +painted portraits, aided for some time in his education by attention to +the work of William Gandy of Exeter. When twenty-six years old, in May, +1749, Reynolds was taken away by Captain Keppel to the Mediterranean, and +brought into contact with the works of the great painters of Italy. He +stayed two years in Rome, and in accordance with the principles +afterwards laid down in these lectures, he refused, when in Rome, +commissions for copying, and gave his mind to minute observation of the +art of the great masters by whose works he was surrounded. He spent two +months in Florence, six weeks in Venice, a few days in Bologna and Parma. +"If," he said, "I had never seen any of the fine works of Correggio, I +should never, perhaps, have remarked in Nature the expression which I +find in one of his pieces; or if I had remarked it, I might have thought +it too difficult, or perhaps impossible to execute." + +In 1753 Reynolds came back to England, and stayed three months in +Devonshire before setting up a studio in London, in St. Martin's Lane, +which was then an artists' quarter. His success was rapid. In 1755 he +had one hundred and twenty-five sitters. Samuel Johnson found in him his +most congenial friend. He moved to Newport Street, and he built himself +a studio--where there is now an auction room--at 47, Lincoln's Inn +Fields. There he remained for life. + +In 1760 the artists opened, in a room lent by the Society of Arts, a free +Exhibition for the sale of their works. This was continued the next year +at Spring Gardens, with a charge of a shilling for admission. In 1765 +they obtained a charter of incorporation, and in 1768 the King gave his +support to the foundation of a Royal Academy of Arts by seceders from the +preceding "Incorporated Society of Artists," into which personal feelings +had brought much division. It was to consist, like the French Academy, +of forty members, and was to maintain Schools open to all students of +good character who could give evidence that they had fully learnt the +rudiments of Art. The foundation by the King dates from the 10th of +December, 1768. The Schools were opened on the 2nd of January next +following, and on that occasion Joshua Reynolds, who had been elected +President--his age was then between forty-five and forty-six--gave the +Inaugural Address which formed the first of these Seven Discourses. The +other six were given by him, as President, at the next six annual +meetings: and they were all shaped to form, when collected into a volume, +a coherent body of good counsel upon the foundations of the painter's +art. + +H. M. + + + + +TO THE KING + + +The regular progress of cultivated life is from necessaries to +accommodations, from accommodations to ornaments. By your illustrious +predecessors were established marts for manufactures, and colleges for +science; but for the arts of elegance, those arts by which manufactures +are embellished and science is refined, to found an academy was reserved +for your Majesty. + +Had such patronage been without effect, there had been reason to believe +that nature had, by some insurmountable impediment, obstructed our +proficiency; but the annual improvement of the exhibitions which your +Majesty has been pleased to encourage shows that only encouragement had +been wanting. + +To give advice to those who are contending for royal liberality has been +for some years the duty of my station in the Academy; and these +Discourses hope for your Majesty's acceptance as well-intended endeavours +to incite that emulation which your notice has kindled, and direct those +studies which your bounty has rewarded. + +May it please your Majesty, +Your Majesty's +Most dutiful servant, +And most faithful subject, +JOSHUA REYNOLDS. + + + + +TO THE MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY. + + +Gentlemen,--That you have ordered the publication of this Discourse is +not only very flattering to me, as it implies your approbation of the +method of study which I have recommended; but likewise, as this method +receives from that act such an additional weight and authority as demands +from the students that deference and respect, which can be due only to +the united sense of so considerable a body of artists. + +I am, +With the greatest esteem and respect, +GENTLEMEN, +Your most humble +And obedient servant, +JOSHUA REYNOLDS + + + + +SEVEN DISCOURSES ON ART + + +A DISCOURSE +Delivered at the Opening of the Royal Academy, January 2nd, 1769, by the +President. + + +Gentlemen,--An academy in which the polite arts may be regularly +cultivated is at last opened among us by royal munificence. This must +appear an event in the highest degree interesting, not only to the +artists, but to the whole nation. + +It is indeed difficult to give any other reason why an Empire like that +of Britain should so long have wanted an ornament so suitable to its +greatness than that slow progression of things which naturally makes +elegance and refinement the last effect of opulence and power. + +An institution like this has often been recommended upon considerations +merely mercantile. But an academy founded upon such principles can never +effect even its own narrow purposes. If it has an origin no higher, no +taste can ever be formed in it which can be useful even in manufactures; +but if the higher arts of design flourish, these inferior ends will be +answered of course. + +We are happy in having a prince who has conceived the design of such an +institution, according to its true dignity, and promotes the arts, as the +head of a great, a learned, a polite, and a commercial nation; and I can +now congratulate you, gentlemen, on the accomplishment of your long and +ardent wishes. + +The numberless and ineffectual consultations that I have had with many in +this assembly, to form plans and concert schemes for an academy, afford a +sufficient proof of the impossibility of succeeding but by the influence +of Majesty. But there have, perhaps, been times when even the influence +of Majesty would have been ineffectual, and it is pleasing to reflect +that we are thus embodied, when every circumstance seems to concur from +which honour and prosperity can probably arise. + +There are at this time a greater number of excellent artists than were +ever known before at one period in this nation; there is a general desire +among our nobility to be distinguished as lovers and judges of the arts; +there is a greater superfluity of wealth among the people to reward the +professors; and, above all, we are patronised by a monarch, who, knowing +the value of science and of elegance, thinks every art worthy of his +notice that tends to soften and humanise the mind. + +After so much has been done by his Majesty, it will be wholly our fault +if our progress is not in some degree correspondent to the wisdom and, +generosity of the institution; let us show our gratitude in our +diligence, that, though our merit may not answer his expectations, yet, +at least, our industry may deserve his protection. + +But whatever may be our proportion of success, of this we may be sure, +that the present institution will at least contribute to advance our +knowledge of the arts, and bring us nearer to that ideal excellence which +it is the lot of genius always to contemplate and never to attain. + +The principal advantage of an academy is, that, besides furnishing able +men to direct the student, it will be a repository for the great examples +of the art. These are the materials on which genius is to work, and +without which the strongest intellect may be fruitlessly or deviously +employed. By studying these authentic models, that idea of excellence +which is the result of the accumulated experience of past ages may be at +once acquired, and the tardy and obstructed progress of our predecessors +may teach us a shorter and easier way. The student receives at one +glance the principles which many artists have spent their whole lives in +ascertaining; and, satisfied with their effect, is spared the painful +investigation by which they come to be known and fixed. How many men of +great natural abilities have been lost to this nation for want of these +advantages? They never had an opportunity of seeing those masterly +efforts of genius which at once kindle the whole soul, and force it into +sudden and irresistible approbation. + +Raffaelle, it is true, had not the advantage of studying in an academy; +but all Rome, and the works of Michael Angelo in particular, were to him +an academy. On the site of the Capel la Sistina he immediately from a +dry, Gothic, and even insipid manner, which attends to the minute +accidental discriminations of particular and individual objects, assumed +that grand style of painting, which improves partial representation by +the general and invariable ideas of nature. + +Every seminary of learning may be said to be surrounded with an +atmosphere of floating knowledge, where every mind may imbibe somewhat +congenial to its own original conceptions. Knowledge, thus obtained, has +always something more popular and useful than that which is forced upon +the mind by private precepts or solitary meditation. Besides, it is +generally found that a youth more easily receives instruction from the +companions of his studies, whose minds are nearly on a level with his +own, than from those who are much his superiors; and it is from his +equals only that he catches the fire of emulation. + +One advantage, I will venture to affirm, we shall have in our academy, +which no other nation can boast. We shall have nothing to unlearn. To +this praise the present race of artists have a just claim. As far as +they have yet proceeded they are right. With us the exertions of genius +will henceforward be directed to their proper objects. It will not be as +it has been in other schools, where he that travelled fastest only +wandered farthest from the right way. + +Impressed as I am, therefore, with such a favourable opinion of my +associates in this undertaking, it would ill become me to dictate to any +of them. But as these institutions have so often failed in other +nations, and as it is natural to think with regret how much might have +been done, and how little has been done, I must take leave to offer a few +hints, by which those errors may be rectified, and those defects +supplied. These the professors and visitors may reject or adopt as they +shall think proper. + +I would chiefly recommend that an implicit obedience to the rules of art, +as established by the great masters, should be exacted from the _young_ +students. That those models, which have passed through the approbation +of ages, should be considered by them as perfect and infallible guides as +subjects for their imitation, not their criticism. + +I am confident that this is the only efficacious method of making a +progress in the arts; and that he who sets out with doubting will find +life finished before he becomes master of the rudiments. For it may be +laid down as a maxim, that he who begins by presuming on his own sense +has ended his studies as soon as he has commenced them. Every +opportunity, therefore, should be taken to discountenance that false and +vulgar opinion that rules are the fetters of genius. They are fetters +only to men of no genius; as that armour, which upon the strong becomes +an ornament and a defence, upon the weak and misshapen turns into a load, +and cripples the body which it was made to protect. + +How much liberty may be taken to break through those rules, and, as the +poet expresses it, + + "To snatch a grace beyond the reach of art," + +may be an after consideration, when the pupils become masters themselves. +It is then, when their genius has received its utmost improvement, that +rules may possibly be dispensed with. But let us not destroy the +scaffold until we have raised the building. + +The directors ought more particularly to watch over the genius of those +students who, being more advanced, are arrived at that critical period of +study, on the nice management of which their future turn of taste +depends. At that age it is natural for them to be more captivated with +what is brilliant than with what is solid, and to prefer splendid +negligence to painful and humiliating exactness. + +A facility in composing, a lively, and what is called a masterly handling +the chalk or pencil, are, it must be confessed, captivating qualities to +young minds, and become of course the objects of their ambition. They +endeavour to imitate those dazzling excellences, which they will find no +great labour in attaining. After much time spent in these frivolous +pursuits, the difficulty will be to retreat; but it will be then too +late; and there is scarce an instance of return to scrupulous labour +after the mind has been debauched and deceived by this fallacious +mastery. + +By this useless industry they are excluded from all power of advancing in +real excellence. Whilst boys, they are arrived at their utmost +perfection; they have taken the shadow for the substance; and make that +mechanical facility the chief excellence of the art, which is only an +ornament, and of the merit of which few but painters themselves are +judges. + +This seems to me to be one of the most dangerous sources of corruption; +and I speak of it from experience, not as an error which may possibly +happen, but which has actually infected all foreign academies. The +directors were probably pleased with this premature dexterity in their +pupils, and praised their despatch at the expense of their correctness. + +But young men have not only this frivolous ambition of being thought +masterly inciting them on one hand, but also their natural sloth tempting +them on the other. They are terrified at the prospect before them, of +the toil required to attain exactness. The impetuosity of youth is +distrusted at the slow approaches of a regular siege, and desires, from +mere impatience of labour, to take the citadel by storm. They wish to +find some shorter path to excellence, and hope to obtain the reward of +eminence by other means than those which the indispensable rules of art +have prescribed. They must, therefore, be told again and again that +labour is the only price of solid fame, and that whatever their force of +genius may be, there is no easy method of becoming a good painter. + +When we read the lives of the most eminent painters, every page informs +us that no part of their time was spent in dissipation. Even an increase +of fame served only to augment their industry. To be convinced with what +persevering assiduity they pursued their studies, we need only reflect on +their method of proceeding in their most celebrated works. When they +conceived a subject, they first made a variety of sketches; then a +finished drawing of the whole; after that a more correct drawing of every +separate part, heads, hands, feet, and pieces of drapery; they then +painted the picture, and after all re-touched it from the life. The +pictures, thus wrought with such pain, now appear like the effect of +enchantment, and as if some mighty genius had struck them off at a blow. + +But, whilst diligence is thus recommended to the students, the visitors +will take care that their diligence be effectual; that it be well +directed and employed on the proper object. A student is not always +advancing because he is employed; he must apply his strength to that part +of the art where the real difficulties lie; to that part which +distinguishes it as a liberal art, and not by mistaken industry lose his +time in that which is merely ornamental. The students, instead of vying +with each other which shall have the readiest band, should be taught to +contend who shall have the purest and most correct outline, instead of +striving which shall produce the brightest tint, or, curiously trifling +endeavour to give the gloss of stuffs so as to appear real, let their +ambition be directed to contend which shall dispose his drapery in the +most graceful folds, which shall give the most grace and dignity to the +human figure. + +I must beg leave to submit one thing more to the consideration of the +visitors, which appears to me a matter of very great consequence, and the +omission of which I think a principal defect in the method of education +pursued in all the academies I have ever visited. The error I mean is, +that the students never draw exactly from the living models which they +have before them. It is not indeed their intention, nor are they +directed to do it. Their drawings resemble the model only in the +attitude. They change the form according to their vague and uncertain +ideas of beauty, and make a drawing rather of what they think the figure +ought to be than of what it appears. I have thought this the obstacle +that has stopped the progress of many young men of real genius; and I +very much doubt whether a habit of drawing correctly what we see will not +give a proportionable power of drawing correctly what we imagine. He who +endeavours to copy nicely the figure before him not only acquires a habit +of exactness and precision, but is continually advancing in his knowledge +of the human figure; and though he seems to superficial observers to make +a slower progress, he will be found at last capable of adding (without +running into capricious wildness) that grace and beauty which is +necessary to be given to his more finished works, and which cannot be got +by the moderns, as it was not acquired by the ancients, but by an +attentive and well-compared study of the human form. + +What I think ought to enforce this method is, that it has been the +practice (as may be seen by their drawings) of the great masters in the +art. I will mention a drawing of Raffaelle, "The Dispute of the +Sacrament," the print of which, by Count Cailus, is in every hand. It +appears that he made his sketch from one model; and the habit he had of +drawing exactly from the form before him appears by his making all the +figures with the same cap, such as his model then happened to wear; so +servile a copyist was this great man, even at a time when he was allowed +to be at his highest pitch of excellence. + +I have seen also academy figures by Annibale Caracci, though he was often +sufficiently licentious in his finished works, drawn with all the +peculiarities of an individual model. + +This scrupulous exactness is so contrary to the practice of the +academies, that it is not without great deference that I beg leave to +recommend it to the consideration of the visitors, and submit it to them, +whether the neglect of this method is not one of the reasons why students +so often disappoint expectation, and being more than boys at sixteen, +become less than men at thirty. + +In short, the method I recommend can only be detrimental when there are +but few living forms to copy; for then students, by always drawing from +one alone, will by habit be taught to overlook defects, and mistake +deformity for beauty. But of this there is no danger, since the council +has determined to supply the academy with a variety of subjects; and +indeed those laws which they have drawn up, and which the secretary will +presently read for your confirmation, have in some measure precluded me +from saying more upon this occasion. Instead, therefore, of offering my +advice, permit me to indulge my wishes, and express my hope, that this +institution may answer the expectations of its royal founder; that the +present age may vie in arts with that of Leo X. and that "the dignity of +the dying art" (to make use of an expression of Pliny) may be revived +under the reign of George III. + + + +A DISCOURSE +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy, on the Distribution of +the Prizes, December 11, 1769, by the President. + + +Gentlemen,--I congratulate you on the honour which you have just +received. I have the highest opinion of your merits, and could wish to +show my sense of them in something which possibly may be more useful to +you than barren praise. I could wish to lead you into such a course of +study as may render your future progress answerable to your past +improvement; and, whilst I applaud you for what has been done, remind you +of how much yet remains to attain perfection. + +I flatter myself, that from the long experience I have had, and the +unceasing assiduity with which I have pursued those studies, in which, +like you, I have been engaged, I shall be acquitted of vanity in offering +some hints to your consideration. They are indeed in a great degree +founded upon my own mistakes in the same pursuit. But the history of +errors properly managed often shortens the road to truth. And although +no method of study that I can offer will of itself conduct to excellence, +yet it may preserve industry from being misapplied. + +In speaking to you of the theory of the art, I shall only consider it as +it has a relation to the method of your studies. + +Dividing the study of painting into three distinct periods, I shall +address you as having passed through the first of them, which is confined +to the rudiments, including a facility of drawing any object that +presents itself, a tolerable readiness in the management of colours, and +an acquaintance with the most simple and obvious rules of composition. + +This first degree of proficiency is, in painting, what grammar is in +literature, a general preparation to whatever species of the art the +student may afterwards choose for his more particular application. The +power of drawing, modelling, and using colours is very properly called +the language of the art; and in this language, the honours you have just +received prove you to have made no inconsiderable progress. + +When the artist is once enabled to express himself with some degree of +correctness, he must then endeavour to collect subjects for expression; +to amass a stock of ideas, to be combined and varied as occasion may +require. He is now in the second period of study, in which his business +is to learn all that has hitherto been known and done. Having hitherto +received instructions from a particular master, he is now to consider the +art itself as his master. He must extend his capacity to more sublime +and general instructions. Those perfections which lie scattered among +various masters are now united in one general idea, which is henceforth +to regulate his taste and enlarge his imagination. With a variety of +models thus before him, he will avoid that narrowness and poverty of +conception which attends a bigoted admiration of a single master, and +will cease to follow any favourite where he ceases to excel. This period +is, however, still a time of subjection and discipline. Though the +student will not resign himself blindly to any single authority when he +may have the advantage of consulting many, he must still be afraid of +trusting his own judgment, and of deviating into any track where he +cannot find the footsteps of some former master. + +The third and last period emancipates the student from subjection to any +authority but what he shall himself judge to be supported by reason. +Confiding now in his own judgment, he will consider and separate those +different principles to which different modes of beauty owe their +original. In the former period he sought only to know and combine +excellence, wherever it was to be found, into one idea of perfection; in +this he learns, what requires the most attentive survey and the subtle +disquisition, to discriminate perfections that are incompatible with each +other. + +He is from this time to regard himself as holding the same rank with +those masters whom he before obeyed as teachers, and as exercising a sort +of sovereignty over those rules which have hitherto restrained him. +Comparing now no longer the performances of art with each other, but +examining the art itself by the standard of nature, he corrects what is +erroneous, supplies what is scanty, and adds by his own observation what +the industry of his predecessors may have yet left wanting to perfection. +Having well established his judgment, and stored his memory, he may now +without fear try the power of his imagination. The mind that has been +thus disciplined may be indulged in the warmest enthusiasm, and venture +to play on the borders of the wildest extravagance. The habitual +dignity, which long converse with the greatest minds has imparted to him, +will display itself in all his attempts, and he will stand among his +instructors, not as an imitator, but a rival. + +These are the different stages of the art. But as I now address myself +particularly to those students who have been this day rewarded for their +happy passage through the first period, I can with no propriety suppose +they want any help in the initiatory studies. My present design is to +direct your view to distant excellence, and to show you the readiest path +that leads to it. Of this I shall speak with such latitude as may leave +the province of the professor uninvaded, and shall not anticipate those +precepts which it is his business to give and your duty to understand. + +It is indisputably evident that a great part of every man's life must be +employed in collecting materials for the exercise of genius. Invention, +strictly speaking, is little more than a new combination of those images +which have been previously gathered and deposited in the memory. Nothing +can come of nothing. He who has laid up no materials can produce no +combinations. + +A student unacquainted with the attempts of former adventurers is always +apt to overrate his own abilities, to mistake the most trifling +excursions for discoveries of moment, and every coast new to him for a +new-found country. If by chance he passes beyond his usual limits, he +congratulates his own arrival at those regions which they who have +steered a better course have long left behind them. + +The productions of such minds are seldom distinguished by an air of +originality: they are anticipated in their happiest efforts; and if they +are found to differ in anything from their predecessors, it is only in +irregular sallies and trifling conceits. The more extensive therefore +your acquaintance is with the works of those who have excelled the more +extensive will be your powers of invention; and what may appear still +more like a paradox, the more original will be your conceptions. But the +difficulty on this occasion is to determine who ought to be proposed as +models of excellence, and who ought to be considered as the properest +guides. + +To a young man just arrived in Italy, many of the present painters of +that country are ready enough to obtrude their precepts, and to offer +their own performances as examples of that perfection which they affect +to recommend. The modern, however, who recommends _himself_ as a +standard, may justly be suspected as ignorant of the true end, and +unacquainted with the proper object of the art which he professes. To +follow such a guide will not only retard the student, but mislead him. + +On whom, then, can he rely, or who shall show him the path that leads to +excellence? The answer is obvious: Those great masters who have +travelled the same road with success are the most likely to conduct +others. The works of those who have stood the test of ages have a claim +to that respect and veneration to which no modern can pretend. The +duration and stability of their fame is sufficient to evince that it has +not been suspended upon the slender thread of fashion and caprice, but +bound to the human heart by every tie of sympathetic approbation. + +There is no danger of studying too much the works of those great men, but +how they may be studied to advantage is an inquiry of great importance. + +Some who have never raised their minds to the consideration of the real +dignity of the art, and who rate the works of an artist in proportion as +they excel, or are defective in the mechanical parts, look on theory as +something that may enable them to talk but not to paint better, and +confining themselves entirely to mechanical practice, very assiduously +toil on in the drudgery of copying, and think they make a rapid progress +while they faithfully exhibit the minutest part of a favourite picture. +This appears to me a very tedious, and I think a very erroneous, method +of proceeding. Of every large composition, even of those which are most +admired, a great part may be truly said to be common-place. This, though +it takes up much time in copying, conduces little to improvement. I +consider general copying as a delusive kind of industry; the student +satisfies himself with the appearance of doing something; he falls into +the dangerous habit of imitating without selecting, and of labouring +without any determinate object; as it requires no effort of the mind, he +sleeps over his work; and those powers of invention and composition which +ought particularly to be called out and put in action lie torpid, and +lose their energy for want of exercise. + +It is an observation that all must have made, how incapable those are of +producing anything of their own who have spent much of their time in +making finished copies. + +To suppose that the complication of powers, and variety of ideas +necessary to that mind which aspires to the first honours ill the art of +painting, can be obtained by the frigid contemplation of a few single +models, is no less absurd than it would be in him who wishes to be a poet +to imagine that by translating a tragedy he can acquire to himself +sufficient knowledge of the appearances of nature, the operations of the +passions, and the incidents of life. + +The great use in copying, if it be at all useful, should seem to be in +learning to colour; yet even colouring will never be perfectly attained +by servilely copying the mould before you. An eye critically nice can +only be formed by observing well-coloured pictures with attention: and by +close inspection, and minute examination you will discover, at last, the +manner of handling, the artifices of contrast, glazing, and other +expedients, by which good colourists have raised the value of their +tints, and by which nature has been so happily imitated. + +I must inform you, however, that old pictures deservedly celebrated for +their colouring are often so changed by dirt and varnish, that we ought +not to wonder if they do not appear equal to their reputation in the eyes +of unexperienced painters, or young students. An artist whose judgment +is matured by long observation, considers rather what the picture once +was, than what it is at present. He has acquired a power by habit of +seeing the brilliancy of tints through the cloud by which it is obscured. +An exact imitation, therefore, of those pictures, is likely to fill the +student's mind with false opinions, and to send him back a colourist of +his own formation, with ideas equally remote from nature and from art, +from the genuine practice of the masters and the real appearances of +things. + +Following these rules, and using these precautions, when you have clearly +and distinctly learned in what good colouring consists, you cannot do +better than have recourse to nature herself, who is always at hand, and +in comparison of whose true splendour the best coloured pictures are but +faint and feeble. + +However, as the practice of copying is not entirely to be excluded, since +the mechanical practice of painting is learned in some measure by it, let +those choice parts only be selected which have recommended the work to +notice. If its excellence consists in its general effect, it would be +proper to make slight sketches of the machinery and general management of +the picture. Those sketches should be kept always by you for the +regulation of your style. Instead of copying the touches of those great +masters, copy only their conceptions. Instead of treading in their +footsteps, endeavour only to keep the same road. Labour to invent on +their general principles and way of thinking. Possess yourself with +their spirit. Consider with yourself how a Michael Angelo or a Raffaelle +would have treated this subject: and work yourself into a belief that +your picture is to be seen and criticised by them when completed. Even +an attempt of this kind will rouse your powers. + +But as mere enthusiasm will carry you but a little way, let me recommend +a practice that may be equivalent, and will perhaps more efficaciously +contribute to your advancement, than even the verbal corrections of those +masters themselves, could they be obtained. What I would propose is, +that you should enter into a kind of competition, by painting a similar +subject, and making a companion to any picture that you consider as a +model. After you have finished your work, place it near the model, and +compare them carefully together. You will then not only see, but feel +your own deficiencies more sensibly than by precepts, or any other means +of instruction. The true principles of painting will mingle with your +thoughts. Ideas thus fixed by sensible objects, will be certain and +definitive; and sinking deep into the mind, will not only be more just, +but more lasting than those presented to you by precepts only: which +will, always be fleeting, variable, and undetermined. + +This method of comparing your own efforts with those of some great +master, is indeed a severe and mortifying task, to which none will +submit, but such as have great views, with fortitude sufficient to forego +the gratifications of present vanity for future honour. When the student +has succeeded in some measure to his own satisfaction, and has +felicitated himself on his success, to go voluntarily to a tribunal where +he knows his vanity must be humbled, and all self-approbation must +vanish, requires not only great resolution, but great humility. To him, +however, who has the Ambition to be a real master, the solid satisfaction +which proceeds from a consciousness of his advancement (of which seeing +his own faults is the first step) will very abundantly compensate for the +mortification of present disappointment. There is, besides, this +alleviating circumstance. Every discovery he makes, every acquisition of +knowledge he attains, seems to proceed from his own sagacity; and thus he +acquires a confidence in himself sufficient to keep up the resolution of +perseverance. + +We all must have experienced how lazily, and consequently how +ineffectually, instruction is received when forced upon the mind by +others. Few have been taught to any purpose who have not been their own +teachers. We prefer those instructions which we have given ourselves, +from our affection to the instructor; and they are more effectual, from +being received into the mind at the very time when it is most open and +eager to receive them. + +With respect to the pictures that you are to choose for your models, I +could wish that you would take the world's opinion rather than your own. +In other words, I would have you choose those of established reputation +rather than follow your own fancy. If you should not admire them at +first, you will, by endeavouring to imitate them, find that the world has +not been mistaken. + +It is not an easy task to point out those various excellences for your +imitation which he distributed amongst the various schools. An endeavour +to do this may perhaps be the subject of some future discourse. I will, +therefore, at present only recommend a model for style in painting, which +is a branch of the art more immediately necessary to the young student. +Style in painting is the same as in writing, a power over materials, +whether words or colours, by which conceptions or sentiments are +conveyed. And in this Lodovico Carrache (I mean in his best works) +appears to me to approach the nearest to perfection. His unaffected +breadth of light and shadow, the simplicity of colouring, which holding +its proper rank, does not draw aside the least part of the attention from +the subject, and the solemn effect of that twilight which seems diffused +over his pictures, appear to me to correspond with grave and dignified +subjects, better than the more artificial brilliancy of sunshine which +enlightens the pictures of Titian. Though Tintoret thought that Titian's +colouring was the model of perfection, and would correspond even with the +sublime of Michael Angelo; and that if Angelo had coloured like Titian, +or Titian designed like Angelo, the world would once have had a perfect +painter. + +It is our misfortune, however, that those works of Carrache which I would +recommend to the student are not often found out of Bologna. The "St. +Francis in the midst of his Friars," "The Transfiguration," "The Birth of +St. John the Baptist," "The Calling of St. Matthew," the "St. Jerome," +the fresco paintings in the Zampieri Palace, are all worthy the attention +of the student. And I think those who travel would do well to allot a +much greater portion of their time to that city than it has been hitherto +the custom to bestow. + +In this art, as in others, there are many teachers who profess to show +the nearest way to excellence, and many expedients have been invented by +which the toil of study might be saved. But let no man be seduced to +idleness by specious promises. Excellence is never granted to man but as +the reward of labour. It argues, indeed, no small strength of mind to +persevere in habits of industry, without the pleasure of perceiving those +advances; which, like the hand of a clock, whilst they make hourly +approaches to their point, yet proceed so slowly as to escape +observation. A facility of drawing, like that of playing upon a musical +instrument, cannot be acquired but by an infinite number of acts. I need +not, therefore, enforce by many words the necessity of continual +application; nor tell you that the port-crayon ought to be for ever in +your hands. Various methods will occur to you by which this power may be +acquired. I would particularly recommend that after your return from the +academy (where I suppose your attendance to be constant) you would +endeavour to draw the figure by memory. I will even venture to add, that +by perseverance in this custom, you will become able to draw the human +figure tolerably correct, with as little effort of the mind as to trace +with a pen the letters of the alphabet. + +That this facility is not unattainable, some members in this academy give +a sufficient proof. And, be assured, that if this power is not acquired +whilst you are young, there will be no time for it afterwards: at least, +the attempt will be attended with as much difficulty as those experience +who learn to read or write after they have arrived to the age of +maturity. + +But while I mention the port-crayon as the student's constant companion, +he must still remember that the pencil is the instrument by which he must +hope to obtain eminence. What, therefore, I wish to impress upon you is, +that whenever an opportunity offers, you paint your studies instead of +drawing them. This will give you such a facility in using colours, that +in time they will arrange themselves under the pencil, even without the +attention of the hand that conducts it. If one act excluded the other, +this advice could not with any propriety be given. But if painting +comprises both drawing and colouring and if by a short struggle of +resolute industry the same expedition is attainable in painting as in +drawing on paper, I cannot see what objection can justly be made to the +practice; or why that should be done by parts, which may be done +altogether. + +If we turn our eyes to the several schools of painting, and consider +their respective excellences, we shall find that those who excel most in +colouring pursued this method. The Venetian and Flemish schools, which +owe much of their fame to colouring, have enriched the cabinets of the +collectors of drawings with very few examples. Those of Titian, Paul +Veronese, Tintoret, and the Bassans, are in general slight and +undetermined. Their sketches on paper are as rude as their pictures are +excellent in regard to harmony of colouring. Correggio and Barocci have +left few, if any, finished drawings behind them. And in the Flemish +school, Rubens and Vandyke made their designs for the most part either in +colours or in chiaroscuro. It is as common to find studies of the +Venetian and Flemish painters on canvas, as of the schools of Rome and +Florence on paper. Not but that many finished drawings are sold under +the names of those masters. Those, however, are undoubtedly the +productions either of engravers or of their scholars who copied their +works. + +These instructions I have ventured to offer from my own experience; but +as they deviate widely from received opinions, I offer them with +diffidence; and when better are suggested, shall retract them without +regret. + +There is one precept, however, in which I shall only be opposed by the +vain, the ignorant, and the idle. I am not afraid that I shall repeat it +too often. You must have no dependence on your own genius. If you have +great talents, industry will improve them: if you have but moderate +abilities, industry will supply their deficiency. Nothing is denied to +well-directed labour: nothing is to be obtained without it. Not to enter +into metaphysical discussions on the nature or essence of genius, I will +venture to assert, that assiduity unabated by difficulty, and a +disposition eagerly directed to the object of its pursuit, will produce +effects similar to those which some call the result of natural powers. + +Though a man cannot at all times, and in all places, paint or draw, yet +the mind can prepare itself by laying in proper materials, at all times, +and in all places. Both Livy and Plutarch, in describing Philopoemen, +one of the ablest generals of antiquity, have given us a striking picture +of a mind always intent on its profession, and by assiduity obtaining +those excellences which some all their lives vainly expect from Nature. I +shall quote the passage in Livy at length, as it runs parallel with the +practice I would recommend to the painter, sculptor, or architect. + +"Philopoemen was a man eminent for his sagacity and experience in +choosing ground, and in leading armies; to which he formed his mind by +perpetual meditation, in times of peace as well as war. When, in any +occasional journey, he came to a straight difficult passage, if he was +alone, he considered with himself, and if he was in company he asked his +friends what it would be best to do if in this place they had found an +enemy, either in the front, or in the rear, on the one side, or on the +other. 'It might happen,' says he, 'that the enemy to be opposed might +come on drawn up in regular lines, or in a tumultuous body, formed only +by the nature of the place.' He then considered a little what ground he +should take; what number of soldiers he should use, and what arms he +should give them; where he should lodge his carriages, his baggage, and +the defenceless followers of his camp; how many guards, and of what kind, +he should send to defend them; and whether it would be better to press +forward along the pass, or recover by retreat his former station: he +would consider likewise where his camp could most commodiously be formed; +how much ground he should enclose within his trenches; where he should +have the convenience of water; and where he might find plenty of wood and +forage; and when he should break up his camp on the following day, +through what road he could most safely pass, and in what form he should +dispose his troops. With such thoughts and disquisitions he had from his +early years so exercised his mind, that on these occasions nothing could +happen which he had not been already accustomed to consider." + +I cannot help imagining that I see a promising young painter, equally +vigilant, whether at home, or abroad in the streets, or in the fields. +Every object that presents itself is to him a lesson. He regards all +nature with a view to his profession; and combines her beauties, or +corrects her defects. He examines the countenance of men under the +influence of passion; and often catches the most pleasing hints from +subjects of turbulence or deformity. Even bad pictures themselves supply +him with useful documents; and, as Leonardo da Vinci has observed, he +improves upon the fanciful images that are sometimes seen in the fire, or +are accidentally sketched upon a discoloured wall. + +The artist who has his mind thus filled with ideas, and his hand made +expert by practice, works with ease and readiness; whilst he who would +have you believe that he is waiting for the inspirations of genius, is in +reality at a loss how to beam, and is at last delivered of his monsters +with difficulty and pain. + +The well-grounded painter, on the contrary, has only maturely to consider +his subject, and all the mechanical parts of his art follow without his +exertion, Conscious of the difficulty of obtaining what he possesses he +makes no pretensions to secrets, except those of closer application. +Without conceiving the smallest jealousy against others, he is contented +that all shall be as great as himself who are willing to undergo the same +fatigue: and as his pre-eminence depends not upon a trick, he is free +from the painful suspicions of a juggler, who lives in perpetual fear +lest his trick should be discovered. + + + +A DISCOURSE +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution of the +Prizes, December, 14, 1770, by the President. + + +Gentlemen,--It is not easy to speak with propriety to so many students of +different ages and different degrees of advancement. The mind requires +nourishment adapted to its growth; and what may have promoted our earlier +efforts, might, retard us in our nearer approaches to perfection. + +The first endeavours of a young painter, as I have remarked in a former +discourse, must be employed in the attainment of mechanical dexterity, +and confined to the mere imitation of the object before him. Those who +have advanced beyond the rudiments, may, perhaps, find advantage in +reflecting on the advice which I have likewise given them, when I +recommended the diligent study of the works of our great predecessors; +but I at the same time endeavoured to guard them against an implicit +submission to the authority of any one master, however excellent; or by a +strict imitation of his manner, to preclude ourselves from the abundance +and variety of nature. I will now add that nature herself is not to be +too closely copied. There are excellences in the art of painting, beyond +what is commonly called the imitation of nature: and these excellences I +wish to point out. The students who, having passed through the +initiatory exercises, are more advanced in the art, and who, sure of +their hand, have leisure to exert their understanding, must now be told +that a mere copier of nature can never produce anything great; can never +raise and enlarge the conceptions, or warm the heart of the spectator. + +The wish of the genuine painter must be more extensive: instead of +endeavouring to amuse mankind with the minute neatness of his imitations, +he must endeavour to improve them by the grandeur of his ideas; instead +of seeking praise, by deceiving the superficial sense of the spectator, +he must strive for fame, by captivating the imagination. + +The principle now laid down, that the perfection of this art does not +consist in mere imitation, is far from being new or singular. It is, +indeed, supported by the general opinion of the enlightened part of +mankind. The poets, orators, and rhetoricians of antiquity, are +continually enforcing this position, that all the arts receive their +perfection from an ideal beauty, superior to what is to be found in +individual nature. They are ever referring to the practice of the +painters and sculptors of their times, particularly Phidias (the +favourite artist of antiquity), to illustrate their assertions. As if +they could not sufficiently express their admiration of his genius by +what they knew, they have recourse to poetical enthusiasm. They call it +inspiration; a gift from heaven. The artist is supposed to have ascended +the celestial regions, to furnish his mind with this perfect idea of +beauty. "He," says Proclus, "who takes for his model such forms as +nature produces, and confines himself to an exact imitation of them, will +never attain to what is perfectly beautiful. For the works of nature are +full of disproportion, and fall very short of the true standard of +beauty. So that Phidias, when he formed his Jupiter, did not copy any +object ever presents to his sight; but contemplated only that image which +he had conceived in his mind from Homer's description." And thus Cicero, +speaking of the same Phidias: "Neither did this artist," says he, "when +he carved the image of Jupiter or Minerva, set before him any one human +figure as a pattern, which he was to copy; but having a more perfect idea +of beauty fixed in his mind, this he steadily contemplated, and to the +imitation of this all his skill and labour were directed." + +The moderns are not less convinced than the ancients of this superior +power existing in the art; nor less conscious of its effects. Every +language has adopted terms expressive of this excellence. The _Gusto +grande_ of the Italians; the _Beau ideal_ of the French and the _great +style_, _genius_, and _taste_ among the English, are but different +appellations of the same thing. It is this intellectual dignity, they +say, that ennobles the painter's art; that lays the line between him and +the mere mechanic; and produces those great effects in an instant, which +eloquence and poetry, by slow and repeated efforts, are scarcely able to +attain. + +Such is the warmth with which both the ancients and moderns speak of this +divine principle of the art; but, as I have formerly observed, +enthusiastic admiration seldom promotes knowledge. Though a student by +such praise may have his attention roused, and a desire excited, of +running in this great career, yet it is possible that what has been said +to excite, may only serve to deter him. He examines his own mind, and +perceives there nothing of that divine inspiration with which he is told +so many others have been favoured. He never travelled to heaven to +gather new ideas; and he finds himself possessed of no other +qualifications than what mere common observation and a plain +understanding can confer. Thus he becomes gloomy amidst the splendour of +figurative declamation, and thinks it hopeless to pursue an object which +he supposes out of the reach of human industry. + +But on this, as upon many other occasions, we ought to distinguish how +much is to be given to enthusiasm, and how much to reason. We ought to +allow for, and we ought to commend, that strength of vivid expression +which is necessary to convey, in its full force, the highest sense of the +most complete effect of art; taking care at the same time not to lose in +terms of vague admiration that solidity and truth of principle upon which +alone we can reason, and may be enabled to practise. + +It is not easy to define in what this great style consists; nor to +describe, by words, the proper means of acquiring it, if the mind of the +student should be at all capable of such an acquisition. Could we teach +taste or genius by rules, they would be no longer taste and genius. But +though there neither are, nor can be, any precise invariable rules for +the exercise or the acquisition of those great qualities, yet we may as +truly say that they always operate in proportion to our attention in +observing the works of nature, to our skill in selecting, and to our care +in digesting, methodising, and comparing our observations. There are +many beauties in our art, that seem, at first, to lie without the reach +of precept, and yet may easily be reduced to practical principles. +Experience is all in all; but it is not every one who profits by +experience; and most people err, not so much from want of capacity to +find their object, as from not knowing what object to pursue. This great +ideal perfection and beauty are not to be sought in the heavens, but upon +the earth. They are about us, and upon every side of us. But the power +of discovering what is deformed in nature, or in other words, what is +particular and uncommon, can be acquired only by experience; and the +whole beauty and grandeur of the art consists, in my opinion, in being +able to get above all singular forms, local customs, particularities, and +details of every kind. + +All the objects which are exhibited to our view by nature, upon close +examination will be found to have their blemishes and defects. The most +beautiful forms have something about them like weakness, minuteness, or +imperfection. But it is not every eye that perceives these blemishes. It +must be an eye long used to the contemplation and comparison of these +forms; and which, by a long habit of observing what any set of objects of +the same kind have in common, that alone can acquire the power of +discerning what each wants in particular. This long laborious comparison +should be the first study of the painter who aims at the greatest style. +By this means, he acquires a just idea of beautiful forms; he corrects +nature by herself, her imperfect state by her more perfect. His eye +being enabled to distinguish the accidental deficiencies, excrescences, +and deformities of things from their general figures, he makes out an +abstract idea of their forms more perfect than any one original; and what +may seem a paradox, he learns to design naturally by drawing his figures +unlike to any one object. This idea of the perfect state of nature, +which the artist calls the ideal beauty, is the great leading principle +by which works of genius are conducted. By this Phidias acquired his +fame. He wrought upon a sober principle what has so much excited the +enthusiasm of the world; and by this method you, who have courage to +tread the same path, may acquire equal reputation. + +This is the idea which has acquired, and which seems to have a right to +the epithet of Divine; as it may be said to preside, like a supreme +judge, over all the productions of nature; appearing to be possessed of +the will and intention of the Creator, as far as they regard the external +form of living beings. + +When a man once possesses this idea in its perfection, there is no danger +but that he will he sufficiently warmed by it himself, and be able to +warm and ravish every one else. + +Thus it is from a reiterated experience, and a close comparison of the +objects in nature, that an artist becomes possessed of the idea of that +central form, if I may so express it, from which every deviation is +deformity. But the investigation of this form I grant is painful, and I +know but of one method of shortening the road; this is, by a careful +study of the works of the ancient sculptors; who, being indefatigable in +the school of nature, have left models of that perfect form behind them, +which an artist would prefer as supremely beautiful, who had spent his +whole life in that single contemplation. But if industry carried them +thus far, may not you also hope for the same reward from the same labour? +We have the same school opened to us that was opened to them; for nature +denies her instructions to none who desire to become her pupils. + +To the principle I have laid down, that the idea of beauty in each +species of beings is invariably one, it may be objected that in every +particular species there are various central forms, which are separate +and distinct from each other, and yet are undeniably beautiful; that in +the human figure, for instance, the beauty of the Hercules is one, of the +gladiator another, of the Apollo another, which makes so many different +ideas of beauty. + +It is true, indeed, that these figures are each perfect in their kind, +though of different characters and proportions; but still none of them is +the representation of an individual, but of a class. And as there is one +general form, which, as I have said, belongs to the human kind at large, +so in each of these classes there is one common idea and central form, +which is the abstract of the various individual forms belonging to that +class. Thus, though the forms of childhood and age differ exceedingly, +there is a common form in childhood, and a common form in age,--which is +the more perfect, as it is more remote from all peculiarities. But I +must add further, that though the most perfect forms of each of the +general divisions of the human figure are ideal, and superior to any +individual form of that class, yet the highest perfection of the human +figure is not to be found in any one of them. It is not in the Hercules, +nor in the gladiator, nor in the Apollo; but in that form which is taken +from them all, and which partakes equally of the activity of the +gladiator, of the delicacy of the Apollo, and of the muscular strength of +the Hercules. For perfect beauty in any species must combine all the +characters which are beautiful in that species. It cannot consist in any +one to the exclusion of the rest: no one, therefore, must be predominant, +that no one may be deficient. + +The knowledge of these different characters, and the power of separating +and distinguishing them, is undoubtedly necessary to the painter, who is +to vary his compositions with figures of various forms and proportions, +though he is never to lose sight of the general idea of perfection in +each kind. + +There is, likewise, a kind of symmetry or proportion, which may properly +be said to belong to deformity. A figure lean or corpulent, tall or +short, though deviating from beauty, may still have a certain union of +the various parts, which may contribute to make them, on the whole, not +unpleasing. When the artist has by diligent attention acquired a clear +and distinct idea of beauty and symmetry; when he has reduced the variety +of nature to the abstract idea; his next task will be to become +acquainted with the genuine habits of nature, as distinguished from those +of fashion. For in the same manner, and on the same principles, as he +has acquired the knowledge of the real forms of nature, distinct from +accidental deformity, he must endeavour to separate simple chaste nature +from those adventitious, those affected and forced airs or actions, with +which she is loaded by modern education. + +Perhaps I cannot better explain what I mean than by reminding you of what +was taught us by the Professor of Anatomy, in respect to the natural +position and movement of the feet. He observed that the fashion of +turning, them outwards was contrary to the intent of nature, as might be +seen from the structure of the bones, and from the weakness that +proceeded from that manner of standing. To this we may add the erect +position of the head, the projection of the chest, the walking with +straight knees, and many such actions, which are merely the result of +fashion, and what nature never warranted, as we are sure that we have +been taught them when children. + +I have mentioned but a few of those instances, in which vanity or caprice +have contrived to distort and disfigure the human form; your own +recollection will add to these a thousand more of ill-understood methods, +that have been practised to disguise nature, among our dancing-masters, +hair-dressers, and tailors, in their various schools of deformity. + +However the mechanic and ornamental arts may sacrifice to fashion, she +must be entirely excluded from the art of painting; the painter must +never mistake this capricious changeling for the genuine offspring of +nature; he must divest himself of all prejudices in favour of his age or +country; he must disregard all local and temporary ornaments, and look +only on those general habits that are everywhere and always the same. He +addresses his works to the people of every country and every age; he +calls upon posterity to be his spectators, and says with Zeuxis, _In +aeternitatem pingo_. + +The neglect of separating modern fashions from the habits of nature, +leads to that ridiculous style which has been practised by some painters +who have given to Grecian heroes the airs and graces practised in the +court of Louis XIV.; an absurdity almost as great as it would have been +to have dressed them after the fashion of that court. + +To avoid this error, however, and to retain the true simplicity of +nature, is a task more difficult than at first sight it may appear. The +prejudices in favour of the fashions and customs that we have been used +to, and which are justly called a second nature, make it too often +difficult to distinguish that which is natural from that which is the +result of education; they frequently even give a predilection in favour +of the artificial mode; and almost every one is apt to be guided by those +local prejudices who has not chastised his mind, and regulated the +instability of his affections, by the eternal invariable idea of nature. + +Here, then, as before, we must have recourse to the ancients as +instructors. It is from a careful study of their works that you will be +enabled to attain to the real simplicity of nature; they will suggest +many observations, which would probably escape you, if your study were +confined to nature alone. And, indeed, I cannot help suspecting, that in +this instance the ancients had an easier task than the moderns. They +had, probably, little or nothing to unlearn, as their manners were nearly +approaching to this desirable simplicity; while the modern artist, before +he can see the truth of things, is obliged to remove a veil, with which +the fashion of the times has thought proper to cover her. + +Having gone thus far in our investigation of the great style in painting; +if we now should suppose that the artist has formed the true idea of +beauty, which enables him to give his works a correct and perfect design; +if we should suppose also that he has acquired a knowledge of the +unadulterated habits of nature, which gives him simplicity; the rest of +his talk is, perhaps, less than is generally imagined. Beauty and +simplicity have so great a share in the composition of a great style, +that he who has acquired them has little else to learn. It must not, +indeed, be forgot that there is a nobleness of conception, which goes +beyond anything in the mere exhibition, even of perfect form; there is an +art of animating and dignifying the figures with intellectual grandeur, +of impressing the appearance of philosophic wisdom or heroic virtue. This +can only be acquired by him that enlarges the sphere of his understanding +by a variety of knowledge, and warms his imagination with the best +productions of ancient and modern poetry. + +A hand thus exercised, and a mind thus instructed, will bring the art to +a higher degree of excellence than, perhaps, it has hitherto attained in +this country. Such a student will disdain the humbler walks of painting, +which, however profitable, can never assure him a permanent reputation. +He will leave the meaner artist servilely to suppose that those are the +best pictures which are most likely to deceive the spectator. He will +permit the lower painter, like the florist or collector of shells, to +exhibit the minute discriminations which distinguish one object of the +same species from another; while he, like the philosopher, will consider +nature in the abstract, and represent in every one of his figures the +character of its species. + +If deceiving the eye were the only business of the art, there is no +doubt, indeed, but the minute painter would be more apt to succeed: but +it is not the eye, it is the mind, which the painter of genius desires to +address; nor will he waste a moment upon these smaller objects, which +only serve to catch the sense, to divide the attention, and to counteract +his great design of speaking to the heart. + +This is the ambition I could wish to excite in your minds; and the object +I have had in my view, throughout this discourse, is that one great idea +which gives to painting its true dignity, that entitles it to the name of +a Liberal Art, and ranks it as a sister of poetry. + +It may possibly have happened to many young students whose application +was sufficient to overcome all difficulties, and whose minds were capable +of embracing the most extensive views, that they have, by a wrong +direction originally given, spent their lives in the meaner walks of +painting, without ever knowing there was a nobler to pursue. "Albert +Durer," as Vasari has justly remarked, "would probably have been one of +the first painters of his age (and he lived in an era of great artists) +had he been initiated into those great principles of the art which were +so well understood and practised by his contemporaries in Italy. But +unluckily, having never seen or heard of any other manner, he considered +his own, without doubt, as perfect." + +As for the various departments of painting, which do not presume to make +such high pretensions, they are many. None of them are without their +merit, though none enter into competition with this great universal +presiding idea of the art. The painters who have applied themselves more +particularly to low and vulgar characters, and who express with precision +the various shades of passion, as they are exhibited by vulgar minds +(such as we see in the works of Hogarth) deserve great praise; but as +their genius has been employed on low and confined subjects, the praise +that we give must be as limited as its object. The merrymaking or +quarrelling of the Boors of Teniers; the same sort of productions of +Brouwer, or Ostade, are excellent in their kind; and the excellence and +its praise will be in proportion, as, in those limited subjects and +peculiar forms, they introduce more or less of the expression of those +passions, as they appear in general and more enlarged nature. This +principle may be applied to the battle pieces of Bourgognone, the French +gallantries of Watteau, and even beyond the exhibition of animal life, to +the landscapes of Claude Lorraine, and the sea-views of Vandervelde. All +these painters have, in general, the same right, in different degrees, to +the name of a painter, which a satirist, an epigrammatist, a sonnetteer, +a writer of pastorals, or descriptive poetry, has to that of a poet. + +In the same rank, and, perhaps, of not so great merit, is the cold +painter of portraits. But his correct and just imitation of his object +has its merit. Even the painter of still life, whose highest ambition is +to give a minute representation of every part of those low objects, which +he sets before him, deserves praise in proportion to his attainment; +because no part of this excellent art, so much the ornament of polished +life, is destitute of value and use. These, however, are by no means the +views to which the mind of the student ought to be _primarily_ directed. +By aiming at better things, if from particular inclination, or from the +taste of the time and place he lives in, or from necessity, or from +failure in the highest attempts, he is obliged to descend lower; he will +bring into the lower sphere of art a grandeur of composition and +character that will raise and ennoble his works far above their natural +rank. + +A man is not weak, though he may not be able to wield the club of +Hercules; nor does a man always practise that which he esteems the beat; +but does that which he can best do. In moderate attempts, there are many +walks open to the artist. But as the idea of beauty is of necessity but +one, so there can be but one great mode of painting; the leading +principle of which I have endeavoured to explain. + +I should be sorry if what is here recommended should be at all understood +to countenance a careless or indetermined manner of painting. For though +the painter is to overlook the accidental discriminations of nature, he +is to pronounce distinctly, and with precision, the general forms of +things. A firm and determined outline is one of the characteristics of +the great style in painting; and, let me add, that he who possesses the +knowledge of the exact form, that every part of nature ought to have, +will be fond of expressing that knowledge with correctness and precision +in all his works. + +To conclude: I have endeavoured to reduce the idea of beauty to general +principles. And I had the pleasure to observe that the professor of +painting proceeded in the same method, when he showed you that the +artifice of contrast was founded but on one principle. And I am +convinced that this is the only means of advancing science, of clearing +the mind from a confused heap of contradictory observations, that do but +perplex and puzzle the student when he compares them, or misguide him if +he gives himself up to their authority; but bringing them under one +general head can alone give rest and satisfaction to an inquisitive mind. + + + +A DISCOURSE +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution of the +Prizes, December 10, 1771, by the President. + + +Gentlemen,--The value and rank of every art is in proportion to the +mental labour employed in it, or the mental pleasure produced by it. As +this principle is observed or neglected, our profession becomes either a +liberal art or a mechanical trade. In the hands of one man it makes the +highest pretensions, as it is addressed to the noblest faculties, In +those of another it is reduced to a mere matter of ornament, and the +painter has but the humble province of furnishing our apartments with +elegance. + +This exertion of mind, which is the only circumstance that truly ennobles +our art, makes the great distinction between the Roman and Venetian +schools. I have formerly observed that perfect form is produced by +leaving out particularities, and retaining only general ideas. I shall +now endeavour to show that this principle, which I have proved to be +metaphysically just, extends itself to every part of the art; that it +gives what is called the grand style to invention, to composition, to +expression, and even to colouring and drapery. + +Invention in painting does not imply the invention of the subject, for +that is commonly supplied by the poet or historian. With respect to the +choice, no subject can be proper that is not generally interesting. It +ought to be either some eminent instance of heroic action or heroic +suffering. There must be something either in the action or in the object +in which men are universally concerned, and which powerfully strikes upon +the public sympathy. + +Strictly speaking, indeed, no subject can be of universal, hardly can it +be of general concern: but there are events and characters so popularly +known in those countries where our art is in request, that they may be +considered as sufficiently general for all our purposes. Such are the +great events of Greek and Roman fable and history, which early education +and the usual course of reading have made familiar and interesting to all +Europe, without being degraded by the vulgarism of ordinary life in any +country. Such, too, are the capital subjects of Scripture history, +which, besides their general notoriety, become venerable by their +connection with our religion. + +As it is required that the subject selected should be a general one, it +is no less necessary that it should be kept unembarrassed with whatever +may any way serve to divide the attention of the spectator. Whenever a +story is related, every man forms a picture in his mind of the action and +the expression of the persons employed. The power of representing this +mental picture in canvas is what we call invention in a painter. And as +in the conception of this ideal picture the mind does not enter into the +minute peculiarities of the dress, furniture, or scene of action, so when +the painter comes to represent it he contrives those little necessary +concomitant circumstances in such a manner that they shall strike the +spectator no more than they did himself in his first conception of the +story. + +I am very ready to allow that some circumstances of minuteness and +particularity frequently tend to give an air of truth to a piece, and to +interest the spectator in an extraordinary manner. Such circumstances, +therefore, cannot wholly be rejected; but if there be anything in the art +which requires peculiar nicety of discernment, it is the disposition of +these minute circumstantial parts which, according to the judgment +employed in the choice, become so useful to truth or so injurious to +grandeur. + +However, the usual and most dangerous error is on the side of minuteness, +and, therefore, I think caution most necessary where most have failed. +The general idea constitutes real excellence. All smaller things, +however perfect in their way, are to be sacrificed without mercy to the +greater. The painter will not inquire what things may be admitted +without much censure. He will not think it enough to show that they may +be there; he will show that they must be there, that their absence would +render his picture maimed and defective. + +Thus, though to the principal group a second or third be added, and a +second and third mass of light, care must be yet taken that these +subordinate actions and lights, neither each in particular, nor all +together, come into any degree of competition with the principal; they +should make a part of that whole which would be imperfect without them. +To every part of painting this rule may be applied. Even in portraits, +the grace and, we may add, the likeness, consists more in taking the +general air than in observing the effect similitude of every feature. + +Thus figures must have a ground whereon to stand; they must be clothed, +there must be a background, there must be light and shadow; but none of +these ought to appear to have taken up any part of the artist's +attention. They should be so managed as not even to catch that of the +spectator. We know well enough, when we analyse a piece, the difficulty +and the subtlety with which an artist adjusts the background, drapery, +and masses of light; we know that a considerable part of the grace and +effect of his picture depends upon them; but this art is so much +concealed, even to a judicious eye, that no remains of any of these +subordinate parts occur to memory when the picture is not present. + +The great end of the art is to strike the imagination. The painter is, +therefore, to make no ostentation of the means by which this is done; the +spectator is only to feel the result in his bosom. An inferior artist is +unwilling that any part of his industry should be lost upon the +spectator. He takes as much pains to discover, as the greater artist +does to conceal, the marks of his subordinate assiduity. In works of the +lower kind everything appears studied and encumbered; it is all boastful +art and open affectation. The ignorant often part from such pictures +with wonder in their mouths, and indifference in their hearts. + +But it is not enough in invention that the artist should restrain and +keep under all the inferior parts of his subject; he must sometimes +deviate from vulgar and strict historical truth in pursuing the grandeur +of his design. + +How much the great style exacts from its professors to conceive and +represent their subjects in a poetical manner, not confined to mere +matter of fact, may be seen in the cartoons of Raffaelle. In all the +pictures in which the painter has represented the apostles, he has drawn +them with great nobleness; he has given them as much dignity as the human +figure is capable of receiving yet we are expressly told in Scripture +they had no such respectable appearance; and of St. Paul in particular, +we are told by himself, that his bodily presence was mean. Alexander is +said to have been of a low stature: a painter ought not so to represent +him. Agesilaus was low, lame, and of a mean appearance. None of these +defects ought to appear in a piece of which he is the hero. In +conformity to custom, I call this part of the art history painting; it +ought to be called poetical, as in reality it is. + +All this is not falsifying any fact; it is taking an allowed poetical +licence. A painter of portraits retains the individual likeness; a +painter of history shows the man by showing his actions. A painter must +compensate the natural deficiencies of his art. He has but one sentence +to utter, but one moment to exhibit. He cannot, like the poet or +historian, expatiate, and impress the mind with great veneration for the +character of the hero or saint he represents, though he lets us know at +the same time that the saint was deformed, or the hero lame. The painter +has no other means of giving an idea of the dignity of the mind, but by +that external appearance which grandeur of thought does generally, though +not always, impress on the countenance, and by that correspondence of +figure to sentiment and situation which all men wish, but cannot command. +The painter, who may in this one particular attain with ease what others +desire in vain, ought to give all that he possibly can, since there are +so many circumstances of true greatness that he cannot give at all. He +cannot make his hero talk like a great man; he must make him look like +one. For which reason he ought to be well studied in the analysis of +those circumstances which constitute dignity of appearance in real life. + +As in invention, so likewise in, expression, care must be taken not to +run into particularities, Those expressions alone should be given to the +figures which their respective situations generally produce. Nor is this +enough; each person should also have that expression which men of his +rank generally exhibit. The joy or the grief of a character of dignity +is not to be expressed in the same manner as a similar passion in a +vulgar face. Upon this principle Bernini, perhaps, may be subject to +censure. This sculptor, in many respects admirable, has given a very +mean expression to his statue of David, who is represented as just going +to throw the stone from the sling; and in order to give it the expression +of energy he has made him biting his under-lip. This expression is far +from being general, and still farther from being dignified. He might +have seen it in an instance or two, and he mistook accident for +universality. + +With respect to colouring, though it may appear at first a part of +painting merely mechanical, yet it still has its rules, and those +grounded upon that presiding principle which regulates both the great and +the little in the study of a painter. By this, the first effect of the +picture is produced; and as this is performed the spectator, as he walks +the gallery, will stop, or pass along. To give a general air of grandeur +at first view, all trifling or artful play of little lights or an +attention to a variety of tints is to be avoided; a quietness and +simplicity must reign over the whole work; to which a breadth of uniform +and simple colour will very much contribute. Grandeur of effect is +produced by two different ways, which seem entirely opposed to each +other. One is, by reducing the colours to little more than chiaroscuro, +which was often the practice of the Bolognian schools; and the other, by +making the colours very distinct and forcible, such as we see in those of +Rome and Florence; but still, the presiding principle of both those +manners is simplicity. Certainly, nothing can be more simple than +monotony, and the distinct blue, red, and yellow colours which are seen +in the draperies of the Roman and Florentine schools, though they have +not that kind of harmony which is produced by a variety of broken and +transparent colours, have that effect of grandeur that was intended. +Perhaps these distinct colours strike the mind more forcibly, from there +not being any great union between them; as martial music, which is +intended to rouse the noble passions, has its effect from the sudden and +strongly marked transitions from one note to another, which that style of +music requires; whilst in that which is intended to move the softer +passions the notes imperceptibly melt into one another. + +In the same manner as the historical painter never enters into the detail +of colours, so neither does he debase his conceptions with minute +attention to the discriminations of drapery. It is the inferior style +that marks the variety of stuffs. With him, the clothing is neither +woollen, nor linen, nor silk, satin, or velvet: it is drapery; it is +nothing more. The art of disposing the foldings of the drapery make a +very considerable part of the painter's study. To make it merely natural +is a mechanical operation, to which neither genius or taste are required; +whereas, it requires the nicest judgment to dispose the drapery, so that +the folds have an easy communication, and gracefully follow each other, +with such natural negligence as to look like the effect of chance, and at +the same time show the figure under it to the utmost advantage. + +Carlo Maratti was of opinion that the disposition of drapery was a more +difficult art than even that of drawing the human figure; that a student +might be more easily taught the latter than the former; as the rules of +drapery, he said, could not be so well ascertained as those for +delineating a correct form, This, perhaps, is a proof how willingly we +favour our own peculiar excellence. Carlo Maratti is said to have valued +himself particularly upon his skill in this part of the art yet in him +the disposition appears so artificial, that he is inferior to Raffaelle, +even in that which gave him his best claim to reputation. + +Such is the great principle by which we must be directed in the nobler +branches of our art. Upon this principle the Roman, the Florentine, the +Bolognese schools, have formed their practice; and by this they have +deservedly obtained the highest praise. These are the three great +schools of the world in the epic style. The best of the French school, +Poussin, Le Sueur, and Le Brun, have formed themselves upon these models, +and consequently may be said, though Frenchmen, to be a colony from the +Roman school. Next to these, but in a very different style of +excellence, we may rank the Venetian, together with the Flemish and the +Dutch schools, all professing to depart from the great purposes of +painting, and catching at applause by inferior qualities. + +I am not ignorant that some will censure me for placing the Venetians in +this inferior class, and many of the warmest admirers of painting will +think them unjustly degraded; but I wish not to be misunderstood. Though +I can by no means allow them to hold any rank with the nobler schools of +painting, they accomplished perfectly the thing they attempted. But as +mere elegance is their principal object, as they seem more willing to +dazzle than to affect, it can be no injury to them to suppose that their +practice is useful only to its proper end. But what may heighten the +elegant may degrade the sublime. There is a simplicity, and I may add, +severity, in the great manner, which is, I am afraid, almost incompatible +with this comparatively sensual style. + +Tintoret, Paul Veronese, and others of the Venetian schools, seem to have +painted with no other purpose than to be admired for their skill and +expertness in the mechanism of painting, and to make a parade of that art +which, as I before observed, the higher style requires its followers to +conceal. + +In a conference of the French Academy, at which were present Le Brun, +Sebastian Bourdon, and all the eminent artists of that age, one of the +academicians desired to have their opinion on the conduct of Paul +Veronese, who, though a painter of great consideration, had, contrary to +the strict rules of art, in his picture of Perseus and Andromeda, +represented the principal figure in shade. To this question no +satisfactory answer was then given. But I will venture to say, that if +they had considered the class of the artist, and ranked him as an +ornamental painter, there would have been no difficulty in answering: "It +was unreasonable to expect what was never intended. His intention was +solely to produce an effect of light and Shadow; everything was to be +sacrificed to that intent, and the capricious composition of that picture +suited very well with the style he professed." + +Young minds are indeed too apt to be captivated by this splendour of +style, and that of the Venetians will be particularly pleasing; for by +them all those parts of the art that give pleasure to the eye or sense +have been cultivated with care, and carried to the degree nearest to +perfection. The powers exerted in the mechanical part of the art have +been called the language of painters; but we must say, that it is but +poor eloquence which only shows that the orator can talk. Words should +be employed as the means, not as the end: language is the instrument, +conviction is the work. + +The language of painting must indeed be allowed these masters; but even +in that they have shown more copiousness than choice, and more luxuriancy +than judgment. If we consider the uninteresting subjects of their +invention, or at least the uninteresting manner in which they are +treated; if we attend to their capricious composition, their violent and +affected contrasts, whether of figures, or of light and shadow, the +richness of their drapery, and, at the same time, the mean effect which +the discrimination of stuffs gives to their pictures; if to these we add +their total inattention to expression, and then reflect on the +conceptions and the learning of Michael Angelo, or the simplicity of +Raffaelle, we can no longer dwell on the comparison. Even in colouring, +if we compare the quietness and chastity of the Bolognese pencil to the +bustle and tumult that fills every part of, a Venetian picture, without +the least attempt to interest the passions, their boasted art will appear +a mere struggle without effect; an empty tale told by an idiot, full of +sound and fury, signifying nothing. + +Such as suppose that the great style might happily be blended with the +ornamental, that the simple, grave, and majestic dignity of Raffaelle +could unite with the glow and bustle of a Paulo or Tintoret, are totally +mistaken. The principles by which each are attained are so contrary to +each other, that they seem, in my opinion, incompatible, and as +impossible to exist together, as to unite in the mind at the same time +the most sublime ideas and the lowest sensuality. + +The subjects of the Venetian painters are mostly such as give them an +opportunity of introducing a great number of figures, such as feasts, +marriages, and processions, public martyrdoms, or miracles. I can easily +conceive that Paul Veronese, if he were asked, would say that no subject +was proper for an historical picture but such as admitted at least forty +figures; for in a less number, he would assert, there could be no +opportunity of the painter's showing his art in composition, his +dexterity of managing and disposing the masses of light, and groups of +figures, and of introducing a variety of Eastern dresses and characters +in their rich stuffs. + +But the thing is very different with a pupil of the greater schools. +Annibale Caracci thought twelve figures sufficient for any story: he +conceived that more would contribute to no end but to fill space; that +they would, be but cold spectators of the general action, or, to use his +own expression, that they would be figures to be let. Besides, it is +impossible for a picture composed of so many parts to have that effect, +so indispensably necessary to grandeur, of one complete whole. However +contradictory it may be in geometry, it is true in taste, that many +little things will not make a great one. The sublime impresses the mind +at once with one great idea; it is a single blow: the elegant indeed may +be produced by a repetition, by an accumulation of many minute +circumstances. + +However great the difference is between the composition of the Venetian +and the rest of the Italian schools, there is full as great a disparity +in the effect of their pictures as produced by colours. And though in +this respect the Venetians must be allowed extraordinary skill, yet even +that skill, as they have employed it, will but ill correspond with the +great style. Their colouring is not only too brilliant, but, I will +venture to say, too harmonious to produce that solidity, steadiness, and +simplicity of effect which heroic subjects require, and which simple or +grave colours only can give to a work. That they are to be cautiously +studied by those who are ambitious of treading the great walk of history +is confirmed, if it wants confirmation, by the greatest of all +authorities, Michael Angelo. This wonderful man, after having seen a +picture by Titian, told Vasari, who accompanied him, "that he liked much +his colouring and manner; but then he added, that it was a pity the +Venetian painters did not learn to draw correctly in their early youth, +and adopt a better manner of study." + +By this it appears that the principal attention of the Venetian painters, +in the opinion of Michael Angelo, seemed to be engrossed by the study of +colours, to the neglect of the ideal beauty of form, or propriety of +expression. But if general censure was given to that school from the +sight of a picture of Titian, how much more heavily, and more justly, +would the censure fall on Paulo Veronese, or more especially on Tintoret? +And here I cannot avoid citing Vasari's opinion of the style and manner +of Tintoret. "Of all the extraordinary geniuses," says he, "that have +ever practised the art of painting, for wild, capricious, extravagant, +and fantastical inventions, for furious impetuosity and boldness in the +execution of his work, there is none like Tintoret; his strange whims are +even beyond extravagance; and his works seem to be produced rather by +chance than in consequence of any previous design, as if he wanted to +convince the world that, the art was a trifle, and of the most easy +attainment." + +For my own part, when I speak of the Venetian painters, I wish to be +understood to mean Paulo Veronese and Tintoret, to the exclusion of +Titian; for though his style is not so pure as that of many other of the +Italian schools, yet there is a sort of senatorial dignity about him, +which, however awkward in his imitators, seems to become him exceedingly. +His portraits alone, from the nobleness and simplicity of character which +he always gave them, will entitle him to the greatest respect, as he +undoubtedly stands in the first rank in this branch of the art. + +It is not with Titian, but with the seducing qualities of the two former, +that I could wish to caution you, against being too much captivated. +These are the persons who may be said to have exhausted all the powers of +florid eloquence, to debauch the young and unexperienced, and have, +without doubt, been the cause of turning off the attention of the +connoisseur and of the patron of art, as well as that of the painter, +from those higher excellences of which the art is capable, and which +ought to be required in every considerable production. By them, and +their imitators, a style merely ornamental has been disseminated +throughout all Europe. Rubens carried it to Flanders, Voet to France, +and Luca Giordano to Spain and Naples. + +The Venetian is indeed the most splendid of the schools of elegance; and +it is not without reason that the best performances in this lower school +are valued higher than the second-rate performances of those above them; +for every picture has value when it has a decided character, and is +excellent in its kind. But the student must take care not to be so much +dazzled with this splendour as to be tempted to imitate what must +ultimately lead from perfection. Poussin, whose eye was always steadily +fixed on the sublime, has been often heard to say, "That a particular +attention to colouring was an obstacle to the student in his progress to +the great end and design of the art; and that he who attaches himself to +this principal end will acquire by practice a reasonably good method of +colouring." + +Though it be allowed that elaborate harmony of colouring, a brilliancy of +tints, a soft and gradual transition from one to another, present to the +eye what an harmonious concert of music does to the ear, it must be +remembered that painting is not merely a gratification of the sight. Such +excellence, though properly cultivated where nothing higher than elegance +is intended, is weak and unworthy of regard, when the work aspires to +grandeur and sublimity. + +The same reasons that have been urged why a mixture of the Venetian style +cannot improve the great style will hold good in regard to the Flemish +and Dutch schools. Indeed, the Flemish school, of which Rubens is the +head, was formed upon that of the Venetian; like them, he took his +figures too much from the people before him. But it must be allowed in +favour of the Venetians that he was more gross than they, and carried all +their mistaken methods to a far greater excess. In the Venetian school +itself, where they all err from the same cause, there is a difference in +the effect. The difference between Paulo and Bassano seems to be only +that one introduced Venetian gentlemen into his pictures, and the other +the boors of the district of Bassano, and called them patriarchs and +prophets. + +The painters of the Dutch school have still more locality. With them, a +history piece is properly a portrait of themselves; whether they describe +the inside or outside of their houses, we have their own people engaged +in their own peculiar occupations, working or drinking, playing or +fighting. The circumstances that enter into a picture of this kind are +so far from giving a general view of human life that they exhibit all the +minute particularities of a nation differing in several respects from the +rest of mankind. Yet, let them have their share of more humble praise. +The painters of this school are excellent in their own way; they are only +ridiculous when they attempt general history on their own narrow +principles, and debase great events by the meanness of their characters. + +Some inferior dexterity, some extraordinary mechanical power, is +apparently that from which they seek distinction. Thus, we see, that +school alone has the custom of representing candle-light, not as it +really appears to us by night, but red, as it would illuminate objects to +a spectator by day. Such tricks, however pardonable in the little style, +where petty effects are the sole end, are inexcusable in the greater, +where the attention should never be drawn aside by trifles, but should be +entirely occupied by the subject itself. + +The same local principles which characterise the Dutch school extend even +to their landscape painters; and Rubens himself, who has painted many +landscapes, has sometimes transgressed in this particular. Their pieces +in this way are, I think, always a representation of an individual spot, +and each in its kind a very faithful but very confined portrait. + +Claude Lorraine, on the contrary, was convinced that taking nature as he +found it seldom produced beauty. His pictures are a composition of the +various draughts which he has previously made from various beautiful +scenes and prospects. However, Rubens in some measure has made amends +for the deficiency with which he is charged; he has contrived to raise +and animate his otherwise uninteresting views, by introducing a rainbow, +storm, or some particular accidental effect of light. That the practice +of Claude Lorraine, in respect to his choice, is to be adopted by +landscape painters, in opposition to that of the Flemish and Dutch +schools, there can be no doubt, as its truth is founded upon the same +principle as that by which the historical painter acquires perfect form. +But whether landscape painting has a right to aspire so far as to reject +what the painters call accidents of nature is not easy to determine. It +is certain Claude Lorraine seldom, if ever, availed himself of those +accidents; either he thought that such peculiarities were contrary to +that style of general nature which he professed, or that it would catch +the attention too strongly, and destroy that quietness and repose which +he thought necessary to that kind of painting. + +A portrait painter likewise, when he attempts history, unless he is upon +his guard, is likely to enter too much into the detail. He too +frequently makes his historical heads look like portraits; and this was +once the custom amongst those old painters who revived the art before +general ideas were practised or understood. A history painter paints man +in general; a portrait painter, a particular man, and consequently a +defective model. + +Thus an habitual practice in the lower exercises of the art will prevent +many from attaining the greater. But such of us who move in these +humbler walks of the profession are not ignorant that, as the natural +dignity of the subject is less, the more all the little ornamental helps +are necessary to its embellishment. It would be ridiculous for a painter +of domestic scenes, of portraits, landscapes, animals, or of still life, +to say that he despised those qualities which have made the subordinate +schools so famous. The art of colouring, and the skilful management of +light and shadow, are essential requisites in his confined labours. If +we descend still lower, what is the painter of fruit and flowers without +the utmost art in colouring, and what the painters call handling; that +is, a lightness of pencil that implies great practice, and gives the +appearance of being done with ease? Some here, I believe, must remember +a flower-painter whose boast it was that he scorned to paint for the +million; no, he professed to paint in the true Italian taste; and +despising the crowd, called strenuously upon the few to admire him. His +idea of the Italian taste was to paint as black and dirty as he could, +and to leave all clearness and brilliancy of colouring to those who were +fonder of money than of immortality. The consequence was such as might +be expected. For these pretty excellences are here essential beauties; +and without this merit the artist's work will be more short-lived than +the objects of his imitation. + +From what has been advanced, we must now be convinced that there are two +distinct styles in history painting: the grand, and the splendid or +ornamental. + +The great style stands alone, and does not require, perhaps does not so +well admit, any addition from inferior beauties. The ornamental style +also possesses its own peculiar merit. However, though the union of the +two may make a sort of composite style, yet that style is likely to be +more imperfect than either of those which go to its composition. Both +kinds have merit, and may be excellent though in different ranks, if +uniformity be preserved, and the general and particular ideas of nature +be not mixed. Even the meanest of them is difficult enough to attain; +and the first place being already occupied by the great artists in either +department, some of those who followed thought there was less room for +them, and feeling the impulse of ambition and the desire of novelty, and +being at the same time perhaps willing to take the shortest way, they +endeavoured to make for themselves a place between both. This they have +effected by forming a union of the different orders. But as the grave +and majestic style would suffer by a union with the florid and gay, so +also has the Venetian ornament in some respect been injured by attempting +an alliance with simplicity. + +It may be asserted that the great style is always more or less +contaminated by any meaner mixture. But it happens in a few instances +that the lower may be improved by borrowing from the grand. Thus, if a +portrait painter is desirous to raise and improve his subject, he has no +other means than by approaching it to a general idea. He leaves out all +the minute breaks and peculiarities in the face, and changes the dress +from a temporary fashion to one more permanent, which has annexed to it +no ideas of meanness from its being familiar to us. But if an exact +resemblance of an individual be considered as the sole object to be aimed +at, the portrait painter will be apt to lose more than he gains by the +acquired dignity taken from general nature. It is very difficult to +ennoble the character of a countenance but at the expense of the +likeness, which is what is most generally required by such as sit to the +painter. + +Of those who have practised the composite style, and have succeeded in +this perilous attempt, perhaps the foremost is Correggio. His style is +founded upon modern grace and elegance, to which is super, added +something of the simplicity of the grand style. A breadth of light and +colour, the general ideas of the drapery, an uninterrupted flow of +outline, all conspire to this effect. Next him (perhaps equal to him) +Parmegiano has dignified the genteelness of modern effeminacy by uniting +it with the simplicity of the ancients and the grandeur and severity of +Michael Angelo. It must be confessed, however, that these two +extraordinary men, by endeavouring to give the utmost degree of grace, +have sometimes, perhaps, exceeded its boundaries, and have fallen into +the most hateful of all hateful qualities, affectation. Indeed, it is +the peculiar characteristic of men of genius to be afraid of coldness and +insipidity, from which they think they never can be too far removed. It +particularly happens to these great masters of grace and elegance. They +often boldly drive on to the very verge of ridicule; the spectator is +alarmed, but at the same time admires their vigour and intrepidity. + + Strange graces still, and stranger flights they had, + . . . + Yet ne'er so sure our passion to create + Ae when they touch'd the brink of all we hate. + +The errors of genius, however, are pardonable, and none even of the more +exalted painters are wholly free from them; but they have taught us, by +the rectitude of their general practice, to correct their own affected or +accidental deviation. The very first have not been always upon their +guard, and perhaps there is not a fault but what may take shelter under +the most venerable authorities; yet that style only is perfect in which +the noblest principles are uniformly pursued; and those masters only are +entitled to the first rank in, our estimation who have enlarged the +boundaries of their art, and have raised it to its highest dignity, by +exhibiting the general ideas of nature. + +On the whole, it seems to me that there is but one presiding principle +which regulates and gives stability to every art. The works, whether of +poets, painters, moralists, or historians, which are built upon general +nature, live for ever; while those which depend for their existence on +particular customs and habits, a partial view of nature, or the +fluctuation of fashion, can only be coeval with that which first raised +them from obscurity. Present time and future maybe considered as rivals, +and he who solicits the one must expect to be discountenanced by the +other. + + + +A DISCOURSE +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution of the +Prizes, December 10, 1772, by the President. + + +Gentlemen,--I purpose to carry on in this discourse the subject which I +began in my last. It was my wish upon that occasion to incite you to +pursue the higher excellences of the art. But I fear that in this +particular I have been misunderstood. Some are ready to imagine, when +any of their favourite acquirements in the art are properly classed, that +they are utterly disgraced. This is a very great mistake: nothing has +its proper lustre but in its proper place. That which is most worthy of +esteem in its allotted sphere becomes an object, not of respect, but of +derision, when it is forced into a higher, to which it is not suited; and +there it becomes doubly a source of disorder, by occupying a situation +which is not natural to it, and by putting down from the first place what +is in reality of too much magnitude to become with grace and proportion +that subordinate station, to which something of less value would be much +better suited. + +My advice in a word is this: keep your principal attention fixed upon the +higher excellences. If you compass them and compass nothing more, you +are still in the first class. We may regret the innumerable beauties +which you may want: you may be very imperfect: but still, you are an +imperfect person of the highest order. + +If, when you have got thus far, you can add any, or all, of the +subordinate qualifications, it is my wish and advice that you should not +neglect them. + +But this is as much a matter of circumspection and caution at least as of +eagerness and pursuit. + +The mind is apt to be distracted by a multiplicity of pursuits; and that +scale of perfection, which I wish always to be preserved, is in the +greatest danger of being totally disordered, and even inverted. + +Some excellences bear to be united, and are improved by union, others are +of a discordant nature; and the attempt to join them only produces a +harsher jarring of incongruent principles. + +The attempt to unite contrary excellences (of form, for instance) in a +single figure, can never escape degenerating into the monstrous, but by +sinking into the insipid, taking away its marked character, and weakening +its expression. + +This remark is true to a certain degree with regard to the passions. If +you mean to preserve the most perfect beauty in its most perfect state, +you cannot express the passions, which produce (all of them) distortion +and deformity, more or less, in the most beautiful faces. + +Guido, from want of choice in adapting his subject to his ideas and his +powers, or in attempting to preserve beauty where it could not be +preserved has in this respect succeeded very ill. His figures are often +engaged in subjects that required great expression: yet his "Judith and +Holofernes," the "Daughter of Herodias with the Baptist's Head," the +"Andromeda," and even the "Mothers of the Innocents," have little more +expression than his "Venus attired by the Graces." + +Obvious as these remarks appear, there are many writers on our art, who, +not being of the profession, and consequently not knowing what can or +what cannot be done, have been very liberal of absurd praises in their +descriptions of favourite works. They always find in them what they are +resolved to find. They praise excellences that can hardly exist +together, and above all things are fond of describing with great +exactness the expression of a mixed passion, which more particularly +appears to me out of the reach of our art. + +Such are many disquisitions which I have read on some of the cartoons and +other pictures of Raffaelle, where the critics have described their own +imagination; or indeed where the excellent master himself may have +attempted this expression of passions above the powers of the art; and +has, therefore, by an indistinct and imperfect marking, left room for +every imagination, with equal probability to find a passion of his own. +What has been, and what can be done in the art, is sufficiently +difficult; we need not be mortified or discouraged for not being able to +execute the conceptions of a romantic imagination. Art has its +boundaries, though imagination has none. We can easily, like the +ancients, suppose a Jupiter to be possessed of all those powers and +perfections which the subordinate Deities were endowed with separately. +Yet, when they employed their art to represent him, they confined his +character to majesty alone. Pliny, therefore, though we are under great +obligations to him for the information he has given us in relation to the +works of the ancient artists, is very frequently wrong when he speaks of +them, which he does very often in the style of many of our modern +connoisseurs. He observes that in a statue of Paris, by Fuphranor, you +might discover at the same time three different characters; the dignity +of a judge of the goddesses, the lover of Helen, and the conqueror of +Achilles. A statue in which you endeavour to unite stately dignity, +youthful elegance, and stern valour, must surely possess none of these to +any eminent degree. + +From hence it appears that there is much difficulty as well as danger in +an endeavour to concentrate upon a single subject those various powers +which, rising from different points, naturally move in different +directions. + +The summit of excellence seems to be an assemblage of contrary qualities, +but mixed, in such proportions, that no one part is found to counteract +the other. How hard this is to be attained in every art, those only know +who have made the greatest progress in their respective professions. + +To conclude what I have to say on this part of the subject, which I think +of great importance, I wish you to understand that I do not discourage +the younger students from the noble attempt of uniting all the +excellences of art, but to make them aware that, besides the difficulties +which attend every arduous attempt, there is a peculiar difficulty in the +choice of the excellences which ought to be united; I wish you to attend +to this, that you may try yourselves, whenever you are capable of that +trial, what you can, and what you cannot do: and that, instead of +dissipating your natural faculties over the immense field of possible +excellence, you may choose some particular walk in which you may exercise +all your powers, in order each of you to be the first in his way. If any +man shall be master of such a transcendant, commanding, and ductile +genius, as to enable him to rise to the highest, and to stoop to the +lowest flights of art, and to sweep over all of them unobstructed and +secure, he is fitter to give example than to receive instruction. + +Having said thus much on the union of excellences, I will next say +something of the subordination in which various excellences ought to be +kept. + +I am of opinion that the ornamental style, which in my discourse of last +year I cautioned you against considering as principal, may not be wholly +unworthy the attention of those who aim even at the grand style; when it +is properly placed and properly reduced. + +But this study will be used with far better effect, if its principles are +employed in softening the harshness and mitigating the rigour of the +great style, than if in attempt to stand forward with any pretensions of +its own to positive and original excellence. + +It was thus Lodovico Caracci, whose example I formerly recommended to +you, employed it. He was acquainted with the works both of Correggio and +the Venetian painters, and knew the principles by which they produced +those pleasing effects which at the first glance prepossess us so much in +their favour; but he took only as much from each as would embellish, but +not overpower, that manly strength and energy of style, which is his +peculiar character. + +Since I have already expatiated so largely in my former discourse, and in +my present, upon the styles and characters of painting, it will not be at +all unsuitable to my subject if I mention to you some particulars +relative to the leading principles, and capital works of those who +excelled in the great style, that I may bring you from abstraction nearer +to practice, and by exemplifying the propositions which I have laid down, +enable you to understand more clearly what I would enforce. + +The principal works of modern art are in fresco, a mode of painting which +excludes attention to minute elegancies: yet these works in fresco are +the productions on which the fame of the greatest masters depend: such +are the pictures of Michael Angelo and Raffaelle in the Vatican, to which +we may add the cartoons, which, though not strictly to be called fresco, +yet may be put under that denomination; and such are the works of Giulio +Romano at Mantua. If these performances were destroyed, with them would +be lost the best part of the reputation of those illustrious painters, +for these are justly considered as the greatest efforts of our art which +the world can boast. To these, therefore, we should principally direct +our attention for higher excellences. As for the lower arts, as they +have been once discovered, they may be easily attained by those possessed +of the former. + +Raffaelle, who stands in general foremost of the first painters, owes his +reputation, as I have observed, to his excellence in the higher parts of +the art. Therefore, his works in fresco ought to be the first object of +our study and attention. His easel-works stand in a lower degree of +estimation; for though he continually, to the day of his death, +embellished his works more and more with the addition of these lower +ornaments, which entirely make the merit of some, yet he never arrived at +such perfection as to make him an object of imitation. He never was able +to conquer perfectly that dryness, or even littleness of manner, which he +inherited from his master. He never acquired that nicety of taste in +colours, that breadth of light and shadow, that art and management of +uniting light, to light, and shadow to shadow, so as to make the object +rise out of the ground with that plenitude of effect so much admired in +the works of Correggio. When he painted in oil, his hand seemed to be so +cramped and confined that he not only lost that facility and spirit, but +I think even that correctness of form, which is so perfect and admirable +in his fresco works. I do not recollect any pictures of his of this +kind, except perhaps the "Transfiguration," in which there are not some +parts that appear to be even feebly drawn. That this is not a necessary +attendant on oil-painting, we have abundant instances in more modern +painters. Lodovico Caracci, for instance, preserved in his works in oil +the same spirit, vigour, and correctness, which he had in fresco. I have +no desire to degrade Raffaelle from the high rank which he deservedly +holds: but by comparing him with himself, he does not appear to me to be +the same man in oil as in fresco. + +From those who have ambition to tread in this great walk of the art, +Michael Angelo claims the next attention. He did not possess so many +excellences as Raffaelle, but those he had were of the highest kind. He +considered the art as consisting of little more than what may be attained +by sculpture, correctness of form, and energy of character. We ought not +to expect more than an artist intends in his work. He never attempted +those lesser elegancies and graces in the art. Vasari says, he never +painted but one picture in oil, and resolved never to paint another, +saying it was an employment only fit for women and children. + +If any man had a right to look down upon the lower accomplishments as +beneath his attention, it was certainly Michael Angelo: nor can it be +thought strange that such a mind should have slighted or have been +withheld from paying due attention to all those graces and embellishments +of art which have diffused such lustre over the works of other painters. + +It must be acknowledged likewise, that together with these, which we wish +he had more attended to, he has rejected all the false though specious +ornaments which disgrace the works even of the most esteemed artists; and +I will venture to say, that when those higher excellences are more known +and cultivated by the artists and the patrons of arts, his fame and +credit will increase with our increasing knowledge. His name will then +be held in the same veneration as it was in the enlightened age of Leo +the Tenth: and it is remarkable that the reputation of this truly great +man has been continually declining as the art itself has declined. For I +must remark to you, that it has long been much on the decline, and that +our only hope of its revival will consist in your being thoroughly +sensible of its depravation and decay. It is to Michael Angelo that we +owe even the existence of Raffaelle; it is to him Raffaelle owes the +grandeur of his style. He was taught by him to elevate his thoughts, and +to conceive his subjects with dignity. His genius, however, formed to +blaze and to shine, might, like fire in combustible matter, for ever have +lain dormant if it had not caught a spark by its contact with Michael +Angelo: and though it never burst out with that extraordinary heat and +vehemence, yet it must be acknowledged to be a more pure, regular, and +chaste flame. Though our judgment will upon the whole decide in favour +of Raffaelle: yet he never takes that firm hold and entire possession of +the mind in such a manner as to desire nothing else, and feel nothing +wanting. The effect of the capital works of Michael Angelo perfectly +correspond to what Bourchardon said he felt from reading Homer. His +whole frame appeared to himself to be enlarged, and all nature which +surrounded him diminished to atoms. + +If we put those great artists in a light of comparison with each other, +Raffaelle had more taste and fancy, Michael Angelo more genius and +imagination. The one excelled in beauty, the other in energy. Michael +Angelo has more of the poetical inspiration; his ideas are vast and +sublime; his people are a superior order of beings; there is nothing +about them, nothing in the air of their actions or their attitudes, or +the style and cast of their very limbs or features, that puts one in mind +of their belonging, to our own species. Raffaelle's imagination is not +so elevated; his figures are not so much disjoined from our own +diminutive race of beings, though his ideas are chaste, noble, and of +great conformity to their subjects. Michael Angelo's works have a +strong, peculiar, and marked character; they seem to proceed from his own +mind entirely, and that mind so rich and abundant, that he never needed, +or seemed to disdain, to look abroad for foreign help. Raffaelle's +materials are generally borrowed, though the noble structure is his own. +The excellency of this extraordinary man lay in the propriety, beauty, +and majesty of his characters, his judicious contrivance of his +composition, correctness of drawing, purity of taste, and the skilful +accommodation of other men's conceptions to his own purpose. Nobody +excelled him in that judgment, with which he united to his own +observations on nature the energy of Michael Angelo, and the beauty and +simplicity of the antique. To the question, therefore, which ought to +hold the first rank, Raffaelle or Michael Angelo, it must be answered, +that if it is to be given to him who possessed a greater combination of +the higher qualities of the art than any other man, there is no doubt but +Raffaelle is the first. But if, according to Longinus, the sublime, +being the highest excellence that human composition can attain to, +abundantly compensates the absence of every other beauty, and atones for +all other deficiencies, then Michael Angelo demands the preference. + +These two extraordinary men carried some of the higher excellences of the +art to a greater degree of perfection than probably they ever arrived at +before. They certainly have not been excelled, nor equalled since. Many +of their successors were induced to leave this great road as a beaten +path, endeavouring to surprise and please by something uncommon or new. +When this desire after novelty has proceeded from mere idleness or +caprice, it is not worth the trouble of criticism; but when it has been +in consequence of a busy mind of a peculiar complexion, it is always +striking and interesting, never insipid. + +Such is the great style as it appears in those who possessed it at its +height; in this, search after novelty in conception or in treating the +subject has no place. + +But there is another style, which, though inferior to the former, has +still great merit, because it shows that those who cultivated it were men +of lively and vigorous imagination. This I call the original or +characteristical style; this, being less referred to any true architype +existing either in general or particular nature, must be supported by the +painter's consistency in the principles he has assumed, and in the union +and harmony of his whole design. The excellency of every style, but I +think of the subordinate ones more especially, will very much depend on +preserving that union and harmony between all the component parts, that +they appear to hang well together, as if the whole proceeded from one +mind. It is in the works of art, as in the characters of men. The +faults or defects of some men seem to become them when they appear to be +the natural growth, and of a piece with the rest of their character. A +faithful picture of a mind, though it be not of the most elevated kind, +though it be irregular, wild, and incorrect, yet if it be marked with +that spirit and firmness which characterises works of genius, will claim +attention, and be more striking than a combination of excellences that do +not seem to hang well together, or we may say than a work that possesses +even all excellences, but those in a moderate degree. + +One of the strongest marked characters of this kind, which must be +allowed to be subordinate to the great style, is that of Salvator Rosa. +He gives us a peculiar cast of nature, which, though void of all grace, +elegance, and simplicity; though it has nothing of that elevation and +dignity which belongs to the grand style, yet has that sort of dignity +which belongs to savage and uncultivated nature. But what is most to be +admired in him is the perfect correspondence which he observed between +the subjects which he chose, and his manner of treating them. Everything +is of a piece: his rocks, trees, sky, even to his handling have the same +rude and wild character which animates his figures. + +To him we may contrast the character of Carlo Maratti, who, in my own +opinion, had no great vigour of mind or strength of original genius. He +rarely seizes the imagination by exhibiting the higher excellences, nor +does he captivate us by that originality which attends the painter who +thinks for himself. He knew and practised all the rules of art, and from +a composition of Raffaelle, Caracci, and Guido, made up a style, of which +its only fault was, that it had no manifest defects and no striking +beauties, and that the principles of his composition are never blended +together, so as to form one uniform body, original in its kind, or +excellent in any view. + +I will mention two other painters who, though entirely dissimilar, yet by +being each consistent with himself, and possessing a manner entirely his +own, have both gained reputation, though for very opposite +accomplishments. + +The painters I mean are Rubens and Poussin. Rubens I mention in this +place, as I think him a remarkable instance of the same mind being seen +in all the various parts of the art. The whole is so much of a piece +that one can scarce be brought to believe but that if any one of them had +been more correct and perfect, his works would not be so complete as they +now appear. If we should allow a greater purity and correctness of +drawing, his want of simplicity in composition, colouring, and drapery +would appear more gross. + +In his composition his art is too apparent. His figures have expression, +and act with energy, but without simplicity or dignity. His colouring, +in which he is eminently skilled, is, notwithstanding, too much of what +we call tinted. Throughout the whole of his works there is a +proportionable want of that nicety of distinction and elegance of mind +which is required in the higher walks of painting; and to this want it +may be in some degree ascribed that those qualities which make the +excellency of this subordinate style appear in him with their greatest +lustre. Indeed, the facility with which he invented, the richness of his +composition, the luxuriant harmony and brilliancy of his colouring, so +dazzle the eye, that whilst his works continue before us we cannot help +thinking that all his deficiencies are fully supplied. + +Opposed to this florid, careless, loose, and inaccurate style, that of +the simple, careful, pure, and correct style of Poussin seems to be a +complete contrast. + +Yet however opposite their characters, in one thing they agreed, both of +them having a perfect correspondence between all the parts of their +respective manners. + +One is not sure but every alteration of what is considered as defective +in either, would destroy the effect of the whole. + +Poussin lived and conversed with the ancient statues so long, that he may +be said to be better acquainted with then than with the people who were +about him. I have often thought that he carried his veneration for them +so far as to wish to give his works the air of ancient paintings. It is +certain he copied some of the antique paintings, particularly the +"Marriage in the Albrobrandini Palace at Rome," which I believe to be the +best relique of those remote ages that has yet been found. + +No works of any modern has so much of the air of antique painting as +those of Poussin. His best performances have a remarkable dryness of +manner, which, though by no means to be recommended for imitation, yet +seems perfectly correspondent to that ancient simplicity which +distinguishes his style. Like Polidoro he studied them so much, that he +acquired a habit of thinking in their way, and seemed to know perfectly +the actions and gestures they would use on every occasion. + +Poussin in the latter part of his life changed from his dry manner to one +much softer and richer, where there is a greater union between the +figures and the ground, such as the "Seven Sacraments" in the Duke of +Orleans' collection; but neither these, nor any in this manner, are at +all comparable to many in his dry manner which we have in England. + +The favourite subjects of Poussin were ancient fables; and no painter was +ever better qualified to paint such subjects, not only from his being +eminently skilled in the knowledge of ceremonies, customs, and habits of +the ancients, but from his being so well acquainted with the different +characters which those who invented them gave their allegorical figures. +Though Rubens has shown great fancy in his Satyrs, Silenuses, and Fauns, +yet they are not that distinct separate class of beings which is +carefully exhibited by the ancients and by Poussin. Certainly when such +subjects of antiquity are represented, nothing in the picture ought to +remind us of modern times. The mind is thrown back into antiquity, and +nothing ought to be introduced that may tend to awaken it from the +illusion. + +Poussin seemed to think that the style and the language in which such +stories are told is not the worse for preserving some relish of the old +way of painting which seemed to give a general uniformity to the whole, +so that the mind was thrown back into antiquity not only by the subject, +but the execution. + +If Poussin, in imitation of the ancients, represents Apollo driving his +chariot out of the sea by way of representing the sun rising, if he +personifies lakes and rivers, it is no ways offensive in him; but seems +perfectly of a piece with the general air of the picture. On the +contrary, if the figures which people his pictures had a modern air or +countenance, if they appeared like our countrymen, if the draperies were +like cloth or silk of our manufacture, if the landscape had the +appearance of a modern view, how ridiculous would Apollo appear instead +of the sun, an old man or a nymph with an urn instead of a river or lake. + +I cannot avoid mentioning here a circumstance in portrait painting which +may help to confirm what has been said. + +When a portrait is painted in the historical style, as it is neither an +exact minute representation of an individual nor completely ideal, every +circumstance ought to correspond to this mixture. The simplicity of the +antique air and attitude, however much to be admired, is ridiculous when +joined to a figure in a modern dress. It is not to my purpose to enter +into the question at present, whether this mixed style ought to be +adopted or not; yet if it is chosen it is necessary it should be complete +and all of a piece: the difference of stuffs, for instance, which make +the clothing, should be distinguished in the same degree as the head +deviates from a general idea. + +Without this union, which I have so often recommended, a work can have no +marked and determined character, which is the peculiar and constant +evidence of genius. But when this is accomplished to a high degree, it +becomes in some sort a rival to that style which we have fixed as the +highest. + +Thus I have given a sketch of the characters of Rubens and Salvator Rosa, +as they appear to me to have the greatest uniformity of mind throughout +their whole work. But we may add to these, all these artists who are at +the head of the class, and have had a school of imitators from Michael +Angelo down to Watteau. Upon the whole it appears that setting aside the +ornamental style, there are two different paths, either of which a +student may take without degrading the dignity of his art. The first is +to combine the higher excellences and embellish them to the greatest +advantage. The other is to carry one of these excellences to the highest +degree. But those who possess neither must be classed with them, who, as +Shakespeare says, are men of no mark or likelihood. + +I inculcate as frequently as I can your forming yourselves upon great +principles and great models. Your time will be much misspent in every +other pursuit. Small excellences should be viewed, not studied; they +ought to be viewed, because nothing ought to escape a painter's +observation, but for no other reason. + +There is another caution which I wish to give you. Be as select in those +whom you endeavour to please, as in those whom you endeavour to imitate. +Without the love of fame you can never do anything excellent; but by an +excessive and undistinguishing thirst after it, you will come to have +vulgar views; you will degrade your style; and your taste will be +entirely corrupted. It is certain that the lowest style will be the most +popular, as it falls within the compass of ignorance itself; and the +vulgar will always be pleased with what is natural in the confined and +misunderstood sense of the word. + +One would wish that such depravation of taste should be counteracted, +with such manly pride as Euripides expressed to the Athenians, who +criticised his works, "I do not compose," says he, "my works in order to +be corrected by you, but to instruct you." It is true, to have a right +to speak thus, a man must be a Euripides. However, thus much may be +allowed, that when an artist is sure that he is upon firm ground, +supported by the authority and practice of his predecessors of the +greatest reputation, he may then assume the boldness and intrepidity of +genius; at any rate, he must not be tempted out of the right path by any +tide of popularity that always accompanies the lower styles of painting. + +I mention this, because our exhibitions, that produce such admirable +effects by nourishing emulation, and calling out genius, have also a +mischievous tendency by seducing the painter to an ambition of pleasing +indiscriminately the mixed multitude of people who resort to them. + + + +A DISCOURSE +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution of the +Prizes, December 10, 1774, by the President. + + +Gentlemen,--When I have taken the liberty of addressing you on the course +and order of your studies, I never proposed to enter into a minute detail +of the art. This I have always left to the several professors, who +pursue the end of our institution with the highest honour to themselves, +and with the greatest advantage to the students. + +My purpose in the discourses I have held in the Academy is to lay down +certain general ideas, which seem to me proper for the formation of a +sound taste; principles necessary to guard the pupils against those +errors into which the sanguine temper common at their time of life, has a +tendency to lead them, and which have rendered abortive the hopes of so +many successions of promising young men in all parts of Europe. + +I wish, also, to intercept and suppress those prejudices which +particularly prevail when the mechanism of painting is come to its +perfection, and which when they do prevail are certain to prevail to the +utter destruction of the higher and more valuable parts of this literate +and liberal profession. + +These two have been my principal purposes; they are still as much my +concern as ever; and if I repeat my own ideas on the subject, you who +know how fast mistake and prejudice, when neglected, gain ground upon +truth and reason, will easily excuse me. I only attempt to set the same +thing in the greatest variety of lights. + +The subject of this discourse will be imitation, as far as a painter is +concerned in it. By imitation I do not mean imitation in its largest +sense, but simply the following of other masters, and the advantage to be +drawn from the study of their works. + +Those who have undertaken to write on our art, and have represented it as +a kind of inspiration, as a gift bestowed upon peculiar favourites at +their birth, seem to ensure a much more favourable disposition from their +readers, and have a much more captivating and liberal air, than he who +goes about to examine, coldly, whether there are any means by which this +art may be acquired; how our mind may be strengthened and expanded, and +what guides will show the way to eminence. + +It is very natural for those who are unacquainted with the cause of +anything extraordinary to be astonished at the effect, and to consider it +as a kind of magic. They, who have never observed the gradation by which +art is acquired, who see only what is the full result of long labour and +application of an infinite number, and infinite variety of acts, are apt +to conclude from their entire inability to do the same at once, that it +is not only inaccessible to themselves, but can be done by those only who +have some gift of the nature of inspiration bestowed upon them. + +The travellers into the East tell us that when the ignorant inhabitants +of these countries are asked concerning the ruins of stately edifices yet +remaining amongst them, the melancholy monuments of their former grandeur +and long-lost science, they always answer that they were built by +magicians. The untaught mind finds a vast gulf between its own powers +and these works of complicated art which it is utterly unable to fathom. +And it supposes that such a void can be passed only by supernatural +powers. + +And, as for artists themselves, it is by no means their interest to +undeceive such judges, however conscious they may be of the very natural +means by which the extraordinary powers were acquired; our art being +intrinsically imitative, rejects this idea of inspiration more, perhaps, +than any other. + +It is to avoid this plain confession of truth, as it should seem, that +this imitation of masters--indeed, almost all imitation which implies a +more regular and progressive method of attaining the ends of painting--has +ever been particularly inveighed against with great keenness, both by +ancient and modern writers. + +To derive all from native power, to owe nothing to another, is the praise +which men, who do not much think what they are saying, bestow sometimes +upon others, and sometimes on themselves; and their imaginary dignity is +naturally heightened by a supercilious censure of the low, the barren, +the grovelling, the servile imitator. It would be no wonder if a +student, frightened by these terrors and disgraceful epithets, with which +the poor imitators are so often loaded, should let fall his pencil in +mere despair, conscious how much he has been indebted to the labours of +others, how little, how very little of his art was born with him; and, +considering it as hopeless, to set about acquiring by the imitation of +any human master what he is taught to suppose is matter of inspiration +from heaven. + +Some allowance must be made for what is said in the gaiety or ambition of +rhetoric. We cannot suppose that any one can really mean to exclude all +imitation of others. A position so wild would scarce deserve a serious +answer, for it is apparent, if we were forbid to make use of the +advantages which our predecessors afford us, the art would be always to +begin, and consequently remain always in its infant state; and it is a +common observation that no art was ever invented and carried to +perfection at the same time. + +But to bring us entirely to reason and sobriety, let it be observed, that +a painter must not only be of necessity an imitator of the works of +nature, which alone is sufficient to dispel this phantom of inspiration, +but he must be as necessarily an imitator of the works of other painters. +This appears more humiliating, but it is equally true; and no man can be +an artist, whatever he may suppose, upon any other terms. + +However, those who appear more moderate and reasonable allow that study +is to begin by imitation, but that we should no longer use the thoughts +of our predecessors when we are become able to think for ourselves. They +hold that imitation is as hurtful to the more advanced student as it was +advantageous to the beginner. + +For my own part, I confess I am not only very much disposed to lay down +the absolute necessity of imitation in the first stages of the art, but +am of opinion that the study of other masters, which I here call +imitation, may be extended throughout our whole life without any danger +of the inconveniences with which it is charged, of enfeebling the mind, +or preventing us from giving that original air which every work +undoubtedly ought always to have. + +I am, on the contrary, persuaded that by imitation only, variety, and +even originality of invention is produced. + +I will go further; even genius, at least what generally is so called, is +the child of imitation. But as this appears to be contrary to the +general opinion, I must explain my position before I enforce it. + +Genius is supposed to be a power of producing excellences which are out +of the reach of the rules of art--a power which no precepts can teach, +and which no industry can acquire. + +This opinion of the impossibility of acquiring those beauties which stamp +the work with the character of genius, supposes that it is something more +fixed than in reality it is, and that we always do, and ever did agree, +about what should be considered as a characteristic of genius. + +But the truth is that the degree of excellence which proclaims genius is +different in different times and different places; and what shows it to +be so is that mankind have often changed their opinion upon this matter. + +When the arts were in their infancy, the power of merely drawing the +likeness of any object was considered as one of its greatest efforts. + +The common people, ignorant of the principles of art, talk the same +language even to this day. But when it was found that every man could be +taught to do this, and a great deal more, merely by the observance of +certain precepts, the name of genius then shifted its application, and +was given only to those who added the peculiar character of the object +they represented; to those who had invention, expression, grace, or +dignity; or, in short, such qualities or excellences the producing of +which could not then be taught by any known and promulgated rules. + +We are very sure that the beauty of form, the expression of the passions, +the art of composition, even the power of giving a general air of +grandeur to your work, is at present very much under the dominion of +rules. These excellences were, heretofore, considered merely as the +effects of genius; and justly, if genius is not taken for inspiration, +but as the effect of close observation and experience. + +He who first made any of these observations and digested them, so as to +form an invariable principle for himself to work by, had that merit; but +probably no one went very far at once; and generally the first who gave +the hint did not know how to pursue it steadily and methodically, at +least not in the beginning. He himself worked on it, and improved it; +others worked more, and improved farther, until the secret was +discovered, and the practice made as general as refined practice can be +made. How many more principles may be fixed and ascertained we cannot +tell; but as criticism is likely to go hand in hand with the art which is +its subject, we may venture to say that as that art shall advance, its +powers will be still more and more fixed by rules. + +But by whatever strides criticism may gain ground, we need be under no +apprehension that invention will ever be annihilated or subdued, or +intellectual energy be brought entirely within the restraint of written +law. Genius will still have room enough to expatiate, and keep always +the same distance from narrow comprehension and mechanical performance. + +What we now call genius begins, not where rules, abstractedly taken, end, +but where known vulgar and trite rules have no longer any place. It must +of necessity be that even works of genius, as well as every other effect, +as it must have its cause, must likewise have its rules; it cannot be by +chance that excellences are produced with any constancy, or any +certainty, for this is not the nature of chance, but the rules by which +men of extraordinary parts, and such as are called men of genius work, +are either such as they discover by their own peculiar observation, or of +such a nice texture as not easily to admit handling or expressing in +words, especially as artists are not very frequently skilful in that mode +of communicating ideas. + +Unsubstantial, however, as these rules may seem, and difficult as it may +be to convey them in writing, they are still seen and felt in the mind of +the artist, and he works from them with as much certainty as if they were +embodied, as I may say, upon paper. It is true these refined principles +cannot be always made palpable, like the more gross rules of art; yet it +does not follow but that the mind may be put in such a train that it +shall perceive, by a kind of scientific sense, that propriety which +words, particularly words of unpractised writers such as we are, can but +very feebly suggest. + +Invention is one of the great marks of genius, but if we consult +experience, we shall find that it is by being conversant with the +inventions of others that we learn to invent, as by reading the thoughts +of others we learn to think. + +Whoever has so far formed his taste as to be able to relish and feel the +beauties of the great masters has gone a great way in his study; for, +merely from a consciousness of this relish of the right, the mind swells +with an inward pride, and is almost as powerfully affected as if it had +itself produced what it admires. Our hearts frequently warmed in this +manner by the contact of those whom we wish to resemble, will undoubtedly +catch something of their way of thinking, and we shall receive in our own +bosoms some radiation at least of their fire and splendour. That +disposition, which is so strong in children, still continues with us, of +catching involuntarily the general air and manner of those with whom we +are most conversant; with this difference only, that a young mind is +naturally pliable and imitative, but in a more advanced state it grows +rigid, and must be warmed and softened before it will receive a deep +impression. + +From these considerations, which a little of your reflection will carry a +great way further, it appears of what great consequence it is that our +minds should be habituated to the contemplation of excellence, and that, +far from being contented to make such habits the discipline of our youth +only, we should, to the last moment of our lives, continue a settled +intercourse with all the true examples of grandeur. Their inventions are +not only the food of our infancy, but the substance which supplies the +fullest maturity of our vigour. + +The mind is but a barren soil; is a soil soon exhausted, and will produce +no crop, or only one, unless it be continually fertilised and enriched +with foreign matter. + +When we have had continually before us the great works of art to +impregnate our minds with kindred ideas, we are then, and not till then, +fit to produce something, of the same species. We behold all about us +with the eyes of these penetrating observers, and our minds, accustomed +to think the thoughts of the noblest and brightest intellects, are +prepared for the discovery and selection of all that is great and noble +in nature. The greatest natural genius cannot subsist on its own stock: +he who resolves never to ransack any mind but his own will be soon +reduced, from mere barrenness, to the poorest of all imitations; he will +be obliged to imitate himself, and to repeat what he has before often +repeated. When we know the subject designed by such men, it will never +be difficult to guess what kind of work is to be produced. + +It is vain for painters or poets to endeavour to invent without materials +on which the mind may work, and from which invention must originate. +Nothing can come of nothing. + +Homer is supposed to be possessed of all the learning of his time. And +we are certain that Michael Angelo and Raffaelle were equally possessed +of all knowledge in the art which was discoverable in the works of their +predecessors. + +A mind enriched by an assemblage of all the treasures of ancient and +modern art will be more elevated and fruitful in resources in proportion +to the number of ideas which have been carefully collected and thoroughly +digested. There can be no doubt that he who has the most materials has +the greatest means of invention; and if he has not the power of using +them, it must proceed from a feebleness of intellect or from the confused +manner in which those collections have been laid up in his mind. + +The addition of other men's judgment is so far from weakening, as is the +opinion of many, our own, that it will fashion and consolidate those +ideas of excellence which lay in their birth feeble, ill-shaped, and +confused, but which are finished and put in order by the authority and +practice of those whose works may be said to have been consecrated by +having stood the test of ages. + +The mind, or genius, has been compared to a spark of fire which is +smothered by a heap of fuel and prevented from blazing into a flame. This +simile, which is made use of by the younger Pliny, may be easily mistaken +for argument or proof. + +There is no danger of the mind's being over-burdened with knowledge, or +the genius extinguished by any addition of images; on the contrary, these +acquisitions may as well, perhaps better, be compared, if comparisons +signified anything in reasoning, to the supply of living embers, which +will contribute to strengthen the spark that without the association of +more would have died away. + +The truth is, he whose feebleness is such as to make other men's thoughts +an incumbrance to him can have no very great strength of mind or genius +of his own to be destroyed, so that not much harm will be done at worst. + +We may oppose to Pliny the greater authority of Cicero, who is +continually enforcing the necessity of this method of study. In his +dialogue on Oratory he makes Crassus say, that one of the first and most +important precepts is to choose a proper model for our imitation. _Hoc +fit primum in preceptis meis ut demonstremus quem imitemur_. + +When I speak of the habitual imitation and continued study of masters, it +is not to be understood that I advise any endeavour to copy the exact +peculiar colour and complexion of another man's mind; the success of such +an attempt must always be like his who imitates exactly the air, manner, +and gestures of him whom he admires. His model may be excellent, but the +copy will be ridiculous; this ridicule does not arise from his having +imitated, but from his not having chosen the right mode of imitation. + +It is a necessary and warrantable pride to disdain to walk servilely +behind any individual, however elevated his rank. The true and liberal +ground of imitation is an open field, where, though he who precedes has +had the advantage of starting before you, yet it is enough to pursue his +course; you need not tread in his footsteps, and you certainly have a +right to outstrip him if you can. + +Nor, whilst I recommend studying the art from artists, can I be supposed +to mean that nature is to be neglected? I take this study in aid and not +in exclusion of the other. Nature is, and must be, the fountain which +alone is inexhaustible; and from which all excellences must originally +flow. + +The great use of studying our predecessors is to open the mind, to +shorten our labour, and to give us the result of the selection made by +those great minds of what is grand or beautiful in nature: her rich +stores are all spread out before us; but it is an art, and no easy art, +to know how or what to choose, and how to attain and secure the object of +our choice. + +Thus the highest beauty of form must be taken from nature; but it is an +art of long deduction and great experience to know how to find it. + +We must not content ourselves with merely admiring and relishing; we must +enter into the principles on which the work is wrought; these do not swim +on the superficies, and consequently are not open to superficial +observers. + +Art in its perfection is not ostentatious; it lies hid, and works its +effect itself unseen. It is the proper study and labour of an artist to +uncover and find out the latent cause of conspicuous beauties, and from +thence form principles for his own conduct; such an examination is a +continual exertion of the mind, as great, perhaps, as that of the artist +whose works he is thus studying. + +The sagacious imitator not only remarks what distinguishes the different +manner or genius of each master; he enters into the contrivance in the +composition, how the masses of lights are disposed, the means by which +the effect is produced, how artfully some parts are lost in the ground, +others boldly relieved, and how all these are mutually altered and +interchanged according to the reason and scheme of the work. He admires +not the harmony of colouring alone, but he examines by what artifice one +colour is a foil to its neighbour. He looks close into the tints, of +what colours they are composed, till he has formed clear and distinct +ideas, and has learnt to see in what harmony and good colouring consists. +What is learnt in this manner from the works of others becomes really our +own, sinks deep, and is never forgotten; nay, it is by seizing on this +clue that we proceed forward, and get further and further in enlarging +the principle and improving the practice. + +There can be no doubt but the art is better learnt from the works +themselves than from the precepts which are formed upon these works; but +if it is difficult to choose proper models for imitation, it requires no +less circumspection to separate and distinguish what in those models we +ought to imitate. + +I cannot avoid mentioning here, though it is not my intention at present +to enter into the art and method of study, an error which students are +too apt to fall into. + +He that is forming himself must look with great caution and wariness on +those peculiarities, or prominent parts, which at first force themselves +upon view, and are the marks, or what is commonly called the manner, by +which that individual artist is distinguished. + +Peculiar marks I hold to be generally, if not always, defects, however +difficult it may be, wholly to escape them. + +Peculiarities in the works of art are like those in the human figure; it +is by them that we are cognisable and distinguished one from another, but +they are always so many blemishes, which, however, both in the one case +and in the other, cease to appear deformities to those who have them +continually before their eyes. In the works of art, even the most +enlightened mind, when warmed by beauties of the highest kind, will by +degrees find a repugnance within him to acknowledge any defects; nay, his +enthusiasm will carry him so far as to transform them into beauties and +objects of imitation. + +It must be acknowledged that a peculiarity of style, either from its +novelty, or by seeming to proceed from a peculiar turn of mind, often +escapes blame; on the contrary, it is sometimes striking and pleasing; +but this it is vain labour to endeavour to imitate, because novelty and +peculiarity being its only merit, when it ceases to be new, it ceases to +have value. + +A manner, therefore, being a defect, and every painter, however +excellent, having a manner, it seems to follow that all kinds of faults, +as well as beauties, may be learned under the sanction of the greatest +authorities. + +Even the great name of Michael Angelo may be used to keep in countenance +a deficiency, or rather neglect of colouring, and every other ornamental +part of the art. + +If the young student is dry and hard, Poussin is the same. If his work +has a careless and unfinished air, he has most of the Venetian School to +support him. If he makes no selection of objects, but takes individual +nature just as he finds it, he is like Rembrandt. If he is incorrect in +the proportions of his figures, Correggio was likewise incorrect. If his +colours are not blended and united, Rubens was equally crude. + +In short, there is no defect but may be excused, if it is a sufficient +excuse that it can be imputed to considerable artists; but it must be +remembered that it was not by these defects they acquired their +reputation: they have a right to our pardon, but not to our admiration. + +However, to imitate peculiarities or mistake defects for beauties that +man will be most liable who confines his imitation to one favourite +master; and, even though he chooses the best, and is capable of +distinguishing the real excellences of his model, it is not by such +narrow practice that a genius or mastery in the art is acquired. A man +is as little likely to form a true idea of the perfection of the art by +studying a single artist as he would be of producing a perfectly +beautiful figure by an exact imitation of any individual living model. + +And as the painter, by bringing together in one piece those beauties +which are dispersed amongst a great variety of individuals, produces a +figure more beautiful than can be found in nature, so that artist who can +unite in himself the excellences of the various painters, will approach +nearer to perfection than any one of his masters. + +He who confines himself to the imitation of an individual, as he never +proposes to surpass, so he is not likely to equal, the object of +imitation. He professes only to follow, and he that follows must +necessarily be behind. + +We should imitate the conduct of the great artists in the course of their +studies, as well as the works which they produced, when they were +perfectly formed. Raffaelle began by imitating implicitly the manner of +Pietro Perugino, under whom he studied; so his first works are scarce to +be distinguished from his master's; but soon forming higher and more +extensive views, he imitated the grand outline of Michael Angelo. He +learnt the manner of using colours from the works of Leonardo da Vinci +and Fratre Bartolomeo: to all this he added the contemplation of all the +remains of antiquity that were within his reach, and employed others to +draw for him what was in Greece and distant places. And it is from his +having taken so many models that he became himself a model for all +succeeding painters, always imitating, and always original. + +If your ambition therefore be to equal Raffaelle, you must do as +Raffaelle did; take many models, and not take even him for your guide +alone to the exclusion of others. And yet the number is infinite of +those who seem, if one may judge by their style, to have seen no other +works but those of their master, or of some favourite whose manner is +their first wish and their last. + +I will mention a few that occur to me of this narrow, confined, +illiberal, unscientific, and servile kind of imitators. Guido was thus +meanly copied by Elizabetta Sirani, and Simone Cantarini; Poussin, by +Verdier and Cheron; Parmigiano, by Jeronimo Mazzuoli; Paolo Veronese and +Iacomo Bassan had for their imitators their brothers and sons; Pietro de +Cortona was followed by Ciro Ferri and Romanelli; Rubens, by Jacques +Jordans and Diepenbeck; Guercino, by his own family, the Gennari; Carlo +Marratti was imitated by Giuseppe Chiari and Pietro da Pietri; and +Rembrandt, by Bramer, Eckhout, and Flink. All these, to whom may be +added a much longer list of painters, whose works among the ignorant pass +for those of their masters, are justly to be censured for barrenness and +servility. + +To oppose to this list a few that have adopted a more liberal style of +imitation: Pelegrino Tibaldi, Rosso, and Primaticio did not coldly +imitate, but caught something of the fire that animates the works of +Michael Angelo. The Carraches formed their style from Pelegrino Tibaldi, +Correggio, and the Venetian School. Domenichino, Guido, Lanfranco, +Albano, Guercino, Cavidone, Schidone, Tiarini, though it is sufficiently +apparent that they came from the School of the Carraches, have yet the +appearance of men who extended their views beyond the model that lay +before them, and have shown that they had opinions of their own, and +thought for themselves, after they had made themselves masters of the +general principles of their schools. + +Le Seure's first manner resembles very much that of his master Vovet: but +as he soon excelled him, so he differed from him in every part of the +art. Carlo Marratti succeeded better than those I have first named, and +I think owes his superiority to the extension of his views; besides his +master Andrea Sacchi, he imitated Raffaelle, Guido, and the Carraches. It +is true, there is nothing very captivating in Carlo Marratti; but this +proceeded from wants which cannot be completely supplied; that is, want +of strength of parts. In this, certainly men are not equal, and a man +can bring home wares only in proportion to the capital with which he goes +to market. Carlo, by diligence, made the most of what he had; but there +was undoubtedly a heaviness about him, which extended itself, uniformly +to his invention, expression, his drawing, colouring, and the general +effect of his pictures. The truth is, he never equalled any of his +patterns in any one thing, and he added little of his own. + +But we must not rest contented, even in this general study of the +moderns; we must trace back the art to its fountain head, to that source +from whence they drew their principal excellences, the monuments of pure +antiquity. + +All the inventions and thoughts of the ancients, whether conveyed to us +in statues, bas-reliefs, intaglios, cameos, or coins, are to be sought +after and carefully studied: The genius that hovers over these venerable +relics may be called the father of modern art. + +From the remains of the works of the ancients the modern arts were +revived, and it is by their means that they must be restored a second +time. However it may mortify our vanity, we must be forced to allow them +our masters; and we may venture to prophecy, that when they shall cease +to be studied, arts will no longer flourish, and we shall again relapse +into barbarism. + +The fire of the artist's own genius operating upon these materials which +have been thus diligently collected, will enable him to make new +combinations, perhaps, superior to what had ever before been in the +possession of the art. As in the mixture of the variety of metals, which +are said to have been melted and run together at the burning of Corinth, +a new and till then unknown metal was produced equal in value to any of +those that had contributed to its composition. And though a curious +refiner may come with his crucibles, analyse and separate its various +component parts, yet Corinthian brass would still hold its rank amongst +the most beautiful and valuable of metals. + +We have hitherto considered the advantages of imitation as it tends to +form the taste, and as a practice by which a spark of that genius may be +caught which illumines these noble works, that ought always to be present +to our thoughts. + +We come now to speak of another kind of imitation; the borrowing a +particular thought, an action, attitude, or figure, and transplanting it +into your own work: this will either come under the charge of plagiarism, +or be warrantable, and deserve commendation, according to the address +with which it is performed. There is some difference likewise whether it +is upon the ancients or the moderns that these depredations are made. It +is generally allowed that no man need be ashamed of copying the ancients: +their works are considered as a magazine of common property, always open +to the public, whence every man has a right to what materials he pleases; +and if he has the art of using them, they are supposed to become to all +intents and purposes his own property. + +The collection which Raffaelle made of the thoughts of the ancients with +so much trouble, is a proof of his opinion on this subject. Such +collections may be made with much more ease, by means of an art scarce +known in his time; I mean that of engraving, by which, at an easy rate, +every man may now avail himself of the inventions of antiquity. + +It must be acknowledged that the works of the moderns are more the +property of their authors; he who borrows an idea from an artist, or +perhaps from a modern, not his contemporary, and so accommodates it to +his own work that it makes a part of it, with no seam or joining +appearing, can hardly be charged with plagiarism; poets practise this +kind of borrowing without reserve. But an artist should not be contented +with this only; he should enter into a competition with his original, and +endeavour to improve what he is appropriating to his own work. Such +imitation is so far from having anything in it of the servility of +plagiarism, that it is a perpetual exercise of the mind, a continual +invention. + +Borrowing or stealing with such art and caution will have a right to the +same lenity as was used by the Lacedemonians; who did not punish theft, +but the want of artifice to conceal it. + +In order to encourage you to imitation, to the utmost extent, let me add, +that very finished artists in the inferior branches of the art will +contribute to furnish the mind and give hints of which a skilful painter, +who is sensible of what he wants, and is in no danger of being infected +by the contact of vicious models, will know how to avail himself. He +will pick up from dunghills what by a nice chemistry, passing through his +own mind, shall be converted into pure gold; and, under the rudeness of +Gothic essays, he will find original, rational, and even sublime +inventions. + +In the luxuriant style of Paul Veronese, in the capricious compositions +of Tintoret, he will find something that will assist his invention, and +give points, from which his own imagination shall rise and take flight, +when the subject which he treats will, with propriety, admit of splendid +effects. + +In every school, whether Venetian, French, or Dutch, he will find either +ingenious compositions, extraordinary effects, some peculiar expressions, +or some mechanical excellence, well worthy his attention and, in some +measure, of his imitation; even in the lower class of the French +painters, great beauties are often found united with great defects. + +Though Coypel wanted a simplicity of taste, and mistook a presumptuous +and assuming air for what is grand and majestic; yet he frequently has +good sense and judgment in his manner of telling his stories, great skill +in his compositions, and is not without a considerable power of +expressing the passions, The modern affectation of grace in his works, as +well as in those of Bouche and Watteau, may be said to be separated by a +very thin partition from the more simple and pure grace of Correggio and +Parmigiano. + +Amongst the Dutch painters, the correct, firm, and determined pencil, +which was employed by Bamboccio and Jan Miel on vulgar and mean subjects, +might without any change be employed on the highest, to which, indeed, it +seems more properly to belong. The greatest style, if that style is +confined to small figures such as Poussin generally painted, would +receive an additional grace by the elegance and precision of pencil so +admirable in the works of Teniers. + +Though this school more particularly excelled in the mechanism of +painting, yet there are many who have shown great abilities in expressing +what must be ranked above mechanical excellences. + +In the works of Frank Hals the portrait painter may observe the +composition of a face, the features well put together as the painters +express it, from whence proceeds that strong marked character of +individual nature which is so remarkable in his portraits, and is not to +be found in an equal degree in any other painter. If he had joined to +this most difficult part of the art a patience in finishing what he had +so correctly planned, he might justly have claimed the place which +Vandyke, all things considered, so justly holds as the first of portrait +painters. + +Others of the same school have shown great power in expressing the +character and passions of those vulgar people which are the subjects of +their study and attention. Amongst those, Jean Stein seems to be one of +the most diligent and accurate observers of what passed in those scenes +which he frequented, and which were to him an academy. I can easily +imagine that if this extraordinary man had had the good fortune to have +been born in Italy instead of Holland, had he lived in Rome instead of +Leyden, and had been blessed with Michael Angelo and Raffaelle for his +masters instead of Brower and Van Gowen, that the same sagacity and +penetration which distinguished so accurately the different characters +and expression in his vulgar figures, would, when exerted in the +selection and imitation of what was great and elevated in nature, have +been equally successful, and his name would have been now ranged with the +great pillars and supporters of our art. + +Men who, although thus bound down by the almost invincible powers of +early habits, have still exerted extraordinary abilities within their +narrow and confined circle, and have, from the natural vigour of their +mind, given such an interesting expression, such force and energy to +their works, though they cannot be recommended to be exactly imitated, +may yet invite an artist to endeavour to transfer, by a kind of parody, +those excellences to his own works. Whoever has acquired the power of +making this use of the Flemish, Venetian, and French schools is a real +genius, and has sources of knowledge open to him which were wanting to +the great artists who lived in the great age of painting. + +To find excellences however dispersed, to discover beauties however +concealed by the multitude of defects with which they are surrounded, can +be the work only of him who, having a mind always alive to his art, has +extended his views to all ages and to all schools, and has acquired from +that comprehensive mass which he has thus gathered to himself, a well +digested and perfect idea of his art, to which everything is referred. +Like a sovereign judge and arbiter of art, he is possessed of that +presiding power which separates and attracts every excellence from every +school, selects both from what is great and what is little, brings home +knowledge from the east and from the west, making the universe tributary +towards furnishing his mind and enriching his works with originality and +variety of inventions. + +Thus I have ventured to give my opinion of what appears to me the true +and only method by which an artist makes himself master of his +profession, which I hold ought to be one continued course of imitation, +that is not to cease but with our lives. + +Those who, either from their own engagements and hurry of business, or +from indolence, or from conceit and vanity, have neglected looking out of +themselves, as far as my experience and observation reaches, have from +that time not only ceased to advance and improve in their performance, +but have gone backward. They may be compared to men who have lived upon +their principal till they are reduced to beggary and left without +resources. + +I can recommend nothing better, therefore, than that you endeavour to +infuse into your works what you learn from the contemplation of the works +of others. To recommend this has the appearance of needless and +superfluous advice, but it has fallen within my own knowledge that +artists, though they are not wanting in a sincere love for their art, +though they have great pleasure in seeing good pictures, and are well +skilled to distinguish what is excellent or defective in them, yet go on +in their own manner, without any endeavour to give a little of those +beauties which they admire in others, to their own works. It is +difficult to conceive how the present Italian painters, who live in the +midst of the treasures of art, should be contented with their own style. +They proceed in their common-place inventions, and never think it worth +while to visit the works of those great artists with which they are +surrounded. + +I remember several years ago to have conversed at Rome with an artist of +great fame throughout Europe; he was not without a considerable degree of +abilities, but those abilities were by no means equal to his own opinion +of them. From the reputation he had acquired he too fondly concluded +that he stood in the same rank, when compared to his predecessors, as he +held with regard to his miserable contemporary rivals. + +In conversation about some particulars of the works of Raffaelle, he +seemed to have, or to affect to have, a very obscure memory of them. He +told me that he had not set his foot in the Vatican for fifteen years +together; that indeed he had been in treaty to copy a capital picture of +Raffaelle, but that the business had gone off; however, if the agreement +had held, his copy would have greatly exceeded the original. The merit +of this artist, however great we may suppose it, I am sure would have +been far greater, and his presumption would have been far less if he had +visited the Vatican, as in reason he ought to have done, once at least +every month of his life. + +I address myself, gentlemen, to you who have made some progress in the +art, and are to be for the future under the guidance of your own judgment +and discretion. + +I consider you as arrived to that period when you have a right to think +for yourselves, and to presume that every man is fallible; to study the +masters with a suspicion that great men are not always exempt from great +faults; to criticise, compare, and rank their works in your own +estimation, as they approach to or recede from that standard of +perfection which you have formed in your own mind, but which those +masters themselves, it must be remembered, have taught you to make, and +which you will cease to make with correctness when you cease to study +them. It is their excellences which have taught you their defects. + +I would wish you to forget where you are, and who it is that speaks to +you. I only direct you to higher models and better advisers. We can +teach you here but very little; you are henceforth to be your own +teachers. Do this justice, however, to the English Academy, to bear in +mind, that in this place you contracted no narrow habits, no false ideas, +nothing that could lead you to the imitation of any living master, who +may be the fashionable darling of the day. As you have not been taught +to flatter us, do not learn to flatter yourselves. We have endeavoured +to lead you to the admiration of nothing but what is truly admirable. If +you choose inferior patterns, or if you make your own _former_ works, +your patterns for your _latter_, it is your own fault. + +The purpose of this discourse, and, indeed, of most of my others, is to +caution you against that false opinion, but too prevalent amongst +artists, of the imaginary power of native genius, and its sufficiency in +great works. This opinion, according to the temper of mind it meets +with, almost always produces, either a vain confidence, or a sluggish +despair, both equally fatal to all proficiency. + +Study, therefore, the great works of the great masters for ever. Study +as nearly as you can, in the order, in the manner, on the principles, on +which they studied. Study nature attentively, but always with those +masters in your company; consider them as models which you are to +imitate, and at the same time as rivals which you are to combat. + + + +A DISCOURSE +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution of the +Prizes, December 10th, 1776, by the President. + + +Gentlemen,--It has been my uniform endeavour, since I first addressed you +from this place, to impress you strongly with one ruling idea. I wished +you to be persuaded, that success in your art depends almost entirely on +your own industry; but the industry which I principally recommended, is +not the industry of the _hands_, but of the _mind_. + +As our art is not a divine gift, so neither is it a mechanical trade. Its +foundations are laid in solid science. And practice, though essential to +perfection, can never attain that to which it aims, unless it works under +the direction of principle. + +Some writers upon art carry this point too far, and suppose that such a +body of universal and profound learning is requisite, that the very +enumeration of its kind is enough to frighten a beginner. Vitruvius, +after going through the many accomplishments of nature, and the many +acquirements of learning, necessary to an architect, proceeds with great +gravity to assert that he ought to be well skilled in the civil law, that +he may not be cheated in the title of the ground he builds on. + +But without such exaggeration, we may go so far as to assert, that a +painter stands in need of more knowledge than is to be picked off his +pallet, or collected by looking on his model, whether it be in life or in +picture. He can never be a great artist who is grossly illiterate. + +Every man whose business is description ought to be tolerably conversant +with the poets in some language or other, that he may imbibe a poetical +spirit and enlarge his stock of ideas. He ought to acquire a habit of +comparing and divesting his notions. He ought not to be wholly +unacquainted with that part of philosophy which gives him an insight into +human nature, and relates to the manners, characters, passions, and +affections. He ought to know something concerning the mind, as well as a +great deal concerning the body of man. + +For this purpose, it is not necessary that he should go into such a +compass of reading, as must, by distracting his attention, disqualify him +for the practical part of his profession, and make him sink the performer +in the critic. Reading, if it can be made the favourite recreation of +his leisure hours, will improve and enlarge his mind without retarding +his actual industry. + +What such partial and desultory reading cannot afford, may be supplied by +the conversation of learned and ingenious men, which is the best of all +substitutes for those who have not the means or opportunities of deep +study. There are many such men in this age; and they will be pleased +with communicating their ideas to artists, when they see them curious and +docile, if they are treated with that respect and deference which is so +justly their due. Into such society, young artists, if they make it the +point of their ambition, will by degrees be admitted. There, without +formal teaching, they will insensibly come to feel and reason like those +they live with, and find a rational and systematic taste imperceptibly +formed in their minds, which they will know how to reduce to a standard, +by applying general truth to their own purposes, better perhaps than +those to whom they owed the original sentiment. + +Of these studies and this conversation, the desired and legitimate +offspring is a power of distinguishing right from wrong, which power +applied to works of art is denominated taste. Let me then, without +further introduction, enter upon an examination whether taste be so far +beyond our reach as to be unattainable by care, or be so very vague and +capricious that no care ought to be employed about it. + +It has been the fate of arts to be enveloped in mysterious and +incomprehensible language, as if it was thought necessary that even the +terms should correspond to the idea entertained of the instability and +uncertainty of the rules which they expressed. + +To speak of genius and taste as any way connected with reason or common +sense, would be, in the opinion of some towering talkers, to speak like a +man who possessed neither, who had never felt that enthusiasm, or, to use +their own inflated language, was never warmed by that Promethean fire, +which animates the canvas and vivifies the marble. + +If, in order to be intelligible, I appear to degrade art by bringing her +down from her visionary situation in the clouds, it is only to give her a +more solid mansion upon the earth. It is necessary that at some time or +other we should see things as they really are, and not impose on +ourselves by that false magnitude with which objects appear when viewed +indistinctly as through a mist. + +We will allow a poet to express his meaning, when his meaning is not well +known to himself, with a certain degree of obscurity, as it is one source +of the sublime. But when, in plain prose, we gravely talk of courting +the muse in shady bowers, waiting the call and inspiration of genius, +finding out where he inhabits, and where he is to be invoked with the +greatest success; of attending to times and seasons when the imagination +shoots with the greatest vigour, whether at the summer solstice or the +equinox, sagaciously observing how much the wild freedom and liberty of +imagination is cramped by attention to established rules, and how this +same imagination begins to grow dim in advanced age, smothered and +deadened by too much judgment. When we talk such language, or entertain +such sentiments as these, we generally rest contented with mere words, or +at best entertain notions not only groundless, but pernicious. + +If all this means what it is very possible was originally intended only +to be meant, that in order to cultivate an art, a man secludes himself +from the commerce of the world, and retires into the country at +particular seasons; or that at one time of the year his body is in better +health, and consequently his mind fitter for the business of hard +thinking than at another time; or that the mind may be fatigued and grow +confused by long and unremitted application; this I can understand. I +can likewise believe that a man eminent when young for possessing +poetical imagination, may, from having taken another road, so neglect its +cultivation as to show less of its powers in his latter life. But I am +persuaded that scarce a poet is to be found, from Homer down to Dryden, +who preserved a sound mind in a sound body, and continued practising his +profession to the very last, whose later works are not as replete with +the fire of imagination as those which were produced in his more youthful +days. + +To understand literally these metaphors or ideas expressed in poetical +language, seems to be equally absurd as to conclude that because painters +sometimes represent poets writing from the dictates of a little winged +boy or genius, that this same genius did really inform him in a whisper +what he was to write, and that he is himself but a mere machine, +unconscious of the operations of his own mind. + +Opinions generally received and floating in the world, whether true or +false, we naturally adopt and make our own; they may be considered as a +kind of inheritance to which we succeed and are tenants for life, and +which we leave to our posterity very near in the condition in which we +received it; not much being in any one man's power either to impair or +improve it. + +The greatest part of these opinions, like current coin in its +circulation, we are obliged to take without weighing or examining; but by +this inevitable inattention, many adulterated pieces are received, which, +when we seriously estimate our wealth, we must throw away. So the +collector of popular opinions, when he embodies his knowledge, and forms +a system, must separate those which are true from those which are only +plausible. But it becomes more peculiarly a duty to the professors of +art not to let any opinions relating to that art pass unexamined. The +caution and circumspection required in such examination we shall +presently have an opportunity of explaining. + +Genius and taste, in their common acceptation, appear to be very nearly +related; the difference lies only in this, that genius has superadded to +it a habit or power of execution. Or we may say, that taste, when this +power is added, changes its name, and is called genius. They both, in +the popular opinion, pretend to an entire exemption from the restraint of +rules. It is supposed that their powers are intuitive; that under the +name of genius great works are produced, and under the name of taste an +exact judgment is given, without our knowing why, and without being under +the least obligation to reason, precept, or experience. + +One can scarce state these opinions without exposing their absurdity, yet +they are constantly in the mouths of men, and particularly of artists. +They who have thought seriously on this subject, do not carry the point +so far; yet I am persuaded, that even among those few who may be called +thinkers, the prevalent opinion gives less than it ought to the powers of +reason; and considers the principles of taste, which give all their +authority to the rules of art, as more fluctuating, and as having less +solid foundations than we shall find, upon examination, they really have. + +The common saying, that tastes are not to be disputed, owes its +influence, and its general reception, to the same error which leads us to +imagine it of too high original to submit to the authority of an earthly +tribunal. It will likewise correspond with the notions of those who +consider it as a mere phantom of the imagination, so devoid of substance +as to elude all criticism. + +We often appear to differ in sentiments from each other, merely from the +inaccuracy of terms, as we are not obliged to speak always with critical +exactness. Something of this too may arise from want of words in the +language to express the more nice discriminations which a deep +investigation discovers. A great deal, however, of this difference +vanishes when each opinion is tolerably explained and understood by +constancy and precision in the use of terms. + +We apply the term taste to that act of the mind by which we like or +dislike, whatever be the subject. Our judgment upon an airy nothing, a +fancy which has no foundation, is called by the same name which we give +to our determination concerning those truths which refer to the most +general and most unalterable principles of human nature, to works which +are only to be produced by the greatest efforts of the human +understanding. However inconvenient this may be, we are obliged to take +words as we find them; all we can do is to distinguish the things to +which they are applied. + +We may let pass those things which are at once subjects of taste and +sense, and which having as much certainty as the senses themselves, give +no occasion to inquiry or dispute. The natural appetite or taste of the +human mind is for truth; whether that truth results from the real +agreement or equality of original ideas among themselves; from the +agreement of the representation of any object with the thing represented; +or from the correspondence of the several parts of any arrangement with +each other. It is the very same taste which relishes a demonstration in +geometry, that is pleased with the resemblance of a picture to an +original, and touched with the harmony of music. + +All these have unalterable and fixed foundations in nature, and are +therefore equally investigated by reason, and known by study; some with +more, some with less clearness, but all exactly in the same way. A +picture that is unlike, is false. Disproportionate ordinance of parts is +not right because it cannot be true until it ceases to be a contradiction +to assert that the parts have no relation to the whole. Colouring is +true where it is naturally adapted to the eye, from brightness, from +softness, from harmony, from resemblance; because these agree with their +object, nature, and therefore are true: as true as mathematical +demonstration; but known to be true only to those who study these things. + +But besides real, there is also apparent truth, or opinion, or prejudice. +With regard to real truth, when it is known, the taste which conforms to +it is, and must be, uniform. With regard to the second sort of truth, +which may be called truth upon sufferance, or truth by courtesy, it is +not fixed, but variable. However, whilst these opinions and prejudices +on which it is founded continue, they operate as truth; and the art, +whose office it is to please the mind, as well as instruct it, must +direct itself according to opinion, or it will not attain its end. + +In proportion as these prejudices are known to be generally diffused, or +long received, the taste which conforms to them approaches nearer to +certainty, and to a sort of resemblance to real science, even where +opinions are found to be no better than prejudices. And since they +deserve, on account of their duration and extent, to be considered as +really true, they become capable of no small decree of stability and +determination by their permanent and uniform nature. + +As these prejudices become more narrow, more local, more transitory, this +secondary taste becomes more and more fantastical; recedes from real +science; is less to be approved by reason, and less followed in practice; +though in no case perhaps to be wholly neglected, where it does not +stand, as it sometimes does, in direct defiance of the most respectable +opinions received amongst mankind. + +Having laid down these positions, I shall proceed with less method, +because less will serve, to explain and apply them. + +We will take it for granted that reason is something invariable and fixed +in the nature of things; and without endeavouring to go back to an +account of first principles, which for ever will elude our search, we +will conclude that whatever goes under the name of taste, which we can +fairly bring under the dominion of reason, must be considered as equally +exempt from change. If therefore, in the course of this inquiry, we can +show that there are rules for the conduct of the artist which are fixed +and invariable, it implies, of course, that the art of the connoisseur, +or, in other words, taste, has likewise invariable principles. + +Of the judgment which we make on the works of art, and the preference +that we give to one class of art over another, if a reason be demanded, +the question is perhaps evaded by answering, "I judge from my taste"; but +it does not follow that a better answer cannot be given, though for +common gazers this may be sufficient. Every man is not obliged to +investigate the causes of his approbation or dislike. + +The arts would lie open for ever to caprice and casualty, if those who +are to judge of their excellences had no settled principles by which they +are to regulate their decisions, and the merit or defect of performances +were to be determined by unguided fancy. And indeed we may venture to +assert that whatever speculative knowledge is necessary to the artist, is +equally and indispensably necessary to the connoisseur. + +The first idea that occurs in the consideration of what is fixed in art, +or in taste, is that presiding principle of which I have so frequently +spoken in former discourses, the general idea of nature. The beginning, +the middle, and the end of everything that is valuable in taste, is +comprised in the knowledge of what is truly nature; for whatever ideas +are not conformable to those of nature, or universal opinion, must be +considered as more or less capricious. + +The idea of nature comprehending not only the forms which nature +produces, but also the nature and internal fabric and organisation, as I +may call it, of the human mind and imagination: general ideas, beauty, or +nature, are but different ways of expressing the same thing, whether we +apply these terms to statues, poetry, or picture. Deformity is not +nature, but an accidental deviation from her accustomed practice. This +general idea therefore ought to be called nature, and nothing else, +correctly speaking, has a right to that name. But we are so far from +speaking, in common conversation, with any such accuracy, that, on the +contrary, when we criticise Rembrandt and other Dutch painters, who +introduced into their historical pictures exact representations of +individual objects with all their imperfections, we say, though it is not +in a good taste, yet it is nature. + +This misapplication of terms must be very often perplexing to the young +student. Is not, he may say, art an imitation of nature? Must he not, +therefore, who imitates her with the greatest fidelity be the best +artist? By this mode of reasoning Rembrandt has a higher place than +Raffaelle. But a very little reflection will serve to show us that these +particularities cannot be nature: for how can that be the nature of man, +in which no two individuals are the same? + +It plainly appears that as a work is conducted under the influence of +general ideas or partial it is principally to be considered as the effect +of a good or a bad taste. + +As beauty therefore does not consist in taking what lies immediately +before you, so neither, in our pursuit of taste, are those opinions which +we first received and adopted the best choice, or the most natural to the +mind and imagination. + +In the infancy of our knowledge we seize with greediness the good that is +within our reach; it is by after-consideration, and in consequence of +discipline, that we refuse the present for a greater good at a distance. +The nobility or elevation of all arts, like the excellence of virtue +itself, consists in adopting this enlarged and comprehensive idea, and +all criticism built upon the more confined view of what is natural, may +properly be called shallow criticism, rather than false; its defect is +that the truth is not sufficiently extensive. + +It has sometimes happened that some of the greatest men in our art have +been betrayed into errors by this confined mode of reasoning. Poussin, +who, upon the whole, may be produced as an instance of attention to the +most enlarged and extensive ideas of nature, from not having settled +principles on this point, has in one instance at least, I think, deserted +truth for prejudice. He is said to have vindicated the conduct of Julio +Romano, for his inattention to the masses of light and shade, or grouping +the figures, in the battle of Constantine, as if designedly neglected, +the better to correspond with the hurry and confusion of a battle. +Poussin's own conduct in his representations of Bacchanalian triumphs and +sacrifices, makes us more easily give credit to this report, since in +such subjects, as well indeed as in many others, it was too much his own +practice. The best apology we can make for this conduct is what proceeds +from the association of our ideas, the prejudice we have in favour of +antiquity. Poussin's works, as I have formerly observed, have very much +the air of the ancient manner of painting, in which there are not the +least traces to make us think that what we call the keeping, the +composition of light and shade, or distribution of the work into masses, +claimed any part of their attention. But surely whatever apology we may +find out for this neglect, it ought to be ranked among the defects of +Poussin, as well as of the antique paintings; and the moderns have a +right to that praise which is their due, for having given so pleasing an +addition to the splendour of the art. + +Perhaps no apology ought to be received for offences committed against +the vehicle (whether it be the organ of seeing or of hearing) by which +our pleasures are conveyed to the mind. We must take the same care that +the eye be not perplexed and distracted by a confusion of equal parts, or +equal lights, as of offending it by an unharmonious mixture of colours. +We may venture to be more confident of the truth of this observation, +since we find that Shakespeare, on a parallel occasion, has made Hamlet +recommend to the players a precept of the same kind, never to offend the +ear by harsh sounds:--"In the very torrent, tempest, and whirlwind of +your passions," says he, "you must beget a temperance that may give it +smoothness." And yet, at the same time, he very justly observes, "The +end of playing, both at the first and now, is to hold, as it were, the +mirror up to nature." No one can deny but that violent passions will +naturally emit harsh and disagreeable tones; yet this great poet and +critic thought that this imitation of nature would cost too much, if +purchased at the expense of disagreeable sensations, or, as he expresses +it, of "splitting the ear." The poet and actor, as well as the painter +of genius who is well acquainted with all the variety and sources of +pleasure in the mind and imagination, has little regard or attention to +common nature, or creeping after common sense. By overleaping those +narrow bounds, he more effectually seizes the whole mind, and more +powerfully accomplishes his purpose. This success is ignorantly imagined +to proceed from inattention to all rules, and in defiance of reason and +judgment; whereas it is in truth acting according to the best rules, and +the justest reason. + +He who thinks nature, in the narrow sense of the word, is alone to be +followed, will produce but a scanty entertainment for the imagination: +everything is to be done with which it is natural for the mind to be +pleased, whether it proceeds from simplicity or variety, uniformity or +irregularity: whether the scenes are familiar or exotic; rude and wild, +or enriched and cultivated; for it is natural for the mind to be pleased +with all these in their turn. In short, whatever pleases has in it what +is analogous to the mind, and is therefore, in the highest and best sense +of the word, natural. + +It is this sense of nature or truth which ought more particularly to be +cultivated by the professors of art; and it may be observed that many +wise and learned men, who have accustomed their minds to admit nothing +for truth but what can be proved by mathematical demonstration, have +seldom any relish for those arts which address themselves to the fancy, +the rectitude and truth of which is known by another kind of proof: and +we may add that the acquisition of this knowledge requires as much +circumspection and sagacity, as to attain those truths which are more +open to demonstration. Reason must ultimately determine our choice on +every occasion; but this reason may still be exerted ineffectually by +applying to taste principles which, though right as far as they go, yet +do not reach the object. No man, for instance, can deny that it seems at +first view very reasonable, that a statue which is to carry down to +posterity the resemblance of an individual should be dressed in the +fashion of the times, in the dress which he himself wore: this would +certainly be true if the dress were part of the man. But after a time +the dress is only an amusement for an antiquarian; and if it obstructs +the general design of the piece, it is to be disregarded by the artist. +Common sense must here give way to a higher sense. + +In the naked form, and in the disposition of the drapery, the difference +between one artist and another is principally seen. But if he is +compelled to the modern dress, the naked form is entirely hid, and the +drapery is already disposed by the skill of the tailor. Were a Phidias +to obey such absurd commands, he would please no more than an ordinary +sculptor; since, in the inferior parts of every art, the learned and the +ignorant are nearly upon a level. + +These were probably among the reasons that induced the sculptor of that +wonderful figure of Laocoon to exhibit him naked, notwithstanding he was +surprised in the act of sacrificing to Apollo, and consequently ought to +be shown in his sacerdotal habits, if those greater reasons had not +preponderated. Art is not yet in so high estimation with us as to obtain +so great a sacrifice as the ancients made, especially the Grecians, who +suffered themselves to be represented naked, whether they were generals, +lawgivers, or kings. + +Under this head of balancing and choosing the greater reason, or of two +evils taking the least, we may consider the conduct of Rubens in the +Luxembourg gallery, of mixing allegorical figures with representations of +real personages, which, though acknowledged to be a fault, yet, if the +artist considered himself as engaged to furnish this gallery with a rich +and splendid ornament, this could not be done, at least in an equal +degree, without peopling the air and water with these allegorical +figures: he therefore accomplished that he purposes. In this case all +lesser considerations, which tend to obstruct the great end of the work, +must yield and give way. + +If it is objected that Rubens judged ill at first in thinking it +necessary to make his work so very ornamental, this brings the question +upon new ground. It was his peculiar style; he could paint in no other; +and he was selected for that work, probably, because it was his style. +Nobody will dispute but some of the best of the Roman or Bolognian +schools would have produced a more learned and more noble work. + +This leads us to another important province of taste, of weighing the +value of the different classes of the art, and of estimating them +accordingly. + +All arts have means within them of applying themselves with success both +to the intellectual and sensitive part of our natures. It can be no +dispute, supposing both these means put in practice with equal abilities, +to which we ought to give the preference: to him who represents the +heroic arts and more dignified passions of man, or to him who, by the +help of meretricious ornaments, however elegant and graceful, captivates +the sensuality, as it may be called, of our taste. Thus the Roman and +Bolognian schools are reasonably preferred to the Venetian, Flemish, or +Dutch schools, as they address themselves to our best and noblest +faculties. + +Well-turned periods in eloquence, or harmony of numbers in poetry, which +are in those arts what colouring is in painting, however highly we may +esteem them, can never be considered as of equal importance with the art +of unfolding truths that are useful to mankind, and which make us better +or wiser. Nor can those works which remind us of the poverty and +meanness of our nature, be considered as of equal rank with what excites +ideas of grandeur, or raises and dignifies humanity; or, in the words of +a late poet, which makes the beholder learn to venerate himself as man. + +It is reason and good sense therefore which ranks and estimates every +art, and every part of that art, according to its importance, from the +painter of animated down to inanimated nature. We will not allow a man, +who shall prefer the inferior style, to say it is his taste; taste here +has nothing, or at least ought to have nothing to do with the question. +He wants not taste, but sense, and soundness of judgment. + +Indeed, perfection in an inferior style may be reasonably preferred to +mediocrity in the highest walks of art. A landscape of Claude Lorraine +may be preferred to a history of Luca Jordano; but hence appears the +necessity of the connoisseur's knowing in what consists the excellence of +each class, in order to judge how near it approaches to perfection. + +Even in works of the same kind, as in history painting, which is composed +of various parts, excellence of an inferior species, carried to a very +high degree, will make a work very valuable, and in some measure +compensate for the absence of the higher kind of merits. It is the duty +of the connoisseur to know and esteem, as much as it may deserve, every +part of painting; he will not then think even Bassano unworthy of his +notice, who, though totally devoid of expression, sense, grace, or +elegance, may be esteemed on account of his admirable taste of colours, +which, in his best works, are little inferior to those of Titian. + +Since I have mentioned Bassano, we must do him likewise the justice to +acknowledge that, though he did not aspire to the dignity of expressing +the characters and passions of men, yet, with respect to the facility and +truth in his manner of touching animals of all kinds, and giving them +what painters call their character, few have ever excelled him. + +To Bassano we may add Paul Veronese and Tintoret, for their entire +inattention to what is justly esteemed the most essential part of our +art, the expression of the passions. Notwithstanding these glaring +deficiencies, we justly esteem their works; but it must be remembered +that they do not please from those defects, but from their great +excellences of another kind, and in spite of such transgressions. These +excellences, too, as far as they go, are founded in the truth of general +nature. They tell the truth, though not the whole truth. + +By these considerations, which can never be too frequently impressed, may +be obviated two errors which I observed to have been, formerly at least, +the most prevalent, and to be most injurious to artists: that of thinking +taste and genius to have nothing to do with reason, and that of taking +particular living objects for nature. + +I shall now say something on that part of taste which, as I have hinted +to you before, does not belong so much to the external form of things, +but is addressed to the mind, and depends on its original frame, or, to +use the expression, the organisation of the soul; I mean the imagination +and the passions. The principles of these are as invariable as the +former, and are to be known and reasoned upon in the same manner, by an +appeal to common sense deciding upon the common feelings of mankind. This +sense, and these feelings, appear to me of equal authority, and equally +conclusive. + +Now this appeal implies a general uniformity and agreement in the minds +of men. It would be else an idle and vain endeavour to establish rules +of art; it would be pursuing a phantom to attempt to move affections with +which we were entirely unacquainted. We have no reason to suspect there +is a greater difference between our minds than between our forms, of +which, though there are no two alike, yet there is a general similitude +that goes through the whole race of mankind; and those who have +cultivated their taste can distinguish what is beautiful or deformed, or, +in other words, what agrees with or what deviates from the general idea +of nature, in one case as well as in the other. + +The internal fabric of our mind, as well as the external form of our +bodies, being nearly uniform, it seems then to follow, of course, that as +the imagination is incapable of producing anything originally of itself, +and can only vary and combine these ideas with which it is furnished by +means of the senses, there will be, of course, an agreement in the +imaginations as in the senses of men. There being this agreement, it +follows that in all cases, in our lightest amusements as well as in our +most serious actions and engagements of life, we must regulate our +affections of every kind by that of others. The well-disciplined mind +acknowledges this authority, and submits its own opinion to the public +voice. + +It is from knowing what are the general feelings and passions of mankind +that we acquire a true idea of what imagination is; though it appears as +if we had nothing to do but to consult our own particular sensations, and +these were sufficient to ensure us from all error and mistake. + +A knowledge of the disposition and character of the human mind can be +acquired only by experience: a great deal will be learned, I admit, by a +habit of examining what passes in our bosoms, what are our own motives of +action, and of what kind of sentiments we are conscious on any occasion. +We may suppose a uniformity, and conclude that the same effect will be +produced by the same cause in the minds of others. This examination will +contribute to suggest to us matters of inquiry; but we can never be sure +that our own sensations are true and right till they are confirmed by +more extensive observation. + +One man opposing another determines nothing but a general union of minds, +like a general combination of the forces of all mankind, makes a strength +that is irresistible. In fact, as he who does not know himself does not +know others, so it may be said with equal truth, that he who does not +know others knows himself but very imperfectly. + +A man who thinks he is guarding himself against Prejudices by resisting +the authority of others, leaves open every avenue to singularity, vanity, +self-conceit, obstinacy, and many other vices, all tending to warp the +judgment and prevent the natural operation of his faculties. + +This submission to others is a deference which we owe, and indeed are +forced involuntarily to pay. + +In fact we are never satisfied with our opinions till they are ratified +and confirmed by the suffrages of the rest of mankind. We dispute and +wrangle for ever; we endeavour to get men to come to us when we do not go +to them. + +He therefore who is acquainted with the works which have pleased +different ages and different countries, and has formed his opinion on +them, has more materials and more means of knowing what is analogous to +the mind of man than he who is conversant only with the works of his own +age or country. What has pleased, and continues to please, is likely to +please again: hence are derived the rules of art, and on this immovable +foundation they must ever stand. + +This search and study of the history of the mind ought not to be confined +to one art only. It is by the analogy that one art bears to another that +many things are ascertained which either were but faintly seen, or, +perhaps, would not have been discovered at all if the inventor had not +received the first hints from the practices of a sister art on a similar +occasion. The frequent allusions which every man who treats of any art +is obliged to draw from others in order to illustrate and confirm his +principles, sufficiently show their near connection and inseparable +relation. + +All arts having the same general end, which is to please, and addressing +themselves to the same faculties through the medium of the senses, it +follows that their rules and principles must have as great affinity as +the different materials and the different organs or vehicles by which +they pass to the mind will permit them to retain. + +We may therefore conclude that the real substance, as it may be called, +of what goes under the name of taste, is fixed and established in the +nature of things; that there are certain and regular causes by which the +imagination and passions of men are affected; and that the knowledge of +these causes is acquired by a laborious and diligent investigation of +nature, and by the same slow progress as wisdom or knowledge of every +kind, however instantaneous its operations may appear when thus acquired. + +It has been often observed that the good and virtuous man alone can +acquire this true or just relish, even of works of art. This opinion +will not appear entirely without foundation when we consider that the +same habit of mind which is acquired by our search after truth in the +more serious duties of life, is only transferred to the pursuit of +lighter amusements: the same disposition, the same desire to find +something steady, substantial, and durable, on which the mind can lean, +as it were, and rest with safety. The subject only is changed. We +pursue the same method in our search after the idea of beauty and +perfection in each; of virtue, by looking forwards beyond ourselves to +society, and to the whole; of arts, by extending our views in the same +manner to all ages and all times. + +Every art, like our own, has in its composition fluctuating as well as +fixed principles. It is an attentive inquiry into their difference that +will enable us to determine how far we are influenced by custom and +habit, and what is fixed in the nature of things. + +To distinguish how much has solid foundation, we may have recourse to the +same proof by which some hold wit ought to be tried--whether it preserves +itself when translated. That wit is false which can subsist only in one +language; and that picture which pleases only one age or one nation, owes +its reception to some local or accidental association of ideas. + +We may apply this to every custom and habit of life. Thus the general +principles of urbanity, politeness, or civility, have been ever the same +in all nations; but the mode in which they are dressed is continually +varying. The general idea of showing respect is by making yourself less: +but the manner, whether by bowing the body, kneeling, prostration, +pulling off the upper part of our dress, or taking away the lower, is a +matter of habit. It would be unjust to conclude that all ornaments, +because they were at first arbitrarily contrived, are therefore +undeserving of our attention; on the contrary, he who neglects the +cultivation of those ornaments, acts contrarily to nature and reason. As +life would be imperfect without its highest ornaments, the arts, so these +arts themselves would be imperfect without _their_ ornaments. + +Though we by no means ought to rank these with positive and substantial +beauties, yet it must be allowed that a knowledge of both is essentially +requisite towards forming a complete, whole, and perfect taste. It is in +reality from the ornaments that arts receive their peculiar character and +complexion; we may add that in them we find the characteristical mark of +a national taste, as by throwing up a feather in the air we know which +way the wind blows, better than by a more heavy matter. + +The striking distinction between the works of the Roman, Bolognian, and +Venetian schools, consists more in that general effect which is produced +by colours than in the more profound excellences of the art; at least it +is from thence that each is distinguished and known at first sight. As +it is the ornaments rather than the proportions of architecture which at +the first glance distinguish the different orders from each other; the +Doric is known by its triglyphs, the Ionic by its volutes, and the +Corinthian by its acanthus. + +What distinguishes oratory from a cold narration, is a more liberal +though chaste use of these ornaments which go under the name of +figurative and metaphorical expressions; and poetry distinguishes itself +from oratory by words and expressions still more ardent and glowing. What +separates and distinguishes poetry is more particularly the ornament of +_verse_; it is this which gives it its character, and is an essential, +without which it cannot exist. Custom has appropriated different metre +to different kinds of composition, in which the world is not perfectly +agreed. In England the dispute is not yet settled which is to be +preferred, rhyme or blank verse. But however we disagree about what +these metrical ornaments shall be, that some metre is essentially +necessary is universally acknowledged. + +In poetry or eloquence, to determine how far figurative or metaphorical +language may proceed, and when it begins to be affectation or beside the +truth, must be determined by taste, though this taste we must never +forget is regulated and formed by the presiding feelings of mankind, by +those works which have approved themselves to all times and all persons. + +Thus, though eloquence has undoubtedly an essential and intrinsic +excellence, and immovable principles common to all languages, founded in +the nature of our passions and affections, yet it has its ornaments and +modes of address which are merely arbitrary. What is approved in the +Eastern nations as grand and majestic, would be considered by the Greeks +and Romans as turgid and inflated; and they, in return, would be thought +by the Orientals to express themselves in a cold and insipid manner. + +We may add likewise to the credit of ornaments, that it is by their means +that art itself accomplishes its purpose. Fresnoy calls colouring, which +is one of the chief ornaments of painting, _lena sororis_, that which +procures lovers and admirers to the more valuable excellences of the art. + +It appears to be the same right turn of mind which enables a man to +acquire the _truth_, or the just idea of what is right in the ornaments, +as in the more stable principles of art. It has still the same centre of +perfection, though it is the centre of a smaller circle. + +To illustrate this by the fashion of dress, in which there is allowed to +be a good or, bad taste. The component parts of dress are continually +changing from great to little, from short to long, but the general form +still remains; it is still the same general dress which is comparatively +fixed, though on a very slender foundation, but it is on this which +fashion must rest. He who invents with the most success, or dresses in, +the best taste, would probably, from the same sagacity employed to +greater purposes, have discovered equal skill, or have formed the same +correct taste in the highest labours of art. + +I have mentioned taste in dress, which is certainly one of the lowest +subjects to which this word is applied; yet, as I have before observed, +there is a right even here, however narrow its foundation respecting the +fashion of any particular nation. But we have still more slender means +of determining, in regard to the different customs of different ages or +countries, to which to give the preference, since they seem to be all +equally removed from nature. + +If an European, when he has cut off his beard, and put false hair on his +head, or bound up his own natural hair in regular hard knots, as unlike +nature as he can possibly make it; and having rendered them immovable by +the help of the fat of hogs, has covered the whole with flour, laid on by +a machine with the utmost regularity; if, when thus attired he issues +forth, he meets a Cherokee Indian, who has bestowed as much time at his +toilet, and laid on with equal care and attention his yellow and red +ochre on particular parts of his forehead or cheeks, as he judges most +becoming; whoever despises the other for this attention to the fashion of +his country, whichever of these two first feels himself provoked to +laugh, is the barbarian. + +All these fashions are very innocent, neither worth disquisition, nor any +endeavour to alter them, as the change would, in all probability, be +equally distant from nature. The only circumstances against which +indignation may reasonably be moved, are where the operation is painful +or destructive of health, such as is practised at Otahaiti, and the +straight lacing of the English ladies; of the last of which, how +destructive it must be to health and long life, the professor of anatomy +took an opportunity of proving a few days since in this Academy. + +It is in dress as in things of greater consequence. Fashions originate +from those only who have the high and powerful advantages of rank, birth, +and fortune; as many of the ornaments of art, those at least for which no +reason can be given, are transmitted to us, are adopted, and acquire +their consequence from the company in which we have been used to see +them. As Greece and Rome are the fountains from whence have flowed all +kinds of excellence, to that veneration which they have a right to claim +for the pleasure and knowledge which they have afforded us, we +voluntarily add our approbation of every ornament and every custom that +belonged to them, even to the fashion of their dress. For it may be +observed that, not satisfied with them in their own place, we make no +difficulty of dressing statues of modern heroes or senators in the +fashion of the Roman armour or peaceful robe; we go so far as hardly to +bear a statue in any other drapery. + +The figures of the great men of those nations have come down to us in +sculpture. In sculpture remain almost all the excellent specimens of +ancient art. We have so far associated personal dignity to the persons +thus represented, and the truth of art to their manner of representation, +that it is not in our power any longer to separate them. This is not so +in painting; because, having no excellent ancient portraits, that +connection was never formed. Indeed, we could no more venture to paint a +general officer in a Roman military habit, than we could make a statue in +the present uniform. But since we have no ancient portraits, to show how +ready we are to adopt those kind of prejudices, we make the best +authority among the moderns serve the same purpose. The great variety of +excellent portraits with which Vandyke has enriched this nation, we are +not content to admire for their real excellence, but extend our +approbation even to the dress which happened to be the fashion of that +age. We all very well remember how common it was a few years ago for +portraits to be drawn in this Gothic dress, and this custom is not yet +entirely laid aside. By this means it must be acknowledged very ordinary +pictures acquired something of the air and effect of the works of +Vandyke, and appeared therefore at first sight to be better pictures than +they really were; they appeared so, however, to those only who had the +means of making this association, for when made, it was irresistible. But +this association is nature, and refers to that Secondary truth that comes +from conformity to general prejudice and opinion; it is therefore not +merely fantastical. Besides the prejudice which we have in favour of +ancient dresses, there may be likewise other reasons, amongst which we +may justly rank the simplicity of them, consisting of little more than +one single piece of drapery, without those whimsical capricious forms by +which all other dresses are embarrassed. + +Thus, though it is from the prejudice we have in favour of the ancients, +who have taught us architecture, that we have adopted likewise their +ornaments; and though we are satisfied that neither nature nor reason is +the foundation of those beauties which we imagine we see in that art, yet +if any one persuaded of this truth should, therefore, invent new orders +of equal beauty, which we will suppose to be possible, yet they would not +please, nor ought he to complain, since the old has that great advantage +of having custom and prejudice on its side. In this case we leave what +has every prejudice in its favour to take that which will have no +advantage over what we have left, but novelty, which soon destroys +itself, and, at any rate, is but a weak antagonist against custom. + +These ornaments, having the right of possession, ought not to be removed +but to make room for not only what has higher pretensions, but such +pretensions as will balance the evil and confusion which innovation +always brings with it. + +To this we may add, even the durability of the materials will often +contribute to give a superiority to one object over another. Ornaments +in buildings, with which taste is principally concerned, are composed of +materials which last longer than those of which dress is composed; it, +therefore, makes higher pretensions to our favour and prejudice. + +Some attention is surely required to what we can no more get rid of than +we can go out of ourselves. We are creatures of prejudice; we neither +can nor ought to eradicate it; we must only regulate, it by reason, which +regulation by reason is, indeed, little more than obliging the lesser, +the focal and temporary prejudices, to give way to those which are more +durable and lasting. + +He, therefore, who in his practice of portrait painting wishes to dignify +his subject, which we will suppose to be a lady, will not paint her in +the modern dress, the familiarity of which alone is sufficient to destroy +all dignity. He takes care that his work shall correspond to those ideas +and that imagination which he knows will regulate the judgment of others, +and, therefore, dresses his figure something with the general air of the +antique for the sake of dignity, and preserves something of the modern +for the sake of likeness. By this conduct his works correspond with +those prejudices which we have in favour of what we continually see; and +the relish of the antique simplicity corresponds with what we may call +the, more learned and scientific prejudice. + +There was a statue made not long since of Voltaire, which the sculptor, +not having that respect for the prejudices of mankind which he ought to +have, has made entirely naked, and as meagre and emaciated as the +original is said to be. The consequence is what might be expected; it +has remained in the sculptor's shop, though it was intended as a public +ornament and a public honour to Voltaire, as it was procured at the +expense of his cotemporary wits and admirers. + +Whoever would reform a nation, supposing a bad taste to prevail in it, +will not accomplish his purpose by going directly against the stream of +their prejudices. Men's minds must be prepared to receive what is new to +them. Reformation is a work of time. A national taste, however wrong it +may be, cannot be totally change at once; we must yield a little to the +prepossession which has taken hold on the mind, and we may then bring +people to adopt what would offend them if endeavoured to be introduced by +storm. When Battisto Franco was employed, in conjunction with Titian, +Paul Veronese, and Tintoret, to adorn the library of St. Mark, his work, +Vasari says, gave less satisfaction than any of the others: the dry +manner of the Roman school was very ill calculated to please eyes that +had been accustomed to the luxuriance, splendour, and richness of +Venetian colouring. Had the Romans been the judges of this work, +probably the determination would have been just contrary; for in the more +noble parts of the art Battisto Franco was, perhaps, not inferior to any +of his rivals. + +* * * * * + +Gentlemen,--It has been the main scope and principal end of this +discourse to demonstrate the reality of a standard in taste, as well as +in corporeal beauty; that a false or depraved taste is a thing as well +known, as easily discovered, as anything that is deformed, misshapen, or +wrong in our form or outward make; and that this knowledge is derived +from the uniformity of sentiments among mankind, from whence proceeds the +knowledge of what are the general habits of nature, the result of which +is an idea of perfect beauty. + +If what has been advanced be true, that besides this beauty or truth +which is formed on the uniform eternal and immutable laws of nature, and +which of necessity can be but one; that besides this one immutable verity +there are likewise what we have called apparent or secondary truths +proceeding from local and temporary prejudices, fancies, fashions, or +accidental connection of ideas; if it appears that these last have still +their foundation, however slender, in the original fabric of our minds, +it follows that all these truths or beauties deserve and require the +attention of the artist in proportion to their stability or duration, or +as their influence is more or less extensive. And let me add that as +they ought not to pass their just bounds, so neither do they, in a well- +regulated taste, at all prevent or weaken the influence of these general +principles, which alone can give to art its true and permanent dignity. + +To form this just taste is undoubtedly in your own power, but it is to +reason and philosophy that you must have recourse; from them we must +borrow the balance by which is to be weighed and estimated the value of +every pretension that intrudes itself on your notice. + +The general objection which is made to the introduction of philosophy +into the regions of taste is, that it checks and restrains the flights of +the imagination, and gives that timidity which an over-carefulness not to +err or act contrary to reason is likely to produce. + +It is not so. Fear is neither reason nor philosophy. The true spirit of +philosophy by giving knowledge gives a manly confidence, and substitutes +rational firmness in the place of vain presumption. A man of real taste +is always a man of judgment in other respects; and those inventions which +either disdain or shrink from reason, are generally, I fear, more like +the dreams of a distempered brain than the exalted enthusiasm of a sound +and true genius. In the midst of the highest flights of fancy or +imagination, reason ought to preside from first to last, though I admit +her more powerful operation is upon reflection. + +I cannot help adding that some of the greatest names of antiquity, and +those who have most distinguished themselves in works of genius and +imagination, were equally eminent for their critical skill. Plato, +Aristotle, Cicero, and Horace; and among the moderns, Boileau, Corneille, +Pope, and Dryden, are at least instances of genius not being destroyed by +attention or subjection to rules and science. I should hope, therefore, +that the natural consequence likewise of what has been said would be to +excite in you a desire of knowing the principles and conduct of the great +masters of our art, and respect and veneration for them when known. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SEVEN DISCOURSES ON ART*** + + +******* This file should be named 2176.txt or 2176.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/1/7/2176 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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It is the 1901 Cassell and Company edition. + + + + + +SEVEN DISCOURSES ON ART + +by Sir Joshua Reynolds + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + + +It is a happy memory that associates the foundation of our Royal +Academy with the delivery of these inaugural discourses by Sir +Joshua Reynolds, on the opening of the schools, and at the first +annual meetings for the distribution of its prizes. They laid down +principles of art from the point of view of a man of genius who had +made his power felt, and with the clear good sense which is the +foundation of all work that looks upward and may hope to live. The +truths here expressed concerning Art may, with slight adjustment of +the way of thought, be applied to Literature or to any exercise of +the best powers of mind for shaping the delights that raise us to +the larger sense of life. In his separation of the utterance of +whole truths from insistance upon accidents of detail, Reynolds was +right, because he guarded the expression of his view with careful +definitions of its limits. In the same way Boileau was right, as a +critic of Literature, in demanding everywhere good sense, in +condemning the paste brilliants of a style then in decay, and +fixing attention upon the masterly simplicity of Roman poets in the +time of Augustus. Critics by rule of thumb reduced the principles +clearly defined by Boileau to a dull convention, against which +there came in course of time a strong reaction. In like manner the +teaching of Reynolds was applied by dull men to much vague and +conventional generalisation in the name of dignity. Nevertheless, +Reynolds taught essential truths of Art. The principles laid down +by him will never fail to give strength to the right artist, or +true guidance towards the appreciation of good art, though here and +there we may not wholly assent to some passing application of them, +where the difference may be great between a fashion of thought in +his time and in ours. A righteous enforcement of exact truth in +our day has led many into a readiness to appreciate more really the +minute imitation of a satin dress, or a red herring, than the +noblest figure in the best of Raffaelle's cartoons. Much good +should come of the diffusion of this wise little book. + +Joshua Reynolds was born on the 15th of July, 1723, the son of a +clergyman and schoolmaster, at Plympton in Devonshire. His bent +for Art was clear and strong from his childhood. In 1741 at the +age of nineteen, he began study, and studied for two yours in +London under Thomas Hudson, a successful portrait painter. Then he +went back to Devonshire and painted portraits, aided for some time +in his education by attention to the work of William Gandy of +Exeter. When twenty-six years old, in May, 1749, Reynolds was +taken away by Captain Keppel to the Mediterranean, and brought into +contact with the works of the great painters of Italy. He stayed +two years in Rome, and in accordance with the principles afterwards +laid down in these lectures, he refused, when in Rome, commissions +for copying, and gave his mind to minute observation of the art of +the great masters by whose works he was surrounded. He spent two +months in Florence, six weeks in Venice, a few days in Bologna and +Parma. "If," he said, "I had never seen any of the fine works of +Correggio, I should never, perhaps, have remarked in Nature the +expression which I find in one of his pieces; or if I had remarked +it, I might have thought it too difficult, or perhaps impossible to +execute." + +In 1753 Reynolds came back to England, and stayed three months in +Devonshire before setting up a studio in London, in St. Martin's +Lane, which was then an artists' quarter. His success was rapid. +In 1755 he had one hundred and twenty-five sitters. Samuel Johnson +found in him his most congenial friend. He moved to Newport +Street, and he built himself a studio--where there is now an +auction room--at 47, Lincoln's Inn Fields. There he remained for +life. + +In 1760 the artists opened, in a room lent by the Society of Arts, +a free Exhibition for the sale of their works. This was continued +the next year at Spring Gardens, with a charge of a shilling for +admission. In 1765 they obtained a charter of incorporation, and +in 1768 the King gave his support to the foundation of a Royal +Academy of Arts by seceders from the preceding "Incorporated +Society of Artists," into which personal feelings had brought much +division. It was to consist, like the French Academy, of forty +members, and was to maintain Schools open to all students of good +character who could give evidence that they had fully learnt the +rudiments of Art. The foundation by the King dates from the 10th +of December, 1768. The Schools were opened on the 2nd of January +next following, and on that occasion Joshua Reynolds, who had been +elected President--his age was then between forty-five and forty- +six--gave the Inaugural Address which formed the first of these +Seven Discourses. The other six were given by him, as President, +at the next six annual meetings: and they were all shaped to form, +when collected into a volume, a coherent body of good counsel upon +the foundations of the painter's art. + +H. M. + + + +TO THE KING + + + +The regular progress of cultivated life is from necessaries to +accommodations, from accommodations to ornaments. By your +illustrious predecessors were established marts for manufactures, +and colleges for science; but for the arts of elegance, those arts +by which manufactures are embellished and science is refined, to +found an academy was reserved for your Majesty. + +Had such patronage been without effect, there had been reason to +believe that nature had, by some insurmountable impediment, +obstructed our proficiency; but the annual improvement of the +exhibitions which your Majesty has been pleased to encourage shows +that only encouragement had been wanting. + +To give advice to those who are contending for royal liberality has +been for some years the duty of my station in the Academy; and +these Discourses hope for your Majesty's acceptance as well- +intended endeavours to incite that emulation which your notice has +kindled, and direct those studies which your bounty has rewarded. + +May it please your Majesty, +Your Majesty's +Most dutiful servant, +And most faithful subject, +JOSHUA REYNOLDS. + + + +TO THE MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY. + + + +Gentlemen,--That you have ordered the publication of this Discourse +is not only very flattering to me, as it implies your approbation +of the method of study which I have recommended; but likewise, as +this method receives from that act such an additional weight and +authority as demands from the students that deference and respect, +which can be due only to the united sense of so considerable a body +of artists. + +I am, +With the greatest esteem and respect, +GENTLEMEN, +Your most humble +And obedient servant, +JOSHUA REYNOLDS + + + + +SEVEN DISCOURSES ON ART + + + + +A DISCOURSE + + + +Delivered at the Opening of the Royal Academy, January 2nd, 1769, +by the President + +Gentlemen,--An academy in which the polite arts may be regularly +cultivated is at last opened among us by royal munificence. This +must appear an event in the highest degree interesting, not only to +the artists, but to the whole nation. + +It is indeed difficult to give any other reason why an Empire like +that of Britain should so long have wanted an ornament so suitable +to its greatness than that slow progression of things which +naturally makes elegance and refinement the last effect of opulence +and power. + +An institution like this has often been recommended upon +considerations merely mercantile. But an academy founded upon such +principles can never effect even its own narrow purposes. If it +has an origin no higher, no taste can ever be formed in it which +can be useful even in manufactures; but if the higher arts of +design flourish, these inferior ends will be answered of course. + +We are happy in having a prince who has conceived the design of +such an institution, according to its true dignity, and promotes +the arts, as the head of a great, a learned, a polite, and a +commercial nation; and I can now congratulate you, gentlemen, on +the accomplishment of your long and ardent wishes. + +The numberless and ineffectual consultations that I have had with +many in this assembly, to form plans and concert schemes for an +academy, afford a sufficient proof of the impossibility of +succeeding but by the influence of Majesty. But there have, +perhaps, been times when even the influence of Majesty would have +been ineffectual, and it is pleasing to reflect that we are thus +embodied, when every circumstance seems to concur from which honour +and prosperity can probably arise. + +There are at this time a greater number of excellent artists than +were ever known before at one period in this nation; there is a +general desire among our nobility to be distinguished as lovers and +judges of the arts; there is a greater superfluity of wealth among +the people to reward the professors; and, above all, we are +patronised by a monarch, who, knowing the value of science and of +elegance, thinks every art worthy of his notice that tends to +soften and humanise the mind. + +After so much has been done by his Majesty, it will be wholly our +fault if our progress is not in some degree correspondent to the +wisdom and, generosity of the institution; let us show our +gratitude in our diligence, that, though our merit may not answer +his expectations, yet, at least, our industry may deserve his +protection. + +But whatever may be our proportion of success, of this we may be +sure, that the present institution will at least contribute to +advance our knowledge of the arts, and bring us nearer to that +ideal excellence which it is the lot of genius always to +contemplate and never to attain. + +The principal advantage of an academy is, that, besides furnishing +able men to direct the student, it will be a repository for the +great examples of the art. These are the materials on which genius +is to work, and without which the strongest intellect may be +fruitlessly or deviously employed. By studying these authentic +models, that idea of excellence which is the result of the +accumulated experience of past ages may be at once acquired, and +the tardy and obstructed progress of our predecessors may teach us +a shorter and easier way. The student receives at one glance the +principles which many artists have spent their whole lives in +ascertaining; and, satisfied with their effect, is spared the +painful investigation by which they come to be known and fixed. +How many men of great natural abilities have been lost to this +nation for want of these advantages? They never had an opportunity +of seeing those masterly efforts of genius which at once kindle the +whole soul, and force it into sudden and irresistible approbation. + +Raffaelle, it is true, had not the advantage of studying in an +academy; but all Rome, and the works of Michael Angelo in +particular, were to him an academy. On the site of the Capel la +Sistina he immediately from a dry, Gothic, and even insipid manner, +which attends to the minute accidental discriminations of +particular and individual objects, assumed that grand style of +painting, which improves partial representation by the general and +invariable ideas of nature. + +Every seminary of learning may be said to be surrounded with an +atmosphere of floating knowledge, where every mind may imbibe +somewhat congenial to its own original conceptions. Knowledge, +thus obtained, has always something more popular and useful than +that which is forced upon the mind by private precepts or solitary +meditation. Besides, it is generally found that a youth more +easily receives instruction from the companions of his studies, +whose minds are nearly on a level with his own, than from those who +are much his superiors; and it is from his equals only that he +catches the fire of emulation. + +One advantage, I will venture to affirm, we shall have in our +academy, which no other nation can boast. We shall have nothing to +unlearn. To this praise the present race of artists have a just +claim. As far as they have yet proceeded they are right. With us +the exertions of genius will henceforward be directed to their +proper objects. It will not be as it has been in other schools, +where he that travelled fastest only wandered farthest from the +right way. + +Impressed as I am, therefore, with such a favourable opinion of my +associates in this undertaking, it would ill become me to dictate +to any of them. But as these institutions have so often failed in +other nations, and as it is natural to think with regret how much +might have been done, and how little has been done, I must take +leave to offer a few hints, by which those errors may be rectified, +and those defects supplied. These the professors and visitors may +reject or adopt as they shall think proper. + +I would chiefly recommend that an implicit obedience to the rules +of art, as established by the great masters, should be exacted from +the YOUNG students. That those models, which have passed through +the approbation of ages, should be considered by them as perfect +and infallible guides as subjects for their imitation, not their +criticism. + +I am confident that this is the only efficacious method of making a +progress in the arts; and that he who sets out with doubting will +find life finished before he becomes master of the rudiments. For +it may be laid down as a maxim, that he who begins by presuming on +his own sense has ended his studies as soon as he has commenced +them. Every opportunity, therefore, should be taken to +discountenance that false and vulgar opinion that rules are the +fetters of genius. They are fetters only to men of no genius; as +that armour, which upon the strong becomes an ornament and a +defence, upon the weak and misshapen turns into a load, and +cripples the body which it was made to protect. + +How much liberty may be taken to break through those rules, and, as +the poet expresses it, + + +"To snatch a grace beyond the reach of art," + + +may be an after consideration, when the pupils become masters +themselves. It is then, when their genius has received its utmost +improvement, that rules may possibly be dispensed with. But let us +not destroy the scaffold until we have raised the building. + +The directors ought more particularly to watch over the genius of +those students who, being more advanced, are arrived at that +critical period of study, on the nice management of which their +future turn of taste depends. At that age it is natural for them +to be more captivated with what is brilliant than with what is +solid, and to prefer splendid negligence to painful and humiliating +exactness. + +A facility in composing, a lively, and what is called a masterly +handling the chalk or pencil, are, it must be confessed, +captivating qualities to young minds, and become of course the +objects of their ambition. They endeavour to imitate those +dazzling excellences, which they will find no great labour in +attaining. After much time spent in these frivolous pursuits, the +difficulty will be to retreat; but it will be then too late; and +there is scarce an instance of return to scrupulous labour after +the mind has been debauched and deceived by this fallacious +mastery. + +By this useless industry they are excluded from all power of +advancing in real excellence. Whilst boys, they are arrived at +their utmost perfection; they have taken the shadow for the +substance; and make that mechanical facility the chief excellence +of the art, which is only an ornament, and of the merit of which +few but painters themselves are judges. + +This seems to me to be one of the most dangerous sources of +corruption; and I speak of it from experience, not as an error +which may possibly happen, but which has actually infected all +foreign academies. The directors were probably pleased with this +premature dexterity in their pupils, and praised their despatch at +the expense of their correctness. + +But young men have not only this frivolous ambition of being +thought masterly inciting them on one hand, but also their natural +sloth tempting them on the other. They are terrified at the +prospect before them, of the toil required to attain exactness. +The impetuosity of youth is distrusted at the slow approaches of a +regular siege, and desires, from mere impatience of labour, to take +the citadel by storm. They wish to find some shorter path to +excellence, and hope to obtain the reward of eminence by other +means than those which the indispensable rules of art have +prescribed. They must, therefore, be told again and again that +labour is the only price of solid fame, and that whatever their +force of genius may be, there is no easy method of becoming a good +painter. + +When we read the lives of the most eminent painters, every page +informs us that no part of their time was spent in dissipation. +Even an increase of fame served only to augment their industry. To +be convinced with what persevering assiduity they pursued their +studies, we need only reflect on their method of proceeding in +their most celebrated works. When they conceived a subject, they +first made a variety of sketches; then a finished drawing of the +whole; after that a more correct drawing of every separate part, +heads, hands, feet, and pieces of drapery; they then painted the +picture, and after all re-touched it from the life. The pictures, +thus wrought with such pain, now appear like the effect of +enchantment, and as if some mighty genius had struck them off at a +blow. + +But, whilst diligence is thus recommended to the students, the +visitors will take care that their diligence be effectual; that it +be well directed and employed on the proper object. A student is +not always advancing because he is employed; he must apply his +strength to that part of the art where the real difficulties lie; +to that part which distinguishes it as a liberal art, and not by +mistaken industry lose his time in that which is merely ornamental. +The students, instead of vying with each other which shall have the +readiest band, should be taught to contend who shall have the +purest and most correct outline, instead of striving which shall +produce the brightest tint, or, curiously trifling endeavour to +give the gloss of stuffs so as to appear real, let their ambition +be directed to contend which shall dispose his drapery in the most +graceful folds, which shall give the most grace and dignity to the +human figure. + +I must beg leave to submit one thing more to the consideration of +the visitors, which appears to me a matter of very great +consequence, and the omission of which I think a principal defect +in the method of education pursued in all the academies I have ever +visited. The error I mean is, that the students never draw exactly +from the living models which they have before them. It is not +indeed their intention, nor are they directed to do it. Their +drawings resemble the model only in the attitude. They change the +form according to their vague and uncertain ideas of beauty, and +make a drawing rather of what they think the figure ought to be +than of what it appears. I have thought this the obstacle that has +stopped the progress of many young men of real genius; and I very +much doubt whether a habit of drawing correctly what we see will +not give a proportionable power of drawing correctly what we +imagine. He who endeavours to copy nicely the figure before him +not only acquires a habit of exactness and precision, but is +continually advancing in his knowledge of the human figure; and +though he seems to superficial observers to make a slower progress, +he will be found at last capable of adding (without running into +capricious wildness) that grace and beauty which is necessary to be +given to his more finished works, and which cannot be got by the +moderns, as it was not acquired by the ancients, but by an +attentive and well-compared study of the human form. + +What I think ought to enforce this method is, that it has been the +practice (as may be seen by their drawings) of the great masters in +the art. I will mention a drawing of Raffaelle, "The Dispute of +the Sacrament," the print of which, by Count Cailus, is in every +hand. It appears that he made his sketch from one model; and the +habit he had of drawing exactly from the form before him appears by +his making all the figures with the same cap, such as his model +then happened to wear; so servile a copyist was this great man, +even at a time when he was allowed to be at his highest pitch of +excellence. + +I have seen also academy figures by Annibale Caracci, though he was +often sufficiently licentious in his finished works, drawn with all +the peculiarities of an individual model. + +This scrupulous exactness is so contrary to the practice of the +academies, that it is not without great deference that I beg leave +to recommend it to the consideration of the visitors, and submit it +to them, whether the neglect of this method is not one of the +reasons why students so often disappoint expectation, and being +more than boys at sixteen, become less than men at thirty. + +In short, the method I recommend can only be detrimental when there +are but few living forms to copy; for then students, by always +drawing from one alone, will by habit be taught to overlook +defects, and mistake deformity for beauty. But of this there is no +danger, since the council has determined to supply the academy with +a variety of subjects; and indeed those laws which they have drawn +up, and which the secretary will presently read for your +confirmation, have in some measure precluded me from saying more +upon this occasion. Instead, therefore, of offering my advice, +permit me to indulge my wishes, and express my hope, that this +institution may answer the expectations of its royal founder; that +the present age may vie in arts with that of Leo X. and that "the +dignity of the dying art" (to make use of an expression of Pliny) +may be revived under the reign of George III. + + + +A DISCOURSE + + + +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy, on the Distribution +of the Prizes, December 11, I769, by the President. + +Gentlemen,--I congratulate you on the honour which you have just +received. I have the highest opinion of your merits, and could +wish to show my sense of them in something which possibly may be +more useful to you than barren praise. I could wish to lead you +into such a course of study as may render your future progress +answerable to your past improvement; and, whilst I applaud you for +what has been done, remind you of how much yet remains to attain +perfection. + +I flatter myself, that from the long experience I have had, and the +unceasing assiduity with which I have pursued those studies, in +which, like you, I have been engaged, I shall be acquitted of +vanity in offering some hints to your consideration. They are +indeed in a great degree founded upon my own mistakes in the same +pursuit. But the history of errors properly managed often shortens +the road to truth. And although no method of study that I can +offer will of itself conduct to excellence, yet it may preserve +industry from being misapplied. + +In speaking to you of the theory of the art, I shall only consider +it as it has a relation to the method of your studies. + +Dividing the study of painting into three distinct periods, I shall +address you as having passed through the first of them, which is +confined to the rudiments, including a facility of drawing any +object that presents itself, a tolerable readiness in the +management of colours, and an acquaintance with the most simple and +obvious rules of composition. + +This first degree of proficiency is, in painting, what grammar is +in literature, a general preparation to whatever species of the art +the student may afterwards choose for his more particular +application. The power of drawing, modelling, and using colours is +very properly called the language of the art; and in this language, +the honours you have just received prove you to have made no +inconsiderable progress. + +When the artist is once enabled to express himself with some degree +of correctness, he must then endeavour to collect subjects for +expression; to amass a stock of ideas, to be combined and varied as +occasion may require. He is now in the second period of study, in +which his business is to learn all that has hitherto been known and +done. Having hitherto received instructions from a particular +master, he is now to consider the art itself as his master. He +must extend his capacity to more sublime and general instructions. +Those perfections which lie scattered among various masters are now +united in one general idea, which is henceforth to regulate his +taste and enlarge his imagination. With a variety of models thus +before him, he will avoid that narrowness and poverty of conception +which attends a bigoted admiration of a single master, and will +cease to follow any favourite where he ceases to excel. This +period is, however, still a time of subjection and discipline. +Though the student will not resign himself blindly to any single +authority when he may have the advantage of consulting many, he +must still be afraid of trusting his own judgment, and of deviating +into any track where he cannot find the footsteps of some former +master. + +The third and last period emancipates the student from subjection +to any authority but what he shall himself judge to be supported by +reason. Confiding now in his own judgment, he will consider and +separate those different principles to which different modes of +beauty owe their original. In the former period he sought only to +know and combine excellence, wherever it was to be found, into one +idea of perfection; in this he learns, what requires the most +attentive survey and the subtle disquisition, to discriminate +perfections that are incompatible with each other. + +He is from this time to regard himself as holding the same rank +with those masters whom he before obeyed as teachers, and as +exercising a sort of sovereignty over those rules which have +hitherto restrained him. Comparing now no longer the performances +of art with each other, but examining the art itself by the +standard of nature, he corrects what is erroneous, supplies what is +scanty, and adds by his own observation what the industry of his +predecessors may have yet left wanting to perfection. Having well +established his judgment, and stored his memory, he may now without +fear try the power of his imagination. The mind that has been thus +disciplined may be indulged in the warmest enthusiasm, and venture +to play on the borders of the wildest extravagance. The habitual +dignity, which long converse with the greatest minds has imparted +to him, will display itself in all his attempts, and he will stand +among his instructors, not as an imitator, but a rival. + +These are the different stages of the art. But as I now address +myself particularly to those students who have been this day +rewarded for their happy passage through the first period, I can +with no propriety suppose they want any help in the initiatory +studies. My present design is to direct your view to distant +excellence, and to show you the readiest path that leads to it. Of +this I shall speak with such latitude as may leave the province of +the professor uninvaded, and shall not anticipate those precepts +which it is his business to give and your duty to understand. + +It is indisputably evident that a great part of every man's life +must be employed in collecting materials for the exercise of +genius. Invention, strictly speaking, is little more than a new +combination of those images which have been previously gathered and +deposited in the memory. Nothing can come of nothing. He who has +laid up no materials can produce no combinations. + +A student unacquainted with the attempts of former adventurers is +always apt to overrate his own abilities, to mistake the most +trifling excursions for discoveries of moment, and every coast new +to him for a new-found country. If by chance he passes beyond his +usual limits, he congratulates his own arrival at those regions +which they who have steered a better course have long left behind +them. + +The productions of such minds are seldom distinguished by an air of +originality: they are anticipated in their happiest efforts; and +if they are found to differ in anything from their predecessors, it +is only in irregular sallies and trifling conceits. The more +extensive therefore your acquaintance is with the works of those +who have excelled the more extensive will be your powers of +invention; and what may appear still more like a paradox, the more +original will be your conceptions. But the difficulty on this +occasion is to determine who ought to be proposed as models of +excellence, and who ought to be considered as the properest guides. + +To a young man just arrived in Italy, many of the present painters +of that country are ready enough to obtrude their precepts, and to +offer their own performances as examples of that perfection which +they affect to recommend. The modern, however, who recommends +HIMSELF as a standard, may justly be suspected as ignorant of the +true end, and unacquainted with the proper object of the art which +he professes. To follow such a guide will not only retard the +student, but mislead him. + +On whom, then, can he rely, or who shall show him the path that +leads to excellence? The answer is obvious: Those great masters +who have travelled the same road with success are the most likely +to conduct others. The works of those who have stood the test of +ages have a claim to that respect and veneration to which no modern +can pretend. The duration and stability of their fame is +sufficient to evince that it has not been suspended upon the +slender thread of fashion and caprice, but bound to the human heart +by every tie of sympathetic approbation. + +There is no danger of studying too much the works of those great +men, but how they may be studied to advantage is an inquiry of +great importance. + +Some who have never raised their minds to the consideration of the +real dignity of the art, and who rate the works of an artist in +proportion as they excel, or are defective in the mechanical parts, +look on theory as something that may enable them to talk but not to +paint better, and confining themselves entirely to mechanical +practice, very assiduously toil on in the drudgery of copying, and +think they make a rapid progress while they faithfully exhibit the +minutest part of a favourite picture. This appears to me a very +tedious, and I think a very erroneous, method of proceeding. Of +every large composition, even of those which are most admired, a +great part may be truly said to be common-place. This, though it +takes up much time in copying, conduces little to improvement. I +consider general copying as a delusive kind of industry; the +student satisfies himself with the appearance of doing something; +he falls into the dangerous habit of imitating without selecting, +and of labouring without any determinate object; as it requires no +effort of the mind, he sleeps over his work; and those powers of +invention and composition which ought particularly to be called out +and put in action lie torpid, and lose their energy for want of +exercise. + +It is an observation that all must have made, how incapable those +are of producing anything of their own who have spent much of their +time in making finished copies. + +To suppose that the complication of powers, and variety of ideas +necessary to that mind which aspires to the first honours ill the +art of painting, can be obtained by the frigid contemplation of a +few single models, is no less absurd than it would be in him who +wishes to be a poet to imagine that by translating a tragedy he can +acquire to himself sufficient knowledge of the appearances of +nature, the operations of the passions, and the incidents of life. + +The great use in copying, if it be at all useful, should seem to be +in learning to colour; yet even colouring will never be perfectly +attained by servilely copying the mould before you. An eye +critically nice can only be formed by observing well-coloured +pictures with attention: and by close inspection, and minute +examination you will discover, at last, the manner of handling, the +artifices of contrast, glazing, and other expedients, by which good +colourists have raised the value of their tints, and by which +nature has been so happily imitated. + +I must inform you, however, that old pictures deservedly celebrated +for their colouring are often so changed by dirt and varnish, that +we ought not to wonder if they do not appear equal to their +reputation in the eyes of unexperienced painters, or young +students. An artist whose judgment is matured by long observation, +considers rather what the picture once was, than what it is at +present. He has acquired a power by habit of seeing the brilliancy +of tints through the cloud by which it is obscured. An exact +imitation, therefore, of those pictures, is likely to fill the +student's mind with false opinions, and to send him back a +colourist of his own formation, with ideas equally remote from +nature and from art, from the genuine practice of the masters and +the real appearances of things. + +Following these rules, and using these precautions, when you have +clearly and distinctly learned in what good colouring consists, you +cannot do better than have recourse to nature herself, who is +always at hand, and in comparison of whose true splendour the best +coloured pictures are but faint and feeble. + +However, as the practice of copying is not entirely to be excluded, +since the mechanical practice of painting is learned in some +measure by it, let those choice parts only be selected which have +recommended the work to notice. If its excellence consists in its +general effect, it would be proper to make slight sketches of the +machinery and general management of the picture. Those sketches +should be kept always by you for the regulation of your style. +Instead of copying the touches of those great masters, copy only +their conceptions. Instead of treading in their footsteps, +endeavour only to keep the same road. Labour to invent on their +general principles and way of thinking. Possess yourself with +their spirit. Consider with yourself how a Michael Angelo or a +Raffaelle would have treated this subject: and work yourself into +a belief that your picture is to be seen and criticised by them +when completed. Even an attempt of this kind will rouse your +powers. + +But as mere enthusiasm will carry you but a little way, let me +recommend a practice that may be equivalent, and will perhaps more +efficaciously contribute to your advancement, than even the verbal +corrections of those masters themselves, could they be obtained. +What I would propose is, that you should enter into a kind of +competition, by painting a similar subject, and making a companion +to any picture that you consider as a model. After you have +finished your work, place it near the model, and compare them +carefully together. You will then not only see, but feel your own +deficiencies more sensibly than by precepts, or any other means of +instruction. The true principles of painting will mingle with your +thoughts. Ideas thus fixed by sensible objects, will be certain +and definitive; and sinking deep into the mind, will not only be +more just, but more lasting than those presented to you by precepts +only: which will, always be fleeting, variable, and undetermined. + +This method of comparing your own efforts with those of some great +master, is indeed a severe and mortifying task, to which none will +submit, but such as have great views, with fortitude sufficient to +forego the gratifications of present vanity for future honour. +When the student has succeeded in some measure to his own +satisfaction, and has felicitated himself on his success, to go +voluntarily to a tribunal where he knows his vanity must be +humbled, and all self-approbation must vanish, requires not only +great resolution, but great humility. To him, however, who has the +Ambition to be a real master, the solid satisfaction which proceeds +from a consciousness of his advancement (of which seeing his own +faults is the first step) will very abundantly compensate for the +mortification of present disappointment. There is, besides, this +alleviating circumstance. Every discovery he makes, every +acquisition of knowledge he attains, seems to proceed from his own +sagacity; and thus he acquires a confidence in himself sufficient +to keep up the resolution of perseverance. + +We all must have experienced how lazily, and consequently how +ineffectually, instruction is received when forced upon the mind by +others. Few have been taught to any purpose who have not been +their own teachers. We prefer those instructions which we have +given ourselves, from our affection to the instructor; and they are +more effectual, from being received into the mind at the very time +when it is most open and eager to receive them. + +With respect to the pictures that you are to choose for your +models, I could wish that you would take the world's opinion rather +than your own. In other words, I would have you choose those of +established reputation rather than follow your own fancy. If you +should not admire them at first, you will, by endeavouring to +imitate them, find that the world has not been mistaken. + +It is not an easy task to point out those various excellences for +your imitation which he distributed amongst the various schools. +An endeavour to do this may perhaps be the subject of some future +discourse. I will, therefore, at present only recommend a model +for style in painting, which is a branch of the art more +immediately necessary to the young student. Style in painting is +the same as in writing, a power over materials, whether words or +colours, by which conceptions or sentiments are conveyed. And in +this Lodovico Carrache (I mean in his best works) appears to me to +approach the nearest to perfection. His unaffected breadth of +light and shadow, the simplicity of colouring, which holding its +proper rank, does not draw aside the least part of the attention +from the subject, and the solemn effect of that twilight which +seems diffused over his pictures, appear to me to correspond with +grave and dignified subjects, better than the more artificial +brilliancy of sunshine which enlightens the pictures of Titian. +Though Tintoret thought that Titian's colouring was the model of +perfection, and would correspond even with the sublime of Michael +Angelo; and that if Angelo had coloured like Titian, or Titian +designed like Angelo, the world would once have had a perfect +painter. + +It is our misfortune, however, that those works of Carrache which I +would recommend to the student are not often found out of Bologna. +The "St. Francis in the midst of his Friars," "The +Transfiguration," "The Birth of St. John the Baptist," "The Calling +of St. Matthew," the "St. Jerome," the fresco paintings in the +Zampieri Palace, are all worthy the attention of the student. And +I think those who travel would do well to allot a much greater +portion of their time to that city than it has been hitherto the +custom to bestow. + +In this art, as in others, there are many teachers who profess to +show the nearest way to excellence, and many expedients have been +invented by which the toil of study might be saved. But let no man +be seduced to idleness by specious promises. Excellence is never +granted to man but as the reward of labour. It argues, indeed, no +small strength of mind to persevere in habits of industry, without +the pleasure of perceiving those advances; which, like the hand of +a clock, whilst they make hourly approaches to their point, yet +proceed so slowly as to escape observation. A facility of drawing, +like that of playing upon a musical instrument, cannot be acquired +but by an infinite number of acts. I need not, therefore, enforce +by many words the necessity of continual application; nor tell you +that the port-crayon ought to be for ever in your hands. Various +methods will occur to you by which this power may be acquired. I +would particularly recommend that after your return from the +academy (where I suppose your attendance to be constant) you would +endeavour to draw the figure by memory. I will even venture to +add, that by perseverance in this custom, you will become able to +draw the human figure tolerably correct, with as little effort of +the mind as to trace with a pen the letters of the alphabet. + +That this facility is not unattainable, some members in this +academy give a sufficient proof. And, be assured, that if this +power is not acquired whilst you are young, there will be no time +for it afterwards: at least, the attempt will be attended with as +much difficulty as those experience who learn to read or write +after they have arrived to the age of maturity. + +But while I mention the port-crayon as the student's constant +companion, he must still remember that the pencil is the instrument +by which he must hope to obtain eminence. What, therefore, I wish +to impress upon you is, that whenever an opportunity offers, you +paint your studies instead of drawing them. This will give you +such a facility in using colours, that in time they will arrange +themselves under the pencil, even without the attention of the hand +that conducts it. If one act excluded the other, this advice could +not with any propriety be given. But if painting comprises both +drawing and colouring and if by a short struggle of resolute +industry the same expedition is attainable in painting as in +drawing on paper, I cannot see what objection can justly be made to +the practice; or why that should be done by parts, which may be +done altogether. + +If we turn our eyes to the several schools of painting, and +consider their respective excellences, we shall find that those who +excel most in colouring pursued this method. The Venetian and +Flemish schools, which owe much of their fame to colouring, have +enriched the cabinets of the collectors of drawings with very few +examples. Those of Titian, Paul Veronese, Tintoret, and the +Bassans, are in general slight and undetermined. Their sketches on +paper are as rude as their pictures are excellent in regard to +harmony of colouring. Correggio and Barocci have left few, if any, +finished drawings behind them. And in the Flemish school, Rubens +and Vandyke made their designs for the most part either in colours +or in chiaroscuro. It is as common to find studies of the Venetian +and Flemish painters on canvas, as of the schools of Rome and +Florence on paper. Not but that many finished drawings are sold +under the names of those masters. Those, however, are undoubtedly +the productions either of engravers or of their scholars who copied +their works. + +These instructions I have ventured to offer from my own experience; +but as they deviate widely from received opinions, I offer them +with diffidence; and when better are suggested, shall retract them +without regret. + +There is one precept, however, in which I shall only be opposed by +the vain, the ignorant, and the idle. I am not afraid that I shall +repeat it too often. You must have no dependence on your own +genius. If you have great talents, industry will improve them: if +you have but moderate abilities, industry will supply their +deficiency. Nothing is denied to well-directed labour: nothing is +to be obtained without it. Not to enter into metaphysical +discussions on the nature or essence of genius, I will venture to +assert, that assiduity unabated by difficulty, and a disposition +eagerly directed to the object of its pursuit, will produce effects +similar to those which some call the result of natural powers. + +Though a man cannot at all times, and in all places, paint or draw, +yet the mind can prepare itself by laying in proper materials, at +all times, and in all places. Both Livy and Plutarch, in +describing Philopoemen, one of the ablest generals of antiquity, +have given us a striking picture of a mind always intent on its +profession, and by assiduity obtaining those excellences which some +all their lives vainly expect from Nature. I shall quote the +passage in Livy at length, as it runs parallel with the practice I +would recommend to the painter, sculptor, or architect. + +"Philopoemen was a man eminent for his sagacity and experience in +choosing ground, and in leading armies; to which he formed his mind +by perpetual meditation, in times of peace as well as war. When, +in any occasional journey, he came to a straight difficult passage, +if he was alone, he considered with himself, and if he was in +company he asked his friends what it would be best to do if in this +place they had found an enemy, either in the front, or in the rear, +on the one side, or on the other. 'It might happen,' says he, +'that the enemy to be opposed might come on drawn up in regular +lines, or in a tumultuous body, formed only by the nature of the +place.' He then considered a little what ground he should take; +what number of soldiers he should use, and what arms he should give +them; where he should lodge his carriages, his baggage, and the +defenceless followers of his camp; how many guards, and of what +kind, he should send to defend them; and whether it would be better +to press forward along the pass, or recover by retreat his former +station: he would consider likewise where his camp could most +commodiously be formed; how much ground he should enclose within +his trenches; where he should have the convenience of water; and +where he might find plenty of wood and forage; and when he should +break up his camp on the following day, through what road he could +most safely pass, and in what form he should dispose his troops. +With such thoughts and disquisitions he had from his early years so +exercised his mind, that on these occasions nothing could happen +which he had not been already accustomed to consider." + +I cannot help imagining that I see a promising young painter, +equally vigilant, whether at home, or abroad in the streets, or in +the fields. Every object that presents itself is to him a lesson. +He regards all nature with a view to his profession; and combines +her beauties, or corrects her defects. He examines the countenance +of men under the influence of passion; and often catches the most +pleasing hints from subjects of turbulence or deformity. Even bad +pictures themselves supply him with useful documents; and, as +Leonardo da Vinci has observed, he improves upon the fanciful +images that are sometimes seen in the fire, or are accidentally +sketched upon a discoloured wall. + +The artist who has his mind thus filled with ideas, and his hand +made expert by practice, works with ease and readiness; whilst he +who would have you believe that he is waiting for the inspirations +of genius, is in reality at a loss how to beam, and is at last +delivered of his monsters with difficulty and pain. + +The well-grounded painter, on the contrary, has only maturely to +consider his subject, and all the mechanical parts of his art +follow without his exertion, Conscious of the difficulty of +obtaining what he possesses he makes no pretensions to secrets, +except those of closer application. Without conceiving the +smallest jealousy against others, he is contented that all shall be +as great as himself who are willing to undergo the same fatigue: +and as his pre-eminence depends not upon a trick, he is free from +the painful suspicions of a juggler, who lives in perpetual fear +lest his trick should be discovered. + + + +A DISCOURSE + + + +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution +of the Prizes, December, 14, 1770, by the President + +Gentlemen,--It is not easy to speak with propriety to so many +students of different ages and different degrees of advancement. +The mind requires nourishment adapted to its growth; and what may +have promoted our earlier efforts, might, retard us in our nearer +approaches to perfection. + +The first endeavours of a young painter, as I have remarked in a +former discourse, must be employed in the attainment of mechanical +dexterity, and confined to the mere imitation of the object before +him. Those who have advanced beyond the rudiments, may, perhaps, +find advantage in reflecting on the advice which I have likewise +given them, when I recommended the diligent study of the works of +our great predecessors; but I at the same time endeavoured to guard +them against an implicit submission to the authority of any one +master, however excellent; or by a strict imitation of his manner, +to preclude ourselves from the abundance and variety of nature. I +will now add that nature herself is not to be too closely copied. +There are excellences in the art of painting, beyond what is +commonly called the imitation of nature: and these excellences I +wish to point out. The students who, having passed through the +initiatory exercises, are more advanced in the art, and who, sure +of their hand, have leisure to exert their understanding, must now +be told that a mere copier of nature can never produce anything +great; can never raise and enlarge the conceptions, or warm the +heart of the spectator. + +The wish of the genuine painter must be more extensive: instead of +endeavouring to amuse mankind with the minute neatness of his +imitations, he must endeavour to improve them by the grandeur of +his ideas; instead of seeking praise, by deceiving the superficial +sense of the spectator, he must strive for fame, by captivating the +imagination. + +The principle now laid down, that the perfection of this art does +not consist in mere imitation, is far from being new or singular. +It is, indeed, supported by the general opinion of the enlightened +part of mankind. The poets, orators, and rhetoricians of +antiquity, are continually enforcing this position, that all the +arts receive their perfection from an ideal beauty, superior to +what is to be found in individual nature. They are ever referring +to the practice of the painters and sculptors of their times, +particularly Phidias (the favourite artist of antiquity), to +illustrate their assertions. As if they could not sufficiently +express their admiration of his genius by what they knew, they have +recourse to poetical enthusiasm. They call it inspiration; a gift +from heaven. The artist is supposed to have ascended the celestial +regions, to furnish his mind with this perfect idea of beauty. +"He," says Proclus, "who takes for his model such forms as nature +produces, and confines himself to an exact imitation of them, will +never attain to what is perfectly beautiful. For the works of +nature are full of disproportion, and fall very short of the true +standard of beauty. So that Phidias, when he formed his Jupiter, +did not copy any object ever presents to his sight; but +contemplated only that image which he had conceived in his mind +from Homer's description." And thus Cicero, speaking of the same +Phidias: "Neither did this artist," says he, "when he carved the +image of Jupiter or Minerva, set before him any one human figure as +a pattern, which he was to copy; but having a more perfect idea of +beauty fixed in his mind, this he steadily contemplated, and to the +imitation of this all his skill and labour were directed. + +The moderns are not less convinced than the ancients of this +superior power existing in the art; nor less conscious of its +effects. Every language has adopted terms expressive of this +excellence. The Gusto grande of the Italians; the Beau ideal of +the French and the GREAT STYLE, GENIUS, and TASTE among the +English, are but different appellations of the same thing. It is +this intellectual dignity, they say, that ennobles the painter's +art; that lays the line between him and the mere mechanic; and +produces those great effects in an instant, which eloquence and +poetry, by slow and repeated efforts, are scarcely able to attain. + +Such is the warmth with which both the ancients and moderns speak +of this divine principle of the art; but, as I have formerly +observed, enthusiastic admiration seldom promotes knowledge. +Though a student by such praise may have his attention roused, and +a desire excited, of running in this great career, yet it is +possible that what has been said to excite, may only serve to deter +him. He examines his own mind, and perceives there nothing of that +divine inspiration with which he is told so many others have been +favoured. He never travelled to heaven to gather new ideas; and he +finds himself possessed of no other qualifications than what mere +common observation and a plain understanding can confer. Thus he +becomes gloomy amidst the splendour of figurative declamation, and +thinks it hopeless to pursue an object which he supposes out of the +reach of human industry. + +But on this, as upon many other occasions, we ought to distinguish +how much is to be given to enthusiasm, and how much to reason. We +ought to allow for, and we ought to commend, that strength of vivid +expression which is necessary to convey, in its full force, the +highest sense of the most complete effect of art; taking care at +the same time not to lose in terms of vague admiration that +solidity and truth of principle upon which alone we can reason, and +may be enabled to practise. + +It is not easy to define in what this great style consists; nor to +describe, by words, the proper means of acquiring it, if the mind +of the student should be at all capable of such an acquisition. +Could we teach taste or genius by rules, they would be no longer +taste and genius. But though there neither are, nor can be, any +precise invariable rules for the exercise or the acquisition of +those great qualities, yet we may as truly say that they always +operate in proportion to our attention in observing the works of +nature, to our skill in selecting, and to our care in digesting, +methodising, and comparing our observations. There are many +beauties in our art, that seem, at first, to lie without the reach +of precept, and yet may easily be reduced to practical principles. +Experience is all in all; but it is not every one who profits by +experience; and most people err, not so much from want of capacity +to find their object, as from not knowing what object to pursue. +This great ideal perfection and beauty are not to be sought in the +heavens, but upon the earth. They are about us, and upon every +side of us. But the power of discovering what is deformed in +nature, or in other words, what is particular and uncommon, can be +acquired only by experience; and the whole beauty and grandeur of +the art consists, in my opinion, in being able to get above all +singular forms, local customs, particularities, and details of +every kind. + +All the objects which are exhibited to our view by nature, upon +close examination will be found to have their blemishes and +defects. The most beautiful forms have something about them like +weakness, minuteness, or imperfection. But it is not every eye +that perceives these blemishes. It must be an eye long used to the +contemplation and comparison of these forms; and which, by a long +habit of observing what any set of objects of the same kind have in +common, that alone can acquire the power of discerning what each +wants in particular. This long laborious comparison should be the +first study of the painter who aims at the greatest style. By this +means, he acquires a just idea of beautiful forms; he corrects +nature by herself, her imperfect state by her more perfect. His +eye being enabled to distinguish the accidental deficiencies, +excrescences, and deformities of things from their general figures, +he makes out an abstract idea of their forms more perfect than any +one original; and what may seem a paradox, he learns to design +naturally by drawing his figures unlike to any one object. This +idea of the perfect state of nature, which the artist calls the +ideal beauty, is the great leading principle by which works of +genius are conducted. By this Phidias acquired his fame. He +wrought upon a sober principle what has so much excited the +enthusiasm of the world; and by this method you, who have courage +to tread the same path, may acquire equal reputation. + +This is the idea which has acquired, and which seems to have a +right to the epithet of Divine; as it may be said to preside, like +a supreme judge, over all the productions of nature; appearing to +be possessed of the will and intention of the Creator, as far as +they regard the external form of living beings. + +When a man once possesses this idea in its perfection, there is no +danger but that he will he sufficiently warmed by it himself, and +be able to warm and ravish every one else. + +Thus it is from a reiterated experience, and a close comparison of +the objects in nature, that an artist becomes possessed of the idea +of that central form, if I may so express it, from which every +deviation is deformity. But the investigation of this form I grant +is painful, and I know but of one method of shortening the road; +this is, by a careful study of the works of the ancient sculptors; +who, being indefatigable in the school of nature, have left models +of that perfect form behind them, which an artist would prefer as +supremely beautiful, who had spent his whole life in that single +contemplation. But if industry carried them thus far, may not you +also hope for the same reward from the same labour? We have the +same school opened to us that was opened to them; for nature denies +her instructions to none who desire to become her pupils. + +To the principle I have laid down, that the idea of beauty in each +species of beings is invariably one, it may be objected that in +every particular species there are various central forms, which are +separate and distinct from each other, and yet are undeniably +beautiful; that in the human figure, for instance, the beauty of +the Hercules is one, of the gladiator another, of the Apollo +another, which makes so many different ideas of beauty. + +It is true, indeed, that these figures are each perfect in their +kind, though of different characters and proportions; but still +none of them is the representation of an individual, but of a +class. And as there is one general form, which, as I have said, +belongs to the human kind at large, so in each of these classes +there is one common idea and central form, which is the abstract of +the various individual forms belonging to that class. Thus, though +the forms of childhood and age differ exceedingly, there is a +common form in childhood, and a common form in age,--which is the +more perfect, as it is more remote from all peculiarities. But I +must add further, that though the most perfect forms of each of the +general divisions of the human figure are ideal, and superior to +any individual form of that class, yet the highest perfection of +the human figure is not to be found in any one of them. It is not +in the Hercules, nor in the gladiator, nor in the Apollo; but in +that form which is taken from them all, and which partakes equally +of the activity of the gladiator, of the delicacy of the Apollo, +and of the muscular strength of the Hercules. For perfect beauty +in any species must combine all the characters which are beautiful +in that species. It cannot consist in any one to the exclusion of +the rest: no one, therefore, must be predominant, that no one may +be deficient. + +The knowledge of these different characters, and the power of +separating and distinguishing them, is undoubtedly necessary to the +painter, who is to vary his compositions with figures of various +forms and proportions, though he is never to lose sight of the +general idea of perfection in each kind. + +There is, likewise, a kind of symmetry or proportion, which may +properly be said to belong to deformity. A figure lean or +corpulent, tall or short, though deviating from beauty, may still +have a certain union of the various parts, which may contribute to +make them, on the whole, not unpleasing. When the artist has by +diligent attention acquired a clear and distinct idea of beauty and +symmetry; when he has reduced the variety of nature to the abstract +idea; his next task will be to become acquainted with the genuine +habits of nature, as distinguished from those of fashion. For in +the same manner, and on the same principles, as he has acquired the +knowledge of the real forms of nature, distinct from accidental +deformity, he must endeavour to separate simple chaste nature from +those adventitious, those affected and forced airs or actions, with +which she is loaded by modern education. + +Perhaps I cannot better explain what I mean than by reminding you +of what was taught us by the Professor of Anatomy, in respect to +the natural position and movement of the feet. He observed that +the fashion of turning, them outwards was contrary to the intent of +nature, as might be seen from the structure of the bones, and from +the weakness that proceeded from that manner of standing. To this +we may add the erect position of the head, the projection of the +chest, the walking with straight knees, and many such actions, +which are merely the result of fashion, and what nature never +warranted, as we are sure that we have been taught them when +children. + +I have mentioned but a few of those instances, in which vanity or +caprice have contrived to distort and disfigure the human form; +your own recollection will add to these a thousand more of ill- +understood methods, that have been practised to disguise nature, +among our dancing-masters, hair-dressers, and tailors, in their +various schools of deformity. + +However the mechanic and ornamental arts may sacrifice to fashion, +she must be entirely excluded from the art of painting; the painter +must never mistake this capricious changeling for the genuine +offspring of nature; he must divest himself of all prejudices in +favour of his age or country; he must disregard all local and +temporary ornaments, and look only on those general habits that are +everywhere and always the same. He addresses his works to the +people of every country and every age; he calls upon posterity to +be his spectators, and says with Zeuxis, In aeternitatem pingo. + +The neglect of separating modern fashions from the habits of +nature, leads to that ridiculous style which has been practised by +some painters who have given to Grecian heroes the airs and graces +practised in the court of Louis XIV.; an absurdity almost as great +as it would have been to have dressed them after the fashion of +that court. + +To avoid this error, however, and to retain the true simplicity of +nature, is a task more difficult than at first sight it may appear. +The prejudices in favour of the fashions and customs that we have +been used to, and which are justly called a second nature, make it +too often difficult to distinguish that which is natural from that +which is the result of education; they frequently even give a +predilection in favour of the artificial mode; and almost every one +is apt to be guided by those local prejudices who has not chastised +his mind, and regulated the instability of his affections, by the +eternal invariable idea of nature. + +Here, then, as before, we must have recourse to the ancients as +instructors. It is from a careful study of their works that you +will be enabled to attain to the real simplicity of nature; they +will suggest many observations, which would probably escape you, if +your study were confined to nature alone. And, indeed, I cannot +help suspecting, that in this instance the ancients had an easier +task than the moderns. They had, probably, little or nothing to +unlearn, as their manners were nearly approaching to this desirable +simplicity; while the modern artist, before he can see the truth of +things, is obliged to remove a veil, with which the fashion of the +times has thought proper to cover her. + +Having gone thus far in our investigation of the great style in +painting; if we now should suppose that the artist has formed the +true idea of beauty, which enables him to give his works a correct +and perfect design; if we should suppose also that he has acquired +a knowledge of the unadulterated habits of nature, which gives him +simplicity; the rest of his talk is, perhaps, less than is +generally imagined. Beauty and simplicity have so great a share in +the composition of a great style, that he who has acquired them has +little else to learn. It must not, indeed, be forgot that there is +a nobleness of conception, which goes beyond anything in the mere +exhibition, even of perfect form; there is an art of animating and +dignifying the figures with intellectual grandeur, of impressing +the appearance of philosophic wisdom or heroic virtue. This can +only be acquired by him that enlarges the sphere of his +understanding by a variety of knowledge, and warms his imagination +with the best productions of ancient and modern poetry. + +A hand thus exercised, and a mind thus instructed, will bring the +art to a higher degree of excellence than, perhaps, it has hitherto +attained in this country. Such a student will disdain the humbler +walks of painting, which, however profitable, can never assure him +a permanent reputation. He will leave the meaner artist servilely +to suppose that those are the best pictures which are most likely +to deceive the spectator. He will permit the lower painter, like +the florist or collector of shells, to exhibit the minute +discriminations which distinguish one object of the same species +from another; while he, like the philosopher, will consider nature +in the abstract, and represent in every one of his figures the +character of its species. + +If deceiving the eye were the only business of the art, there is no +doubt, indeed, but the minute painter would be more apt to succeed: +but it is not the eye, it is the mind, which the painter of genius +desires to address; nor will he waste a moment upon these smaller +objects, which only serve to catch the sense, to divide the +attention, and to counteract his great design of speaking to the +heart. + +This is the ambition I could wish to excite in your minds; and the +object I have had in my view, throughout this discourse, is that +one great idea which gives to painting its true dignity, that +entitles it to the name of a Liberal Art, and ranks it as a sister +of poetry. + +It may possibly have happened to many young students whose +application was sufficient to overcome all difficulties, and whose +minds were capable of embracing the most extensive views, that they +have, by a wrong direction originally given, spent their lives in +the meaner walks of painting, without ever knowing there was a +nobler to pursue. "Albert Durer," as Vasari has justly remarked, +"would probably have been one of the first painters of his age (and +he lived in an era of great artists) had he been initiated into +those great principles of the art which were so well understood and +practised by his contemporaries in Italy. But unluckily, having +never seen or heard of any other manner, he considered his own, +without doubt, as perfect." + +As for the various departments of painting, which do not presume to +make such high pretensions, they are many. None of them are +without their merit, though none enter into competition with this +great universal presiding idea of the art. The painters who have +applied themselves more particularly to low and vulgar characters, +and who express with precision the various shades of passion, as +they are exhibited by vulgar minds (such as we see in the works of +Hogarth) deserve great praise; but as their genius has been +employed on low and confined subjects, the praise that we give must +be as limited as its object. The merrymaking or quarrelling of the +Boors of Teniers; the same sort of productions of Brouwer, or +Ostade, are excellent in their kind; and the excellence and its +praise will be in proportion, as, in those limited subjects and +peculiar forms, they introduce more or less of the expression of +those passions, as they appear in general and more enlarged nature. +This principle may be applied to the battle pieces of Bourgognone, +the French gallantries of Watteau, and even beyond the exhibition +of animal life, to the landscapes of Claude Lorraine, and the sea- +views of Vandervelde. All these painters have, in general, the +same right, in different degrees, to the name of a painter, which a +satirist, an epigrammatist, a sonnetteer, a writer of pastorals, or +descriptive poetry, has to that of a poet. + +In the same rank, and, perhaps, of not so great merit, is the cold +painter of portraits. But his correct and just imitation of his +object has its merit. Even the painter of still life, whose +highest ambition is to give a minute representation of every part +of those low objects, which he sets before him, deserves praise in +proportion to his attainment; because no part of this excellent +art, so much the ornament of polished life, is destitute of value +and use. These, however, are by no means the views to which the +mind of the student ought to be PRIMARILY directed. By aiming at +better things, if from particular inclination, or from the taste of +the time and place he lives in, or from necessity, or from failure +in the highest attempts, he is obliged to descend lower; he will +bring into the lower sphere of art a grandeur of composition and +character that will raise and ennoble his works far above their +natural rank. + +A man is not weak, though he may not be able to wield the club of +Hercules; nor does a man always practise that which he esteems the +beat; but does that which he can best do. In moderate attempts, +there are many walks open to the artist. But as the idea of beauty +is of necessity but one, so there can be but one great mode of +painting; the leading principle of which I have endeavoured to +explain. + +I should be sorry if what is here recommended should be at all +understood to countenance a careless or indetermined manner of +painting. For though the painter is to overlook the accidental +discriminations of nature, he is to pronounce distinctly, and with +precision, the general forms of things. A firm and determined +outline is one of the characteristics of the great style in +painting; and, let me add, that he who possesses the knowledge of +the exact form, that every part of nature ought to have, will be +fond of expressing that knowledge with correctness and precision in +all his works. + +To conclude: I have endeavoured to reduce the idea of beauty to +general principles. And I had the pleasure to observe that the +professor of painting proceeded in the same method, when he showed +you that the artifice of contrast was founded but on one principle. +And I am convinced that this is the only means of advancing +science, of clearing the mind from a confused heap of contradictory +observations, that do but perplex and puzzle the student when he +compares them, or misguide him if he gives himself up to their +authority; but bringing them under one general head can alone give +rest and satisfaction to an inquisitive mind. + + + +A DISCOURSE + + + +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution +of the Prizes, December 10, 1771, by the President. + +Gentlemen,--The value and rank of every art is in proportion to the +mental labour employed in it, or the mental pleasure produced by +it. As this principle is observed or neglected, our profession +becomes either a liberal art or a mechanical trade. In the hands +of one man it makes the highest pretensions, as it is addressed to +the noblest faculties, In those of another it is reduced to a mere +matter of ornament, and the painter has but the humble province of +furnishing our apartments with elegance. + +This exertion of mind, which is the only circumstance that truly +ennobles our art, makes the great distinction between the Roman and +Venetian schools. I have formerly observed that perfect form is +produced by leaving out particularities, and retaining only general +ideas. I shall now endeavour to show that this principle, which I +have proved to be metaphysically just, extends itself to every part +of the art; that it gives what is called the grand style to +invention, to composition, to expression, and even to colouring and +drapery. + +Invention in painting does not imply the invention of the subject, +for that is commonly supplied by the poet or historian. With +respect to the choice, no subject can be proper that is not +generally interesting. It ought to be either some eminent instance +of heroic action or heroic suffering. There must be something +either in the action or in the object in which men are universally +concerned, and which powerfully strikes upon the public sympathy. + +Strictly speaking, indeed, no subject can be of universal, hardly +can it be of general concern: but there are events and characters +so popularly known in those countries where our art is in request, +that they may be considered as sufficiently general for all our +purposes. Such are the great events of Greek and Roman fable and +history, which early education and the usual course of reading have +made familiar and interesting to all Europe, without being degraded +by the vulgarism of ordinary life in any country. Such, too, are +the capital subjects of Scripture history, which, besides their +general notoriety, become venerable by their connection with our +religion. + +As it is required that the subject selected should be a general +one, it is no less necessary that it should be kept unembarrassed +with whatever may any way serve to divide the attention of the +spectator. Whenever a story is related, every man forms a picture +in his mind of the action and the expression of the persons +employed. The power of representing this mental picture in canvas +is what we call invention in a painter. And as in the conception +of this ideal picture the mind does not enter into the minute +peculiarities of the dress, furniture, or scene of action, so when +the painter comes to represent it he contrives those little +necessary concomitant circumstances in such a manner that they +shall strike the spectator no more than they did himself in his +first conception of the story. + +I am very ready to allow that some circumstances of minuteness and +particularity frequently tend to give an air of truth to a piece, +and to interest the spectator in an extraordinary manner. Such +circumstances, therefore, cannot wholly be rejected; but if there +be anything in the art which requires peculiar nicety of +discernment, it is the disposition of these minute circumstantial +parts which, according to the judgment employed in the choice, +become so useful to truth or so injurious to grandeur. + +However, the usual and most dangerous error is on the side of +minuteness, and, therefore, I think caution most necessary where +most have failed. The general idea constitutes real excellence. +All smaller things, however perfect in their way, are to be +sacrificed without mercy to the greater. The painter will not +inquire what things may be admitted without much censure. He will +not think it enough to show that they may be there; he will show +that they must be there, that their absence would render his +picture maimed and defective. + +Thus, though to the principal group a second or third be added, and +a second and third mass of light, care must be yet taken that these +subordinate actions and lights, neither each in particular, nor all +together, come into any degree of competition with the principal; +they should make a part of that whole which would be imperfect +without them. To every part of painting this rule may be applied. +Even in portraits, the grace and, we may add, the likeness, +consists more in taking the general air than in observing the +effect similitude of every feature. + +Thus figures must have a ground whereon to stand; they must be +clothed, there must be a background, there must be light and +shadow; but none of these ought to appear to have taken up any part +of the artist's attention. They should be so managed as not even +to catch that of the spectator. We know well enough, when we +analyse a piece, the difficulty and the subtlety with which an +artist adjusts the background, drapery, and masses of light; we +know that a considerable part of the grace and effect of his +picture depends upon them; but this art is so much concealed, even +to a judicious eye, that no remains of any of these subordinate +parts occur to memory when the picture is not present. + +The great end of the art is to strike the imagination. The painter +is, therefore, to make no ostentation of the means by which this is +done; the spectator is only to feel the result in his bosom. An +inferior artist is unwilling that any part of his industry should +be lost upon the spectator. He takes as much pains to discover, as +the greater artist does to conceal, the marks of his subordinate +assiduity. In works of the lower kind everything appears studied +and encumbered; it is all boastful art and open affectation. The +ignorant often part from such pictures with wonder in their mouths, +and indifference in their hearts. + +But it is not enough in invention that the artist should restrain +and keep under all the inferior parts of his subject; he must +sometimes deviate from vulgar and strict historical truth in +pursuing the grandeur of his design. + +How much the great style exacts from its professors to conceive and +represent their subjects in a poetical manner, not confined to mere +matter of fact, may be seen in the cartoons of Raffaelle. In all +the pictures in which the painter has represented the apostles, he +has drawn them with great nobleness; he has given them as much +dignity as the human figure is capable of receiving yet we are +expressly told in Scripture they had no such respectable +appearance; and of St. Paul in particular, we are told by himself, +that his bodily presence was mean. Alexander is said to have been +of a low stature: a painter ought not so to represent him. +Agesilaus was low, lame, and of a mean appearance. None of these +defects ought to appear in a piece of which he is the hero. In +conformity to custom, I call this part of the art history painting; +it ought to be called poetical, as in reality it is. + +All this is not falsifying any fact; it is taking an allowed +poetical licence. A painter of portraits retains the individual +likeness; a painter of history shows the man by showing his +actions. A painter must compensate the natural deficiencies of his +art. He has but one sentence to utter, but one moment to exhibit. +He cannot, like the poet or historian, expatiate, and impress the +mind with great veneration for the character of the hero or saint +he represents, though he lets us know at the same time that the +saint was deformed, or the hero lame. The painter has no other +means of giving an idea of the dignity of the mind, but by that +external appearance which grandeur of thought does generally, +though not always, impress on the countenance, and by that +correspondence of figure to sentiment and situation which all men +wish, but cannot command. The painter, who may in this one +particular attain with ease what others desire in vain, ought to +give all that he possibly can, since there are so many +circumstances of true greatness that he cannot give at all. He +cannot make his hero talk like a great man; he must make him look +like one. For which reason he ought to be well studied in the +analysis of those circumstances which constitute dignity of +appearance in real life. + +As in invention, so likewise in, expression, care must be taken not +to run into particularities, Those expressions alone should be +given to the figures which their respective situations generally +produce. Nor is this enough; each person should also have that +expression which men of his rank generally exhibit. The joy or the +grief of a character of dignity is not to be expressed in the same +manner as a similar passion in a vulgar face. Upon this principle +Bernini, perhaps, may be subject to censure. This sculptor, in +many respects admirable, has given a very mean expression to his +statue of David, who is represented as just going to throw the +stone from the sling; and in order to give it the expression of +energy he has made him biting his under-lip. This expression is +far from being general, and still farther from being dignified. He +might have seen it in an instance or two, and he mistook accident +for universality. + +With respect to colouring, though it may appear at first a part of +painting merely mechanical, yet it still has its rules, and those +grounded upon that presiding principle which regulates both the +great and the little in the study of a painter. By this, the first +effect of the picture is produced; and as this is performed the +spectator, as he walks the gallery, will stop, or pass along. To +give a general air of grandeur at first view, all trifling or +artful play of little lights or an attention to a variety of tints +is to be avoided; a quietness and simplicity must reign over the +whole work; to which a breadth of uniform and simple colour will +very much contribute. Grandeur of effect is produced by two +different ways, which seem entirely opposed to each other. One is, +by reducing the colours to little more than chiaroscuro, which was +often the practice of the Bolognian schools; and the other, by +making the colours very distinct and forcible, such as we see in +those of Rome and Florence; but still, the presiding principle of +both those manners is simplicity. Certainly, nothing can be more +simple than monotony, and the distinct blue, red, and yellow +colours which are seen in the draperies of the Roman and Florentine +schools, though they have not that kind of harmony which is +produced by a variety of broken and transparent colours, have that +effect of grandeur that was intended. Perhaps these distinct +colours strike the mind more forcibly, from there not being any +great union between them; as martial music, which is intended to +rouse the noble passions, has its effect from the sudden and +strongly marked transitions from one note to another, which that +style of music requires; whilst in that which is intended to move +the softer passions the notes imperceptibly melt into one another. + +In the same manner as the historical painter never enters into the +detail of colours, so neither does he debase his conceptions with +minute attention to the discriminations of drapery. It is the +inferior style that marks the variety of stuffs. With him, the +clothing is neither woollen, nor linen, nor silk, satin, or velvet: +it is drapery; it is nothing more. The art of disposing the +foldings of the drapery make a very considerable part of the +painter's study. To make it merely natural is a mechanical +operation, to which neither genius or taste are required; whereas, +it requires the nicest judgment to dispose the drapery, so that the +folds have an easy communication, and gracefully follow each other, +with such natural negligence as to look like the effect of chance, +and at the same time show the figure under it to the utmost +advantage. + +Carlo Maratti was of opinion that the disposition of drapery was a +more difficult art than even that of drawing the human figure; that +a student might be more easily taught the latter than the former; +as the rules of drapery, he said, could not be so well ascertained +as those for delineating a correct form, This, perhaps, is a proof +how willingly we favour our own peculiar excellence. Carlo Maratti +is said to have valued himself particularly upon his skill in this +part of the art yet in him the disposition appears so artificial, +that he is inferior to Raffaelle, even in that which gave him his +best claim to reputation + +Such is the great principle by which we must be directed in the +nobler branches of our art. Upon this principle the Roman, the +Florentine, the Bolognese schools, have formed their practice; and +by this they have deservedly obtained the highest praise. These +are the three great schools of the world in the epic style. The +best of the French school, Poussin, Le Sueur, and Le Brun, have +formed themselves upon these models, and consequently may be said, +though Frenchmen, to be a colony from the Roman school. Next to +these, but in a very different style of excellence, we may rank the +Venetian, together with the Flemish and the Dutch schools, all +professing to depart from the great purposes of painting, and +catching at applause by inferior qualities. + +I am not ignorant that some will censure me for placing the +Venetians in this inferior class, and many of the warmest admirers +of painting will think them unjustly degraded; but I wish not to be +misunderstood. Though I can by no means allow them to hold any +rank with the nobler schools of painting, they accomplished +perfectly the thing they attempted. But as mere elegance is their +principal object, as they seem more willing to dazzle than to +affect, it can be no injury to them to suppose that their practice +is useful only to its proper end. But what may heighten the +elegant may degrade the sublime. There is a simplicity, and I may +add, severity, in the great manner, which is, I am afraid, almost +incompatible with this comparatively sensual style. + +Tintoret, Paul Veronese, and others of the Venetian schools, seem +to have painted with no other purpose than to be admired for their +skill and expertness in the mechanism of painting, and to make a +parade of that art which, as I before observed, the higher style +requires its followers to conceal. + +In a conference of the French Academy, at which were present Le +Brun, Sebastian Bourdon, and all the eminent artists of that age, +one of the academicians desired to have their opinion on the +conduct of Paul Veronese, who, though a painter of great +consideration, had, contrary to the strict rules of art, in his +picture of Perseus and Andromeda, represented the principal figure +in shade. To this question no satisfactory answer was then given. +But I will venture to say, that if they had considered the class of +the artist, and ranked him as an ornamental painter, there would +have been no difficulty in answering: "It was unreasonable to +expect what was never intended. His intention was solely to +produce an effect of light and Shadow; everything was to be +sacrificed to that intent, and the capricious composition of that +picture suited very well with the style he professed." + +Young minds are indeed too apt to be captivated by this splendour +of style, and that of the Venetians will be particularly pleasing; +for by them all those parts of the art that give pleasure to the +eye or sense have been cultivated with care, and carried to the +degree nearest to perfection. The powers exerted in the mechanical +part of the art have been called the language of painters; but we +must say, that it is but poor eloquence which only shows that the +orator can talk. Words should be employed as the means, not as the +end: language is the instrument, conviction is the work. + +The language of painting must indeed be allowed these masters; but +even in that they have shown more copiousness than choice, and more +luxuriancy than judgment. If we consider the uninteresting +subjects of their invention, or at least the uninteresting manner +in which they are treated; if we attend to their capricious +composition, their violent and affected contrasts, whether of +figures, or of light and shadow, the richness of their drapery, +and, at the same time, the mean effect which the discrimination of +stuffs gives to their pictures; if to these we add their total +inattention to expression, and then reflect on the conceptions and +the learning of Michael Angelo, or the simplicity of Raffaelle, we +can no longer dwell on the comparison. Even in colouring, if we +compare the quietness and chastity of the Bolognese pencil to the +bustle and tumult that fills every part of, a Venetian picture, +without the least attempt to interest the passions, their boasted +art will appear a mere struggle without effect; an empty tale told +by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing. + +Such as suppose that the great style might happily be blended with +the ornamental, that the simple, grave, and majestic dignity of +Raffaelle could unite with the glow and bustle of a Paulo or +Tintoret, are totally mistaken. The principles by which each are +attained are so contrary to each other, that they seem, in my +opinion, incompatible, and as impossible to exist together, as to +unite in the mind at the same time the most sublime ideas and the +lowest sensuality. + +The subjects of the Venetian painters are mostly such as give them +an opportunity of introducing a great number of figures, such as +feasts, marriages, and processions, public martyrdoms, or miracles. +I can easily conceive that Paul Veronese, if he were asked, would +say that no subject was proper for an historical picture but such +as admitted at least forty figures; for in a less number, he would +assert, there could be no opportunity of the painter's showing his +art in composition, his dexterity of managing and disposing the +masses of light, and groups of figures, and of introducing a +variety of Eastern dresses and characters in their rich stuffs. + +But the thing is very different with a pupil of the greater +schools. Annibale Caracci thought twelve figures sufficient for +any story: he conceived that more would contribute to no end but +to fill space; that they would, be but cold spectators of the +general action, or, to use his own expression, that they would be +figures to be let. Besides, it is impossible for a picture +composed of so many parts to have that effect, so indispensably +necessary to grandeur, of one complete whole. However +contradictory it may be in geometry, it is true in taste, that many +little things will not make a great one. The sublime impresses the +mind at once with one great idea; it is a single blow: the elegant +indeed may be produced by a repetition, by an accumulation of many +minute circumstances. + +However great the difference is between the composition of the +Venetian and the rest of the Italian schools, there is full as +great a disparity in the effect of their pictures as produced by +colours. And though in this respect the Venetians must be allowed +extraordinary skill, yet even that skill, as they have employed it, +will but ill correspond with the great style. Their colouring is +not only too brilliant, but, I will venture to say, too harmonious +to produce that solidity, steadiness, and simplicity of effect +which heroic subjects require, and which simple or grave colours +only can give to a work. That they are to be cautiously studied by +those who are ambitious of treading the great walk of history is +confirmed, if it wants confirmation, by the greatest of all +authorities, Michael Angelo. This wonderful man, after having seen +a picture by Titian, told Vasari, who accompanied him, "that he +liked much his colouring and manner; but then he added, that it was +a pity the Venetian painters did not learn to draw correctly in +their early youth, and adopt a better manner of study." + +By this it appears that the principal attention of the Venetian +painters, in the opinion of Michael Angelo, seemed to be engrossed +by the study of colours, to the neglect of the ideal beauty of +form, or propriety of expression. But if general censure was given +to that school from the sight of a picture of Titian, how much more +heavily, and more justly, would the censure fall on Paulo Veronese, +or more especially on Tintoret? And here I cannot avoid citing +Vasari's opinion of the style and manner of Tintoret. "Of all the +extraordinary geniuses," says he, "that have ever practised the art +of painting, for wild, capricious, extravagant, and fantastical +inventions, for furious impetuosity and boldness in the execution +of his work, there is none like Tintoret; his strange whims are +even beyond extravagance; and his works seem to be produced rather +by chance than in consequence of any previous design, as if he +wanted to convince the world that, the art was a trifle, and of the +most easy attainment." + +For my own part, when I speak of the Venetian painters, I wish to +be understood to mean Paulo Veronese and Tintoret, to the exclusion +of Titian; for though his style is not so pure as that of many +other of the Italian schools, yet there is a sort of senatorial +dignity about him, which, however awkward in his imitators, seems +to become him exceedingly. His portraits alone, from the nobleness +and simplicity of character which he always gave them, will entitle +him to the greatest respect, as he undoubtedly stands in the first +rank in this branch of the art. + +It is not with Titian, but with the seducing qualities of the two +former, that I could wish to caution you, against being too much +captivated. These are the persons who may be said to have +exhausted all the powers of florid eloquence, to debauch the young +and unexperienced, and have, without doubt, been the cause of +turning off the attention of the connoisseur and of the patron of +art, as well as that of the painter, from those higher excellences +of which the art is capable, and which ought to be required in +every considerable production. By them, and their imitators, a +style merely ornamental has been disseminated throughout all +Europe. Rubens carried it to Flanders, Voet to France, and Luca +Giordano to Spain and Naples. + +The Venetian is indeed the most splendid of the schools of +elegance; and it is not without reason that the best performances +in this lower school are valued higher than the second-rate +performances of those above them; for every picture has value when +it has a decided character, and is excellent in its kind. But the +student must take care not to be so much dazzled with this +splendour as to be tempted to imitate what must ultimately lead +from perfection. Poussin, whose eye was always steadily fixed on +the sublime, has been often heard to say, "That a particular +attention to colouring was an obstacle to the student in his +progress to the great end and design of the art; and that he who +attaches himself to this principal end will acquire by practice a +reasonably good method of colouring." + +Though it be allowed that elaborate harmony of colouring, a +brilliancy of tints, a soft and gradual transition from one to +another, present to the eye what an harmonious concert of music +does to the ear, it must be remembered that painting is not merely +a gratification of the sight. Such excellence, though properly +cultivated where nothing higher than elegance is intended, is weak +and unworthy of regard, when the work aspires to grandeur and +sublimity. + +The same reasons that have been urged why a mixture of the Venetian +style cannot improve the great style will hold good in regard to +the Flemish and Dutch schools. Indeed, the Flemish school, of +which Rubens is the head, was formed upon that of the Venetian; +like them, he took his figures too much from the people before him. +But it must be allowed in favour of the Venetians that he was more +gross than they, and carried all their mistaken methods to a far +greater excess. In the Venetian school itself, where they all err +from the same cause, there is a difference in the effect. The +difference between Paulo and Bassano seems to be only that one +introduced Venetian gentlemen into his pictures, and the other the +boors of the district of Bassano, and called them patriarchs and +prophets. + +The painters of the Dutch school have still more locality. With +them, a history piece is properly a portrait of themselves; whether +they describe the inside or outside of their houses, we have their +own people engaged in their own peculiar occupations, working or +drinking, playing or fighting. The circumstances that enter into a +picture of this kind are so far from giving a general view of human +life that they exhibit all the minute particularities of a nation +differing in several respects from the rest of mankind. Yet, let +them have their share of more humble praise. The painters of this +school are excellent in their own way; they are only ridiculous +when they attempt general history on their own narrow principles, +and debase great events by the meanness of their characters. + +Some inferior dexterity, some extraordinary mechanical power, is +apparently that from which they seek distinction. Thus, we see, +that school alone has the custom of representing candle-light, not +as it really appears to us by night, but red, as it would +illuminate objects to a spectator by day. Such tricks, however +pardonable in the little style, where petty effects are the sole +end, are inexcusable in the greater, where the attention should +never be drawn aside by trifles, but should be entirely occupied by +the subject itself. + +The same local principles which characterise the Dutch school +extend even to their landscape painters; and Rubens himself, who +has painted many landscapes, has sometimes transgressed in this +particular. Their pieces in this way are, I think, always a +representation of an individual spot, and each in its kind a very +faithful but very confined portrait. + +Claude Lorraine, on the contrary, was convinced that taking nature +as he found it seldom produced beauty. His pictures are a +composition of the various draughts which he has previously made +from various beautiful scenes and prospects. However, Rubens in +some measure has made amends for the deficiency with which he is +charged; he has contrived to raise and animate his otherwise +uninteresting views, by introducing a rainbow, storm, or some +particular accidental effect of light. That the practice of Claude +Lorraine, in respect to his choice, is to be adopted by landscape +painters, in opposition to that of the Flemish and Dutch schools, +there can be no doubt, as its truth is founded upon the same +principle as that by which the historical painter acquires perfect +form. But whether landscape painting has a right to aspire so far +as to reject what the painters call accidents of nature is not easy +to determine. It is certain Claude Lorraine seldom, if ever, +availed himself of those accidents; either he thought that such +peculiarities were contrary to that style of general nature which +he professed, or that it would catch the attention too strongly, +and destroy that quietness and repose which he thought necessary to +that kind of painting. + +A portrait painter likewise, when he attempts history, unless he is +upon his guard, is likely to enter too much into the detail. He +too frequently makes his historical heads look like portraits; and +this was once the custom amongst those old painters who revived the +art before general ideas were practised or understood. A history +painter paints man in general; a portrait painter, a particular +man, and consequently a defective model. + +Thus an habitual practice in the lower exercises of the art will +prevent many from attaining the greater. But such of us who move +in these humbler walks of the profession are not ignorant that, as +the natural dignity of the subject is less, the more all the little +ornamental helps are necessary to its embellishment. It would be +ridiculous for a painter of domestic scenes, of portraits, +landscapes, animals, or of still life, to say that he despised +those qualities which have made the subordinate schools so famous. +The art of colouring, and the skilful management of light and +shadow, are essential requisites in his confined labours. If we +descend still lower, what is the painter of fruit and flowers +without the utmost art in colouring, and what the painters call +handling; that is, a lightness of pencil that implies great +practice, and gives the appearance of being done with ease? Some +here, I believe, must remember a flower-painter whose boast it was +that he scorned to paint for the million; no, he professed to paint +in the true Italian taste; and despising the crowd, called +strenuously upon the few to admire him. His idea of the Italian +taste was to paint as black and dirty as he could, and to leave all +clearness and brilliancy of colouring to those who were fonder of +money than of immortality. The consequence was such as might be +expected. For these pretty excellences are here essential +beauties; and without this merit the artist's work will be more +short-lived than the objects of his imitation. + +From what has been advanced, we must now be convinced that there +are two distinct styles in history painting: the grand, and the +splendid or ornamental. + +The great style stands alone, and does not require, perhaps does +not so well admit, any addition from inferior beauties. The +ornamental style also possesses its own peculiar merit. However, +though the union of the two may make a sort of composite style, yet +that style is likely to be more imperfect than either of those +which go to its composition. Both kinds have merit, and may be +excellent though in different ranks, if uniformity be preserved, +and the general and particular ideas of nature be not mixed. Even +the meanest of them is difficult enough to attain; and the first +place being already occupied by the great artists in either +department, some of those who followed thought there was less room +for them, and feeling the impulse of ambition and the desire of +novelty, and being at the same time perhaps willing to take the +shortest way, they endeavoured to make for themselves a place +between both. This they have effected by forming a union of the +different orders. But as the grave and majestic style would suffer +by a union with the florid and gay, so also has the Venetian +ornament in some respect been injured by attempting an alliance +with simplicity. + +It may be asserted that the great style is always more or less +contaminated by any meaner mixture. But it happens in a few +instances that the lower may be improved by borrowing from the +grand. Thus, if a portrait painter is desirous to raise and +improve his subject, he has no other means than by approaching it +to a general idea. He leaves out all the minute breaks and +peculiarities in the face, and changes the dress from a temporary +fashion to one more permanent, which has annexed to it no ideas of +meanness from its being familiar to us. But if an exact +resemblance of an individual be considered as the sole object to be +aimed at, the portrait painter will be apt to lose more than he +gains by the acquired dignity taken from general nature. It is +very difficult to ennoble the character of a countenance but at the +expense of the likeness, which is what is most generally required +by such as sit to the painter. + +Of those who have practised the composite style, and have succeeded +in this perilous attempt, perhaps the foremost is Correggio. His +style is founded upon modern grace and elegance, to which is super, +added something of the simplicity of the grand style. A breadth of +light and colour, the general ideas of the drapery, an +uninterrupted flow of outline, all conspire to this effect. Next +him (perhaps equal to him) Parmegiano has dignified the genteelness +of modern effeminacy by uniting it with the simplicity of the +ancients and the grandeur and severity of Michael Angelo. It must +be confessed, however, that these two extraordinary men, by +endeavouring to give the utmost degree of grace, have sometimes, +perhaps, exceeded its boundaries, and have fallen into the most +hateful of all hateful qualities, affectation. Indeed, it is the +peculiar characteristic of men of genius to be afraid of coldness +and insipidity, from which they think they never can be too far +removed. It particularly happens to these great masters of grace +and elegance. They often boldly drive on to the very verge of +ridicule; the spectator is alarmed, but at the same time admires +their vigour and intrepidity. + + +Strange graces still, and stranger flights they had, +. . . +Yet ne'er so sure our passion to create +Ae when they touch'd the brink of all we hate. + + +The errors of genius, however, are pardonable, and none even of the +more exalted painters are wholly free from them; but they have +taught us, by the rectitude of their general practice, to correct +their own affected or accidental deviation. The very first have +not been always upon their guard, and perhaps there is not a fault +but what may take shelter under the most venerable authorities; yet +that style only is perfect in which the noblest principles are +uniformly pursued; and those masters only are entitled to the first +rank in, our estimation who have enlarged the boundaries of their +art, and have raised it to its highest dignity, by exhibiting the +general ideas of nature. + +On the whole, it seems to me that there is but one presiding +principle which regulates and gives stability to every art. The +works, whether of poets, painters, moralists, or historians, which +are built upon general nature, live for ever; while those which +depend for their existence on particular customs and habits, a +partial view of nature, or the fluctuation of fashion, can only be +coeval with that which first raised them from obscurity. Present +time and future maybe considered as rivals, and he who solicits the +one must expect to be discountenanced by the other. + + + +A DISCOURSE + + + +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution +of the Prizes, December 10, 1772, by the President. + +Gentlemen,--I purpose to carry on in this discourse the subject +which I began in my last. It was my wish upon that occasion to +incite you to pursue the higher excellences of the art. But I fear +that in this particular I have been misunderstood. Some are ready +to imagine, when any of their favourite acquirements in the art are +properly classed, that they are utterly disgraced. This is a very +great mistake: nothing has its proper lustre but in its proper +place. That which is most worthy of esteem in its allotted sphere +becomes an object, not of respect, but of derision, when it is +forced into a higher, to which it is not suited; and there it +becomes doubly a source of disorder, by occupying a situation which +is not natural to it, and by putting down from the first place what +is in reality of too much magnitude to become with grace and +proportion that subordinate station, to which something of less +value would be much better suited. + +My advice in a word is this: keep your principal attention fixed +upon the higher excellences. If you compass them and compass +nothing more, you are still in the first class. We may regret the +innumerable beauties which you may want: you may be very +imperfect: but still, you are an imperfect person of the highest +order. + +If, when you have got thus far, you can add any, or all, of the +subordinate qualifications, it is my wish and advice that you +should not neglect them. + +But this is as much a matter of circumspection and caution at least +as of eagerness and pursuit. + +The mind is apt to be distracted by a multiplicity of pursuits; and +that scale of perfection, which I wish always to be preserved, is +in the greatest danger of being totally disordered, and even +inverted. + +Some excellences bear to be united, and are improved by union, +others are of a discordant nature; and the attempt to join them +only produces a harsher jarring of incongruent principles. + +The attempt to unite contrary excellences (of form, for instance) +in a single figure, can never escape degenerating into the +monstrous, but by sinking into the insipid, taking away its marked +character, and weakening its expression. + +This remark is true to a certain degree with regard to the +passions. If you mean to preserve the most perfect beauty in its +most perfect state, you cannot express the passions, which produce +(all of them) distortion and deformity, more or less, in the most +beautiful faces. + +Guido, from want of choice in adapting his subject to his ideas and +his powers, or in attempting to preserve beauty where it could not +be preserved has in this respect succeeded very ill. His figures +are often engaged in subjects that required great expression: yet +his "Judith and Holofernes," the "Daughter of Herodias with the +Baptist's Head," the "Andromeda," and even the "Mothers of the +Innocents," have little more expression than his "Venus attired by +the Graces." + +Obvious as these remarks appear, there are many writers on our art, +who, not being of the profession, and consequently not knowing what +can or what cannot be done, have been very liberal of absurd +praises in their descriptions of favourite works. They always find +in them what they are resolved to find. They praise excellences +that can hardly exist together, and above all things are fond of +describing with great exactness the expression of a mixed passion, +which more particularly appears to me out of the reach of our art. + +Such are many disquisitions which I have read on some of the +cartoons and other pictures of Raffaelle, where the critics have +described their own imagination; or indeed where the excellent +master himself may have attempted this expression of passions above +the powers of the art; and has, therefore, by an indistinct and +imperfect marking, left room for every imagination, with equal +probability to find a passion of his own. What has been, and what +can be done in the art, is sufficiently difficult; we need not be +mortified or discouraged for not being able to execute the +conceptions of a romantic imagination. Art has its boundaries, +though imagination has none. We can easily, like the ancients, +suppose a Jupiter to be possessed of all those powers and +perfections which the subordinate Deities were endowed with +separately. Yet, when they employed their art to represent him, +they confined his character to majesty alone. Pliny, therefore, +though we are under great obligations to him for the information he +has given us in relation to the works of the ancient artists, is +very frequently wrong when he speaks of them, which he does very +often in the style of many of our modern connoisseurs. He observes +that in a statue of Paris, by Fuphranor, you might discover at the +same time three different characters; the dignity of a judge of the +goddesses, the lover of Helen, and the conqueror of Achilles. A +statue in which you endeavour to unite stately dignity, youthful +elegance, and stern valour, must surely possess none of these to +any eminent degree. + +From hence it appears that there is much difficulty as well as +danger in an endeavour to concentrate upon a single subject those +various powers which, rising from different points, naturally move +in different directions. + +The summit of excellence seems to be an assemblage of contrary +qualities, but mixed, in such proportions, that no one part is +found to counteract the other. How hard this is to be attained in +every art, those only know who have made the greatest progress in +their respective professions. + +To conclude what I have to say on this part of the subject, which I +think of great importance, I wish you to understand that I do not +discourage the younger students from the noble attempt of uniting +all the excellences of art, but to make them aware that, besides +the difficulties which attend every arduous attempt, there is a +peculiar difficulty in the choice of the excellences which ought to +be united; I wish you to attend to this, that you may try +yourselves, whenever you are capable of that trial, what you can, +and what you cannot do: and that, instead of dissipating your +natural faculties over the immense field of possible excellence, +you may choose some particular walk in which you may exercise all +your powers, in order each of you to be the first in his way. If +any man shall be master of such a transcendant, commanding, and +ductile genius, as to enable him to rise to the highest, and to +stoop to the lowest flights of art, and to sweep over all of them +unobstructed and secure, he is fitter to give example than to +receive instruction. + +Having said thus much on the union of excellences, I will next say +something of the subordination in which various excellences ought +to be kept. + +I am of opinion that the ornamental style, which in my discourse of +last year I cautioned you against considering as principal, may not +be wholly unworthy the attention of those who aim even at the grand +style; when it is properly placed and properly reduced. + +But this study will be used with far better effect, if its +principles are employed in softening the harshness and mitigating +the rigour of the great style, than if in attempt to stand forward +with any pretensions of its own to positive and original +excellence. + +It was thus Lodovico Caracci, whose example I formerly recommended +to you, employed it. He was acquainted with the works both of +Correggio and the Venetian painters, and knew the principles by +which they produced those pleasing effects which at the first +glance prepossess us so much in their favour; but he took only as +much from each as would embellish, but not overpower, that manly +strength and energy of style, which is his peculiar character. + +Since I have already expatiated so largely in my former discourse, +and in my present, upon the styles and characters of painting, it +will not be at all unsuitable to my subject if I mention to you +some particulars relative to the leading principles, and capital +works of those who excelled in the great style, that I may bring +you from abstraction nearer to practice, and by exemplifying the +propositions which I have laid down, enable you to understand more +clearly what I would enforce. + +The principal works of modern art are in fresco, a mode of painting +which excludes attention to minute elegancies: yet these works in +fresco are the productions on which the fame of the greatest +masters depend: such are the pictures of Michael Angelo and +Raffaelle in the Vatican, to which we may add the cartoons, which, +though not strictly to be called fresco, yet may be put under that +denomination; and such are the works of Giulio Romano at Mantua. +If these performances were destroyed, with them would be lost the +best part of the reputation of those illustrious painters, for +these are justly considered as the greatest efforts of our art +which the world can boast. To these, therefore, we should +principally direct our attention for higher excellences. As for +the lower arts, as they have been once discovered, they may be +easily attained by those possessed of the former. + +Raffaelle, who stands in general foremost of the first painters, +owes his reputation, as I have observed, to his excellence in the +higher parts of the art. Therefore, his works in fresco ought to +be the first object of our study and attention. His easel-works +stand in a lower degree of estimation; for though he continually, +to the day of his death, embellished his works more and more with +the addition of these lower ornaments, which entirely make the +merit of some, yet he never arrived at such perfection as to make +him an object of imitation. He never was able to conquer perfectly +that dryness, or even littleness of manner, which he inherited from +his master. He never acquired that nicety of taste in colours, +that breadth of light and shadow, that art and management of +uniting light, to light, and shadow to shadow, so as to make the +object rise out of the ground with that plenitude of effect so much +admired in the works of Correggio. When he painted in oil, his +hand seemed to be so cramped and confined that he not only lost +that facility and spirit, but I think even that correctness of +form, which is so perfect and admirable in his fresco works. I do +not recollect any pictures of his of this kind, except perhaps the +"Transfiguration," in which there are not some parts that appear to +be even feebly drawn. That this is not a necessary attendant on +oil-painting, we have abundant instances in more modern painters. +Lodovico Caracci, for instance, preserved in his works in oil the +same spirit, vigour, and correctness, which he had in fresco. I +have no desire to degrade Raffaelle from the high rank which he +deservedly holds: but by comparing him with himself, he does not +appear to me to be the same man in oil as in fresco. + +From those who have ambition to tread in this great walk of the +art, Michael Angelo claims the next attention. He did not possess +so many excellences as Raffaelle, but those he had were of the +highest kind. He considered the art as consisting of little more +than what may be attained by sculpture, correctness of form, and +energy of character. We ought not to expect more than an artist +intends in his work. He never attempted those lesser elegancies +and graces in the art. Vasari says, he never painted but one +picture in oil, and resolved never to paint another, saying it was +an employment only fit for women and children. + +If any man had a right to look down upon the lower accomplishments +as beneath his attention, it was certainly Michael Angelo: nor can +it be thought strange that such a mind should have slighted or have +been withheld from paying due attention to all those graces and +embellishments of art which have diffused such lustre over the +works of other painters. + +It must be acknowledged likewise, that together with these, which +we wish he had more attended to, he has rejected all the false +though specious ornaments which disgrace the works even of the most +esteemed artists; and I will venture to say, that when those higher +excellences are more known and cultivated by the artists and the +patrons of arts, his fame and credit will increase with our +increasing knowledge. His name will then be held in the same +veneration as it was in the enlightened age of Leo the Tenth: and +it is remarkable that the reputation of this truly great man has +been continually declining as the art itself has declined. For I +must remark to you, that it has long been much on the decline, and +that our only hope of its revival will consist in your being +thoroughly sensible of its depravation and decay. It is to Michael +Angelo that we owe even the existence of Raffaelle; it is to him +Raffaelle owes the grandeur of his style. He was taught by him to +elevate his thoughts, and to conceive his subjects with dignity. +His genius, however, formed to blaze and to shine, might, like fire +in combustible matter, for ever have lain dormant if it had not +caught a spark by its contact with Michael Angelo: and though it +never burst out with that extraordinary heat and vehemence, yet it +must be acknowledged to be a more pure, regular, and chaste flame. +Though our judgment will upon the whole decide in favour of +Raffaelle: yet he never takes that firm hold and entire possession +of the mind in such a manner as to desire nothing else, and feel +nothing wanting. The effect of the capital works of Michael Angelo +perfectly correspond to what Bourchardon said he felt from reading +Homer. His whole frame appeared to himself to be enlarged, and all +nature which surrounded him diminished to atoms. + +If we put those great artists in a light of comparison with each +other, Raffaelle had more taste and fancy, Michael Angelo more +genius and imagination. The one excelled in beauty, the other in +energy. Michael Angelo has more of the poetical inspiration; his +ideas are vast and sublime; his people are a superior order of +beings; there is nothing about them, nothing in the air of their +actions or their attitudes, or the style and cast of their very +limbs or features, that puts one in mind of their belonging, to our +own species. Raffaelle's imagination is not so elevated; his +figures are not so much disjoined from our own diminutive race of +beings, though his ideas are chaste, noble, and of great conformity +to their subjects. Michael Angelo's works have a strong, peculiar, +and marked character; they seem to proceed from his own mind +entirely, and that mind so rich and abundant, that he never needed, +or seemed to disdain, to look abroad for foreign help. Raffaelle's +materials are generally borrowed, though the noble structure is his +own. The excellency of this extraordinary man lay in the +propriety, beauty, and majesty of his characters, his judicious +contrivance of his composition, correctness of drawing, purity of +taste, and the skilful accommodation of other men's conceptions to +his own purpose. Nobody excelled him in that judgment, with which +he united to his own observations on nature the energy of Michael +Angelo, and the beauty and simplicity of the antique. To the +question, therefore, which ought to hold the first rank, Raffaelle +or Michael Angelo, it must be answered, that if it is to be given +to him who possessed a greater combination of the higher qualities +of the art than any other man, there is no doubt but Raffaelle is +the first. But if, according to Longinus, the sublime, being the +highest excellence that human composition can attain to, abundantly +compensates the absence of every other beauty, and atones for all +other deficiencies, then Michael Angelo demands the preference. + +These two extraordinary men carried some of the higher excellences +of the art to a greater degree of perfection than probably they +ever arrived at before. They certainly have not been excelled, nor +equalled since. Many of their successors were induced to leave +this great road as a beaten path, endeavouring to surprise and +please by something uncommon or new. When this desire after +novelty has proceeded from mere idleness or caprice, it is not +worth the trouble of criticism; but when it has been in consequence +of a busy mind of a peculiar complexion, it is always striking and +interesting, never insipid. + +Such is the great style as it appears in those who possessed it at +its height; in this, search after novelty in conception or in +treating the subject has no place. + +But there is another style, which, though inferior to the former, +has still great merit, because it shows that those who cultivated +it were men of lively and vigorous imagination. This I call the +original or characteristical style; this, being less referred to +any true architype existing either in general or particular nature, +must be supported by the painter's consistency in the principles he +has assumed, and in the union and harmony of his whole design. The +excellency of every style, but I think of the subordinate ones more +especially, will very much depend on preserving that union and +harmony between all the component parts, that they appear to hang +well together, as if the whole proceeded from one mind. It is in +the works of art, as in the characters of men. The faults or +defects of some men seem to become them when they appear to be the +natural growth, and of a piece with the rest of their character. A +faithful picture of a mind, though it be not of the most elevated +kind, though it be irregular, wild, and incorrect, yet if it be +marked with that spirit and firmness which characterises works of +genius, will claim attention, and be more striking than a +combination of excellences that do not seem to hang well together, +or we may say than a work that possesses even all excellences, but +those in a moderate degree. + +One of the strongest marked characters of this kind, which must be +allowed to be subordinate to the great style, is that of Salvator +Rosa. He gives us a peculiar cast of nature, which, though void of +all grace, elegance, and simplicity; though it has nothing of that +elevation and dignity which belongs to the grand style, yet has +that sort of dignity which belongs to savage and uncultivated +nature. But what is most to be admired in him is the perfect +correspondence which he observed between the subjects which he +chose, and his manner of treating them. Everything is of a piece: +his rocks, trees, sky, even to his handling have the same rude and +wild character which animates his figures. + +To him we may contrast the character of Carlo Maratti, who, in my +own opinion, had no great vigour of mind or strength of original +genius. He rarely seizes the imagination by exhibiting the higher +excellences, nor does he captivate us by that originality which +attends the painter who thinks for himself. He knew and practised +all the rules of art, and from a composition of Raffaelle, Caracci, +and Guido, made up a style, of which its only fault was, that it +had no manifest defects and no striking beauties, and that the +principles of his composition are never blended together, so as to +form one uniform body, original in its kind, or excellent in any +view. + +I will mention two other painters who, though entirely dissimilar, +yet by being each consistent with himself, and possessing a manner +entirely his own, have both gained reputation, though for very +opposite accomplishments. + +The painters I mean are Rubens and Poussin. Rubens I mention in +this place, as I think him a remarkable instance of the same mind +being seen in all the various parts of the art. The whole is so +much of a piece that one can scarce be brought to believe but that +if any one of them had been more correct and perfect, his works +would not be so complete as they now appear. If we should allow a +greater purity and correctness of drawing, his want of simplicity +in composition, colouring, and drapery would appear more gross. + +In his composition his art is too apparent. His figures have +expression, and act with energy, but without simplicity or dignity. +His colouring, in which he is eminently skilled, is, +notwithstanding, too much of what we call tinted. Throughout the +whole of his works there is a proportionable want of that nicety of +distinction and elegance of mind which is required in the higher +walks of painting; and to this want it may be in some degree +ascribed that those qualities which make the excellency of this +subordinate style appear in him with their greatest lustre. +Indeed, the facility with which he invented, the richness of his +composition, the luxuriant harmony and brilliancy of his colouring, +so dazzle the eye, that whilst his works continue before us we +cannot help thinking that all his deficiencies are fully supplied. + +Opposed to this florid, careless, loose, and inaccurate style, that +of the simple, careful, pure, and correct style of Poussin seems to +be a complete contrast. + +Yet however opposite their characters, in one thing they agreed, +both of them having a perfect correspondence between all the parts +of their respective manners. + +One is not sure but every alteration of what is considered as +defective in either, would destroy the effect of the whole. + +Poussin lived and conversed with the ancient statues so long, that +he may be said to be better acquainted with then than with the +people who were about him. I have often thought that he carried +his veneration for them so far as to wish to give his works the air +of ancient paintings. It is certain he copied some of the antique +paintings, particularly the "Marriage in the Albrobrandini Palace +at Rome," which I believe to be the best relique of those remote +ages that has yet been found. + +No works of any modern has so much of the air of antique painting +as those of Poussin. His best performances have a remarkable +dryness of manner, which, though by no means to be recommended for +imitation, yet seems perfectly correspondent to that ancient +simplicity which distinguishes his style. Like Polidoro he studied +them so much, that he acquired a habit of thinking in their way, +and seemed to know perfectly the actions and gestures they would +use on every occasion. + +Poussin in the latter part of his life changed from his dry manner +to one much softer and richer, where there is a greater union +between the figures and the ground, such as the "Seven Sacraments" +in the Duke of Orleans' collection; but neither these, nor any in +this manner, are at all comparable to many in his dry manner which +we have in England. + +The favourite subjects of Poussin were ancient fables; and no +painter was ever better qualified to paint such subjects, not only +from his being eminently skilled in the knowledge of ceremonies, +customs, and habits of the ancients, but from his being so well +acquainted with the different characters which those who invented +them gave their allegorical figures. Though Rubens has shown great +fancy in his Satyrs, Silenuses, and Fauns, yet they are not that +distinct separate class of beings which is carefully exhibited by +the ancients and by Poussin. Certainly when such subjects of +antiquity are represented, nothing in the picture ought to remind +us of modern times. The mind is thrown back into antiquity, and +nothing ought to be introduced that may tend to awaken it from the +illusion. + +Poussin seemed to think that the style and the language in which +such stories are told is not the worse for preserving some relish +of the old way of painting which seemed to give a general +uniformity to the whole, so that the mind was thrown back into +antiquity not only by the subject, but the execution. + +If Poussin, in imitation of the ancients, represents Apollo driving +his chariot out of the sea by way of representing the sun rising, +if he personifies lakes and rivers, it is no ways offensive in him; +but seems perfectly of a piece with the general air of the picture. +On the contrary, if the figures which people his pictures had a +modern air or countenance, if they appeared like our countrymen, if +the draperies were like cloth or silk of our manufacture, if the +landscape had the appearance of a modern view, how ridiculous would +Apollo appear instead of the sun, an old man or a nymph with an urn +instead of a river or lake. + +I cannot avoid mentioning here a circumstance in portrait painting +which may help to confirm what has been said. + +When a portrait is painted in the historical style, as it is +neither an exact minute representation of an individual nor +completely ideal, every circumstance ought to correspond to this +mixture. The simplicity of the antique air and attitude, however +much to be admired, is ridiculous when joined to a figure in a +modern dress. It is not to my purpose to enter into the question +at present, whether this mixed style ought to be adopted or not; +yet if it is chosen it is necessary it should be complete and all +of a piece: the difference of stuffs, for instance, which make the +clothing, should be distinguished in the same degree as the head +deviates from a general idea. + +Without this union, which I have so often recommended, a work can +have no marked and determined character, which is the peculiar and +constant evidence of genius. But when this is accomplished to a +high degree, it becomes in some sort a rival to that style which we +have fixed as the highest. + +Thus I have given a sketch of the characters of Rubens and Salvator +Rosa, as they appear to me to have the greatest uniformity of mind +throughout their whole work. But we may add to these, all these +artists who are at the head of the class, and have had a school of +imitators from Michael Angelo down to Watteau. Upon the whole it +appears that setting aside the ornamental style, there are two +different paths, either of which a student may take without +degrading the dignity of his art. The first is to combine the +higher excellences and embellish them to the greatest advantage. +The other is to carry one of these excellences to the highest +degree. But those who possess neither must be classed with them, +who, as Shakespeare says, are men of no mark or likelihood. + +I inculcate as frequently as I can your forming yourselves upon +great principles and great models. Your time will be much misspent +in every other pursuit. Small excellences should be viewed, not +studied; they ought to be viewed, because nothing ought to escape a +painter's observation, but for no other reason. + +There is another caution which I wish to give you. Be as select in +those whom you endeavour to please, as in those whom you endeavour +to imitate. Without the love of fame you can never do anything +excellent; but by an excessive and undistinguishing thirst after +it, you will come to have vulgar views; you will degrade your +style; and your taste will be entirely corrupted. It is certain +that the lowest style will be the most popular, as it falls within +the compass of ignorance itself; and the vulgar will always be +pleased with what is natural in the confined and misunderstood +sense of the word. + +One would wish that such depravation of taste should be +counteracted, with such manly pride as Euripides expressed to the +Athenians, who criticised his works, "I do not compose," says he, +"my works in order to be corrected by you, but to instruct you." +It is true, to have a right to speak thus, a man must be a +Euripides. However, thus much may be allowed, that when an artist +is sure that he is upon firm ground, supported by the authority and +practice of his predecessors of the greatest reputation, he may +then assume the boldness and intrepidity of genius; at any rate, he +must not be tempted out of the right path by any tide of popularity +that always accompanies the lower styles of painting. + +I mention this, because our exhibitions, that produce such +admirable effects by nourishing emulation, and calling out genius, +have also a mischievous tendency by seducing the painter to an +ambition of pleasing indiscriminately the mixed multitude of people +who resort to them. + + + +A DISCOURSE + + + +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution +of the Prizes, December 10, 1774, by the President. + +Gentlemen,--When I have taken the liberty of addressing you on the +course and order of your studies, I never proposed to enter into a +minute detail of the art. This I have always left to the several +professors, who pursue the end of our institution with the highest +honour to themselves, and with the greatest advantage to the +students. + +My purpose in the discourses I have held in the Academy is to lay +down certain general ideas, which seem to me proper for the +formation of a sound taste; principles necessary to guard the +pupils against those errors into which the sanguine temper common +at their time of life, has a tendency to lead them, and which have +rendered abortive the hopes of so many successions of promising +young men in all parts of Europe. + +I wish, also, to intercept and suppress those prejudices which +particularly prevail when the mechanism of painting is come to its +perfection, and which when they do prevail are certain to prevail +to the utter destruction of the higher and more valuable parts of +this literate and liberal profession. + +These two have been my principal purposes; they are still as much +my concern as ever; and if I repeat my own ideas on the subject, +you who know how fast mistake and prejudice, when neglected, gain +ground upon truth and reason, will easily excuse me. I only +attempt to set the same thing in the greatest variety of lights. + +The subject of this discourse will be imitation, as far as a +painter is concerned in it. By imitation I do not mean imitation +in its largest sense, but simply the following of other masters, +and the advantage to be drawn from the study of their works. + +Those who have undertaken to write on our art, and have represented +it as a kind of inspiration, as a gift bestowed upon peculiar +favourites at their birth, seem to ensure a much more favourable +disposition from their readers, and have a much more captivating +and liberal air, than he who goes about to examine, coldly, whether +there are any means by which this art may be acquired; how our mind +may be strengthened and expanded, and what guides will show the way +to eminence. + +It is very natural for those who are unacquainted with the cause of +anything extraordinary to be astonished at the effect, and to +consider it as a kind of magic. They, who have never observed the +gradation by which art is acquired, who see only what is the full +result of long labour and application of an infinite number, and +infinite variety of acts, are apt to conclude from their entire +inability to do the same at once, that it is not only inaccessible +to themselves, but can be done by those only who have some gift of +the nature of inspiration bestowed upon them. + +The travellers into the East tell us that when the ignorant +inhabitants of these countries are asked concerning the ruins of +stately edifices yet remaining amongst them, the melancholy +monuments of their former grandeur and long-lost science, they +always answer that they were built by magicians. The untaught mind +finds a vast gulf between its own powers and these works of +complicated art which it is utterly unable to fathom. And it +supposes that such a void can be passed only by supernatural +powers. + +And, as for artists themselves, it is by no means their interest to +undeceive such judges, however conscious they may be of the very +natural means by which the extraordinary powers were acquired; our +art being intrinsically imitative, rejects this idea of inspiration +more, perhaps, than any other. + +It is to avoid this plain confession of truth, as it should seem, +that this imitation of masters--indeed, almost all imitation which +implies a more regular and progressive method of attaining the ends +of painting--has ever been particularly inveighed against with +great keenness, both by ancient and modern writers. + +To derive all from native power, to owe nothing to another, is the +praise which men, who do not much think what they are saying, +bestow sometimes upon others, and sometimes on themselves; and +their imaginary dignity is naturally heightened by a supercilious +censure of the low, the barren, the grovelling, the servile +imitator. It would be no wonder if a student, frightened by these +terrors and disgraceful epithets, with which the poor imitators are +so often loaded, should let fall his pencil in mere despair, +conscious how much he has been indebted to the labours of others, +how little, how very little of his art was born with him; and, +considering it as hopeless, to set about acquiring by the imitation +of any human master what he is taught to suppose is matter of +inspiration from heaven. + +Some allowance must be made for what is said in the gaiety or +ambition of rhetoric. We cannot suppose that any one can really +mean to exclude all imitation of others. A position so wild would +scarce deserve a serious answer, for it is apparent, if we were +forbid to make use of the advantages which our predecessors afford +us, the art would be always to begin, and consequently remain +always in its infant state; and it is a common observation that no +art was ever invented and carried to perfection at the same time. + +But to bring us entirely to reason and sobriety, let it be +observed, that a painter must not only be of necessity an imitator +of the works of nature, which alone is sufficient to dispel this +phantom of inspiration, but he must be as necessarily an imitator +of the works of other painters. This appears more humiliating, but +it is equally true; and no man can be an artist, whatever he may +suppose, upon any other terms. + +However, those who appear more moderate and reasonable allow that +study is to begin by imitation, but that we should no longer use +the thoughts of our predecessors when we are become able to think +for ourselves. They hold that imitation is as hurtful to the more +advanced student as it was advantageous to the beginner. + +For my own part, I confess I am not only very much disposed to lay +down the absolute necessity of imitation in the first stages of the +art, but am of opinion that the study of other masters, which I +here call imitation, may be extended throughout our whole life +without any danger of the inconveniences with which it is charged, +of enfeebling the mind, or preventing us from giving that original +air which every work undoubtedly ought always to have. + +I am, on the contrary, persuaded that by imitation only, variety, +and even originality of invention is produced. + +I will go further; even genius, at least what generally is so +called, is the child of imitation. But as this appears to be +contrary to the general opinion, I must explain my position before +I enforce it. + +Genius is supposed to be a power of producing excellences which are +out of the reach of the rules of art--a power which no precepts can +teach, and which no industry can acquire. + +This opinion of the impossibility of acquiring those beauties which +stamp the work with the character of genius, supposes that it is +something more fixed than in reality it is, and that we always do, +and ever did agree, about what should be considered as a +characteristic of genius. + +But the truth is that the degree of excellence which proclaims +genius is different in different times and different places; and +what shows it to be so is that mankind have often changed their +opinion upon this matter. + +When the arts were in their infancy, the power of merely drawing +the likeness of any object was considered as one of its greatest +efforts. + +The common people, ignorant of the principles of art, talk the same +language even to this day. But when it was found that every man +could be taught to do this, and a great deal more, merely by the +observance of certain precepts, the name of genius then shifted its +application, and was given only to those who added the peculiar +character of the object they represented; to those who had +invention, expression, grace, or dignity; or, in short, such +qualities or excellences the producing of which could not then be +taught by any known and promulgated rules. + +We are very sure that the beauty of form, the expression of the +passions, the art of composition, even the power of giving a +general air of grandeur to your work, is at present very much under +the dominion of rules. These excellences were, heretofore, +considered merely as the effects of genius; and justly, if genius +is not taken for inspiration, but as the effect of close +observation and experience. + +He who first made any of these observations and digested them, so +as to form an invariable principle for himself to work by, had that +merit; but probably no one went very far at once; and generally the +first who gave the hint did not know how to pursue it steadily and +methodically, at least not in the beginning. He himself worked on +it, and improved it; others worked more, and improved farther, +until the secret was discovered, and the practice made as general +as refined practice can be made. How many more principles may be +fixed and ascertained we cannot tell; but as criticism is likely to +go hand in hand with the art which is its subject, we may venture +to say that as that art shall advance, its powers will be still +more and more fixed by rules. + +But by whatever strides criticism may gain ground, we need be under +no apprehension that invention will ever be annihilated or subdued, +or intellectual energy be brought entirely within the restraint of +written law. Genius will still have room enough to expatiate, and +keep always the same distance from narrow comprehension and +mechanical performance. + +What we now call genius begins, not where rules, abstractedly +taken, end, but where known vulgar and trite rules have no longer +any place. It must of necessity be that even works of genius, as +well as every other effect, as it must have its cause, must +likewise have its rules; it cannot be by chance that excellences +are produced with any constancy, or any certainty, for this is not +the nature of chance, but the rules by which men of extraordinary +parts, and such as are called men of genius work, are either such +as they discover by their own peculiar observation, or of such a +nice texture as not easily to admit handling or expressing in +words, especially as artists are not very frequently skilful in +that mode of communicating ideas. + +Unsubstantial, however, as these rules may seem, and difficult as +it may be to convey them in writing, they are still seen and felt +in the mind of the artist, and he works from them with as much +certainty as if they were embodied, as I may say, upon paper. It +is true these refined principles cannot be always made palpable, +like the more gross rules of art; yet it does not follow but that +the mind may be put in such a train that it shall perceive, by a +kind of scientific sense, that propriety which words, particularly +words of unpractised writers such as we are, can but very feebly +suggest. + +Invention is one of the great marks of genius, but if we consult +experience, we shall find that it is by being conversant with the +inventions of others that we learn to invent, as by reading the +thoughts of others we learn to think. + +Whoever has so far formed his taste as to be able to relish and +feel the beauties of the great masters has gone a great way in his +study; for, merely from a consciousness of this relish of the +right, the mind swells with an inward pride, and is almost as +powerfully affected as if it had itself produced what it admires. +Our hearts frequently warmed in this manner by the contact of those +whom we wish to resemble, will undoubtedly catch something of their +way of thinking, and we shall receive in our own bosoms some +radiation at least of their fire and splendour. That disposition, +which is so strong in children, still continues with us, of +catching involuntarily the general air and manner of those with +whom we are most conversant; with this difference only, that a +young mind is naturally pliable and imitative, but in a more +advanced state it grows rigid, and must be warmed and softened +before it will receive a deep impression. + +From these considerations, which a little of your reflection will +carry a great way further, it appears of what great consequence it +is that our minds should be habituated to the contemplation of +excellence, and that, far from being contented to make such habits +the discipline of our youth only, we should, to the last moment of +our lives, continue a settled intercourse with all the true +examples of grandeur. Their inventions are not only the food of +our infancy, but the substance which supplies the fullest maturity +of our vigour. + +The mind is but a barren soil; is a soil soon exhausted, and will +produce no crop, or only one, unless it be continually fertilised +and enriched with foreign matter. + +When we have had continually before us the great works of art to +impregnate our minds with kindred ideas, we are then, and not till +then, fit to produce something, of the same species. We behold all +about us with the eyes of these penetrating observers, and our +minds, accustomed to think the thoughts of the noblest and +brightest intellects, are prepared for the discovery and selection +of all that is great and noble in nature. The greatest natural +genius cannot subsist on its own stock: he who resolves never to +ransack any mind but his own will be soon reduced, from mere +barrenness, to the poorest of all imitations; he will be obliged to +imitate himself, and to repeat what he has before often repeated. +When we know the subject designed by such men, it will never be +difficult to guess what kind of work is to be produced. + +It is vain for painters or poets to endeavour to invent without +materials on which the mind may work, and from which invention must +originate. Nothing can come of nothing. + +Homer is supposed to be possessed of all the learning of his time. +And we are certain that Michael Angelo and Raffaelle were equally +possessed of all knowledge in the art which was discoverable in the +works of their predecessors. + +A mind enriched by an assemblage of all the treasures of ancient +and modern art will be more elevated and fruitful in resources in +proportion to the number of ideas which have been carefully +collected and thoroughly digested. There can be no doubt that he +who has the most materials has the greatest means of invention; and +if he has not the power of using them, it must proceed from a +feebleness of intellect or from the confused manner in which those +collections have been laid up in his mind. + +The addition of other men's judgment is so far from weakening, as +is the opinion of many, our own, that it will fashion and +consolidate those ideas of excellence which lay in their birth +feeble, ill-shaped, and confused, but which are finished and put in +order by the authority and practice of those whose works may be +said to have been consecrated by having stood the test of ages. + +The mind, or genius, has been compared to a spark of fire which is +smothered by a heap of fuel and prevented from blazing into a +flame. This simile, which is made use of by the younger Pliny, may +be easily mistaken for argument or proof. + +There is no danger of the mind's being over-burdened with +knowledge, or the genius extinguished by any addition of images; on +the contrary, these acquisitions may as well, perhaps better, be +compared, if comparisons signified anything in reasoning, to the +supply of living embers, which will contribute to strengthen the +spark that without the association of more would have died away. + +The truth is, he whose feebleness is such as to make other men's +thoughts an incumbrance to him can have no very great strength of +mind or genius of his own to be destroyed, so that not much harm +will be done at worst. + +We may oppose to Pliny the greater authority of Cicero, who is +continually enforcing the necessity of this method of study. In +his dialogue on Oratory he makes Crassus say, that one of the first +and most important precepts is to choose a proper model for our +imitation. Hoc fit primum in preceptis meis ut demonstremus quem +imitemur. + +When I speak of the habitual imitation and continued study of +masters, it is not to be understood that I advise any endeavour to +copy the exact peculiar colour and complexion of another man's +mind; the success of such an attempt must always be like his who +imitates exactly the air, manner, and gestures of him whom he +admires. His model may be excellent, but the copy will be +ridiculous; this ridicule does not arise from his having imitated, +but from his not having chosen the right mode of imitation. + +It is a necessary and warrantable pride to disdain to walk +servilely behind any individual, however elevated his rank. The +true and liberal ground of imitation is an open field, where, +though he who precedes has had the advantage of starting before +you, yet it is enough to pursue his course; you need not tread in +his footsteps, and you certainly have a right to outstrip him if +you can. + +Nor, whilst I recommend studying the art from artists, can I be +supposed to mean that nature is to be neglected? I take this study +in aid and not in exclusion of the other. Nature is, and must be, +the fountain which alone is inexhaustible; and from which all +excellences must originally flow. + +The great use of studying our predecessors is to open the mind, to +shorten our labour, and to give us the result of the selection made +by those great minds of what is grand or beautiful in nature: her +rich stores are all spread out before us; but it is an art, and no +easy art, to know how or what to choose, and how to attain and +secure the object of our choice. + +Thus the highest beauty of form must be taken from nature; but it +is an art of long deduction and great experience to know how to +find it. + +We must not content ourselves with merely admiring and relishing; +we must enter into the principles on which the work is wrought; +these do not swim on the superficies, and consequently are not open +to superficial observers. + +Art in its perfection is not ostentatious; it lies hid, and works +its effect itself unseen. It is the proper study and labour of an +artist to uncover and find out the latent cause of conspicuous +beauties, and from thence form principles for his own conduct; such +an examination is a continual exertion of the mind, as great, +perhaps, as that of the artist whose works he is thus studying. + +The sagacious imitator not only remarks what distinguishes the +different manner or genius of each master; he enters into the +contrivance in the composition, how the masses of lights are +disposed, the means by which the effect is produced, how artfully +some parts are lost in the ground, others boldly relieved, and how +all these are mutually altered and interchanged according to the +reason and scheme of the work. He admires not the harmony of +colouring alone, but he examines by what artifice one colour is a +foil to its neighbour. He looks close into the tints, of what +colours they are composed, till he has formed clear and distinct +ideas, and has learnt to see in what harmony and good colouring +consists. What is learnt in this manner from the works of others +becomes really our own, sinks deep, and is never forgotten; nay, it +is by seizing on this clue that we proceed forward, and get further +and further in enlarging the principle and improving the practice. + +There can be no doubt but the art is better learnt from the works +themselves than from the precepts which are formed upon these +works; but if it is difficult to choose proper models for +imitation, it requires no less circumspection to separate and +distinguish what in those models we ought to imitate. + +I cannot avoid mentioning here, though it is not my intention at +present to enter into the art and method of study, an error which +students are too apt to fall into. + +He that is forming himself must look with great caution and +wariness on those peculiarities, or prominent parts, which at first +force themselves upon view, and are the marks, or what is commonly +called the manner, by which that individual artist is +distinguished. + +Peculiar marks I hold to be generally, if not always, defects, +however difficult it may be, wholly to escape them. + +Peculiarities in the works of art are like those in the human +figure; it is by them that we are cognisable and distinguished one +from another, but they are always so many blemishes, which, +however, both in the one case and in the other, cease to appear +deformities to those who have them continually before their eyes. +In the works of art, even the most enlightened mind, when warmed by +beauties of the highest kind, will by degrees find a repugnance +within him to acknowledge any defects; nay, his enthusiasm will +carry him so far as to transform them into beauties and objects of +imitation. + +It must be acknowledged that a peculiarity of style, either from +its novelty, or by seeming to proceed from a peculiar turn of mind, +often escapes blame; on the contrary, it is sometimes striking and +pleasing; but this it is vain labour to endeavour to imitate, +because novelty and peculiarity being its only merit, when it +ceases to be new, it ceases to have value. + +A manner, therefore, being a defect, and every painter, however +excellent, having a manner, it seems to follow that all kinds of +faults, as well as beauties, may be learned under the sanction of +the greatest authorities. + +Even the great name of Michael Angelo may be used to keep in +countenance a deficiency, or rather neglect of colouring, and every +other ornamental part of the art. + +If the young student is dry and hard, Poussin is the same. If his +work has a careless and unfinished air, he has most of the Venetian +School to support him. If he makes no selection of objects, but +takes individual nature just as he finds it, he is like Rembrandt. +If he is incorrect in the proportions of his figures, Correggio was +likewise incorrect. If his colours are not blended and united, +Rubens was equally crude. + +In short, there is no defect but may be excused, if it is a +sufficient excuse that it can be imputed to considerable artists; +but it must be remembered that it was not by these defects they +acquired their reputation: they have a right to our pardon, but +not to our admiration. + +However, to imitate peculiarities or mistake defects for beauties +that man will be most liable who confines his imitation to one +favourite master; and, even though he chooses the best, and is +capable of distinguishing the real excellences of his model, it is +not by such narrow practice that a genius or mastery in the art is +acquired. A man is as little likely to form a true idea of the +perfection of the art by studying a single artist as he would be of +producing a perfectly beautiful figure by an exact imitation of any +individual living model. + +And as the painter, by bringing together in one piece those +beauties which are dispersed amongst a great variety of +individuals, produces a figure more beautiful than can be found in +nature, so that artist who can unite in himself the excellences of +the various painters, will approach nearer to perfection than any +one of his masters. + +He who confines himself to the imitation of an individual, as he +never proposes to surpass, so he is not likely to equal, the object +of imitation. He professes only to follow, and he that follows +must necessarily be behind. + +We should imitate the conduct of the great artists in the course of +their studies, as well as the works which they produced, when they +were perfectly formed. Raffaelle began by imitating implicitly the +manner of Pietro Perugino, under whom he studied; so his first +works are scarce to be distinguished from his master's; but soon +forming higher and more extensive views, he imitated the grand +outline of Michael Angelo. He learnt the manner of using colours +from the works of Leonardo da Vinci and Fratre Bartolomeo: to all +this he added the contemplation of all the remains of antiquity +that were within his reach, and employed others to draw for him +what was in Greece and distant places. And it is from his having +taken so many models that he became himself a model for all +succeeding painters, always imitating, and always original. + +If your ambition therefore be to equal Raffaelle, you must do as +Raffaelle did; take many models, and not take even him for your +guide alone to the exclusion of others. And yet the number is +infinite of those who seem, if one may judge by their style, to +have seen no other works but those of their master, or of some +favourite whose manner is their first wish and their last. + +I will mention a few that occur to me of this narrow, confined, +illiberal, unscientific, and servile kind of imitators. Guido was +thus meanly copied by Elizabetta Sirani, and Simone Cantarini; +Poussin, by Verdier and Cheron; Parmigiano, by Jeronimo Mazzuoli; +Paolo Veronese and Iacomo Bassan had for their imitators their +brothers and sons; Pietro de Cortona was followed by Ciro Ferri and +Romanelli; Rubens, by Jacques Jordans and Diepenbeck; Guercino, by +his own family, the Gennari; Carlo Marratti was imitated by +Giuseppe Chiari and Pietro da Pietri; and Rembrandt, by Bramer, +Eckhout, and Flink. All these, to whom may be added a much longer +list of painters, whose works among the ignorant pass for those of +their masters, are justly to be censured for barrenness and +servility. + +To oppose to this list a few that have adopted a more liberal style +of imitation: Pelegrino Tibaldi, Rosso, and Primaticio did not +coldly imitate, but caught something of the fire that animates the +works of Michael Angelo. The Carraches formed their style from +Pelegrino Tibaldi, Correggio, and the Venetian School. +Domenichino, Guido, Lanfranco, Albano, Guercino, Cavidone, +Schidone, Tiarini, though it is sufficiently apparent that they +came from the School of the Carraches, have yet the appearance of +men who extended their views beyond the model that lay before them, +and have shown that they had opinions of their own, and thought for +themselves, after they had made themselves masters of the general +principles of their schools. + +Le Seure's first manner resembles very much that of his master +Vovet: but as he soon excelled him, so he differed from him in +every part of the art. Carlo Marratti succeeded better than those +I have first named, and I think owes his superiority to the +extension of his views; besides his master Andrea Sacchi, he +imitated Raffaelle, Guido, and the Carraches. It is true, there is +nothing very captivating in Carlo Marratti; but this proceeded from +wants which cannot be completely supplied; that is, want of +strength of parts. In this, certainly men are not equal, and a man +can bring home wares only in proportion to the capital with which +he goes to market. Carlo, by diligence, made the most of what he +had; but there was undoubtedly a heaviness about him, which +extended itself, uniformly to his invention, expression, his +drawing, colouring, and the general effect of his pictures. The +truth is, he never equalled any of his patterns in any one thing, +and he added little of his own. + +But we must not rest contented, even in this general study of the +moderns; we must trace back the art to its fountain head, to that +source from whence they drew their principal excellences, the +monuments of pure antiquity. + +All the inventions and thoughts of the ancients, whether conveyed +to us in statues, bas-reliefs, intaglios, cameos, or coins, are to +be sought after and carefully studied: The genius that hovers over +these venerable relics may be called the father of modern art. + +From the remains of the works of the ancients the modern arts were +revived, and it is by their means that they must be restored a +second time. However it may mortify our vanity, we must be forced +to allow them our masters; and we may venture to prophecy, that +when they shall cease to be studied, arts will no longer flourish, +and we shall again relapse into barbarism. + +The fire of the artist's own genius operating upon these materials +which have been thus diligently collected, will enable him to make +new combinations, perhaps, superior to what had ever before been in +the possession of the art. As in the mixture of the variety of +metals, which are said to have been melted and run together at the +burning of Corinth, a new and till then unknown metal was produced +equal in value to any of those that had contributed to its +composition. And though a curious refiner may come with his +crucibles, analyse and separate its various component parts, yet +Corinthian brass would still hold its rank amongst the most +beautiful and valuable of metals. + +We have hitherto considered the advantages of imitation as it tends +to form the taste, and as a practice by which a spark of that +genius may be caught which illumines these noble works, that ought +always to be present to our thoughts. + +We come now to speak of another kind of imitation; the borrowing a +particular thought, an action, attitude, or figure, and +transplanting it into your own work: this will either come under +the charge of plagiarism, or be warrantable, and deserve +commendation, according to the address with which it is performed. +There is some difference likewise whether it is upon the ancients +or the moderns that these depredations are made. It is generally +allowed that no man need be ashamed of copying the ancients: their +works are considered as a magazine of common property, always open +to the public, whence every man has a right to what materials he +pleases; and if he has the art of using them, they are supposed to +become to all intents and purposes his own property. + +The collection which Raffaelle made of the thoughts of the ancients +with so much trouble, is a proof of his opinion on this subject. +Such collections may be made with much more ease, by means of an +art scarce known in his time; I mean that of engraving, by which, +at an easy rate, every man may now avail himself of the inventions +of antiquity. + +It must be acknowledged that the works of the moderns are more the +property of their authors; he who borrows an idea from an artist, +or perhaps from a modern, not his contemporary, and so accommodates +it to his own work that it makes a part of it, with no seam or +joining appearing, can hardly be charged with plagiarism; poets +practise this kind of borrowing without reserve. But an artist +should not be contented with this only; he should enter into a +competition with his original, and endeavour to improve what he is +appropriating to his own work. Such imitation is so far from +having anything in it of the servility of plagiarism, that it is a +perpetual exercise of the mind, a continual invention. + +Borrowing or stealing with such art and caution will have a right +to the same lenity as was used by the Lacedemonians; who did not +punish theft, but the want of artifice to conceal it. + +In order to encourage you to imitation, to the utmost extent, let +me add, that very finished artists in the inferior branches of the +art will contribute to furnish the mind and give hints of which a +skilful painter, who is sensible of what he wants, and is in no +danger of being infected by the contact of vicious models, will +know how to avail himself. He will pick up from dunghills what by +a nice chemistry, passing through his own mind, shall be converted +into pure gold; and, under the rudeness of Gothic essays, he will +find original, rational, and even sublime inventions. + +In the luxuriant style of Paul Veronese, in the capricious +compositions of Tintoret, he will find something that will assist +his invention, and give points, from which his own imagination +shall rise and take flight, when the subject which he treats will, +with propriety, admit of splendid effects. + +In every school, whether Venetian, French, or Dutch, he will find +either ingenious compositions, extraordinary effects, some peculiar +expressions, or some mechanical excellence, well worthy his +attention and, in some measure, of his imitation; even in the lower +class of the French painters, great beauties are often found united +with great defects. + +Though Coypel wanted a simplicity of taste, and mistook a +presumptuous and assuming air for what is grand and majestic; yet +he frequently has good sense and judgment in his manner of telling +his stories, great skill in his compositions, and is not without a +considerable power of expressing the passions, The modern +affectation of grace in his works, as well as in those of Bouche +and Watteau, may be said to be separated by a very thin partition +from the more simple and pure grace of Correggio and Parmigiano. + +Amongst the Dutch painters, the correct, firm, and determined +pencil, which was employed by Bamboccio and Jan Miel on vulgar and +mean subjects, might without any change be employed on the highest, +to which, indeed, it seems more properly to belong. The greatest +style, if that style is confined to small figures such as Poussin +generally painted, would receive an additional grace by the +elegance and precision of pencil so admirable in the works of +Teniers. + +Though this school more particularly excelled in the mechanism of +painting, yet there are many who have shown great abilities in +expressing what must be ranked above mechanical excellences. + +In the works of Frank Hals the portrait painter may observe the +composition of a face, the features well put together as the +painters express it, from whence proceeds that strong marked +character of individual nature which is so remarkable in his +portraits, and is not to be found in an equal degree in any other +painter. If he had joined to this most difficult part of the art a +patience in finishing what he had so correctly planned, he might +justly have claimed the place which Vandyke, all things considered, +so justly holds as the first of portrait painters. + +Others of the same school have shown great power in expressing the +character and passions of those vulgar people which are the +subjects of their study and attention. Amongst those, Jean Stein +seems to be one of the most diligent and accurate observers of what +passed in those scenes which he frequented, and which were to him +an academy. I can easily imagine that if this extraordinary man +had had the good fortune to have been born in Italy instead of +Holland, had he lived in Rome instead of Leyden, and had been +blessed with Michael Angelo and Raffaelle for his masters instead +of Brower and Van Gowen, that the same sagacity and penetration +which distinguished so accurately the different characters and +expression in his vulgar figures, would, when exerted in the +selection and imitation of what was great and elevated in nature, +have been equally successful, and his name would have been now +ranged with the great pillars and supporters of our art. + +Men who, although thus bound down by the almost invincible powers +of early habits, have still exerted extraordinary abilities within +their narrow and confined circle, and have, from the natural vigour +of their mind, given such an interesting expression, such force and +energy to their works, though they cannot be recommended to be +exactly imitated, may yet invite an artist to endeavour to +transfer, by a kind of parody, those excellences to his own works. +Whoever has acquired the power of making this use of the Flemish, +Venetian, and French schools is a real genius, and has sources of +knowledge open to him which were wanting to the great artists who +lived in the great age of painting. + +To find excellences however dispersed, to discover beauties however +concealed by the multitude of defects with which they are +surrounded, can be the work only of him who, having a mind always +alive to his art, has extended his views to all ages and to all +schools, and has acquired from that comprehensive mass which he has +thus gathered to himself, a well digested and perfect idea of his +art, to which everything is referred. Like a sovereign judge and +arbiter of art, he is possessed of that presiding power which +separates and attracts every excellence from every school, selects +both from what is great and what is little, brings home knowledge +from the east and from the west, making the universe tributary +towards furnishing his mind and enriching his works with +originality and variety of inventions. + +Thus I have ventured to give my opinion of what appears to me the +true and only method by which an artist makes himself master of his +profession, which I hold ought to be one continued course of +imitation, that is not to cease but with our lives. + +Those who, either from their own engagements and hurry of business, +or from indolence, or from conceit and vanity, have neglected +looking out of themselves, as far as my experience and observation +reaches, have from that time not only ceased to advance and improve +in their performance, but have gone backward. They may be compared +to men who have lived upon their principal till they are reduced to +beggary and left without resources. + +I can recommend nothing better, therefore, than that you endeavour +to infuse into your works what you learn from the contemplation of +the works of others. To recommend this has the appearance of +needless and superfluous advice, but it has fallen within my own +knowledge that artists, though they are not wanting in a sincere +love for their art, though they have great pleasure in seeing good +pictures, and are well skilled to distinguish what is excellent or +defective in them, yet go on in their own manner, without any +endeavour to give a little of those beauties which they admire in +others, to their own works. It is difficult to conceive how the +present Italian painters, who live in the midst of the treasures of +art, should be contented with their own style. They proceed in +their common-place inventions, and never think it worth while to +visit the works of those great artists with which they are +surrounded. + +I remember several years ago to have conversed at Rome with an +artist of great fame throughout Europe; he was not without a +considerable degree of abilities, but those abilities were by no +means equal to his own opinion of them. From the reputation he had +acquired he too fondly concluded that he stood in the same rank, +when compared to his predecessors, as he held with regard to his +miserable contemporary rivals. + +In conversation about some particulars of the works of Raffaelle, +he seemed to have, or to affect to have, a very obscure memory of +them. He told me that he had not set his foot in the Vatican for +fifteen years together; that indeed he had been in treaty to copy a +capital picture of Raffaelle, but that the business had gone off; +however, if the agreement had held, his copy would have greatly +exceeded the original. The merit of this artist, however great we +may suppose it, I am sure would have been far greater, and his +presumption would have been far less if he had visited the Vatican, +as in reason he ought to have done, once at least every month of +his life. + +I address myself, gentlemen, to you who have made some progress in +the art, and are to be for the future under the guidance of your +own judgment and discretion + +I consider you as arrived to that period when you have a right to +think for yourselves, and to presume that every man is fallible; to +study the masters with a suspicion that great men are not always +exempt from great faults; to criticise, compare, and rank their +works in your own estimation, as they approach to or recede from +that standard of perfection which you have formed in your own mind, +but which those masters themselves, it must be remembered, have +taught you to make, and which you will cease to make with +correctness when you cease to study them. It is their excellences +which have taught you their defects. + +I would wish you to forget where you are, and who it is that speaks +to you. I only direct you to higher models and better advisers. +We can teach you here but very little; you are henceforth to be +your own teachers. Do this justice, however, to the English +Academy, to bear in mind, that in this place you contracted no +narrow habits, no false ideas, nothing that could lead you to the +imitation of any living master, who may be the fashionable darling +of the day. As you have not been taught to flatter us, do not +learn to flatter yourselves. We have endeavoured to lead you to +the admiration of nothing but what is truly admirable. If you +choose inferior patterns, or if you make your own FORMER works, +your patterns for your LATTER, it is your own fault. + +The purpose of this discourse, and, indeed, of most of my others, +is to caution you against that false opinion, but too prevalent +amongst artists, of the imaginary power of native genius, and its +sufficiency in great works. This opinion, according to the temper +of mind it meets with, almost always produces, either a vain +confidence, or a sluggish despair, both equally fatal to all +proficiency. + +Study, therefore, the great works of the great masters for ever. +Study as nearly as you can, in the order, in the manner, on the +principles, on which they studied. Study nature attentively, but +always with those masters in your company; consider them as models +which you are to imitate, and at the same time as rivals which you +are to combat. + + + +A DISCOURSE + + + +Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy on the Distribution +of the Prizes, December 10th, 1776, by the President. + +Gentlemen,--It has been my uniform endeavour, since I first +addressed you from this place, to impress you strongly with one +ruling idea. I wished you to be persuaded, that success in your +art depends almost entirely on your own industry; but the industry +which I principally recommended, is not the industry of the HANDS, +but of the MIND. + +As our art is not a divine gift, so neither is it a mechanical +trade. Its foundations are laid in solid science. And practice, +though essential to perfection, can never attain that to which it +aims, unless it works under the direction of principle. + +Some writers upon art carry this point too far, and suppose that +such a body of universal and profound learning is requisite, that +the very enumeration of its kind is enough to frighten a beginner. +Vitruvius, after going through the many accomplishments of nature, +and the many acquirements of learning, necessary to an architect, +proceeds with great gravity to assert that he ought to be well +skilled in the civil law, that he may not be cheated in the title +of the ground he builds on. + +But without such exaggeration, we may go so far as to assert, that +a painter stands in need of more knowledge than is to be picked off +his pallet, or collected by looking on his model, whether it be in +life or in picture. He can never be a great artist who is grossly +illiterate. + +Every man whose business is description ought to be tolerably +conversant with the poets in some language or other, that he may +imbibe a poetical spirit and enlarge his stock of ideas. He ought +to acquire a habit of comparing and divesting his notions. He +ought not to be wholly unacquainted with that part of philosophy +which gives him an insight into human nature, and relates to the +manners, characters, passions, and affections. He ought to know +something concerning the mind, as well as a great deal concerning +the body of man. + +For this purpose, it is not necessary that he should go into such a +compass of reading, as must, by distracting his attention, +disqualify him for the practical part of his profession, and make +him sink the performer in the critic. Reading, if it can be made +the favourite recreation of his leisure hours, will improve and +enlarge his mind without retarding his actual industry. + +What such partial and desultory reading cannot afford, may be +supplied by the conversation of learned and ingenious men, which is +the best of all substitutes for those who have not the means or +opportunities of deep study. There are many such men in this age; +and they will be pleased with communicating their ideas to artists, +when they see them curious and docile, if they are treated with +that respect and deference which is so justly their due. Into such +society, young artists, if they make it the point of their +ambition, will by degrees be admitted. There, without formal +teaching, they will insensibly come to feel and reason like those +they live with, and find a rational and systematic taste +imperceptibly formed in their minds, which they will know how to +reduce to a standard, by applying general truth to their own +purposes, better perhaps than those to whom they owed the original +sentiment. + +Of these studies and this conversation, the desired and legitimate +offspring is a power of distinguishing right from wrong, which +power applied to works of art is denominated taste. Let me then, +without further introduction, enter upon an examination whether +taste be so far beyond our reach as to be unattainable by care, or +be so very vague and capricious that no care ought to be employed +about it. + +It has been the fate of arts to be enveloped in mysterious and +incomprehensible language, as if it was thought necessary that even +the terms should correspond to the idea entertained of the +instability and uncertainty of the rules which they expressed. + +To speak of genius and taste as any way connected with reason or +common sense, would be, in the opinion of some towering talkers, to +speak like a man who possessed neither, who had never felt that +enthusiasm, or, to use their own inflated language, was never +warmed by that Promethean fire, which animates the canvas and +vivifies the marble. + +If, in order to be intelligible, I appear to degrade art by +bringing her down from her visionary situation in the clouds, it is +only to give her a more solid mansion upon the earth. It is +necessary that at some time or other we should see things as they +really are, and not impose on ourselves by that false magnitude +with which objects appear when viewed indistinctly as through a +mist. + +We will allow a poet to express his meaning, when his meaning is +not well known to himself, with a certain degree of obscurity, as +it is one source of the sublime. But when, in plain prose, we +gravely talk of courting the muse in shady bowers, waiting the call +and inspiration of genius, finding out where he inhabits, and where +he is to be invoked with the greatest success; of attending to +times and seasons when the imagination shoots with the greatest +vigour, whether at the summer solstice or the equinox, sagaciously +observing how much the wild freedom and liberty of imagination is +cramped by attention to established rules, and how this same +imagination begins to grow dim in advanced age, smothered and +deadened by too much judgment. When we talk such language, or +entertain such sentiments as these, we generally rest contented +with mere words, or at best entertain notions not only groundless, +but pernicious. + +If all this means what it is very possible was originally intended +only to be meant, that in order to cultivate an art, a man secludes +himself from the commerce of the world, and retires into the +country at particular seasons; or that at one time of the year his +body is in better health, and consequently his mind fitter for the +business of hard thinking than at another time; or that the mind +may be fatigued and grow confused by long and unremitted +application; this I can understand. I can likewise believe that a +man eminent when young for possessing poetical imagination, may, +from having taken another road, so neglect its cultivation as to +show less of its powers in his latter life. But I am persuaded +that scarce a poet is to be found, from Homer down to Dryden, who +preserved a sound mind in a sound body, and continued practising +his profession to the very last, whose later works are not as +replete with the fire of imagination as those which were produced +in his more youthful days. + +To understand literally these metaphors or ideas expressed in +poetical language, seems to be equally absurd as to conclude that +because painters sometimes represent poets writing from the +dictates of a little winged boy or genius, that this same genius +did really inform him in a whisper what he was to write, and that +he is himself but a mere machine, unconscious of the operations of +his own mind. + +Opinions generally received and floating in the world, whether true +or false, we naturally adopt and make our own; they may be +considered as a kind of inheritance to which we succeed and are +tenants for life, and which we leave to our posterity very near in +the condition in which we received it; not much being in any one +man's power either to impair or improve it. + +The greatest part of these opinions, like current coin in its +circulation, we are obliged to take without weighing or examining; +but by this inevitable inattention, many adulterated pieces are +received, which, when we seriously estimate our wealth, we must +throw away. So the collector of popular opinions, when he embodies +his knowledge, and forms a system, must separate those which are +true from those which are only plausible. But it becomes more +peculiarly a duty to the professors of art not to let any opinions +relating to that art pass unexamined. The caution and +circumspection required in such examination we shall presently have +an opportunity of explaining. + +Genius and taste, in their common acceptation, appear to be very +nearly related; the difference lies only in this, that genius has +superadded to it a habit or power of execution. Or we may say, +that taste, when this power is added, changes its name, and is +called genius. They both, in the popular opinion, pretend to an +entire exemption from the restraint of rules. It is supposed that +their powers are intuitive; that under the name of genius great +works are produced, and under the name of taste an exact judgment +is given, without our knowing why, and without being under the +least obligation to reason, precept, or experience. + +One can scarce state these opinions without exposing their +absurdity, yet they are constantly in the mouths of men, and +particularly of artists. They who have thought seriously on this +subject, do not carry the point so far; yet I am persuaded, that +even among those few who may be called thinkers, the prevalent +opinion gives less than it ought to the powers of reason; and +considers the principles of taste, which give all their authority +to the rules of art, as more fluctuating, and as having less solid +foundations than we shall find, upon examination, they really have. + +The common saying, that tastes are not to be disputed, owes its +influence, and its general reception, to the same error which leads +us to imagine it of too high original to submit to the authority of +an earthly tribunal. It will likewise correspond with the notions +of those who consider it as a mere phantom of the imagination, so +devoid of substance as to elude all criticism. + +We often appear to differ in sentiments from each other, merely +from the inaccuracy of terms, as we are not obliged to speak always +with critical exactness. Something of this too may arise from want +of words in the language to express the more nice discriminations +which a deep investigation discovers. A great deal, however, of +this difference vanishes when each opinion is tolerably explained +and understood by constancy and precision in the use of terms. + +We apply the term taste to that act of the mind by which we like or +dislike, whatever be the subject. Our judgment upon an airy +nothing, a fancy which has no foundation, is called by the same +name which we give to our determination concerning those truths +which refer to the most general and most unalterable principles of +human nature, to works which are only to be produced by the +greatest efforts of the human understanding. However inconvenient +this may be, we are obliged to take words as we find them; all we +can do is to distinguish the things to which they are applied. + +We may let pass those things which are at once subjects of taste +and sense, and which having as much certainty as the senses +themselves, give no occasion to inquiry or dispute. The natural +appetite or taste of the human mind is for truth; whether that +truth results from the real agreement or equality of original ideas +among themselves; from the agreement of the representation of any +object with the thing represented; or from the correspondence of +the several parts of any arrangement with each other. It is the +very same taste which relishes a demonstration in geometry, that is +pleased with the resemblance of a picture to an original, and +touched with the harmony of music. + +All these have unalterable and fixed foundations in nature, and are +therefore equally investigated by reason, and known by study; some +with more, some with less clearness, but all exactly in the same +way. A picture that is unlike, is false. Disproportionate +ordinance of parts is not right because it cannot be true until it +ceases to be a contradiction to assert that the parts have no +relation to the whole. Colouring is true where it is naturally +adapted to the eye, from brightness, from softness, from harmony, +from resemblance; because these agree with their object, nature, +and therefore are true: as true as mathematical demonstration; but +known to be true only to those who study these things. + +But besides real, there is also apparent truth, or opinion, or +prejudice. With regard to real truth, when it is known, the taste +which conforms to it is, and must be, uniform. With regard to the +second sort of truth, which may be called truth upon sufferance, or +truth by courtesy, it is not fixed, but variable. However, whilst +these opinions and prejudices on which it is founded continue, they +operate as truth; and the art, whose office it is to please the +mind, as well as instruct it, must direct itself according to +opinion, or it will not attain its end. + +In proportion as these prejudices are known to be generally +diffused, or long received, the taste which conforms to them +approaches nearer to certainty, and to a sort of resemblance to +real science, even where opinions are found to be no better than +prejudices. And since they deserve, on account of their duration +and extent, to be considered as really true, they become capable of +no small decree of stability and determination by their permanent +and uniform nature. + +As these prejudices become more narrow, more local, more +transitory, this secondary taste becomes more and more fantastical; +recedes from real science; is less to be approved by reason, and +less followed in practice; though in no case perhaps to be wholly +neglected, where it does not stand, as it sometimes does, in direct +defiance of the most respectable opinions received amongst mankind. + +Having laid down these positions, I shall proceed with less method, +because less will serve, to explain and apply them. + +We will take it for granted that reason is something invariable and +fixed in the nature of things; and without endeavouring to go back +to an account of first principles, which for ever will elude our +search, we will conclude that whatever goes under the name of +taste, which we can fairly bring under the dominion of reason, must +be considered as equally exempt from change. If therefore, in the +course of this inquiry, we can show that there are rules for the +conduct of the artist which are fixed and invariable, it implies, +of course, that the art of the connoisseur, or, in other words, +taste, has likewise invariable principles. + +Of the judgment which we make on the works of art, and the +preference that we give to one class of art over another, if a +reason be demanded, the question is perhaps evaded by answering, "I +judge from my taste"; but it does not follow that a better answer +cannot be given, though for common gazers this may be sufficient. +Every man is not obliged to investigate the causes of his +approbation or dislike. + +The arts would lie open for ever to caprice and casualty, if those +who are to judge of their excellences had no settled principles by +which they are to regulate their decisions, and the merit or defect +of performances were to be determined by unguided fancy. And +indeed we may venture to assert that whatever speculative knowledge +is necessary to the artist, is equally and indispensably necessary +to the connoisseur. + +The first idea that occurs in the consideration of what is fixed in +art, or in taste, is that presiding principle of which I have so +frequently spoken in former discourses, the general idea of nature. +The beginning, the middle, and the end of everything that is +valuable in taste, is comprised in the knowledge of what is truly +nature; for whatever ideas are not conformable to those of nature, +or universal opinion, must be considered as more or less +capricious. + +The idea of nature comprehending not only the forms which nature +produces, but also the nature and internal fabric and organisation, +as I may call it, of the human mind and imagination: general +ideas, beauty, or nature, are but different ways of expressing the +same thing, whether we apply these terms to statues, poetry, or +picture. Deformity is not nature, but an accidental deviation from +her accustomed practice. This general idea therefore ought to be +called nature, and nothing else, correctly speaking, has a right to +that name. But we are so far from speaking, in common +conversation, with any such accuracy, that, on the contrary, when +we criticise Rembrandt and other Dutch painters, who introduced +into their historical pictures exact representations of individual +objects with all their imperfections, we say, though it is not in a +good taste, yet it is nature. + +This misapplication of terms must be very often perplexing to the +young student. Is not, he may say, art an imitation of nature? +Must he not, therefore, who imitates her with the greatest fidelity +be the best artist? By this mode of reasoning Rembrandt has a +higher place than Raffaelle. But a very little reflection will +serve to show us that these particularities cannot be nature: for +how can that be the nature of man, in which no two individuals are +the same? + +It plainly appears that as a work is conducted under the influence +of general ideas or partial it is principally to be considered as +the effect of a good or a bad taste. + +As beauty therefore does not consist in taking what lies +immediately before you, so neither, in our pursuit of taste, are +those opinions which we first received and adopted the best choice, +or the most natural to the mind and imagination. + +In the infancy of our knowledge we seize with greediness the good +that is within our reach; it is by after-consideration, and in +consequence of discipline, that we refuse the present for a greater +good at a distance. The nobility or elevation of all arts, like +the excellence of virtue itself, consists in adopting this enlarged +and comprehensive idea, and all criticism built upon the more +confined view of what is natural, may properly be called shallow +criticism, rather than false; its defect is that the truth is not +sufficiently extensive. + +It has sometimes happened that some of the greatest men in our art +have been betrayed into errors by this confined mode of reasoning. +Poussin, who, upon the whole, may be produced as an instance of +attention to the most enlarged and extensive ideas of nature, from +not having settled principles on this point, has in one instance at +least, I think, deserted truth for prejudice. He is said to have +vindicated the conduct of Julio Romano, for his inattention to the +masses of light and shade, or grouping the figures, in the battle +of Constantine, as if designedly neglected, the better to +correspond with the hurry and confusion of a battle. Poussin's own +conduct in his representations of Bacchanalian triumphs and +sacrifices, makes us more easily give credit to this report, since +in such subjects, as well indeed as in many others, it was too much +his own practice. The best apology we can make for this conduct is +what proceeds from the association of our ideas, the prejudice we +have in favour of antiquity. Poussin's works, as I have formerly +observed, have very much the air of the ancient manner of painting, +in which there are not the least traces to make us think that what +we call the keeping, the composition of light and shade, or +distribution of the work into masses, claimed any part of their +attention. But surely whatever apology we may find out for this +neglect, it ought to be ranked among the defects of Poussin, as +well as of the antique paintings; and the moderns have a right to +that praise which is their due, for having given so pleasing an +addition to the splendour of the art. + +Perhaps no apology ought to be received for offences committed +against the vehicle (whether it be the organ of seeing or of +hearing) by which our pleasures are conveyed to the mind. We must +take the same care that the eye be not perplexed and distracted by +a confusion of equal parts, or equal lights, as of offending it by +an unharmonious mixture of colours. We may venture to be more +confident of the truth of this observation, since we find that +Shakespeare, on a parallel occasion, has made Hamlet recommend to +the players a precept of the same kind, never to offend the ear by +harsh sounds:- "In the very torrent, tempest, and whirlwind of your +passions," says he, "you must beget a temperance that may give it +smoothness." And yet, at the same time, he very justly observes, +"The end of playing, both at the first and now, is to hold, as it +were, the mirror up to nature." No one can deny but that violent +passions will naturally emit harsh and disagreeable tones; yet this +great poet and critic thought that this imitation of nature would +cost too much, if purchased at the expense of disagreeable +sensations, or, as he expresses it, of "splitting the ear." The +poet and actor, as well as the painter of genius who is well +acquainted with all the variety and sources of pleasure in the mind +and imagination, has little regard or attention to common nature, +or creeping after common sense. By overleaping those narrow +bounds, he more effectually seizes the whole mind, and more +powerfully accomplishes his purpose. This success is ignorantly +imagined to proceed from inattention to all rules, and in defiance +of reason and judgment; whereas it is in truth acting according to +the best rules, and the justest reason. + +He who thinks nature, in the narrow sense of the word, is alone to +be followed, will produce but a scanty entertainment for the +imagination: everything is to be done with which it is natural for +the mind to be pleased, whether it proceeds from simplicity or +variety, uniformity or irregularity: whether the scenes are +familiar or exotic; rude and wild, or enriched and cultivated; for +it is natural for the mind to be pleased with all these in their +turn. In short, whatever pleases has in it what is analogous to +the mind, and is therefore, in the highest and best sense of the +word, natural. + +It is this sense of nature or truth which ought more particularly +to be cultivated by the professors of art; and it may be observed +that many wise and learned men, who have accustomed their minds to +admit nothing for truth but what can be proved by mathematical +demonstration, have seldom any relish for those arts which address +themselves to the fancy, the rectitude and truth of which is known +by another kind of proof: and we may add that the acquisition of +this knowledge requires as much circumspection and sagacity, as to +attain those truths which are more open to demonstration. Reason +must ultimately determine our choice on every occasion; but this +reason may still be exerted ineffectually by applying to taste +principles which, though right as far as they go, yet do not reach +the object. No man, for instance, can deny that it seems at first +view very reasonable, that a statue which is to carry down to +posterity the resemblance of an individual should be dressed in the +fashion of the times, in the dress which he himself wore: this +would certainly be true if the dress were part of the man. But +after a time the dress is only an amusement for an antiquarian; and +if it obstructs the general design of the piece, it is to be +disregarded by the artist. Common sense must here give way to a +higher sense. + +In the naked form, and in the disposition of the drapery, the +difference between one artist and another is principally seen. But +if he is compelled to the modern dress, the naked form is entirely +hid, and the drapery is already disposed by the skill of the +tailor. Were a Phidias to obey such absurd commands, he would +please no more than an ordinary sculptor; since, in the inferior +parts of every art, the learned and the ignorant are nearly upon a +level. + +These were probably among the reasons that induced the sculptor of +that wonderful figure of Laocoon to exhibit him naked, +notwithstanding he was surprised in the act of sacrificing to +Apollo, and consequently ought to be shown in his sacerdotal +habits, if those greater reasons had not preponderated. Art is not +yet in so high estimation with us as to obtain so great a sacrifice +as the ancients made, especially the Grecians, who suffered +themselves to be represented naked, whether they were generals, +lawgivers, or kings. + +Under this head of balancing and choosing the greater reason, or of +two evils taking the least, we may consider the conduct of Rubens +in the Luxembourg gallery, of mixing allegorical figures with +representations of real personages, which, though acknowledged to +be a fault, yet, if the artist considered himself as engaged to +furnish this gallery with a rich and splendid ornament, this could +not be done, at least in an equal degree, without peopling the air +and water with these allegorical figures: he therefore +accomplished that he purposes. In this case all lesser +considerations, which tend to obstruct the great end of the work, +must yield and give way. + +If it is objected that Rubens judged ill at first in thinking it +necessary to make his work so very ornamental, this brings the +question upon new ground. It was his peculiar style; he could +paint in no other; and he was selected for that work, probably, +because it was his style. Nobody will dispute but some of the best +of the Roman or Bolognian schools would have produced a more +learned and more noble work. + +This leads us to another important province of taste, of weighing +the value of the different classes of the art, and of estimating +them accordingly. + +All arts have means within them of applying themselves with success +both to the intellectual and sensitive part of our natures. It can +be no dispute, supposing both these means put in practice with +equal abilities, to which we ought to give the preference: to him +who represents the heroic arts and more dignified passions of man, +or to him who, by the help of meretricious ornaments, however +elegant and graceful, captivates the sensuality, as it may be +called, of our taste. Thus the Roman and Bolognian schools are +reasonably preferred to the Venetian, Flemish, or Dutch schools, as +they address themselves to our best and noblest faculties. + +Well-turned periods in eloquence, or harmony of numbers in poetry, +which are in those arts what colouring is in painting, however +highly we may esteem them, can never be considered as of equal +importance with the art of unfolding truths that are useful to +mankind, and which make us better or wiser. Nor can those works +which remind us of the poverty and meanness of our nature, be +considered as of equal rank with what excites ideas of grandeur, or +raises and dignifies humanity; or, in the words of a late poet, +which makes the beholder learn to venerate himself as man. + +It is reason and good sense therefore which ranks and estimates +every art, and every part of that art, according to its importance, +from the painter of animated down to inanimated nature. We will +not allow a man, who shall prefer the inferior style, to say it is +his taste; taste here has nothing, or at least ought to have +nothing to do with the question. He wants not taste, but sense, +and soundness of judgment. + +Indeed, perfection in an inferior style may be reasonably preferred +to mediocrity in the highest walks of art. A landscape of Claude +Lorraine may be preferred to a history of Luca Jordano; but hence +appears the necessity of the connoisseur's knowing in what consists +the excellence of each class, in order to judge how near it +approaches to perfection. + +Even in works of the same kind, as in history painting, which is +composed of various parts, excellence of an inferior species, +carried to a very high degree, will make a work very valuable, and +in some measure compensate for the absence of the higher kind of +merits. It is the duty of the connoisseur to know and esteem, as +much as it may deserve, every part of painting; he will not then +think even Bassano unworthy of his notice, who, though totally +devoid of expression, sense, grace, or elegance, may be esteemed on +account of his admirable taste of colours, which, in his best +works, are little inferior to those of Titian. + +Since I have mentioned Bassano, we must do him likewise the justice +to acknowledge that, though he did not aspire to the dignity of +expressing the characters and passions of men, yet, with respect to +the facility and truth in his manner of touching animals of all +kinds, and giving them what painters call their character, few have +ever excelled him. + +To Bassano we may add Paul Veronese and Tintoret, for their entire +inattention to what is justly esteemed the most essential part of +our art, the expression of the passions. Notwithstanding these +glaring deficiencies, we justly esteem their works; but it must be +remembered that they do not please from those defects, but from +their great excellences of another kind, and in spite of such +transgressions. These excellences, too, as far as they go, are +founded in the truth of general nature. They tell the truth, +though not the whole truth. + +By these considerations, which can never be too frequently +impressed, may be obviated two errors which I observed to have +been, formerly at least, the most prevalent, and to be most +injurious to artists: that of thinking taste and genius to have +nothing to do with reason, and that of taking particular living +objects for nature. + +I shall now say something on that part of taste which, as I have +hinted to you before, does not belong so much to the external form +of things, but is addressed to the mind, and depends on its +original frame, or, to use the expression, the organisation of the +soul; I mean the imagination and the passions. The principles of +these are as invariable as the former, and are to be known and +reasoned upon in the same manner, by an appeal to common sense +deciding upon the common feelings of mankind. This sense, and +these feelings, appear to me of equal authority, and equally +conclusive. + +Now this appeal implies a general uniformity and agreement in the +minds of men. It would be else an idle and vain endeavour to +establish rules of art; it would be pursuing a phantom to attempt +to move affections with which we were entirely unacquainted. We +have no reason to suspect there is a greater difference between our +minds than between our forms, of which, though there are no two +alike, yet there is a general similitude that goes through the +whole race of mankind; and those who have cultivated their taste +can distinguish what is beautiful or deformed, or, in other words, +what agrees with or what deviates from the general idea of nature, +in one case as well as in the other. + +The internal fabric of our mind, as well as the external form of +our bodies, being nearly uniform, it seems then to follow, of +course, that as the imagination is incapable of producing anything +originally of itself, and can only vary and combine these ideas +with which it is furnished by means of the senses, there will be, +of course, an agreement in the imaginations as in the senses of +men. There being this agreement, it follows that in all cases, in +our lightest amusements as well as in our most serious actions and +engagements of life, we must regulate our affections of every kind +by that of others. The well-disciplined mind acknowledges this +authority, and submits its own opinion to the public voice. + +It is from knowing what are the general feelings and passions of +mankind that we acquire a true idea of what imagination is; though +it appears as if we had nothing to do but to consult our own +particular sensations, and these were sufficient to ensure us from +all error and mistake. + +A knowledge of the disposition and character of the human mind can +be acquired only by experience: a great deal will be learned, I +admit, by a habit of examining what passes in our bosoms, what are +our own motives of action, and of what kind of sentiments we are +conscious on any occasion. We may suppose a uniformity, and +conclude that the same effect will be produced by the same cause in +the minds of others. This examination will contribute to suggest +to us matters of inquiry; but we can never be sure that our own +sensations are true and right till they are confirmed by more +extensive observation. + +One man opposing another determines nothing but a general union of +minds, like a general combination of the forces of all mankind, +makes a strength that is irresistible. In fact, as he who does not +know himself does not know others, so it may be said with equal +truth, that he who does not know others knows himself but very +imperfectly. + +A man who thinks he is guarding himself against Prejudices by +resisting the authority of others, leaves open every avenue to +singularity, vanity, self-conceit, obstinacy, and many other vices, +all tending to warp the judgment and prevent the natural operation +of his faculties. + +This submission to others is a deference which we owe, and indeed +are forced involuntarily to pay. + +In fact we are never satisfied with our opinions till they are +ratified and confirmed by the suffrages of the rest of mankind. We +dispute and wrangle for ever; we endeavour to get men to come to us +when we do not go to them. + +He therefore who is acquainted with the works which have pleased +different ages and different countries, and has formed his opinion +on them, has more materials and more means of knowing what is +analogous to the mind of man than he who is conversant only with +the works of his own age or country. What has pleased, and +continues to please, is likely to please again: hence are derived +the rules of art, and on this immovable foundation they must ever +stand. + +This search and study of the history of the mind ought not to be +confined to one art only. It is by the analogy that one art bears +to another that many things are ascertained which either were but +faintly seen, or, perhaps, would not have been discovered at all if +the inventor had not received the first hints from the practices of +a sister art on a similar occasion. The frequent allusions which +every man who treats of any art is obliged to draw from others in +order to illustrate and confirm his principles, sufficiently show +their near connection and inseparable relation. + +All arts having the same general end, which is to please, and +addressing themselves to the same faculties through the medium of +the senses, it follows that their rules and principles must have as +great affinity as the different materials and the different organs +or vehicles by which they pass to the mind will permit them to +retain. + +We may therefore conclude that the real substance, as it may be +called, of what goes under the name of taste, is fixed and +established in the nature of things; that there are certain and +regular causes by which the imagination and passions of men are +affected; and that the knowledge of these causes is acquired by a +laborious and diligent investigation of nature, and by the same +slow progress as wisdom or knowledge of every kind, however +instantaneous its operations may appear when thus acquired. + +It has been often observed that the good and virtuous man alone can +acquire this true or just relish, even of works of art. This +opinion will not appear entirely without foundation when we +consider that the same habit of mind which is acquired by our +search after truth in the more serious duties of life, is only +transferred to the pursuit of lighter amusements: the same +disposition, the same desire to find something steady, substantial, +and durable, on which the mind can lean, as it were, and rest with +safety. The subject only is changed. We pursue the same method in +our search after the idea of beauty and perfection in each; of +virtue, by looking forwards beyond ourselves to society, and to the +whole; of arts, by extending our views in the same manner to all +ages and all times. + +Every art, like our own, has in its composition fluctuating as well +as fixed principles. It is an attentive inquiry into their +difference that will enable us to determine how far we are +influenced by custom and habit, and what is fixed in the nature of +things. + +To distinguish how much has solid foundation, we may have recourse +to the same proof by which some hold wit ought to be tried--whether +it preserves itself when translated. That wit is false which can +subsist only in one language; and that picture which pleases only +one age or one nation, owes its reception to some local or +accidental association of ideas. + +We may apply this to every custom and habit of life. Thus the +general principles of urbanity, politeness, or civility, have been +ever the same in all nations; but the mode in which they are +dressed is continually varying. The general idea of showing +respect is by making yourself less: but the manner, whether by +bowing the body, kneeling, prostration, pulling off the upper part +of our dress, or taking away the lower, is a matter of habit. It +would be unjust to conclude that all ornaments, because they were +at first arbitrarily contrived, are therefore undeserving of our +attention; on the contrary, he who neglects the cultivation of +those ornaments, acts contrarily to nature and reason. As life +would be imperfect without its highest ornaments, the arts, so +these arts themselves would be imperfect without THEIR ornaments. + +Though we by no means ought to rank these with positive and +substantial beauties, yet it must be allowed that a knowledge of +both is essentially requisite towards forming a complete, whole, +and perfect taste. It is in reality from the ornaments that arts +receive their peculiar character and complexion; we may add that in +them we find the characteristical mark of a national taste, as by +throwing up a feather in the air we know which way the wind blows, +better than by a more heavy matter. + +The striking distinction between the works of the Roman, Bolognian, +and Venetian schools, consists more in that general effect which is +produced by colours than in the more profound excellences of the +art; at least it is from thence that each is distinguished and +known at first sight. As it is the ornaments rather than the +proportions of architecture which at the first glance distinguish +the different orders from each other; the Doric is known by its +triglyphs, the Ionic by its volutes, and the Corinthian by its +acanthus. + +What distinguishes oratory from a cold narration, is a more liberal +though chaste use of these ornaments which go under the name of +figurative and metaphorical expressions; and poetry distinguishes +itself from oratory by words and expressions still more ardent and +glowing. What separates and distinguishes poetry is more +particularly the ornament of VERSE; it is this which gives it its +character, and is an essential, without which it cannot exist. +Custom has appropriated different metre to different kinds of +composition, in which the world is not perfectly agreed. In +England the dispute is not yet settled which is to be preferred, +rhyme or blank verse. But however we disagree about what these +metrical ornaments shall be, that some metre is essentially +necessary is universally acknowledged. + +In poetry or eloquence, to determine how far figurative or +metaphorical language may proceed, and when it begins to be +affectation or beside the truth, must be determined by taste, +though this taste we must never forget is regulated and formed by +the presiding feelings of mankind, by those works which have +approved themselves to all times and all persons. + +Thus, though eloquence has undoubtedly an essential and intrinsic +excellence, and immovable principles common to all languages, +founded in the nature of our passions and affections, yet it has +its ornaments and modes of address which are merely arbitrary. +What is approved in the Eastern nations as grand and majestic, +would be considered by the Greeks and Romans as turgid and +inflated; and they, in return, would be thought by the Orientals to +express themselves in a cold and insipid manner. + +We may add likewise to the credit of ornaments, that it is by their +means that art itself accomplishes its purpose. Fresnoy calls +colouring, which is one of the chief ornaments of painting, lena +sororis, that which procures lovers and admirers to the more +valuable excellences of the art. + +It appears to be the same right turn of mind which enables a man to +acquire the TRUTH, or the just idea of what is right in the +ornaments, as in the more stable principles of art. It has still +the same centre of perfection, though it is the centre of a smaller +circle. + +To illustrate this by the fashion of dress, in which there is +allowed to be a good or, bad taste. The component parts of dress +are continually changing from great to little, from short to long, +but the general form still remains; it is still the same general +dress which is comparatively fixed, though on a very slender +foundation, but it is on this which fashion must rest. He who +invents with the most success, or dresses in, the best taste, would +probably, from the same sagacity employed to greater purposes, have +discovered equal skill, or have formed the same correct taste in +the highest labours of art. + +I have mentioned taste in dress, which is certainly one of the +lowest subjects to which this word is applied; yet, as I have +before observed, there is a right even here, however narrow its +foundation respecting the fashion of any particular nation. But we +have still more slender means of determining, in regard to the +different customs of different ages or countries, to which to give +the preference, since they seem to be all equally removed from +nature. + +If an European, when he has cut off his beard, and put false hair +on his head, or bound up his own natural hair in regular hard +knots, as unlike nature as he can possibly make it; and having +rendered them immovable by the help of the fat of hogs, has covered +the whole with flour, laid on by a machine with the utmost +regularity; if, when thus attired he issues forth, he meets a +Cherokee Indian, who has bestowed as much time at his toilet, and +laid on with equal care and attention his yellow and red ochre on +particular parts of his forehead or cheeks, as he judges most +becoming; whoever despises the other for this attention to the +fashion of his country, whichever of these two first feels himself +provoked to laugh, is the barbarian. + +All these fashions are very innocent, neither worth disquisition, +nor any endeavour to alter them, as the change would, in all +probability, be equally distant from nature. The only +circumstances against which indignation may reasonably be moved, +are where the operation is painful or destructive of health, such +as is practised at Otahaiti, and the straight lacing of the English +ladies; of the last of which, how destructive it must be to health +and long life, the professor of anatomy took an opportunity of +proving a few days since in this Academy. + +It is in dress as in things of greater consequence. Fashions +originate from those only who have the high and powerful advantages +of rank, birth, and fortune; as many of the ornaments of art, those +at least for which no reason can be given, are transmitted to us, +are adopted, and acquire their consequence from the company in +which we have been used to see them. As Greece and Rome are the +fountains from whence have flowed all kinds of excellence, to that +veneration which they have a right to claim for the pleasure and +knowledge which they have afforded us, we voluntarily add our +approbation of every ornament and every custom that belonged to +them, even to the fashion of their dress. For it may be observed +that, not satisfied with them in their own place, we make no +difficulty of dressing statues of modern heroes or senators in the +fashion of the Roman armour or peaceful robe; we go so far as +hardly to bear a statue in any other drapery. + +The figures of the great men of those nations have come down to us +in sculpture. In sculpture remain almost all the excellent +specimens of ancient art. We have so far associated personal +dignity to the persons thus represented, and the truth of art to +their manner of representation, that it is not in our power any +longer to separate them. This is not so in painting; because, +having no excellent ancient portraits, that connection was never +formed. Indeed, we could no more venture to paint a general +officer in a Roman military habit, than we could make a statue in +the present uniform. But since we have no ancient portraits, to +show how ready we are to adopt those kind of prejudices, we make +the best authority among the moderns serve the same purpose. The +great variety of excellent portraits with which Vandyke has +enriched this nation, we are not content to admire for their real +excellence, but extend our approbation even to the dress which +happened to be the fashion of that age. We all very well remember +how common it was a few years ago for portraits to be drawn in this +Gothic dress, and this custom is not yet entirely laid aside. By +this means it must be acknowledged very ordinary pictures acquired +something of the air and effect of the works of Vandyke, and +appeared therefore at first sight to be better pictures than they +really were; they appeared so, however, to those only who had the +means of making this association, for when made, it was +irresistible. But this association is nature, and refers to that +Secondary truth that comes from conformity to general prejudice and +opinion; it is therefore not merely fantastical. Besides the +prejudice which we have in favour of ancient dresses, there may be +likewise other reasons, amongst which we may justly rank the +simplicity of them, consisting of little more than one single piece +of drapery, without those whimsical capricious forms by which all +other dresses are embarrassed. + +Thus, though it is from the prejudice we have in favour of the +ancients, who have taught us architecture, that we have adopted +likewise their ornaments; and though we are satisfied that neither +nature nor reason is the foundation of those beauties which we +imagine we see in that art, yet if any one persuaded of this truth +should, therefore, invent new orders of equal beauty, which we will +suppose to be possible, yet they would not please, nor ought he to +complain, since the old has that great advantage of having custom +and prejudice on its side. In this case we leave what has every +prejudice in its favour to take that which will have no advantage +over what we have left, but novelty, which soon destroys itself, +and, at any rate, is but a weak antagonist against custom. + +These ornaments, having the right of possession, ought not to be +removed but to make room for not only what has higher pretensions, +but such pretensions as will balance the evil and confusion which +innovation always brings with it. + +To this we may add, even the durability of the materials will often +contribute to give a superiority to one object over another. +Ornaments in buildings, with which taste is principally concerned, +are composed of materials which last longer than those of which +dress is composed; it, therefore, makes higher pretensions to our +favour and prejudice. + +Some attention is surely required to what we can no more get rid of +than we can go out of ourselves. We are creatures of prejudice; we +neither can nor ought to eradicate it; we must only regulate, it by +reason, which regulation by reason is, indeed, little more than +obliging the lesser, the focal and temporary prejudices, to give +way to those which are more durable and lasting. + +He, therefore, who in his practice of portrait painting wishes to +dignify his subject, which we will suppose to be a lady, will not +paint her in the modern dress, the familiarity of which alone is +sufficient to destroy all dignity. He takes care that his work +shall correspond to those ideas and that imagination which he knows +will regulate the judgment of others, and, therefore, dresses his +figure something with the general air of the antique for the sake +of dignity, and preserves something of the modern for the sake of +likeness. By this conduct his works correspond with those +prejudices which we have in favour of what we continually see; and +the relish of the antique simplicity corresponds with what we may +call the, more learned and scientific prejudice. + +There was a statue made not long since of Voltaire, which the +sculptor, not having that respect for the prejudices of mankind +which he ought to have, has made entirely naked, and as meagre and +emaciated as the original is said to be. The consequence is what +might be expected; it has remained in the sculptor's shop, though +it was intended as a public ornament and a public honour to +Voltaire, as it was procured at the expense of his cotemporary wits +and admirers. + +Whoever would reform a nation, supposing a bad taste to prevail in +it, will not accomplish his purpose by going directly against the +stream of their prejudices. Men's minds must be prepared to +receive what is new to them. Reformation is a work of time. A +national taste, however wrong it may be, cannot be totally change +at once; we must yield a little to the prepossession which has +taken hold on the mind, and we may then bring people to adopt what +would offend them if endeavoured to be introduced by storm. When +Battisto Franco was employed, in conjunction with Titian, Paul +Veronese, and Tintoret, to adorn the library of St. Mark, his work, +Vasari says, gave less satisfaction than any of the others: the +dry manner of the Roman school was very ill calculated to please +eyes that had been accustomed to the luxuriance, splendour, and +richness of Venetian colouring. Had the Romans been the judges of +this work, probably the determination would have been just +contrary; for in the more noble parts of the art Battisto Franco +was, perhaps, not inferior to any of his rivals. + + +Gentlemen,--It has been the main scope and principal end of this +discourse to demonstrate the reality of a standard in taste, as +well as in corporeal beauty; that a false or depraved taste is a +thing as well known, as easily discovered, as anything that is +deformed, misshapen, or wrong in our form or outward make; and that +this knowledge is derived from the uniformity of sentiments among +mankind, from whence proceeds the knowledge of what are the general +habits of nature, the result of which is an idea of perfect beauty. + +If what has been advanced be true, that besides this beauty or +truth which is formed on the uniform eternal and immutable laws of +nature, and which of necessity can be but one; that besides this +one immutable verity there are likewise what we have called +apparent or secondary truths proceeding from local and temporary +prejudices, fancies, fashions, or accidental connection of ideas; +if it appears that these last have still their foundation, however +slender, in the original fabric of our minds, it follows that all +these truths or beauties deserve and require the attention of the +artist in proportion to their stability or duration, or as their +influence is more or less extensive. And let me add that as they +ought not to pass their just bounds, so neither do they, in a well- +regulated taste, at all prevent or weaken the influence of these +general principles, which alone can give to art its true and +permanent dignity. + +To form this just taste is undoubtedly in your own power, but it is +to reason and philosophy that you must have recourse; from them we +must borrow the balance by which is to be weighed and estimated the +value of every pretension that intrudes itself on your notice. + +The general objection which is made to the introduction of +philosophy into the regions of taste is, that it checks and +restrains the flights of the imagination, and gives that timidity +which an over-carefulness not to err or act contrary to reason is +likely to produce. + +It is not so. Fear is neither reason nor philosophy. The true +spirit of philosophy by giving knowledge gives a manly confidence, +and substitutes rational firmness in the place of vain presumption. +A man of real taste is always a man of judgment in other respects; +and those inventions which either disdain or shrink from reason, +are generally, I fear, more like the dreams of a distempered brain +than the exalted enthusiasm of a sound and true genius. In the +midst of the highest flights of fancy or imagination, reason ought +to preside from first to last, though I admit her more powerful +operation is upon reflection. + +I cannot help adding that some of the greatest names of antiquity, +and those who have most distinguished themselves in works of genius +and imagination, were equally eminent for their critical skill. +Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and Horace; and among the moderns, +Boileau, Corneille, Pope, and Dryden, are at least instances of +genius not being destroyed by attention or subjection to rules and +science. I should hope, therefore, that the natural consequence +likewise of what has been said would be to excite in you a desire +of knowing the principles and conduct of the great masters of our +art, and respect and veneration for them when known. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg Etext Seven Discourses on Art by Joshua Reynolds + diff --git a/old/artds10.zip b/old/artds10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7122d48 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/artds10.zip |