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diff --git a/20787.txt b/20787.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1e7d40e --- /dev/null +++ b/20787.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2689 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Punctuation, by Frederick W. Hamilton + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Punctuation + A Primer of Information about the Marks of Punctuation and + their Use Both Grammatically and Typographically + +Author: Frederick W. Hamilton + +Release Date: March 9, 2007 [EBook #20787] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUNCTUATION *** + + + + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Sigal Alon and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + +1. Italicized text is rendered as _text_, bold text is rendered as +=text=. + +2. Superscripted characters are preceeded by ^ (carat). + +3. Subscripted characters are surrounded by curly braces ({}) and +preceeded by _ (underline character). + + + + +TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES--PART VI, NO. 33 + + +PUNCTUATION + + +A PRIMER _of_ INFORMATION ABOUT +THE MARKS OF PUNCTUATION AND +THEIR USE BOTH GRAMMATICALLY +AND TYPOGRAPHICALLY + + +BY + +FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL. D. + +EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR +UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA + + + + +PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION +UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA +1920 + + + + +COPYRIGHT, 1920 +UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA +CHICAGO, ILL. + + + + +PREFACE + + +This book, like the others in this Part, makes no pretense at +originality. The author has studied and compared a considerable number +of works by the best authorities on the subject and has endeavored to +adapt the best of their contents to the use of printers' apprentices. +Every author has his own set of rules. At first sight, each set appears +inconsistent with those given by other writers. This inconsistency, +however, is generally more apparent than real. It arises from +differences in point of view, method of approach, and system of +classification. + +An attempt has been made to compile from these sources a set of rules +which would bring before the pupil a correct and comprehensive view of +the best current usage, well illustrated by examples and accompanied by +practical typographical hints. The fact has been kept steadily in mind +that this book is intended for a certain definite class of pupils and no +pains have been spared to fit it to their needs. + +Any treatise consisting, as this one necessarily does, mainly of rules +is practically useful only as a basis for constant and persistent drill. +It is, of course, valuable for reference, but the emergencies of the +day's work leave no time for consultation. These rules must be learned, +and not only learned but assimilated so that their correct application +becomes instinctive and instantaneous. This result can be secured only +by practice. Hence the emphasis laid on the exercises indicated in the +paragraphs introductory to the review questions. + + + + +CONTENTS + + PAGE +INTRODUCTION 1 + +THE COMMA 7 + +THE SEMICOLON 14 + +THE COLON 16 + +THE PERIOD 18 + +THE DASH 20 + +THE PARENTHESIS 23 + +THE BRACKET 25 + +THE INTERROGATION 26 + +THE EXCLAMATION 27 + +THE APOSTROPHE 28 + +THE HYPHEN 30 + +QUOTATION MARKS 31 + +GENERAL REMARKS 34 + +SUMMARY 35 + +SUPPLEMENTARY READING 36 + +REVIEW QUESTIONS 37 + +GLOSSARY OF TERMS 40 + + + + +PUNCTUATION + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +Punctuation is a device by which we aid words to tell their story. Words +have done this at times without such aid, and may now do so, but at +constant risk of serious misunderstanding. This can be easily seen by +reading the following lines printed as they would have been written in +an ancient manuscript. + + WETHEPEOPLEOFTHEUNITEDSTATES + INORDERTOFORMAMOREPERFECT + UNIONESTABLISHJUSTICEINSUREDO + MESTICTRANQUILITYPROVIDEFOR + THECOMMONDEFENCEPROMOTETHE + GENERALWELFAREANDSECURETHE + BLESSINGSOFLIBERTYTOOURSELVES + ANDOURPOSTERITYDOORDAINAND + ESTABLISHTHISCONSTITUTIONFOR + THEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA + +Probably this particular passage could be read without danger of serious +misunderstanding. The two well-known passages which follow, however, are +cases where either a simple statement may become a ridiculous travesty +or a serious arraignment may become a eulogy by punctuation. + +Punctuate the following so as to express two very different meanings: + + Lord Palmerston then entered on his head a white hat upon his feet + large but well polished boots upon his brow a dark cloud in his hand + a faithful walking stick in his eye a menacing glare saying nothing. + +Punctuate the following in two ways: one to represent a very bad man, +and the other a very good man: + + He is an old man and experienced in vice and wickedness he is never + found in opposing the works of iniquity he takes delight in the + downfall of his neighbors he never rejoices in the prosperity of his + fellow-creatures he is always ready to assist in destroying the + peace of society he takes no pleasure in serving the Lord he is + uncommonly diligent in sowing discord among his friends and + acquaintances he takes no pride in laboring to promote the cause of + Christianity he has not been negligent in endeavoring to stigmatize + all public teachers he makes no effort to subdue his evil passions + he strives hard to build up satans kingdom he lends no aid to the + support of the gospel among the heathen he contributes largely to + the devil he will never go to heaven he must go where he will + receive the just recompense of reward. + +Punctuation being intended for the sole purpose of making the text +intelligible and removing as many of the causes of possible +misunderstanding as may be, must depend in the last resort on a correct +understanding of the text. This understanding may be obtained from the +text itself, from the context, that is, the writing as a whole, or from +outside knowledge about the matter under consideration. + + The prisoner said the witness was a sneak thief. + The prisoner, said the witness, was a sneak thief. + +The meaning of this sentence depends entirely on the presence or absence +of the two commas. + +Manuscript comes in to the printer hastily written by the customer, +author, or a reporter, or ticked over the telegraph wire, and there is +little or no punctuation. Probably the context will supply the needed +information and the line may be set up correctly. If there is no way of +finding out what the sentence means, follow copy. Insert no punctuation +marks which you are not sure are needed. + +Punctuation as we know it is of recent invention. The practice of the +art of printing brought the necessity for a defined and systematized use +of the points which had, most of them, long been in existence, but which +had been used largely according to the personal preferences of the +scribes or copyists. With the coming of the new methods of book +reproduction came the recognized need for standardization and +systematization. + +The most ancient inscriptions and manuscripts are merely strings of +letters, without spacing between words or sentences and without any +points of any sort, like the example on page 1. + +The first mark to be used was the dot, or period. Its original purpose +was simply to furnish a resting place for the eye and the mind and so +help a little in the grouping of the letters into words, clauses, and +sentences, which the mind had hitherto been compelled to do unaided. It +was used at the end of a sentence, at the end of a clause, to indicate +abbreviations, to separate crowded words, especially where the sense was +ambiguous (ANICEMAN might be either AN ICE MAN or A NICE MAN), or even +as an aesthetic ornament between the letters of an inscription. In early +manuscripts the period is usually placed high ([Symbol: High Dot]) +instead of low (.). + +Sometimes a slanting mark (/) or a double dot (: or ..) was used to +indicate the end of an important section of the writing or even of a +sentence. + +After a time spaces were introduced to show the grouping of the letters +and the words. At first the sentences were separated by spaces, then the +long words, and finally all words. In some languages, as in Italian, +there are still combinations of long and short words, such as the +combination of the pronoun with the verb, as in _datemi_, give me. + +During the manuscript period different schools of copyists and even +different individuals used different marks and different systems of +pointing. For a considerable time the location of the dot indicated its +force. Placed high ([Symbol: High Dot]) it had the force of a period. +Placed in a middle position (.) it had the force of a comma. Placed low +(.) it had the force of a semicolon. The rule, however, was not +universally observed. A Latin manuscript of the seventh century has a +high dot ([Symbol: High Dot]) equivalent to a comma, a semicolon used as +at present, and a dot accompanied by another dot or a dash to indicate +the end of a sentence. A Latin manuscript of the ninth century shows the +comma and an inverted semicolon ([Symbol: Comma above Period]) having a +value between the semicolon and colon. Mediaeval manuscript pointing, +therefore, approximates modern forms in places, but lacks +standardization into recognized systems. + +The spread of printing brought new needs into prominence. The early +printers used the period at the end of the sentence, the colon, and +sometimes the slanting line (/). A reversed semicolon was used as a +question mark. Wynkyn de Worde, Caxton's successor in the printing +business in London, used five points in 1509. They were the period, the +semicolon, the comma, the "interrogative," and the parenthesis. + +The systematization of punctuation is due mainly to the careful and +scholarly Aldus Manutius, who had opened a printing office in Venice in +1494. The great printers of the early day were great scholars as well. +For a very long time the chief concern of the printer was the opening of +the treasures of ancient thought to the world. They were therefore +compelled to be the students, critics, and editors of the old +manuscripts which served them as copy. They naturally took their +punctuation from the Greek grammarians, but sometimes with changed +meanings. The semicolon, for instance, is the Greek mark of +interrogation. + +The period took its name from the Greek word [Greek: periodos], +periodos, meaning a division of a sentence or a thought, as we to-day +speak of an orator's eloquent periods. + +The colon comes from the Greek [Greek: kolon], kolon, meaning a limb. + +The comma comes from the Greek [Greek: komma], komma, from [Greek: +koptein], to cut. + +The semicolon, of course, is the half colon. + +The question mark was made by writing the first and last letters of the +Latin word _questio_, a question, vertically, [Symbol: q over o] + +The exclamation point was made by writing the letters of the Latin word +_Io_, joy, vertically, [Symbol: I over o] + +The punctuation marks now in use and treated of in this book are as +follows: + + , comma + ; semicolon + : colon + . period + ? interrogation + ! exclamation +( ) parentheses +[ ] brackets + ' apostrophe + - hyphen + -- dash +" " quotation marks + +Other important marks used by printers, but not, strictly speaking, +marks of punctuation, are fully discussed in the volume on +_Abbreviations and Signs_ (No. 37) in this series. + +There are two systems of punctuation in use, known respectively as the +close and open systems. The close, or stiff, system, using points +wherever they can be used, is of importance in precise composition of +every sort, such as laws, contracts, legal and ecclesiastical +statements, and the like. The open, or easy, system, omitting points +wherever they can be omitted, is used generally in the commoner forms of +composition. The tendency, sometimes pushed too far, is toward an +extremely open style of punctuation. The general attitude of writers and +printers may be summed up by saying that you must justify the use of a +punctuation mark, particularly a comma, rather than its omission. + +But why should the printer bother himself about punctuation at all? Is +that not the business of the author, the editor, and the proofreader? +Strictly speaking, yes, but authors generally neglect punctuation, copy +is not usually carefully edited before going to the compositor, and +proofreader's corrections are expensive. It is therefore important that +the compositor should be intelligent about punctuation, whether he works +in a large or a small office. + +The question of how far the printer may go in changing or supplying the +punctuation of copy will depend largely on circumstances. If the +condition of the manuscript is such as to show that the author really +intended to put a fully punctuated, correctly spelled, and properly +capitalized manuscript into the hands of the printer, he has a right to +have his wishes respected even if his ideas are not those which prevail +in the office. In such a case the compositor should follow copy +literally. If any questions are to be raised they should be discussed by +the proofreader _with the author_. The same rule holds in the case of +manuscripts edited before being sent to the composing room. The editor +has assumed all responsibility for the accuracy of the copy. In a great +many cases the copy will come in carelessly written and wholly unedited. +In such cases the compositor should punctuate as he goes along. + +This is one of the tasks which subject the compositor to the test of +intelligence. Printing is not now and never will be a purely mechanical +trade. A printing office is no place for an apprentice who can not learn +to think. + +This book contains a description of the functions of the punctuation +marks and the common rules for their use. Rules for the use of +punctuation marks are very different from rules for the use of purely +material things. They are useless unless applied intelligently. No set +of rules could be devised which would work automatically or relieve the +compositor from the necessity of thinking. Punctuation can never be +reduced to an exact science. + +Certain general directions should be borne in mind by writers and +printers. + +I. Learn by heart the rules for punctuation. + +II. Note the peculiarities of the best writers and the best printers, +especially in contemporary examples. + +III. Pay constant attention to punctuation in everything you write. + +IV. Punctuate your sentence while you are writing it. + +V. Understand what you are printing. _This is of supreme importance._ +Punctuation is an aid to understanding. You cannot correctly punctuate +anything that you do not understand. + + + + +THE COMMA + + +The comma is by far the most difficult of all the punctuation marks to +use correctly. Usage varies greatly from time to time and among equally +good writers and printers at the same time. Certain general rules may be +stated and should be learned. Many cases, however, will arise in which +the rules will be differently interpreted and differently applied by +different people. + +The comma is the least degree of separation possible of indication in +print. Its business is to define the particles and minor clauses of a +sentence. A progressive tendency may be seen in the printing of English +for centuries toward the elimination of commas, and the substitution of +the comma for the semicolon and of the semicolon for the colon. Compare +a page of the King James version of the Bible, especially in one of its +earlier printings, with a page of serious discourse of to-day and the +effects of the tendency will be easily seen. It is part of the general +tendency toward greater simplicity of expression which has developed the +clear and simple English of the best contemporary writers out of the +involved and ornate style of the period of Queen Elizabeth. An ornate +and involved style needs a good deal of punctuation to make it +intelligible, while a simple and direct style needs but very little +help. + +This progressive change in the need for punctuation and in the attitude +of writers toward it accounts for the difference in usage and for the +difficulty in fixing rules to cover all cases. The present attitude +toward punctuation, especially the use of the comma, is one of aversion. +The writer is always held to justification of the presence of a comma +rather than of its absence. Nevertheless it is quite possible to go too +far in the omission of commas in ordinary writing. It is quite possible +to construct sentences in such a way as to avoid their use. The result +is a harsh and awkward style, unwarranted by any necessity. Ordinary +writing needs some use of commas to indicate the sense and to prevent +ambiguity. + +Always remember that the real business of the comma is just that of +helping the meaning of the words and of preventing ambiguity by showing +clearly the separation and connection of words and phrases. If there is +possibility of misunderstanding without a comma, put one in. If the +words tell their story beyond possibility of misunderstanding without a +comma, there is no reason for its use. This rule will serve as a fairly +dependable guide in the absence of any well recognized rule for a +particular case, or where doubt exists as to the application of a rule. + +Reversed, and usually in pairs, commas mark the beginning of a +quotation. + +In numerical statements the comma separates Arabic figures by triplets +in classes of hundreds: $5,276,492.72. + +In tabular work reversed commas are used as a sign for ditto. + + SCHOOLS TEACHING PRINTING + + Boston: Boston Typothetae School of Printing. + " Industrial Arts High School. + Chicago: Lakeside Press School of Printing. + " Chicago Typothetae School of Printing. + " Lane Technical High School. + +The comma is placed between the words which it is intended to separate. +When used in connection with quotation marks, it is always placed inside +them. + + "Honesty is the best policy," as the proverb says. + + +_Rules for the Use of the Comma_ + +1. After each adjective or adverb in a series of two or more when not +connected by conjunctions. + + He was a tall, thin, dark man. + +The rule holds when the last member of the series is preceded by a +conjunction. + + He was tall, thin, and dark. + +The comma may be omitted when the words are combined into a single idea. + + A still hot day. + An old black coat. + +2. After each pair in a series of pairs of words or phrases not +connected by conjunctions. + + Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, + I give my hand and my heart to this vote. + + Formerly the master printer, his journeymen, even his apprentices, + all lived in the same house. + +3. To separate contrasted words. + + We rule by love, not by force. + +4. Between two independent clauses connected by a conjunction. + + The press was out of order, but we managed to start it. + +5. Before a conjunction when the word which preceded it is qualified by +an expression which does not qualify the word which follows the +conjunction. + + He quickly looked up, and spoke. + +6. Between relative clauses which explain the antecedent, or which +introduce a new thought. + + The type, which was badly worn, was not fit for the job. + +If the relative clause limits the meaning of the antecedent, but does +not explain it and does not add a new thought, the comma is not used. + + He did only that which he was told to do. + +7. To separate parenthetical or intermediate expressions from the +context. + + The school, you may be glad to know, is very successful. + The books, which I have read, are returned with gratitude. + He was pleased, I suppose, with his work. + +If the connection of such expressions is so close as to form one +connected idea the comma is not used. + + The press nearest the south window is out of order. + +If the connection of such expressions is remote, parentheses are used. + + The Committee (appointed under vote of April 10, 1909) organized and + proceeded with business. + +8. To separate the co-ordinate clauses of compound sentences if such +clauses are simple in construction and closely related. + + He was kind, not indulgent, to his men; firm, but just, in + discipline; courteous, but not familiar, to all. + +9. To separate quotations, or similar brief expressions from the +preceding part of the sentence. + + Caesar reported to the Senate, "I came, I saw, I conquered." + The question is, What shall we do next? + +10. To indicate the omission of the verb in compound sentences having a +common verb in several clauses. + + One man glories in his strength, another in his wealth, another in + his learning. + +11. To separate phrases containing the case absolute from the rest of +the sentence. + + The form having been locked up, a proof was taken. + +12. Between words or phrases in apposition to each other. + + I refer to DeVinne, the great authority on Printing. + +The comma is omitted when such an apposition is used as a single phrase +or a compound name. + + The poet Longfellow was born in Portland. + The word _patriotic_ is now in extensive use. + +13. After phrases and clauses which are placed at the beginning of a +sentence by inversion. + + Worn out by hard wear, the type at last became unfit for use. + Ever since, he has been fond of celery. + +The comma is omitted if the phrase thus used is very short. + + Of success there could be no doubt. + +14. Introductory phrases beginning with _if_, _when_, _wherever_, +_whenever_, and the like should generally be separated from the rest of +the sentence by a comma, even when the statement may appear to be +direct. + + When a plain query has not been answered, it is best to follow copy. + If the copy is hard to read, the compositor will set but few pages. + +15. To separate introductory words and phrases and independent adverbs +from the rest of the sentence. + + Now, what are you going to do there? + + I think, also, Franklin owed much of his success to his strong + common sense. + + This idea, however, had already been grasped by others. + +Of course the comma is not used when these adverbs are used in the +ordinary way. + + They also serve who only stand and wait. + This must be done, however contrary to our inclinations. + +16. To separate words or phrases of direct address from the context. + + I submit, gentlemen, to your judgment. + From today, my son, your future is in your own hands. + +17. Between the name of a person and his title or degree. + + Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States. + Charles W. Eliot, LL.D. + +18. Before the word _of_ connecting a proper name with residence or +position. + + Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts. + Elihu B. Root, Senator from New York. + +19. After the salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter, when +informal. + + Dear John, + +When the salutation is formal a colon should be used. + + My dear Mr. Smith: + +20. To separate the closing salutation of a formal letter from the rest +of the sentence of which it forms a part. + + Soliciting your continued patronage, I am, + Very sincerely yours, + John W. Smith. + +21. To separate two numbers. + + January 31, 1915. + By the end of 1914, 7062 had been built. + +22. To indicate an ellipsis. + + Subscription for the course, one dollar. + +Exceptions to this rule are made in very brief sentences, especially in +advertisements: Tickets 25 cents. Price one dollar. + +The foregoing rules for the use of the comma have been compiled from +those given by a considerable number of authorities. Further examination +of authorities would probably have added to the number and to the +complexity of these rules. No two sets of rules which have come under +the writer's observation are alike. Positive disagreements in modern +treatises on the subject are few. The whole matter, however, turns so +much on the use made of certain general principles and the field is so +vast that different writers vary greatly in their statements and even in +their ideas of what ought to be stated. It is very difficult to strike +the right mean between a set of rules too fragmentary and too incomplete +for any real guidance and a set of rules too long to be remembered and +used. + +After all possible has been done to indicate the best usage it remains +true that the writer or the printer must, in the last resort, depend +very largely on himself for the proper application of certain +principles. The compositor may find himself helped, or restricted, by +the established style of the office, or he may at times be held to +strict following of copy. When left to himself he must be guided by the +following general principles: + +I. The comma is used to separate for the eye what is separate in +thought. + +The comma is not intended to break the matter up into lengths suited to +the breath of one reading aloud. + +The comma is not an aesthetic device to improve the appearance of the +line. + +II. The sole purpose of the comma is the unfolding of the sense of the +words. + +III. The comma cannot be correctly used without a thorough understanding +of the sense of the words. + +IV. In case of doubt, omit the comma. + + + + +THE SEMICOLON + + +The semicolon is used to denote a degree of separation greater than that +indicated by the comma, but less than that indicated by the colon. It +prevents the repetition of the comma and keeps apart the more important +members of the sentence. The semicolon is generally used in long +sentences, but may sometimes be properly used in short ones. + + +_Rules for the Use of the Semicolon_ + +1. When the members of a compound sentence are complex or contain +commas. + + Franklin, like many others, was a printer; but, unlike the others, + he was student, statesman, and publicist as well. + + With ten per cent of this flour the bread acquired a slight flavor + of rye; fifteen per cent gave it a dark color; a further addition + made the baked crumb very hard. + + The meeting was composed of representatives from the following + districts: Newton, 4 delegates, 2 substitutes; Dorchester, 6 + delegates, 3 substitutes; Quincy, 8 delegates, 4 substitutes; + Brookline, 10 delegates, 5 substitutes. + +2. When the members of a compound sentence contain statements distinct, +but not sufficiently distinct to be thrown into separate sentences. + + Sit thou a patient looker-on; + Judge not the play before the play be done; + Her plot has many changes; every day + Speaks a new scene. The last act crowns the play. + +3. When each of the members of a compound sentence makes a distinct +statement and has some dependence on statements in the other member or +members of the sentence. + + Wisdom hath builded her house; she hath hewn out her seven pillars; + she hath killed her beasts; she hath mingled her wine; she hath + furnished her table. + +Each member of this sentence is nearly complete. It is not quite a full +and definite statement, but it is much more than a mere amplification +such as we might get by leaving out _she hath_ every time after the +first. In the former case we should use periods. In the latter we should +use commas. + +4. A comma is ordinarily used between the clauses of a compound sentence +that are connected by a simple conjunction, but a semicolon may be used +between clauses connected by conjunctive adverbs. Compare the following +examples: + + The play was neither edifying nor interesting to him, and he decided + to change his plans. + + The play was neither edifying nor interesting to him; therefore he + decided to change his plans. + +5. To indicate the chapter references in scriptural citations. + + Matt. i: 5, 7, 9; v: 1-10; xiv: 3, 8, 27. + +The semicolon should always be put outside quotation marks unless it +forms a part of the quotation itself. + + "Take care of the cents and the dollars will take care of + themselves"; a very wise old saying. + + + + +THE COLON + + +The colon marks the place of transition in a long sentence consisting of +many members and involving a logical turn of the thought. Both the colon +and semicolon are much less used now than formerly. The present tendency +is toward short, simple, clear sentences, with consequent little +punctuation, and that of the open style. Such sentences need little or +no aid to tell their story. + + +_Rules for the Use of the Colon_ + +1. Before _as_, _viz._, _that is_, _namely_, etc., when these words +introduce a series of particular terms in apposition with a general +term. + + The American flag has three colors: namely, red, white, and blue. + +2. Between two members of a sentence when one or both are made up of two +or more clauses divided by semicolons. + + The Englishman was calm and self-possessed; his antagonist impulsive + and self-confident: the Englishman was the product of a volunteer + army of professional soldiers; his antagonist was the product of a + drafted army of unwilling conscripts. + +3. Before particular elements in a definite statement. + + Bad: He asked what caused the accident? + Right: He asked, "What caused the accident?" + + Napoleon said to his army at the battle of the Pyramids: "Soldiers, + forty centuries are looking down upon you." + + The duties of the superintendent are grouped under three heads: + first, etc. + +4. Before formal quotations. + + Write a short essay on the following topic: "What is wrong with our + industrial system?" + +When the formal introduction is brief, a comma may be used. + + St. Paul said, "Bear ye one another's burdens." + +5. After the formal salutatory phrase at the opening of a letter. + + My dear Sir: + +When the letter is informal use a comma. + + Dear John, + +6. Between the chapter and verse in scriptural references. + + John xix: 22. + +7. Between the city of publication and the name of the publisher in +literary references. + + "The Practice of Typography." New York: Oswald Publishing Company. + +The colon has been similarly employed in the imprints on the title pages +of books. + + New York: Harper & Brothers, 1880. + +DeVinne remarks upon this use of the colon that it is traditional and +can not be explained. + +The colon is sometimes used between the hours and minutes in indicating +time, like: 11:42 a.m. + +DeVinne does not approve of this, though other authorities give it as +the rule. It is probably better to use the period in spite of its use as +a decimal point, which use was probably the motive for seeking something +else to use in writing time indications. In railroad printing the hour +is often separated from the minutes by a simple space without any +punctuation. + + + + +THE PERIOD + + +The period, or full stop, marks the end of a declarative sentence. As a +sign it has several other uses which will appear in the paragraphs +following. + + +_Rules for the Use of the Period_ + +1. At the end of every sentence unless interrogative or exclamatory. + +2. After abbreviations. + + Nicknames, _Sam_, _Tom_, etc., are not regarded as abbreviations. + + The metric symbols are treated as abbreviations but the chemical + symbols are not. M. (metre) and mg. (milligram) but H_{2} O and + Na Cl. + + Per cent is not regarded as an abbreviation. + + The names of book sizes (12mo 16mo) are not regarded as + abbreviations. + +The period is now generally omitted in display matter after + + Running heads, + Cut-in side-notes, + Central head-lines, + Box heads in tables, + Signatures at the end of letters. + +The period is omitted + + After Roman numerals, even though they have the value of ordinals. + + After MS and similar symbols. + + In technical matter, after the recognized abbreviations for + linguistic epochs. IE (Indo-European), MHG (Middle High German) + + and after titles of well-known publications indicated by initials + such as AAAPS (Annals of the American Academy of Political Science). + +When a parenthesis forms the end of a declarative sentence the period is +placed outside the parenthesis, as in the preceding example. A period is +placed inside a parenthesis only in two cases. + +1. After an abbreviation. + + This was 50 years ago (i.e. 1860 A.D.) + +2. At the end of an independent sentence lying entirely within the +parenthesis. + + Lincoln was at the height of his powers in 1860 (He was elected to + the presidency at this time.) + +When a sentence ends with a quotation, the period always goes inside the +quotation marks. + + I have just read DeVinne's "Practice of Typography." + +The same rule applies to the use of the other low marks, comma, +semicolon, and colon, in connection with quotation marks. Unlike most +rules of grammar and punctuation, this rule does not rest on a logical +basis. It rests on purely typographic considerations, as the arrangement +of points indicated by the rule gives a better looking line than can be +secured by any other arrangement. + + +_Other Uses of the Period_ + +1. The period is used as a decimal point. + +2. The period is used in groups, separated by spaces, to indicate an +ellipsis. + + He read as follows: "The gentleman said . . . . + he was there and saw . . . . the act in question." + + + + +THE DASH + + +The dash is a very useful mark which has been greatly overworked by +careless writers. It is very easy to make in manuscript and serves as a +convenient cover for the writer's ignorance of what point should +properly be used. + +The conspicuousness of the dash makes it a very useful mark for guiding +the eye of the reader to the unity of the sentence. It is particularly +useful in legal pleadings where there is much repetition of statement +and great elaboration of detail. In such cases commas, semicolons, and +even parentheses are so multiplied that the relation of the clauses is +lost sight of. The confusion thus arising may often be cleared up by +intelligent use of the dash. + +The dash is sometimes used to connect a side heading with the text that +follows, or to connect the end of that text with the name of the writer. + + A RULE FOR PEACE.--If it be possible, as much as lieth in you, live + peaceably with all men.--_St. Paul._ + +The dash is sometimes used in catalogue work as a ditto mark. + + DE VINNE, THEODORE LOW. Historic Printing Types. New York, 1886. + ----The Invention of Printing. Francis Hart & Co., New York, 1878. + ----Plain Printing Types. Oswald Publishing Co., New York, 1914. + +French printers use the dash in printing dialogue as a partial +substitute for quotation marks. Quotation marks are placed at the +beginning and end of the dialogue and a dash precedes each speech. This +form is used even if the dialogue is extended over many pages. + + +_Rules for the Use of the Dash_ + +1. To mark abrupt changes in sentiment and in construction. + + Have you ever heard--but how should you hear? + +2. To mark pauses and repetitions used for dramatic or rhetorical +effect. + + They make a desert, and call it--peace. + Thou, great Anna, whom three states obey, + Who sometimes counsel takes--and sometimes tea. + +3. To express in one sentence great contrariety of action or emotion or +to increase the speed of the discourse by a succession of snappy +phrases. + + She starts--she moves--she seems to feel + The thrill of life along her keel. + +In this connection DeVinne gives the following excellent example from +Sterne: + + Nature instantly ebbed again;--the film returned to its place;--the + pulse fluttered,--stopped,--went on,--throbbed,--stopped + again,--moved,--stopped,--Shall I go on?--No. + +Attention may be called to Sterne's use of the semicolon and the comma +with the dash, a use now obsolete except in rare cases. + +4. To separate the repetition or different amplifications of the same +statement. + + The infinite importance of what he has to do--the goading conviction + that it must be done--the dreadful combination in his mind of both + the necessity and the incapacity--the despair of crowding the + concerns of an age into a moment--the impossibility of beginning a + repentance which should have been completed--of setting about a + peace which should have been concluded--of suing for a pardon which + should have been obtained--all these complicated concerns + intolerably augment the sufferings of the victims. + +5. At the end of a series of phrases which depend upon a concluding +clause. + + Railroads and steamships, factories and warehouses, wealth and + luxury--these are not civilization. + +6. When a sentence is abruptly terminated. + + If I thought he said it I would-- + +7. To precede expressions which are added to an apparently completed +sentence, but which refer to some previous part of the sentence. + + He wondered what the foreman would say--he had a way of saying the + unexpected. + +8. To connect extreme dates in time indication. + + The war of 1861--1865. The war of 1861-1865. + +9. To define verse references in the Bible or page references in books. + + Matt. v: 1--11. Matt. v: 1-11. + See pp. 50--53. See pp. 50-53. + +NOTE. In instances such as given in the two preceding rules the en dash +may sometimes serve if the em dash appears too conspicuous. + +10. A dash preceded by a colon is sometimes used before a long quotation +forming a new paragraph. In other cases no point need accompany the +dash. + +The dash is sometimes used as a substitute for commas. Writers on the +subject say that this use occurs when the connection between the +parenthetical clause and the context is closer than would be indicated +by commas. The distinction, if real, is difficult to see. It would be +better if none but the most experienced writers attempted the use of the +dash in this way. + +Dashes are often used instead of marks of parenthesis. It is better to +let each mark do its own work. + + + + +THE PARENTHESIS + + +The parenthesis, commonly used in pairs, encloses expressions which have +no essential connection with the rest of the sentence, but are important +to its full comprehension. It is liable to be neglected by writers +because the dash is easier to make, and by printers because it is +generally thought to mar the beauty of the line. Its distinct uses, +however, should not be neglected. + + +_Rules for the Use of the Parenthesis_ + +1. To introduce into a sentence matter which is not essentially +connected with the rest of the sentence, but aids in making it clear. + + Trouble began when the apprentice (who had been strictly forbidden + to do so) undertook to do some work on his own account. + + This year (1914) saw the outbreak of a general war. + +2. In reports of speeches to enclose the name of a person who has been +referred to, or to indicate expressions on the part of the audience. + + The honorable gentleman who has just spoken (Mr. Lodge) has no + superior on this floor in his knowledge of international law. + (Applause.) + +3. Parentheses enclosing interrogation points or exclamation points are +sometimes introduced into a sentence to cast doubt on a statement or to +express surprise or contempt. + + He said that on the fifth of January (?) he was in New York. + + This most excellent (!) gentleman. + +4. Parentheses are used, generally in pairs, sometimes singly, to +enclose the reference letters or figures used to mark division and +classification in arguments or in precise statements. + + This is done because: (a) it is clearer; (b) it is shorter. + +These signs may be printed in several ways. + + (a) a) (^a) ^a) (1) 1) (^1) ^1) + +The old-fashioned form of parenthesis, always made too thin, may need a +thin space between it and its adjoining character when it is placed too +close to any letter that nearly fills the body in height, as in +( Hall ). The space may not be needed when the proximate character has a +shoulder, as in ( Art), or when the parenthesis follows a period.) + +The italic form of parenthesis is objectionable in book work. +Distinction is sought for the word in italic and not for the parenthesis +enclosing the word. The italic parenthesis may be used in job-work or +full display lines of italic letters. + + + + +THE BRACKET + + +Brackets are used in pairs, like the parentheses. In Job composition +either brackets or parentheses may be used, as suits the fancy or is +convenient. In descriptive text matter, however, brackets should not be +used where parentheses are clearly indicated. + + +_Rules for the Use of the Bracket_ + +1. To enclose words or phrases which are entirely independent of the +rest of the sentence. + +The enclosed words are usually comments, queries, corrections, +criticisms, or directions inserted by some person other than the +original writer or speaker. + +2. To enclose passages of doubtful authenticity in reprints of early +manuscripts, special amendments to bills under legislative +consideration, or any other portions of a text which need peculiar +identification. + +3. In legal or ecclesiastical papers to indicate numerical words which +may have to be changed, or to indicate where details are to be supplied. + + This is the first [_second or third_] publication. + + The officers shall remain in office [_here state the time_] or until + their successors are duly qualified. + +4. To avoid the confusion caused by a parenthesis within a parenthesis. + +5. A single bracket is used to enclose the ending of a long line of +poetry which will not fit the register and has to be run over into an +adjoining line. + +Doubt whether to use parentheses or brackets can usually be settled by +this general principle: + +Parentheses always enclose remarks apparently made by the writer of the +text. Brackets enclose remarks certainly made by the editor or reporter +of that text. + + + + +THE INTERROGATION + + +The interrogation is the point that asks questions. It should always be +placed outside quotation marks unless it is a part of the quotation +itself. + + +_Rules for the Use of the Interrogation_ + +1. The interrogation point is used at the end of every direct question. + + Are you there? + +Indirect questions, that is, statements that a question has been asked, +do not require the interrogation. + + He asked me if I was there. + He asked the question, Are you there? and received no answer. + +2. At the end of each of a series of questions thrown into a single +sentence. + + Did he speak in an ordinary tone? or shout? or whisper? + +3. The interrogation, like a certain inflection in the voice, may +indicate that a sentence, though declarative in form, is really a +question and requires an answer. + + You are, of course, familiar with New York? + + + + +THE EXCLAMATION + + +The exclamation mark is the mark of strong emotion. + + +_Rules for the Use of the Exclamation_ + +1. After every expression of great surprise or emotion. + + Look, my lord! it comes! + Angels and ministers of grace defend us! + Alas! my father. + +2. After interjections and other exclamatory words. + + Hurrah! Good! Away! Oh! + +Where the exclamations are repeated without particularly emphasizing +each one, each may be followed by a comma except the last. + + Ha, ha, ha! That's a good joke! + +O used as a vocative or to express a desire or imprecation does not call +for an exclamation. + + O John. + Oh, yes. + O, that night would come! + +The exclamation is sometimes used in job printing to fill out a display +line or for other inadequate reasons. These uses should be avoided. + + + + +THE APOSTROPHE + + +The apostrophe is primarily the sign of the possessive case, but it has +several other uses. + + +_Rules for the Use of the Apostrophe_ + +1. The apostrophe for the possessive case is added only to nouns, not to +the pronouns, which have their distinct possessive forms. _Its_ is a +possessive pronoun. _It's_ is an abbreviation for _it is_. Do not use an +apostrophe with the possessive adjectives _hers_, _ours_, _yours_, +_theirs_, _its_. + +2. All nouns in the singular and all nouns in the plural except those +ending in _s_ take an apostrophe and _s_ to form the possessive. + +Nouns in the plural ending in _s_ take an apostrophe only to form the +possessive. + +There is much difference of opinion as to the invariability of the rule +concerning singular nouns in _s_. DeVinne advises following the +pronunciation. Where the second _s_ is not pronounced, as often happens, +to avoid the prolonged hissing sound of another _s_, he recommends +omitting it in print. + + Moses' hat, for Moses's hat. + For conscience' sake. + +3. The apostrophe indicates the omission of letters in dialect, in +familiar dialogue, and in poetry. + + That's 'ow 'tis. + 'Twas ever thus. + +When two words are practically made into one syllable, a thin space may +be put before the apostrophe, except that _don't_, _can't_, _won't_, and +_shan't_ are consolidated. This use of a space serves to distinguish +between the possessive in _s_ and the contraction of _is_. + + Where death 's abroad and sorrow 's close behind. + +4. Figures expressing dates are often abbreviated, but it is not good +general practice. + + The boys of '61. + It happened in '14. + +5. The apostrophe is used to form the plural of letters and figures. + + Cross your t's and dot your i's. + Make 3's and 5's more plain. + +Except in these cases the apostrophe is not a plural sign and should be +so used only when it is intended to reproduce a dialect or +colloquialism. + + Wrong: All the Collins's were there. + Right: All the Collinses were there. + +The final _ed_ of past tenses and past participles was formerly +pronounced as a distinct syllable, thus: _clos-ed_, _belov-ed_, and this +pronunciation continued in common use in poetry long after it was +discontinued in prose. During this period of transition the modern +pronunciation was indicated by dropping the _e_ and using an apostrophe, +thus: _clos'd_, _belov'd_. It is now understood that while the full +spelling is to be used, the old pronunciation is not to be used unless +specially indicated by placing a grave accent over the _e_ of the last +syllable, thus: _beloved_. + +At the same period poets, especially, used an apostrophe to indicate a +silent _e_ as in _ev'ry_, but the usage is now obsolete. + +Such abbreviations as _Dep't_, _Gov't_, _Sec'y_, and the like, are +objectionable in print. If such abbreviations are necessary it is better +to use the forms _Dept._, _Govt._, _Secy._ + + + + +THE HYPHEN + + +The hyphen is used to join compound words; to mark the division of a +word too long to go entirely into one line; to separate the syllables of +words in order to show pronunciation; as a leader in tabular work. For +this last purpose the period is to be preferred to any other mark in +use. Tabular work without leaders is obscure and therefore +objectionable. + + + + +QUOTATION MARKS + + +Quotation marks are signs used to indicate that the writer is giving +exactly the words of another. A French printer named Morel used a comma +in the outer margin to indicate a quoted line about 1550. About a +century later another Frenchman, Menage, introduced a mark ("") +resembling a double parenthesis but shorter. These marks were cast on +the middle of the type body so that they could be reversed for use at +either the beginning or the end of a quotation. The French have retained +these signs as their quotation marks ever since. + +When the English adopted the use of quotation marks, they did not take +over the French marks, but substituted two inverted commas at the +beginning and two apostrophes at the end of the quoted paragraph. These +marks are typographically unsatisfactory. They are weak and therefore +hardly adequate to their purpose in aiding the understanding through the +eye. Being cast on the upper part of the type body, they leave a blank +space below and thus impair the beauty of the line and interfere with +good spacing. Certain rules for the position of quotation marks when +used with other marks are based upon these typographical considerations +rather than upon logical considerations. + + +_Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks_ + +1. Every direct quotation should be enclosed in double quotation marks. + + "I will go," said he, "if I can." + +Reports of what another person has said when given in words other than +his own are called indirect quotations and take no marks. + + He said he would go if he could. + +2. A quotation of several paragraphs requires quotation marks at the +beginning of each paragraph, but at the end of the last one only. In +legal documents, and sometimes elsewhere, quotations are defined and +emphasized by putting double commas at the beginning of every line of +the quotation. + +The same result may be better obtained by using smaller type, or +indenting the quotation, or both. + +3. A quotation included within another quotation should be enclosed by +single quotation marks. + + He said: "I heard him cry 'Put down that gun,' and then I heard a + shot." + +4. Titles of books, essays, art works, etc., are usually enclosed in +quotation marks. When the books are supposedly familiar to all readers, +the marks are not used. You would not print "The Bible," "Paradise +Lost," "The Iliad." + +The titles of books, etc., are sometimes printed in italics instead of +being enclosed in quotation marks. This is a matter of office style +rather than of good or bad practice. + +5. In writing about plays or books, the name of the work may be quoted +and the name of a character italicized. This is done to avoid confusion +between the play, the character, and the real person portrayed. "William +Tell" is a play. _William Tell_ is a character in fiction. William Tell +is a national hero of Switzerland. + +This usage is by no means uniform; here again, we are on the ground of +office style. + +6. Names of vessels are sometimes quoted, sometimes italicized, and +sometimes printed without distinguishing marks. Here we are once more on +the ground of office style. + +7. Sentences from a foreign language are usually enclosed in quotation +marks. Single words or phrases are usually printed in italics. Both +italics and quotation marks should not be used except under certain +unusual conditions or when positively ordered by the author. + +8. Quotation marks may be used with a word to which the writer desires +to attract particular attention or to which he desires to give an +unusual, technical, or ironical meaning. + + This "gentleman" needs a shave. + +9. When a quotation is long or when it is introduced in a formal manner, +it is usually preceded by a colon. Isolated words or phrases call for no +point after the introductory clause. This is true when the phrases so +quoted run to considerable length, provided there is no break in the +flow of thought and expression. + +10. When a quotation ends a sentence the quotation marks are placed +after the period. + +The comma is always placed inside the quotation marks. + +The position of the other marks (semicolon, colon, exclamation, and +interrogation) is determined by the sense. If they form a part of the +matter quoted, they go inside the quote marks; if not, they go outside +them. + +11. When quotation marks occur at the beginning of a line of poetry, +they should go back into the indention space. + + "Breathes there a man with soul so dead + Who never to himself hath said, + 'This is my own, my native land'?" + +This illustration is also a good example of the use of marks in +combinations. We have first the single quotation marking the end of the +included quotation, then the interrogation which ends the sentence, then +the double quotation marks in their proper position. + +Quotation marks should not be used needlessly. Very familiar expressions +from the best known authors, such as _to the manor born_, _a conscience +void of offence_, _with malice toward none and charity for all_, have +become part of the current coin of speech and need not be quoted. Lists +of words considered as words merely, lists of books or plays, and other +such copy should be printed without quotation marks. Sprinkling a page +thickly with quotation marks not only spoils its appearance but makes it +hard to read, without adding to its clearness of meaning. + + + + +GENERAL REMARKS + + +Book titles are now set without points. This fashion was introduced by +Pickering of London about 1850. This method is generally to the +advantage of the title page thus treated. It is possible, however, to +carry it too far and so to obscure the sense. Commas should not be +omitted from firm names, such as Longmans, Green & Co., as in case of +such omission there is no way of knowing whether one or more persons are +indicated. Punctuation should not be omitted from the titles which may +accompany an author's name, nor from the date if day and month are given +as well as year. + +Avoid the doubling of points wherever possible. When an abbreviation +precedes a colon, omit the period. When an abbreviation precedes a +comma, the period is often inserted, but in many cases one or the other +can be dropped to advantage. The dash is not generally preceded by a +comma, semicolon, or colon in current printing usage. A comma should +rarely go before the first parenthesis. If used at all with the +parentheses, it should follow the closing parenthesis. When a complete +sentence is enclosed in parentheses, the period falls within the +parentheses. When the enclosure is a brief passage at the end of a +sentence, the period falls outside the parentheses. + +Do not put a period before the apostrophe and the possessive _s_ as in +_Co.'s_. The word _Company_ may be abbreviated to _Co._ although it is +not desirable to do so if it can be avoided. The possessive of _Co._ is +_Co's_. + + + + +SUMMARY + + +1. A comma separates clauses, phrases, and particles. + +2. A semicolon separates different statements. + +3. A colon is the transition point of the sentence. + +4. A period marks the end of a sentence. + +5. A dash marks abruptness or irregularity. + +6. Parentheses enclose interpolations in the sentence. + +7. Brackets enclose irregularities in the sentence. + +8. An interrogation asks a question for an answer. + +9. An exclamation marks surprise. + +10. An apostrophe marks elisions and the possessive case. + +11. Quotation marks define quoted words. + + + + +SUPPLEMENTARY READING + + +Correct Composition. By DeVinne. Oswald Publishing Company, New York. + +The Writer's Desk Book. By William Dana Orcutt. Frederick A. Stokes +Company, New York. + +A Manual for Writers. By Manly and Powell. The University of Chicago +Press, Chicago. + +Composition and Rhetoric. By Lockwood and Emerson. Ginn & Co., Boston. + +The Art of Writing and Speaking the English Language. By Sherwin Cody. +The Old Greek Press, Chicago. + +Handbook of Composition. By Edwin D. Woolley. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. + +English Composition, Book One, Enlarged. By Stratton D. Brooks. Ginn & +Co., Boston. + + + + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + +SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS + +The following questions, based on the contents of this pamphlet, are +intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as an aid +to the student in putting the information contained into definite +statements without actually memorizing the text, (3) as a means of +securing from the student a reproduction of the information in his own +words. + +A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full +acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental +omission of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed that +nothing should be omitted. + +In teaching from these books it is very important that these questions +and such others as may occur to the teacher should be made the basis of +frequent written work, and of final examinations. + +The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not only assures +knowledge of material, but the power to express that knowledge correctly +and in good form. + +If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed form it +will be doubly useful. + + +QUESTIONS + +1. What is punctuation? + +2. How were ancient manuscripts written? + +3. What were the first punctuation marks, and how were they used? + +4. What can you tell about punctuation marks in the manuscript period? + +5. What can you tell about the punctuation of the early printers? + +6. Who may be said to have systematized punctuation? + +7. Give the names of the principal punctuation marks and the meaning of +the names. + +8. Give a list of the punctuation marks now in use and show how they are +made. + +9. Name and describe the two systems of punctuation. + +10. What is the tendency in the use of punctuation? + +11. Why is it necessary for a compositor to understand punctuation? + +12. When should the compositor follow copy and when not? + +13. What five general directions should always be remembered? + +14. What is the comma used for? + +15. What is the tendency in the use of commas? + +16. What are reversed commas used for? + +17. How are commas used with numerals? + +18. How are commas used in table work? + +19. How are commas placed in relation to the words whose meaning they +help? + +20. Give the rules for the use of the comma. + +21. What are the four general principles for the use of the comma? + +22. What is the semicolon used for? + +23. Give the rules for the use of the semicolon. + +24. What is the colon used for? + +25. Give the rules for the use of the colon. + +26. What is the period used for? + +27. Where are periods used? + +28. Where are periods omitted? + +29. How do we use the period in connection with parentheses? + +30. How do we use the period in connection with quotation marks? + +31. What is the reason for this rule? + +32. What other uses has the period? + +33. What is the dash used for? + +34. What special use of the dash is found in French books? + +35. Give the rules for the use of the dash. + +36. Are other punctuation marks used with the dash? + +37. What is the parenthesis used for? + +38. Give the rules for the use of the parenthesis. + +39. When would you use letter spacing with the parenthesis, and why? + +40. What use is made of the italic parenthesis? + +41. Give the rules for the use of the brackets. + +42. What is the distinction in use between the bracket and the +parenthesis? + +43. What is the interrogation point used for? + +44. Give the rules for the use of the interrogation. + +45. What is the exclamation point used for? + +46. Give the rules for the use of the exclamation. + +47. What is the apostrophe used for? + +48. Give the rules for the use of the apostrophe. + +49. What is the use of the apostrophe in past participles? + +50. What is said of the use of the apostrophe in such abbreviations as +_Dep't_? + +51. What is the hyphen used for? + +52. What are quotation marks used for? + +53. Give the rules for the use of quotation marks. + +54. When are quotation marks omitted? + +55. How are book titles now punctuated? + +56. Should punctuation marks be doubled? + +57. How is the comma used with parentheses? + +58. How would you punctuate the possessive of an abbreviation, for +example, _the Doctor's house_, using the abbreviation _Dr._? + +59. Give a brief summarized statement of the use of the twelve +punctuation marks. + + + + +GLOSSARY + + +ABSOLUTE--Free from the usual grammatical relations. + +ANTECEDENT--That to which a relative pronoun or a relative clause +refers. + +APPOSITION--When the meaning of a noun or pronoun is made clear or +emphatic by the use of another noun or pronoun, the two are said to be +in apposition. + +CLAUSE--A group of words consisting of a subject and predicate with +their modifiers and forming a part of a sentence; a sentence within a +sentence. + +COMPOUND SENTENCE--A sentence consisting of several clauses. + +COOeRDINATE CLAUSES--Clauses of equal rank. + +DECLARATIVE SENTENCE--A sentence which states a fact. + +EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE--A sentence which utters an exclamation. + +INDEPENDENT ADVERBS--Adverbs not in grammatical relations with other +words in the sentence. + +INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE--A sentence which asks a question. + +MINOR CLAUSES--Clauses other than the principal clause or main statement +of a sentence. + +PARENTHETICAL--Incidental; not an essential part of a sentence or +statement. + +PARTICLE--One of the minor parts of speech not inflected, that is, not +undergoing changes in form. + +PHRASE--An expression consisting usually of but a few words, denoting a +single idea, or forming a separate part of a sentence. + +RELATIVE CLAUSE--A clause joined to the rest of the sentence by a +relative pronoun. + +SALUTATION--A form of greeting, especially at the beginning or end of a +letter. + +SALUTATORY PHRASE--The words forming a salutation, or greeting. + + + + +TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES + + +The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL +SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the supervision of the +Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in trade +classes, in course of printing instruction, and by individuals. + +Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of +authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the printers of +the United States--employers, journeymen, and apprentices--with a +comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable, +up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the +printing craft, all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study. + +The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5x8 inches. Their +general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far as +practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the particular +contents and other chief features of each volume will be found under each +title in the following list. + +Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in each +publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary information and +essential facts necessary to an understanding of the subject. Care has been +taken to make all statements accurate and clear, with the purpose of +bringing essential information within the understanding of beginners in the +different fields of study. Wherever practicable, simple and well-defined +drawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving additional +clearness to the text. + +In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use in +trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is accompanied by +a list of Review Questions covering essential items of the subject matter. +A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the subject or department +treated is also added to many of the books. + +These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America. + +Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED +TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A. + + +PART I--_Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials_ + +=1.= =Type: a Primer of Information= By A. A. Stewart + + Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes, + font schemes, etc., with a brief description of their manufacture. + 44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary. + +=2.= =Compositors' Tools and Materials= By A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, + brass rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; + illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary. + +=3.= =Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture= By A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, + case racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; + illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary. + +=4.= =Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances= By A. A. Stewart + + Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the + press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. 59 + pp.; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary. + +=5.= =Proof Presses= By A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about the customary methods and machines + for taking printers' proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review + questions; glossary. + +=6.= =Platen Printing Presses= By Daniel Baker + + A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical + construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand + press to the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on + automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review + questions; glossary. + +=7.= =Cylinder Printing Presses= By Herbert L. Baker + + Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types + of cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review + questions; glossary. + +=8.= =Mechanical Feeders and Folders= By William E. Spurrier + + The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; + with hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review + questions; glossary. + +=9.= =Power for Machinery in Printing Houses= By Carl F. Scott + + A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and + allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive. 53 + pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary. + +=10.= =Paper Cutting Machines= By Niel Gray, Jr. + + A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever + cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting + paper, 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary. + +=11.= =Printers' Rollers= By A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and + care of inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions; + glossary. + +=12.= =Printing Inks= By Philip Ruxton + + Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by + permission from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of + Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the + everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review + questions; glossary. + +=13.= =How Paper is Made= By William Bond Wheelwright + + A primer of information about the materials and processes of + manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated; + 62 review questions; glossary. + +=14.= =Relief Engravings= By Joseph P. Donovan + + Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of + engraving; woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for + reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings. + Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + +=15.= =Electrotyping and Sterotyping= + By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and + stereotyping. 94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions; + glossaries. + + +PART II--_Hand and Machine Composition_ + +=16.= =Typesetting= By A. A. Stewart + + A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, + spacing, correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting. + Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + +=17.= =Printers' Proofs= By A. A. Stewart + + The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with + observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +=18.= =First Steps in Job Composition= By Camille DeVeze + + Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first + jobs, especially about the important little things which go to make + good display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review questions; + glossary. + +=19.= =General Job Composition= + + How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and + miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + +=20.= =Book Composition= By J. W. Bothwell + + Chapters from DeVinne's "Modern Methods of Book Composition," + revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J. W. Bothwell + of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of pages. Part + II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 review + questions; glossary. + +=21.= =Tabular Composition= By Robert Seaver + + A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples + of more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review + questions. + +=22.= =Applied Arithmetic= By E. E. Sheldon + + Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, + calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard + tables and rules for computation, each subject amplified with + examples and exercises. 159 pp. + +=23.= =Typecasting and Composing Machines= A. W. Finlay, Editor + + Section I--The Linotype By L. A. Hornstein + Section II--The Monotype By Joseph Hays + Section III--The Intertype By Henry W. Cozzens + Section IV--Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines + By Frank H. Smith + + A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their + mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review + questions; glossary. + + +PART III--_Imposition and Stonework_ + +=24.= =Locking Forms for the Job Press= By Frank S. Henry + + Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and + about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +=25.= =Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press= By Frank S. Henry + + Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods + of handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review + questions; glossary. + + +PART IV--_Presswork_ + +=26.= =Making Ready on Platen Presses= By T. G. McGrew + + The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive + features of commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan, + regulating the impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting + gauges, and other details explained. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +=27.= =Cylinder Presswork= By T. G. McGrew + + Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, + ink fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and + overlaying; modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +=28.= =Pressroom Hints and Helps= By Charles L. Dunton + + Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with + directions and useful information relating to a variety of + printing-press problems. 87 pp.; 176 review questions. + +=29.= =Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts= By A. W. Elson + + A primer of information about the distinctive features of the + relief, the intaglio, and the planographic processes of printing. + 84 pp.; illustrated; 100 review questions; glossary. + + +PART V--_Pamphlet and Book Binding_ + +=30.= =Pamphlet Binding= By Bancroft L. Goodwin + + A primer of information about the various operations employed in + binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated; + review questions; glossary. + +=31.= =Book Binding= By John J. Pleger + + Practical information about the usual operations in binding books; + folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case + making and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and + blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + + +PART VI--_Correct Literary Composition_ + +=32.= =Word Study and English Grammar= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about words, their relations, and their + uses. 68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary. + +=33.= =Punctuation= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their + use, both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review + questions; glossary. + +=34.= =Capitals= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical + typographic hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review + questions; glossary. + +=35.= =Division of Words= By F. W. Hamilton + + Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks + on spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review + questions. + +=36.= =Compound Words= By F. W. Hamilton + + A study of the principles of compounding, the components of + compounds, and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions. + +=37.= =Abbreviations and Signs= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with + classified lists of those in most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review + questions. + +=38.= =The Uses of Italic= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the history and uses of italic + letters. 31 pp.; 37 review questions. + +=39.= =Proofreading= By Arnold Levitas + + The technical phases of the proofreader's work; reading, marking, + revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by + examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary. + +=40.= =Preparation of Printers' Copy= By F. W. Hamilton + + Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in + preparing copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review questions. + +=41.= =Printers' Manual of Style= + + A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions + relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, + abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of composition. + +=42.= =The Printer's Dictionary= By A. A. Stewart + + A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about + various processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical + terms explained. Illustrated. + + +PART VII--_Design, Color, and Lettering_ + +=43.= =Applied Design for Printers= By Harry L. Gage + + A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on + the periods of design which have most influenced printing. Treats + of harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and + variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 + review questions; glossary; bibliography. + +=44.= =Elements of Typographic Design= By Harry L. Gage + + Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building + material of typography paper, types, ink, decorations and + illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete book, + treating each part. Design of commercial forms and single units. + Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. + +=45.= =Rudiments of Color in Printing= By Harry L. Gage + + Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster + effect, in combinations of two, three, or more printings with + process engravings. Scientific nature of color, physical and + chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value, + intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. Color theory + of process engraving. Experiments with color. Illustrations in full + color, and on various papers. Review questions; glossary; + bibliography. + +=46.= =Lettering in Typography= By Harry L. Gage + + Printer's use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. + Development of historic writing and lettering and its influence on + type design. Classification of general forms in lettering. + Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully + illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography. + +=47.= =Typographic Design in Advertising= By Harry L. Gage + + The printer's function in advertising. Precepts upon which + advertising is based. Printer's analysis of his copy. Emphasis, + legibility, attention, color. Method of studying advertising + typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; + bibliography. + +=48.= =Making Dummies and Layouts= By Harry L. Gage + + A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a + proposed final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of layout. + Function of layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. Dummy + envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. + + +PART VIII--_History of Printing_ + +=49.= =Books Before Typography= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the + history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp.; + illustrated; 64 review questions. + +=50.= =The Invention of Typography= By F. W. Hamilton + + A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. + 64 pp.; 62 review questions. + +=51.= =History of Printing--Part I= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the + development of the book, the development of printers' materials, + and the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions. + +=52.= =History of Printing--Part II= By F. W. Hamilton + + A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry + from 1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship, + internal conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review + questions. + +=53.= =Printing in England= By F. W. Hamilton + + A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present + time. 89 pp.; 65 review questions. + +=54.= =Printing in America= By F. W. Hamilton + + A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes + on publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.; + 84 review questions. + +=55.= =Type and Presses in America= By F. W. Hamilton + + A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and + press building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions. + + +PART IX--_Cost Finding and Accounting_ + +=56.= =Elements of Cost in Printing= By Henry P. Porter + + The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should + show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. + Glossary. + +=57.= =Use of a Cost System= By Henry P. Porter + + The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should + show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. + Glossary. + +=58.= =The Printer as a Merchant= By Henry P. Porter + + The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. + The relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of + the finished product. Review questions. Glossary. + +=59.= =Fundamental Principles of Estimating= By Henry P. Porter + + The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for + estimating. Review questions. Glossary. + +=60.= =Estimating and Selling= By Henry P. Porter + + An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their + relation to selling. Review questions. Glossary. + +=61.= =Accounting for Printers= By Henry P. Porter + + A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary + books and accessory records. Review questions. Glossary. + + +PART X--_Miscellaneous_ + +=62.= =Health, Sanitation, and Safety= By Henry P. Porter + + Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; + practical suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and + rules for safety. + +=63.= =Topical Index= By F. W. Hamilton + + A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic + Technical Series, alphabetically arranged. + +=64.= =Courses of Study= By F. W. Hamilton + + A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for + classroom and shop work. + + + + +ACKNOWLEDGMENT + + +This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendid +co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the +printing business and its allied industries in the United States of +America. + +The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America, under whose +auspices the books have been prepared and published, acknowledges its +indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by the many authors, +printers, and others identified with this work. + +While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of those +contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless felt that a group +list of co-operating firms would be of interest. + +The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who have +co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, constituting the +first printing. As soon as the entire list of books comprising the +Typographic Technical Series has been completed (which the Committee hopes +will be at an early date), the full list will be printed in each volume. + +The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many +subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its publication. + +COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, +UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA. + + HENRY P. PORTER, _Chairman_, + E. LAWRENCE FELL, + A. M. GLOSSBRENNER, + J. CLYDE OSWALD, + TOBY RUBOVITS. + +FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, _Education Director_. + + + + +CONTRIBUTORS + + +=For Composition and Electrotypes= + +ISAAC H. BLANCHARD COMPANY, New York, N. Y. +S. H. BURBANK & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. +J. S. CUSHING & CO., Norwood, Mass. +THE DEVINNE PRESS, New York, N. Y. +R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO., Chicago, Ill. +GEO. H. ELLIS CO., Boston, Mass. +EVANS-WINTER-HEBB, Detroit, Mich. +FRANKLIN PRINTING COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. +F. H. GILSON COMPANY, Boston, Mass. +STEPHEN GREENE & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. +W. F. HALL PRINTING CO., Chicago, Ill. +J. B. LIPPINCOTT CO., Philadelphia, Pa. +MCCALLA & CO. INC., Philadelphia, Pa. +THE PATTESON PRESS, New York, New York +THE PLIMPTON PRESS, Norwood, Mass. +POOLE BROS., Chicago, Ill. +EDWARD STERN & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. +THE STONE PRINTING & MFG. CO., Roanoke, Va. +C. D. TRAPHAGEN, Lincoln, Neb. +THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Cambridge, Mass. + +=For Composition= + +BOSTON TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING, Boston, Mass. +WILLIAM F. FELL CO., Philadelphia, Pa. +THE KALKHOFF COMPANY, New York, N. Y. +OXFORD-PRINT, Boston, Mass. +TOBY RUBOVITS, Chicago, Ill. + +=For Electrotypes= + +BLOMGREN BROTHERS CO., Chicago, Ill. +FLOWER STEEL ELECTROTYPING CO., New York, N. Y. +C. J. PETERS & SON CO., Boston, Mass. +ROYAL ELECTROTYPE CO., Philadelphia, Pa. +H. C. WHITCOMB & CO., Boston, Mass. + +=For Engravings= + +AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS CO., Boston, Mass. +C. B. COTTRELL & SONS CO., Westerly, R. I. +GOLDING MANUFACTURING CO., Franklin, Mass. +HARVARD UNIVERSITY, Cambridge, Mass. +INLAND PRINTER CO., Chicago, Ill. +LANSTON MONOTYPE MACHINE COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. +MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE COMPANY, New York, N. Y. +GEO. H. MORRILL CO., Norwood, Mass. +OSWALD PUBLISHING CO., New York, N. Y. +THE PRINTING ART, Cambridge, Mass. +B. D. RISING PAPER COMPANY, Housatonic, Mass. +THE VANDERCOOK PRESS, Chicago, Ill. + +=For Book Paper= + +AMERICAN WRITING PAPER CO., Holyoke, Mass. +WEST VIRGINIA PULP & PAPER CO., Mechanicville, N. Y. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Punctuation, by Frederick W. 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