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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Punctuation, by Frederick W. Hamilton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Punctuation
+       A Primer of Information about the Marks of Punctuation and
+       their Use Both Grammatically and Typographically
+
+Author: Frederick W. Hamilton
+
+Release Date: March 9, 2007 [EBook #20787]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUNCTUATION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Sigal Alon and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+1. Italicized text is rendered as _text_, bold text is rendered as
+=text=.
+
+2. Superscripted characters are preceeded by ^ (carat).
+
+3. Subscripted characters are surrounded by curly braces ({}) and
+preceeded by _ (underline character).
+
+
+
+
+TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES--PART VI, NO. 33
+
+
+PUNCTUATION
+
+
+A PRIMER _of_ INFORMATION ABOUT
+THE MARKS OF PUNCTUATION AND
+THEIR USE BOTH GRAMMATICALLY
+AND TYPOGRAPHICALLY
+
+
+BY
+
+FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL. D.
+
+EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR
+UNITED TYPOTHETĘ OF AMERICA
+
+
+
+
+PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION
+UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA
+1920
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1920
+UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA
+CHICAGO, ILL.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This book, like the others in this Part, makes no pretense at
+originality. The author has studied and compared a considerable number
+of works by the best authorities on the subject and has endeavored to
+adapt the best of their contents to the use of printers' apprentices.
+Every author has his own set of rules. At first sight, each set appears
+inconsistent with those given by other writers. This inconsistency,
+however, is generally more apparent than real. It arises from
+differences in point of view, method of approach, and system of
+classification.
+
+An attempt has been made to compile from these sources a set of rules
+which would bring before the pupil a correct and comprehensive view of
+the best current usage, well illustrated by examples and accompanied by
+practical typographical hints. The fact has been kept steadily in mind
+that this book is intended for a certain definite class of pupils and no
+pains have been spared to fit it to their needs.
+
+Any treatise consisting, as this one necessarily does, mainly of rules
+is practically useful only as a basis for constant and persistent drill.
+It is, of course, valuable for reference, but the emergencies of the
+day's work leave no time for consultation. These rules must be learned,
+and not only learned but assimilated so that their correct application
+becomes instinctive and instantaneous. This result can be secured only
+by practice. Hence the emphasis laid on the exercises indicated in the
+paragraphs introductory to the review questions.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                              PAGE
+INTRODUCTION                     1
+
+THE COMMA                        7
+
+THE SEMICOLON                   14
+
+THE COLON                       16
+
+THE PERIOD                      18
+
+THE DASH                        20
+
+THE PARENTHESIS                 23
+
+THE BRACKET                     25
+
+THE INTERROGATION               26
+
+THE EXCLAMATION                 27
+
+THE APOSTROPHE                  28
+
+THE HYPHEN                      30
+
+QUOTATION MARKS                 31
+
+GENERAL REMARKS                 34
+
+SUMMARY                         35
+
+SUPPLEMENTARY READING           36
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS                37
+
+GLOSSARY OF TERMS               40
+
+
+
+
+PUNCTUATION
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Punctuation is a device by which we aid words to tell their story. Words
+have done this at times without such aid, and may now do so, but at
+constant risk of serious misunderstanding. This can be easily seen by
+reading the following lines printed as they would have been written in
+an ancient manuscript.
+
+    WETHEPEOPLEOFTHEUNITEDSTATES
+    INORDERTOFORMAMOREPERFECT
+    UNIONESTABLISHJUSTICEINSUREDO
+    MESTICTRANQUILITYPROVIDEFOR
+    THECOMMONDEFENCEPROMOTETHE
+    GENERALWELFAREANDSECURETHE
+    BLESSINGSOFLIBERTYTOOURSELVES
+    ANDOURPOSTERITYDOORDAINAND
+    ESTABLISHTHISCONSTITUTIONFOR
+    THEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA
+
+Probably this particular passage could be read without danger of serious
+misunderstanding. The two well-known passages which follow, however, are
+cases where either a simple statement may become a ridiculous travesty
+or a serious arraignment may become a eulogy by punctuation.
+
+Punctuate the following so as to express two very different meanings:
+
+    Lord Palmerston then entered on his head a white hat upon his feet
+    large but well polished boots upon his brow a dark cloud in his hand
+    a faithful walking stick in his eye a menacing glare saying nothing.
+
+Punctuate the following in two ways: one to represent a very bad man,
+and the other a very good man:
+
+    He is an old man and experienced in vice and wickedness he is never
+    found in opposing the works of iniquity he takes delight in the
+    downfall of his neighbors he never rejoices in the prosperity of his
+    fellow-creatures he is always ready to assist in destroying the
+    peace of society he takes no pleasure in serving the Lord he is
+    uncommonly diligent in sowing discord among his friends and
+    acquaintances he takes no pride in laboring to promote the cause of
+    Christianity he has not been negligent in endeavoring to stigmatize
+    all public teachers he makes no effort to subdue his evil passions
+    he strives hard to build up satans kingdom he lends no aid to the
+    support of the gospel among the heathen he contributes largely to
+    the devil he will never go to heaven he must go where he will
+    receive the just recompense of reward.
+
+Punctuation being intended for the sole purpose of making the text
+intelligible and removing as many of the causes of possible
+misunderstanding as may be, must depend in the last resort on a correct
+understanding of the text. This understanding may be obtained from the
+text itself, from the context, that is, the writing as a whole, or from
+outside knowledge about the matter under consideration.
+
+    The prisoner said the witness was a sneak thief.
+    The prisoner, said the witness, was a sneak thief.
+
+The meaning of this sentence depends entirely on the presence or absence
+of the two commas.
+
+Manuscript comes in to the printer hastily written by the customer,
+author, or a reporter, or ticked over the telegraph wire, and there is
+little or no punctuation. Probably the context will supply the needed
+information and the line may be set up correctly. If there is no way of
+finding out what the sentence means, follow copy. Insert no punctuation
+marks which you are not sure are needed.
+
+Punctuation as we know it is of recent invention. The practice of the
+art of printing brought the necessity for a defined and systematized use
+of the points which had, most of them, long been in existence, but which
+had been used largely according to the personal preferences of the
+scribes or copyists. With the coming of the new methods of book
+reproduction came the recognized need for standardization and
+systematization.
+
+The most ancient inscriptions and manuscripts are merely strings of
+letters, without spacing between words or sentences and without any
+points of any sort, like the example on page 1.
+
+The first mark to be used was the dot, or period. Its original purpose
+was simply to furnish a resting place for the eye and the mind and so
+help a little in the grouping of the letters into words, clauses, and
+sentences, which the mind had hitherto been compelled to do unaided. It
+was used at the end of a sentence, at the end of a clause, to indicate
+abbreviations, to separate crowded words, especially where the sense was
+ambiguous (ANICEMAN might be either AN ICE MAN or A NICE MAN), or even
+as an ęsthetic ornament between the letters of an inscription. In early
+manuscripts the period is usually placed high ([Symbol: High Dot])
+instead of low (.).
+
+Sometimes a slanting mark (/) or a double dot (: or ..) was used to
+indicate the end of an important section of the writing or even of a
+sentence.
+
+After a time spaces were introduced to show the grouping of the letters
+and the words. At first the sentences were separated by spaces, then the
+long words, and finally all words. In some languages, as in Italian,
+there are still combinations of long and short words, such as the
+combination of the pronoun with the verb, as in _datemi_, give me.
+
+During the manuscript period different schools of copyists and even
+different individuals used different marks and different systems of
+pointing. For a considerable time the location of the dot indicated its
+force. Placed high ([Symbol: High Dot]) it had the force of a period.
+Placed in a middle position (·) it had the force of a comma. Placed low
+(.) it had the force of a semicolon. The rule, however, was not
+universally observed. A Latin manuscript of the seventh century has a
+high dot ([Symbol: High Dot]) equivalent to a comma, a semicolon used as
+at present, and a dot accompanied by another dot or a dash to indicate
+the end of a sentence. A Latin manuscript of the ninth century shows the
+comma and an inverted semicolon ([Symbol: Comma above Period]) having a
+value between the semicolon and colon. Medięval manuscript pointing,
+therefore, approximates modern forms in places, but lacks
+standardization into recognized systems.
+
+The spread of printing brought new needs into prominence. The early
+printers used the period at the end of the sentence, the colon, and
+sometimes the slanting line (/). A reversed semicolon was used as a
+question mark. Wynkyn de Worde, Caxton's successor in the printing
+business in London, used five points in 1509. They were the period, the
+semicolon, the comma, the "interrogative," and the parenthesis.
+
+The systematization of punctuation is due mainly to the careful and
+scholarly Aldus Manutius, who had opened a printing office in Venice in
+1494. The great printers of the early day were great scholars as well.
+For a very long time the chief concern of the printer was the opening of
+the treasures of ancient thought to the world. They were therefore
+compelled to be the students, critics, and editors of the old
+manuscripts which served them as copy. They naturally took their
+punctuation from the Greek grammarians, but sometimes with changed
+meanings. The semicolon, for instance, is the Greek mark of
+interrogation.
+
+The period took its name from the Greek word [Greek: periodos],
+periodos, meaning a division of a sentence or a thought, as we to-day
+speak of an orator's eloquent periods.
+
+The colon comes from the Greek [Greek: kōlon], kolon, meaning a limb.
+
+The comma comes from the Greek [Greek: komma], komma, from [Greek:
+koptein], to cut.
+
+The semicolon, of course, is the half colon.
+
+The question mark was made by writing the first and last letters of the
+Latin word _questio_, a question, vertically, [Symbol: q over o]
+
+The exclamation point was made by writing the letters of the Latin word
+_Io_, joy, vertically, [Symbol: I over o]
+
+The punctuation marks now in use and treated of in this book are as
+follows:
+
+  ,  comma
+  ;  semicolon
+  :  colon
+  .  period
+  ?  interrogation
+  !  exclamation
+( )  parentheses
+[ ]  brackets
+  '  apostrophe
+  -  hyphen
+ --  dash
+" "  quotation marks
+
+Other important marks used by printers, but not, strictly speaking,
+marks of punctuation, are fully discussed in the volume on
+_Abbreviations and Signs_ (No. 37) in this series.
+
+There are two systems of punctuation in use, known respectively as the
+close and open systems. The close, or stiff, system, using points
+wherever they can be used, is of importance in precise composition of
+every sort, such as laws, contracts, legal and ecclesiastical
+statements, and the like. The open, or easy, system, omitting points
+wherever they can be omitted, is used generally in the commoner forms of
+composition. The tendency, sometimes pushed too far, is toward an
+extremely open style of punctuation. The general attitude of writers and
+printers may be summed up by saying that you must justify the use of a
+punctuation mark, particularly a comma, rather than its omission.
+
+But why should the printer bother himself about punctuation at all? Is
+that not the business of the author, the editor, and the proofreader?
+Strictly speaking, yes, but authors generally neglect punctuation, copy
+is not usually carefully edited before going to the compositor, and
+proofreader's corrections are expensive. It is therefore important that
+the compositor should be intelligent about punctuation, whether he works
+in a large or a small office.
+
+The question of how far the printer may go in changing or supplying the
+punctuation of copy will depend largely on circumstances. If the
+condition of the manuscript is such as to show that the author really
+intended to put a fully punctuated, correctly spelled, and properly
+capitalized manuscript into the hands of the printer, he has a right to
+have his wishes respected even if his ideas are not those which prevail
+in the office. In such a case the compositor should follow copy
+literally. If any questions are to be raised they should be discussed by
+the proofreader _with the author_. The same rule holds in the case of
+manuscripts edited before being sent to the composing room. The editor
+has assumed all responsibility for the accuracy of the copy. In a great
+many cases the copy will come in carelessly written and wholly unedited.
+In such cases the compositor should punctuate as he goes along.
+
+This is one of the tasks which subject the compositor to the test of
+intelligence. Printing is not now and never will be a purely mechanical
+trade. A printing office is no place for an apprentice who can not learn
+to think.
+
+This book contains a description of the functions of the punctuation
+marks and the common rules for their use. Rules for the use of
+punctuation marks are very different from rules for the use of purely
+material things. They are useless unless applied intelligently. No set
+of rules could be devised which would work automatically or relieve the
+compositor from the necessity of thinking. Punctuation can never be
+reduced to an exact science.
+
+Certain general directions should be borne in mind by writers and
+printers.
+
+I. Learn by heart the rules for punctuation.
+
+II. Note the peculiarities of the best writers and the best printers,
+especially in contemporary examples.
+
+III. Pay constant attention to punctuation in everything you write.
+
+IV. Punctuate your sentence while you are writing it.
+
+V. Understand what you are printing. _This is of supreme importance._
+Punctuation is an aid to understanding. You cannot correctly punctuate
+anything that you do not understand.
+
+
+
+
+THE COMMA
+
+
+The comma is by far the most difficult of all the punctuation marks to
+use correctly. Usage varies greatly from time to time and among equally
+good writers and printers at the same time. Certain general rules may be
+stated and should be learned. Many cases, however, will arise in which
+the rules will be differently interpreted and differently applied by
+different people.
+
+The comma is the least degree of separation possible of indication in
+print. Its business is to define the particles and minor clauses of a
+sentence. A progressive tendency may be seen in the printing of English
+for centuries toward the elimination of commas, and the substitution of
+the comma for the semicolon and of the semicolon for the colon. Compare
+a page of the King James version of the Bible, especially in one of its
+earlier printings, with a page of serious discourse of to-day and the
+effects of the tendency will be easily seen. It is part of the general
+tendency toward greater simplicity of expression which has developed the
+clear and simple English of the best contemporary writers out of the
+involved and ornate style of the period of Queen Elizabeth. An ornate
+and involved style needs a good deal of punctuation to make it
+intelligible, while a simple and direct style needs but very little
+help.
+
+This progressive change in the need for punctuation and in the attitude
+of writers toward it accounts for the difference in usage and for the
+difficulty in fixing rules to cover all cases. The present attitude
+toward punctuation, especially the use of the comma, is one of aversion.
+The writer is always held to justification of the presence of a comma
+rather than of its absence. Nevertheless it is quite possible to go too
+far in the omission of commas in ordinary writing. It is quite possible
+to construct sentences in such a way as to avoid their use. The result
+is a harsh and awkward style, unwarranted by any necessity. Ordinary
+writing needs some use of commas to indicate the sense and to prevent
+ambiguity.
+
+Always remember that the real business of the comma is just that of
+helping the meaning of the words and of preventing ambiguity by showing
+clearly the separation and connection of words and phrases. If there is
+possibility of misunderstanding without a comma, put one in. If the
+words tell their story beyond possibility of misunderstanding without a
+comma, there is no reason for its use. This rule will serve as a fairly
+dependable guide in the absence of any well recognized rule for a
+particular case, or where doubt exists as to the application of a rule.
+
+Reversed, and usually in pairs, commas mark the beginning of a
+quotation.
+
+In numerical statements the comma separates Arabic figures by triplets
+in classes of hundreds: $5,276,492.72.
+
+In tabular work reversed commas are used as a sign for ditto.
+
+    SCHOOLS TEACHING PRINTING
+
+    Boston:  Boston Typothetę School of Printing.
+      "      Industrial Arts High School.
+    Chicago: Lakeside Press School of Printing.
+      "      Chicago Typothetę School of Printing.
+      "      Lane Technical High School.
+
+The comma is placed between the words which it is intended to separate.
+When used in connection with quotation marks, it is always placed inside
+them.
+
+    "Honesty is the best policy," as the proverb says.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Comma_
+
+1. After each adjective or adverb in a series of two or more when not
+connected by conjunctions.
+
+    He was a tall, thin, dark man.
+
+The rule holds when the last member of the series is preceded by a
+conjunction.
+
+    He was tall, thin, and dark.
+
+The comma may be omitted when the words are combined into a single idea.
+
+    A still hot day.
+    An old black coat.
+
+2. After each pair in a series of pairs of words or phrases not
+connected by conjunctions.
+
+    Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish,
+    I give my hand and my heart to this vote.
+
+    Formerly the master printer, his journeymen, even his apprentices,
+    all lived in the same house.
+
+3. To separate contrasted words.
+
+    We rule by love, not by force.
+
+4. Between two independent clauses connected by a conjunction.
+
+    The press was out of order, but we managed to start it.
+
+5. Before a conjunction when the word which preceded it is qualified by
+an expression which does not qualify the word which follows the
+conjunction.
+
+    He quickly looked up, and spoke.
+
+6. Between relative clauses which explain the antecedent, or which
+introduce a new thought.
+
+    The type, which was badly worn, was not fit for the job.
+
+If the relative clause limits the meaning of the antecedent, but does
+not explain it and does not add a new thought, the comma is not used.
+
+    He did only that which he was told to do.
+
+7. To separate parenthetical or intermediate expressions from the
+context.
+
+    The school, you may be glad to know, is very successful.
+    The books, which I have read, are returned with gratitude.
+    He was pleased, I suppose, with his work.
+
+If the connection of such expressions is so close as to form one
+connected idea the comma is not used.
+
+    The press nearest the south window is out of order.
+
+If the connection of such expressions is remote, parentheses are used.
+
+    The Committee (appointed under vote of April 10, 1909) organized and
+    proceeded with business.
+
+8. To separate the co-ordinate clauses of compound sentences if such
+clauses are simple in construction and closely related.
+
+    He was kind, not indulgent, to his men; firm, but just, in
+    discipline; courteous, but not familiar, to all.
+
+9. To separate quotations, or similar brief expressions from the
+preceding part of the sentence.
+
+    Cęsar reported to the Senate, "I came, I saw, I conquered."
+    The question is, What shall we do next?
+
+10. To indicate the omission of the verb in compound sentences having a
+common verb in several clauses.
+
+    One man glories in his strength, another in his wealth, another in
+    his learning.
+
+11. To separate phrases containing the case absolute from the rest of
+the sentence.
+
+    The form having been locked up, a proof was taken.
+
+12. Between words or phrases in apposition to each other.
+
+    I refer to DeVinne, the great authority on Printing.
+
+The comma is omitted when such an apposition is used as a single phrase
+or a compound name.
+
+    The poet Longfellow was born in Portland.
+    The word _patriotic_ is now in extensive use.
+
+13. After phrases and clauses which are placed at the beginning of a
+sentence by inversion.
+
+    Worn out by hard wear, the type at last became unfit for use.
+    Ever since, he has been fond of celery.
+
+The comma is omitted if the phrase thus used is very short.
+
+    Of success there could be no doubt.
+
+14. Introductory phrases beginning with _if_, _when_, _wherever_,
+_whenever_, and the like should generally be separated from the rest of
+the sentence by a comma, even when the statement may appear to be
+direct.
+
+    When a plain query has not been answered, it is best to follow copy.
+    If the copy is hard to read, the compositor will set but few pages.
+
+15. To separate introductory words and phrases and independent adverbs
+from the rest of the sentence.
+
+    Now, what are you going to do there?
+
+    I think, also, Franklin owed much of his success to his strong
+    common sense.
+
+    This idea, however, had already been grasped by others.
+
+Of course the comma is not used when these adverbs are used in the
+ordinary way.
+
+    They also serve who only stand and wait.
+    This must be done, however contrary to our inclinations.
+
+16. To separate words or phrases of direct address from the context.
+
+    I submit, gentlemen, to your judgment.
+    From today, my son, your future is in your own hands.
+
+17. Between the name of a person and his title or degree.
+
+    Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States.
+    Charles W. Eliot, LL.D.
+
+18. Before the word _of_ connecting a proper name with residence or
+position.
+
+    Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts.
+    Elihu B. Root, Senator from New York.
+
+19. After the salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter, when
+informal.
+
+    Dear John,
+
+When the salutation is formal a colon should be used.
+
+    My dear Mr. Smith:
+
+20. To separate the closing salutation of a formal letter from the rest
+of the sentence of which it forms a part.
+
+    Soliciting your continued patronage, I am,
+                     Very sincerely yours,
+                                    John W. Smith.
+
+21. To separate two numbers.
+
+    January 31, 1915.
+    By the end of 1914, 7062 had been built.
+
+22. To indicate an ellipsis.
+
+    Subscription for the course, one dollar.
+
+Exceptions to this rule are made in very brief sentences, especially in
+advertisements: Tickets 25 cents. Price one dollar.
+
+The foregoing rules for the use of the comma have been compiled from
+those given by a considerable number of authorities. Further examination
+of authorities would probably have added to the number and to the
+complexity of these rules. No two sets of rules which have come under
+the writer's observation are alike. Positive disagreements in modern
+treatises on the subject are few. The whole matter, however, turns so
+much on the use made of certain general principles and the field is so
+vast that different writers vary greatly in their statements and even in
+their ideas of what ought to be stated. It is very difficult to strike
+the right mean between a set of rules too fragmentary and too incomplete
+for any real guidance and a set of rules too long to be remembered and
+used.
+
+After all possible has been done to indicate the best usage it remains
+true that the writer or the printer must, in the last resort, depend
+very largely on himself for the proper application of certain
+principles. The compositor may find himself helped, or restricted, by
+the established style of the office, or he may at times be held to
+strict following of copy. When left to himself he must be guided by the
+following general principles:
+
+I. The comma is used to separate for the eye what is separate in
+thought.
+
+The comma is not intended to break the matter up into lengths suited to
+the breath of one reading aloud.
+
+The comma is not an ęsthetic device to improve the appearance of the
+line.
+
+II. The sole purpose of the comma is the unfolding of the sense of the
+words.
+
+III. The comma cannot be correctly used without a thorough understanding
+of the sense of the words.
+
+IV. In case of doubt, omit the comma.
+
+
+
+
+THE SEMICOLON
+
+
+The semicolon is used to denote a degree of separation greater than that
+indicated by the comma, but less than that indicated by the colon. It
+prevents the repetition of the comma and keeps apart the more important
+members of the sentence. The semicolon is generally used in long
+sentences, but may sometimes be properly used in short ones.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Semicolon_
+
+1. When the members of a compound sentence are complex or contain
+commas.
+
+    Franklin, like many others, was a printer; but, unlike the others,
+    he was student, statesman, and publicist as well.
+
+    With ten per cent of this flour the bread acquired a slight flavor
+    of rye; fifteen per cent gave it a dark color; a further addition
+    made the baked crumb very hard.
+
+    The meeting was composed of representatives from the following
+    districts: Newton, 4 delegates, 2 substitutes; Dorchester, 6
+    delegates, 3 substitutes; Quincy, 8 delegates, 4 substitutes;
+    Brookline, 10 delegates, 5 substitutes.
+
+2. When the members of a compound sentence contain statements distinct,
+but not sufficiently distinct to be thrown into separate sentences.
+
+    Sit thou a patient looker-on;
+    Judge not the play before the play be done;
+    Her plot has many changes; every day
+    Speaks a new scene. The last act crowns the play.
+
+3. When each of the members of a compound sentence makes a distinct
+statement and has some dependence on statements in the other member or
+members of the sentence.
+
+    Wisdom hath builded her house; she hath hewn out her seven pillars;
+    she hath killed her beasts; she hath mingled her wine; she hath
+    furnished her table.
+
+Each member of this sentence is nearly complete. It is not quite a full
+and definite statement, but it is much more than a mere amplification
+such as we might get by leaving out _she hath_ every time after the
+first. In the former case we should use periods. In the latter we should
+use commas.
+
+4. A comma is ordinarily used between the clauses of a compound sentence
+that are connected by a simple conjunction, but a semicolon may be used
+between clauses connected by conjunctive adverbs. Compare the following
+examples:
+
+    The play was neither edifying nor interesting to him, and he decided
+    to change his plans.
+
+    The play was neither edifying nor interesting to him; therefore he
+    decided to change his plans.
+
+5. To indicate the chapter references in scriptural citations.
+
+    Matt. i: 5, 7, 9; v: 1-10; xiv: 3, 8, 27.
+
+The semicolon should always be put outside quotation marks unless it
+forms a part of the quotation itself.
+
+    "Take care of the cents and the dollars will take care of
+    themselves"; a very wise old saying.
+
+
+
+
+THE COLON
+
+
+The colon marks the place of transition in a long sentence consisting of
+many members and involving a logical turn of the thought. Both the colon
+and semicolon are much less used now than formerly. The present tendency
+is toward short, simple, clear sentences, with consequent little
+punctuation, and that of the open style. Such sentences need little or
+no aid to tell their story.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Colon_
+
+1. Before _as_, _viz._, _that is_, _namely_, etc., when these words
+introduce a series of particular terms in apposition with a general
+term.
+
+    The American flag has three colors: namely, red, white, and blue.
+
+2. Between two members of a sentence when one or both are made up of two
+or more clauses divided by semicolons.
+
+    The Englishman was calm and self-possessed; his antagonist impulsive
+    and self-confident: the Englishman was the product of a volunteer
+    army of professional soldiers; his antagonist was the product of a
+    drafted army of unwilling conscripts.
+
+3. Before particular elements in a definite statement.
+
+    Bad: He asked what caused the accident?
+    Right: He asked, "What caused the accident?"
+
+    Napoleon said to his army at the battle of the Pyramids: "Soldiers,
+    forty centuries are looking down upon you."
+
+    The duties of the superintendent are grouped under three heads:
+    first, etc.
+
+4. Before formal quotations.
+
+    Write a short essay on the following topic: "What is wrong with our
+    industrial system?"
+
+When the formal introduction is brief, a comma may be used.
+
+    St. Paul said, "Bear ye one another's burdens."
+
+5. After the formal salutatory phrase at the opening of a letter.
+
+    My dear Sir:
+
+When the letter is informal use a comma.
+
+    Dear John,
+
+6. Between the chapter and verse in scriptural references.
+
+    John xix: 22.
+
+7. Between the city of publication and the name of the publisher in
+literary references.
+
+    "The Practice of Typography." New York: Oswald Publishing Company.
+
+The colon has been similarly employed in the imprints on the title pages
+of books.
+
+    New York: Harper & Brothers, 1880.
+
+DeVinne remarks upon this use of the colon that it is traditional and
+can not be explained.
+
+The colon is sometimes used between the hours and minutes in indicating
+time, like: 11:42 a.m.
+
+DeVinne does not approve of this, though other authorities give it as
+the rule. It is probably better to use the period in spite of its use as
+a decimal point, which use was probably the motive for seeking something
+else to use in writing time indications. In railroad printing the hour
+is often separated from the minutes by a simple space without any
+punctuation.
+
+
+
+
+THE PERIOD
+
+
+The period, or full stop, marks the end of a declarative sentence. As a
+sign it has several other uses which will appear in the paragraphs
+following.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Period_
+
+1. At the end of every sentence unless interrogative or exclamatory.
+
+2. After abbreviations.
+
+    Nicknames, _Sam_, _Tom_, etc., are not regarded as abbreviations.
+
+    The metric symbols are treated as abbreviations but the chemical
+    symbols are not. M. (metre) and mg. (milligram) but H_{2} O and
+    Na Cl.
+
+    Per cent is not regarded as an abbreviation.
+
+    The names of book sizes (12mo 16mo) are not regarded as
+    abbreviations.
+
+The period is now generally omitted in display matter after
+
+    Running heads,
+    Cut-in side-notes,
+    Central head-lines,
+    Box heads in tables,
+    Signatures at the end of letters.
+
+The period is omitted
+
+    After Roman numerals, even though they have the value of ordinals.
+
+    After MS and similar symbols.
+
+    In technical matter, after the recognized abbreviations for
+    linguistic epochs. IE (Indo-European), MHG (Middle High German)
+
+    and after titles of well-known publications indicated by initials
+    such as AAAPS (Annals of the American Academy of Political Science).
+
+When a parenthesis forms the end of a declarative sentence the period is
+placed outside the parenthesis, as in the preceding example. A period is
+placed inside a parenthesis only in two cases.
+
+1. After an abbreviation.
+
+    This was 50 years ago (i.e. 1860 A.D.)
+
+2. At the end of an independent sentence lying entirely within the
+parenthesis.
+
+    Lincoln was at the height of his powers in 1860 (He was elected to
+    the presidency at this time.)
+
+When a sentence ends with a quotation, the period always goes inside the
+quotation marks.
+
+    I have just read DeVinne's "Practice of Typography."
+
+The same rule applies to the use of the other low marks, comma,
+semicolon, and colon, in connection with quotation marks. Unlike most
+rules of grammar and punctuation, this rule does not rest on a logical
+basis. It rests on purely typographic considerations, as the arrangement
+of points indicated by the rule gives a better looking line than can be
+secured by any other arrangement.
+
+
+_Other Uses of the Period_
+
+1. The period is used as a decimal point.
+
+2. The period is used in groups, separated by spaces, to indicate an
+ellipsis.
+
+    He read as follows: "The gentleman said . . . .
+    he was there and saw . . . . the act in question."
+
+
+
+
+THE DASH
+
+
+The dash is a very useful mark which has been greatly overworked by
+careless writers. It is very easy to make in manuscript and serves as a
+convenient cover for the writer's ignorance of what point should
+properly be used.
+
+The conspicuousness of the dash makes it a very useful mark for guiding
+the eye of the reader to the unity of the sentence. It is particularly
+useful in legal pleadings where there is much repetition of statement
+and great elaboration of detail. In such cases commas, semicolons, and
+even parentheses are so multiplied that the relation of the clauses is
+lost sight of. The confusion thus arising may often be cleared up by
+intelligent use of the dash.
+
+The dash is sometimes used to connect a side heading with the text that
+follows, or to connect the end of that text with the name of the writer.
+
+    A RULE FOR PEACE.--If it be possible, as much as lieth in you, live
+    peaceably with all men.--_St. Paul._
+
+The dash is sometimes used in catalogue work as a ditto mark.
+
+    DE VINNE, THEODORE LOW. Historic Printing Types. New York, 1886.
+    ----The Invention of Printing. Francis Hart & Co., New York, 1878.
+    ----Plain Printing Types. Oswald Publishing Co., New York, 1914.
+
+French printers use the dash in printing dialogue as a partial
+substitute for quotation marks. Quotation marks are placed at the
+beginning and end of the dialogue and a dash precedes each speech. This
+form is used even if the dialogue is extended over many pages.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Dash_
+
+1. To mark abrupt changes in sentiment and in construction.
+
+    Have you ever heard--but how should you hear?
+
+2. To mark pauses and repetitions used for dramatic or rhetorical
+effect.
+
+    They make a desert, and call it--peace.
+    Thou, great Anna, whom three states obey,
+    Who sometimes counsel takes--and sometimes tea.
+
+3. To express in one sentence great contrariety of action or emotion or
+to increase the speed of the discourse by a succession of snappy
+phrases.
+
+    She starts--she moves--she seems to feel
+    The thrill of life along her keel.
+
+In this connection DeVinne gives the following excellent example from
+Sterne:
+
+    Nature instantly ebbed again;--the film returned to its place;--the
+    pulse fluttered,--stopped,--went on,--throbbed,--stopped
+    again,--moved,--stopped,--Shall I go on?--No.
+
+Attention may be called to Sterne's use of the semicolon and the comma
+with the dash, a use now obsolete except in rare cases.
+
+4. To separate the repetition or different amplifications of the same
+statement.
+
+    The infinite importance of what he has to do--the goading conviction
+    that it must be done--the dreadful combination in his mind of both
+    the necessity and the incapacity--the despair of crowding the
+    concerns of an age into a moment--the impossibility of beginning a
+    repentance which should have been completed--of setting about a
+    peace which should have been concluded--of suing for a pardon which
+    should have been obtained--all these complicated concerns
+    intolerably augment the sufferings of the victims.
+
+5. At the end of a series of phrases which depend upon a concluding
+clause.
+
+    Railroads and steamships, factories and warehouses, wealth and
+    luxury--these are not civilization.
+
+6. When a sentence is abruptly terminated.
+
+    If I thought he said it I  would--
+
+7. To precede expressions which are added to an apparently completed
+sentence, but which refer to some previous part of the sentence.
+
+    He wondered what the foreman would say--he had a way of saying the
+    unexpected.
+
+8. To connect extreme dates in time indication.
+
+    The war of 1861--1865. The war of 1861-1865.
+
+9. To define verse references in the Bible or page references in books.
+
+    Matt. v: 1--11.  Matt. v: 1-11.
+    See pp. 50--53.  See pp. 50-53.
+
+NOTE. In instances such as given in the two preceding rules the en dash
+may sometimes serve if the em dash appears too conspicuous.
+
+10. A dash preceded by a colon is sometimes used before a long quotation
+forming a new paragraph. In other cases no point need accompany the
+dash.
+
+The dash is sometimes used as a substitute for commas. Writers on the
+subject say that this use occurs when the connection between the
+parenthetical clause and the context is closer than would be indicated
+by commas. The distinction, if real, is difficult to see. It would be
+better if none but the most experienced writers attempted the use of the
+dash in this way.
+
+Dashes are often used instead of marks of parenthesis. It is better to
+let each mark do its own work.
+
+
+
+
+THE PARENTHESIS
+
+
+The parenthesis, commonly used in pairs, encloses expressions which have
+no essential connection with the rest of the sentence, but are important
+to its full comprehension. It is liable to be neglected by writers
+because the dash is easier to make, and by printers because it is
+generally thought to mar the beauty of the line. Its distinct uses,
+however, should not be neglected.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Parenthesis_
+
+1. To introduce into a sentence matter which is not essentially
+connected with the rest of the sentence, but aids in making it clear.
+
+    Trouble began when the apprentice (who had been strictly forbidden
+    to do so) undertook to do some work on his own account.
+
+    This year (1914) saw the outbreak of a general war.
+
+2. In reports of speeches to enclose the name of a person who has been
+referred to, or to indicate expressions on the part of the audience.
+
+    The honorable gentleman who has just spoken (Mr. Lodge) has no
+    superior on this floor in his knowledge of international law.
+    (Applause.)
+
+3. Parentheses enclosing interrogation points or exclamation points are
+sometimes introduced into a sentence to cast doubt on a statement or to
+express surprise or contempt.
+
+    He said that on the fifth of January (?) he was in New York.
+
+    This most excellent (!) gentleman.
+
+4. Parentheses are used, generally in pairs, sometimes singly, to
+enclose the reference letters or figures used to mark division and
+classification in arguments or in precise statements.
+
+    This is done because: (a) it is clearer; (b) it is shorter.
+
+These signs may be printed in several ways.
+
+    (a) a) (^a) ^a) (1) 1) (^1) ^1)
+
+The old-fashioned form of parenthesis, always made too thin, may need a
+thin space between it and its adjoining character when it is placed too
+close to any letter that nearly fills the body in height, as in
+( Hall ). The space may not be needed when the proximate character has a
+shoulder, as in ( Art), or when the parenthesis follows a period.)
+
+The italic form of parenthesis is objectionable in book work.
+Distinction is sought for the word in italic and not for the parenthesis
+enclosing the word. The italic parenthesis may be used in job-work or
+full display lines of italic letters.
+
+
+
+
+THE BRACKET
+
+
+Brackets are used in pairs, like the parentheses. In Job composition
+either brackets or parentheses may be used, as suits the fancy or is
+convenient. In descriptive text matter, however, brackets should not be
+used where parentheses are clearly indicated.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Bracket_
+
+1. To enclose words or phrases which are entirely independent of the
+rest of the sentence.
+
+The enclosed words are usually comments, queries, corrections,
+criticisms, or directions inserted by some person other than the
+original writer or speaker.
+
+2. To enclose passages of doubtful authenticity in reprints of early
+manuscripts, special amendments to bills under legislative
+consideration, or any other portions of a text which need peculiar
+identification.
+
+3. In legal or ecclesiastical papers to indicate numerical words which
+may have to be changed, or to indicate where details are to be supplied.
+
+    This is the first [_second or third_] publication.
+
+    The officers shall remain in office [_here state the time_] or until
+    their successors are duly qualified.
+
+4. To avoid the confusion caused by a parenthesis within a parenthesis.
+
+5. A single bracket is used to enclose the ending of a long line of
+poetry which will not fit the register and has to be run over into an
+adjoining line.
+
+Doubt whether to use parentheses or brackets can usually be settled by
+this general principle:
+
+Parentheses always enclose remarks apparently made by the writer of the
+text. Brackets enclose remarks certainly made by the editor or reporter
+of that text.
+
+
+
+
+THE INTERROGATION
+
+
+The interrogation is the point that asks questions. It should always be
+placed outside quotation marks unless it is a part of the quotation
+itself.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Interrogation_
+
+1. The interrogation point is used at the end of every direct question.
+
+    Are you there?
+
+Indirect questions, that is, statements that a question has been asked,
+do not require the interrogation.
+
+    He asked me if I was there.
+    He asked the question, Are you there? and received no answer.
+
+2. At the end of each of a series of questions thrown into a single
+sentence.
+
+    Did he speak in an ordinary tone? or shout? or whisper?
+
+3. The interrogation, like a certain inflection in the voice, may
+indicate that a sentence, though declarative in form, is really a
+question and requires an answer.
+
+    You are, of course, familiar with New York?
+
+
+
+
+THE EXCLAMATION
+
+
+The exclamation mark is the mark of strong emotion.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Exclamation_
+
+1. After every expression of great surprise or emotion.
+
+    Look, my lord! it comes!
+    Angels and ministers of grace defend us!
+    Alas! my father.
+
+2. After interjections and other exclamatory words.
+
+    Hurrah! Good! Away! Oh!
+
+Where the exclamations are repeated without particularly emphasizing
+each one, each may be followed by a comma except the last.
+
+    Ha, ha, ha! That's a good joke!
+
+O used as a vocative or to express a desire or imprecation does not call
+for an exclamation.
+
+    O John.
+    Oh, yes.
+    O, that night would come!
+
+The exclamation is sometimes used in job printing to fill out a display
+line or for other inadequate reasons. These uses should be avoided.
+
+
+
+
+THE APOSTROPHE
+
+
+The apostrophe is primarily the sign of the possessive case, but it has
+several other uses.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Apostrophe_
+
+1. The apostrophe for the possessive case is added only to nouns, not to
+the pronouns, which have their distinct possessive forms. _Its_ is a
+possessive pronoun. _It's_ is an abbreviation for _it is_. Do not use an
+apostrophe with the possessive adjectives _hers_, _ours_, _yours_,
+_theirs_, _its_.
+
+2. All nouns in the singular and all nouns in the plural except those
+ending in _s_ take an apostrophe and _s_ to form the possessive.
+
+Nouns in the plural ending in _s_ take an apostrophe only to form the
+possessive.
+
+There is much difference of opinion as to the invariability of the rule
+concerning singular nouns in _s_. DeVinne advises following the
+pronunciation. Where the second _s_ is not pronounced, as often happens,
+to avoid the prolonged hissing sound of another _s_, he recommends
+omitting it in print.
+
+    Moses' hat, for Moses's hat.
+    For conscience' sake.
+
+3. The apostrophe indicates the omission of letters in dialect, in
+familiar dialogue, and in poetry.
+
+    That's 'ow 'tis.
+    'Twas ever thus.
+
+When two words are practically made into one syllable, a thin space may
+be put before the apostrophe, except that _don't_, _can't_, _won't_, and
+_shan't_ are consolidated. This use of a space serves to distinguish
+between the possessive in _s_ and the contraction of _is_.
+
+    Where death 's abroad and sorrow 's close behind.
+
+4. Figures expressing dates are often abbreviated, but it is not good
+general practice.
+
+    The boys of '61.
+    It happened in '14.
+
+5. The apostrophe is used to form the plural of letters and figures.
+
+    Cross your t's and dot your i's.
+    Make 3's and 5's more plain.
+
+Except in these cases the apostrophe is not a plural sign and should be
+so used only when it is intended to reproduce a dialect or
+colloquialism.
+
+    Wrong: All the Collins's were there.
+    Right: All the Collinses were there.
+
+The final _ed_ of past tenses and past participles was formerly
+pronounced as a distinct syllable, thus: _clos-ed_, _belov-ed_, and this
+pronunciation continued in common use in poetry long after it was
+discontinued in prose. During this period of transition the modern
+pronunciation was indicated by dropping the _e_ and using an apostrophe,
+thus: _clos'd_, _belov'd_. It is now understood that while the full
+spelling is to be used, the old pronunciation is not to be used unless
+specially indicated by placing a grave accent over the _e_ of the last
+syllable, thus: _belovčd_.
+
+At the same period poets, especially, used an apostrophe to indicate a
+silent _e_ as in _ev'ry_, but the usage is now obsolete.
+
+Such abbreviations as _Dep't_, _Gov't_, _Sec'y_, and the like, are
+objectionable in print. If such abbreviations are necessary it is better
+to use the forms _Dept._, _Govt._, _Secy._
+
+
+
+
+THE HYPHEN
+
+
+The hyphen is used to join compound words; to mark the division of a
+word too long to go entirely into one line; to separate the syllables of
+words in order to show pronunciation; as a leader in tabular work. For
+this last purpose the period is to be preferred to any other mark in
+use. Tabular work without leaders is obscure and therefore
+objectionable.
+
+
+
+
+QUOTATION MARKS
+
+
+Quotation marks are signs used to indicate that the writer is giving
+exactly the words of another. A French printer named Morel used a comma
+in the outer margin to indicate a quoted line about 1550. About a
+century later another Frenchman, Ménage, introduced a mark («»)
+resembling a double parenthesis but shorter. These marks were cast on
+the middle of the type body so that they could be reversed for use at
+either the beginning or the end of a quotation. The French have retained
+these signs as their quotation marks ever since.
+
+When the English adopted the use of quotation marks, they did not take
+over the French marks, but substituted two inverted commas at the
+beginning and two apostrophes at the end of the quoted paragraph. These
+marks are typographically unsatisfactory. They are weak and therefore
+hardly adequate to their purpose in aiding the understanding through the
+eye. Being cast on the upper part of the type body, they leave a blank
+space below and thus impair the beauty of the line and interfere with
+good spacing. Certain rules for the position of quotation marks when
+used with other marks are based upon these typographical considerations
+rather than upon logical considerations.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks_
+
+1. Every direct quotation should be enclosed in double quotation marks.
+
+    "I will go," said he, "if I can."
+
+Reports of what another person has said when given in words other than
+his own are called indirect quotations and take no marks.
+
+    He said he would go if he could.
+
+2. A quotation of several paragraphs requires quotation marks at the
+beginning of each paragraph, but at the end of the last one only. In
+legal documents, and sometimes elsewhere, quotations are defined and
+emphasized by putting double commas at the beginning of every line of
+the quotation.
+
+The same result may be better obtained by using smaller type, or
+indenting the quotation, or both.
+
+3. A quotation included within another quotation should be enclosed by
+single quotation marks.
+
+    He said: "I heard him cry 'Put down that gun,' and then I heard a
+    shot."
+
+4. Titles of books, essays, art works, etc., are usually enclosed in
+quotation marks. When the books are supposedly familiar to all readers,
+the marks are not used. You would not print "The Bible," "Paradise
+Lost," "The Iliad."
+
+The titles of books, etc., are sometimes printed in italics instead of
+being enclosed in quotation marks. This is a matter of office style
+rather than of good or bad practice.
+
+5. In writing about plays or books, the name of the work may be quoted
+and the name of a character italicized. This is done to avoid confusion
+between the play, the character, and the real person portrayed. "William
+Tell" is a play. _William Tell_ is a character in fiction. William Tell
+is a national hero of Switzerland.
+
+This usage is by no means uniform; here again, we are on the ground of
+office style.
+
+6. Names of vessels are sometimes quoted, sometimes italicized, and
+sometimes printed without distinguishing marks. Here we are once more on
+the ground of office style.
+
+7. Sentences from a foreign language are usually enclosed in quotation
+marks. Single words or phrases are usually printed in italics. Both
+italics and quotation marks should not be used except under certain
+unusual conditions or when positively ordered by the author.
+
+8. Quotation marks may be used with a word to which the writer desires
+to attract particular attention or to which he desires to give an
+unusual, technical, or ironical meaning.
+
+    This "gentleman" needs a shave.
+
+9. When a quotation is long or when it is introduced in a formal manner,
+it is usually preceded by a colon. Isolated words or phrases call for no
+point after the introductory clause. This is true when the phrases so
+quoted run to considerable length, provided there is no break in the
+flow of thought and expression.
+
+10. When a quotation ends a sentence the quotation marks are placed
+after the period.
+
+The comma is always placed inside the quotation marks.
+
+The position of the other marks (semicolon, colon, exclamation, and
+interrogation) is determined by the sense. If they form a part of the
+matter quoted, they go inside the quote marks; if not, they go outside
+them.
+
+11. When quotation marks occur at the beginning of a line of poetry,
+they should go back into the indention space.
+
+    "Breathes there a man with soul so dead
+     Who never to himself hath said,
+      'This is my own, my native land'?"
+
+This illustration is also a good example of the use of marks in
+combinations. We have first the single quotation marking the end of the
+included quotation, then the interrogation which ends the sentence, then
+the double quotation marks in their proper position.
+
+Quotation marks should not be used needlessly. Very familiar expressions
+from the best known authors, such as _to the manor born_, _a conscience
+void of offence_, _with malice toward none and charity for all_, have
+become part of the current coin of speech and need not be quoted. Lists
+of words considered as words merely, lists of books or plays, and other
+such copy should be printed without quotation marks. Sprinkling a page
+thickly with quotation marks not only spoils its appearance but makes it
+hard to read, without adding to its clearness of meaning.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL REMARKS
+
+
+Book titles are now set without points. This fashion was introduced by
+Pickering of London about 1850. This method is generally to the
+advantage of the title page thus treated. It is possible, however, to
+carry it too far and so to obscure the sense. Commas should not be
+omitted from firm names, such as Longmans, Green & Co., as in case of
+such omission there is no way of knowing whether one or more persons are
+indicated. Punctuation should not be omitted from the titles which may
+accompany an author's name, nor from the date if day and month are given
+as well as year.
+
+Avoid the doubling of points wherever possible. When an abbreviation
+precedes a colon, omit the period. When an abbreviation precedes a
+comma, the period is often inserted, but in many cases one or the other
+can be dropped to advantage. The dash is not generally preceded by a
+comma, semicolon, or colon in current printing usage. A comma should
+rarely go before the first parenthesis. If used at all with the
+parentheses, it should follow the closing parenthesis. When a complete
+sentence is enclosed in parentheses, the period falls within the
+parentheses. When the enclosure is a brief passage at the end of a
+sentence, the period falls outside the parentheses.
+
+Do not put a period before the apostrophe and the possessive _s_ as in
+_Co.'s_. The word _Company_ may be abbreviated to _Co._ although it is
+not desirable to do so if it can be avoided. The possessive of _Co._ is
+_Co's_.
+
+
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+1. A comma separates clauses, phrases, and particles.
+
+2. A semicolon separates different statements.
+
+3. A colon is the transition point of the sentence.
+
+4. A period marks the end of a sentence.
+
+5. A dash marks abruptness or irregularity.
+
+6. Parentheses enclose interpolations in the sentence.
+
+7. Brackets enclose irregularities in the sentence.
+
+8. An interrogation asks a question for an answer.
+
+9. An exclamation marks surprise.
+
+10. An apostrophe marks elisions and the possessive case.
+
+11. Quotation marks define quoted words.
+
+
+
+
+SUPPLEMENTARY READING
+
+
+Correct Composition. By DeVinne. Oswald Publishing Company, New York.
+
+The Writer's Desk Book. By William Dana Orcutt. Frederick A. Stokes
+Company, New York.
+
+A Manual for Writers. By Manly and Powell. The University of Chicago
+Press, Chicago.
+
+Composition and Rhetoric. By Lockwood and Emerson. Ginn & Co., Boston.
+
+The Art of Writing and Speaking the English Language. By Sherwin Cody.
+The Old Greek Press, Chicago.
+
+Handbook of Composition. By Edwin D. Woolley. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston.
+
+English Composition, Book One, Enlarged. By Stratton D. Brooks. Ginn &
+Co., Boston.
+
+
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS
+
+
+SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS
+
+The following questions, based on the contents of this pamphlet, are
+intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as an aid
+to the student in putting the information contained into definite
+statements without actually memorizing the text, (3) as a means of
+securing from the student a reproduction of the information in his own
+words.
+
+A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full
+acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental
+omission of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed that
+nothing should be omitted.
+
+In teaching from these books it is very important that these questions
+and such others as may occur to the teacher should be made the basis of
+frequent written work, and of final examinations.
+
+The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not only assures
+knowledge of material, but the power to express that knowledge correctly
+and in good form.
+
+If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed form it
+will be doubly useful.
+
+
+QUESTIONS
+
+1. What is punctuation?
+
+2. How were ancient manuscripts written?
+
+3. What were the first punctuation marks, and how were they used?
+
+4. What can you tell about punctuation marks in the manuscript period?
+
+5. What can you tell about the punctuation of the early printers?
+
+6. Who may be said to have systematized punctuation?
+
+7. Give the names of the principal punctuation marks and the meaning of
+the names.
+
+8. Give a list of the punctuation marks now in use and show how they are
+made.
+
+9. Name and describe the two systems of punctuation.
+
+10. What is the tendency in the use of punctuation?
+
+11. Why is it necessary for a compositor to understand punctuation?
+
+12. When should the compositor follow copy and when not?
+
+13. What five general directions should always be remembered?
+
+14. What is the comma used for?
+
+15. What is the tendency in the use of commas?
+
+16. What are reversed commas used for?
+
+17. How are commas used with numerals?
+
+18. How are commas used in table work?
+
+19. How are commas placed in relation to the words whose meaning they
+help?
+
+20. Give the rules for the use of the comma.
+
+21. What are the four general principles for the use of the comma?
+
+22. What is the semicolon used for?
+
+23. Give the rules for the use of the semicolon.
+
+24. What is the colon used for?
+
+25. Give the rules for the use of the colon.
+
+26. What is the period used for?
+
+27. Where are periods used?
+
+28. Where are periods omitted?
+
+29. How do we use the period in connection with parentheses?
+
+30. How do we use the period in connection with quotation marks?
+
+31. What is the reason for this rule?
+
+32. What other uses has the period?
+
+33. What is the dash used for?
+
+34. What special use of the dash is found in French books?
+
+35. Give the rules for the use of the dash.
+
+36. Are other punctuation marks used with the dash?
+
+37. What is the parenthesis used for?
+
+38. Give the rules for the use of the parenthesis.
+
+39. When would you use letter spacing with the parenthesis, and why?
+
+40. What use is made of the italic parenthesis?
+
+41. Give the rules for the use of the brackets.
+
+42. What is the distinction in use between the bracket and the
+parenthesis?
+
+43. What is the interrogation point used for?
+
+44. Give the rules for the use of the interrogation.
+
+45. What is the exclamation point used for?
+
+46. Give the rules for the use of the exclamation.
+
+47. What is the apostrophe used for?
+
+48. Give the rules for the use of the apostrophe.
+
+49. What is the use of the apostrophe in past participles?
+
+50. What is said of the use of the apostrophe in such abbreviations as
+_Dep't_?
+
+51. What is the hyphen used for?
+
+52. What are quotation marks used for?
+
+53. Give the rules for the use of quotation marks.
+
+54. When are quotation marks omitted?
+
+55. How are book titles now punctuated?
+
+56. Should punctuation marks be doubled?
+
+57. How is the comma used with parentheses?
+
+58. How would you punctuate the possessive of an abbreviation, for
+example, _the Doctor's house_, using the abbreviation _Dr._?
+
+59. Give a brief summarized statement of the use of the twelve
+punctuation marks.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY
+
+
+ABSOLUTE--Free from the usual grammatical relations.
+
+ANTECEDENT--That to which a relative pronoun or a relative clause
+refers.
+
+APPOSITION--When the meaning of a noun or pronoun is made clear or
+emphatic by the use of another noun or pronoun, the two are said to be
+in apposition.
+
+CLAUSE--A group of words consisting of a subject and predicate with
+their modifiers and forming a part of a sentence; a sentence within a
+sentence.
+
+COMPOUND SENTENCE--A sentence consisting of several clauses.
+
+COÖRDINATE CLAUSES--Clauses of equal rank.
+
+DECLARATIVE SENTENCE--A sentence which states a fact.
+
+EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE--A sentence which utters an exclamation.
+
+INDEPENDENT ADVERBS--Adverbs not in grammatical relations with other
+words in the sentence.
+
+INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE--A sentence which asks a question.
+
+MINOR CLAUSES--Clauses other than the principal clause or main statement
+of a sentence.
+
+PARENTHETICAL--Incidental; not an essential part of a sentence or
+statement.
+
+PARTICLE--One of the minor parts of speech not inflected, that is, not
+undergoing changes in form.
+
+PHRASE--An expression consisting usually of but a few words, denoting a
+single idea, or forming a separate part of a sentence.
+
+RELATIVE CLAUSE--A clause joined to the rest of the sentence by a
+relative pronoun.
+
+SALUTATION--A form of greeting, especially at the beginning or end of a
+letter.
+
+SALUTATORY PHRASE--The words forming a salutation, or greeting.
+
+
+
+
+TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES
+
+
+The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL
+SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the supervision of the
+Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in trade
+classes, in course of printing instruction, and by individuals.
+
+Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of
+authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the printers of
+the United States--employers, journeymen, and apprentices--with a
+comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable,
+up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the
+printing craft, all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study.
+
+The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5×8 inches. Their
+general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far as
+practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the particular
+contents and other chief features of each volume will be found under each
+title in the following list.
+
+Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in each
+publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary information and
+essential facts necessary to an understanding of the subject. Care has been
+taken to make all statements accurate and clear, with the purpose of
+bringing essential information within the understanding of beginners in the
+different fields of study. Wherever practicable, simple and well-defined
+drawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving additional
+clearness to the text.
+
+In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use in
+trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is accompanied by
+a list of Review Questions covering essential items of the subject matter.
+A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the subject or department
+treated is also added to many of the books.
+
+These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America.
+
+Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED
+TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A.
+
+
+PART I--_Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials_
+
+=1.= =Type: a Primer of Information=                  By A. A. Stewart
+
+     Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes,
+     font schemes, etc., with a brief description of their manufacture.
+     44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary.
+
+=2.= =Compositors' Tools and Materials=               By A. A. Stewart
+
+     A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads,
+     brass rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.;
+     illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary.
+
+=3.= =Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture=           By A. A. Stewart
+
+     A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets,
+     case racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.;
+     illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary.
+
+=4.= =Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances=         By A. A. Stewart
+
+     Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the
+     press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. 59
+     pp.; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary.
+
+=5.= =Proof Presses=                                  By A. A. Stewart
+
+     A primer of information about the customary methods and machines
+     for taking printers' proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+=6.= =Platen Printing Presses=                         By Daniel Baker
+
+     A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical
+     construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand
+     press to the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on
+     automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+=7.= =Cylinder Printing Presses=                   By Herbert L. Baker
+
+     Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types
+     of cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+=8.= =Mechanical Feeders and Folders=           By William E. Spurrier
+
+     The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines;
+     with hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+=9.= =Power for Machinery in Printing Houses=         By Carl F. Scott
+
+     A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and
+     allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive. 53
+     pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary.
+
+=10.= =Paper Cutting Machines=                       By Niel Gray, Jr.
+
+     A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever
+     cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting
+     paper, 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary.
+
+=11.= =Printers' Rollers=                             By A. A. Stewart
+
+     A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and
+     care of inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions;
+     glossary.
+
+=12.= =Printing Inks=                                 By Philip Ruxton
+
+     Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by
+     permission from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of
+     Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the
+     everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+=13.= =How Paper is Made=                  By William Bond Wheelwright
+
+     A primer of information about the materials and processes of
+     manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated;
+     62 review questions; glossary.
+
+=14.= =Relief Engravings=                         By Joseph P. Donovan
+
+     Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of
+     engraving; woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for
+     reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings.
+     Illustrated; review questions; glossary.
+
+=15.= =Electrotyping and Sterotyping=
+                                  By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. Stewart
+
+     A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and
+     stereotyping. 94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions;
+     glossaries.
+
+
+PART II--_Hand and Machine Composition_
+
+=16.= =Typesetting=                                   By A. A. Stewart
+
+     A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying,
+     spacing, correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting.
+     Illustrated; review questions; glossary.
+
+=17.= =Printers' Proofs=                              By A. A. Stewart
+
+     The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with
+     observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions;
+     glossary.
+
+=18.= =First Steps in Job Composition=               By Camille DeVéze
+
+     Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first
+     jobs, especially about the important little things which go to make
+     good display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review questions;
+     glossary.
+
+=19.= =General Job Composition=
+
+     How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and
+     miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.
+
+=20.= =Book Composition=                             By J. W. Bothwell
+
+     Chapters from DeVinne's "Modern Methods of Book Composition,"
+     revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J. W. Bothwell
+     of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of pages. Part
+     II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+=21.= =Tabular Composition=                           By Robert Seaver
+
+     A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples
+     of more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review
+     questions.
+
+=22.= =Applied Arithmetic=                            By E. E. Sheldon
+
+     Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade,
+     calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard
+     tables and rules for computation, each subject amplified with
+     examples and exercises. 159 pp.
+
+=23.= =Typecasting and Composing Machines=        A. W. Finlay, Editor
+
+     Section I--The Linotype                        By L. A. Hornstein
+     Section II--The Monotype                           By Joseph Hays
+     Section III--The Intertype                    By Henry W. Cozzens
+     Section IV--Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines
+                                                     By Frank H. Smith
+
+     A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their
+     mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+
+PART III--_Imposition and Stonework_
+
+=24.= =Locking Forms for the Job Press=              By Frank S. Henry
+
+     Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and
+     about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review questions;
+     glossary.
+
+=25.= =Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press=       By Frank S. Henry
+
+     Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods
+     of handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+
+PART IV--_Presswork_
+
+=26.= =Making Ready on Platen Presses=                 By T. G. McGrew
+
+     The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive
+     features of commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan,
+     regulating the impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting
+     gauges, and other details explained. Illustrated; review questions;
+     glossary.
+
+=27.= =Cylinder Presswork=                             By T. G. McGrew
+
+     Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers,
+     ink fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and
+     overlaying; modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions;
+     glossary.
+
+=28.= =Pressroom Hints and Helps=                 By Charles L. Dunton
+
+     Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with
+     directions and useful information relating to a variety of
+     printing-press problems. 87 pp.; 176 review questions.
+
+=29.= =Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts=      By A. W. Elson
+
+     A primer of information about the distinctive features of the
+     relief, the intaglio, and the planographic processes of printing.
+     84 pp.; illustrated; 100 review questions; glossary.
+
+
+PART V--_Pamphlet and Book Binding_
+
+=30.= =Pamphlet Binding=                        By Bancroft L. Goodwin
+
+     A primer of information about the various operations employed in
+     binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated;
+     review questions; glossary.
+
+=31.= =Book Binding=                                 By John J. Pleger
+
+     Practical information about the usual operations in binding books;
+     folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case
+     making and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and
+     blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.
+
+
+PART VI--_Correct Literary Composition_
+
+=32.= =Word Study and English Grammar=               By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A primer of information about words, their relations, and their
+     uses. 68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary.
+
+=33.= =Punctuation=                                  By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their
+     use, both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+=34.= =Capitals=                                     By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical
+     typographic hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+=35.= =Division of Words=                            By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks
+     on spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review
+     questions.
+
+=36.= =Compound Words=                               By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A study of the principles of compounding, the components of
+     compounds, and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions.
+
+=37.= =Abbreviations and Signs=                      By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with
+     classified lists of those in most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review
+     questions.
+
+=38.= =The Uses of Italic=                           By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A primer of information about the history and uses of italic
+     letters. 31 pp.; 37 review questions.
+
+=39.= =Proofreading=                                 By Arnold Levitas
+
+     The technical phases of the proofreader's work; reading, marking,
+     revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by
+     examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary.
+
+=40.= =Preparation of Printers' Copy=                By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in
+     preparing copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review questions.
+
+=41.= =Printers' Manual of Style=
+
+     A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions
+     relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization,
+     abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of composition.
+
+=42.= =The Printer's Dictionary=                      By A. A. Stewart
+
+     A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about
+     various processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical
+     terms explained. Illustrated.
+
+
+PART VII--_Design, Color, and Lettering_
+
+=43.= =Applied Design for Printers=                   By Harry L. Gage
+
+     A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on
+     the periods of design which have most influenced printing. Treats
+     of harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and
+     variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46
+     review questions; glossary; bibliography.
+
+=44.= =Elements of Typographic Design=                By Harry L. Gage
+
+     Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building
+     material of typography paper, types, ink, decorations and
+     illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete book,
+     treating each part. Design of commercial forms and single units.
+     Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography.
+
+=45.= =Rudiments of Color in Printing=                By Harry L. Gage
+
+     Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster
+     effect, in combinations of two, three, or more printings with
+     process engravings. Scientific nature of color, physical and
+     chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value,
+     intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. Color theory
+     of process engraving. Experiments with color. Illustrations in full
+     color, and on various papers. Review questions; glossary;
+     bibliography.
+
+=46.= =Lettering in Typography=                       By Harry L. Gage
+
+     Printer's use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect.
+     Development of historic writing and lettering and its influence on
+     type design. Classification of general forms in lettering.
+     Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully
+     illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography.
+
+=47.= =Typographic Design in Advertising=             By Harry L. Gage
+
+     The printer's function in advertising. Precepts upon which
+     advertising is based. Printer's analysis of his copy. Emphasis,
+     legibility, attention, color. Method of studying advertising
+     typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary;
+     bibliography.
+
+=48.= =Making Dummies and Layouts=                    By Harry L. Gage
+
+     A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a
+     proposed final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of layout.
+     Function of layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. Dummy
+     envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography.
+
+
+PART VIII--_History of Printing_
+
+=49.= =Books Before Typography=                      By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the
+     history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp.;
+     illustrated; 64 review questions.
+
+=50.= =The Invention of Typography=                  By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about.
+     64 pp.; 62 review questions.
+
+=51.= =History of Printing--Part I=                  By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the
+     development of the book, the development of printers' materials,
+     and the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions.
+
+=52.= =History of Printing--Part II=                 By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry
+     from 1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship,
+     internal conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review
+     questions.
+
+=53.= =Printing in England=                          By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present
+     time. 89 pp.; 65 review questions.
+
+=54.= =Printing in America=                          By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes
+     on publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.;
+     84 review questions.
+
+=55.= =Type and Presses in America=                  By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and
+     press building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions.
+
+
+PART IX--_Cost Finding and Accounting_
+
+=56.= =Elements of Cost in Printing=                By Henry P. Porter
+
+     The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should
+     show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions.
+     Glossary.
+
+=57.= =Use of a Cost System=                        By Henry P. Porter
+
+     The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should
+     show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions.
+     Glossary.
+
+=58.= =The Printer as a Merchant=                   By Henry P. Porter
+
+     The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing.
+     The relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of
+     the finished product. Review questions. Glossary.
+
+=59.= =Fundamental Principles of Estimating=        By Henry P. Porter
+
+     The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for
+     estimating. Review questions. Glossary.
+
+=60.= =Estimating and Selling=                      By Henry P. Porter
+
+     An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their
+     relation to selling. Review questions. Glossary.
+
+=61.= =Accounting for Printers=                     By Henry P. Porter
+
+     A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary
+     books and accessory records. Review questions. Glossary.
+
+
+PART X--_Miscellaneous_
+
+=62.= =Health, Sanitation, and Safety=              By Henry P. Porter
+
+     Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new;
+     practical suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and
+     rules for safety.
+
+=63.= =Topical Index=                                By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic
+     Technical Series, alphabetically arranged.
+
+=64.= =Courses of Study=                             By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for
+     classroom and shop work.
+
+
+
+
+ACKNOWLEDGMENT
+
+
+This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendid
+co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the
+printing business and its allied industries in the United States of
+America.
+
+The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America, under whose
+auspices the books have been prepared and published, acknowledges its
+indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by the many authors,
+printers, and others identified with this work.
+
+While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of those
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+
+The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who have
+co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, constituting the
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+will be at an early date), the full list will be printed in each volume.
+
+The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many
+subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its publication.
+
+COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION,
+UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA.
+
+  HENRY P. PORTER, _Chairman_,
+  E. LAWRENCE FELL,
+  A. M. GLOSSBRENNER,
+  J. CLYDE OSWALD,
+  TOBY RUBOVITS.
+
+FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, _Education Director_.
+
+
+
+
+CONTRIBUTORS
+
+
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+
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+WILLIAM F. FELL CO., Philadelphia, Pa.
+THE KALKHOFF COMPANY, New York, N. Y.
+OXFORD-PRINT, Boston, Mass.
+TOBY RUBOVITS, Chicago, Ill.
+
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+
+BLOMGREN BROTHERS CO., Chicago, Ill.
+FLOWER STEEL ELECTROTYPING CO., New York, N. Y.
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+
+=For Engravings=
+
+AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS CO., Boston, Mass.
+C. B. COTTRELL & SONS CO., Westerly, R. I.
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+HARVARD UNIVERSITY, Cambridge, Mass.
+INLAND PRINTER CO., Chicago, Ill.
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+MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE COMPANY, New York, N. Y.
+GEO. H. MORRILL CO., Norwood, Mass.
+OSWALD PUBLISHING CO., New York, N. Y.
+THE PRINTING ART, Cambridge, Mass.
+B. D. RISING PAPER COMPANY, Housatonic, Mass.
+THE VANDERCOOK PRESS, Chicago, Ill.
+
+=For Book Paper=
+
+AMERICAN WRITING PAPER CO., Holyoke, Mass.
+WEST VIRGINIA PULP & PAPER CO., Mechanicville, N. Y.
+
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Punctuation, by Frederick W. Hamilton
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+    .u         {text-decoration: underline;}
+
+    .inlineImg {vertical-align: middle;}
+    // -->
+    /* XML end  ]]>*/
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Punctuation, by Frederick W. Hamilton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Punctuation
+       A Primer of Information about the Marks of Punctuation and
+              their Use Both Grammatically and Typographically
+
+Author: Frederick W. Hamilton
+
+Release Date: March 9, 2007 [EBook #20787]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUNCTUATION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Sigal Alon and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<h5>TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES&mdash;PART VI, NO. 33</h5>
+
+
+<h1>PUNCTUATION</h1>
+
+
+<h3>A PRIMER <i>of</i> INFORMATION ABOUT<br />
+THE MARKS OF PUNCTUATION AND<br />
+THEIR USE BOTH GRAMMATICALLY<br />
+AND TYPOGRAPHICALLY</h3>
+
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.D.</h2>
+
+<h6>EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR <br />
+UNITED TYPOTHET&AElig; OF AMERICA</h6>
+
+
+
+
+<h5>PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION <br />
+UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA <br />
+1920</h5>
+
+
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1920<br />
+United Typothetae of America<br />
+Chicago, Ill.</span>
+</h5>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>This book, like the others in this Part, makes no
+pretense at originality. The author has studied and
+compared a considerable number of works by the best
+authorities on the subject and has endeavored to adapt the
+best of their contents to the use of printers&rsquo; apprentices.Every author has his own set of rules. At first sight, each
+set appears inconsistent with those given by other writers.
+This inconsistency, however, is generally more apparent
+than real. It arises from differences in point of view,
+method of approach, and system of classification.</p>
+
+<p>An attempt has been made to compile from these sources
+a set of rules which would bring before the pupil a correct
+and comprehensive view of the best current usage, well
+illustrated by examples and accompanied by practical typographical
+hints. The fact has been kept steadily in mind
+that this book is intended for a certain definite class of pupils
+and no pains have been spared to fit it to their needs.</p>
+
+<p>Any treatise consisting, as this one necessarily does,
+mainly of rules is practically useful only as a basis for constant
+and persistent drill. It is, of course, valuable for reference,
+but the emergencies of the day&rsquo;s work leave no
+time for consultation. These rules must be learned, and
+not only learned but assimilated so that their correct application
+becomes instinctive and instantaneous. This result
+can be secured only by practice. Hence the emphasis laid
+on the exercises indicated in the paragraphs introductory to
+the review questions.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+<ul class="TOC">
+<li> <span class="ralign">PAGE</span><br /></li>
+
+<li><a href="#INTRODUCTION"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></a>
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#THE_COMMA"><span class="smcap">The Comma</span></a>
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#THE_SEMICOLON"><span class="smcap">The Semicolon</span></a>
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#THE_COLON"><span class="smcap">The Colon</span></a>
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#THE_PERIOD"><span class="smcap">The Period</span></a>
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#THE_DASH"><span class="smcap">The Dash</span></a>
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#THE_PARENTHESIS"><span class="smcap">The Parenthesis</span></a>
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#THE_BRACKET"><span class="smcap">The Bracket</span></a>
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#THE_INTERROGATION"><span class="smcap">The Interrogation</span></a>
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#THE_EXCLAMATION"><span class="smcap">The Exclamation</span></a>
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#THE_APOSTROPHE"><span class="smcap">The Apostrophe</span></a>
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#THE_HYPHEN"><span class="smcap">The Hyphen</span></a>
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#QUOTATION_MARKS"><span class="smcap">Quotation Marks</span></a>
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#GENERAL_REMARKS"><span class="smcap">General Remarks</span></a>
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#SUMMARY"><span class="smcap">Summary</span></a>
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#SUPPLEMENTARY_READING"><span class="smcap">Supplementary Reading</span></a>
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#REVIEW_QUESTIONS"><span class="smcap">Review Questions</span></a>
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#GLOSSARY"><span class="smcap">Glossary of Terms</span></a>
+<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+
+<p>Punctuation is a device by which we aid words
+to tell their story. Words have done this at times
+without such aid, and may now do so, but at constant risk
+of serious misunderstanding. This can be easily seen by
+reading the following lines printed as they would have been
+written in an ancient manuscript.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">
+WETHEPEOPLEOFTHEUNITEDSTATES<br />
+INORDERTOFORMAMOREPERFECT<br />
+UNIONESTABLISHJUSTICEINSUREDO<br />
+MESTICTRANQUILITYPROVIDEFOR<br />
+THECOMMONDEFENCEPROMOTETHE<br />
+GENERALWELFAREANDSECURETHE<br />
+BLESSINGSOFLIBERTYTOOURSELVES<br />
+ANDOURPOSTERITYDOORDAINAND<br />
+ESTABLISHTHISCONSTITUTIONFOR<br />
+THEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Probably this particular passage could be read without
+danger of serious misunderstanding. The two well-known
+passages which follow, however, are cases where either a
+simple statement may become a ridiculous travesty or a
+serious arraignment may become a eulogy by punctuation.</p>
+
+
+<p>Punctuate the following so as to express two very different
+meanings:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Lord Palmerston then entered on his head a
+white hat upon his feet large but well polished
+boots upon his brow a dark cloud in his hand a
+faithful walking stick in his eye a menacing glare
+saying nothing.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Punctuate the following in two ways: one to represent a
+very bad man, and the other a very good man:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He is an old man and experienced in vice and
+wickedness he is never found in opposing the
+works of iniquity he takes delight in the downfall
+of his neighbors he never rejoices in the prosperity
+of his fellow-creatures he is always ready to assist
+in destroying the peace of society he takes no
+pleasure in serving the Lord he is uncommonly
+diligent in sowing discord among his friends and
+acquaintances he takes no pride in laboring to
+promote the cause of Christianity he has not been
+negligent in endeavoring to stigmatize all public
+teachers he makes no effort to subdue his evil
+passions he strives hard to build up satans kingdom
+he lends no aid to the support of the gospel
+among the heathen he contributes largely to the
+devil he will never go to heaven he must go
+where he will receive the just recompense of
+reward.</p></div>
+
+<p>Punctuation being intended for the sole purpose of making
+the text intelligible and removing as many of the causes
+of possible misunderstanding as may be, must depend in the
+last resort on a correct understanding of the text. This understanding
+may be obtained from the text itself, from the
+context, that is, the writing as a whole, or from outside
+knowledge about the matter under consideration.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>The prisoner said the witness was a sneak thief.</p>
+<p>The prisoner, said the witness, was a sneak thief.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The meaning of this sentence depends entirely on the
+presence or absence of the two commas.</p>
+
+
+<p>Manuscript comes in to the printer hastily written by the
+customer, author, or a reporter, or ticked over the telegraph
+wire, and there is little or no punctuation. Probably the
+context will supply the needed information and the line
+may be set up correctly. If there is no way of finding out<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+what the sentence means, follow copy. Insert no punctuation
+marks which you are not sure are needed.</p>
+
+<p>Punctuation as we know it is of recent invention. The
+practice of the art of printing brought the necessity for a
+defined and systematized use of the points which had, most
+of them, long been in existence, but which had been used
+largely according to the personal preferences of the scribes
+or copyists. With the coming of the new methods of book
+reproduction came the recognized need for standardization
+and systematization.</p>
+
+<p>The most ancient inscriptions and manuscripts are merely
+strings of letters, without spacing between words or sentences
+and without any points of any sort, like the example
+on page 1.</p>
+
+<p>The first mark to be used was the dot, or period. Its
+original purpose was simply to furnish a resting place for
+the eye and the mind and so help a little in the grouping of
+the letters into words, clauses, and sentences, which the
+mind had hitherto been compelled to do unaided. It was
+used at the end of a sentence, at the end of a clause, to
+indicate abbreviations, to separate crowded words, especially
+where the sense was ambiguous (<span class="smcap lowercase">ANICEMAN</span> might
+be either <span class="smcap lowercase">AN ICE MAN</span> or <span class="smcap lowercase">A NICE MAN</span>), or even as an &aelig;sthetic
+ornament between the letters of an inscription. In
+early manuscripts the period is usually placed high (&#729;)
+instead of low (.).</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes a slanting mark (/) or a double dot (: or ..)
+was used to indicate the end of an important section of the
+writing or even of a sentence.</p>
+
+<p>After a time spaces were introduced to show the grouping
+of the letters and the words. At first the sentences were
+separated by spaces, then the long words, and finally all
+words. In some languages, as in Italian, there are still
+combinations of long and short words, such as the combination
+of the pronoun with the verb, as in <i>datemi</i>, give me.</p>
+
+<p>During the manuscript period different schools of copyists
+and even different individuals used different marks and
+different systems of pointing. For a considerable time the
+location of the dot indicated its force. Placed high (&#729;) it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+had the force of a period. Placed in a middle position (&middot;)
+it had the force of a comma. Placed low (.) it had the
+force of a semicolon. The rule, however, was not universally
+observed. A Latin manuscript of the seventh
+century has a high dot (&#729;) equivalent to a comma, a semicolon
+used as at present, and a dot accompanied by another
+dot or a dash to indicate the end of a sentence. A Latin
+manuscript of the ninth century shows the comma and an
+inverted semicolon ([;]) having a value between the semicolon
+and colon. Medi&aelig;val manuscript pointing, therefore,
+approximates modern forms in places, but lacks standardization
+into recognized systems.</p>
+
+<p>The spread of printing brought new needs into prominence.
+The early printers used the period at the end of the
+sentence, the colon, and sometimes the slanting line (/).
+A reversed semicolon was used as a question mark.
+Wynkyn de Worde, Caxton&rsquo;s successor in the printing
+business in London, used five points in 1509. They were
+the period, the semicolon, the comma, the &#8220;interrogative,&#8221;
+and the parenthesis.</p>
+
+<p>The systematization of punctuation is due mainly to the
+careful and scholarly Aldus Manutius, who had opened a
+printing office in Venice in 1494. The great printers of the
+early day were great scholars as well. For a very long time
+the chief concern of the printer was the opening of the
+treasures of ancient thought to the world. They were therefore
+compelled to be the students, critics, and editors of the
+old manuscripts which served them as copy. They naturally
+took their punctuation from the Greek grammarians,
+but sometimes with changed meanings. The semicolon, for
+instance, is the Greek mark of interrogation.</p>
+
+<p>The period took its name from the Greek word
+<ins class="greek" title="periodos">&#960;&#949;&#961;&#8055;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#962;</ins>,
+periodos, meaning a division of a sentence or a thought, as
+we to-day speak of an orator&rsquo;s eloquent periods.</p>
+
+<p>The colon comes from the Greek
+<ins class="greek" title="k&ocirc;lon">&#954;&#8182;&#955;&#959;&#957;</ins>,
+kolon, meaning a limb.</p>
+
+<p>The comma comes from the Greek
+<ins class="greek" title="komma">&#954;&#8057;&#956;&#956;&#945;</ins>,
+komma, from
+<ins class="greek" title="koptein">&#954;&#8057;&#960;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#957;</ins>,
+to cut.</p>
+
+<p>The semicolon, of course, is the half colon.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The question mark was made by writing the first and
+last letters of the Latin word <i>questio</i>, a question, vertically,
+<img src="images/qovero.gif" class="inlineImg" width="10" height="20" alt="q over o" title="q over o" /></p>
+
+<p>The exclamation point was made by writing the letters
+of the Latin word <i>Io</i>, joy, vertically, <img src="images/iovero.gif" class="inlineImg" width="8" height="20" alt="I over o" title="I over o" /></p>
+
+<p>The punctuation marks now in use and treated of in this
+book are as follows:</p>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="current punctuation marks">
+<tr><td class="tdpunct">,</td><td class="tdleft">comma</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdpunct">;</td><td class="tdleft">semicolon</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdpunct">:</td><td class="tdleft">colon</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdpunct">.</td><td class="tdleft">period</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdpunct">?</td><td class="tdleft">interrogation</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdpunct">!</td><td class="tdleft">exclamation</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdpunct">(&nbsp;)</td><td class="tdleft">parentheses</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdpunct">[&nbsp;]</td><td class="tdleft">brackets</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdpunct">&rsquo;</td><td class="tdleft">apostrophe</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdpunct">-</td><td class="tdleft">hyphen</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdpunct">&mdash;</td><td class="tdleft">dash</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdpunct">&#8220;&nbsp;&#8221;</td><td class="tdleft">quotation marks</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Other important marks used by printers, but not, strictly
+speaking, marks of punctuation, are fully discussed in the
+volume on <i>Abbreviations and Signs</i> (No. 37) in this series.</p>
+
+
+<p>There are two systems of punctuation in use, known respectively
+as the close and open systems. The close, or
+stiff, system, using points wherever they can be used, is of
+importance in precise composition of every sort, such as
+laws, contracts, legal and ecclesiastical statements, and the
+like. The open, or easy, system, omitting points wherever
+they can be omitted, is used generally in the commoner
+forms of composition. The tendency, sometimes pushed
+too far, is toward an extremely open style of punctuation.
+The general attitude of writers and printers may be summed
+up by saying that you must justify the use of a punctuation
+mark, particularly a comma, rather than its omission.</p>
+
+<p>But why should the printer bother himself about punctuation
+at all? Is that not the business of the author, the
+editor, and the proofreader? Strictly speaking, yes, but
+authors generally neglect punctuation, copy is not usually
+carefully edited before going to the compositor, and proofreader&rsquo;s
+corrections are expensive. It is therefore important
+that the compositor should be intelligent about punctuation,
+whether he works in a large or a small office.</p>
+
+<p>The question of how far the printer may go in changing
+or supplying the punctuation of copy will depend largely on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+circumstances. If the condition of the manuscript is such
+as to show that the author really intended to put a fully
+punctuated, correctly spelled, and properly capitalized manuscript
+into the hands of the printer, he has a right to have
+his wishes respected even if his ideas are not those which
+prevail in the office. In such a case the compositor should
+follow copy literally. If any questions are to be raised they
+should be discussed by the proofreader <i>with the author</i>.
+The same rule holds in the case of manuscripts edited before
+being sent to the composing room. The editor has
+assumed all responsibility for the accuracy of the copy. In
+a great many cases the copy will come in carelessly written
+and wholly unedited. In such cases the compositor should
+punctuate as he goes along.</p>
+
+<p>This is one of the tasks which subject the compositor to
+the test of intelligence. Printing is not now and never will
+be a purely mechanical trade. A printing office is no place
+for an apprentice who can not learn to think.</p>
+
+
+<p>This book contains a description of the functions of the
+punctuation marks and the common rules for their use.
+Rules for the use of punctuation marks are very different
+from rules for the use of purely material things. They are
+useless unless applied intelligently. No set of rules could
+be devised which would work automatically or relieve the
+compositor from the necessity of thinking. Punctuation can
+never be reduced to an exact science.</p>
+
+<p>Certain general directions should be borne in mind by
+writers and printers.</p>
+
+<p>I. Learn by heart the rules for punctuation.</p>
+
+<p>II. Note the peculiarities of the best writers and the best
+printers, especially in contemporary examples.</p>
+
+<p>III. Pay constant attention to punctuation in everything
+you write.</p>
+
+<p>IV. Punctuate your sentence while you are writing it.</p>
+
+<p>V. Understand what you are printing. <i>This is of supreme
+importance.</i> Punctuation is an aid to understanding. You
+cannot correctly punctuate anything that you do not
+understand.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_COMMA" id="THE_COMMA"></a>THE COMMA</h2>
+
+
+<p>The comma is by far the most difficult of all the punctuation
+marks to use correctly. Usage varies greatly
+from time to time and among equally good writers and
+printers at the same time. Certain general rules may be
+stated and should be learned. Many cases, however, will
+arise in which the rules will be differently interpreted and
+differently applied by different people.</p>
+
+<p>The comma is the least degree of separation possible of
+indication in print. Its business is to define the particles and
+minor clauses of a sentence. A progressive tendency may
+be seen in the printing of English for centuries toward the
+elimination of commas, and the substitution of the comma
+for the semicolon and of the semicolon for the colon.
+Compare a page of the King James version of the Bible,
+especially in one of its earlier printings, with a page of
+serious discourse of to-day and the effects of the tendency
+will be easily seen. It is part of the general tendency toward
+greater simplicity of expression which has developed the
+clear and simple English of the best contemporary writers
+out of the involved and ornate style of the period of Queen
+Elizabeth. An ornate and involved style needs a good deal
+of punctuation to make it intelligible, while a simple and
+direct style needs but very little help.</p>
+
+<p>This progressive change in the need for punctuation
+and in the attitude of writers toward it accounts for the
+difference in usage and for the difficulty in fixing rules to
+cover all cases. The present attitude toward punctuation,
+especially the use of the comma, is one of aversion. The
+writer is always held to justification of the presence of a
+comma rather than of its absence. Nevertheless it is quite
+possible to go too far in the omission of commas in ordinary
+writing. It is quite possible to construct sentences in
+such a way as to avoid their use. The result is a harsh and
+awkward style, unwarranted by any necessity. Ordinary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+writing needs some use of commas to indicate the sense
+and to prevent ambiguity.</p>
+
+<p>Always remember that the real business of the comma
+is just that of helping the meaning of the words and of
+preventing ambiguity by showing clearly the separation
+and connection of words and phrases. If there is possibility
+of misunderstanding without a comma, put one in.
+If the words tell their story beyond possibility of misunderstanding
+without a comma, there is no reason for its
+use. This rule will serve as a fairly dependable guide in
+the absence of any well recognized rule for a particular
+case, or where doubt exists as to the application of a rule.</p>
+
+
+<p>Reversed, and usually in pairs, commas mark the beginning
+of a quotation.</p>
+
+<p>In numerical statements the comma separates Arabic
+figures by triplets in classes of hundreds: $5,276,492.72.</p>
+
+<p>In tabular work reversed commas are used as a sign for
+ditto.</p>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="ditto">
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'>SCHOOLS TEACHING PRINTING</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdleft">Boston:</td><td class="tdleft2">Boston Typothet&aelig; School of Printing.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdleft"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &#8220;</td><td class="tdleft2">Industrial Arts High School.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdleft">Chicago:</td><td class="tdleft2">Lakeside Press School of Printing.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdleft"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &#8220;</td><td class="tdleft2">Chicago Typothetę School of Printing.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdleft"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &#8220;</td><td class="tdleft2">Lane Technical High School.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>The comma is placed between the words which it is
+intended to separate. When used in connection with
+quotation marks, it is always placed inside them.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;Honesty is the best policy,&#8221; as the proverb says.</p></div>
+
+<p class="rules">Rules for the Use of the Comma</p>
+
+<p>1. After each adjective or adverb in a series of two or
+more when not connected by conjunctions.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He was a tall, thin, dark man.</p></div>
+
+<p>The rule holds when the last member of the series is
+preceded by a conjunction.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He was tall, thin, and dark.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The comma may be omitted when the words are combined
+into a single idea.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>A still hot day.</p>
+<p>An old black coat.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. After each pair in a series of pairs of words or phrases
+not connected by conjunctions.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish,</p>
+<p>I give my hand and my heart to this vote.</p>
+<p>Formerly the master printer, his journeymen,</p>
+<p>even his apprentices, all lived in the same house.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>3. To separate contrasted words.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>We rule by love, not by force.</p></div>
+
+<p>4. Between two independent clauses connected by a
+conjunction.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The press was out of order, but we managed to
+start it.</p></div>
+
+<p>5. Before a conjunction when the word which preceded
+it is qualified by an expression which does not qualify the
+word which follows the conjunction.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He quickly looked up, and spoke.</p></div>
+
+<p>6. Between relative clauses which explain the antecedent,
+or which introduce a new thought.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The type, which was badly worn, was not fit for
+the job.</p></div>
+
+<p>If the relative clause limits the meaning of the antecedent,
+but does not explain it and does not add a new
+thought, the comma is not used.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He did only that which he was told to do.</p></div>
+
+<p>7. To separate parenthetical or intermediate expressions
+from the context.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The school, you may be glad to know, is very
+successful.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>The books, which I have read, are returned
+with gratitude.</p>
+<p>He was pleased, I suppose, with his work.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If the connection of such expressions is so close as to
+form one connected idea the comma is not used.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The press nearest the south window is out of order.</p></div>
+
+<p>If the connection of such expressions is remote, parentheses
+are used.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Committee (appointed under vote of April
+10, 1909) organized and proceeded with business.</p></div>
+
+<p>8. To separate the co-ordinate clauses of compound
+sentences if such clauses are simple in construction and
+closely related.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He was kind, not indulgent, to his men; firm,
+but just, in discipline; courteous, but not familiar,
+to all.</p></div>
+
+<p>9. To separate quotations, or similar brief expressions
+from the preceding part of the sentence.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>C&aelig;sar reported to the Senate, &#8220;I came, I saw, I conquered.&#8221;</p>
+<p>The question is, What shall we do next?</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>10. To indicate the omission of the verb in compound
+sentences having a common verb in several clauses.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>One man glories in his strength, another in his
+wealth, another in his learning.</p></div>
+
+<p>11. To separate phrases containing the case absolute
+from the rest of the sentence.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The form having been locked up, a proof was
+taken.</p></div>
+
+<p>12. Between words or phrases in apposition to each
+other.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>I refer to DeVinne, the great authority on Printing.</p></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The comma is omitted when such an apposition is used
+as a single phrase or a compound name.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>The poet Longfellow was born in Portland.</p>
+<p>The word <i>patriotic</i> is now in extensive use.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>13. After phrases and clauses which are placed at the
+beginning of a sentence by inversion.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Worn out by hard wear, the type at last became unfit for use.</p>
+<p>Ever since, he has been fond of celery.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The comma is omitted if the phrase thus used is very
+short.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Of success there could be no doubt.</p></div>
+
+<p>14. Introductory phrases beginning with <i>if</i>, <i>when</i>, <i>wherever</i>,
+<i>whenever</i>, and the like should generally be separated
+from the rest of the sentence by a comma, even when the
+statement may appear to be direct.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>When a plain query has not been answered, it is best to follow copy.</p>
+<p>If the copy is hard to read, the compositor will set but few pages.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>15. To separate introductory words and phrases and
+independent adverbs from the rest of the sentence.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Now, what are you going to do there?</p>
+
+<p>I think, also, Franklin owed much of his success to his strong common sense.</p>
+
+<p>This idea, however, had already been grasped by others.</p></div>
+
+<p>Of course the comma is not used when these adverbs
+are used in the ordinary way.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>They also serve who only stand and wait.</p>
+<p>This must be done, however contrary to our inclinations.</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>16. To separate words or phrases of direct address from
+the context.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>I submit, gentlemen, to your judgment.</p>
+<p>From today, my son, your future is in your own hands.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>17. Between the name of a person and his title or
+degree.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States.</p>
+<p>Charles W. Eliot, LL.D.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>18. Before the word <i>of</i> connecting a proper name with
+residence or position.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts.</p>
+<p>Elihu B. Root, Senator from New York.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>19. After the salutatory phrase at the beginning of a
+letter, when informal.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Dear John,</p></div>
+
+<p>When the salutation is formal a colon should be used.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>My dear Mr. Smith:</p></div>
+
+<p>20. To separate the closing salutation of a formal letter
+from the rest of the sentence of which it forms a part.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+Soliciting your continued patronage, I am,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6em;">Very sincerely yours,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 11.5em;">John W. Smith.</span><br />
+</p></div>
+
+<p>21. To separate two numbers.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>January 31, 1915.</p>
+<p>By the end of 1914, 7062 had been built.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>22. To indicate an ellipsis.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Subscription for the course, one dollar.</p></div>
+
+<p>Exceptions to this rule are made in very brief sentences,
+especially in advertisements: Tickets 25 cents.
+Price one dollar.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+The foregoing rules for the use of the comma have
+been compiled from those given by a considerable number
+of authorities. Further examination of authorities would
+probably have added to the number and to the complexity
+of these rules. No two sets of rules which have come
+under the writer&rsquo;s observation are alike. Positive disagreements
+in modern treatises on the subject are few. The
+whole matter, however, turns so much on the use made
+of certain general principles and the field is so vast that
+different writers vary greatly in their statements and even in
+their ideas of what ought to be stated. It is very difficult to
+strike the right mean between a set of rules too fragmentary
+and too incomplete for any real guidance and a set of
+rules too long to be remembered and used.</p>
+
+<p>After all possible has been done to indicate the best
+usage it remains true that the writer or the printer must, in
+the last resort, depend very largely on himself for the proper
+application of certain principles. The compositor may find
+himself helped, or restricted, by the established style of the
+office, or he may at times be held to strict following of
+copy. When left to himself he must be guided by the
+following general principles:</p>
+
+<p>I. The comma is used to separate for the eye what is
+separate in thought.</p>
+
+<p>The comma is not intended to break the matter up into
+lengths suited to the breath of one reading aloud.</p>
+
+<p>The comma is not an &aelig;sthetic device to improve the
+appearance of the line.</p>
+
+<p>II. The sole purpose of the comma is the unfolding of
+the sense of the words.</p>
+
+<p>III. The comma cannot be correctly used without a
+thorough understanding of the sense of the words.</p>
+
+<p>IV. In case of doubt, omit the comma.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_SEMICOLON" id="THE_SEMICOLON"></a>THE SEMICOLON</h2>
+
+
+<p>The semicolon is used to denote a degree of separation
+greater than that indicated by the comma, but less
+than that indicated by the colon. It prevents the repetition
+of the comma and keeps apart the more important members
+of the sentence. The semicolon is generally used in
+long sentences, but may sometimes be properly used in
+short ones.</p>
+
+
+<p class="rules">Rules for the Use of the Semicolon</p>
+
+<p>1. When the members of a compound sentence are
+complex or contain commas.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Franklin, like many others, was a printer; but,
+unlike the others, he was student, statesman, and
+publicist as well.</p>
+
+<p>With ten per cent of this flour the bread acquired
+a slight flavor of rye; fifteen per cent gave it a
+dark color; a further addition made the baked
+crumb very hard.</p>
+
+<p>The meeting was composed of representatives
+from the following districts: Newton, 4 delegates,
+2 substitutes; Dorchester, 6 delegates, 3
+substitutes; Quincy, 8 delegates, 4 substitutes;
+Brookline, 10 delegates, 5 substitutes.</p></div>
+
+<p>2. When the members of a compound sentence contain
+statements distinct, but not sufficiently distinct to be thrown
+into separate sentences.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Sit thou a patient looker-on;</p>
+<p>Judge not the play before the play be done;</p>
+<p>Her plot has many changes; every day</p>
+<p>Speaks a new scene. The last act crowns the play.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>3. When each of the members of a compound sentence
+makes a distinct statement and has some dependence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+on statements in the other member or members of the
+sentence.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Wisdom hath builded her house; she hath hewn
+out her seven pillars; she hath killed her beasts;
+she hath mingled her wine; she hath furnished
+her table.</p></div>
+
+<p>Each member of this sentence is nearly complete. It is
+not quite a full and definite statement, but it is much more
+than a mere amplification such as we might get by leaving
+out <i>she hath</i> every time after the first. In the former
+case we should use periods. In the latter we should use
+commas.</p>
+
+<p>4. A comma is ordinarily used between the clauses of a
+compound sentence that are connected by a simple conjunction,
+but a semicolon may be used between clauses
+connected by conjunctive adverbs. Compare the following
+examples:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The play was neither edifying nor interesting to
+him, and he decided to change his plans.</p>
+
+<p>The play was neither edifying nor interesting to
+him; therefore he decided to change his plans.</p></div>
+
+<p>5. To indicate the chapter references in scriptural
+citations.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Matt. i: 5, 7, 9; v: 1-10; xiv: 3, 8, 27.</p></div>
+
+<p>The semicolon should always be put outside quotation
+marks unless it forms a part of the quotation itself.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;Take care of the cents and the dollars will take
+care of themselves&#8221;; a very wise old saying.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_COLON" id="THE_COLON"></a>THE COLON</h2>
+
+
+<p>The colon marks the place of transition in a long sentence
+consisting of many members and involving a
+logical turn of the thought. Both the colon and semicolon
+are much less used now than formerly. The present
+tendency is toward short, simple, clear sentences, with
+consequent little punctuation, and that of the open style.
+Such sentences need little or no aid to tell their story.</p>
+
+
+<p class="rules">Rules for the Use of the Colon</p>
+
+<p>1. Before <i>as</i>, <i>viz.</i>, <i>that is</i>, <i>namely</i>, etc., when these words
+introduce a series of particular terms in apposition with a
+general term.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The American flag has three colors: namely, red,
+white, and blue.</p></div>
+
+<p>2. Between two members of a sentence when one or
+both are made up of two or more clauses divided by semicolons.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Englishman was calm and self-possessed;
+his antagonist impulsive and self-confident: the
+Englishman was the product of a volunteer army
+of professional soldiers; his antagonist was the
+product of a drafted army of unwilling conscripts.</p></div>
+
+<p>3. Before particular elements in a definite statement.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Bad: He asked what caused the accident?<br />
+Right: He asked, &#8220;What caused the accident?&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon said to his army at the battle of the
+Pyramids: &#8220;Soldiers, forty centuries are looking
+down upon you.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The duties of the superintendent are grouped
+under three heads: first, etc.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+4. Before formal quotations.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Write a short essay on the following topic:
+&#8220;What is wrong with our industrial system?&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<p>When the formal introduction is brief, a comma may
+be used.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>St. Paul said, &#8220;Bear ye one another&rsquo;s burdens.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<p>5. After the formal salutatory phrase at the opening of a
+letter.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>My dear Sir:</p></div>
+
+<p>When the letter is informal use a comma.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Dear John,</p></div>
+
+<p>6. Between the chapter and verse in scriptural references.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>John xix: 22.</p></div>
+
+<p>7. Between the city of publication and the name of the
+publisher in literary references.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;The Practice of Typography.&#8221; New York:
+Oswald Publishing Company.</p></div>
+
+<p>The colon has been similarly employed in the imprints
+on the title pages of books.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>New York: Harper &amp; Brothers, 1880.</p></div>
+
+<p>DeVinne remarks upon this use of the colon that it is
+traditional and can not be explained.</p>
+
+
+<p>The colon is sometimes used between the hours and
+minutes in indicating time, like: 11:42 a.m.</p>
+
+
+<p>DeVinne does not approve of this, though other authorities
+give it as the rule. It is probably better to use the
+period in spite of its use as a decimal point, which use was
+probably the motive for seeking something else to use in
+writing time indications. In railroad printing the hour is
+often separated from the minutes by a simple space without
+any punctuation.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_PERIOD" id="THE_PERIOD"></a>THE PERIOD</h2>
+
+
+<p>The period, or full stop, marks the end of a declarative
+sentence. As a sign it has several other uses which
+will appear in the paragraphs following.</p>
+
+
+<p class="rules">Rules for the Use of the Period</p>
+
+<p>1. At the end of every sentence unless interrogative or
+exclamatory.</p>
+
+<p>2. After abbreviations.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Nicknames, <i>Sam</i>, <i>Tom</i>, etc., are not regarded as abbreviations.</p>
+
+<p>The metric symbols are treated as abbreviations but
+the chemical symbols are not. M. (metre) and mg.
+(milligram) but H<sub>2</sub>&nbsp;O and Na&nbsp;Cl.</p>
+
+<p>Per cent is not regarded as an abbreviation.</p>
+
+<p>The names of book sizes (12mo 16mo) are not regarded
+as abbreviations.</p></div>
+
+<p>The period is now generally omitted in display matter
+after</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Running heads,</p>
+<p>Cut-in side-notes,</p>
+<p>Central head-lines,</p>
+<p>Box heads in tables,</p>
+<p>Signatures at the end of letters.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The period is omitted</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>After Roman numerals, even though they have the
+value of ordinals.</p>
+
+<p>After MS and similar symbols.</p>
+
+<p>In technical matter, after the recognized abbreviations
+for linguistic epochs. IE (Indo-European), MHG
+(Middle High German)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+and after titles of well-known publications indicated
+by initials such as AAAPS (Annals of the American
+Academy of Political Science).</p></div>
+
+<p>When a parenthesis forms the end of a declarative sentence
+the period is placed outside the parenthesis, as in the
+preceding example. A period is placed inside a parenthesis
+only in two cases.</p>
+
+<p>1. After an abbreviation.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>This was 50 years ago (i.e. 1860 A.D.)</p></div>
+
+<p>2. At the end of an independent sentence lying entirely
+within the parenthesis.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Lincoln was at the height of his powers in 1860
+(He was elected to the presidency at this time.)</p></div>
+
+<p>When a sentence ends with a quotation, the period
+always goes inside the quotation marks.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>I have just read DeVinne&rsquo;s &#8220;Practice of Typography.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<p>The same rule applies to the use of the other low marks,
+comma, semicolon, and colon, in connection with quotation
+marks. Unlike most rules of grammar and punctuation,
+this rule does not rest on a logical basis. It rests on purely
+typographic considerations, as the arrangement of points
+indicated by the rule gives a better looking line than can be
+secured by any other arrangement.</p>
+
+
+<p class="rules">Other Uses of the Period</p>
+
+<p>1. The period is used as a decimal point.</p>
+
+<p>2. The period is used in groups, separated by spaces, to
+indicate an ellipsis.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>He read as follows: &#8220;The gentleman said&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.</p>
+<p>he was there and saw&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;the act in question.&#8221;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_DASH" id="THE_DASH"></a>THE DASH</h2>
+
+
+<p>The dash is a very useful mark which has been greatly
+overworked by careless writers. It is very easy to
+make in manuscript and serves as a convenient cover for the
+writer&rsquo;s ignorance of what point should properly be used.</p>
+
+<p>The conspicuousness of the dash makes it a very useful
+mark for guiding the eye of the reader to the unity of the
+sentence. It is particularly useful in legal pleadings where
+there is much repetition of statement and great elaboration
+of detail. In such cases commas, semicolons, and even
+parentheses are so multiplied that the relation of the clauses
+is lost sight of. The confusion thus arising may often be
+cleared up by intelligent use of the dash.</p>
+
+<p>The dash is sometimes used to connect a side heading
+with the text that follows, or to connect the end of that
+text with the name of the writer.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">A Rule for Peace.</span>&mdash;If it be possible, as
+much as lieth in you, live peaceably with all
+men.&mdash;<i>St. Paul.</i></p></div>
+
+<p>The dash is sometimes used in catalogue work as a ditto
+mark.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquotIndent">
+<p><span class="smcap">De Vinne, Theodore Low</span>. Historic Printing Types. New York, 1886.</p>
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;The Invention of Printing. Francis Hart &amp; Co., New York, 1878.</p>
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;Plain Printing Types. Oswald Publishing Co., New York, 1914.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>French printers use the dash in printing dialogue as a
+partial substitute for quotation marks. Quotation marks
+are placed at the beginning and end of the dialogue and a
+dash precedes each speech. This form is used even if the
+dialogue is extended over many pages.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p>
+<p class="rules">Rules for the Use of the Dash</p>
+
+<p>1. To mark abrupt changes in sentiment and in construction.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Have you ever heard&mdash;but how should you hear?</p></div>
+
+<p>2. To mark pauses and repetitions used for dramatic or
+rhetorical effect.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>They make a desert, and call it&mdash;peace.</p>
+<p>Thou, great Anna, whom three states obey,</p>
+<p>Who sometimes counsel takes&mdash;and sometimes tea.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>3. To express in one sentence great contrariety of action
+or emotion or to increase the speed of the discourse by a
+succession of snappy phrases.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>She starts&mdash;she moves&mdash;she seems to feel</p>
+<p>The thrill of life along her keel.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this connection DeVinne gives the following excellent
+example from Sterne:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot" style="width: 18.5em;"><p>Nature instantly ebbed again;&mdash;the film returned
+to its place;&mdash;the pulse fluttered,&mdash;stopped,&mdash; went
+on,&mdash;throbbed,&mdash;stopped again,&mdash;moved, &mdash;stopped,&mdash;Shall
+I go on?&mdash;No.</p></div>
+
+<p>Attention may be called to Sterne&rsquo;s use of the semicolon
+and the comma with the dash, a use now obsolete except
+in rare cases.</p>
+
+<p>4. To separate the repetition or different amplifications
+of the same statement.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The infinite importance of what he has to do&mdash;the
+goading conviction that it must be done&mdash;the
+dreadful combination in his mind of both the
+necessity and the incapacity&mdash;the despair of
+crowding the concerns of an age into a moment&mdash;the
+impossibility of beginning a repentance
+which should have been completed&mdash;of setting
+about a peace which should have been concluded&mdash;of
+suing for a pardon which should have been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+obtained&mdash;all these complicated concerns intolerably
+augment the sufferings of the victims.</p></div>
+
+<p>5. At the end of a series of phrases which depend upon
+a concluding clause.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Railroads and steamships, factories and warehouses,
+wealth and luxury&mdash;these are not civilization.</p></div>
+
+<p>6. When a sentence is abruptly terminated.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>If I thought he said it I would&mdash;</p></div>
+
+<p>7. To precede expressions which are added to an apparently
+completed sentence, but which refer to some
+previous part of the sentence.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He wondered what the foreman would say&mdash;he
+had a way of saying the unexpected.</p></div>
+
+<p>8. To connect extreme dates in time indication.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The war of 1861&mdash;1865. The war of 1861-1865.</p></div>
+
+<p>9. To define verse references in the Bible or page
+references in books.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Matt. v: &nbsp; 1&mdash;11.<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Matt. v: 1-11.</span></p>
+<p>See pp. 50&mdash;53.<span style="margin-left: 2em;">See pp. 50-53.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="smallFont"><span class="smcap">Note.</span> In instances such as given in the two preceding rules the
+en dash may sometimes serve if the em dash appears too conspicuous.</p>
+
+<p>10. A dash preceded by a colon is sometimes used before
+a long quotation forming a new paragraph. In other
+cases no point need accompany the dash.</p>
+
+<p>The dash is sometimes used as a substitute for commas.
+Writers on the subject say that this use occurs when the
+connection between the parenthetical clause and the context
+is closer than would be indicated by commas. The
+distinction, if real, is difficult to see. It would be better if
+none but the most experienced writers attempted the use
+of the dash in this way.</p>
+
+<p>Dashes are often used instead of marks of parenthesis.
+It is better to let each mark do its own work.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_PARENTHESIS" id="THE_PARENTHESIS"></a>THE PARENTHESIS</h2>
+
+
+<p>The parenthesis, commonly used in pairs, encloses expressions
+which have no essential connection with the
+rest of the sentence, but are important to its full comprehension.
+It is liable to be neglected by writers because the
+dash is easier to make, and by printers because it is generally
+thought to mar the beauty of the line. Its distinct uses,
+however, should not be neglected.</p>
+
+
+<p class="rules">Rules for the Use of the Parenthesis</p>
+
+<p>1. To introduce into a sentence matter which is not
+essentially connected with the rest of the sentence, but aids
+in making it clear.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Trouble began when the apprentice (who had
+been strictly forbidden to do so) undertook to do
+some work on his own account.</p>
+
+<p>This year (1914) saw the outbreak of a general
+war.</p></div>
+
+<p>2. In reports of speeches to enclose the name of a person
+who has been referred to, or to indicate expressions on
+the part of the audience.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The honorable gentleman who has just spoken
+(Mr. Lodge) has no superior on this floor in his
+knowledge of international law. (Applause.)</p></div>
+
+<p>3. Parentheses enclosing interrogation points or exclamation
+points are sometimes introduced into a sentence to
+cast doubt on a statement or to express surprise or contempt.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He said that on the fifth of January (?) he was
+in New York.</p>
+
+<p>This most excellent (!) gentleman.</p></div>
+
+<p>4. Parentheses are used, generally in pairs, sometimes
+singly, to enclose the reference letters or figures used to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+mark division and classification in arguments or in precise
+statements.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>This is done because: (a) it is clearer; (b) it is
+shorter.</p></div>
+
+<p>These signs may be printed in several ways.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+(a) &nbsp; a) &nbsp; (<span class="superscript">a</span>)
+&nbsp; <span class="superscript">a</span>) &nbsp; (1) &nbsp; 1)
+&nbsp; (<span class="superscript">1</span>) &nbsp; <span class="superscript">1</span>)
+</p></div>
+
+<p>The old-fashioned form of parenthesis, always made too
+thin, may need a thin space between it and its adjoining
+character when it is placed too close to any letter that
+nearly fills the body in height, as in (&thinsp;Hall&thinsp;). The space
+may not be needed when the proximate character has a
+shoulder, as in (&thinsp;Art), or when the parenthesis follows a
+period.)</p>
+
+<p>The italic form of parenthesis is objectionable in book
+work. Distinction is sought for the word in italic and not
+for the parenthesis enclosing the word. The italic parenthesis
+may be used in job-work or full display lines of italic
+letters.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_BRACKET" id="THE_BRACKET"></a>THE BRACKET</h2>
+
+
+<p>Brackets are used in pairs, like the parentheses. In
+Job composition either brackets or parentheses may
+be used, as suits the fancy or is convenient. In descriptive
+text matter, however, brackets should not be used where
+parentheses are clearly indicated.</p>
+
+
+<p class="rules">Rules for the Use of the Bracket</p>
+
+<p>1. To enclose words or phrases which are entirely independent
+of the rest of the sentence.</p>
+
+<p>The enclosed words are usually comments, queries,
+corrections, criticisms, or directions inserted by some person
+other than the original writer or speaker.</p>
+
+<p>2. To enclose passages of doubtful authenticity in reprints
+of early manuscripts, special amendments to bills
+under legislative consideration, or any other portions of a
+text which need peculiar identification.</p>
+
+<p>3. In legal or ecclesiastical papers to indicate numerical
+words which may have to be changed, or to indicate where
+details are to be supplied.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>This is the first [<i>second or third</i>] publication.</p>
+
+<p>The officers shall remain in office [<i>here state the
+time</i>] or until their successors are duly qualified.</p></div>
+
+<p>4. To avoid the confusion caused by a parenthesis within
+a parenthesis.</p>
+
+<p>5. A single bracket is used to enclose the ending of a
+long line of poetry which will not fit the register and has to
+be run over into an adjoining line.</p>
+
+<p>Doubt whether to use parentheses or brackets can usually
+be settled by this general principle:</p>
+
+<p>Parentheses always enclose remarks apparently made by
+the writer of the text. Brackets enclose remarks certainly
+made by the editor or reporter of that text.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_INTERROGATION" id="THE_INTERROGATION"></a>THE INTERROGATION</h2>
+
+
+<p>The interrogation is the point that asks questions. It
+should always be placed outside quotation marks unless
+it is a part of the quotation itself.</p>
+
+
+<p class="rules">Rules for the Use of the Interrogation</p>
+
+<p>1. The interrogation point is used at the end of every
+direct question.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Are you there?</p></div>
+
+<p>Indirect questions, that is, statements that a question has
+been asked, do not require the interrogation.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He asked me if I was there.</p>
+
+<p>He asked the question, Are you there? and received
+no answer.</p></div>
+
+<p>2. At the end of each of a series of questions thrown
+into a single sentence.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Did he speak in an ordinary tone? or shout? or
+whisper?</p></div>
+
+<p>3. The interrogation, like a certain inflection in the
+voice, may indicate that a sentence, though declarative in
+form, is really a question and requires an answer.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>You are, of course, familiar with New York?</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_EXCLAMATION" id="THE_EXCLAMATION"></a>THE EXCLAMATION</h2>
+
+
+<p>The exclamation mark is the mark of strong emotion.</p>
+
+
+<p class="rules">Rules for the Use of the Exclamation</p>
+
+<p>1. After every expression of great surprise or emotion.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Look, my lord! it comes!</p>
+<p>Angels and ministers of grace defend us!</p>
+<p>Alas! my father.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. After interjections and other exclamatory words.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Hurrah! Good! Away! Oh!</p></div>
+
+<p>Where the exclamations are repeated without particularly
+emphasizing each one, each may be followed by a
+comma except the last.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Ha, ha, ha! That&rsquo;s a good joke!</p></div>
+
+<p>O used as a vocative or to express a desire or imprecation
+does not call for an exclamation.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>O John.</p>
+<p>Oh, yes.</p>
+<p>O, that night would come!</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The exclamation is sometimes used in job printing to fill
+out a display line or for other inadequate reasons. These
+uses should be avoided.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_APOSTROPHE" id="THE_APOSTROPHE"></a>THE APOSTROPHE</h2>
+
+
+<p>The apostrophe is primarily the sign of the possessive
+case, but it has several other uses.</p>
+
+
+<p class="rules">Rules for the Use of the Apostrophe</p>
+
+<p>1. The apostrophe for the possessive case is added only
+to nouns, not to the pronouns, which have their distinct
+possessive forms. <i>Its</i> is a possessive pronoun. <i>It&rsquo;s</i> is an
+abbreviation for <i>it is</i>. Do not use an apostrophe with the
+possessive adjectives <i>hers</i>, <i>ours</i>, <i>yours</i>, <i>theirs</i>, <i>its</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. All nouns in the singular and all nouns in the plural
+except those ending in <i>s</i> take an apostrophe and <i>s</i> to form
+the possessive.</p>
+
+<p>Nouns in the plural ending in <i>s</i> take an apostrophe only
+to form the possessive.</p>
+
+<p>There is much difference of opinion as to the invariability
+of the rule concerning singular nouns in <i>s</i>. DeVinne
+advises following the pronunciation. Where the second <i>s</i>
+is not pronounced, as often happens, to avoid the prolonged
+hissing sound of another <i>s</i>, he recommends omitting it in
+print.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Moses&rsquo; hat, for Moses&rsquo;s hat.</p>
+<p>For conscience&rsquo; sake.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>3. The apostrophe indicates the omission of letters in
+dialect, in familiar dialogue, and in poetry.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>That&rsquo;s &rsquo;ow &rsquo;tis.</p>
+<p>&rsquo;Twas ever thus.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When two words are practically made into one syllable,
+a thin space may be put before the apostrophe, except that
+<i>don&rsquo;t</i>, <i>can&rsquo;t</i>, <i>won&rsquo;t</i>, and <i>shan&rsquo;t</i> are consolidated. This use
+of a space serves to distinguish between the possessive in <i>s</i>
+and the contraction of <i>is</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Where death&thinsp;&rsquo;s abroad and sorrow&thinsp;&rsquo;s close behind.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+4. Figures expressing dates are often abbreviated, but it
+is not good general practice.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>The boys of &rsquo;61.</p>
+<p>It happened in &rsquo;14.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>5. The apostrophe is used to form the plural of letters
+and figures.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Cross your t&rsquo;s and dot your i&rsquo;s.</p>
+<p>Make 3&rsquo;s and 5&rsquo;s more plain.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Except in these cases the apostrophe is not a plural sign
+and should be so used only when it is intended to reproduce
+a dialect or colloquialism.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Wrong: All the Collins&rsquo;s were there.</p>
+<p>Right: All the Collinses were there.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The final <i>ed</i> of past tenses and past participles was formerly
+pronounced as a distinct syllable, thus: <i>clos-ed</i>,
+<i>belov-ed</i>, and this pronunciation continued in common use
+in poetry long after it was discontinued in prose. During
+this period of transition the modern pronunciation was indicated
+by dropping the <i>e</i> and using an apostrophe, thus:
+<i>clos&rsquo;d</i>, <i>belov&rsquo;d</i>. It is now understood that while the full spelling
+is to be used, the old pronunciation is not to be used
+unless specially indicated by placing a grave accent over the
+<i>e</i> of the last syllable, thus: <i>belov&egrave;d</i>.</p>
+
+<p>At the same period poets, especially, used an apostrophe
+to indicate a silent <i>e</i> as in <i>ev&rsquo;ry</i>, but the usage is now obsolete.</p>
+
+<p>Such abbreviations as <i>Dep&rsquo;t</i>, <i>Gov&rsquo;t</i>, <i>Sec&rsquo;y</i>, and the like,
+are objectionable in print. If such abbreviations are necessary
+it is better to use the forms <i>Dept.</i>, <i>Govt.</i>, <i>Secy.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_HYPHEN" id="THE_HYPHEN"></a>THE HYPHEN</h2>
+
+
+<p>The hyphen is used to join compound words; to mark
+the division of a word too long to go entirely into one
+line; to separate the syllables of words in order to show
+pronunciation; as a leader in tabular work. For this last
+purpose the period is to be preferred to any other mark in
+use. Tabular work without leaders is obscure and therefore
+objectionable.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="QUOTATION_MARKS" id="QUOTATION_MARKS"></a>QUOTATION MARKS</h2>
+
+
+<p>Quotation marks are signs used to indicate that
+the writer is giving exactly the words of another. A
+French printer named Morel used a comma in the
+outer margin to indicate a quoted line about 1550. About
+a century later another Frenchman, M&eacute;nage, introduced a
+mark (&laquo;&raquo;) resembling a double parenthesis but shorter.
+These marks were cast on the middle of the type body so
+that they could be reversed for use at either the beginning
+or the end of a quotation. The French have retained these
+signs as their quotation marks ever since.</p>
+
+<p>When the English adopted the use of quotation marks,
+they did not take over the French marks, but substituted two
+inverted commas at the beginning and two apostrophes at
+the end of the quoted paragraph. These marks are typographically
+unsatisfactory. They are weak and therefore
+hardly adequate to their purpose in aiding the understanding
+through the eye. Being cast on the upper part of the type
+body, they leave a blank space below and thus impair the
+beauty of the line and interfere with good spacing. Certain
+rules for the position of quotation marks when used with
+other marks are based upon these typographical considerations
+rather than upon logical considerations.</p>
+
+
+<p class="rules">Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks</p>
+
+<p>1. Every direct quotation should be enclosed in double
+quotation marks.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;I will go,&#8221; said he, &#8220;if I can.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<p>Reports of what another person has said when given
+in words other than his own are called indirect quotations
+and take no marks.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He said he would go if he could.</p></div>
+
+<p>2. A quotation of several paragraphs requires quotation
+marks at the beginning of each paragraph, but at the end<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+of the last one only. In legal documents, and sometimes
+elsewhere, quotations are defined and emphasized by putting
+double commas at the beginning of every line of the
+quotation.</p>
+
+<p>The same result may be better obtained by using smaller
+type, or indenting the quotation, or both.</p>
+
+<p>3. A quotation included within another quotation should
+be enclosed by single quotation marks.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He said: &#8220;I heard him cry &lsquo;Put down that gun,&rsquo;
+and then I heard a shot.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<p>4. Titles of books, essays, art works, etc., are usually
+enclosed in quotation marks. When the books are supposedly
+familiar to all readers, the marks are not used. You
+would not print &#8220;The Bible,&#8221; &#8220;Paradise Lost,&#8221; &#8220;The Iliad.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The titles of books, etc., are sometimes printed in
+italics instead of being enclosed in quotation marks. This
+is a matter of office style rather than of good or bad practice.</p>
+
+<p>5. In writing about plays or books, the name of the work
+may be quoted and the name of a character italicized.
+This is done to avoid confusion between the play, the
+character, and the real person portrayed. &#8220;William Tell&#8221;
+is a play. <i>William Tell</i> is a character in fiction. William
+Tell is a national hero of Switzerland.</p>
+
+<p>This usage is by no means uniform; here again, we are
+on the ground of office style.</p>
+
+<p>6. Names of vessels are sometimes quoted, sometimes
+italicized, and sometimes printed without distinguishing
+marks. Here we are once more on the ground of office
+style.</p>
+
+<p>7. Sentences from a foreign language are usually enclosed
+in quotation marks. Single words or phrases are usually
+printed in italics. Both italics and quotation marks should
+not be used except under certain unusual conditions or
+when positively ordered by the author.</p>
+
+<p>8. Quotation marks may be used with a word to which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+the writer desires to attract particular attention or to which
+he desires to give an unusual, technical, or ironical meaning.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>This &#8220;gentleman&#8221; needs a shave.</p></div>
+
+<p>9. When a quotation is long or when it is introduced in
+a formal manner, it is usually preceded by a colon. Isolated
+words or phrases call for no point after the introductory
+clause. This is true when the phrases so quoted run
+to considerable length, provided there is no break in the
+flow of thought and expression.</p>
+
+<p>10. When a quotation ends a sentence the quotation
+marks are placed after the period.</p>
+
+<p>The comma is always placed inside the quotation marks.</p>
+
+<p>The position of the other marks (semicolon, colon, exclamation,
+and interrogation) is determined by the sense.
+If they form a part of the matter quoted, they go inside the
+quote marks; if not, they go outside them.</p>
+
+<p>11. When quotation marks occur at the beginning of a
+line of poetry, they should go back into the indention space.</p>
+
+<p>
+&#8220;Breathes there a man with soul so dead<br />
+&nbsp;Who never to himself hath said,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&lsquo;This is my own, my native land&rsquo;?&#8221;</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>This illustration is also a good example of the use of
+marks in combinations. We have first the single quotation
+marking the end of the included quotation, then the interrogation
+which ends the sentence, then the double quotation
+marks in their proper position.</p>
+
+
+<p>Quotation marks should not be used needlessly. Very
+familiar expressions from the best known authors, such as
+<i>to the manor born</i>, <i>a conscience void of offence</i>, <i>with malice toward
+none and charity for all</i>, have become part of the
+current coin of speech and need not be quoted. Lists of
+words considered as words merely, lists of books or plays,
+and other such copy should be printed without quotation
+marks. Sprinkling a page thickly with quotation marks
+not only spoils its appearance but makes it hard to read,
+without adding to its clearness of meaning.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="GENERAL_REMARKS" id="GENERAL_REMARKS"></a>GENERAL REMARKS</h2>
+
+
+<p>Book titles are now set without points. This fashion
+was introduced by Pickering of London about 1850.
+This method is generally to the advantage of the title page
+thus treated. It is possible, however, to carry it too far
+and so to obscure the sense. Commas should not be omitted
+from firm names, such as Longmans, Green &amp; Co.,
+as in case of such omission there is no way of knowing
+whether one or more persons are indicated. Punctuation
+should not be omitted from the titles which may accompany
+an author&rsquo;s name, nor from the date if day and month
+are given as well as year.</p>
+
+<p>Avoid the doubling of points wherever possible. When
+an abbreviation precedes a colon, omit the period. When
+an abbreviation precedes a comma, the period is often inserted,
+but in many cases one or the other can be dropped
+to advantage. The dash is not generally preceded by a
+comma, semicolon, or colon in current printing usage. A
+comma should rarely go before the first parenthesis. If used
+at all with the parentheses, it should follow the closing
+parenthesis. When a complete sentence is enclosed in
+parentheses, the period falls within the parentheses. When
+the enclosure is a brief passage at the end of a sentence,
+the period falls outside the parentheses.</p>
+
+<p>Do not put a period before the apostrophe and the possessive
+<i>s</i> as in <i>Co.&rsquo;s</i>. The word <i>Company</i> may be abbreviated
+to <i>Co.</i> although it is not desirable to do so if it can be
+avoided. The possessive of <i>Co.</i> is <i>Co&rsquo;s</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="SUMMARY" id="SUMMARY"></a>SUMMARY</h2>
+
+
+<p>1. A comma separates clauses, phrases, and particles.</p>
+
+<p>2. A semicolon separates different statements.</p>
+
+<p>3. A colon is the transition point of the sentence.</p>
+
+<p>4. A period marks the end of a sentence.</p>
+
+<p>5. A dash marks abruptness or irregularity.</p>
+
+<p>6. Parentheses enclose interpolations in the sentence.</p>
+
+<p>7. Brackets enclose irregularities in the sentence.</p>
+
+<p>8. An interrogation asks a question for an answer.</p>
+
+<p>9. An exclamation marks surprise.</p>
+
+<p>10. An apostrophe marks elisions and the possessive case.</p>
+
+<p>11. Quotation marks define quoted words.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="SUPPLEMENTARY_READING" id="SUPPLEMENTARY_READING"></a>SUPPLEMENTARY READING</h2>
+
+
+<p>Correct Composition. By DeVinne. Oswald Publishing Company,
+New York.</p>
+
+<p>The Writer&rsquo;s Desk Book. By William Dana Orcutt. Frederick
+A. Stokes Company, New York.</p>
+
+<p>A Manual for Writers. By Manly and Powell. The University
+of Chicago Press, Chicago.</p>
+
+<p>Composition and Rhetoric. By Lockwood and Emerson. Ginn
+&amp; Co., Boston.</p>
+
+<p>The Art of Writing and Speaking the English Language. By
+Sherwin Cody. The Old Greek Press, Chicago.</p>
+
+<p>Handbook of Composition. By Edwin D. Woolley. D.&nbsp;C. Heath
+&amp; Co., Boston.</p>
+
+<p>English Composition, Book One, Enlarged. By Stratton D. Brooks.
+Ginn &amp; Co., Boston.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="REVIEW_QUESTIONS" id="REVIEW_QUESTIONS"></a>REVIEW QUESTIONS</h2>
+
+
+<h3>SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS</h3>
+
+<div style="font-size: 90%;">
+<p>The following questions, based on the contents of this pamphlet, are
+intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as an aid
+to the student in putting the information contained into definite statements
+without actually memorizing the text, (3) as a means of securing
+from the student a reproduction of the information in his own words.</p>
+
+<p>A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full
+acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental omission
+of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed that
+nothing should be omitted.</p>
+
+<p>In teaching from these books it is very important that these questions
+and such others as may occur to the teacher should be made the
+basis of frequent written work, and of final examinations.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not only
+assures knowledge of material, but the power to express that knowledge
+correctly and in good form.</p>
+
+<p>If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed form
+it will be doubly useful.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>QUESTIONS</h3>
+
+
+<p>1. What is punctuation?</p>
+
+<p>2. How were ancient manuscripts written?</p>
+
+<p>3. What were the first punctuation marks, and how were
+they used?</p>
+
+<p>4. What can you tell about punctuation marks in the
+manuscript period?</p>
+
+<p>5. What can you tell about the punctuation of the early
+printers?</p>
+
+<p>6. Who may be said to have systematized punctuation?</p>
+
+<p>7. Give the names of the principal punctuation marks and
+the meaning of the names.</p>
+
+<p>8. Give a list of the punctuation marks now in use and
+show how they are made.</p>
+
+<p>9. Name and describe the two systems of punctuation.</p>
+
+<p>10. What is the tendency in the use of punctuation?</p>
+
+<p>11. Why is it necessary for a compositor to understand
+punctuation?</p>
+
+<p>12. When should the compositor follow copy and when
+not?</p>
+
+<p>13. What five general directions should always be remembered?</p>
+
+<p>14. What is the comma used for?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+15. What is the tendency in the use of commas?</p>
+
+<p>16. What are reversed commas used for?</p>
+
+<p>17. How are commas used with numerals?</p>
+
+<p>18. How are commas used in table work?</p>
+
+<p>19. How are commas placed in relation to the words whose
+meaning they help?</p>
+
+<p>20. Give the rules for the use of the comma.</p>
+
+<p>21. What are the four general principles for the use of the
+comma?</p>
+
+<p>22. What is the semicolon used for?</p>
+
+<p>23. Give the rules for the use of the semicolon.</p>
+
+<p>24. What is the colon used for?</p>
+
+<p>25. Give the rules for the use of the colon.</p>
+
+<p>26. What is the period used for?</p>
+
+<p>27. Where are periods used?</p>
+
+<p>28. Where are periods omitted?</p>
+
+<p>29. How do we use the period in connection with parentheses?</p>
+
+<p>30. How do we use the period in connection with quotation marks?</p>
+
+<p>31. What is the reason for this rule?</p>
+
+<p>32. What other uses has the period?</p>
+
+<p>33. What is the dash used for?</p>
+
+<p>34. What special use of the dash is found in French books?</p>
+
+<p>35. Give the rules for the use of the dash.</p>
+
+<p>36. Are other punctuation marks used with the dash?</p>
+
+<p>37. What is the parenthesis used for?</p>
+
+<p>38. Give the rules for the use of the parenthesis.</p>
+
+<p>39. When would you use letter spacing with the parenthesis,
+and why?</p>
+
+<p>40. What use is made of the italic parenthesis?</p>
+
+<p>41. Give the rules for the use of the brackets.</p>
+
+<p>42. What is the distinction in use between the bracket and
+the parenthesis?</p>
+
+<p>43. What is the interrogation point used for?</p>
+
+<p>44. Give the rules for the use of the interrogation.</p>
+
+<p>45. What is the exclamation point used for?</p>
+
+<p>46. Give the rules for the use of the exclamation.</p>
+
+<p>47. What is the apostrophe used for?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+48. Give the rules for the use of the apostrophe.</p>
+
+<p>49. What is the use of the apostrophe in past participles?</p>
+
+<p>50. What is said of the use of the apostrophe in such
+abbreviations as <i>Dep&rsquo;t</i>?</p>
+
+<p>51. What is the hyphen used for?</p>
+
+<p>52. What are quotation marks used for?</p>
+
+<p>53. Give the rules for the use of quotation marks.</p>
+
+<p>54. When are quotation marks omitted?</p>
+
+<p>55. How are book titles now punctuated?</p>
+
+<p>56. Should punctuation marks be doubled?</p>
+
+<p>57. How is the comma used with parentheses?</p>
+
+<p>58. How would you punctuate the possessive of an abbreviation,
+for example, <i>the Doctor&rsquo;s house</i>, using the
+abbreviation <i>Dr.</i>?</p>
+
+<p>59. Give a brief summarized statement of the use of the
+twelve punctuation marks.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="GLOSSARY" id="GLOSSARY"></a>GLOSSARY</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Absolute</span>&mdash;Free from the usual grammatical relations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Antecedent</span>&mdash;That to which a relative pronoun or a relative clause
+refers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Apposition</span>&mdash;When the meaning of a noun or pronoun is made clear
+or emphatic by the use of another noun or pronoun, the two are
+said to be in apposition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Clause</span>&mdash;A group of words consisting of a subject and predicate
+with their modifiers and forming a part of a sentence; a sentence
+within a sentence.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Compound Sentence</span>&mdash;A sentence consisting of several clauses.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Co&ouml;rdinate Clauses</span>&mdash;Clauses of equal rank.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Declarative Sentence</span>&mdash;A sentence which states a fact.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Exclamatory Sentence</span>&mdash;A sentence which utters an exclamation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Independent Adverbs</span>&mdash;Adverbs not in grammatical relations with
+other words in the sentence.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Interrogative Sentence</span>&mdash;A sentence which asks a question.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Minor Clauses</span>&mdash;Clauses other than the principal clause or main
+statement of a sentence.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Parenthetical</span>&mdash;Incidental; not an essential part of a sentence or
+statement.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Particle</span>&mdash;One of the minor parts of speech not inflected, that is,
+not undergoing changes in form.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Phrase</span>&mdash;An expression consisting usually of but a few words, denoting
+a single idea, or forming a separate part of a sentence.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Relative Clause</span>&mdash;A clause joined to the rest of the sentence by a
+relative pronoun.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Salutation</span>&mdash;A form of greeting, especially at the beginning or end
+of a letter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Salutatory Phrase</span>&mdash;The words forming a salutation, or greeting.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="TYPOGRAPHIC_TECHNICAL_SERIES" id="TYPOGRAPHIC_TECHNICAL_SERIES"></a>TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES<br />
+FOR APPRENTICES</h2>
+
+
+<p>The following list of publications, comprising the <span class="smcap">Typographic
+Technical Series for Apprentices</span>, has been prepared
+under the supervision of the Committee on Education of the
+United Typothetae of America for use in trade classes, in course of
+printing instruction, and by individuals.</p>
+
+<p>Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or
+group of authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide
+the printers of the United States&mdash;employers, journeymen,
+and apprentices&mdash;with a comprehensive series of handy and
+inexpensive compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon
+the various branches and specialties of the printing craft, all
+arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study.</p>
+
+<p>The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5&times;8 inches.
+Their general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has
+been, as far as practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief
+synopsis of the particular contents and other chief features of each
+volume will be found under each title in the following list.</p>
+
+<p>Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to
+embody in each publication as completely as possible all the
+rudimentary information and essential facts necessary to an understanding
+of the subject. Care has been taken to make all statements
+accurate and clear, with the purpose of bringing essential
+information within the understanding of beginners in the different
+fields of study. Wherever practicable, simple and well-defined
+drawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving
+additional clearness to the text.</p>
+
+<p>In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible
+help for use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each
+title is accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering
+essential items of the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical
+terms belonging to the subject or department treated is also
+added to many of the books.</p>
+
+<p>These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of
+America.</p>
+
+<p>Address all orders and inquiries to <span class="smcap">Committee on Education,
+United Typothetae of America, Chicago, Illinois, U.&nbsp;S.&nbsp;A.</span></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="parth">PART I&mdash;<i>Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials</i></p>
+
+<ul class="books">
+<li><p><b>1.</b> <b>Type: a Primer of Information</b>    <span class="author">By A.&nbsp;A. Stewart</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes, font
+schemes, etc., with a brief description of their manufacture. 44 pp.;
+illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>2.</b> <b>Compositors&rsquo; Tools and Materials</b>    <span class="author">By A.&nbsp;A. Stewart</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, brass
+rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; illustrated; 50 review
+questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>3.</b> <b>Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture</b>    <span class="author">By A.&nbsp;A. Stewart</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, case
+racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; illustrated; 33 review
+questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>4.</b> <b>Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances</b>    <span class="author">By A.&nbsp;A. Stewart</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the press,
+including some modern utilities for special purposes. 59 pp.; illustrated;
+70 review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>5.</b> <b>Proof Presses</b>    <span class="author">By A.&nbsp;A. Stewart</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A primer of information about the customary methods and machines for
+taking printers&rsquo; proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>6.</b> <b>Platen Printing Presses</b>    <span class="author">By Daniel Baker</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical construction
+of platen printing presses, from the original hand press to the modern
+job press, to which is added a chapter on automatic presses of small size.
+51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>7.</b> <b>Cylinder Printing Presses</b>    <span class="author">By Herbert L. Baker</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types of
+cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review questions;
+glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>8.</b> <b>Mechanical Feeders and Folders</b>    <span class="author">By William E. Spurrier</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; with
+hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review questions;
+glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>9.</b> <b>Power for Machinery in Printing Houses</b>    <span class="author">By Carl F. Scott</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and allied
+machinery with particular reference to electric drive. 53 pp.; illustrated;
+69 review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>10.</b> <b>Paper Cutting Machines</b>    <span class="author">By Niel Gray, Jr.</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever
+cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting paper,
+70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>11.</b> <b>Printers&rsquo; Rollers</b>    <span class="author">By A.&nbsp;A. Stewart</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and care of
+inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>12.</b> <b>Printing Inks</b>    <span class="author">By Philip Ruxton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by permission
+from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of Standards); together with
+some helpful suggestions about the everyday use of printing inks by
+Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+</ul><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p><ul class="books">
+<li><p><b>13.</b> <b>How Paper is Made</b>    <span class="author">By William Bond Wheelwright</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A primer of information about the materials and processes of manufacturing
+paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated; 62 review questions;
+glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>14.</b> <b>Relief Engravings</b>    <span class="author">By Joseph P. Donovan</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of engraving;
+woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for reproduction; things
+to remember when ordering engravings. Illustrated; review questions;
+glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>15.</b> <b>Electrotyping and Sterotyping</b> <span class="author">By Harris B. Hatch and A.&nbsp;A. Stewart</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and stereotyping.
+94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions; glossaries.</p></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="parth">PART II&mdash;<i>Hand and Machine Composition</i></p>
+
+<ul class="books">
+<li><p><b>16.</b> <b>Typesetting</b>    <span class="author">By A.&nbsp;A. Stewart</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, spacing,
+correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting. Illustrated;
+review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>17.</b> <b>Printers&rsquo; Proofs</b>    <span class="author">By A.&nbsp;A. Stewart</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with
+observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>18.</b> <b>First Steps in Job Composition</b>    <span class="author">By Camille DeV&eacute;ze</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first jobs,
+especially about the important little things which go to make good
+display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>19.</b> <b>General Job Composition</b></p>
+
+<p class="brief">How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and
+miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>20.</b> <b>Book Composition</b>    <span class="author">By J.&nbsp;W. Bothwell</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Chapters from DeVinne&rsquo;s &#8220;Modern Methods of Book Composition,&#8221;
+revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J.&nbsp;W. Bothwell of
+The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of pages. Part II:
+Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>21.</b> <b>Tabular Composition</b>    <span class="author">By Robert Seaver</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples of
+more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review questions.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>22.</b> <b>Applied Arithmetic</b>    <span class="author">By E.&nbsp;E. Sheldon</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, calculation
+of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard tables and rules
+for computation, each subject amplified with examples and exercises.
+159 pp.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>23.</b> <b>Typecasting and Composing Machines</b>    <span class="author">A.&nbsp;W. Finlay, Editor</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">
+Section I&mdash;The Linotype    <span class="author">By L.&nbsp;A. Hornstein</span><br />
+Section II&mdash;The Monotype    <span class="author">By Joseph Hays</span><br />
+Section III&mdash;The Intertype    <span class="author">By Henry W. Cozzens</span><br />
+Section IV&mdash;Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines    <span class="author">By Frank H. Smith</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="brief">A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their
+mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review questions;
+glossary.</p></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="parth">PART III&mdash;<i>Imposition and Stonework</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p>
+
+<ul class="books">
+<li><p><b>24.</b> <b>Locking Forms for the Job Press</b>    <span class="author">By Frank S. Henry</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and
+about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>25.</b> <b>Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press</b>    <span class="author">By Frank S. Henry</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods of
+handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review questions;
+glossary.</p></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="parth">PART IV&mdash;<i>Presswork</i></p>
+
+<ul class="books">
+<li><p><b>26.</b> <b>Making Ready on Platen Presses</b>    <span class="author">By T.&nbsp;G. McGrew</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive features of
+commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan, regulating the
+impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting gauges, and other
+details explained. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>27.</b> <b>Cylinder Presswork</b>    <span class="author">By T.&nbsp;G. McGrew</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, ink
+fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and overlaying;
+modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>28.</b> <b>Pressroom Hints and Helps</b>    <span class="author">By Charles L. Dunton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with directions
+and useful information relating to a variety of printing-press problems.
+87 pp.; 176 review questions.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>29.</b> <b>Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts</b>    <span class="author">By A.&nbsp;W. Elson</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A primer of information about the distinctive features of the relief, the
+intaglio, and the planographic processes of printing. 84 pp.; illustrated;
+100 review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="parth">PART V&mdash;<i>Pamphlet and Book Binding</i></p>
+
+<ul class="books">
+<li><p><b>30.</b> <b>Pamphlet Binding</b>    <span class="author">By Bancroft L. Goodwin</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A primer of information about the various operations employed in
+binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated; review
+questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>31.</b> <b>Book Binding</b>    <span class="author">By John J. Pleger</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Practical information about the usual operations in binding books;
+folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case making
+and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and blank-book
+binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="parth">PART VI&mdash;<i>Correct Literary Composition</i></p>
+
+<ul class="books">
+<li><p><b>32.</b> <b>Word Study and English Grammar</b>    <span class="author">By F.&nbsp;W. Hamilton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A primer of information about words, their relations, and their uses.
+68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>33.</b> <b>Punctuation</b>    <span class="author">By F.&nbsp;W. Hamilton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their use,
+both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review questions;
+glossary.</p></li>
+
+</ul><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p><ul class="books">
+
+<li><p><b>34.</b> <b>Capitals</b>    <span class="author">By F.&nbsp;W. Hamilton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical typographic
+hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review questions;
+glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>35.</b> <b>Division of Words</b>    <span class="author">By F.&nbsp;W. Hamilton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks on
+spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review questions.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>36.</b> <b>Compound Words</b>    <span class="author">By F.&nbsp;W. Hamilton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A study of the principles of compounding, the components of compounds,
+and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>37.</b> <b>Abbreviations and Signs</b>    <span class="author">By F.&nbsp;W. Hamilton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with classified
+lists of those in most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review questions.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>38.</b> <b>The Uses of Italic</b>    <span class="author">By F.&nbsp;W. Hamilton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A primer of information about the history and uses of italic letters.
+31 pp.; 37 review questions.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>39.</b> <b>Proofreading</b>    <span class="author">By Arnold Levitas</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">The technical phases of the proofreader&rsquo;s work; reading, marking,
+revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by
+examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>40.</b> <b>Preparation of Printers&rsquo; Copy</b>    <span class="author">By F.&nbsp;W. Hamilton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in preparing
+copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review questions.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>41.</b> <b>Printers&rsquo; Manual of Style</b></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions
+relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, abbreviations,
+numerals, and kindred features of composition.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>42.</b> <b>The Printer&rsquo;s Dictionary</b>    <span class="author">By A.&nbsp;A. Stewart</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about various
+processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical terms explained.
+Illustrated.</p></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="parth">PART VII&mdash;<i>Design, Color, and Lettering</i></p>
+
+<ul class="books">
+<li><p><b>43.</b> <b>Applied Design for Printers</b>    <span class="author">By Harry L. Gage</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on the
+periods of design which have most influenced printing. Treats of harmony,
+balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and variety;
+ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 review questions;
+glossary; bibliography.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>44.</b> <b>Elements of Typographic Design</b>    <span class="author">By Harry L. Gage</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building material
+of typography paper, types, ink, decorations and illustrations. Handling
+of shapes. Design of complete book, treating each part. Design of
+commercial forms and single units. Illustrations; review questions;
+glossary; bibliography.</p></li>
+</ul><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p><ul class="books">
+
+<li><p><b>45.</b> <b>Rudiments of Color in Printing</b>    <span class="author">By Harry L. Gage</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster effect,
+in combinations of two, three, or more printings with process engravings.
+Scientific nature of color, physical and chemical. Terms in which color
+may be discussed: hue, value, intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and
+combinations. Color theory of process engraving. Experiments with
+color. Illustrations in full color, and on various papers. Review questions;
+glossary; bibliography.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>46.</b> <b>Lettering in Typography</b>    <span class="author">By Harry L. Gage</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Printer&rsquo;s use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. Development
+of historic writing and lettering and its influence on type design.
+Classification of general forms in lettering. Application of design to
+lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully illustrated; review questions;
+glossary; bibliography.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>47.</b> <b>Typographic Design in Advertising</b>    <span class="author">By Harry L. Gage</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">The printer&rsquo;s function in advertising. Precepts upon which advertising
+is based. Printer&rsquo;s analysis of his copy. Emphasis, legibility, attention,
+color. Method of studying advertising typography. Illustrations;
+review questions; glossary; bibliography.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>48.</b> <b>Making Dummies and Layouts</b>    <span class="author">By Harry L. Gage</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a proposed
+final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of layout. Function of
+layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. Dummy envelopes.
+Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography.</p></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="parth">PART VIII&mdash;<i>History of Printing</i></p>
+
+<ul class="books">
+<li><p><b>49.</b> <b>Books Before Typography</b>    <span class="author">By F.&nbsp;W. Hamilton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the
+history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp.;
+illustrated; 64 review questions.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>50.</b> <b>The Invention of Typography</b>    <span class="author">By F.&nbsp;W. Hamilton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about.
+64 pp.; 62 review questions.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>51.</b> <b>History of Printing&mdash;Part I</b>    <span class="author">By F.&nbsp;W. Hamilton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the development
+of the book, the development of printers&rsquo; materials, and the work
+of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>52.</b> <b>History of Printing&mdash;Part II</b>    <span class="author">By F.&nbsp;W. Hamilton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry from
+1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship, internal
+conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review questions.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>53.</b> <b>Printing in England</b>    <span class="author">By F.&nbsp;W. Hamilton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present time.
+89 pp.; 65 review questions.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>54.</b> <b>Printing in America</b>    <span class="author">By F.&nbsp;W. Hamilton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes on
+publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.; 84
+review questions.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>55.</b> <b>Type and Presses in America</b>    <span class="author">By F.&nbsp;W. Hamilton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and press
+building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions.</p></li>
+</ul>
+<p class="parth"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span>
+PART IX&mdash;<i>Cost Finding and Accounting</i></p>
+
+<ul class="books">
+<li><p><b>56.</b> <b>Elements of Cost in Printing</b> <span class="author">By Henry P. Porter</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should
+show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions.
+Glossary.</p>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><b>57.</b> <b>Use of a Cost System</b>  <span class="author">By Henry P. Porter</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should
+show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions.
+Glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>58.</b> <b>The Printer as a Merchant</b>  <span class="author">By Henry P. Porter</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. The
+relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of the finished
+product. Review questions. Glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>59.</b> <b>Fundamental Principles of Estimating</b> <span class="author">By Henry P. Porter</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for estimating.
+Review questions. Glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>60.</b> <b>Estimating and Selling</b>  <span class="author">By Henry P. Porter</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their relation
+to selling. Review questions. Glossary.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>61.</b> <b>Accounting for Printers</b>  <span class="author">By Henry P. Porter</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary books and
+accessory records. Review questions. Glossary.</p></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="parth">PART X&mdash;<i>Miscellaneous</i></p>
+
+<ul class="books">
+<li><p><b>62.</b> <b>Health, Sanitation, and Safety</b>  <span class="author">By Henry P. Porter</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; practical
+suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and rules for safety.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>63.</b> <b>Topical Index</b>  <span class="author">By F.&nbsp;W. Hamilton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic
+Technical Series, alphabetically arranged.</p></li>
+
+<li><p><b>64.</b> <b>Courses of Study</b>  <span class="author">By F.&nbsp;W. Hamilton</span></p>
+
+<p class="brief">A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for classroom and
+shop work.</p></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="ACKNOWLEDGMENT" id="ACKNOWLEDGMENT"></a>ACKNOWLEDGMENT</h2>
+
+
+<p>This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the
+splendid co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals
+engaged in the printing business and its allied industries
+in the United States of America.</p>
+
+<p>The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of
+America, under whose auspices the books have been prepared and
+published, acknowledges its indebtedness for the generous assistance
+rendered by the many authors, printers, and others identified
+with this work.</p>
+
+<p>While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright
+pages of those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless
+felt that a group list of co-operating firms would be of
+interest.</p>
+
+<p>The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who
+have co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes,
+constituting the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books
+comprising the Typographic Technical Series has been completed
+(which the Committee hopes will be at an early date), the full list
+will be printed in each volume.</p>
+
+<p>The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to
+the many subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its
+publication.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 6em;">
+<span class="smcap">Committee on Education,<br />
+United Typothetae of America.</span></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 9em;">
+<span class="smcap">Henry P. Porter</span>, <i>Chairman</i>,<br />
+<span class="smcap">E. Lawrence Fell</span>,<br />
+<span class="smcap">A.&nbsp;M. Glossbrenner</span>,<br />
+<span class="smcap">J. Clyde Oswald</span>,<br />
+<span class="smcap">Toby Rubovits</span>.<br />
+</p>
+<p style="margin-left: 6em;">
+<span class="smcap">Frederick W. Hamilton</span>, <i>Education Director</i>.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CONTRIBUTORS" id="CONTRIBUTORS"></a>CONTRIBUTORS</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>For Composition and Electrotypes</b></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 2em;">
+<span class="smcap">Isaac H. Blanchard Company</span>, New York, N.&nbsp;Y.<br />
+<span class="smcap">S.&nbsp;H. Burbank &amp; Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />
+<span class="smcap">J.&nbsp;S. Cushing &amp; Co.</span>, Norwood, Mass.<br />
+<span class="smcap">The DeVinne Press</span>, New York, N.&nbsp;Y.<br />
+<span class="smcap">R.&nbsp;R. Donnelley &amp; Sons Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Geo. H. Ellis Co.</span>, Boston, Mass.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Evans-Winter-Hebb</span>, Detroit, Mich.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Franklin Printing Company</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />
+<span class="smcap">F.&nbsp;H. Gilson Company</span>, Boston, Mass.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Stephen Greene &amp; Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />
+<span class="smcap">W.&nbsp;F. Hall Printing Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br />
+<span class="smcap">J.&nbsp;B. Lippincott Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />
+<span class="smcap">McCalla &amp; Co. Inc.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />
+<span class="smcap">The Patteson Press</span>, New York, New York<br />
+<span class="smcap">The Plimpton Press</span>, Norwood, Mass.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Poole Bros.</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Edward Stern &amp; Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />
+<span class="smcap">The Stone Printing &amp; Mfg. Co.</span>, Roanoke, Va.<br />
+<span class="smcap">C.&nbsp;D. Traphagen</span>, Lincoln, Neb.<br />
+<span class="smcap">The University Press</span>, Cambridge, Mass.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><b>For Composition</b></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 2em;">
+<span class="smcap">Boston Typothetae School of Printing</span>, Boston, Mass.<br />
+<span class="smcap">William F. Fell Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />
+<span class="smcap">The Kalkhoff Company</span>, New York, N.&nbsp;Y.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Oxford-Print</span>, Boston, Mass.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Toby Rubovits</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><b>For Electrotypes</b></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 2em;">
+<span class="smcap">Blomgren Brothers Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Flower Steel Electrotyping Co.</span>, New York, N.&nbsp;Y.<br />
+<span class="smcap">C.&nbsp;J. Peters &amp; Son Co.</span>, Boston, Mass.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Royal Electrotype Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />
+<span class="smcap">H.&nbsp;C. Whitcomb &amp; Co.</span>, Boston, Mass.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><b>For Engravings</b></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 2em;">
+<span class="smcap">American Type Founders Co.</span>, Boston, Mass.<br />
+<span class="smcap">C.&nbsp;B. Cottrell &amp; Sons Co.</span>, Westerly, R.&nbsp;I.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Golding Manufacturing Co.</span>, Franklin, Mass.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Harvard University</span>, Cambridge, Mass.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Inland Printer Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Lanston Monotype Machine Company</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Mergenthaler Linotype Company</span>, New York, N.&nbsp;Y.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Geo. H. Morrill Co.</span>, Norwood, Mass.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Oswald Publishing Co.</span>, New York, N.&nbsp;Y.<br />
+<span class="smcap">The Printing Art</span>, Cambridge, Mass.<br />
+<span class="smcap">B.&nbsp;D. Rising Paper Company</span>, Housatonic, Mass.<br />
+<span class="smcap">The Vandercook Press</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><b>For Book Paper</b></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 2em;">
+<span class="smcap">American Writing Paper Co.</span>, Holyoke, Mass.<br />
+<span class="smcap">West Virginia Pulp &amp; Paper Co.</span>, Mechanicville, N.&nbsp;Y.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Punctuation, by Frederick W. Hamilton
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUNCTUATION ***
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Punctuation, by Frederick W. Hamilton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Punctuation
+       A Primer of Information about the Marks of Punctuation and
+       their Use Both Grammatically and Typographically
+
+Author: Frederick W. Hamilton
+
+Release Date: March 9, 2007 [EBook #20787]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUNCTUATION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Sigal Alon and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+1. Italicized text is rendered as _text_, bold text is rendered as
+=text=.
+
+2. Superscripted characters are preceeded by ^ (carat).
+
+3. Subscripted characters are surrounded by curly braces ({}) and
+preceeded by _ (underline character).
+
+
+
+
+TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES--PART VI, NO. 33
+
+
+PUNCTUATION
+
+
+A PRIMER _of_ INFORMATION ABOUT
+THE MARKS OF PUNCTUATION AND
+THEIR USE BOTH GRAMMATICALLY
+AND TYPOGRAPHICALLY
+
+
+BY
+
+FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL. D.
+
+EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR
+UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA
+
+
+
+
+PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION
+UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA
+1920
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1920
+UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA
+CHICAGO, ILL.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This book, like the others in this Part, makes no pretense at
+originality. The author has studied and compared a considerable number
+of works by the best authorities on the subject and has endeavored to
+adapt the best of their contents to the use of printers' apprentices.
+Every author has his own set of rules. At first sight, each set appears
+inconsistent with those given by other writers. This inconsistency,
+however, is generally more apparent than real. It arises from
+differences in point of view, method of approach, and system of
+classification.
+
+An attempt has been made to compile from these sources a set of rules
+which would bring before the pupil a correct and comprehensive view of
+the best current usage, well illustrated by examples and accompanied by
+practical typographical hints. The fact has been kept steadily in mind
+that this book is intended for a certain definite class of pupils and no
+pains have been spared to fit it to their needs.
+
+Any treatise consisting, as this one necessarily does, mainly of rules
+is practically useful only as a basis for constant and persistent drill.
+It is, of course, valuable for reference, but the emergencies of the
+day's work leave no time for consultation. These rules must be learned,
+and not only learned but assimilated so that their correct application
+becomes instinctive and instantaneous. This result can be secured only
+by practice. Hence the emphasis laid on the exercises indicated in the
+paragraphs introductory to the review questions.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                              PAGE
+INTRODUCTION                     1
+
+THE COMMA                        7
+
+THE SEMICOLON                   14
+
+THE COLON                       16
+
+THE PERIOD                      18
+
+THE DASH                        20
+
+THE PARENTHESIS                 23
+
+THE BRACKET                     25
+
+THE INTERROGATION               26
+
+THE EXCLAMATION                 27
+
+THE APOSTROPHE                  28
+
+THE HYPHEN                      30
+
+QUOTATION MARKS                 31
+
+GENERAL REMARKS                 34
+
+SUMMARY                         35
+
+SUPPLEMENTARY READING           36
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS                37
+
+GLOSSARY OF TERMS               40
+
+
+
+
+PUNCTUATION
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Punctuation is a device by which we aid words to tell their story. Words
+have done this at times without such aid, and may now do so, but at
+constant risk of serious misunderstanding. This can be easily seen by
+reading the following lines printed as they would have been written in
+an ancient manuscript.
+
+    WETHEPEOPLEOFTHEUNITEDSTATES
+    INORDERTOFORMAMOREPERFECT
+    UNIONESTABLISHJUSTICEINSUREDO
+    MESTICTRANQUILITYPROVIDEFOR
+    THECOMMONDEFENCEPROMOTETHE
+    GENERALWELFAREANDSECURETHE
+    BLESSINGSOFLIBERTYTOOURSELVES
+    ANDOURPOSTERITYDOORDAINAND
+    ESTABLISHTHISCONSTITUTIONFOR
+    THEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA
+
+Probably this particular passage could be read without danger of serious
+misunderstanding. The two well-known passages which follow, however, are
+cases where either a simple statement may become a ridiculous travesty
+or a serious arraignment may become a eulogy by punctuation.
+
+Punctuate the following so as to express two very different meanings:
+
+    Lord Palmerston then entered on his head a white hat upon his feet
+    large but well polished boots upon his brow a dark cloud in his hand
+    a faithful walking stick in his eye a menacing glare saying nothing.
+
+Punctuate the following in two ways: one to represent a very bad man,
+and the other a very good man:
+
+    He is an old man and experienced in vice and wickedness he is never
+    found in opposing the works of iniquity he takes delight in the
+    downfall of his neighbors he never rejoices in the prosperity of his
+    fellow-creatures he is always ready to assist in destroying the
+    peace of society he takes no pleasure in serving the Lord he is
+    uncommonly diligent in sowing discord among his friends and
+    acquaintances he takes no pride in laboring to promote the cause of
+    Christianity he has not been negligent in endeavoring to stigmatize
+    all public teachers he makes no effort to subdue his evil passions
+    he strives hard to build up satans kingdom he lends no aid to the
+    support of the gospel among the heathen he contributes largely to
+    the devil he will never go to heaven he must go where he will
+    receive the just recompense of reward.
+
+Punctuation being intended for the sole purpose of making the text
+intelligible and removing as many of the causes of possible
+misunderstanding as may be, must depend in the last resort on a correct
+understanding of the text. This understanding may be obtained from the
+text itself, from the context, that is, the writing as a whole, or from
+outside knowledge about the matter under consideration.
+
+    The prisoner said the witness was a sneak thief.
+    The prisoner, said the witness, was a sneak thief.
+
+The meaning of this sentence depends entirely on the presence or absence
+of the two commas.
+
+Manuscript comes in to the printer hastily written by the customer,
+author, or a reporter, or ticked over the telegraph wire, and there is
+little or no punctuation. Probably the context will supply the needed
+information and the line may be set up correctly. If there is no way of
+finding out what the sentence means, follow copy. Insert no punctuation
+marks which you are not sure are needed.
+
+Punctuation as we know it is of recent invention. The practice of the
+art of printing brought the necessity for a defined and systematized use
+of the points which had, most of them, long been in existence, but which
+had been used largely according to the personal preferences of the
+scribes or copyists. With the coming of the new methods of book
+reproduction came the recognized need for standardization and
+systematization.
+
+The most ancient inscriptions and manuscripts are merely strings of
+letters, without spacing between words or sentences and without any
+points of any sort, like the example on page 1.
+
+The first mark to be used was the dot, or period. Its original purpose
+was simply to furnish a resting place for the eye and the mind and so
+help a little in the grouping of the letters into words, clauses, and
+sentences, which the mind had hitherto been compelled to do unaided. It
+was used at the end of a sentence, at the end of a clause, to indicate
+abbreviations, to separate crowded words, especially where the sense was
+ambiguous (ANICEMAN might be either AN ICE MAN or A NICE MAN), or even
+as an aesthetic ornament between the letters of an inscription. In early
+manuscripts the period is usually placed high ([Symbol: High Dot])
+instead of low (.).
+
+Sometimes a slanting mark (/) or a double dot (: or ..) was used to
+indicate the end of an important section of the writing or even of a
+sentence.
+
+After a time spaces were introduced to show the grouping of the letters
+and the words. At first the sentences were separated by spaces, then the
+long words, and finally all words. In some languages, as in Italian,
+there are still combinations of long and short words, such as the
+combination of the pronoun with the verb, as in _datemi_, give me.
+
+During the manuscript period different schools of copyists and even
+different individuals used different marks and different systems of
+pointing. For a considerable time the location of the dot indicated its
+force. Placed high ([Symbol: High Dot]) it had the force of a period.
+Placed in a middle position (.) it had the force of a comma. Placed low
+(.) it had the force of a semicolon. The rule, however, was not
+universally observed. A Latin manuscript of the seventh century has a
+high dot ([Symbol: High Dot]) equivalent to a comma, a semicolon used as
+at present, and a dot accompanied by another dot or a dash to indicate
+the end of a sentence. A Latin manuscript of the ninth century shows the
+comma and an inverted semicolon ([Symbol: Comma above Period]) having a
+value between the semicolon and colon. Mediaeval manuscript pointing,
+therefore, approximates modern forms in places, but lacks
+standardization into recognized systems.
+
+The spread of printing brought new needs into prominence. The early
+printers used the period at the end of the sentence, the colon, and
+sometimes the slanting line (/). A reversed semicolon was used as a
+question mark. Wynkyn de Worde, Caxton's successor in the printing
+business in London, used five points in 1509. They were the period, the
+semicolon, the comma, the "interrogative," and the parenthesis.
+
+The systematization of punctuation is due mainly to the careful and
+scholarly Aldus Manutius, who had opened a printing office in Venice in
+1494. The great printers of the early day were great scholars as well.
+For a very long time the chief concern of the printer was the opening of
+the treasures of ancient thought to the world. They were therefore
+compelled to be the students, critics, and editors of the old
+manuscripts which served them as copy. They naturally took their
+punctuation from the Greek grammarians, but sometimes with changed
+meanings. The semicolon, for instance, is the Greek mark of
+interrogation.
+
+The period took its name from the Greek word [Greek: periodos],
+periodos, meaning a division of a sentence or a thought, as we to-day
+speak of an orator's eloquent periods.
+
+The colon comes from the Greek [Greek: kolon], kolon, meaning a limb.
+
+The comma comes from the Greek [Greek: komma], komma, from [Greek:
+koptein], to cut.
+
+The semicolon, of course, is the half colon.
+
+The question mark was made by writing the first and last letters of the
+Latin word _questio_, a question, vertically, [Symbol: q over o]
+
+The exclamation point was made by writing the letters of the Latin word
+_Io_, joy, vertically, [Symbol: I over o]
+
+The punctuation marks now in use and treated of in this book are as
+follows:
+
+  ,  comma
+  ;  semicolon
+  :  colon
+  .  period
+  ?  interrogation
+  !  exclamation
+( )  parentheses
+[ ]  brackets
+  '  apostrophe
+  -  hyphen
+ --  dash
+" "  quotation marks
+
+Other important marks used by printers, but not, strictly speaking,
+marks of punctuation, are fully discussed in the volume on
+_Abbreviations and Signs_ (No. 37) in this series.
+
+There are two systems of punctuation in use, known respectively as the
+close and open systems. The close, or stiff, system, using points
+wherever they can be used, is of importance in precise composition of
+every sort, such as laws, contracts, legal and ecclesiastical
+statements, and the like. The open, or easy, system, omitting points
+wherever they can be omitted, is used generally in the commoner forms of
+composition. The tendency, sometimes pushed too far, is toward an
+extremely open style of punctuation. The general attitude of writers and
+printers may be summed up by saying that you must justify the use of a
+punctuation mark, particularly a comma, rather than its omission.
+
+But why should the printer bother himself about punctuation at all? Is
+that not the business of the author, the editor, and the proofreader?
+Strictly speaking, yes, but authors generally neglect punctuation, copy
+is not usually carefully edited before going to the compositor, and
+proofreader's corrections are expensive. It is therefore important that
+the compositor should be intelligent about punctuation, whether he works
+in a large or a small office.
+
+The question of how far the printer may go in changing or supplying the
+punctuation of copy will depend largely on circumstances. If the
+condition of the manuscript is such as to show that the author really
+intended to put a fully punctuated, correctly spelled, and properly
+capitalized manuscript into the hands of the printer, he has a right to
+have his wishes respected even if his ideas are not those which prevail
+in the office. In such a case the compositor should follow copy
+literally. If any questions are to be raised they should be discussed by
+the proofreader _with the author_. The same rule holds in the case of
+manuscripts edited before being sent to the composing room. The editor
+has assumed all responsibility for the accuracy of the copy. In a great
+many cases the copy will come in carelessly written and wholly unedited.
+In such cases the compositor should punctuate as he goes along.
+
+This is one of the tasks which subject the compositor to the test of
+intelligence. Printing is not now and never will be a purely mechanical
+trade. A printing office is no place for an apprentice who can not learn
+to think.
+
+This book contains a description of the functions of the punctuation
+marks and the common rules for their use. Rules for the use of
+punctuation marks are very different from rules for the use of purely
+material things. They are useless unless applied intelligently. No set
+of rules could be devised which would work automatically or relieve the
+compositor from the necessity of thinking. Punctuation can never be
+reduced to an exact science.
+
+Certain general directions should be borne in mind by writers and
+printers.
+
+I. Learn by heart the rules for punctuation.
+
+II. Note the peculiarities of the best writers and the best printers,
+especially in contemporary examples.
+
+III. Pay constant attention to punctuation in everything you write.
+
+IV. Punctuate your sentence while you are writing it.
+
+V. Understand what you are printing. _This is of supreme importance._
+Punctuation is an aid to understanding. You cannot correctly punctuate
+anything that you do not understand.
+
+
+
+
+THE COMMA
+
+
+The comma is by far the most difficult of all the punctuation marks to
+use correctly. Usage varies greatly from time to time and among equally
+good writers and printers at the same time. Certain general rules may be
+stated and should be learned. Many cases, however, will arise in which
+the rules will be differently interpreted and differently applied by
+different people.
+
+The comma is the least degree of separation possible of indication in
+print. Its business is to define the particles and minor clauses of a
+sentence. A progressive tendency may be seen in the printing of English
+for centuries toward the elimination of commas, and the substitution of
+the comma for the semicolon and of the semicolon for the colon. Compare
+a page of the King James version of the Bible, especially in one of its
+earlier printings, with a page of serious discourse of to-day and the
+effects of the tendency will be easily seen. It is part of the general
+tendency toward greater simplicity of expression which has developed the
+clear and simple English of the best contemporary writers out of the
+involved and ornate style of the period of Queen Elizabeth. An ornate
+and involved style needs a good deal of punctuation to make it
+intelligible, while a simple and direct style needs but very little
+help.
+
+This progressive change in the need for punctuation and in the attitude
+of writers toward it accounts for the difference in usage and for the
+difficulty in fixing rules to cover all cases. The present attitude
+toward punctuation, especially the use of the comma, is one of aversion.
+The writer is always held to justification of the presence of a comma
+rather than of its absence. Nevertheless it is quite possible to go too
+far in the omission of commas in ordinary writing. It is quite possible
+to construct sentences in such a way as to avoid their use. The result
+is a harsh and awkward style, unwarranted by any necessity. Ordinary
+writing needs some use of commas to indicate the sense and to prevent
+ambiguity.
+
+Always remember that the real business of the comma is just that of
+helping the meaning of the words and of preventing ambiguity by showing
+clearly the separation and connection of words and phrases. If there is
+possibility of misunderstanding without a comma, put one in. If the
+words tell their story beyond possibility of misunderstanding without a
+comma, there is no reason for its use. This rule will serve as a fairly
+dependable guide in the absence of any well recognized rule for a
+particular case, or where doubt exists as to the application of a rule.
+
+Reversed, and usually in pairs, commas mark the beginning of a
+quotation.
+
+In numerical statements the comma separates Arabic figures by triplets
+in classes of hundreds: $5,276,492.72.
+
+In tabular work reversed commas are used as a sign for ditto.
+
+    SCHOOLS TEACHING PRINTING
+
+    Boston:  Boston Typothetae School of Printing.
+      "      Industrial Arts High School.
+    Chicago: Lakeside Press School of Printing.
+      "      Chicago Typothetae School of Printing.
+      "      Lane Technical High School.
+
+The comma is placed between the words which it is intended to separate.
+When used in connection with quotation marks, it is always placed inside
+them.
+
+    "Honesty is the best policy," as the proverb says.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Comma_
+
+1. After each adjective or adverb in a series of two or more when not
+connected by conjunctions.
+
+    He was a tall, thin, dark man.
+
+The rule holds when the last member of the series is preceded by a
+conjunction.
+
+    He was tall, thin, and dark.
+
+The comma may be omitted when the words are combined into a single idea.
+
+    A still hot day.
+    An old black coat.
+
+2. After each pair in a series of pairs of words or phrases not
+connected by conjunctions.
+
+    Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish,
+    I give my hand and my heart to this vote.
+
+    Formerly the master printer, his journeymen, even his apprentices,
+    all lived in the same house.
+
+3. To separate contrasted words.
+
+    We rule by love, not by force.
+
+4. Between two independent clauses connected by a conjunction.
+
+    The press was out of order, but we managed to start it.
+
+5. Before a conjunction when the word which preceded it is qualified by
+an expression which does not qualify the word which follows the
+conjunction.
+
+    He quickly looked up, and spoke.
+
+6. Between relative clauses which explain the antecedent, or which
+introduce a new thought.
+
+    The type, which was badly worn, was not fit for the job.
+
+If the relative clause limits the meaning of the antecedent, but does
+not explain it and does not add a new thought, the comma is not used.
+
+    He did only that which he was told to do.
+
+7. To separate parenthetical or intermediate expressions from the
+context.
+
+    The school, you may be glad to know, is very successful.
+    The books, which I have read, are returned with gratitude.
+    He was pleased, I suppose, with his work.
+
+If the connection of such expressions is so close as to form one
+connected idea the comma is not used.
+
+    The press nearest the south window is out of order.
+
+If the connection of such expressions is remote, parentheses are used.
+
+    The Committee (appointed under vote of April 10, 1909) organized and
+    proceeded with business.
+
+8. To separate the co-ordinate clauses of compound sentences if such
+clauses are simple in construction and closely related.
+
+    He was kind, not indulgent, to his men; firm, but just, in
+    discipline; courteous, but not familiar, to all.
+
+9. To separate quotations, or similar brief expressions from the
+preceding part of the sentence.
+
+    Caesar reported to the Senate, "I came, I saw, I conquered."
+    The question is, What shall we do next?
+
+10. To indicate the omission of the verb in compound sentences having a
+common verb in several clauses.
+
+    One man glories in his strength, another in his wealth, another in
+    his learning.
+
+11. To separate phrases containing the case absolute from the rest of
+the sentence.
+
+    The form having been locked up, a proof was taken.
+
+12. Between words or phrases in apposition to each other.
+
+    I refer to DeVinne, the great authority on Printing.
+
+The comma is omitted when such an apposition is used as a single phrase
+or a compound name.
+
+    The poet Longfellow was born in Portland.
+    The word _patriotic_ is now in extensive use.
+
+13. After phrases and clauses which are placed at the beginning of a
+sentence by inversion.
+
+    Worn out by hard wear, the type at last became unfit for use.
+    Ever since, he has been fond of celery.
+
+The comma is omitted if the phrase thus used is very short.
+
+    Of success there could be no doubt.
+
+14. Introductory phrases beginning with _if_, _when_, _wherever_,
+_whenever_, and the like should generally be separated from the rest of
+the sentence by a comma, even when the statement may appear to be
+direct.
+
+    When a plain query has not been answered, it is best to follow copy.
+    If the copy is hard to read, the compositor will set but few pages.
+
+15. To separate introductory words and phrases and independent adverbs
+from the rest of the sentence.
+
+    Now, what are you going to do there?
+
+    I think, also, Franklin owed much of his success to his strong
+    common sense.
+
+    This idea, however, had already been grasped by others.
+
+Of course the comma is not used when these adverbs are used in the
+ordinary way.
+
+    They also serve who only stand and wait.
+    This must be done, however contrary to our inclinations.
+
+16. To separate words or phrases of direct address from the context.
+
+    I submit, gentlemen, to your judgment.
+    From today, my son, your future is in your own hands.
+
+17. Between the name of a person and his title or degree.
+
+    Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States.
+    Charles W. Eliot, LL.D.
+
+18. Before the word _of_ connecting a proper name with residence or
+position.
+
+    Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts.
+    Elihu B. Root, Senator from New York.
+
+19. After the salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter, when
+informal.
+
+    Dear John,
+
+When the salutation is formal a colon should be used.
+
+    My dear Mr. Smith:
+
+20. To separate the closing salutation of a formal letter from the rest
+of the sentence of which it forms a part.
+
+    Soliciting your continued patronage, I am,
+                     Very sincerely yours,
+                                    John W. Smith.
+
+21. To separate two numbers.
+
+    January 31, 1915.
+    By the end of 1914, 7062 had been built.
+
+22. To indicate an ellipsis.
+
+    Subscription for the course, one dollar.
+
+Exceptions to this rule are made in very brief sentences, especially in
+advertisements: Tickets 25 cents. Price one dollar.
+
+The foregoing rules for the use of the comma have been compiled from
+those given by a considerable number of authorities. Further examination
+of authorities would probably have added to the number and to the
+complexity of these rules. No two sets of rules which have come under
+the writer's observation are alike. Positive disagreements in modern
+treatises on the subject are few. The whole matter, however, turns so
+much on the use made of certain general principles and the field is so
+vast that different writers vary greatly in their statements and even in
+their ideas of what ought to be stated. It is very difficult to strike
+the right mean between a set of rules too fragmentary and too incomplete
+for any real guidance and a set of rules too long to be remembered and
+used.
+
+After all possible has been done to indicate the best usage it remains
+true that the writer or the printer must, in the last resort, depend
+very largely on himself for the proper application of certain
+principles. The compositor may find himself helped, or restricted, by
+the established style of the office, or he may at times be held to
+strict following of copy. When left to himself he must be guided by the
+following general principles:
+
+I. The comma is used to separate for the eye what is separate in
+thought.
+
+The comma is not intended to break the matter up into lengths suited to
+the breath of one reading aloud.
+
+The comma is not an aesthetic device to improve the appearance of the
+line.
+
+II. The sole purpose of the comma is the unfolding of the sense of the
+words.
+
+III. The comma cannot be correctly used without a thorough understanding
+of the sense of the words.
+
+IV. In case of doubt, omit the comma.
+
+
+
+
+THE SEMICOLON
+
+
+The semicolon is used to denote a degree of separation greater than that
+indicated by the comma, but less than that indicated by the colon. It
+prevents the repetition of the comma and keeps apart the more important
+members of the sentence. The semicolon is generally used in long
+sentences, but may sometimes be properly used in short ones.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Semicolon_
+
+1. When the members of a compound sentence are complex or contain
+commas.
+
+    Franklin, like many others, was a printer; but, unlike the others,
+    he was student, statesman, and publicist as well.
+
+    With ten per cent of this flour the bread acquired a slight flavor
+    of rye; fifteen per cent gave it a dark color; a further addition
+    made the baked crumb very hard.
+
+    The meeting was composed of representatives from the following
+    districts: Newton, 4 delegates, 2 substitutes; Dorchester, 6
+    delegates, 3 substitutes; Quincy, 8 delegates, 4 substitutes;
+    Brookline, 10 delegates, 5 substitutes.
+
+2. When the members of a compound sentence contain statements distinct,
+but not sufficiently distinct to be thrown into separate sentences.
+
+    Sit thou a patient looker-on;
+    Judge not the play before the play be done;
+    Her plot has many changes; every day
+    Speaks a new scene. The last act crowns the play.
+
+3. When each of the members of a compound sentence makes a distinct
+statement and has some dependence on statements in the other member or
+members of the sentence.
+
+    Wisdom hath builded her house; she hath hewn out her seven pillars;
+    she hath killed her beasts; she hath mingled her wine; she hath
+    furnished her table.
+
+Each member of this sentence is nearly complete. It is not quite a full
+and definite statement, but it is much more than a mere amplification
+such as we might get by leaving out _she hath_ every time after the
+first. In the former case we should use periods. In the latter we should
+use commas.
+
+4. A comma is ordinarily used between the clauses of a compound sentence
+that are connected by a simple conjunction, but a semicolon may be used
+between clauses connected by conjunctive adverbs. Compare the following
+examples:
+
+    The play was neither edifying nor interesting to him, and he decided
+    to change his plans.
+
+    The play was neither edifying nor interesting to him; therefore he
+    decided to change his plans.
+
+5. To indicate the chapter references in scriptural citations.
+
+    Matt. i: 5, 7, 9; v: 1-10; xiv: 3, 8, 27.
+
+The semicolon should always be put outside quotation marks unless it
+forms a part of the quotation itself.
+
+    "Take care of the cents and the dollars will take care of
+    themselves"; a very wise old saying.
+
+
+
+
+THE COLON
+
+
+The colon marks the place of transition in a long sentence consisting of
+many members and involving a logical turn of the thought. Both the colon
+and semicolon are much less used now than formerly. The present tendency
+is toward short, simple, clear sentences, with consequent little
+punctuation, and that of the open style. Such sentences need little or
+no aid to tell their story.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Colon_
+
+1. Before _as_, _viz._, _that is_, _namely_, etc., when these words
+introduce a series of particular terms in apposition with a general
+term.
+
+    The American flag has three colors: namely, red, white, and blue.
+
+2. Between two members of a sentence when one or both are made up of two
+or more clauses divided by semicolons.
+
+    The Englishman was calm and self-possessed; his antagonist impulsive
+    and self-confident: the Englishman was the product of a volunteer
+    army of professional soldiers; his antagonist was the product of a
+    drafted army of unwilling conscripts.
+
+3. Before particular elements in a definite statement.
+
+    Bad: He asked what caused the accident?
+    Right: He asked, "What caused the accident?"
+
+    Napoleon said to his army at the battle of the Pyramids: "Soldiers,
+    forty centuries are looking down upon you."
+
+    The duties of the superintendent are grouped under three heads:
+    first, etc.
+
+4. Before formal quotations.
+
+    Write a short essay on the following topic: "What is wrong with our
+    industrial system?"
+
+When the formal introduction is brief, a comma may be used.
+
+    St. Paul said, "Bear ye one another's burdens."
+
+5. After the formal salutatory phrase at the opening of a letter.
+
+    My dear Sir:
+
+When the letter is informal use a comma.
+
+    Dear John,
+
+6. Between the chapter and verse in scriptural references.
+
+    John xix: 22.
+
+7. Between the city of publication and the name of the publisher in
+literary references.
+
+    "The Practice of Typography." New York: Oswald Publishing Company.
+
+The colon has been similarly employed in the imprints on the title pages
+of books.
+
+    New York: Harper & Brothers, 1880.
+
+DeVinne remarks upon this use of the colon that it is traditional and
+can not be explained.
+
+The colon is sometimes used between the hours and minutes in indicating
+time, like: 11:42 a.m.
+
+DeVinne does not approve of this, though other authorities give it as
+the rule. It is probably better to use the period in spite of its use as
+a decimal point, which use was probably the motive for seeking something
+else to use in writing time indications. In railroad printing the hour
+is often separated from the minutes by a simple space without any
+punctuation.
+
+
+
+
+THE PERIOD
+
+
+The period, or full stop, marks the end of a declarative sentence. As a
+sign it has several other uses which will appear in the paragraphs
+following.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Period_
+
+1. At the end of every sentence unless interrogative or exclamatory.
+
+2. After abbreviations.
+
+    Nicknames, _Sam_, _Tom_, etc., are not regarded as abbreviations.
+
+    The metric symbols are treated as abbreviations but the chemical
+    symbols are not. M. (metre) and mg. (milligram) but H_{2} O and
+    Na Cl.
+
+    Per cent is not regarded as an abbreviation.
+
+    The names of book sizes (12mo 16mo) are not regarded as
+    abbreviations.
+
+The period is now generally omitted in display matter after
+
+    Running heads,
+    Cut-in side-notes,
+    Central head-lines,
+    Box heads in tables,
+    Signatures at the end of letters.
+
+The period is omitted
+
+    After Roman numerals, even though they have the value of ordinals.
+
+    After MS and similar symbols.
+
+    In technical matter, after the recognized abbreviations for
+    linguistic epochs. IE (Indo-European), MHG (Middle High German)
+
+    and after titles of well-known publications indicated by initials
+    such as AAAPS (Annals of the American Academy of Political Science).
+
+When a parenthesis forms the end of a declarative sentence the period is
+placed outside the parenthesis, as in the preceding example. A period is
+placed inside a parenthesis only in two cases.
+
+1. After an abbreviation.
+
+    This was 50 years ago (i.e. 1860 A.D.)
+
+2. At the end of an independent sentence lying entirely within the
+parenthesis.
+
+    Lincoln was at the height of his powers in 1860 (He was elected to
+    the presidency at this time.)
+
+When a sentence ends with a quotation, the period always goes inside the
+quotation marks.
+
+    I have just read DeVinne's "Practice of Typography."
+
+The same rule applies to the use of the other low marks, comma,
+semicolon, and colon, in connection with quotation marks. Unlike most
+rules of grammar and punctuation, this rule does not rest on a logical
+basis. It rests on purely typographic considerations, as the arrangement
+of points indicated by the rule gives a better looking line than can be
+secured by any other arrangement.
+
+
+_Other Uses of the Period_
+
+1. The period is used as a decimal point.
+
+2. The period is used in groups, separated by spaces, to indicate an
+ellipsis.
+
+    He read as follows: "The gentleman said . . . .
+    he was there and saw . . . . the act in question."
+
+
+
+
+THE DASH
+
+
+The dash is a very useful mark which has been greatly overworked by
+careless writers. It is very easy to make in manuscript and serves as a
+convenient cover for the writer's ignorance of what point should
+properly be used.
+
+The conspicuousness of the dash makes it a very useful mark for guiding
+the eye of the reader to the unity of the sentence. It is particularly
+useful in legal pleadings where there is much repetition of statement
+and great elaboration of detail. In such cases commas, semicolons, and
+even parentheses are so multiplied that the relation of the clauses is
+lost sight of. The confusion thus arising may often be cleared up by
+intelligent use of the dash.
+
+The dash is sometimes used to connect a side heading with the text that
+follows, or to connect the end of that text with the name of the writer.
+
+    A RULE FOR PEACE.--If it be possible, as much as lieth in you, live
+    peaceably with all men.--_St. Paul._
+
+The dash is sometimes used in catalogue work as a ditto mark.
+
+    DE VINNE, THEODORE LOW. Historic Printing Types. New York, 1886.
+    ----The Invention of Printing. Francis Hart & Co., New York, 1878.
+    ----Plain Printing Types. Oswald Publishing Co., New York, 1914.
+
+French printers use the dash in printing dialogue as a partial
+substitute for quotation marks. Quotation marks are placed at the
+beginning and end of the dialogue and a dash precedes each speech. This
+form is used even if the dialogue is extended over many pages.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Dash_
+
+1. To mark abrupt changes in sentiment and in construction.
+
+    Have you ever heard--but how should you hear?
+
+2. To mark pauses and repetitions used for dramatic or rhetorical
+effect.
+
+    They make a desert, and call it--peace.
+    Thou, great Anna, whom three states obey,
+    Who sometimes counsel takes--and sometimes tea.
+
+3. To express in one sentence great contrariety of action or emotion or
+to increase the speed of the discourse by a succession of snappy
+phrases.
+
+    She starts--she moves--she seems to feel
+    The thrill of life along her keel.
+
+In this connection DeVinne gives the following excellent example from
+Sterne:
+
+    Nature instantly ebbed again;--the film returned to its place;--the
+    pulse fluttered,--stopped,--went on,--throbbed,--stopped
+    again,--moved,--stopped,--Shall I go on?--No.
+
+Attention may be called to Sterne's use of the semicolon and the comma
+with the dash, a use now obsolete except in rare cases.
+
+4. To separate the repetition or different amplifications of the same
+statement.
+
+    The infinite importance of what he has to do--the goading conviction
+    that it must be done--the dreadful combination in his mind of both
+    the necessity and the incapacity--the despair of crowding the
+    concerns of an age into a moment--the impossibility of beginning a
+    repentance which should have been completed--of setting about a
+    peace which should have been concluded--of suing for a pardon which
+    should have been obtained--all these complicated concerns
+    intolerably augment the sufferings of the victims.
+
+5. At the end of a series of phrases which depend upon a concluding
+clause.
+
+    Railroads and steamships, factories and warehouses, wealth and
+    luxury--these are not civilization.
+
+6. When a sentence is abruptly terminated.
+
+    If I thought he said it I  would--
+
+7. To precede expressions which are added to an apparently completed
+sentence, but which refer to some previous part of the sentence.
+
+    He wondered what the foreman would say--he had a way of saying the
+    unexpected.
+
+8. To connect extreme dates in time indication.
+
+    The war of 1861--1865. The war of 1861-1865.
+
+9. To define verse references in the Bible or page references in books.
+
+    Matt. v: 1--11.  Matt. v: 1-11.
+    See pp. 50--53.  See pp. 50-53.
+
+NOTE. In instances such as given in the two preceding rules the en dash
+may sometimes serve if the em dash appears too conspicuous.
+
+10. A dash preceded by a colon is sometimes used before a long quotation
+forming a new paragraph. In other cases no point need accompany the
+dash.
+
+The dash is sometimes used as a substitute for commas. Writers on the
+subject say that this use occurs when the connection between the
+parenthetical clause and the context is closer than would be indicated
+by commas. The distinction, if real, is difficult to see. It would be
+better if none but the most experienced writers attempted the use of the
+dash in this way.
+
+Dashes are often used instead of marks of parenthesis. It is better to
+let each mark do its own work.
+
+
+
+
+THE PARENTHESIS
+
+
+The parenthesis, commonly used in pairs, encloses expressions which have
+no essential connection with the rest of the sentence, but are important
+to its full comprehension. It is liable to be neglected by writers
+because the dash is easier to make, and by printers because it is
+generally thought to mar the beauty of the line. Its distinct uses,
+however, should not be neglected.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Parenthesis_
+
+1. To introduce into a sentence matter which is not essentially
+connected with the rest of the sentence, but aids in making it clear.
+
+    Trouble began when the apprentice (who had been strictly forbidden
+    to do so) undertook to do some work on his own account.
+
+    This year (1914) saw the outbreak of a general war.
+
+2. In reports of speeches to enclose the name of a person who has been
+referred to, or to indicate expressions on the part of the audience.
+
+    The honorable gentleman who has just spoken (Mr. Lodge) has no
+    superior on this floor in his knowledge of international law.
+    (Applause.)
+
+3. Parentheses enclosing interrogation points or exclamation points are
+sometimes introduced into a sentence to cast doubt on a statement or to
+express surprise or contempt.
+
+    He said that on the fifth of January (?) he was in New York.
+
+    This most excellent (!) gentleman.
+
+4. Parentheses are used, generally in pairs, sometimes singly, to
+enclose the reference letters or figures used to mark division and
+classification in arguments or in precise statements.
+
+    This is done because: (a) it is clearer; (b) it is shorter.
+
+These signs may be printed in several ways.
+
+    (a) a) (^a) ^a) (1) 1) (^1) ^1)
+
+The old-fashioned form of parenthesis, always made too thin, may need a
+thin space between it and its adjoining character when it is placed too
+close to any letter that nearly fills the body in height, as in
+( Hall ). The space may not be needed when the proximate character has a
+shoulder, as in ( Art), or when the parenthesis follows a period.)
+
+The italic form of parenthesis is objectionable in book work.
+Distinction is sought for the word in italic and not for the parenthesis
+enclosing the word. The italic parenthesis may be used in job-work or
+full display lines of italic letters.
+
+
+
+
+THE BRACKET
+
+
+Brackets are used in pairs, like the parentheses. In Job composition
+either brackets or parentheses may be used, as suits the fancy or is
+convenient. In descriptive text matter, however, brackets should not be
+used where parentheses are clearly indicated.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Bracket_
+
+1. To enclose words or phrases which are entirely independent of the
+rest of the sentence.
+
+The enclosed words are usually comments, queries, corrections,
+criticisms, or directions inserted by some person other than the
+original writer or speaker.
+
+2. To enclose passages of doubtful authenticity in reprints of early
+manuscripts, special amendments to bills under legislative
+consideration, or any other portions of a text which need peculiar
+identification.
+
+3. In legal or ecclesiastical papers to indicate numerical words which
+may have to be changed, or to indicate where details are to be supplied.
+
+    This is the first [_second or third_] publication.
+
+    The officers shall remain in office [_here state the time_] or until
+    their successors are duly qualified.
+
+4. To avoid the confusion caused by a parenthesis within a parenthesis.
+
+5. A single bracket is used to enclose the ending of a long line of
+poetry which will not fit the register and has to be run over into an
+adjoining line.
+
+Doubt whether to use parentheses or brackets can usually be settled by
+this general principle:
+
+Parentheses always enclose remarks apparently made by the writer of the
+text. Brackets enclose remarks certainly made by the editor or reporter
+of that text.
+
+
+
+
+THE INTERROGATION
+
+
+The interrogation is the point that asks questions. It should always be
+placed outside quotation marks unless it is a part of the quotation
+itself.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Interrogation_
+
+1. The interrogation point is used at the end of every direct question.
+
+    Are you there?
+
+Indirect questions, that is, statements that a question has been asked,
+do not require the interrogation.
+
+    He asked me if I was there.
+    He asked the question, Are you there? and received no answer.
+
+2. At the end of each of a series of questions thrown into a single
+sentence.
+
+    Did he speak in an ordinary tone? or shout? or whisper?
+
+3. The interrogation, like a certain inflection in the voice, may
+indicate that a sentence, though declarative in form, is really a
+question and requires an answer.
+
+    You are, of course, familiar with New York?
+
+
+
+
+THE EXCLAMATION
+
+
+The exclamation mark is the mark of strong emotion.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Exclamation_
+
+1. After every expression of great surprise or emotion.
+
+    Look, my lord! it comes!
+    Angels and ministers of grace defend us!
+    Alas! my father.
+
+2. After interjections and other exclamatory words.
+
+    Hurrah! Good! Away! Oh!
+
+Where the exclamations are repeated without particularly emphasizing
+each one, each may be followed by a comma except the last.
+
+    Ha, ha, ha! That's a good joke!
+
+O used as a vocative or to express a desire or imprecation does not call
+for an exclamation.
+
+    O John.
+    Oh, yes.
+    O, that night would come!
+
+The exclamation is sometimes used in job printing to fill out a display
+line or for other inadequate reasons. These uses should be avoided.
+
+
+
+
+THE APOSTROPHE
+
+
+The apostrophe is primarily the sign of the possessive case, but it has
+several other uses.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of the Apostrophe_
+
+1. The apostrophe for the possessive case is added only to nouns, not to
+the pronouns, which have their distinct possessive forms. _Its_ is a
+possessive pronoun. _It's_ is an abbreviation for _it is_. Do not use an
+apostrophe with the possessive adjectives _hers_, _ours_, _yours_,
+_theirs_, _its_.
+
+2. All nouns in the singular and all nouns in the plural except those
+ending in _s_ take an apostrophe and _s_ to form the possessive.
+
+Nouns in the plural ending in _s_ take an apostrophe only to form the
+possessive.
+
+There is much difference of opinion as to the invariability of the rule
+concerning singular nouns in _s_. DeVinne advises following the
+pronunciation. Where the second _s_ is not pronounced, as often happens,
+to avoid the prolonged hissing sound of another _s_, he recommends
+omitting it in print.
+
+    Moses' hat, for Moses's hat.
+    For conscience' sake.
+
+3. The apostrophe indicates the omission of letters in dialect, in
+familiar dialogue, and in poetry.
+
+    That's 'ow 'tis.
+    'Twas ever thus.
+
+When two words are practically made into one syllable, a thin space may
+be put before the apostrophe, except that _don't_, _can't_, _won't_, and
+_shan't_ are consolidated. This use of a space serves to distinguish
+between the possessive in _s_ and the contraction of _is_.
+
+    Where death 's abroad and sorrow 's close behind.
+
+4. Figures expressing dates are often abbreviated, but it is not good
+general practice.
+
+    The boys of '61.
+    It happened in '14.
+
+5. The apostrophe is used to form the plural of letters and figures.
+
+    Cross your t's and dot your i's.
+    Make 3's and 5's more plain.
+
+Except in these cases the apostrophe is not a plural sign and should be
+so used only when it is intended to reproduce a dialect or
+colloquialism.
+
+    Wrong: All the Collins's were there.
+    Right: All the Collinses were there.
+
+The final _ed_ of past tenses and past participles was formerly
+pronounced as a distinct syllable, thus: _clos-ed_, _belov-ed_, and this
+pronunciation continued in common use in poetry long after it was
+discontinued in prose. During this period of transition the modern
+pronunciation was indicated by dropping the _e_ and using an apostrophe,
+thus: _clos'd_, _belov'd_. It is now understood that while the full
+spelling is to be used, the old pronunciation is not to be used unless
+specially indicated by placing a grave accent over the _e_ of the last
+syllable, thus: _beloved_.
+
+At the same period poets, especially, used an apostrophe to indicate a
+silent _e_ as in _ev'ry_, but the usage is now obsolete.
+
+Such abbreviations as _Dep't_, _Gov't_, _Sec'y_, and the like, are
+objectionable in print. If such abbreviations are necessary it is better
+to use the forms _Dept._, _Govt._, _Secy._
+
+
+
+
+THE HYPHEN
+
+
+The hyphen is used to join compound words; to mark the division of a
+word too long to go entirely into one line; to separate the syllables of
+words in order to show pronunciation; as a leader in tabular work. For
+this last purpose the period is to be preferred to any other mark in
+use. Tabular work without leaders is obscure and therefore
+objectionable.
+
+
+
+
+QUOTATION MARKS
+
+
+Quotation marks are signs used to indicate that the writer is giving
+exactly the words of another. A French printer named Morel used a comma
+in the outer margin to indicate a quoted line about 1550. About a
+century later another Frenchman, Menage, introduced a mark ("")
+resembling a double parenthesis but shorter. These marks were cast on
+the middle of the type body so that they could be reversed for use at
+either the beginning or the end of a quotation. The French have retained
+these signs as their quotation marks ever since.
+
+When the English adopted the use of quotation marks, they did not take
+over the French marks, but substituted two inverted commas at the
+beginning and two apostrophes at the end of the quoted paragraph. These
+marks are typographically unsatisfactory. They are weak and therefore
+hardly adequate to their purpose in aiding the understanding through the
+eye. Being cast on the upper part of the type body, they leave a blank
+space below and thus impair the beauty of the line and interfere with
+good spacing. Certain rules for the position of quotation marks when
+used with other marks are based upon these typographical considerations
+rather than upon logical considerations.
+
+
+_Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks_
+
+1. Every direct quotation should be enclosed in double quotation marks.
+
+    "I will go," said he, "if I can."
+
+Reports of what another person has said when given in words other than
+his own are called indirect quotations and take no marks.
+
+    He said he would go if he could.
+
+2. A quotation of several paragraphs requires quotation marks at the
+beginning of each paragraph, but at the end of the last one only. In
+legal documents, and sometimes elsewhere, quotations are defined and
+emphasized by putting double commas at the beginning of every line of
+the quotation.
+
+The same result may be better obtained by using smaller type, or
+indenting the quotation, or both.
+
+3. A quotation included within another quotation should be enclosed by
+single quotation marks.
+
+    He said: "I heard him cry 'Put down that gun,' and then I heard a
+    shot."
+
+4. Titles of books, essays, art works, etc., are usually enclosed in
+quotation marks. When the books are supposedly familiar to all readers,
+the marks are not used. You would not print "The Bible," "Paradise
+Lost," "The Iliad."
+
+The titles of books, etc., are sometimes printed in italics instead of
+being enclosed in quotation marks. This is a matter of office style
+rather than of good or bad practice.
+
+5. In writing about plays or books, the name of the work may be quoted
+and the name of a character italicized. This is done to avoid confusion
+between the play, the character, and the real person portrayed. "William
+Tell" is a play. _William Tell_ is a character in fiction. William Tell
+is a national hero of Switzerland.
+
+This usage is by no means uniform; here again, we are on the ground of
+office style.
+
+6. Names of vessels are sometimes quoted, sometimes italicized, and
+sometimes printed without distinguishing marks. Here we are once more on
+the ground of office style.
+
+7. Sentences from a foreign language are usually enclosed in quotation
+marks. Single words or phrases are usually printed in italics. Both
+italics and quotation marks should not be used except under certain
+unusual conditions or when positively ordered by the author.
+
+8. Quotation marks may be used with a word to which the writer desires
+to attract particular attention or to which he desires to give an
+unusual, technical, or ironical meaning.
+
+    This "gentleman" needs a shave.
+
+9. When a quotation is long or when it is introduced in a formal manner,
+it is usually preceded by a colon. Isolated words or phrases call for no
+point after the introductory clause. This is true when the phrases so
+quoted run to considerable length, provided there is no break in the
+flow of thought and expression.
+
+10. When a quotation ends a sentence the quotation marks are placed
+after the period.
+
+The comma is always placed inside the quotation marks.
+
+The position of the other marks (semicolon, colon, exclamation, and
+interrogation) is determined by the sense. If they form a part of the
+matter quoted, they go inside the quote marks; if not, they go outside
+them.
+
+11. When quotation marks occur at the beginning of a line of poetry,
+they should go back into the indention space.
+
+    "Breathes there a man with soul so dead
+     Who never to himself hath said,
+      'This is my own, my native land'?"
+
+This illustration is also a good example of the use of marks in
+combinations. We have first the single quotation marking the end of the
+included quotation, then the interrogation which ends the sentence, then
+the double quotation marks in their proper position.
+
+Quotation marks should not be used needlessly. Very familiar expressions
+from the best known authors, such as _to the manor born_, _a conscience
+void of offence_, _with malice toward none and charity for all_, have
+become part of the current coin of speech and need not be quoted. Lists
+of words considered as words merely, lists of books or plays, and other
+such copy should be printed without quotation marks. Sprinkling a page
+thickly with quotation marks not only spoils its appearance but makes it
+hard to read, without adding to its clearness of meaning.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL REMARKS
+
+
+Book titles are now set without points. This fashion was introduced by
+Pickering of London about 1850. This method is generally to the
+advantage of the title page thus treated. It is possible, however, to
+carry it too far and so to obscure the sense. Commas should not be
+omitted from firm names, such as Longmans, Green & Co., as in case of
+such omission there is no way of knowing whether one or more persons are
+indicated. Punctuation should not be omitted from the titles which may
+accompany an author's name, nor from the date if day and month are given
+as well as year.
+
+Avoid the doubling of points wherever possible. When an abbreviation
+precedes a colon, omit the period. When an abbreviation precedes a
+comma, the period is often inserted, but in many cases one or the other
+can be dropped to advantage. The dash is not generally preceded by a
+comma, semicolon, or colon in current printing usage. A comma should
+rarely go before the first parenthesis. If used at all with the
+parentheses, it should follow the closing parenthesis. When a complete
+sentence is enclosed in parentheses, the period falls within the
+parentheses. When the enclosure is a brief passage at the end of a
+sentence, the period falls outside the parentheses.
+
+Do not put a period before the apostrophe and the possessive _s_ as in
+_Co.'s_. The word _Company_ may be abbreviated to _Co._ although it is
+not desirable to do so if it can be avoided. The possessive of _Co._ is
+_Co's_.
+
+
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+1. A comma separates clauses, phrases, and particles.
+
+2. A semicolon separates different statements.
+
+3. A colon is the transition point of the sentence.
+
+4. A period marks the end of a sentence.
+
+5. A dash marks abruptness or irregularity.
+
+6. Parentheses enclose interpolations in the sentence.
+
+7. Brackets enclose irregularities in the sentence.
+
+8. An interrogation asks a question for an answer.
+
+9. An exclamation marks surprise.
+
+10. An apostrophe marks elisions and the possessive case.
+
+11. Quotation marks define quoted words.
+
+
+
+
+SUPPLEMENTARY READING
+
+
+Correct Composition. By DeVinne. Oswald Publishing Company, New York.
+
+The Writer's Desk Book. By William Dana Orcutt. Frederick A. Stokes
+Company, New York.
+
+A Manual for Writers. By Manly and Powell. The University of Chicago
+Press, Chicago.
+
+Composition and Rhetoric. By Lockwood and Emerson. Ginn & Co., Boston.
+
+The Art of Writing and Speaking the English Language. By Sherwin Cody.
+The Old Greek Press, Chicago.
+
+Handbook of Composition. By Edwin D. Woolley. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston.
+
+English Composition, Book One, Enlarged. By Stratton D. Brooks. Ginn &
+Co., Boston.
+
+
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS
+
+
+SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS
+
+The following questions, based on the contents of this pamphlet, are
+intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as an aid
+to the student in putting the information contained into definite
+statements without actually memorizing the text, (3) as a means of
+securing from the student a reproduction of the information in his own
+words.
+
+A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full
+acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental
+omission of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed that
+nothing should be omitted.
+
+In teaching from these books it is very important that these questions
+and such others as may occur to the teacher should be made the basis of
+frequent written work, and of final examinations.
+
+The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not only assures
+knowledge of material, but the power to express that knowledge correctly
+and in good form.
+
+If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed form it
+will be doubly useful.
+
+
+QUESTIONS
+
+1. What is punctuation?
+
+2. How were ancient manuscripts written?
+
+3. What were the first punctuation marks, and how were they used?
+
+4. What can you tell about punctuation marks in the manuscript period?
+
+5. What can you tell about the punctuation of the early printers?
+
+6. Who may be said to have systematized punctuation?
+
+7. Give the names of the principal punctuation marks and the meaning of
+the names.
+
+8. Give a list of the punctuation marks now in use and show how they are
+made.
+
+9. Name and describe the two systems of punctuation.
+
+10. What is the tendency in the use of punctuation?
+
+11. Why is it necessary for a compositor to understand punctuation?
+
+12. When should the compositor follow copy and when not?
+
+13. What five general directions should always be remembered?
+
+14. What is the comma used for?
+
+15. What is the tendency in the use of commas?
+
+16. What are reversed commas used for?
+
+17. How are commas used with numerals?
+
+18. How are commas used in table work?
+
+19. How are commas placed in relation to the words whose meaning they
+help?
+
+20. Give the rules for the use of the comma.
+
+21. What are the four general principles for the use of the comma?
+
+22. What is the semicolon used for?
+
+23. Give the rules for the use of the semicolon.
+
+24. What is the colon used for?
+
+25. Give the rules for the use of the colon.
+
+26. What is the period used for?
+
+27. Where are periods used?
+
+28. Where are periods omitted?
+
+29. How do we use the period in connection with parentheses?
+
+30. How do we use the period in connection with quotation marks?
+
+31. What is the reason for this rule?
+
+32. What other uses has the period?
+
+33. What is the dash used for?
+
+34. What special use of the dash is found in French books?
+
+35. Give the rules for the use of the dash.
+
+36. Are other punctuation marks used with the dash?
+
+37. What is the parenthesis used for?
+
+38. Give the rules for the use of the parenthesis.
+
+39. When would you use letter spacing with the parenthesis, and why?
+
+40. What use is made of the italic parenthesis?
+
+41. Give the rules for the use of the brackets.
+
+42. What is the distinction in use between the bracket and the
+parenthesis?
+
+43. What is the interrogation point used for?
+
+44. Give the rules for the use of the interrogation.
+
+45. What is the exclamation point used for?
+
+46. Give the rules for the use of the exclamation.
+
+47. What is the apostrophe used for?
+
+48. Give the rules for the use of the apostrophe.
+
+49. What is the use of the apostrophe in past participles?
+
+50. What is said of the use of the apostrophe in such abbreviations as
+_Dep't_?
+
+51. What is the hyphen used for?
+
+52. What are quotation marks used for?
+
+53. Give the rules for the use of quotation marks.
+
+54. When are quotation marks omitted?
+
+55. How are book titles now punctuated?
+
+56. Should punctuation marks be doubled?
+
+57. How is the comma used with parentheses?
+
+58. How would you punctuate the possessive of an abbreviation, for
+example, _the Doctor's house_, using the abbreviation _Dr._?
+
+59. Give a brief summarized statement of the use of the twelve
+punctuation marks.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY
+
+
+ABSOLUTE--Free from the usual grammatical relations.
+
+ANTECEDENT--That to which a relative pronoun or a relative clause
+refers.
+
+APPOSITION--When the meaning of a noun or pronoun is made clear or
+emphatic by the use of another noun or pronoun, the two are said to be
+in apposition.
+
+CLAUSE--A group of words consisting of a subject and predicate with
+their modifiers and forming a part of a sentence; a sentence within a
+sentence.
+
+COMPOUND SENTENCE--A sentence consisting of several clauses.
+
+COOeRDINATE CLAUSES--Clauses of equal rank.
+
+DECLARATIVE SENTENCE--A sentence which states a fact.
+
+EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE--A sentence which utters an exclamation.
+
+INDEPENDENT ADVERBS--Adverbs not in grammatical relations with other
+words in the sentence.
+
+INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE--A sentence which asks a question.
+
+MINOR CLAUSES--Clauses other than the principal clause or main statement
+of a sentence.
+
+PARENTHETICAL--Incidental; not an essential part of a sentence or
+statement.
+
+PARTICLE--One of the minor parts of speech not inflected, that is, not
+undergoing changes in form.
+
+PHRASE--An expression consisting usually of but a few words, denoting a
+single idea, or forming a separate part of a sentence.
+
+RELATIVE CLAUSE--A clause joined to the rest of the sentence by a
+relative pronoun.
+
+SALUTATION--A form of greeting, especially at the beginning or end of a
+letter.
+
+SALUTATORY PHRASE--The words forming a salutation, or greeting.
+
+
+
+
+TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES
+
+
+The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL
+SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the supervision of the
+Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in trade
+classes, in course of printing instruction, and by individuals.
+
+Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of
+authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the printers of
+the United States--employers, journeymen, and apprentices--with a
+comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable,
+up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the
+printing craft, all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study.
+
+The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5x8 inches. Their
+general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far as
+practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the particular
+contents and other chief features of each volume will be found under each
+title in the following list.
+
+Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in each
+publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary information and
+essential facts necessary to an understanding of the subject. Care has been
+taken to make all statements accurate and clear, with the purpose of
+bringing essential information within the understanding of beginners in the
+different fields of study. Wherever practicable, simple and well-defined
+drawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving additional
+clearness to the text.
+
+In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use in
+trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is accompanied by
+a list of Review Questions covering essential items of the subject matter.
+A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the subject or department
+treated is also added to many of the books.
+
+These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America.
+
+Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED
+TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A.
+
+
+PART I--_Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials_
+
+=1.= =Type: a Primer of Information=                  By A. A. Stewart
+
+     Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes,
+     font schemes, etc., with a brief description of their manufacture.
+     44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary.
+
+=2.= =Compositors' Tools and Materials=               By A. A. Stewart
+
+     A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads,
+     brass rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.;
+     illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary.
+
+=3.= =Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture=           By A. A. Stewart
+
+     A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets,
+     case racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.;
+     illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary.
+
+=4.= =Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances=         By A. A. Stewart
+
+     Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the
+     press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. 59
+     pp.; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary.
+
+=5.= =Proof Presses=                                  By A. A. Stewart
+
+     A primer of information about the customary methods and machines
+     for taking printers' proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+=6.= =Platen Printing Presses=                         By Daniel Baker
+
+     A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical
+     construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand
+     press to the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on
+     automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+=7.= =Cylinder Printing Presses=                   By Herbert L. Baker
+
+     Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types
+     of cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+=8.= =Mechanical Feeders and Folders=           By William E. Spurrier
+
+     The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines;
+     with hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+=9.= =Power for Machinery in Printing Houses=         By Carl F. Scott
+
+     A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and
+     allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive. 53
+     pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary.
+
+=10.= =Paper Cutting Machines=                       By Niel Gray, Jr.
+
+     A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever
+     cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting
+     paper, 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary.
+
+=11.= =Printers' Rollers=                             By A. A. Stewart
+
+     A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and
+     care of inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions;
+     glossary.
+
+=12.= =Printing Inks=                                 By Philip Ruxton
+
+     Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by
+     permission from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of
+     Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the
+     everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+=13.= =How Paper is Made=                  By William Bond Wheelwright
+
+     A primer of information about the materials and processes of
+     manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated;
+     62 review questions; glossary.
+
+=14.= =Relief Engravings=                         By Joseph P. Donovan
+
+     Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of
+     engraving; woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for
+     reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings.
+     Illustrated; review questions; glossary.
+
+=15.= =Electrotyping and Sterotyping=
+                                  By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. Stewart
+
+     A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and
+     stereotyping. 94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions;
+     glossaries.
+
+
+PART II--_Hand and Machine Composition_
+
+=16.= =Typesetting=                                   By A. A. Stewart
+
+     A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying,
+     spacing, correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting.
+     Illustrated; review questions; glossary.
+
+=17.= =Printers' Proofs=                              By A. A. Stewart
+
+     The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with
+     observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions;
+     glossary.
+
+=18.= =First Steps in Job Composition=               By Camille DeVeze
+
+     Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first
+     jobs, especially about the important little things which go to make
+     good display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review questions;
+     glossary.
+
+=19.= =General Job Composition=
+
+     How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and
+     miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.
+
+=20.= =Book Composition=                             By J. W. Bothwell
+
+     Chapters from DeVinne's "Modern Methods of Book Composition,"
+     revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J. W. Bothwell
+     of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of pages. Part
+     II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+=21.= =Tabular Composition=                           By Robert Seaver
+
+     A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples
+     of more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review
+     questions.
+
+=22.= =Applied Arithmetic=                            By E. E. Sheldon
+
+     Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade,
+     calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard
+     tables and rules for computation, each subject amplified with
+     examples and exercises. 159 pp.
+
+=23.= =Typecasting and Composing Machines=        A. W. Finlay, Editor
+
+     Section I--The Linotype                        By L. A. Hornstein
+     Section II--The Monotype                           By Joseph Hays
+     Section III--The Intertype                    By Henry W. Cozzens
+     Section IV--Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines
+                                                     By Frank H. Smith
+
+     A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their
+     mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+
+PART III--_Imposition and Stonework_
+
+=24.= =Locking Forms for the Job Press=              By Frank S. Henry
+
+     Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and
+     about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review questions;
+     glossary.
+
+=25.= =Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press=       By Frank S. Henry
+
+     Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods
+     of handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+
+PART IV--_Presswork_
+
+=26.= =Making Ready on Platen Presses=                 By T. G. McGrew
+
+     The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive
+     features of commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan,
+     regulating the impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting
+     gauges, and other details explained. Illustrated; review questions;
+     glossary.
+
+=27.= =Cylinder Presswork=                             By T. G. McGrew
+
+     Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers,
+     ink fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and
+     overlaying; modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions;
+     glossary.
+
+=28.= =Pressroom Hints and Helps=                 By Charles L. Dunton
+
+     Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with
+     directions and useful information relating to a variety of
+     printing-press problems. 87 pp.; 176 review questions.
+
+=29.= =Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts=      By A. W. Elson
+
+     A primer of information about the distinctive features of the
+     relief, the intaglio, and the planographic processes of printing.
+     84 pp.; illustrated; 100 review questions; glossary.
+
+
+PART V--_Pamphlet and Book Binding_
+
+=30.= =Pamphlet Binding=                        By Bancroft L. Goodwin
+
+     A primer of information about the various operations employed in
+     binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated;
+     review questions; glossary.
+
+=31.= =Book Binding=                                 By John J. Pleger
+
+     Practical information about the usual operations in binding books;
+     folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case
+     making and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and
+     blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.
+
+
+PART VI--_Correct Literary Composition_
+
+=32.= =Word Study and English Grammar=               By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A primer of information about words, their relations, and their
+     uses. 68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary.
+
+=33.= =Punctuation=                                  By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their
+     use, both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+=34.= =Capitals=                                     By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical
+     typographic hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review
+     questions; glossary.
+
+=35.= =Division of Words=                            By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks
+     on spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review
+     questions.
+
+=36.= =Compound Words=                               By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A study of the principles of compounding, the components of
+     compounds, and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions.
+
+=37.= =Abbreviations and Signs=                      By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with
+     classified lists of those in most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review
+     questions.
+
+=38.= =The Uses of Italic=                           By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A primer of information about the history and uses of italic
+     letters. 31 pp.; 37 review questions.
+
+=39.= =Proofreading=                                 By Arnold Levitas
+
+     The technical phases of the proofreader's work; reading, marking,
+     revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by
+     examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary.
+
+=40.= =Preparation of Printers' Copy=                By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in
+     preparing copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review questions.
+
+=41.= =Printers' Manual of Style=
+
+     A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions
+     relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization,
+     abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of composition.
+
+=42.= =The Printer's Dictionary=                      By A. A. Stewart
+
+     A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about
+     various processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical
+     terms explained. Illustrated.
+
+
+PART VII--_Design, Color, and Lettering_
+
+=43.= =Applied Design for Printers=                   By Harry L. Gage
+
+     A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on
+     the periods of design which have most influenced printing. Treats
+     of harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and
+     variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46
+     review questions; glossary; bibliography.
+
+=44.= =Elements of Typographic Design=                By Harry L. Gage
+
+     Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building
+     material of typography paper, types, ink, decorations and
+     illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete book,
+     treating each part. Design of commercial forms and single units.
+     Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography.
+
+=45.= =Rudiments of Color in Printing=                By Harry L. Gage
+
+     Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster
+     effect, in combinations of two, three, or more printings with
+     process engravings. Scientific nature of color, physical and
+     chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value,
+     intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. Color theory
+     of process engraving. Experiments with color. Illustrations in full
+     color, and on various papers. Review questions; glossary;
+     bibliography.
+
+=46.= =Lettering in Typography=                       By Harry L. Gage
+
+     Printer's use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect.
+     Development of historic writing and lettering and its influence on
+     type design. Classification of general forms in lettering.
+     Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully
+     illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography.
+
+=47.= =Typographic Design in Advertising=             By Harry L. Gage
+
+     The printer's function in advertising. Precepts upon which
+     advertising is based. Printer's analysis of his copy. Emphasis,
+     legibility, attention, color. Method of studying advertising
+     typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary;
+     bibliography.
+
+=48.= =Making Dummies and Layouts=                    By Harry L. Gage
+
+     A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a
+     proposed final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of layout.
+     Function of layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. Dummy
+     envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography.
+
+
+PART VIII--_History of Printing_
+
+=49.= =Books Before Typography=                      By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the
+     history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp.;
+     illustrated; 64 review questions.
+
+=50.= =The Invention of Typography=                  By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about.
+     64 pp.; 62 review questions.
+
+=51.= =History of Printing--Part I=                  By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the
+     development of the book, the development of printers' materials,
+     and the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions.
+
+=52.= =History of Printing--Part II=                 By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry
+     from 1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship,
+     internal conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review
+     questions.
+
+=53.= =Printing in England=                          By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present
+     time. 89 pp.; 65 review questions.
+
+=54.= =Printing in America=                          By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes
+     on publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.;
+     84 review questions.
+
+=55.= =Type and Presses in America=                  By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and
+     press building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions.
+
+
+PART IX--_Cost Finding and Accounting_
+
+=56.= =Elements of Cost in Printing=                By Henry P. Porter
+
+     The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should
+     show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions.
+     Glossary.
+
+=57.= =Use of a Cost System=                        By Henry P. Porter
+
+     The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should
+     show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions.
+     Glossary.
+
+=58.= =The Printer as a Merchant=                   By Henry P. Porter
+
+     The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing.
+     The relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of
+     the finished product. Review questions. Glossary.
+
+=59.= =Fundamental Principles of Estimating=        By Henry P. Porter
+
+     The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for
+     estimating. Review questions. Glossary.
+
+=60.= =Estimating and Selling=                      By Henry P. Porter
+
+     An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their
+     relation to selling. Review questions. Glossary.
+
+=61.= =Accounting for Printers=                     By Henry P. Porter
+
+     A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary
+     books and accessory records. Review questions. Glossary.
+
+
+PART X--_Miscellaneous_
+
+=62.= =Health, Sanitation, and Safety=              By Henry P. Porter
+
+     Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new;
+     practical suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and
+     rules for safety.
+
+=63.= =Topical Index=                                By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic
+     Technical Series, alphabetically arranged.
+
+=64.= =Courses of Study=                             By F. W. Hamilton
+
+     A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for
+     classroom and shop work.
+
+
+
+
+ACKNOWLEDGMENT
+
+
+This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendid
+co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the
+printing business and its allied industries in the United States of
+America.
+
+The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America, under whose
+auspices the books have been prepared and published, acknowledges its
+indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by the many authors,
+printers, and others identified with this work.
+
+While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of those
+contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless felt that a group
+list of co-operating firms would be of interest.
+
+The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who have
+co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, constituting the
+first printing. As soon as the entire list of books comprising the
+Typographic Technical Series has been completed (which the Committee hopes
+will be at an early date), the full list will be printed in each volume.
+
+The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many
+subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its publication.
+
+COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION,
+UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA.
+
+  HENRY P. PORTER, _Chairman_,
+  E. LAWRENCE FELL,
+  A. M. GLOSSBRENNER,
+  J. CLYDE OSWALD,
+  TOBY RUBOVITS.
+
+FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, _Education Director_.
+
+
+
+
+CONTRIBUTORS
+
+
+=For Composition and Electrotypes=
+
+ISAAC H. BLANCHARD COMPANY, New York, N. Y.
+S. H. BURBANK & CO., Philadelphia, Pa.
+J. S. CUSHING & CO., Norwood, Mass.
+THE DEVINNE PRESS, New York, N. Y.
+R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO., Chicago, Ill.
+GEO. H. ELLIS CO., Boston, Mass.
+EVANS-WINTER-HEBB, Detroit, Mich.
+FRANKLIN PRINTING COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa.
+F. H. GILSON COMPANY, Boston, Mass.
+STEPHEN GREENE & CO., Philadelphia, Pa.
+W. F. HALL PRINTING CO., Chicago, Ill.
+J. B. LIPPINCOTT CO., Philadelphia, Pa.
+MCCALLA & CO. INC., Philadelphia, Pa.
+THE PATTESON PRESS, New York, New York
+THE PLIMPTON PRESS, Norwood, Mass.
+POOLE BROS., Chicago, Ill.
+EDWARD STERN & CO., Philadelphia, Pa.
+THE STONE PRINTING & MFG. CO., Roanoke, Va.
+C. D. TRAPHAGEN, Lincoln, Neb.
+THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Cambridge, Mass.
+
+=For Composition=
+
+BOSTON TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING, Boston, Mass.
+WILLIAM F. FELL CO., Philadelphia, Pa.
+THE KALKHOFF COMPANY, New York, N. Y.
+OXFORD-PRINT, Boston, Mass.
+TOBY RUBOVITS, Chicago, Ill.
+
+=For Electrotypes=
+
+BLOMGREN BROTHERS CO., Chicago, Ill.
+FLOWER STEEL ELECTROTYPING CO., New York, N. Y.
+C. J. PETERS & SON CO., Boston, Mass.
+ROYAL ELECTROTYPE CO., Philadelphia, Pa.
+H. C. WHITCOMB & CO., Boston, Mass.
+
+=For Engravings=
+
+AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS CO., Boston, Mass.
+C. B. COTTRELL & SONS CO., Westerly, R. I.
+GOLDING MANUFACTURING CO., Franklin, Mass.
+HARVARD UNIVERSITY, Cambridge, Mass.
+INLAND PRINTER CO., Chicago, Ill.
+LANSTON MONOTYPE MACHINE COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa.
+MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE COMPANY, New York, N. Y.
+GEO. H. MORRILL CO., Norwood, Mass.
+OSWALD PUBLISHING CO., New York, N. Y.
+THE PRINTING ART, Cambridge, Mass.
+B. D. RISING PAPER COMPANY, Housatonic, Mass.
+THE VANDERCOOK PRESS, Chicago, Ill.
+
+=For Book Paper=
+
+AMERICAN WRITING PAPER CO., Holyoke, Mass.
+WEST VIRGINIA PULP & PAPER CO., Mechanicville, N. Y.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Punctuation, by Frederick W. Hamilton
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUNCTUATION ***
+
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