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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/20770-8.txt b/20770-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d449264 --- /dev/null +++ b/20770-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4452 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Apple Growing, by M. C. Burritt + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Apple Growing + +Author: M. C. Burritt + +Release Date: March 9, 2007 [EBook #20770] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLE GROWING *** + + + + +Produced by Jeannie Howse, Steven Giacomelli and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + + * * * * * + + +-----------------------------------------------------------+ + | Transcriber's Note: | + | | + | Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original | + | document have been preserved. | + | | + | Obvious typographical errors have been corrected in this | + | text. For a complete list, please see the end of this | + | document. | + | | + +-----------------------------------------------------------+ + + * * * * * + + + +APPLE GROWING + + + + +APPLE +GROWING + + + +BY +M.C. BURRITT + + + +NEW YORK +OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY +MCMXII + + + + +COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY +OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY. + + +All rights reserved. + + + + +PREFACE + + +In the preparation of this book I have tried to keep constantly before +me the conditions of the average farm in the Northeastern States with +its small apple orchard. It has been my aim to set down only such +facts as would be of practical value to an owner of such a farm and to +state these facts in the plain language of experience. This book is in +no sense intended as a final scientific treatment of the subject, and +if it is of any value in helping to make the fruit department of the +general farm more profitable the author will be entirely satisfied. + +The facts herein set down were first learned in the school of +practical experience on the writer's own farm in Western New York. +They were afterwards supplemented by some theoretical training and by +a rather wide observation of farm orchard conditions and methods in +New York, Pennsylvania, the New England States and other contiguous +territory. These facts were first put together in something like +their present form in the winter of 1909-10, when the writer gave a +series of lectures on Commercial Fruit Growing to the Short Courses in +Horticulture at Cornell University. These lectures were revised and +repeated in 1910-11 and are now put in their present form. + +The author's sincere thanks are due to Professor C.S. Wilson, of the +Department of Pomology at Cornell University, for many valuable facts +and suggestions used in this book, and for a careful reading of the +manuscript. He is also under obligations to Mr. Roy D. Anthony of the +same Department for corrections and suggestions on the chapters on +Insects and Diseases and on Spraying. + + M.C. BURRITT. + +Hilton, N.Y. +February, 1912. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER PAGE + +I. THE OUTLOOK FOR THE GROWING OF APPLES 11 + +II. PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD 18 + +III. PLANTING AND GROWING THE ORCHARD 30 + +IV. PRUNING THE TREES 48 + +V. CULTIVATION AND COVER CROPPING 62 + +VI. MANURING AND FERTILIZING 78 + +VII. INSECTS AND DISEASES AFFECTING THE APPLE 92 + +VIII. THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF SPRAYING 108 + +IX. HARVESTING AND STORING 127 + +X. MARKETS AND MARKETING 142 + +XI. SOME HINTS ON RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 153 + +XII. THE COST OF GROWING APPLES 164 + + + + +APPLE GROWING + + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE OUTLOOK FOR THE GROWING OF APPLES + + +The apple has long been the most popular of our tree fruits, but the +last few years have seen a steady growth in its appreciation and use. +This is probably due in a large measure to a better knowledge of its +value and to the development of new methods of preparation for +consumption. Few fruits can be utilized in as many ways as can the +apple. In addition to the common use of the fresh fruit out of hand +and of the fresh, sweet juice as cider, this "King of Fruits" can be +cooked, baked, dried, canned, and made into jellies and other +appetizing dishes, to enumerate all of which would be to prepare a +list pages long. Few who have tasted once want to be without their +apple sauce and apple pies in season, not to mention the crisp, juicy +specimens to eat out of hand by the open fireplace in the long winter +evenings. Apples thus served call up pleasant memories to most of us, +but only recently have the culinary possibilities of the apple, +especially as a dessert fruit, been fully realized. + +It is doubtless this realization of its great adaptability, together +with its long season, which have brought the apple into so great +demand of late. It is possible to have apples on the table in some +form the year round. The first summer apples are almost always with us +before the bottom of the Russet barrel is reached. Or, should the +fresh fruit be too expensive or for some reason fail altogether, the +housewife can fall back on the canned and dried fruit which are almost +as good. + +The tendency in the price of this staple fruit has been constantly +upward during the last decade. Many people are greatly surprised when +the fact that apples cost more than oranges is called to their +attention. The increase in consumption, due to the greater variety of +ways of preparing the apple for use, has undoubtedly been an important +factor in this higher price. But at least an equally important factor +is the marked decrease in the supply of this fruit. To those who are +not familiar with the facts, the great falling off in production which +the figures show will be no less than startling. + + +PRODUCTION OF APPLES IN BARRELS IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 1896 TO 1910 + + 1896 69,070,000 + 1897 41,530,000 + 1898 28,570,000 + 1899 37,460,000 + 1900 56,820,000 + ----------- + Total crop for five years 233,450,000 + Average crop for five years 46,690,000 + 1901 26,970,000 + 1902 46,625,000 + 1903 42,626,000 + 1904 45,360,000 + 1905 24,310,000 + ------------ + Total crop for five years 185,891,000 + Average crop for five years 37,178,200 + 1906 38,280,000 + 1907 29,540,000 + 1908 25,850,000 + 1909 25,415,000 + 1910 23,825,000 + Total crop for five years 142,910,000 + ------------ + Average crop for five years 28,582,000 + + Estimates of 1896, 1897, and 1898 from "Better Fruit," Vol. 5, + No. 5. All other years from the estimates of the "American + Agriculturist." + +It will thus be seen that the apple crop of 1910 was 45,245,000 +barrels less than that of 1896, and that during the whole period of +fifteen years the decline has been regular. The average annual crop of +the five year period ending with 1905 was 9,511,800 barrels less than +the average annual crop of the preceding five years ending with 1900, +and correspondingly the annual average crop of the last five years, +ending with 1910, was 8,596,200 barrels less than that of the second +five year period. Comparing the first and the last five year periods, +we find that the crop of the last was 18,108,000 barrels less than +that of the first. These facts alone are enough to explain the higher +price of this fruit during the last ten years. + +HEAVY PLANTINGS.--Moreover, it should be further noted that this +falling off in the apple crop has been in the face of the heaviest +plantings ever known in this country. During the last ten years old +fruit growing regions like western New York have practically doubled +their orchard plantings. Careful figures gathered by the New York +State Agricultural College in an orchard survey of Monroe County show +that 4,972 more trees (21,289 in all) were planted in one +representative township during the five year period from 1904 to 1908 +inclusive than were ever planted in any other equal period in its +history. New fruit regions like the Northwestern States and a large +part of the Shenandoah valley of Virginia have been developed by heavy +plantings. These three are all great commercial sections. To them we +might add thousands of orchards which are scattered all over the +Northern and Eastern States, from Michigan to Maine and from Maine to +north Georgia. + +It is doubtful, however, if these scattered plantings have made good +the older trees which have died out. Scarcely a season passes that +hundreds of these old veteran trees are not blown down or badly +broken. Every wind takes its toll. After one of these windstorms in +Southern New York the writer estimated that at least twenty per cent +of all the standing old apple trees had been destroyed or badly +broken. In the commercial regions only a small part of the new +plantings have yet come to bearing and even here these probably do not +much more than make good the losses of old trees. So that on the +whole, heavy as our plantings have been, it is extremely doubtful if +they have very much more than made good the losses of the older trees +throughout the country. It is a fact worthy of note that this talk of +over-planting the apple has been going on for over thirty years, and +while the timid ones talked those who had faith in the business and +the courage of their convictions planted apples and reaped golden +harvests while their neighbors still talked of over-planting. + +Whether or not it is true that we have over-planted the apple, it must +be admitted that at the present time the demand is so much greater +than the supply that the poorer of our people cannot afford to use +apples commonly, and that no class of farmer in the Northeastern +States is more prosperous than the fruit growers. The new plantings +must of necessity begin to bear and become factors in the market very +slowly. Meanwhile the great opportunity of the present lies in making +the most possible out of the older orchards which are already in +bearing. Practically all of these old farm orchards which can present +a fairly clean bill of health, and in which the varieties are +desirable, can with a small amount of well directed effort be put to +work at once and during the next ten years or more of their life time, +they may be made to add a substantial income to that of the general +farm. Now is a time of opportunity for the owner of the small farm +apple orchard. + +FUTURE OF APPLE GROWING.--In the writer's opinion the future of apple +growing in the United States is likely to shape itself largely in the +great commercial regions. As these become more and more developed and +as the industry becomes more specialized the farmer who is merely +growing apples as a side line, except where he is delivering directly +to a special or a local market, will be crowded out. Here as elsewhere +it will be a case of the survival of the fittest. In the production of +apples commercially those growers who can produce the best article the +most cheaply are bound to win out in the end. + +It would, therefore, seem to be advisable for the general farmer to +plant apples only under two conditions; first, when he has a very +favorable location and site and plants heavily enough to make it worth +while to have the equipment and skilled labor necessary to make the +enterprise a success, and second, when he can market his fruit +directly in a local market. It would appear that the immediate future +of apple growing in the United States lies in the small farm orchard +as well as in the commercial orchards, but that the more distant +future lies in the commercial orchard except where special conditions +surround the farm. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD + + +LOCATION.--Having decided that under certain conditions the planting +of an apple orchard will prove a profitable venture, and having +ascertained that those conditions prevail on your farm, the next step +will be to determine the best location on the farm for the orchard. In +choosing this location it will be well to keep in mind the relative +importance of the orchard in the scheme of farm management. If the +orchard is merely a source of home supply, naturally it will not +require as important a position on the farm as will be the case if it +is expected to yield a larger share of the farm income. If the +relatively large net income per acre which it is possible to obtain +from an apple orchard is to be secured, the best possible location is +demanded. + +Contrary to the common ideas and practice of the past, the orchard +should not be put upon the poorest soil on the farm. The best +orchards occupy the best soils, although fairly good results are often +obtained on poor or medium soils. The relative importance which is +attached to the orchard enterprise must also govern the choice of +soil. If apples are to be a prominent crop they should be given the +preference as to soil; if not, they may be given a place in accordance +with what is expected of them. + +SOILS.--In general, the apple prefers a rather strong soil, neither +very heavy nor very light. Subsoil is rather more important than +surface soil, although the latter should be friable and easily worked. +The apple follows good timber successfully. Heavy clay soils are apt +to be too cold, compact, and wet; light sandy soils too loose and dry. +A medium clay loam or a gravelly clay loam, underlaid by a somewhat +heavier but fairly open clay subsoil is thought to be the best soil +for apples. Broadly considered, medium loams are best. The lighter the +soil the better will be the color of the fruit as a rule, and so, +also, the heavier the soil and the more nitrogen and moisture it holds +the greater the tendency to poorly colored fruit. In the same way +light soils give poorer wood and foliage growth as compared with the +large rank leaves and wood of trees on heavy, rich soils. + +VARIETAL SOIL PREFERENCES are beginning to be recognized. We cannot go +into these in detail in this brief discussion. A few suggestions +regarding standard varieties must suffice. Medium to light loams or +heavy sandy loams, underlaid by slightly heavier loams or clay loams, +are preferred by the Baldwin, which has a wider soil adaptation than +practically any other variety. Baldwin soils should dry quickly after +a rain. Rhode Island Greening requires a rather rich, moist, but well +drained soil, containing an abundance of organic matter. A light to +heavy silty loam, underlaid by a silty clay loam, is considered best. + +Northern Spy is very exacting in its soil requirements. A medium loam, +underlaid by a heavy loam or a light clay loam, is excellent. Heavy +soils give the Spy a greasy skin. Light soils cause the tree to grow +upright and to bear fruit of poor flavor. The King likes a soil +slightly lighter than the best Greening soils, but retentive of +moisture. Hubbardson will utilize the sandiest soil of any northern +variety, preferring rich, fine, sandy loams. + +The particular location of the apple orchard is largely a matter of +convenience. It should be remembered, however, that the apple requires +much and constant attention, therefore the orchard should be +convenient of access. The product is rather bulky, so that the haul to +the highway should be as short as possible. Other conditions being +equally good there, the common location near the buildings and highway +is best. + +THE SITE OF THE ORCHARD is a more important matter. Two essentials +should be kept in mind, good air drainage and a considerable +elevation. Although it is not so apparent and therefore less thought +about, cold air runs down hill the same as water. Being heavier, it +falls to the surface of the land, flowing out through the water +channels and settling in pockets and depressions. Warm air, being +lighter, rises. It is desirable to avoid conditions of stagnant air or +cold air pockets where frost and fogs are liable to occur. A free +movement of air, especially a draining away of cold air, is best +secured by an elevation. Fifty to one hundred feet, or sometimes less, +is usually sufficient, especially where there is good outlet below. +Frosts occur in still, clear air and these conditions occur most +frequently in the lower areas. + +Aspect or slope requires less attention. Southern exposures are warm +and hasten bud development and opening in spring. Northern exposures +are cold and retard the blossoming period. It is usually advisable to +plant the apple on the colder slopes which hold it back in spring +until all danger of late frosts is past. Northeast exposures are best +as a general rule. Choose a slope away from the prevailing wind if +possible. If this is impracticable it is often advisable to plant a +wind break of pine, spruce, or a quick, thick growing native tree to +protect the orchard from heavy winds. + +A large body of water is an important modifier of climate. Warming up +more slowly in the spring, it retards vegetation by slowly giving up +its cold. Vice versa, cooling more slowly in the fall giving up its +heat wards off the early frosts. It is therefore desirable to locate +near such bodies of water if possible. Their influence varies +according to their size and depth, and the distance of the orchard +from them. Good examples of this influence are the Chautauqua Grape +Belt on the eastern shore of Lake Erie and the Western New York Apple +Belt on the south shore of Lake Ontario. + +Professor Brackett has well summed up the whole question: "The +selection of the soil and site for the apple orchard is not governed +by any arbitrary rule," he says. "All farms do not afford the best +soils or exposures for orchards. The owners of such as do not are +unfortunate, yet they should not feel discouraged to the extent of not +planting trees and caring for them afterward." There are a number of +factors which influence not only a person who wishes to locate, but +one already located, either favorably or unfavorably. About these even +the most intelligent orchardists often differ. We have only laid down +general principles and given opinions. Here as elsewhere application +is a matter of judgment. + +VARIETIES.--A proper soil and a good location and site having been +selected, the next important question to be decided is the varieties +to be planted. So much and so variable advice is given on this +question that many persons are at a loss as to what to plant and too +often decide the matter by planting the wrong varieties. Rightly +viewed, the question of varieties is a comparatively simple one. +Personal preference, tempered by careful study of certain factors and +good judgment, are all that are required. Beginners, especially, are +too apt to rely entirely on another's opinion. The only safe way is to +learn the facts and then decide for yourself. + +We have already indicated that soil is a determinant in the choice of +varieties. This should be absolute. It is very unwise to try to grow +any variety on a soil where experience has shown that it does not do +well. The experience of your neighbors is the best guide in this +respect. + +The limitations of climate should also be carefully heeded. An apple +may be at its best in one latitude or one situation and at its worst +in another. Find out from experienced growers in your region, or from +your State Experiment Station what varieties are best adapted +climatically to the place where you live. It is an excellent rule +never to plant a variety that you cannot grow at least as well as any +one else, or still better, to plant a variety that you can grow better +than anyone else. Grow something that not everyone can grow. Do not +try to produce more of a variety of which there is already an over +supply. + +A few examples may make this more clear. Western New York is the home +of the Baldwin, the Twenty Ounce and the King. Albemarle Pippins grown +on the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge are famous. The Spitzenburg +appears at its best in the Northwest. The Northern Spy, the McIntosh, +and the Fameuse are not to be excelled as they are grown in the +Champlain Valley, in Vermont, or in Maine. To attempt to compete with +these sections in the growing of these varieties, except under equally +favorable conditions, would be foolish. Your section probably grows +some varieties to perfection. Find out what these varieties are and +plant them. + +All these are general factors to be observed which cannot be +specifically settled without knowing the soil and particular locality. +Certain other factors governing the choice of varieties can be more +definitely outlined. If the prospective orchardist will get these +factors thoroughly in mind and apply them with judgment mistakes in +planting should be much more rare. The more important ones are: The +purpose for which the fruit is intended to be used, whether for the +general market, a dessert or fancy trade, or for culinary and general +table use; whether the trees are to be permanent and long lived, or +temporary and used as fillers; whether the earliest possible income is +desired or whether this is to be secondary to the future development +of the orchard; whether the stock of the particular variety is strong +or weak growing; whether the variety is high, medium, or low as to +quality; and whether the market is to be local, distant, or export. + +The following tables were originally compiled by Professor C.S. Wilson +of Cornell University. They have been slightly revised and modified +for our purpose. We believe that they are essentially correct and that +they will be a safe guide for the reader to follow in his selection of +varieties: + +GENERAL MARKET APPLES DESSERT OR FANCY TRADE +COMMERCIAL BOX WELL + + Baldwin McIntosh + Ben Davis Northern Spy + Hubbardson Fameuse + Northern Spy Wagener + King Grimes Golden + Rome Beauty Yellow Newton + Oldenburg Red Canada + Alexander King + Twenty Ounce Sutton + Winesap Hubbardson + York Imperial Esopus Spitzenburg + + CULINARY AND GENERAL TABLE USE + + Rhode Island Greening Grimes Golden + Gravenstein Twenty Ounce + Newtown Yellow Bellflower + Alexander Oldenburg + Tolman Sweet Sweet Winesap + +GOOD PERMANENT GOOD TEMPORARY +TREES TREES--FILLERS + + Baldwin McIntosh + Rhode Island Greening Wealthy + Northern Spy Wagener + McIntosh Rome Beauty + *King Oldenburg + *Twenty Ounce Jonathan + *Hubbardson Alexander + Alexander Twenty Ounce + Rome Beauty Hubbardson + + + * When this variety is set as a permanent tree it should be top + worked on a hardier stock, such as Northern Spy. + +Age at which variety may be expected to begin to fruit. (Add two years +for a paying crop). + +FIVE YEARS OR UNDER EIGHT YEARS AND UP + + Rome Beauty Esopus Spitzenburg + Oldenburg Fall Pippin + Maiden Blush Golden Russet + Wagener Northern Spy + Yellow Newton Baldwin + McIntosh Gravenstein + Fameuse Tolman Sweet + King + Rhode Island Gr. + Twenty Ounce + Winesap + +ESPECIALLY HARDY STOCKS POOR RATHER WEAK GROWERS* + + Northern Spy King + Tolman Sweet Twenty Ounce + Ben Davis Esopus Spitzenburg + Baldwin Hubbardson + Fameuse Grimes Golden + Winter Banana Sutton + Canada Red + +* Other varieties are medium. + +HIGH IN QUALITY LOCAL OR PEDDLER'S VARIETIES + + McIntosh Rhode Island Greening + Esopus Spitzenburg Wealthy + Northern Spy McIntosh + Newtown Fameuse + Gravenstein Tolman Sweet + Red Canada Grimes Golden + Fameuse Jonathan + Grimes Golden + Hubbardson GOOD GENERAL MARKET VARIETIES + Rhode Island Greening + Baldwin +MEDIUM TO POOR QUALITY Rhode Island + King + Ben Davis Twenty Ounce + Oldenburg McIntosh + Rome Beauty Hubbardson + Roxbury Russet Northern Spy + + GOOD EXPORT VARIETIES + + Baldwin Newtown + Ben Davis Esopus Spitzenburg + Northern Spy Jonathan + +Only the best and most common varieties for the more northern +latitudes have been included in this list as it would make it too +cumbersome to classify all our known varieties. It must be remembered +that this is not an arbitrary classification and that it is made as a +guide to indicate to the reader the general characteristics of the +variety. It should be used as such and not taken literally. The +characters of the different varieties grade into each other. For +example, the McIntosh is very high and the Ben Davis is very low in +quality but the King and the Twenty Ounce are neither very good nor +very poor, but midway between. + +We must again remind the reader that the choice of varieties is a +matter of judgment, tempered by the facts regarding them. One who is +not capable of rendering such judgment after studying his conditions +and the characteristics and requirements of leading varieties had +better stay out of the apple business entirely, as he will often be +called on for the exercise of good judgment in caring for the orchard. +The facts here given are intended as suggestive. The reader who +desires to know more of a particular variety will do well to consult +Beach's "Apples of New York," published by the Geneva Experiment +Station. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +PLANTING AND GROWING THE ORCHARD + + +The proper soil, site, and location having been selected, the solution +of the problems of orchard management is only just begun, although a +good start has certainly been made. Farm management brings constantly +to one's attention new problems and new phases of old problems, +whatever the type of farming. The skill with which these problems are +met and a solution found for them determines the success or failure of +the farm manager. To some men the details of the orchard business +offer the greatest obstacles, while to others it is the general +relationship of one detail to another which is difficult. Both are +essentials of good management. If we are able in this chapter to +remove some of these minor difficulties and at the same time indicate +the correct relationships we will have accomplished our purpose. + +As we come now to the actual plans for planting our orchard many +questions come up for answer. When shall I plant? Where and of whom +shall I purchase my trees? How old should they be? Is it wise to use +fillers or temporary trees, and if so, what kind? How far apart should +the trees be planted and how many are required for an acre? What +arrangement of the trees is most advisable? How should the ground be +prepared? What is the best method of setting? When the trees are +planted should they be inter-cropped, and if so, with what? How should +the young trees be handled and cared for? He who would be a successful +orchardist must endeavor to answer these questions. + +WHEN TO PLANT.--The question of fall or spring planting is a less +important one with a comparatively hardy fruit like the apple than it +is with a more tender fruit like the peach. Apples may safely be +planted in the fall when soils are well drained and when the young +trees are well matured, both of which are very important if winter +injury is to be avoided. Fall planting has several distinct +advantages. During the winter fall planted trees become well +established in the soil which enables them to start root growth +earlier in the spring. Consequently the young trees are better able to +endure droughts. In the fall the weather is usually more settled and +there is better opportunity to plant under favorable conditions than +in the unsettled weather of spring. It is usually possible, too, to +get a better selection of trees at the nursery in the fall because +most of the trees are not sold until midwinter. + +Still the fact remains that the common practice of spring planting is +the more conservative course. There is always danger of getting +immature trees in the fall, and of winter injury to fall planted +trees. Trees may be set in the fall any time after the buds are mature +which is usually after October 1st to 18th in the latitude of New +York. They should not be pruned back in the fall, as this invites +winter killing of the uppermost buds. The question of available time +must also be considered. On some farms fall offers more time; on +others, spring. To sum up the matter, plant at the most convenient +time, providing the conditions are favorable. + +WHERE TO BUY.--But one rule as to where to buy trees can be laid down. +Buy where you can secure the best trees and where you can be sure of +the most reliable and honest dealers. Beware of the tree agent, who +has been guilty of more dishonesty and misrepresentation than almost +any other traveling agent. Buy of a salesman under one condition only, +that he prove to you that he is the bona fide representative of a +well-known and reputable nursery firm, and then make your order +subject to investigation of the firm's standing and finding it as +represented. + +The safest course is usually to purchase of your home nurseryman with +whose standing and honesty you are familiar, and whose trees you can +personally inspect. Such a man has a reputation at stake and will have +an object in keeping your trade. Moreover, you will save freight, +secure fresher stock with less liability of injury in handling, and +get trees grown under your own conditions. If stock is purchased away +from home it is better to get it at a nursery in a more southern +latitude in order to secure trees of better growth. + +All trees should be purchased in the late summer or early fall when +the nurseryman has a full list of varieties and you can get the pick +of his stock. Select a well grown mature tree two years old from the +bud. One year old trees are preferred by many and if well grown and at +least five feet high they are probably best. But a one year old tree +is rather more delicate, requiring careful handling and intelligent +training. Unless a person buys from a southern nursery and is an +expert in handling trees, the two year old tree is to be preferred, +but a skilful grower can make a more satisfactory tree from a one year +old seedling. + +The average buyer must depend largely on his nurseryman for getting +trees true to name, which is the reason for laying so much emphasis on +purchasing from an honest dealer. Some nurserymen guarantee their +varieties to be true to name, and all ought to do so. Buyers should +demand it. The seeds of the apple rarely come true to the variety +planted. They are therefore usually budded on one year old seedlings +imported from France. Sometimes they are whole or piece root grafted +which is equally as good a method of propagation. + +It is possible for a man to grow and bud or graft his own seedlings, +but hardly advisable for the average small grower or general farmer, +as it is usually expensive when done on a small scale and requires +considerable skill. Always buy a high grade tree. Seconds are often +equally as good as firsts when they are simply smaller as a result of +crowding in the nursery row. A tree which is second grade because of +being stunted, crooked, or poorly grown should never be set. Thirds +are seldom worth considering at any price. + +FILLERS.--Whether or not the planter of an apple orchard should use +fillers is a question which he alone must decide. In the writer's +opinion there are more advantages than disadvantages in so doing, but +we must state both sides of the question and let the reader judge for +himself. The term "filler" is one used to designate a tree planted in +the orchard for the temporary purpose of profitably occupying the +space between the permanent trees while these are growing and not yet +in bearing. Fillers make a more complete use of the land, bringing in +larger as well as quicker returns from it, three distinct advantages. +(See Chapter XII, The Cost of Growing Apples.) On the other hand, +objections to their use are that they are often left in so long that +they crowd and seriously injure the permanent trees, and that their +care often requires different operations and at different times from +the other trees, such as spraying, which may result in injury to the +permanent trees in the orchard. + +Trees used as fillers for apples should have two important +characteristics; they should be rapid, vigorous growers and should +come into bearing at a very early age. Two kinds of fillers are +available, those of the same species, which may be either dwarf or +standard trees, and those of a different species, of which peaches and +plums, and possibly pears, are the best adapted. Dwarf trees may be +dismissed from our plans with the statement that they have rarely +proved profitable under ordinary conditions, as they are much more +difficult to grow than standards and when grown they have but few +advantages over them. The varieties of standard apples which are +advisable as fillers have been indicated in Chapter II. + +The use of peaches and the Japanese plums, both of which make +excellent fillers because they grow rapidly and come to heavy bearing +quickly, is limited to their soil and climatic adaptation. They are +adapted to the lighter phases of soil and the more moderate climates +and under other conditions are impracticable. On heavier soils and in +more rigorous climates the European plums and the more rapid and early +bearing pears, such as the Keiffer, make fairly good fillers. + +On the whole, the writer is inclined to advise the use of fillers in +the general farm orchard. Quicker returns from an investment of this +nature, which is usually heavy and which at best must be put off +several years, are very important. Under careful and intelligent +management the objections to their use are easily overcome. + +SPACING AND ARRANGEMENT OF TREES.--The distance apart of planting +depends on the variety planted. Close headed, upright growing trees +may be planted closer together than spreading varieties. Some +varieties grow larger than others, and the same variety may vary in +size on different soils. It is seldom advisable to plant standard +apple trees in the latitude of New York closer than thirty feet, or +farther apart than fifty feet. Trees of the nature of Twenty Ounce and +Oldenburg (Dutchess) should be planted from thirty-two to thirty-six +feet apart, while Baldwins, Rhode Island Greenings, and Northern Spies +represent the other extreme and will require forty, and sometimes +fifty feet of space. The method and thoroughness of pruning influences +the size of trees greatly, and hence the distance at which It is +necessary to set them. + +Varieties top worked on other stocks have a tendency to grow more +upright and may be set closer together. It should be remembered in +this connection that the roots of a tree extend considerably beyond +the spread of the branches. From thirty-five to forty feet is a good +average distance and trees should be trained so as to occupy this +space and no more. Where fillers are used the latter distance is best, +as the twenty feet apart at which the trees will then stand is close +enough for any standard variety. + +RECTANGULAR.--The method of setting or the arrangement of the trees +will greatly influence the number of trees which may be put upon an +acre and the distance apart of the trees in the row. The most common +method in the past has been the regular square or rectangular method, +e.g., trees forty by forty feet, or forty by fifty feet, and rows at +right angles, and this is still preferred by many. It is easy to lay +out an orchard on this plan and there is less liability of making +mistakes. It is best adapted to regular fields with right angle +corners, especially where the orchard is to be cropped with a regular +rotation. All tillage operations are most easily performed in orchards +set on this plan. + +A slight modification of this arrangement which is often advisable, +especially where fillers are used, is to set a tree in the center of +the square. The trees then stand like the five spots of a domino, and +the shortest distance between trees will be about twenty-seven feet +when the trees in the regular rows are forty by forty feet apart. This +plan practically doubles the number of trees which can be set on an +acre. + +HEXAGONAL OR TRIANGULAR.--Another method of arrangement of the trees +which is becoming more and more popular is the hexagonal or triangular +system. More trees can be planted on an acre by this plan than by any +other, it being very economical of space. It makes all adjacent trees +equally distant from each other and is really a system of equilateral +triangles. This plan is better adapted to small areas and especially +to irregular ones, and should be employed where land is expensive and +culture very intensive. It is more difficult to set an orchard after +this method without error, and it is open to the objection of +inconvenience in cultural operations. Most people forget that while +the rows running cornerwise in a rectangular or square field set after +this plan may be a standard distance apart, yet the right angle rows +(not trees) in which it may be more convenient to work are actually +much closer together. + +The best plan to follow to get the rows of trees straight on a level +field is what is known as the outside stake method. This plan requires +the placing of a row of stakes on each of the four sides of the field +where the trees are to be set and usually about two rows each way +through the middle. For this purpose ordinary building laths are best, +about one hundred and fifty laths, or three bundles, being required +for five acres, which is as large a unit as can be set at once by this +plan. + +_First_, determine the distance from the road or fence to the first +tree row, which would be at least eighteen feet to allow for turning +the teams, and establish base lines on each side of the field at right +angles to each other. + +_Second_, beginning at the given distance from the side of the field, +set up a row of stakes along these base lines at the exact distance +apart at which the trees are to be set and about half way between the +fence and the first right angle row. Do the same on all sides of the +field. + +_Third_, by sighting across the field from one end stake to the other +the cross rows of stakes can be set through the middle of the field. +These should be about six or eight rods apart, and care should be used +to avoid setting them where they will interfere with the sighting of +the right angle rows. This plan has the great merit of enabling the +entire orchard to be set without moving a stake, as no stake stands +where a tree is to be set. If the trees are set exactly where the +sight lines cross at right angles and if all rows are an equal +distance apart, the rows will be perfectly straight. + +On rough or rolling land this plan does not work well. Here more +simple methods, though requiring more time, must be used. Lines drawn +with a cord or marked across the field with a corn planter answer well +for small areas. Poles of the right length are often used to good +advantage. In setting trees after the hexagonal plan an equilateral +triangle made of light poles or wire is probably best, especially on +small rough areas, as it is very accurate, simple, and quite rapid. +Some men prefer to make measurements and set a stake at every point +where a tree is to be placed. In these cases a simple device locates +the original stakes after the hole has been dug. A light board about +six feet long with a notch in the center and holes with pegs in them +at each end is placed with the notch at the stake. One end is then +swung round and the hole dug. When the end is replaced on its peg the +tree set in the hole should rest in the notch where the original stake +did. + +The following table shows the number of trees required per acre at +different distances for the square or rectangular method and for the +hexagonal method. + + Sq. Hex. Sq. Hex. + + 12 × 12 302 344 24 × 24 75 80 + 12 × 15 242 ... 24 × 30 60 .. + 15 × 15 193 224 30 × 30 48 56 + 15 × 18 161 ... 30 × 36 40 .. + 15 × 20 145 ... 33 × 33 40 46 + 15 × 30 96 ... 30 × 48 30 .. + 18 × 18 134 156 30 × 60 24 .. + 18 × 20 121 ... 36 × 36 33 39 + 20 × 20 108 124 40 × 40 27 31 + 20 × 30 72 ... 40 × 50 21 .. + +It will be noted that the hexagonal plan allows the setting of from +four to forty trees more per acre than the square plan, even when the +trees are set the same distance apart. This is the great advantage of +this plan over the square. Filling an orchard one way, i.e., between +the permanent row, in one direction only, practically doubles the +trees which can be set on an acre; filling both ways quadruples the +number. + +PREPARATION OF SOIL.--The previous condition and treatment of a soil +for an orchard are important. If the soil has been in a good rotation +of field crops, including some cultivated crops, it should be in prime +condition for the trees. Old pastures and meadows should be plowed up, +cropped, and cultivated for a year or two before setting to obtain the +best and quickest results. If one is in a hurry, however, this may be +done after setting the trees. Good results are sometimes obtained by +setting trees right among the stumps on recently cleared timberland. +Where no stiff sod has formed the trees start quickly in the rich +soil. + +The best immediate treatment of land preparatory to setting the trees +should be such as to place the soil in good tilth. Deep plowing, +thorough cultivation, and the application of liberal amounts of +manure--twelve to fifteen loads per acre--are the most effective means +of doing this. The best crop immediately to precede trees is clover. +Sometimes an application of one thousand five hundred to two thousand +pounds of lime will help to insure a stand of clover and at the same +time improve the physical condition of the soil. Fall plowing is a +good practice on the medium loams and more open soils, but on the +heavy clays spring plowing is to be preferred, as when plowed in the +fall these soils puddle and become hard to handle. Care should always +be taken to keep the orchard well furrowed out as standing water is +decidedly inimical to satisfactory tree-growth. Tile draining is +frequently advisable. + +INTERCROPPING.--The question of intercropping a young orchard is one +to be carefully considered. As it is often practiced it is very +injurious to the orchard, but it is possible to manage crops so as to +be of very little harm to the trees. While the practice may be +inadvisable in many commercial orchards, yet on a general farm we +should by all means think that it was the right thing to do. Certain +facts must be remembered, however, which have a bearing on the +subject. + +Trees are a crop, as much as corn or grass. If we grow a crop between +the tree rows we must remember that we are double cropping the land +and that it must be fed and cared for accordingly. There is absolutely +no use in setting an apple orchard, expecting it to take care of +itself, "just growing," like Topsy, as numerous dilapidated and broken +down orchards bear ample testimony. If orchards are to be cropped +this must be judiciously done with the trees primarily in mind. + +The best crops to grow in a young apple orchard are those requiring +cultivation, or which permit the cultivation of the land early in the +season. Field beans, potatoes, and garden truck of all kinds, as small +vegetables, melons, etc., are among the very best crops to grow in the +young orchard. Corn will do if it does not shade the trees too much. +Small grain and grass should not be used, especially where they come +up close to the trees. These crops form too stiff a sod and use up too +much moisture. A mulch of straw, cut grass, or coarse manure will help +to correct this condition somewhat when these crops must be used. +After cultivation until midsummer buckwheat makes a satisfactory +orchard crop in some cases. + +A regular rotation may be used in the young orchard to advantage when +a space is left next the trees to receive cultivation. This space +should be at least two feet on each side of the tree the first year +and should be widened each year as the tree grows older and larger, to +four, six, and eight feet. This method has been used by the author +very successfully for a number of years. Some good rotations to use +in a growing orchard are: (1) Wheat or rye one year, clover one year, +beans or potatoes one year; (2) oats one year, clover one year, +potatoes one year; (3) beans one year, rye plowed under in spring, +followed by any cultivated crop one or two years. The essentials of a +good rotation for an orchard are: A humus and fertility supplying +crop, preferably clover, in the north, and cow peas in the south, and +at least two crops in four requiring cultivation up to the middle of +the summer. + +Most of the points regarding the management of young trees have +already been mentioned, but a few others should have attention +directed to them. Fall planted trees should not be cut back until +spring. In the spring all newly planted trees should have their tops +cut back rather severely to correspond with the injury to the roots in +transplanting, thus preserving the balance between root and top. This +will usually be about half to two-thirds the previous season's growth. +From three to five well distributed branches should be left with which +to form the top. During the first few years of their lives the young +apple trees will need little or no pruning, except to shape them and +remove crossing or interfering branches. + +Constant cultivation at frequent intervals until midsummer should be +the rule with young growing trees, with which this is even more +important than with older trees. It is a good plan to plow the orchard +in fall where possible, always turning the furrows toward the trees, +leaving the dead furrows as drainage ditches between the rows. At +Beechwood Farm we have always banked the trees with earth in the fall, +using a shovel. This not only firms the soil about the tree, holding +it straight and strong through the winter, but it affords good +protection against rodents, especially mice. Where rabbits are +prevalent it is well to place a fine mesh wire netting around the +trees in addition to this. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +PRUNING THE TREES + + +Pruning is not an entirely artificial operation as one might at first +thought suppose. It is one of nature's most common processes. Nature +accomplishes this result through the principle of competition, by +starting many more trees on a given area than can possibly survive. In +the same way there is a surplus of buds and branches on each +individual tree. It is only by the crowding out and the perishing of +many buds, branches, and trees that others are enabled to reach +maturity and fulfill their purpose. This being too slow and too +expensive a process for him, man accomplishes in a day with the knife +and saw what nature is years in doing by crowding, shading, and +competition. Proper pruning is really an improvement on nature's +method. + +Neither is it true, as some claim, that pruning is a devitalizing +process. On the contrary it is often stimulating and may actually +increase the vigor of a weak or declining tree. All practical +experience teaches us that pruning is a reasonable, necessary, and +advantageous process. True, it is often overdone, and improperly done. +As in many other things, certain fundamental principles underlie and +should govern practice. When these are known and observed, pruning +becomes a more simple matter. + +Heavy pruning during the dormant or winter season stimulates the +growth and tends to increase the production of wood. In the same way +pruning during the summer or growing season stimulates the growth and +tends to induce fruitfulness, if the tree remains healthy. But this +fruitfulness is apt to be at the expense of the vigor of the tree. On +the other hand, the pruning of the roots of a tree tends to check the +growth of wood, the same as poor feeding. As above noted heading back +a tree when dormant tends to stimulate it to a more vigorous growth. + +The habit of growth of a variety has much to do with its pruning. Some +varieties of apples are upright, others are spreading growers. Climate +and locality greatly affect these habits of growth. So also the habit +of a young tree often differs from the habit of the same tree in old +age. The tendency is for a tree to continue its growth from its +uppermost or terminal buds. Although the heading in of new growth +checks this upward tendency and throws the energy of the tree into the +development of lateral and dormant buds, nevertheless the pruned tree +soon resumes its natural upward growing habit. + +Plant food is taken up by the minute tree rootlets in solution and +carried to the leaves where it is elaborated and then returned for use +to the growing tissues of the tree. Whenever there is any obstruction +above a bud the tendency is to throw the energy of the branch into a +lateral bud, but if the obstruction is below the bud the branch merely +thickens and growth is checked. When too heavy pruning is practiced +the balance between the roots and top is disturbed. This usually +results in what are commonly known as "suckers." These are caused by +an abnormal condition and while they may be the result of disease or +injury to the tree, they are often of great value in restoring or +readjusting the proper balance between the roots and top. + +Pruning a tree is a way of thinning the fruit and a good one. It may +sometimes be used to influence the bearing year of trees like the +Baldwin, which have an alternate bearing habit, but this is a more +theoretical than practical method. Fruit bearing is determined more by +the habitual performance of the tree than by any method of pruning, +and this is especially true of old trees. It is easier to influence +young trees. Conditions which tend to produce heavy wood growth are +unfavorable for the formation and development of fruit buds. A +quiescent state is a better condition for this. + +REASONS FOR PRUNING.--With these fundamental principles in mind we may +safely outline a method of pruning an apple tree. As the desired end +is different so will the method of pruning a young tree differ from +that of an old one. There are five important things for which to prune +a young tree, namely: + +1. To preserve a proper balance between the top and root at the time +of setting out. This usually means cutting off the broken and the very +long roots to a reasonable length and cutting back from one-half to +two-thirds of the growth of the previous season. + +2. To make the top open in order to admit the sunlight freely. In the +humid climate of the Northeastern States, it is usually advisable to +prune a tree so as to have a rather open top. This is necessary in +order properly to color and mature the fruit. + +3. To regulate the number of limbs composing the top. Probably three +branches well distributed on the trunk would make most nearly the +ideal head, but as these cannot always be obtained the best practice +is to leave from three to five branches from which to form the top. + +4. To fix the branches at the proper height from the ground. This is +more or less a matter of opinion, some growers preferring a low and +others a high head. The character of the tree growth, the method of +culture, and the purpose of the tree whether temporary or permanent +greatly influence the height of the head. An upright growing variety +should be headed lower than a spreading one. Trees kept in sod or +under extensive methods can well be headed lower than those under more +intensive culture where it is desirable to carry on cultural +operations close around them. Permanent trees should be headed higher +than temporary trees. Apple trees should seldom be headed lower than a +foot from the ground, nor more than four feet above it. For upright +growing varieties intended as permanents, the writer prefers three to +three and one-half feet and for more spreading varieties four feet; +while for temporary trees eighteen inches should be a good height. + +5. To do away with weak crotches and to remove crossing or interfering +branches. A crotch formed by two branches of equal size, especially +when the split is deep, is a weak crotch and should be avoided. Strong +crotches are formed by forcing the development of lateral buds and +making almost a right angle branch from the parent one. All branches +which rub each other, which tend to occupy the same space with +another, or which generally seem out of place, are better removed as +soon as any of these tendencies are found to exist. + +IDEALS IN PRUNING.--The general method of pruning the old trees and +the ideal in mind for it will also influence the pruning of the young +tree, especially the shaping of it. Once determined upon, the ideal +should be consistently followed out in the pruning of the tree as it +becomes older. As the tree comes to bearing age it will be necessary +to prune somewhat differently and for other purposes. These we can +conveniently consider under six heads: + +1. Every tree should be pruned with a definite ideal as to size, +shape, and degree of openness in mind. To have such an ideal is very +important. It is only by industriously and consistently carrying it +out that the ideal tree in these respects can be ever obtained. +Haphazard cutting and sawing without a definite purpose in mind are +really worse than no pruning at all. + +2. It almost goes without saying that to remove all dead, diseased, or +injured wood is a prime purpose of pruning. Dead and injured branches +open the way for rot and decay of contiguous branches, and disease +spreads through the tree. The removal of all such branches is as +essential to the health of the tree as it is to its good appearance. +In removing them the cut should be made well behind the diseased or +injured part to insure the checking of rot and disease. + +3. All mature apple trees should be so pruned as to keep them in the +most easily manageable shape and to facilitate in every possible way +the operations of tillage, spraying, and harvesting. It is most +important to have the tree low enough down so that spraying and +picking can be easily done. It is difficult to spray properly a tree +which is more than twenty-five feet in height. Even this height +necessitates a tower on the spray rig and the use of an extension +pole. An apple tree should be so pruned that all the fruit can be +readily picked from ladders not longer than eighteen to twenty-two +feet. + +Of course, if the tree has been allowed to get higher than this under +previous management, sometimes we have to make the best of a bad +situation. If the trees are too high head them back by cutting off the +leaders, but it is not always wise to lower all trees to twenty-two +feet. Heading back of old trees will be more fully discussed in the +chapter on "Renovating Old Orchards." Ladders longer than twenty-two +feet are heavy and clumsy to handle. + +If cultivation is to be carried on close up under the tree the lower +limbs must be pruned so as to allow this. It is not necessary, +however, to drive a team closer than twelve or fifteen feet from a +mature tree, contrary to the common belief and practice. Cultivation +is least important in the first few feet of space around a mature +tree. By the use of set-over tools, all that is necessary can be well +cultivated without crowding the team under or against the branches. + +4. As has been pointed out in the discussion of the pruning of young +trees, in humid regions where the sunlight is none too abundant +through the growing season, the open head is most desirable. Sunlight +on the leaves as well as on the fruit is essential to good color of +the fruit, and good color is a very important factor in the flavor and +attractive appearance of the fruit. An open center with upright +growing leaders removed gives the greatest opportunity for sunlight to +penetrate through the tree. + +5. As we have seen, pruning in the dormant season tends to increase +the vigor of the tree. Thus winter pruning serves to secure a normal +and vigorous wood growth, which is most essential to a healthy +fruit-bearing tree. On the other hand, such pruning may be excessive +and produce wood growth at the expense of fruit buds, throwing the +tree out of bearing. + +6. The sixth and last reason for pruning is to regulate the number and +distribution of the wood and the fruit bearing buds. The proper +balance between these is greatly affected by pruning and can be best +regulated by experience with the particular tree or variety. A perfect +balance is hard to get, but with study and skill it can be closely +approximated. Pruning, too, may thin the fruit, as removing branches +removes fruit buds. This is best done by removing small branches near +the ends of larger ones. It is a much cheaper method of thinning than +picking off individual fruits, but not as effective. + +TIME OF PRUNING.--The particular time of the year for pruning is not +vital. As between summer and winter pruning, winter is to be preferred +because of the physical effect on the tree. Summer pruning is an +unnatural process and should only be practiced as a last resort to +check growth or induce fruitfulness, as it may result in injury to the +tree. It is essential that a tree mature its foliage, which it +frequently does not do after summer pruning. Diseased, dead, or +injured wood should be removed when first observed, summer or winter. + +Spring is the logical and usually the most convenient time to prune on +the general farm. While dormant season pruning may be done at any +time between November 1st and June 1st, the cuts heal more rapidly in +the spring when the sap begins to flow. In regions subject to severe +and drying winds in the winter, pruning should be deferred at least to +late winter. Considered from every standpoint, March and April are +quite the best months in which to prune. After the removal of useless +branches, the normal amount of food material is delivered to fewer +buds under greater sap pressure and the remaining buds are made more +strong and vigorous. + +In removing small branches with a knife or other cutting tool, the cut +should be made upward from below and opposite a bud. On upright +growing varieties the last bud left should be an outside one to induce +the tree to spread as much as possible, while on spreading trees +leaving as the last bud an inside one has a tendency to make the tree +grow more upright. Always cut close to the parent branch, never +leaving a stub no matter how young or old the tree. + +Cuts of lateral branches should be made just at the shoulder of the +branch where it joins the parent. A cut behind the shoulder will not +heal, neither will one too far ahead of it. A stub left on a trunk or +large branch does not heal, but soon begins to rot at the end where +the heartwood is exposed. This gradually works back into the main +branch and the tree finally becomes "rotten at the heart." All that is +needed to complete the destruction is a heavy wind, an ice or a snow +storm, or a heavy load of fruit. + +All wounds more than two inches in diameter should be painted either +with a heavy lead paint, which is preferable, or with some gas tar +preparation. These things do not in themselves heal a cut, but they +keep out the decaying elements, air and moisture, thus helping to +preserve the branch and by protecting it to promote healing in +nature's way. A little lamp black will serve to deaden the color of +the paint. + +PRUNING TOOLS.--The best tool to use in pruning is one which brings +you nearest to your work and over which you have the greatest control +to make all kinds of cuts. In the writer's experience no tool does +this so smoothly and conveniently as a properly shaped saw. A good saw +should be quite rigid, rather heavy at the butt, where its depth +should be about six inches, tapering down to about two inches at the +point. It should have a full, firm grip, be not more than thirty +inches long, and should always be kept sharp. Two-edged saws should +not be used because of the injury done to the tree when sawing in +crotches. + +Cutting shears are often very useful, especially the smaller, +one-handed type which is almost indispensable in pruning young trees. +The larger, two-handled shears are useful in thinning out the ends of +branches or in heading back new growth. They should not be too heavy, +as they are tiresome to use. The extension handled types are too +cumbersome, too slow to work with, and the operator is of necessity +too far away from his work for the best results. + +FRUIT THINNING.--A matter which is quite nearly related to pruning is +thinning the fruit, and may properly be treated here. That this is not +as common a practice with most fruit-growers as it should be, the +great lack of uniformity in our ordinary market apples is ample +evidence. Many persons will at once raise the question as to whether +or not it is practicable to thin the fruit on large apple trees. The +answer is that many growers find it not only practicable, but most +profitable to do so. Wherever fruit of a uniform size and color is +desired, thinning is a practical necessity, especially when the crop +of fruit is heavy. + +The proper time to thin the fruit is just after what is commonly known +as the "June drop," i.e., the falling off of those fruits not well +enough pollinated or set to hold on to maturity. In thinning the fruit +should be taken off until they are not closer than from four to six +inches apart on the same branch, although the distance apart on any +branch will depend somewhat on the amount of the crop on other parts +of the tree. Never leave clusters of fruit on any branches, as some of +them are sure to be small and out of shape. Furthermore two apples +lying together afford a fine place for worms to get from one apple to +another and they seldom fail to improve the opportunity. Step ladders +and ordinary rung ladders are used to get at the fruit for thinning. +The cost of the operation is not nearly as large as might appear at +first thought and in practically all cases is a paying investment. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +CULTIVATION AND COVER CROPPING + + +In its broad sense cultivation is the treatment of the soil. Thus +understood orchard cultivation includes the sod mulch system as well +as the stirring of the soil with various implements. In its more +common and restricted meaning, however, cultivation is the stirring of +the soil about plants to encourage growth and productivity. To have +the apple tree in sod was once the commonly accepted method of orchard +treatment--a method of neglect and of "letting well enough alone." +With the advent of more scientific apple culture the stirring of the +soil has come to be the more popular method. But within the last few +years an improved modification of the old sod method, known as the sod +"mulch" system, has attracted much attention because of the success +with which a few men have practiced it. For a correct understanding of +these practices and of the relative desirability of these systems we +must again turn to underlying principles and purposes. + +It may be said on first thought that tillage is a practice contrary to +nature. But it accomplishes what nature does in another way. Tillage +has been practiced on other crops than trees for so long that we think +of it almost as a custom. There are, however, scientific and practical +reasons for tillage. + +THE EFFECTS OF TILLAGE on the soil are three fold, physical, chemical, +and increasing of water holding capacity. Tillage affects the soil +physically by fining and deepening it, thus increasing the feeding +area of roots, and by bringing about the more free admission of air +warms and dries the soil, thus reducing extremes of temperature and +moisture. Chemical activities are augmented by tillage in setting free +plant food, promoting nutrification, hastening the decomposition of +organic matter, and the extending of these agencies to greater depth. +Tillage conserves moisture by increasing the water holding capacity of +the soil and by checking evaporation. + +Of all these things which tillage accomplishes in a soil, two should +be especially emphasized for the apple orchard, namely, soil moisture +and soil texture. That moisture is a very important consideration in +the apple orchard the effects of our frequent droughts are ample +evidence. The amount of rainfall in the Eastern States when it is +properly distributed is fully sufficient for the needs of an apple +tree. By enlarging the reservoir or water holding capacity of the soil +and by preventing the loss of water by evaporation, an excess of +rainfall in the spring may be held for later distribution and use. + +As a rule, the improvement of a poor soil texture is as effective as +the supplying of plant food and much cheaper. The latter is of no +consequence unless the plant can use it. Scientists tell us that there +is an abundance of plant food in most soils. The problem is to make it +available. Plant food must be in solution and in the form of a film +moisture surrounding the smallest soil particles in order to be +available to the fine plant rootlets which seek it. Good tillage +supplies these conditions. Can they be obtained equally well in +another way? + +It is claimed by the advocates of the sod mulch system of orchard +culture that it also supplies these conditions. Humus or decayed +vegetable matter holds moisture. Grass or other mulch decaying in the +soil increases its humus content and hence its water holding capacity. +By forming a mulch over the soil evaporation may be checked to some +extent, although probably not as effectively in a practical way, as by +cultivation. If there is a good grass sod in the orchard, moisture and +plant food made available by that moisture are utilized, and if the +grass is allowed to go back into the soil it continues to furnish +these elements to the tree. But there is a rapid evaporation of +moisture from the surface of the leaves of grass. In fact, grass may +well serve to remove an excess of moisture in wet seasons, or from wet +lands. + +Laying aside theoretical considerations, let us see what practical +experience teaches on this subject. We have the accurate data on a +large number of western New York orchards showing the results of +cultivation and other methods of soil management. These data are +overwhelmingly in the favor of cultivation. In Wayne County the +average yield of orchards tilled for five years or more was 271 +bushels per acre, as compared with 200 bushels per acre for those in +sod five years or more but otherwise well cared for,--an increase of +thirty-five per cent. in favor of good tillage. In Orleans County, +under the same conditions, the increase in yield due to cultivation +was forty-five per cent. and in Niagara County it was twenty-two per +cent. Records were made on hundreds of orchards and the results should +be given great weight in determining the system to be practiced, as +intelligent consideration of trustworthy records is to be encouraged. + +These results were obtained in one region under its conditions and it +is quite possible, although not probable, that other conditions might +give different results. There are, however, special conditions as will +be pointed out later, under which the sod mulch method might be more +advisable than tillage. It is cheaper, makes a cleaner cover for the +drop fruit, avoids the damage from tillage implements to which tilled +trees are liable, and can be practiced on lands too steep to till. It +often happens, too, that it fits into the scheme of management on a +general farm better than the more intensive and specialized system of +cultivation. And it must be remembered that we are dealing with this +question from the point of view of the home farm rather than of the +commercial orchardist. So that where the sod mulch gives equally good +results it would be preferred under these conditions. + +LATE FALL AND EARLY SPRING PLOWING.--The common tillage practice in +the sections where it is most followed is to plow either in late fall +or as early as possible in the spring. Whether fall or spring plowing +is best depends on two things: the character of the soil and +convenience. On heavy clay soils where drainage is poor it is not +advisable to plow in the fall as the soil is apt to puddle and then to +bake when it dries, making it hard to handle. On gravel loams, medium +loams, and all well drained soils which are fairly open in texture +either fall or spring plowing is practiced depending on which period +affords the most time. + +On the general farm where there are several crops for which the land +must be prepared in spring, it would seem best to get as much of the +plowing as possible done in the fall. But a large crop of apples or a +large and late corn husking or potato digging may interfere with this +on some farms and make spring plowing more desirable. Always plan this +work in connection with the other farm work so as to give the best +distribution of labor. + +After fall plowing either the spring-tooth harrow or the disk harrow +is best to use to work up the soil and no time should be lost in +getting at this as soon as the land is dry enough in the spring. +Sometimes the disk harrow can be used to work up the soil in the +orchard in the spring without any plowing at all, especially on loose +loams where there are few stones. But on newly plowed land a disk cuts +too deep and there is too great danger of injuring the roots. On +spring plowed land the spring-tooth harrow usually gives the best +results. After the soil is thoroughly fined and worked into a mellow +bed and as soon as the period of excessive moisture in spring is +passed, a lighter implement like the smoothing harrow or a light +shallow digging cultivator should be used to stir the surface of the +soil only. + +The growing period for an apple tree begins as early as growth starts +in the spring and continues up to about midsummer. If cultivation is +to stimulate growth as much as possible, it should be done during this +period. The first object of cultivation in the early spring is to +loosen up, aerate, and dry out the soil, which is usually too wet at +that time. As cultivation is continued the soil will become fined and +firmed again by the time drier weather comes on. A fairly deep +digging and lump crushing tool is the best implement to use up to this +time, and a disk or spring-tooth harrow meets these requirements. + +After this period is passed and during drier weather, cultivation is +carried on for a different purpose, namely, to conserve moisture by +making a thin dust mulch of soil over the surface. This is best +accomplished by shallow-going implements of which the spike-tooth +harrow, the acme harrow, or a light wheel cultivator are best. As the +season and the amount of rainfall vary, so must tillage operations be +varied. In an early dry season begin with the lighter implements +earlier. In a late wet season keep the digging tools at work later. As +soon as the soil is in good physical condition the principal object of +tillage is to modify moisture conditions. + +As a matter of practice three to four harrowings at intervals of a +week to ten days are necessary. Sometimes more, sometimes less are +required, according to the character and condition of the soil and the +season. The later moisture-conserving tillage should also be carried +on every week or ten days, according to weather conditions. It is good +practice to stir the soil after every heavy or moderately heavy rain. +Use the smoothing tools after light to medium rains and the heavier +tools after packing or beating rains. In practice from five to eight +or ten of these cultivations are necessary. The drier the season the +more necessary does frequent cultivation become. + +A COVER CROP is so closely associated with tillage that it is usually +considered a part of the system. It should be sown in midsummer as soon +as tillage ceases. This time will vary from July first to August +fifteenth, depending on the locality, the rainfall, the crop of fruit +on the trees, and on how favorable the conditions for securing a good +stand of the cover crop are. The farther south the locality, or the +earlier the fruit, the sooner the crop should be sown. Absence of +sufficient rainfall necessitates a continuation of the cultivation, +both because it is necessary to conserve all the moisture possible and +because it is difficult to get a good stand of a cover crop--especially +of one having small seeds--at a dry time in midsummer. + +In a year when there is a full crop of fruit on the trees cultivation +should be continued as late as possible as all the stimulus that can +thus be secured will be necessary to help the fruit attain good size +and maturity, and at the same time enable the tree properly to mature +its fruit and leaf buds for the following year. On the other hand, in +a year when there is not a full crop of fruit cultivation should be +stopped early so as to avoid forcing a too rank growth of wood and +foliage and continuing the growth of the next season's buds so late +that they may not mature and therefore may be in danger of winter +killing. + +The different kinds of cover crops which may be used in the apple +orchard will be considered in the next chapter as they are so closely +associated with fertilization. Strictly speaking, however, a cover +crop is used principally to secure its mulching and physical effects +on the soil in the intervals between the seasons of tillage. In +addition to its physical and feeding effects the cover crop serves to +check the growth of trees in the latter part of the season by taking +up the nitrates and a part of the moisture, thus helping to ripen the +wood. + +SOD MULCH.--The ordinary sod culture which is practiced in so many +orchards should not be confused with the sod mulch system. The one is +a system of neglect, the other of intention. In the sod mulch system +the grass sod is stimulated and encouraged and when the grass dies or +is cut, it is left on the ground to decay, forming a soil mulch +meanwhile. The removal of grass from the orchard as hay is poor +practice and should be discouraged. The grass mulch may well be +supplemented by the addition of other grass, straw, leaves, coarse +manure, or other similar materials. Sometimes this mulch is put on to +the depth of six inches or even a foot around the tree. Thus practiced +it is very effective in conserving moisture and in adding the humus +which is so necessary to the soil. + +Sod and tillage have somewhat different effects on the tree and on the +fruit. Let us see what these effects are. It is common knowledge that +fruit is more highly colored when grown in sod than when grown under a +tillage system. This is probably largely due to the fact that tillage +keeps the fruit growing so late that it does not mature so well or so +early. Fruit is usually two or three weeks later in tilled than in sod +orchards. It has been shown that fruit grown under tillage keeps from +two to four weeks longer than that grown in sod. It is claimed +also--but this is a disputed point--that tilled fruit has a better +quality and flavor. Certain it is that fruit grown in sod is drier +and less crisp and juicy. + +The effect of tillage on the trees is more marked and better known. +Tilled trees have a darker, richer green foliage, indicating a better +and more vigorous health. The leaves are also larger and more +numerous. They come out three or four days earlier in the spring and +stay on the trees two weeks later in the fall than the leaves on trees +kept in sod. Tilled trees make nearly twice the growth in a season +that those in sod do, in fact there is danger of their making wood +growth at the expense of fruit buds. Tillage also gives a deeper, +better distributed root system. + +Despite the advantages and the disadvantages of each system, there are +times, places, and circumstances under which one is more advisable +than the other. On lands rich in humus and in plant food and level so +as to be easily tillable, cultivation is without doubt the best +system. But it should be practiced in connection with cover crops, and +the orchard should be given occasional periods of rest in sod--say one +year in from three to five. + +The sod mulch system of orchard culture is probably better adapted to +rather wet good grass land and where mulching material is cheap and +readily available. It is undoubtedly at its best on lands too steep or +rough to till, or otherwise unsuitable to cultivation. Tillage is the +more intensive method and where labor is scarce and high sod culture +might be more advisable for this reason, other conditions being not +too unfavorable. + +In order to illustrate a method of management under the tillage system +we may suggest the following as a good one for level to gently rolling +land: + + 1912. Early plowing in spring, cultivation to July first to + fifteenth. Then sow red clover as a cover crop. + + 1913. Repeat previous year's treatment, varying the time of + sowing cover crop according to conditions. + + 1914. Let the clover grow, mowing and leaving on the ground as a + mulch, June fifteenth to twentieth, and again in August. + + 1915. Plow early in spring, cultivate to midsummer, and then sow + rye or buckwheat as a cover crop July fifteenth to August + fifteenth. + + 1916. Repeat 1915 treatment and if trees are not growing too + fast, sow clover or hairy vetch as a cover crop. + + 1917. Same as 1912, etc. + +PASTURING THE ORCHARD.--The sod mulch system explains itself and does +not need illustration. Sod orchards are often managed as pasture for +animals, however, and this practice should be discussed. An orchard is +considered as pastured when a considerable number of animals are +turned into it for a greater or less portion of the year. Results in +orchards where pasturage has been thoroughly tried out show that it is +never advisable to pasture an orchard with horses or cattle, but that +fairly good results may be expected where sheep or hogs are used. + +The evidence of yield of fruit and appearance of trees both indicate, +that pasturing an orchard with horses or cattle is about the worst +possible practice. These animals rub against the trees, break the +branches, browse the limbs and leaves, and destroy the fruit as high +as they can reach. All experience is against this practice which +cannot be too strongly deprecated. + +Pasturing an orchard with sheep, although a somewhat doubtful +practice, often gives good results. Sheep crop the grass close to the +ground and to some extent prevent the extensive evaporation which +usually takes place from the leaves of grass. Their well distributed +manure is worth considerable. They also browse the branches to some +extent and should not be allowed to run in the orchard late in the +season as they will destroy considerable fruit. + +Pasturing an orchard with swine gives better results than any other +pasture treatment of the orchard. Hogs do considerable rooting which +prevents the formation of a stiff sod and itself may often amount +almost to cultivation in well stocked orchards. A good deal of manure +is added to the soil, especially when the hogs are fed outside the +orchard. Hogs also destroy many insects by eating the wormy fruit. + +Pasturage of orchards has its advantages. It gives a double +utilization of the land. It is a cheap method of management. When the +animals are fed outside the orchard, as should always be the case, it +adds considerable plant food to the soil. When plenty of outside food +can be given and when the orchard is not overstocked--the animals +should never be hungry--hogs and sheep may be used to advantage in +pasturing orchards. In very rough fields incapable of tillage, this is +undoubtedly the very best system of orchard management. + +Pasturage has the disadvantage of exposing young trees to injury from +the animals, but this may be at least partly avoided by protecting +them with stakes or a heavy wire meshed screen. Hogs especially soil +the fruit and make the land rough and difficult to drive over. Under +the proper conditions pasturage may be practiced to advantage, +especially on small areas and on the general farm where it is more +advantageous than it would be commercially. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +MANURING AND FERTILIZING + + +Cover crops may be said to be supplementary to tillage. In the +previous chapter this function has been discussed. It now remains to +point out another important function--that of a green manure crop +adding humus and plant food to the soil. Not only do some cover crops +add plant food and all humus to the soil, but they tend to conserve +these by preventing leaching, especially of nitrates, and they help to +render plant food more available by reworking it and leaving it in a +form more available for the tree. They sometimes act as a protection +against winter injury by holding snow and by their own bulk. They also +help to dry out the soil in spring, thus making the land tillable +earlier. + +There are two great classes of cover or green manure crops, leguminous +and non-leguminous. A non-leguminous crop merely adds humus and +improves the physical condition of the soil. In itself it adds no +plant food, although it may take up, utilize, and leave behind plant +food in a more available form for the tree's use. But in addition to +these benefits, leguminous crops actually add to the soil plant food +in the form of nitrogen which they have the ability to assimilate from +the air by means of bacterial organisms on their roots. + +NON-LEGUMINOUS CROPS.--The most important of the non-leguminous crops +are rye, buckwheat, turnips or rape, barley, oats, and millet. The +first mentioned are the most commonly used. Also in order of +importance the following are the usual leguminous cover and green +manure crops to be used: clovers, winter vetch, soy beans, alfalfa, +cow peas (first in the South). In order to determine the relative +advisability of the use of these various crops let us now look at some +of their characteristics and requirements. + +Rye is one of the best non-leguminous cover crops, especially in the +young orchard, as it does not grow as well in shade as in the open. A +particularly strong point about rye is that it grows rapidly quite +late in the fall and starts early in the spring. Starting earlier than +most crops in the spring, it makes a considerable amount of growth +before the land is fit to plow. Especially in warmer climates rye +should not be sown too early in the fall--not usually before September +1st--because of this too heavy growth. Rye is also adapted to a great +variety of soils and hence will often grow where other crops will not +do well. About two bushels of seed are required per acre. + +Buckwheat is probably about equally as good as rye for an orchard +cover crop, although it does not produce quite as much organic matter. +It will germinate at almost any season of the year even if it is very +dry. It is a great soil improver because of its ability to feed and +thrive on soils too poor for other crops, due to its numerous shallow +feeding rootlets. It grows rapidly and covers the ground well, but +like rye does not thrive as well in shade. Buckwheat should not be +used to excess on the heavier types of soil as it is rather hard on +the land. One bushel of seed to an acre makes a good seeding. + +Turnips or rape often make good pioneer cover or green manure crops. +They are great soil improvement crops and it is comparatively easy to +secure a good stand of them even in dry weather. Sown in late July in +the North they will produce a great bulk of humus and add much +moisture to the soil, especially if they cover the ground well. Their +broad, abundant leaves and high tops also hold the snow well in +winter. Cow Horn is the best variety of turnips to use, as it is a +large, rank grower. Use one to two pounds of seed to the acre. Rape +makes an excellent pasture crop in an orchard both for sheep and hogs, +but especially for the former. Eight or nine pounds of seed are +necessary to the acre. + +Barley, oats, and millet are not as good crops as the foregoing, +because, with the possible exception of millet, they make their best +growth early in the season. Moreover they take up too much moisture +from the soil at a time when the tree most needs this moisture. In +fact they are sometimes used for this specific purpose on wet land in +too wet seasons. Two to two and one half bushels of oats or barley and +one to one and one half bushels of millet to the acre are necessary +for a good seeding. + +Although weeds can hardly be classified as cover crops, they are often +valuable ones. They grow rapidly and rank, making a large bulk of +humus, without the expense of seeding. If they are not allowed to go +to seed so as to scatter the seed about the farm, they often make the +best of cover crops. This necessitates a mowing in September. Weeds +are plants out of place, and when these plants are in place they are +not necessarily weeds, as they have then become serviceable. + +LEGUMES.--In general, legumes are more valuable as cover and green +manure crops than non-leguminous plants, because as a rule they are +more rank growers and more deeply rooted, as well as because they add +nitrogen to the soil. But it is rather more difficult to secure a good +stand of most legumes than it is of the crops previously mentioned for +several reasons. As a rule the seeds are smaller and a large seed +usually has greater germinating power than a small one. This often +means much at the time of the year when the cover crop is sown. Then +legumes are more difficult to grow, requiring better soil conditions. +Still these should be present in good orchard soils. Drainage must be +good, the soil must be at least average in fertility and physical +condition, it must not be sour--hence it is often necessary to use +lime--and soils frequently require inoculation before they will grow +legumes satisfactorily. + +Where the clovers grow well they make excellent cover crops as well as +green manure crops. The chief difficulty with them is that of +obtaining a good stand in a dry midsummer. The mammoth red and the +medium red clovers are probably the best of their genus on the heavier +soils, while crimson clover is best on sandy soils and where it will +grow, on the lighter gravel loams. The latter is especially well +adapted to building up run down sandy soils. Although it is somewhat +easier to secure a stand of this clover, alsike does not grow rank +enough to make a good cover or green manure crop. Most clovers are +deep rooted plants and therefore great soil improvers physically as +well as being great nitrogen gatherers. The amounts of seed required +per acre for the different kinds are about as follows: mammoth fifteen +to twenty pounds; red (medium) twelve to fifteen pounds; crimson +twelve to fifteen pounds; and alsike ten to twelve pounds. + +Where it can be readily and successfully grown alfalfa is really a +better cover and green manure crop than the clovers. It is deeper +rooted, makes a better top growth, and therefore adds more nitrogen +and more humus to the soil than the clovers. It cannot be recommended +for common use, however, as it is so difficult to grow except under +favorable conditions. It requires a more fertile soil than clover, a +soil with little or no acidity, good drainage, and usually the soil +must be inoculated. Only where these conditions prevail can alfalfa be +generally recommended. + +Vetch is an excellent cover and green manure crop, forming a thick, +close mat of herbage which makes a good cover for the soil. It is very +quick to start growing and a rapid grower in the spring. It also adds +larger quantities of nitrogen. The hairy or winter vetch lives through +the hard freezing winters. Summer vetch, although an equally good +grower, is killed by freezing. One bushel of seed is required per acre +and the seed is expensive, which is the greatest objection to the use +of this excellent crop. + +Two other less well known and used leguminous crops are well worth +trial as cover crops--soy beans in the North and cow peas in the +South. Both are great nitrogen gatherers and as they are rank and +rapid growers add large quantities of humus to the soil. Under +favorable conditions they will cover the ground with a perfect mat of +vegetation in a very short time. Being larger seeded, it is +considerably easier to obtain a stand on dry soils and in dry seasons +than it is of the smaller seeded clovers. It is usually best to sow in +drills the ordinary width, seven inches, apart. + +Cow peas are universally used as a cover and green manure crop in the +South, but they do not thrive so well in the North. One and one half +to two bushels of seed are required per acre. In the North the earlier +maturing varieties of soy beans are almost equally good. One to one +and one half bushels of seed are sown per acre. + +Leguminous cover crops are also the best and the cheapest source of +nitrogen for the apple orchard, after they are well established. Their +use may be overdone, however. Too much nitrogen results in a growth of +wood at the expense of fruit buds. To avoid this it is often advisable +to use non-leguminous and leguminous crops alternately, when the +orchard is making a satisfactory growth. Sometimes also these two +kinds of crops, as buckwheat and clover for example, may be combined +with good results. When this is done one half the usual amount of seed +of each should be used. + +EARLY PLOWING.--Many people make the common mistake of thinking that +a green manure crop must be allowed to grow until late in June in +order to secure the maximum amount of growth. There are several +reasons why this is not good practice. In the first place cultivation +is most essential in the early spring as has been pointed out. Then +moisture is better conserved by plowing under the crop early and a +better physical condition of the soil secured. Plowing early in the +spring warms up the soil and sets plants to work more quickly. Lastly, +material rots much more quickly in the early spring when moisture is +more abundant, which is very important. + +An apple tree is as much a crop as anything grown on the farm and must +be so regarded by those who would become successful orchardists. When +it is not properly fed and cared for, good yields of fruit may not +justly be expected. Especially is this true of an orchard which is +being intercropped. But because of the fact that an apple tree is not +an annual crop but the product of many years' growth, because its root +system is deeper and more widely spread out than those of other crops, +and because the amount of plant food removed in a crop of fruit is +comparatively small, fertilization is less important than many +persons would have us think. It is a fact that where orchards receive +good cultivation and a liberal supply of humus commercial fertilizers +give but medium results. + +ELEMENTS OF FERTILITY.--Three elements are necessary for the growth of +apple trees, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. To these lime may +be added, although its benefit is indirect rather than direct as a +plant food. How badly any of these elements may be needed depends on +the soil, its previous treatment, and on the system of management. By +learning what are the effects of these elements on the tree and fruit +we may determine under what conditions, if any, their use is +advisable. + +Nitrogen promotes the growth of new wood and leaves, giving the latter +a dark green color. In fact the color of the leaves and the amount of +the wood growth are usually good indicators of the need of nitrogen. +Nitrogen in excess develops over vigorous growth and prevents the +maturity of wood and buds. It always has a tendency to delay the +maturity of the fruit by keeping it growing late. On many varieties it +tends to produce poorly colored fruits. + +When trees are making a normal amount of growth in a year--say a foot +to three feet or more--and when the leaves are of good size and a +dark green in color, there is little need of nitrogen. But when trees +are not growing satisfactorily and the leaves have a sickly yellow +color, then the need of nitrogen is evident. On early soils and in +long growing seasons nitrogen may be more freely and safely used than +under other conditions. + +The effect of phosphoric acid and potash on the tree and fruit is much +more uncertain. They are supposed to influence the quality and the +flavor of the fruit, giving better color and flavor, and this they +undoubtedly do to some extent. Potash probably gives the leaves a +darker green color. The precise effect of these two elements is at +present a subject of much discussion, one set of investigators +maintaining after a long and careful investigation that these effects +are too small to be worth while, and the other claiming that they have +a marked effect in the ways above indicated. The only safe guide is +the actual local result. If the fruit is satisfactory in every way it +will be of little use to try fertilizers. On the other hand, if it is +not, then it will pay to experiment with them. The needs of and the +results on different soils are so variable that it is always wise to +experiment on a small scale before using fertilizers extensively. + +STABLE MANURE.--The necessary plant food is best supplied by stable +manure applied at the rate of ten loads per acre for a light +application to twenty loads per acre for a heavy application. This +amounts to a load for from two to five mature trees. Such an +application will not only go far toward supplying the necessary +nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, but especially if coarse will +add considerable humus and improve the physical condition of the soil. + +Except on land which washes badly, manure should be applied in the +fall and winter. It should not be piled near the trunk of the tree but +spread uniformly over the entire surface of the ground. It is +particularly important to spread the manure under and beyond the +farthest extent of the branches as this is the most important feeding +root area of the tree. + +COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.--Where manure is not available or where it +cannot be applied in sufficient amounts, commercial fertilizers may be +resorted to, after they have been experimentally tested out. +Leguminous cover crops are the best source of nitrogen, as has been +indicated, but where these do not grow well, or in seasons when they +have for some reason failed, nitrate of soda or dried blood are good +substitutes. From two hundred to three hundred pounds of one or the +other of these may be applied broadcast in the spring soon after +growth is well started and all danger of its being checked by frost or +cold weather is past. It is well to apply the nitrate of soda in two +applications a few weeks apart, especially on soils which are leachy +and in wet seasons, as part of the nitrogen may leach away if all is +applied at once. These should be thoroughly worked into the soil with +a spring-tooth harrow. + +To supply the other two elements, from two hundred to four hundred +pounds of treated rock phosphate or basic slag for the phosphoric +acid, and the same amount of sulphate of potash for the potash, should +be applied at any time in the early part of the season, preferably +just before a light rain, and worked into the soil as before. +Home-made wood ashes are a good source of both these elements, and +especially of the potash. They cannot be purchased economically in any +quantity, but on the general farm there could be no better way to +utilize the wood ashes made around the place than by applying them two +or three bushels to a full grown tree every year or two. Wood ashes +are also a good source of lime, being about one-third calcium oxide. +Thus a large amount of available plant food will be supplied to the +tree, and where it is needed should result not only in better wood +growth but in the formation of vigorous leaf and fruit buds for the +following year. + +Lime is not usually considered as a fertilizer except on soils +actually deficient in it. But it will usually be advisable to apply +from one thousand five hundred to two thousand pounds of fresh burned +lime or its equivalent, in order to correct any natural soil acidity, +to hasten the decay of organic material, to increase the activity of +the soil bacteria, and to improve the physical condition of the soil +by floculating the soil particles and helping to break up lumpy soils. +Lime also helps to liberate plant food by recombining it with certain +other elements in the soil. All these effects make a more congenial +medium for the leguminous crops to grow in, and it is frequently +advisable to use lime for this purpose alone. After this first heavy +application about 800 pounds of lime should be applied per acre every +four or five years. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +INSECTS AND DISEASES AFFECTING THE APPLE + + +It is a common saying among farmers who have grown apples on their +farms for many years that there are many more pests to fight than +there used to be. How often we have heard a farmer tell of the perfect +apples that grew on a certain tree "when he was a boy," before people +had generally heard of codling moth, San José scale, apple scab, or +other troubles now only too common. "We never sprayed, but the apples +were fine," he says. Is this the usual glorification of the mythical +past or is it true? In all probability it is a little of both, but it +is undoubtedly true that insects and fungous diseases have increased +rapidly of late years. + +REASONS FOR PEST INCREASE.--When there is an abundance of food and +conditions are otherwise favorable, any animal or plant will thrive +better than when the food supply is scarce and conditions unfavorable. +As long as apple trees were scattered and few in number there was not +the opportunity for the development of apple pests, but as soon as +they became numerous the prosperity of bugs and minute plant parasites +was wonderful to see. Another factor which has been at least partly +responsible for the great increase in our insect life is that man has +upset nature's balance by destroying so many birds, and, by +interfering with their natural surroundings, driven them away. Birds +are great destroyers of insects, and their presence in the orchard +should be encouraged in every possible way. Add to these facts the +marvelous fecundity of the insect tribe, and the increase is less +remarkable. Loss from these orchard pests has now run up into the +millions. It has been estimated that the loss in the United States +from wormy apples alone is over $11,000,000 annually. Thus has the +necessity for fighting these enemies of good fruit arisen. + +In order successfully to combat an insect or a disease it is very +necessary to have a somewhat detailed knowledge of its life history +and to know its most vulnerable point of attack. It is impossible to +work most intelligently and effectively without this knowledge, which +should include the several stages of the insect or disease, the point +of attack, the time of making it, and when and with what it can be +most easily destroyed. The number of insects and diseases which affect +the apple is so great that it is simply out of the question to treat +them all in detail here. We have therefore selected nine insects and +three diseases as those pests of the apple which are most common and +whose effects are usually most serious. The essential facts in their +life histories and their vulnerable points will now be pointed out. +The method of study may be taken as applicable to any other pests +which it may be necessary to combat. + +INSECT PESTS.--Of the many insects which affect either the tree or the +fruit of the apple, the nine selected probably inflict the most damage +and are the most difficult to control of all those in the Northeastern +States. According to their method of attack all insects may be divided +into two classes: biting and sucking. Biting insects are those which +actually eat parts of the tree, as the leaves or fruit. These are +combated by the use of stomach poisons as we shall see in the +following chapter. Sucking insects are those which do not eat the tree +or fruit directly, but by means of a tubelike proboscis suck the +juices or sap from the limbs, leaves or fruit. Of the biting insects +the five which we shall discuss are: (1) codling moth, (2) apple +maggot, (3) bud moth, (4) cigar case bearer, (5) curculio. The four +sucking insects discussed are: (6) San José scale, (7) oyster shell +scale, (8) blister mite, and (9) aphis or plant louse. + +1. THE CODLING MOTH, the most insidious of all apple pests, is mainly +responsible for wormy apples. The adult is a night flying moth with a +wing expanse of from one-half to three-quarters of an inch. The moths +appear about the time the apple trees are in bloom. Each female is +supposed to lay about fifty eggs which are deposited on both the +leaves and fruit, but mostly on the calyx end of the young apples. The +eggs hatch in about a week and the young larvae or caterpillars begin +at once to gnaw their way into the core of the fruit. Three-fourths of +them enter the apple through its blow end. + +After twenty to thirty days of eating in the apple, during which time +they become full grown and about three-quarters of an inch long, they +leave the apple, usually through its side. The full grown caterpillar +now secretes itself in the crevices in the bark of the tree or in +rubbish beneath the tree and spins a tough but slight silken cocoon in +which the pupal period is passed. This lasts about a fortnight, when +the process is sometimes repeated, so that in the Eastern States there +are often two broods each season. + +The most vulnerable point in the career of this little animal is when +it is entering the fruit. If a fine poison spray covers the surface of +the fruit, and especially if it covers the calyx end of the apple +inside and out, when the young larvae begin to eat they will surely be +killed. It is estimated that birds destroy eighty-five per cent. of +the cocoons on the bark of trees. + +2. APPLE MAGGOT.--It is fortunate that the apple maggot, often called +the railroad worm because of its winding tunnels all through the +fruit, is not as serious a pest as the codling moth for it is much +more difficult to control with a poison. A two-winged fly appears in +early summer and deposits her eggs in a puncture of the skin of the +apple. In a few days the eggs hatch and the maggots begin to burrow +indiscriminately through the fruit. The full grown larvae are a +greenish white in color and about a quarter of an inch long. From the +fruit this insect goes to the ground where the pupal stage is passed +in the soil. The next summer the fly again emerges and lays its eggs. + +Spraying is not effective against this insect as the poison cannot be +placed where it will be eaten by the maggots. The best known remedy is +to destroy the fruit which drops to the ground and for this purpose +hogs in the orchard are very effective. The distribution of this +insect in the orchard is limited and it has shown a marked preference +for summer and autumn varieties. + +3. THE BUD MOTH closely resembles the codling moth in form and size, +but differs from it in color and life history. The larvae, after +hibernating through the winter, appear as little brown caterpillars +about May first or as soon as the buds begin to open, and a week or +two later begin their work of destruction. They inflict great damage +on the young leaf and fruit buds by feeding on them. When full grown +the larvae, cinnamon brown in color with a shining black head, are +about one-half inch long. They then roll themselves up in a tube made +from a leaf or parts of leaves securely fastened together with silken +threads. In this cocoon pupation, which lasts about ten days, takes +place. Early in June the moths appear. There is but one brood in the +North. These insects can be successfully combated with a poison spray +applied early before the buds open. + +4. THE CIGAR CASE BEARER winters in its case attached to a twig. When +the buds begin to open in the spring it moves to them, carrying its +case with it, and begins to feed on the young and tender buds. By the +time the leaves are well open, it has fed a good deal on the tender +buds and young leaves and is ready to make a new and larger case. This +it does by cutting a leaf to suit and then rolling it up in the form +of a cigar, whence its name. In this case the larvae continue feeding +about a month, causing much injury to the leaves, although this is not +as serious as the mutilation of the young buds in the spring, before +the tree is fully leafed out. + +About the last of June pupation takes place and in about ten days the +moth emerges. The eggs are then layed along the midribs of the leaves +and hatch in about fifteen days. The newly hatched larvae become leaf +miners during August, and migrate to the branches again in the fall +where they pass the winter. These leaf and bud eating insects can be +destroyed by applying a poison to the buds before they open and again +later to the opening leaf and flower buds. + +5. CURCULIO BEETLES pass the winter under leaves and grass. In the +spring they feed on the blossoms and the tender leaves. As soon as the +young fruits are formed the female deposits her eggs in a puncture +made just inside a short, crescent-shaped cut in the little apple. The +eggs soon hatch and the young grubs burrow into the fruit to the core +where they remain two or three weeks, or until full grown. The larvae +then bore their way out of the fruit and drop to the soil where they +pupate. The earliest of the beetles to emerge again feed on the fruit. +The principal damage from this pest comes from the feeding of the +beetles and the work of the larvae, although the latter is not as bad +in the apple as in the stone fruits. A poison on the young foliage as +soon as the beetles begin to feed is the best method of combating +curculio. Jarring the tree is not as practicable with the apple as it +is with the plum. + +6. THE SAN JOSÉ SCALE, one of our worst apple tree pests, is a sucking +insect extracting the juices of the tree from the trunk, limbs or +branches, or even from the leaves and fruit when it is very abundant. +At first the growth is checked only, but as the insects develop their +work finally results in the death of the part, unless they are +destroyed. The insect winters in an immature condition on the bark +under a grayish, circular, somewhat convex scale about the size of a +pinhead. The young, of which a great many broods are produced, are +soft bodied but soon form a scale. In the early spring small +two-winged insects issue from these scales. + +After mating the males die, but the females continue to grow and in +about a month begin the production of living young--minute, yellow, +oval creatures. These young settle on the bark and push their slender +beaks into the plant from which they begin to suck out the sap. In +about twelve days the insects molt and in eight to ten more they +change to pupae, and in from thirty-three to forty days are themselves +bearing young. A single female may give birth to four hundred young in +one season and there are several generations in a season. This great +prolificacy is what makes the scale so serious a pest. + +In fighting it every scale must be destroyed or thousands more are +soon born. In order to be able to use a strong enough mixture of lime +and sulphur to destroy them by smothering or choking the spray must be +applied on the dormant wood in the spring or fall or both. +Thoroughness is most essential. + +7. THE OYSTER SHELL SCALE, although it is essentially the same in its +habits and in its methods of sucking the sap from the tree is not as +bad a pest as the San José scale because it is less prolific, there +being but one brood a year. Still this scale often destroys a branch +and sometimes a whole tree. The "lice" winter as eggs under the scale +and hatch in late May or early June. After crawling about the bark for +two or three days, the young fix their beaks into it and remain +fastened there for life, sucking out the sap. By the end of the season +they have matured and secreted a scaly covering under which their eggs +for the next season's crop winter. A smothering spray like lime and +sulphur applied strong when the trees are dormant will practically +control this scale. But the young may be destroyed in summer by a +contact spray such as tobacco leaf extract or whale oil soap. + +8. THE LEAF BLISTER MITE is a small, four-legged animal, so small as +hardly to be visible to the naked eye. It passes the winter in the +bud scales and as soon as these begin to open in the spring it passes +to the tender leaves which it punctures, producing light green or +reddish pimples according to the variety of apple. These later develop +into galls or blisters of a blackish or reddish brown color and +finally result in the destruction of the leaf. Trees are sometimes +practically defoliated by this pest, and this at a time when a good +foliage is most needed. Inside of the galls eggs are deposited and +when the young hatch they burrow in all directions. In October the +mites abandon the leaves to hibernate in the bud scales again. A +strong contact spray of lime sulphur when the trees are dormant +destroys the young mites while they are yet on the bud scales, which +is practically the only time when they are vulnerable. + +9. APHIDES, or plant lice, are of seasonal importance. Although nearly +always present, it is only occasionally that they become so numerous +as seriously to damage mature apple trees. But they are more often +serious pests on young trees where they should be carefully watched. +Their presence is determined by the curled and distorted condition of +the terminal leaves on the under side of which the green or pinkish +lice will be found. Eggs deposited in autumn pass the winter in this +condition, hatching in the spring about the time of the beginning of +the growth of vegetation. From these winter eggs females are hatched +which bear living young, which may also bear living young and so on +for several generations until autumn, when eggs are again deposited +for the winter stage. + +Fortunately weather conditions together with parasitic and predaceous +insects hold them more or less in check. Because of the difficulty of +getting at the underside of the curled leaves where these lice mostly +work they are extremely hard to control. Lime and sulphur when the +trees are dormant destroy as many of the eggs as it comes in contact +with. A tobacco extract is quite effective as a contact spray in the +growing season. The trees must be closely watched and if the lice +appear in any considerable number they must be promptly attended to or +serious damage is likely to result. + +These are by no means all the insect pests which the fruit grower has +to combat, but they are usually the most important. Canker worm and +tent caterpillars often do great damage in unsprayed orchards, but +they are easily controlled by an application of a poison as soon as +they appear. The same is true of other caterpillars and leaf eating +worms. Apple tree borers are frequently serious, especially in young +orchards, where the trees should be regularly "grubbed" and the borers +dug out or killed with a piece of wire. They may be prevented to some +extent by painting the tree trunks with a heavy lime and sulphur or +some gas tar preparation. + +DISEASES.--Although not as numerous as insects, the diseases which +attack the apple inflict great damage and are fully as difficult to +control. They are caused by bacteria and by fungi which may be +compared to weeds growing on or in the tree instead of the soil. If +either of these works within the plant, as is sometimes the case, it +must be attacked before it enters. It is very necessary to be thorough +in order to control these diseases. Weather conditions influence +nearly all of them materially. Of those which attack the apple tree or +fruit we have selected three as the most serious and the most +necessary for the grower to combat, namely, (1) apple scab, (2) New +York apple tree canker, and (3) fire blight. To these should be added +in the South and middle latitudes, sooty blotch and bitter rot. +Baldwin spot is also frequently serious in some seasons and +localities. + +(1) THE APPLE SCAB, commonly known among growers as "the fungus," is +the most important of our common apple diseases and is most evident on +the fruit, although it attacks the leaves as well. In some seasons the +fruit is made almost unsalable. This disease lives through the winter +on old leaves. In the spring about blossoming time the spores are +scattered by the wind and other agencies, and reaching the tender +shoots germinate and enter the tissues of the plant. Their development +is greatly dependent on the weather. In a season in which there is +little fog or continued damp or humid weather, they may not develop at +all, but where these conditions are present they frequently become +very virulent. + +Spraying will be governed by the weather conditions, but the mixture +must be applied very promptly as soon as it is evident that it is +likely to be necessary and must cover every part of the tree to be +effective. The object is to prevent the spores from germinating, the +spray being entirely a preventive and in no sense a cure. The disease +most frequently first manifests itself on the tender new growth and on +the blossoms. Two mixtures have been found to control it, namely, +Bordeaux and a weak solution of lime and sulphur. One or other of +these should be applied just before the blossoms open, just before +they fall, and when necessary two and nine weeks later. + +(2) NEW YORK APPLE TREE CANKER is usually found mainly on the trunks +of old trees, but it also affects the smaller branches. Practically +every old or uncared for orchard has more or less of this canker, and +where it is not checked it eventually destroys the tree. This fungus +is the cause of most of the dead wood found in old orchards. The +surface of the canker is black and rough and covered with minute black +pimples. It lives over winter and spreads from one branch or tree to +another. As it most frequently enters a branch through wounds made in +pruning, these should be promptly painted over with a heavy lead and +oil paint. All diseased parts should be cut out and removed as soon as +observed. The value of spraying for this disease is not definitely +known, but it is seldom very troublesome in well sprayed and well +cared for orchards. + +(3) BLIGHT appears on apple trees in three forms, as blossom blight, +as twig blight, and as blight cankers. It is a bacterial disease +which is distributed by flies, bees, birds, etc., and cannot be +controlled by spraying. The bacteria are carried over the winter in +cankers on the main limbs and bodies of the trees, oozing out in a +sticky mass in the spring. These cankers should be cut out with a +sharp knife cutting well into the healthy bark and then washing the +wound with corrosive sublimate, one part to one thousand of water. +Cutting out and destroying are also the chief remedies to be used when +the blight appears in the twigs and blossoms. It is not usually as +serious on apples as on pears. Some varieties, like Alexander, are +more subject to it than others. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF SPRAYING + + +The spraying of fruit trees in the United States is of comparatively +recent origin, having been a general commercial practice for less than +two decades. It involves the principle of applying with force and in +the form of a fine rain or mist, water in which a poison or a +substance which kills by contact is suspended. The first application +of the principle was against chewing insects with hellebore. Pure +arsenic was early used and soon led to the use of other arsenicals. + +Our greatest fungicide, Bordeaux mixture, was discovered by accident +in 1882 when it was found to control mildew in France. Up until about +five years ago Bordeaux mixture as the fungicide and paris green as +the poison were almost universally used. Within the last few years, +however, there have been developed two substitutes which, although +known and used to some extent for twenty years, have only recently +come into such general use as practically to replace the old sprays. +These are lime and sulphur as the fungicide and partial insecticide +and arsenate of lead as a partial insecticide. + +The necessity for and the advisability of spraying have already been +pointed out. There is an increasing demand for fine fruit the +supplying of which is possible only with thorough spraying. In the +humid East especially the competition of more progressive sections in +the West is demanding more and better spraying. There is no cure-all +in this process. It does not make a tree more fruitful except as it +improves its general health, but it does bring a larger percentage of +the fruit to perfection. Certain knowledge is fundamental; the grower +must know what he is spraying for, when and with what to combat it and +how to accomplish the desired result most effectively. + +Spraying is an insurance against anticipated troubles with the fruit, +and the best and most successful growers are those most completely +insured. It has many general advantages also. It stimulates the grower +to a greater interest in his business because of the extra knowledge +and skill required. It compels thoroughness. It necessitates spending +money, therefore a return is looked for. To be sure, it is only one +of the operations necessary to success, but it enables us to grow a +quality of fruit which we could not obtain without it. + +SPRAY MATERIALS are conveniently divided into two classes, +insecticides and fungicides. An insecticide is a poison by which the +insect is killed either directly by eating it, or indirectly by the +caustic, smothering, or stifling effects resulting from closing its +breathing pores. Direct poisons are used for insects which eat some +part of the tree or fruit and are called stomach poisons. Sprays which +kill indirectly are used for insects which suck the sap or juice from +the tree or fruit and are called contact sprays. Arsenical compounds +have supplanted practically all other substances used to combat +external biting insects. Two stomach poisons are commonly used, +namely, arsenate of lead and paris green, but the former is rapidly +replacing the latter. + +ARSENATE OF LEAD is prepared by mixing three parts of crystallized +arsenate of soda with seven parts of crystallized white sugar +(acetate) of lead in water, but it will not as a rule pay the grower +to mix his own material, as arsenate of lead can be purchased in +convenient commercial form at a reasonable price. The preparation on +the market is a finely pulverized precipitate in two forms, one a +powder and the other a paste. These are probably about equally good +and are readily kept suspended in water. Less free arsenic is +contained in this form than in any other compound of arsenic, making +it safer to use, especially in heavy applications. Arsenate of lead +may be used without danger of burning the foliage as strong as five or +six pounds to fifty gallons of water, but three pounds is the usual +and a sufficient amount for the control of any apple insect for which +it is efficacious. + +PARIS GREEN is being rapidly displaced by arsenate of lead for several +reasons. It is a compound of white arsenic, copper oxide, and acetic +acid. The commercial form is a crystal which in suspension settles +rapidly, a serious fault. It is more soluble than arsenate of lead and +hence there is greater danger of burning the foliage with it. +Moreover, it costs from twenty to twenty-five cents a pound, and the +arsenate of lead can be purchased for from eight to ten cents a pound. + +The amount which it is safe to use in fifty gallons of water is from +one-half to three-quarters of a pound. When paris green is used alone +as a poison lime should be added. Both these arsenicals should be +thoroughly wet up by stirring in a smaller receptacle before they are +put into the spray tank, in order to get them in as complete +suspension as possible. They may be used in the same mixture with +Bordeaux or lime sulphur. + +CONTACT SPRAYS.--Four compounds are used as contact sprays in +combating sucking insects, namely, lime sulphur, soaps such as whale +oil soap, kerosene emulsion, and tobacco extract. Of these lime +sulphur is the most used and for winter spraying is probably the best. +This preparation is made by boiling together for one hour or until +they unite, twenty pounds of quick lime, fifteen pounds of flower of +sulphur, and fifty gallons of water. Although the home made mixture is +much cheaper than the commercial form which may be purchased on the +market, many people prefer the latter because of the inconvenience and +trouble of preparing the mixture, although there is nothing difficult +about it. + +This contact spray is used chiefly for the San José scale and the +blister mite, and in order to control these must be applied strong on +the dormant wood. The strength necessary will vary from one part of +the mixture above mentioned or of the commercial preparation, to from +seven to ten parts of water, according to the density test of the +material, which should be around twenty-eight per cent. Beaumé (a +scale for measuring the density of a liquid) for home made, and +thirty-two per cent. for the commercial mixture. + +Any good soap is effective in destroying soft bodied insects such as +plant lice. The fish oil soaps, although variable in composition, are +often valuable, especially the one known in the trade as whale oil +soap. This soap dissolved in water by boiling at the rate of two +pounds of soap to one gallon of water, makes a good winter spray for +scale but should be applied before it gets cold as it is then apt to +become gelatinous. For a summer contact spray against lice, one pound +of soap to seven gallons of water is strong enough to be effective. It +is objectionable because of its odor and because it is disagreeable to +make and handle. Lime sulphur is to be preferred as a winter spray, +but the soap spray is often necessary and valuable for summer sucking +insects. + +Kerosene emulsion was formerly more commonly used than now against the +scale and plant lice. It is a mixture of one-half pound of soap and +two gallons of kerosene in one gallon of water--preferably in hot +water. For dormant trees one gallon of this mixture should be diluted +with six gallons of water. While this spray is effective it is no more +so than lime-sulphur and is quite difficult and disagreeable to +handle. As a summer spray, however, it is often necessary. Several +preparations of petroleum known as the miscible oils are sometimes +used. Their use is the same as that of lime-sulphur and they are not +as good. + +Within the last few years a tobacco concoction known as black leaf +tobacco extract (nicotine sulphate) has come into quite common use. It +can be purchased commercially under various brand names, and should be +diluted according to its strength, but usually about one part to fifty +of water. It may be made by boiling one pound of good tobacco stems in +two gallons of water for one-half-hour. Objections to it are that it +evaporates very quickly, although it is supposed to be non-volatile, +and that it is expensive, but it is very convenient to use, can be +readily mixed with other summer sprays, and is very effective against +plant lice and mites. + +BORDEAUX MIXTURE. Fungicides are mixtures of chemical compounds made +up for the purpose of controlling plant diseases caused by a class of +plant weeds known as fungi. There are three commonly well known and +used fungicides, Bordeaux mixture, commercial lime sulphur, and the +self-boiled lime-sulphur. The Bordeaux mixture is the best all-around +fungicide known. It is a mixture of three pounds of copper sulphate +(blue vitriol or bluestone) with three or more pounds of fresh burned +stone lime in fifty gallons of water. The two compounds should be put +together as fruit growers say "with water between," that is each +should be diluted with the water separately before the two are mixed. + +The best plan is to have stock mixtures of each in barrels, fifty +gallon cider or vinegar barrels making good receptacles for the +purpose. Place the bluestone in an old fertilizer or meal sack and +suspend it about midway in the barrel of water. In a few hours it will +all be dissolved and will remain in suspension for some length of time +very well. If say fifty pounds of the copper sulphate are dissolved in +fifty gallons of water, each gallon of water will contain one pound of +the bluestone, which makes a very convenient way to measure it. So +also fifty pounds of fresh burned stone lime should be placed in a +barrel--in this case in the bottom of the barrel rather than in a +sack--just covered with water and allowed to slake, more water being +added as required up to fifty gallons. If too much water is added to +the lime at the first it will be "drowned" and its slaking checked. +These two stock mixtures, each gallon containing one pound of the +copper sulphate or one pound of the lime, are then mixed together. + +It is well to fill the tank about half full of water, then put in the +required amount of the copper sulphate, and after stirring well add +the lime milk. It is a good plan to add an excess of lime as it +minimizes the danger of burning and aids the mixture in sticking to +the leaves well. If one is sure that he has at least as much lime, or +an excess of lime, it will not be necessary to test the mixture, but +if he is not, a simple test may be made with ferro-cyanide of +potassium, obtained at a drug store. A few drops of this mixture will +disappear if the lime is equal or in excess of the copper sulphate, +that is, it will be neutralized, but if it is not, they will remain a +bright purplish red. Bordeaux mixture is used in strengths varying +from three to five pounds each of bluestone and lime in fifty gallons +of water, but the former is usually sufficient. + +LIME-SULPHUR.--The more important fungicides, the commercial lime +sulphur and the self-boiled lime-sulphur, are practically superseding +Bordeaux as a fungicide, not because they are necessarily better, but +because there is frequently much burning of the foliage and russeting +of the fruit from the use of the Bordeaux. This is unfortunate as the +latter is a rather more effective fungicide as well as more convenient +and pleasant to use. The self-boiled lime sulphur is a combination of +lime and sulphur which is boiled by the heat of the slaking lime +alone, and makes a pretty good substitute for the Bordeaux when it +injures foliage or fruit. This preparation of lime and sulphur differs +from the commercial form used as a winter wash in that it is wholly a +mechanical mixture and not partly chemical like the latter. It may +therefore be used on the foliage in summer at a greater strength, +there being only a very small percentage of sulphur in solution when +the mixture is properly made. + +Equal amounts of lime and sulphur are used, these being from eight to +ten pounds each to fifty gallons of water. The mixture is best +prepared in larger quantities so as to get heat enough from the +slaking lime to produce a violent boiling for a few minutes. First, +place say forty pounds of lime in a barrel and pour on just water +enough to start it slaking nicely--about a gallon to each three or +four pounds of lime is usually sufficient. Then add the sulphur and +enough more water to slake the paste, keeping it well stirred +meanwhile. The violent boiling of the lime in slaking will cook the +mixture in from five to fifteen minutes, depending on the quality of +the lime and how fast it is slaked. Just as soon as the violent +boiling is over add enough cold water to stop all action. If this is +not done, some sulphur will unite with the lime and burning may be the +result. + +This self-boiled mixture is entirely harmless to apple foliage and +even appears to have a stimulating effect upon it. Against the apple +scab, however, it is not as effective as the boiled wash, or the +commercial preparations. For this disease a strength of from one to +thirty to one to forty (that is about one and one-half gallons of the +prepared mixture testing 31 to 33 Beaumé to fifty gallons of water) of +the commercial lime-sulphur is most effective. + +SPRAY PUMPS.--The application of the foregoing spray mixtures is fully +as important as the sprays themselves, for on the right application at +the right time depends the efficacy of the spray. For this purpose a +considerable amount of special machinery has been devised. Lack of +space prevents us from going into much detail on this question, so we +must be content with merely outlining the different types of machines +and mentioning their accessories. Sprays are forced through single, +double or triple acting pumps, either by hand or power. The three +types of power available are traction, compressed air, and gasoline, +the last being the most used. Steam power is practically obsolete. + +The knapsack is the simplest type of hand pump, but it is of no +practical use in the mature apple orchard. For small orchards and +small trees several types of hand pumps are quite effective. The lever +type of pump, where the handle is pushed from and pulled toward the +operator, probably gives the most power with the least tiring effect, +because it enables one to use the weight of the body to some extent. +It is best not to have the pump attached to the spray barrel or tank, +but set on a movable base of its own, as then it can be used for any +one of a number of barrels. Such an outfit may be obtained for from +twenty-five to forty dollars. + +It is well to buy a standard make of pump, preferably from a nearby +dealer, so that repairs may be readily secured. For all orchards up to +three or four acres in size, and for larger orchards where the trees +are not over twelve or fifteen feet in height, this kind of spray rig +is the most practicable and advisable, when the expense is taken into +consideration. This applies especially to the general farm. + +The power of a traction sprayer is developed from the wheels. There is +much discussion as to whether sufficient power to throw an effective +spray can be supplied by this method. By accumulating considerable +pressure by extra driving at the ends of the rows and then skipping +every other tree in order to keep up the pressure, going over the rows +twice, a very satisfactory pressure can be obtained for trees which +are not too large. The argument for this type of machine, and it is +especially applicable on the general farm, is that it can be used for +other spraying on the farm as well as for the apple orchard, +especially for potatoes and small fruits. It is a comparatively cheap +type of power, particularly when it can be used for several purposes. + +The compressed air gas sprayer comes next in point of simplicity and +cost for a power sprayer. Its most economic use is found where +orcharding is carried on extensively enough to pay to compress the air +or gas right in the orchard. This is of course impracticable on the +general farm. Therefore the air or gas must be purchased and shipped +to the farm in steel tubes. This often causes delay at critical times +and is rather expensive. Moreover, the gas is open to the objection of +interfering with the lime-sulphur compound by precipitating some of +the sulphur. + +The gasoline engine is the most useful and popular type of power for +the orchard sprayer, as well as for general use on the farm. Many +makes are now so perfected that they give little or no trouble. One +and a half or two horsepower are fully sufficient for spraying, but +most farmers prefer from three to five horsepower in order to be able +to use the engine more for other purposes. The latter power is open to +objection for spraying purposes on account of its weight, as +especially in early spring it is very difficult to haul so heavy a rig +over the soft ground. Such an outfit is also rather expensive. +Standard makes of gasoline engines of sufficient power for spraying +cost from $75.00 to $150.00 according to horsepower and efficiency. +For very large trees, for mature orchards, and for all orchards larger +than four or five acres, the gasoline engine is the best source of +power for spraying, particularly where it can be used for other +purposes on the farm. + +A double acting or two cylinder pump is most desirable. If there is +plenty of power a triplex or three cylinder pump is still better. The +requirements of a good pump are: sufficient power for the work desired +of it; strong but not too heavy; fewest possible number of parts +consistent with efficiency; brass parts and valves; and a good sized +air chamber. A number of standard makes of pumps answer these +conditions very well. Pumps should always be washed out with clean +water when the operator is through with them and the metal parts +coated with vaseline. Never leave water in a pump chamber or in the +engine jacket in cold weather. + +The ordinary hand pump and barrel give satisfactory use when placed on +a wagon, unless the trees are very high. But for large orchards, high +trees, and where larger tanks and power pumps are used it is +desirable to have a special truck for the outfit. The front wheel +should be made low so as to turn under the tank to enable the driver +to make short turns around the trees. A tower is desirable where high +old trees are to be sprayed. This should be substantial but as small +as is consistent with the purpose so as not to catch on the limbs and +make it difficult to get close up around the trees. The height of the +platform must be regulated by the need and by the roughness of the +ground. On steep side hills the wagon body on which the tank rests +should be underslung. + +In order to get as near to the work as possible get a long hose--from +twenty to thirty feet according to circumstances. The best quality, +three to five ply, is none too good. Hose should be three-eighths to +one-half inch in diameter, one inch being too heavy. Extension rods +are a practical necessity. They should be ten to twelve feet long and +made of bamboo lined with brass, that is, as light as possible. +Nozzles are very important in thorough and effective spraying. There +is no best nozzle, nor one with which all the work can be done. + +Several things should be considered in selecting a nozzle. First of +all, it must be of convenient form so as not to catch in trees and so +constructed that it will not clog easily. Second, for apple trees it +should have good capacity and deliver as spreading a spray as +possible. Third, the nature of the spray is very important. +Insecticides should usually be applied with force in a comparatively +coarse driving spray, but fungicides should be applied in a fine mist +or fog so that they will settle on every part of the tree. Therein +lies the difficulty of applying insecticides and fungicides together. + +TIME OF SPRAYING.--Fortunately it is not necessary to make a separate +application for each insect and disease, but they may be treated +together to some extent. In most cases expediency demands that the +arsenicals be used with the fungicides. Many growers are finding the +most satisfactory results, however, from applying the arsenical spray +separately, just after the blossoms fall, because of the physical +impossibility of properly applying the two sprays--the driving and the +mist spray--together. For most practical purposes on the general farm, +three sprayings are necessary in order to secure clean fruit and four, +sometimes five, are often advisable. These may be summarized as +follows: + + 1. With lime-sulphur, winter strength, on the dormant wood in + early spring. + + 2. With lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead just before the + blossoms open (may sometimes be omitted). + + 3. With the same (or Bordeaux for scab) just after the blossoms + fall. + + 4. With the same two or three weeks later. + + 5. With arsenate of lead eight or nine weeks later (may + sometimes be omitted). + + (In the south and middle latitudes where bitter rot and apple + blotch occur two other sprayings may be necessary.) + + 6. With Bordeaux about eight or ten weeks after the blossoms fall. + + 7. Again with the same about two weeks later. + + +A Calendar for Spraying Apples + +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +INSECTS | Nature | Before | Before | After | In 2 | In 8 | Materials + | of | Leaf | Flower | Petals | to 3 | to 9 | to + | Injury | Buds | Buds | Fall | Weeks | Weeks | Use + | | Open | Open | | | | +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Codling | Eating | | | x | x | x | Lead +Moth | Worm | | | | | | Arsenate + | | | | | | | or + | | | | | | | Par. Gr. +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +San José|Sucking | x | | | | | Lime +Scale | Insect | | | | | | Sulphur +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Oyster | Sucking| x | | | | | Lime +Shell | Insect | | | | | | Sulphur +Scale | | | | | | | +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Blister | Leaf | x | | | | | Lime +Mite | Miner | | | | | | Sulphur +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Plant | Sucking| | when seen | | | Whale Oil +Louse | Insect | | | | | | Soap or + | | | | | | | Tobacco +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Cigar | Eating | | x | x | x | | Lead +Case | Insect | | | | | | Arsenate +Bearer | | | | | | | or + | | | | | | | Par. Gr. +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Apple | Eating | x | x | | destroy fruit | Lead +Maggot | Worm | | | | | | Arsenate + | | | | | | | or + | | | | | | | Par. Gr. +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Bud | Eating | x | x | x | | | Lead +Moth | Worm | | | | | | Arsenate + | | | | | | | or + | | | | | | | Par. Gr. +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Curculio| Eating | | x | x | | | Lead + | Worm & | | | | | | Arsenate + | Beetle | | | | | | or Par. Gr. +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +=Diseases=| | | | | | | +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Apple | Fungus | x | x | x | x | if | Lime +Scab | | | | | |necessary| Sulphur + | | | | | | | or + | | | | | | | Bordeaux + | | | | | | | 3-3.50 +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- + | | | | | | | +New York| Fungus | x? | cut out | | | Lime +Apple | | | infections | | | Sulphur +Tree | | | | | | | +Canker | | | | | | | +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Leaf | Fungus | x | x | x | | | Lime +Spot | | | | | | | Sulphur +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Sooty | | | | x | x | x | Bordeaux +Blotch | | | | | | | Mixture + | | | | | | | and Lime + | | | | | | | Sulphur +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +HARVESTING AND STORING + + +Apples are practically never allowed to ripen on the trees but are +picked and shipped green. By "green" we mean not fully ripe, not ripe +enough to eat out of hand. This is necessary for all fruit which is to +be shipped any considerable distance or which is to be stored. Used in +this sense green has no reference to color, but as a matter of fact, +much of our fruit is picked too green, before it has even reached its +full size and is well colored. There is no exact time at which apples +must be picked, but this depends on many factors such as the variety, +the distance to be shipped, the soil, the climate, and various other +conditions, to say nothing of seasonal differences. + +The time at which any variety should be picked in a particular section +will be learned by experience. In general, apples should be left on +the tree as long as possible in order to get the best size and color. +When the apples begin to drop badly it is a pretty sure indication +that it is time to pick. If the fruit is to be sold in the local +market or for immediate consumption, it may be allowed to get riper +than would otherwise be the case. With most varieties one picking is +sufficient, but in the case of varieties like the Wealthy which does +not ripen uniformly, or like the Twenty Ounce, which does not always +color evenly, two or three pickings should be made. Two or three +pickings are practically always necessary where fancy fruit is +desired, in order to get the ideal size, color, and uniformity. + +LADDERS.--There are two general types of picking ladders, the rung and +the step ladders. For large trees the rung ladders are the best. They +may be obtained in lengths to suit the height of the tree. Lengths of +more than twenty-two or twenty-four feet become too heavy and clumsy +to handle, even when made of pine, which is the best material as it is +light and strong for its weight. In very old, high trees extension +rung ladders are sometimes used. They are also useful for interior +work but are heavy to handle. Rung ladders cost from ten to twenty +cents a running foot. Step ladders are useful only on young and small +trees. The two styles, the three (Japanese) and four legged, are both +quite satisfactory where one can reach the fruit from them. + +Receptacles for picking usually hold about half a bushel. Both baskets +and bags are used, some preferring one and some the other, and a +choice between them is merely a matter of personal preference. There +is a little less liability of bruising the apples in bags than in +baskets, but the latter are more convenient in some ways. Fruit should +never be thrown or dropped into a basket but always handled carefully. +Some varieties, as McIntosh, show almost every finger mark and +literally require handling with gloves. + +HANDLING.--The old custom of picking and laying on the ground in the +orchard is a poor one and should not be followed, as it causes +unnecessary handling and bruising. Moreover, fruit should be packed +and hauled to storage as soon after picking as possible. Picking and +placing directly on the packing table from which the apples are +immediately packed is the best plan where it is practicable, but as +the weather at picking time in the Eastern States is frequently quite +uncertain, it is not always possible to follow this plan as closely as +can be done in the West, where dry air and sunshine prevail. Still, +wherever there is a considerable quantity of fruit and several +pickers, the plan of packing directly from the table is best. Many +growers pick in boxes and barrels and haul the apples to a packing +shed to be packed later. Convenience and expediency must govern the +general farmer who is not always at liberty to choose the best plan, +often having to do as he can. + +PACKING TABLES enable the grower to pack his fruit better because he +can see better what he is doing, and to handle the fruit more cheaply +and quickly and with less injury. They should be portable so that they +can be moved about the orchard. A convenient type has one end mounted +on wheels so that it can be pushed from one place to another. The top +of the table should be made of two strong layers of canvas, one tacked +firmly to the framework of the table with about three or four inches +of dip and the other laid loosely over it. This plan provides a soft +resting place for the fruit and the table can be easily cleaned off by +simply throwing back the upper layer of canvas. + +Three feet six inches is about the right width for the table, and the +same sloping to three feet four inches at one end, is the correct +height from the ground. Most packers like to have this gradual slope +to one end so that the apples will naturally feed toward that end. The +length may be anything up to eight or ten feet, beyond which the table +becomes heavy and unmanageable. + +BARRELS.--The standard apple barrel adopted by the National Apple +Shippers' Association and made law in New York State has a length of +stave of twenty-eight and one-half inches and a diameter of head of +seventeen and one-eighth inches. The outside circumference of the +bilge is sixty-four inches and the distance between the heads is +twenty-six inches. It contains one hundred quarts dry measure. The +staves are mostly made of elm, pine, and red gum, and the heads +principally of pine with some beech and maple. In most apple growing +sections barrels are made in regular cooper shops where their +manufacture is a business by itself. Only the largest growers set up +their own barrels. Practically all barrels are purchased "knocked +down" and it costs from four to six cents each to set them up. Barrels +can ordinarily be purchased for about thirty-five cents each, but the +cost varies somewhat with the season and the region. + +Apple packages should always present a neat, clean, and attractive +appearance. Never use flour barrels, soiled or ununiform barrels of +any kind. If a head cushion is used a good deal of waste from the +crushing and bruising of the fruit will be saved. A head lining of +plain or fringed paper also adds much to the attractiveness of the +package. The wrapping of apples for barrel packing is hardly +advisable. The fruit is pressed into the barrel tightly with one of +two types of presses, both of which are good. + +The lever press is more responsive and the pressure is more easily +changed, but it is harder to operate. The screw press distributes the +pressure more evenly with less injury to the fruit and is more +powerful. + +The steps in properly packing a barrel of apples are: First, see that +the middle and closed end hoops are tight, if necessary, nailing them +and clinching the nails; second, mark the head plainly with the grade +and variety and the name of the packer or owner; then place the barrel +on a solid floor or plank and lay in the facing papers (the face end +being packed first); select the "facers," which should be the best +representatives of the grade being packed, and _no others_, and place +them in two courses in regular order stems down; with a drop handle +basket fill the barrel, using care not to bruise the fruit, and +jarring the barrel back and forth on the plank as each basket is put +into it in order to settle the fruit firmly in place; lastly, arrange +a layer of apples stems up and apply the press, using a hatchet to get +the head in place and to drive on and tighten the hoops. + +THE BOX PACKAGE is rapidly growing in favor, especially as a carrier +of fancy fruit. There is no standard box the size of which is fixed by +law unless it be a box labeled a bushel. But two sizes of boxes are in +common use, both probably being necessary on account of the variation +in the size of different varieties. The "Standard" box is 10½ by 11½ +by 18 inches inside measurement and contains 2,173.5 cubic inches (the +lawful stricken bushel is 2,150.4 cubic inches). The "Special" box is +10 by 11 by 20 inches inside measurement and contains 2,200 cubic +inches. The bulge when properly made will add about 150 cubic inches +more, making the two boxes hold 2,323.5 cubic inches and 2,350 cubic +inches respectively. + +Spruce is the most reliable and in general the best material. Fir is +sometimes used, but is likely to split. Pine is good if strong enough. +The ends should be of three-quarter-inch material; the sides of +three-eighth-inch, and the tops and bottoms--two pieces each--of +one-quarter-inch material. There should also be two cleats each for +top and bottom. The sides of the box should be nailed with four, +preferably five-penny cement-coated nails, at each end. The cleats +should be put neatly on each end and four nails put into them, going +through into the top and bottom. Boxes commonly come "knocked down" or +in the flat and are usually put together by the grower. They cost from +ten to thirteen cents each in the flat. + +There are several kinds of packs, depending on the size of the apples +and the choice of the grower. The diagonal pack with each apple +resting over the spaces between others is preferable, but on account +of the size of the apples one is often forced to use the straight pack +with the apples in regular right angle rows for some sizes. The offset +pack, first three (or four) on one side and then on the other, is +very much like the diagonal, but not much used on account of its +accommodating too few apples in a box. The following table gives the +packs, number of rows, number of apples in the row, box to use, and +number of apples used to the box, as used at Hood River, Oregon: + + No. + Size expressed apples No. + in No. apples in layers in Box + per box Tier Pack row depth used +-------------------------------------------------------------------- + 45 3 3 St. 5-5 3 Standard + 54 3 3 St. 6-6 3 Special + 63 3 3 St. 7-7 3 Special + 64 3½ 2-2 Diag. 4-4 4 Standard + 72 3½ 2-2 Diag. 4-5 4 Standard + 80 3½ 2-2 Diag. 5-5 4 Standard + 88 3½ 2-2 Diag. 5-6 4 Standard + 96 3½ 2-2 Diag. 6-6 4 Special + 104 3½ 2-2 Diag. 6-7 4 Special + 112 3½ 2-2 Diag. 7-7 4 Special + 120 3½ 2-2 Diag. 7-8 4 Special + 128 4 4 St. 8-8 4 Special + 144 4 4 St. 9-9 4 Special + 150 4½ 3-2 Diag. 6-6 5 Standard + 163 4½ 3-2 Diag. 6-7 5 Standard + 175 4½ 3-2 Diag. 7-7 5 Standard + 185 4¼ 3-2 Diag. 7-8 5 Special + 200 4½ 3-2 Diag. 8-8 5 Special + +It is good practice to wrap apples packed in boxes. For this purpose a +heavy-weight tissue paper in two sizes, 8 by 10 and 10 by 10, +according to the size of the apple, is used. A lining paper 18 by 24 +in size and "white news" in grade is first placed in the box. Between +the layers of apples a colored "tagboard" paper, size 17¼ by 11 or 20 +by 9¾, according to the box used, is laid so as to make the layers +come out right at the top. In packing the box is inclined toward the +packer for convenience in placing the fruit. After laying in the +lining paper each apple is wrapped and put in place. As an aid to +picking up the thin wrapping paper a rubber "finger" is used on the +forefinger. When the box is packed the layers should stand a quarter +to a half inch higher in the middle than at the ends, in order to give +a bulge or spring to the top and bottom which holds the fruit firmly +in place without bruising. + +There has been much discussion as to whether the box or the barrel is +the better package for apples. This is needless, for as a matter of +fact each is best for its own particular purpose. The barrel is best +adapted as a package for large commercial quantities of fruit and +where labor could not be had to pack apples in boxes even if the trade +wanted them. The barrel permits the packing of a greater variety in +size and shape than does the box, and these can be more easily and +cheaply handled in packing. + +On the other hand, the box is the ideal package for small amounts of +fancy fruit, to be used for a family-or fruit-stand trade. It presents +a neater and more fancy appearance and is a more convenient package to +handle, as well as one which is more open to inspection. It already +has a better reputation as a quality container than the barrel. As a +fancy package for a limited private trade from the small general farm +orchard with high-class varieties like the Northern Spy, McIntosh, and +others there is no comparison of the box with the barrel. + +STORAGE.--Car refrigeration and cold storage of fruit are +comparatively modern developments. Few persons who have not been +affected directly realize what a tremendous influence they have had +upon the fruit, and particularly the apple industry. Apples could not +be shipped any very great distance. Crops had to be marketed +immediately and when they were large the markets were soon glutted and +the fruit became almost valueless. The first hot spell would +demoralize the trade altogether. Then later in the season the supply +would become exhausted and famine would ensue where but a few weeks +before there had been a feast. Under such conditions it is not +surprising that the apple industry did not develop very rapidly and +that apple growing was mostly confined to areas near the larger +markets. + +The coming of the refrigerator car extended fruit-growing over a much +wider area. Refrigeration on shipboard opened up and enlarged the +export trade. Cold storage warehouses lengthened the season by holding +over the surplus of fruit, thus relieving fall gluts in the market and +providing a winter supply of apples. These conditions created a more +stable market with more uniform prices, extending the business from a +side issue to one of chief importance. Marketing has become almost a +business by itself, inducing the formation of growers' associations +and creating a profitable occupation for large dealers and commission +men. These conditions, too, have led to speculation. + +Two kinds of storage are used, common or cellar storage and cold +storage. Both are about equally available, but the latter is too +expensive for the small grower. There is always a question as to the +advisability of the small grower storing his fruit. Storage means a +degree of speculation. "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush," +especially when the bird is a good one. So far as rules can be laid +down, the following are pretty safe ones to keep in mind: It is safest +to store apples when they are of the highest quality; in a season most +unfavorable to common storage; when the fewest are being stored; when +the price in the fall is medium to low, never when high; and when one +can afford to lose the whole crop. + +Successful storage requires several things: good fruit, stored +immediately after picking, careful sorting and handling, subsequent +rest, and a reasonable control of the temperature. The functions of +storage are to arrest ripening, retard the development of disease, and +furnish a uniform, cold temperature. Storage of apples does not remedy +over-ripeness nor prevent deterioration of already diseased, bruised, +or partly rotted fruit. There are three general methods of storage: +(1) by ventilation, (2) by the use of ice and (3) by mechanical means. + +Cooling by ventilation offers the most practical system for a farm +storage. It requires that there be perfect insulation against outside +temperature changes, adequate ventilation, and careful watching of +temperatures. To provide for good insulation a dead air space is +necessary. This can be secured by a course of good two-inch boards +with one or two layers of building paper inside and out, over a +framework of two-by-fours. Over the building paper tight, well matched +siding should be laid also inside and out. Two of the dead air spaces +will make insulation doubly sure. + +To provide for proper ventilation construct an intake for cold air at +the bottom, and an outlet for warm air at the top of the room. These +should serve all parts of the room, one being necessary for this +purpose every twelve to sixteen feet. Do not depend too much on +windows. Warm-air flues should be twelve inches square and six to +twelve feet long. + +The attention to such a house is most important. Keep it closed +tightly early in the fall with blinded windows. When nights get cool +open the doors and windows to let in cold air, closing them again +during the day. On hot days close the ventilators also. In this way a +temperature of 36 to 40 degrees Fahr. can be secured in early fall and +one of 32 to 33 degrees Fahr. later. This is probably the cheapest as +well as the most practical method of farm storage. + +Ice storage is quite practical in the North, but more expensive. The +principle of such a storage is to keep ice above the fruit, allowing +the cold air to flow down the sides of the room. A shaft in the middle +of the room will serve to remove the warm air. This method is open to +the objection of difficulty in storing the ice above the fruit. +Moreover the uniformity of its cold air supply is questionable. +Mechanical storage in which cold temperatures are secured by the +compression or absorption of gases is altogether impracticable for +individual growers, as it costs from $1.50 to $2.00 a barrel of +capacity to construct such a storage. Rents of this kind of storage +range from 10 to 25 cents a barrel per month, or 25 to 50 cents a +barrel for the season of from four to six months. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +MARKETS AND MARKETING + + +Having produced a good product, there remains the problem of making a +profitable and satisfactory disposition of it. In many ways marketing +is the measure of successful fruit growing. Of what use is it to prune +well, cultivate well, spray thoroughly, or even pack well the finest +kind of product, if after the expense of these operations is paid and +the railroad and commission agents have had their share, no profit +remains to the producer? Many growers find it easier to produce good +fruit than to market it at a good price, and this is especially true +of the general farmer. Failure to market well spells failure in the +business of fruit growing. Successful marketing presupposes a +knowledge of the requirements of different markets as to quality, +varieties, and supply demanded in those markets. Methods of +distribution are also one of the great factors in this problem of +marketing. + +TYPES OF MARKETS.--There are two general types of markets, the local, +which is a special market and the general or wholesale market, both of +which have different but definite requirements. The local market +handles fruit in small quantities, but usually with a larger margin of +profit per unit to the producer. As a rule delivery is direct in a +local market, and thus commissions are saved. Competition is also more +or less limited to one's neighbors. More varieties, including less +well known ones, are called for. Appearance does not count for as much +as quality, which is of first importance. Fruit may be riper as it is +consumed more quickly and meets with less rough handling. Packages are +usually returned to the grower. Special markets are often willing to +pay extra for fruit out of season, and they always require special +study and adaptation to meet their needs. + +The general or wholesale market handles fruit in larger quantities, +usually with a smaller margin of profit. A selling agent or commission +man is the means of disposing of fruit in such a market, where +competition is open to the whole country and sometimes to the world. +Only standard well-known varieties find a ready and profitable sale. +Great attention is paid to appearance and comparatively little to +quality. Fruit shipped to a wholesale market must be packed in a +standard package, which is not returned, but goes with the fruit, and +must be packed so as to endure rough treatment. Out of season fruit is +not in demand, but even the general market sometimes has special +preferences. + +Almost every market has favorite varieties for which it is willing to +pay a larger price than other markets. Just as Boston wants a brown +egg and New York a white one, so these and other cities have their +favorite varieties of apples. Some markets prefer a red apple, others +a green one, although the former is most generally popular. In the +mining and manufacturing towns working people want smaller green +apples, or "seconds," because they are cheaper. Many second-class +hotels prefer small apples, if they are well colored, as they go +farther. The fashionable restaurant and the fruit stand are the +markets for large, perfect, and highly colored specimens. Housewives +demand cooking apples like Greenings, hotels want a good out-of-hand +apple like the McIntosh, while private families have their own +special favorites. As will readily be seen, the producer's problem is +to find the special market for what he grows. + +It has been said that different markets have special varietal +preferences, paying a better price for these than do other markets for +the same quality. We can only take the space here to point out a few +of these preferences. The Baldwin is by all odds our best general +market and export variety. It is the workingman's apple and finds its +best sale in our largest cities, particularly in New York and Chicago. +The Rhode Island Greening is a better seller in the northern markets +than it is in the southern, finding its best sale in Boston and in New +York. The Northern Spy is highly regarded by all our large northern +and eastern markets, is fairly well liked by the middle latitude +markets, but not popular south of Baltimore and Pittsburgh or west of +Milwaukee. + +Central western markets appear to prefer the Hubbardson, but this +apple is fairly good in all markets. King is well thought of nearly +everywhere. Ben Davis is a favorite in the South, New Orleans +especially preferring it on account of its keeping quality. Jonathan +has a good reputation everywhere. Dutchess of Oldenburg is regarded +as excellent in Buffalo and Chicago. Wealthy, although generally a +local market apple, is well known and liked in all markets. Twenty +Ounce is spoken well of nearly everywhere. The Fameuse is not well +liked in the South, but popular in the North, etc. These particular +facts as to varieties are best learned by experience and by +observation of the market quotations. + +THE COMMISSION MAN.--The present system of marketing fruit products +makes the commission man almost a necessity in the general market. +Neither the grower nor the local dealer can ship directly to the +consumer or even to the retailer, except in a very limited way. It may +be impracticable to devise any other workable system, but it must be +remembered that every man who touches a barrel of apples on its +journey from producer to consumer must be paid for doing so, and this +pay must come either out of the seller's price or be added to the +buyer's price. But so long as present conditions of marketing and +distribution prevail, so long will a selling agent in the general +market be necessary, and the evil cannot be ameliorated by ranting +against it. + +An unfortunate impression prevails that all commission men are +dishonest. This is not true, although undoubtedly there are many +scoundrels among them, as they have shippers almost completely at +their mercy. The best method under our present system is to choose an +honest commission man in the city where you sell, to get acquainted +with him, to let him know that your trade will be in his hands only so +long as he treats you fairly, and then supply him with as good quality +of stuff as you can produce. This plan has worked out well with many +successful growers and marketers. + +Perhaps the greatest difficulty to be overcome in successfully finding +good markets is that of proper distribution. As has been pointed out +in the previous chapter, there has been a great increase in the +production of apples and hence in competition, accompanied by +speculation and more intensive methods in all phases of the business. +A necessity has arisen for the production of the best at a minimum +cost, as well as for finding the best market for that product. In the +rush for the best market every seller is apt to be guided only by his +own immediate interest without due regard for the fact that others are +acting in the same way or that there is a future. The result is the +piling up of fruit in a market of high quotations, and a subsequent +drop in the price. Then all turn from such a market to a better one +with the result that a famine often results where but a few weeks or +even days before there had been a feast. + +Thus it often happens that one market may have more fruit than it can +possibly dispose of at the time, while another, perhaps equally good, +goes begging. Such conditions are ruinous to trade. Growers are +disappointed and ascribe the cause to the commission man. Consumers +are unable many times to profit by a glut in the market but promptly +blame the middleman or the grower when the supply is small and the +price high. + +Other difficulties with our system of marketing are non-uniformity of +the grades, the packages, or the fruit itself. There should be a clear +definition of just what "firsts" and "seconds" are and this definition +rigidly adhered to. Transportation is too frequently insufficient, not +rapid enough, especially when perishable fruit is shipped in small +lots, and usually at a too high rate. There are undoubtedly too many +middlemen between producer and consumer. Growers sell to local dealers +who sell to wholesalers at the receiving end. These sell to +wholesalers at the consuming end, who may sell to jobbers, who sell to +retailers. Each man must have his profits, all of which greatly +increases costs. + +CO-OPERATION.--Individuals have practically no power to remedy such a +state of affairs. So long as producers act independently they will +have little power either to bring about favorable legislation or to +better such market conditions. Acting together as a unit growers have +accomplished great things which can be repeated. The co-operative +principle has been well tried out in California, where it was first +put into operation with citrous fruits, in several other Western +States with apples, and in Michigan and the Province of Ontario. + +Co-operative associations study carefully the law of supply and demand +and take steps to adapt their shipments to it. They standardize the +grade, the package, and the fruit, and govern their shipments to given +markets by the needs and the demands of those markets. Their unity of +effort enables them to make great savings in the purchase of supplies, +such as packages, spraying material, fertilizers, etc., and in +obtaining and distributing frequently knowledge of markets and market +conditions. They also advertise their products, making them better +known, creating a demand for them, and by means of correspondence or +traveling agents seek out the best markets. + +There are now several large fruit exchanges operating over wide +sections of country. But the local associations are the vital units in +any co-operative movement. Such associations should be incorporated +under State laws so that they can do all sorts of business when +necessary. Six simple objects should be kept in mind, namely, (1) to +prevent unnecessary competition, and to supervise and control +distribution of products; (2) to provide for uniformity in the grade, +package, and fruit; (3) to build up a high standard of excellence and +to create a demand for it; (4) to economize in buying supplies and +selling products; (5) to promote education regarding all phases of the +fruit business; and (6) when necessary to act as a buying and selling +agent for the community. + +Such an association requires a board of directors, a treasurer, and an +active and well-paid manager. The latter is most important, as upon +his honesty, ability, and energy will largely depend the success or +failure of the organization. Sometimes where fruit is packed in a +central packing house or under an association brand or guarantee, a +foreman packer is also necessary. The capitalization required for such +an enterprise is not necessarily large, unless warehouses or packing +houses are built. These are usually better rented until the +organization becomes well established. + +The shares should be small so that every member may be financially +well represented, and members should be prohibited from holding more +than a small percentage of the total shares, in order to prevent +possible monopoly. Dividends on stock held should only be expected +from business done outside the association membership, interest on +money invested being obtained in the handling of members' products at +cost. Receipts should be given growers for just what they bring in, +and they should then be paid according to the grade of fruit which +they contribute, prices for the same grade being pooled. The charge to +growers for handling should be actual cost, but outsiders' products +should be handled at a small profit in order to induce them to come +into the association. The same method should be followed in purchasing +supplies. + +The general result of such co-operation is that the consumer gets a +better product for his money and the grower receives a better price +for his product. It is very essential to the success of the +organization that growers stick together, even through low prices and +discouragement which so often come, until they are firmly established. +Substantial reduction in the cost of the product to consumers can only +come by similar co-operation among them at the buying end and by the +co-operation of both consumers and producers for distribution and +handling in market. + +If a neighborhood does not feel yet ready to attack this problem in +this thorough and businesslike way, it will be advantageous and a step +in the right direction if they simply agree on certain standards of +quality and packing and then pool their product for marketing. This +method has also been followed with success. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +SOME HINTS ON RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS + + +Nearly every general farm in the humid part of the United States has +its small, old apple orchard. For the most part these orchards were +planted in order to have a home source of supply of this popular +fruit. In fact, but few orchards have been planted on a commercial +scale with a view of selling the fruit, until recently and outside of +a few sections. Therefore, as a rule we find these old farm orchards +to consist of a few acres containing from twenty-five to two hundred +trees. These trees are usually good standard varieties which have been +the source of much apple "sass," many an apple pie, and many a barrel +of cider-vinegar. + +Not having been set for profit, these trees received little care. +Orchards were cropped in the regular rotation, or with hay, or +pastured. Farmers then knew little of modern methods of orchard +management. The orchard was regarded as an incumbrance to the land, +which had to be farmed to as good advantage as possible under the +circumstances, and if the apple trees by any chance yielded a crop, +the owner regarded himself as fortunate indeed. + +But conditions have now changed. Both local and foreign markets have +been opened up and developed so that the demand for good fruit is +great. It will be some time before the thousands of acres of orchards +which have been and are being planted to meet this demand will be able +to do so in any adequate way. It has been shown in Chapter I how heavy +has been the falling off in the supply, even in the face of these +heavy plantings. Meanwhile we must turn to the old neglected farm +orchards for our supply of apples. Just at this particular time the +renovation of these old orchards offers a splendid opportunity to +increase the farm income. + +The question is a live one on nearly every general farm in the East. +Will it pay to try to renovate my old apple trees? If so, what should +I do to make them profitable? What will it cost and what returns may +be expected? The latter question will be taken up in the following +chapter, but here we must try to indicate under what conditions it +may pay to renovate an old orchard, as well as those under which it +may not pay, and also how to go about the problem. + +NECESSARY QUALITIES.--An apple orchard must have certain +qualifications in order to make it worth while to spend the time and +money necessary to accomplish the desired results. These we may take +up briefly under five heads: (1) varieties, (2) age, (3) number or +"stand" of trees, (4) vigor and health of the trees, and (5) soil, +site, and location. The discussion of these subjects in Chapters II +and III has equal application here, but we may perhaps point out their +specific application more definitely in the case of the old neglected +farm orchard. + +(1) Varieties should be desirable sorts. If they are the best standard +market varieties, as is often the case, so much the better. Otherwise +little is gained by improving the tree and fruit. Poor or unknown +varieties have little or no market value, except perhaps a very local +one. If the trees are not too old and are fairly vigorous, poor +varieties may sometimes be worked over by top grafting to better +varieties. Characteristics which may make, a variety undesirable are: +inferior quality; unattractiveness in color, shape, or size; lack of +hardiness in the tree or keeping quality in the fruit; low yield; or +being unknown in the market with its consequent small demand. Summer +varieties are worth renovating only when they are in good demand in a +nearby local market. + +(2) Vigor is more important than age in the tree, but is closely +correlated with it. Ordinarily one should hesitate to try to renovate +a tree more than forty or fifty years old, but this must always depend +almost wholly on its condition and other characteristics. + +(3) In order to make a business of renovation and to do thorough work +which means expense, there must be enough of the orchard to justify +the expenditure of the time and money. This affects the results not +only in expense, but in economy in management, equipment, and +marketing. There should be at least an acre of say thirty trees, and +better, more than that number to justify the expense of time and money +necessary for renovation. One hundred trees would certainly justify +it, other conditions being favorable. Then, too, the trees should be +in such shape that they can be properly treated without too great +trouble and expense, i.e., not too scattered or isolated or in the +midst of regular fields better adapted for other crops. + +(4) Vigor and good general health are of great importance. Many old +trees are too far gone with neglect, having been too long starved or +having their vitality too much weakened by disease to make an effort +for their rehabilitation worth while. Good vigor, even though it be +dormant, is absolutely essential. Disease weakens the tree, making the +expense of renovation greater. Moreover, all diseased branches must be +removed, requiring severe cutting and often seriously injuring the +tree. Disease too often stunts the tree to such an extent as to make +stimulation practically impossible. Such matters should be carefully +looked into before attempting renovation. + +(5) If the soil, site, and location are all unfavorable or even if two +of these are not good, time and money are likely to be wasted on +renovation. What constitutes unfavorable conditions in these respects +has already been pointed out in Chapter III. + +Practically the same principles of pruning, cultivation, fertilization +and spraying apply in the management of the old orchard as in any +other orchard. It may be well, however, to restate these, briefly +pointing out their special value and application to the old neglected +orchard together with the few modifications of practice necessary. The +steps to be taken are four: (1) pruning, (2) fertilizing, (3) +cultivating, and (4) spraying. + +(1) PRUNING.--Old and long-neglected apple orchards usually have a +large amount of dead wood in them. This may be removed at any time of +the year, but fall and winter are good times to begin the work. If the +trees are high and the limbs scattered and sprawling so that the +middle of the trees is not well filled out, the trees should be headed +back rather severely. Such trees may safely have their highest limbs +cut back from five to ten feet. It is best not to remove too many +branches in one year, but to spread severe cutting back over at least +two years, as so much pruning at one time weakens the tree and causes +an excessive growth of "suckers." Each limb should be cut back to a +rather strong and vigorous lateral branch which may then take up the +growth of the upright one. The effect of such heading back will be to +stimulate the branches lower down and probably to bring in more or +less "suckers." The following year the best of these suckers should +be selected at proper points about the tree, headed in so as to +develop their lateral buds, and encouraged by the removal of all other +suckers to fill in the top and center of the tree in the way desired. +All such severe heading in should best be done in the early spring. + +(2) FERTILIZING.--At some time during the late fall or winter twelve +to fifteen loads of stable manure should be applied broadcast on each +acre, scattering it well out under the ends of the branches. This will +amount to a load to from three to five trees. In case manure is not +available, or sometimes even supplementary to it in cases where quick +results are wanted 100 to 200 pounds of nitrate of soda, 300 to 500 +pounds of acid phosphate, and 150 to 200 pounds of sulphate or muriate +of potash should be applied in two applications as a top dressing in +spring, as soon as growth starts, and thoroughly worked into the soil. +This will give the trees an abundance of available plant food, which +is usually badly needed, and help to stimulate them to a vigorous +growth. Such heavy feeding may easily be overdone and should be +adjusted according to conditions and the needs of the orchard. + +(3) CULTIVATING.--If the orchard has been in sod for a number of +years, as is often the case, it is usually best to plow it in the fall +about four inches deep, just deep enough to turn under the sod. By so +doing a large number of roots will probably be broken, but such injury +will be much more than offset by the stimulus to the trees the next +season. It is a good plan to apply the stable manure on the top of +this plowed ground early in the winter. Fall plowing gives a better +opportunity for rotting the sod and exposes to the winter action of +the elements the soil, which is usually stale and inactive after lying +so long unturned. In the spring the regular treatment with springtooth +and spiketooth harrows should be followed as outlined in Chapter V. + +(4) SPRAYING in the old orchard is essentially the same as elsewhere. +It is necessary, however, to emphasize the first spray, the dormant +one, winter strength on the wood. This is the most important spray for +a neglected orchard and it should be very thoroughly applied. It is a +sort of cleaning-up spray for scale, fungus, and insects which winter +on the bark. In orchards where the San José scale is bad a strong +lime-sulphur spray should also be used in the late fall in order to +make doubly sure a thorough cleaning up. It is usually a pretty good +plan to scrape old trees as high up as the rough, shaggy bark extends, +destroying the scrapings. For this purpose an old and dull hoe does +very well. This treatment will get rid of many insects by destroying +them and their winter quarters. + +PATCHING OLD TREES.--A few suggestions on patching up the weak places +in an old tree may not be entirely out of place. The question is often +asked, will it pay to fill up the decayed centers or sides of old +trees? If the tree is otherwise desirable to save, it usually will. +Scrape out all the dead and rotten material, cleaning down to the +sound heart wood. Then fill up the cavity with a rough cement, being +careful to exclude all air and finishing with a smooth, sloping +surface so as to drain away all moisture. This treatment will probably +prevent further decay and often acts as a substantial mechanical +support. + +Trees which are badly split or which have so grown that a heavy crop +is likely to break them over should be braced with wires or bolts. +Where the limbs are close together a bolt driven right through them +with wide, strong washers at the ends is very effective in +strengthening the tree. Where limbs must be braced from one side of +the tree across to the other wires are the best to use. They may be +fastened to bolts through the limbs with wide washers on the outside +hooks on the inside, or by passing the wire around the branches. In +the latter case some wide, fairly rigid material such as tin, pieces +of wood, or heavy leather should be used to protect the tree from the +wire which would otherwise cut into the bark and perhaps girdle the +limb. + +COST.--For the benefit of those who would like to get some idea of the +probable cost of renovating old apple orchards, the following estimate +made by the writer in a recent government publication on this subject +is given. This estimate has been carefully made up from actual records +kept on several New York farms. Because these costs are very variable +according to the condition of the orchard, both maximum and minimum +amounts are given per acre for the first year only. + + Minimum Maximum + cost cost + + Plowing $2.00 $3.00 + Manure, 10 to 20 loads at $1, or their + equivalent in commercial fertilizer 10.00 20.00 + Hauling manure 5.00 10.00 + Pruning and hauling brush 5.00 10.00 + Disking or harrowing twice 1.00 1.50 + Disking or harrowing 3d or 4th time .50 1.00 + Cultivating two to four times .50 1.00 + Spraying once with L.S. dilution 1 to + 9--material 2.00 4.00 + Spraying once, L.S., labor 1.00 1.50 + Spraying second time with L.S. dilution + 1 to 40, labor and material 1.50 2.50 + Spraying third time with same 1.50 2.50 + ------ ------ + Total cost $30.00 $57.00 + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +THE COST OF GROWING APPLES + + +Two factors have always operated to deter many persons from taking up +fruit growing as a business or even as a side issue on the farm, and +they will probably continue to be an obstacle for more time to come. +These are the comparatively large investment required and the +necessarily long period of waiting before paying returns can be +obtained. Farmers who have not gone into the business of fruit growing +because they could not afford this heavy investment or to wait so long +for returns have been wise. Others who, though lacking the necessary +capital, still have planted heavily have learned to their sorrow the +importance of capital in the business both for the original investment +and to carry the enterprise. And yet with sufficient capital and the +proper conditions there is no more attractive or profitable line of +agriculture than fruit growing. + +Who knows what it costs to grow an orchard to bearing age? Or what it +costs to produce a barrel of apples? We venture to say that very few +persons do. Because of the large investment both in fixed and in +working capital it is most important to know these costs. Moreover an +accurate knowledge of the financial conditions and facts in any +business is of first importance to intelligent management. For these +reasons every grower ought to keep careful records of the cost and +income from each field or orchard every year in order to determine as +accurately as possible what his crops have cost him per unit and per +acre and what rate of interest he has realized on his investment. As +farming becomes more intensive competition increases, costs multiply, +and the margin of profit on any given unit becomes smaller. It +therefore becomes increasingly necessary to have accurate records on +the cost of production. + +FACTORS IN THE COST OF PRODUCTION.--The value of records depends on +their accuracy and on their completeness. There are a great many +factors which enter into the cost of production. For convenience these +may be classified as cash costs and labor costs. Labor charges should +include the work of both men and teams at a rate determined by their +actual cost or by a careful estimate. Man labor costs are easily +reckoned, as they are either simple cash or cash plus board and +certain privileges, the value of which should be estimated in cash. + +The value of horse labor is more difficult to determine. It is made up +of interest on valuation, depreciation, stable rental, feed, care, +etc. A fair estimate of this cost is $10 a month or $120 a year for a +horse. Cash costs are interest on the investment and on the equipment +in machinery, etc., or rental of the same, taxes, a proper share of +the general farm expenses such as insurance and repairs of buildings, +telephone, etc., the cost of spraying material, packages, fertilizers, +etc. + +There are many ways of keeping such a record. Any method which +accomplishes the result in a convenient and accurate manner is a good +one. It will usually be found necessary to keep a cash account or day +book, entering all items in enough detail to make possible their later +distribution to the proper field or crop, and also to keep a diary of +all labor. Any form of diary will answer the purpose, but one which +has ruled columns at the right side of the page in which to indicate +the crop or field worked upon, and the number of hours worked is more +convenient and therefore more desirable. + +AN EXAMPLE.--For a number of years the author has kept such records on +his farm in western New York. As an illustration of the method and in +order to give the reader a general idea as to what the costs above +referred to are likely to be we venture to give the following tables. +It must be remembered, however, that practically everyone of the above +mentioned factors varies with the conditions under which the orchard +is managed and that these figures are not _an_ average but _one_ +average and on one farm. True averages are arrived at only by bringing +together a large number of figures. In any case, the question of cost +is essentially an individual problem on every farm. These figures are +of value only as an example of the method and the cost on one farm +under its own special conditions. + +The orchard for which the following figures were given was set in the +spring of 1903, and the records begin with that year and end with +1910, covering a period of eight years in all. Throughout this period +other crops have been grown between the tree rows, thereby offsetting +to a large extent the cost of growing the orchard. Forty trees at the +north end of the orchard are pears, but they have received +substantially the same treatment as the apples and have not affected +the cost. In 1904, 211 plum trees were set as fillers one way. The +apple trees were set 36 by 36 feet apart, so that, filled one way, the +trees stand 18 by 36 feet apart. The orchard is ten rows wide and +forty-seven long, containing in all 467 trees. + +BRINGING TO BEARING AGE.--The first of the following tables is given +as a sample of one year's records, that of 1907, on this orchard in +order to show both the manner in which the costs were made up and what +the items amounted to in one year: + +FIELD A--1907. FIFTH YEAR + + Total Hours Cost Cost + hours Total per acre per per +Operation Man Horse cost Man Horse acre 100 +Mulching 3 6 $1.05 .455 .91 $0.16 $0.22 +Pruning 11 ... 1.65 1.67 ... .25 .35 +Cultivating 1 7 7 1.75 1.06 1.06 .26 .38 +Cultivating 2 10 10 2.50 1.51 1.51 .38 .54 +Cultivating 3 6 6 1.50 .91 .91 .23 .32 +Plowing in fall 47 94 16.45 7.12 14.25 2.50 3.52 +Banking trees 12 ... 1.80 1.82 ... .27 .39 +Harrowing 21 42 7.35 3.18 6.36 1.11 1.58 + --- --- ------ ----- ----- ----- ----- +Total lab. cost. 117 165 $34.05 17.73 25.00 $5.16 $7.30 + +4 loads manure at $1.50 6.00 .91 1.29 +Equipment charge 1.15 .174 .25 +Taxes 5.29 .801 1.13 +Interest 38.48 5.83 8.23 + ------ ------- ------ +Total cost $84.97 $12.875 $18.20 + +INCOME, COST AND PROFIT ON BEANS--FIELD A--1907 + + Income Cost Profit + 75 bushels at $1.50 $112.50 + 3½ tons pods at $6 21.00 $133.65 $94.50 $38.85 + +LOSS ON FIELD A--1907 + + Total Per acre + Net income from beans $38.85 $5.89 + Cost of orchard 84.97 12.87 + ------ ------ + Loss $46.12 $6.98 + +A summary of the cost of the orchard, the net income from the crop, +the income from the orchard and the profit and loss by years for the +eight years follows: + +SUMMARY OF COSTS FOR EIGHT YEARS, FIELD A + + Net Income + Crop income from Cost of 6.6 acres + Year grown from crop orchard orchard Profit Loss + 1903 Corn $ 15.17 ... $109.87 ... $ 94.70 + 1904 Beans 42.57 ... 216.16 ... 173.59 + 1905 Beans 43.13 ... 83.78 ... 40.65 + 1906 Beans 120.90 ... 80.14 $40.76 ... + 1907 Beans 38.85 ... 84.97 ... 46.12 + 1908 Corn 37.68 ... 64.22 ... 26.54 + 1909 Oats and + strawberries 100.61 $27.88 84.73 43.76 ... + 1910 Wheat 60.70 38.65 96.35 3.00 ... + ------- ------ ------- ------ ------- + Totals $459.61 $66.53 $620.22 $87.52 $381.60 + +Net loss on field for eight years $294.08 +Average annual loss 38.76 +Total cost an acre, exclusive of income 124.27 +Total cost an acre, including income 44.55 +Total net cost a hundred trees 62.97 +Total net cost an apple tree 1.37 +Total net cost an apple tree, exclusive of income 3.80 +Total labor cost an acre 35.09 +Total cash cost an acre 89.19 + +We find that this orchard has cost $124.27 an acre during the eight +years of its life, but that the $79.72 an acre of crops grown in the +orchard has brought this cost down to $44.55 an acre. It is safe to +say that the orchard would have cost even more than it did had it not +been for the crops, for many operations charged directly to the crops +would of necessity have been charged to the trees. The cost a hundred +trees does not mean much, as it often happens that not all the trees +are covered by an operation and as the number of trees an acre greatly +affects these costs. + +We have another and younger orchard upon which a record has been kept. +This orchard of five acres contains 126 standard apple trees, +"filled" both ways with 375 peach trees. It was set in the spring of +1908, so that the trees have grown four seasons. The permanents +(apples) are set 36 by 40 feet apart, so that, with the peaches +between, the trees stand 18 by 20 feet apart. A crop of beans has been +grown between the tree rows each season. The first season a full seven +rows, twenty-eight inches apart, were planted in the wider space; the +second and third season six rows, and the last season only four rows. +The crop has been very good each year until the last. One application +of manure, one crop of clover and one seeding of rye have been plowed +under, and in addition a liberal amount of commercial fertilizer has +been used with each crop. This year the peach trees bore their first +crop. The record of the four years is as follows: + +SUMMARY OF THE COST OF A FOUR-YEAR-OLD APPLE AND PEACH ORCHARD + + Net Income + Crop income from Cost of +Year grown from crop orchard orchard Profit Loss + +1908 Beans $63.37 ... $130.12 ... $62.75 +1909 Beans 66.70 ... $85.03 ... 18.33 +1910 Beans 79.81 ... 83.39 ... 3.58 +1911 Beans 53.20 $46.05 61.95 $37.30 ... + ------- ------ ------- ------ ------ + Totals $267.08 $46.05 $360.49 $37.30 $84.66 + +Total cost an acre, exclusive of income $72.10 +Total cost an acre, including income 9.47 +Total net cost a hundred trees 4.73 +Total net cost an apple tree .376 +Total net cost an apple tree, exclusive of income 2.86 + +These figures show a still lower cost of growing trees to bearing age. +After paying all expenses connected with the growing of the trees, +including the interest on the land at $150 an acre, and deducting the +net profit from the crops of beans and the sales from the first crop +of peaches we find that the growing of the trees has cost us $9.47 an +acre, or 37½ cents an apple tree at four years old. Had no crop been +grown in the orchard it would have cost us at least $62.89 an acre +after deducting the income from the first peach crop. The peach trees +are now at full bearing age, and should show a good profit from this +time on. Possibly at five and certainly at six years of age this +orchard will entirely have paid for itself. The only possible further +charge which could be made against this orchard is the crop income +which might have been obtained from the land had the trees not been +there. We estimated that the presence of the trees cut down the crop +of beans from the land 30 per cent. As the average net income from +beans was $13.35 an acre this would amount to $4 an acre a year--an +insignificant sum. + +IN BEARING.--Having given the reader an idea of the probable cost of +bringing an orchard to bearing age, it may be well also to give the +cost of producing apples in a mature apple orchard. Our bearing apple +orchard consists of 6.1 acres containing 234 trees. About one-half of +the trees, or 110, are 36 years old. The remainder are nearly 50 years +of age. As they are all in one block and handled together, the charges +cannot well be separated. One hundred and thirty-four of the trees are +Baldwins, 44 Twenty Ounce, 40 Tompkins County Kings, and the remainder +odd varieties. For the whole period of ten years the orchard has had +very good care and attention. + +A cover crop was not sown every year, but when it was used the charge +was made against the orchard. The manure charge, omitted because of +uncertainty as to the exact amount applied and as to its real value, +is the only thing lacking in this table. + +Two or three sprayings have been made every year. Until 1909, Bordeaux +mixture and Paris green were used, but since then the commercial +brands of lime sulphur and arsenate of lead have taken their place, +nearly doubling the cost of the spray material. The average cost of +the material for spraying has been $2.50 per acre, or nearly three and +one-half cents per barrel of apples harvested. In 1910 this cost was +$3.92 per acre and seven cents a barrel. + +TABLE SHOWING THE ITEMS OF EXPENSE IN PRODUCING APPLES IN A SIX ACRE +ORCHARD + +-------+------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+-------- + | | | | 5% | | | | + | Cover|Spraying| | int. | Equip.| O'vh'd| Labor | Total +Year | crop |mat. | Bar. |on inv.|charge |charge | cost | cost +-------+------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+-------- +1902 | |$6.64 |$117.88|$27.45 |$25.00 |$2.97 |$339.45 |$519.39 +1903 | |11.22 | 164.92| 28.88 | 25.00 | 2.88 | 249.55 | 482.56 +1904 | |10.50 | 109.90| 30.50 | 25.00 | 3.93 | 180.55 | 360.38 +1905 |$6.10 |12.45 | 88.80| 30.50 | 25.00 | 3.40 | 158.06 | 324.31 +1906 | |14.85 | 112.35| 33.06 | 25.00 | 4.78 | 211.76 | 401.80 +1907 |10.00 |16.85 | 79.80| 35.56 | 25.00 | 4.89 | 192.30 | 364.40 +1908 | | 9.75 | 205.45| 37.76 | 30.09 | 5.09 | 293.50 | 583.55 +1909 | 8.68 |19.26 | 196.35| 41.97 | 38.98 | 5.91 | 280.78 | 591.93 +1910 | |23.89 | 116.90| 45.75 | 32.39 | 5.58 | 175.26 | 399.77 +1911 |10.50 |27.08 | 206.38| 45.75 | 32.39*| 5.53* | 275.00*| 602.63 +-------+------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+-------- +10 yr. av. $15.25 $139.87 $35.73 $28.37 $4.78 $235.62 $463.07 +Av. per acre 2.50 22.93 5.86 4.65 .78 38.63 75.92 +Av. per bbl .036 .327 .084 .066 .011 .552 -1.08 + +* Partly estimated, records not yet complete. +------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +The cost of the package has varied from 28 to 38 cents and has +averaged about 32½ cents, or $22.93 per acre. Of course the latter +amount varies greatly with the crop. + +Interest has in all cases been figured at five per cent., but as the +price of the land has varied from $90 an acre at the beginning of the +period to its present valuation of $160,00 an acre, due both to its +improvement and to a general increase in the price of land, the +amount of interest has also varied. The same is true of the equipment +charge which has steadily increased each year. The average valuation +of the land for the ten-year period was $117.15 an acre. This means an +annual interest charge of $5.86 per acre, or 8½ cents a barrel. The +equipment charge, which is interest, repairs, and depreciation on the +machinery used in the orchard, amounts to more than 6½ cents a barrel, +or $4.65 per acre. Taxes and insurance on the buildings distributed +per acre for the farm average $.78 per acre, or a trifle over one cent +per barrel. These costs have also increased in the last few years. + +Labor is the largest single item. For the first four years this was +estimated on the basis of the cost for the last six years, for which +more careful records were kept. It is computed at its actual cost to +us on the farm, which was 15½ cents an hour for men and 13½ cents an +hour for horses. This amounts to $4.25 per day for man and team. The +cost of the labor to grow, pick, pack, and market a barrel of apples +was 55 cents, or $38.63 per acre with an average yield of 70 barrels +per acre. + +To sum up these items of cost we find that taking the average of ten +years with an annual crop of 427 barrels, or 70 per acre, on 6.1 acres +of old apple orchard that the costs per barrel have been as follows: +spray material, $.036; packages, $.327; interest on the land, $.084; +use of equipment, $.066; taxes, $.011; labor, $.552; and a total of +$1.08 per barrel. If the estimated cost of manure, six cents a barrel +be added, the total will be $1.14. As we have said, these costs per +barrel vary with the crop. When our yield was 100 barrels per acre the +cost per barrel was only $.99, but when it was 34 barrels per acre +this cost rose to $1.73 per barrel. In 1910 we grew a crop of 55 +barrels per acre for $1.20 per barrel. + +It may be of interest to some to know what the income and profit were +on this orchard. For this purpose we give the following table showing +the yield, income, cost, and net profit for each of the ten years, and +the average: + + Yield in Income Income Cost Net Profit + bbls. bbls. inc. culls per bbls. inc. culls + Year per A. only and drops bbl. alone and drops + 1902 103 $1.96* $1.46* $.83 $1.13 $.63 + 1903 71 1.90 2.23 1.11 .79 1.12 + 1904 51 1.66 1.78 1.15 .51 .63 + 1905 49 2.30 2.68 1.10 1.20 1.58 + 1906 53 1.96 2.25 1.25 .71 1.30 + 1907 34 3.49 4.10 1.73 1.76 2.37 + 1908 96 2.03 2.32 .99 1.04 1.33 + 1909 92 3.00 3.38 1.06 1.94 2.32 + 1910 55 2.69 3.03 1.20 1.49 1.83 + 1911 100 2.06 2.32 .99¤ 1.07¤ 1.33¤ +---------------------------------------------------------------------- +10 yr. + av. 70 2.15 2.47 1.08 1.07 1.39 + + * In arriving at these incomes different divisors were used. Two + hundred barrels of the crop were sold in bulk and these were not + used in getting the average income from barrels only, but were used + in getting the average income including culls and drops. + + ¤ Partly estimated, records not yet being complete for the season. + + +THE END + + + + +OUTING + +HANDBOOKS + +¶ Each book deals with a separate subject and deals with it +thoroughly. If you want to know anything about Airedales an OUTING +HANDBOOK gives you all you want. If it's Apple Growing, another OUTING +HANDBOOK meets your need. The Fisherman, the Camper, the +Poultry-raiser, the Automobilist, the Horseman, all varieties of +outdoor enthusiasts, will find separate volumes for their separate +interests. There is no waste space. + +¶ The series is based on the plan of one subject to a book and each +book complete. The authors are experts. Each book has been specially +prepared for this series and all are published in uniform style, +flexible cloth binding, selling at the fixed price of seventy cents +per copy. + +¶ Two hundred titles are projected. The series covers all phases of +outdoor life, from bee-keeping to big game shooting. Among the books +now ready are those described on the following pages. + + OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY + OUTING MAGAZINE Yachting OUTING HANDBOOKS + 141-145 WEST 36th ST. NEW YORK 122 S. MICHIGAN AVE. CHICAGO + +=THE AIREDALE. By Williams Haynes.= The book opens with a short +chapter on the origin and development of the Airedale, as a +distinctive breed. The author then takes up the problems of type as +bearing on the selection of the dog, breeding, training and use. The +book is designed for the non-professional dog fancier, who wishes +common sense advice which does not involve elaborate preparation or +expenditure. Chapters are included on the care of the dog in the +kennel and simple remedies for ordinary diseases. + + "_A splendid book on the breed and should be in the hands of + every owner of an Airedale whether novice or breeder._"--_The + Kennel Review._ + + "_It ought to be read and studied by every Airedale owner and + admirer._"--_Howard Keeler, Airedale Farm Kennels._ + +=APPLE GROWING. By M.C. Burritt.= Mr. Burritt takes up the question of +the profit in apple growing, the various kinds best suited to +different parts of the country and different conditions of soil, +topography, and so on. He discusses also the most approved methods of +planning a new orchard and takes up in detail the problems connected +with the cultivation, fertilization, and pruning. The book contains +chapters on the restoration of old orchards, the care of the trees, +their protection against various insect-enemies and blight, and the +most approved method of harvesting, handling and storing the fruit. + +=THE AUTOMOBILE--Its Selection, Care and Use. By Robert Sloss.= This +is a plain, practical discussion of the things that every man needs to +know if he is to buy the right car and get the most out of it. The +various details of operation and care are given in simple, intelligent +terms. From it the car owner can easily learn the mechanism of his +motor and the art of locating motor trouble, as well as how to use his +car for the greatest pleasure. A chapter is included on building +garages. + + "_It is the one book dealing with autos, that gives reliable + information._"--_The Grand Rapids (Mich.) Herald._ + +=BACKWOODS SURGERY AND MEDICINE. By Charles S. Moody, M.D.= A handy +book for the prudent lover of the woods who doesn't expect to be ill +but believes in being on the safe side. Common-sense methods for the +treatment of the ordinary wounds and accidents are described--setting +a broken limb, reducing a dislocation, caring for burns, cuts, etc. +Practical remedies for camp diseases are recommended, as well as the +ordinary indications of the most probable ailments. Includes a list of +the necessary medical and surgical supplies. + + _The manager of a mine in Nome, Alaska, writes as follows: "I + have been on the trail for years (twelve in the Klondike and + Alaska) and have always wanted just such a book as Dr. Moody's + Backwoods Surgery and Medicine."_ + +=CAMP COOKERY. By Horace Kephart.= "The less a man carries in his +pack, the more he must carry in his head," says Mr. Kephart. This book +tells what a man should carry in both pack and head. Every step is +traced--the selection of provisions and utensils, with the kind and +quantity of each, the preparation of game, the building of fires the +cooking of every conceivable kind of food that the camp outfit or +woods, fields, or streams may provide--even to the making of desserts. +Every receipt is the result of hard practice and long experience. +Every recipe has been carefully tested. It is the book for the man who +wants to dine well and wholesomely, but in true wilderness fashion +without reliance on grocery stores or elaborate camp outfits. It is +adapted equally well to the trips of every length and to all +conditions of climate, season or country; the best possible companion +for one who wants to travel light and live well. The chapter headings +tell their own story. Provisions--Utensils--Fires--Dressing and +Keeping Game and Fish--Meat--Game--Fish and Shell Fish--Cured Meats, +etc.--Eggs--Bread-stuffs and Cereals--Vegetables--Soups--Beverages and +Desserts. + + "_Scores of new hints may be obtained by the housekeeper as well + as the camper from Camp Cookery._"--_Portland Oregonian._ + + "_I am inclined to think that the advice contained in Mr. + Kephart's book is to be relied on. I had to stop reading his + receipts for cooking wild fowl--they made me hungry._"--_New + York Herald._ + + "_The most useful and valuable book to the camper yet + published._"--_Grand Rapids Herald._ + + "_Camp Cookery is destined to be in the kit of every tent + dweller in the country._"--_Edwin Markham in the San Francisco + Examiner._ + +=CAMPS AND CABINS. By Oliver Kemp.= A working guide for the man who +wants to know how to make a temporary shelter in the woods against the +storm or cold. This describes the making of lean-tos, brush shelters, +snow shelters, the utilization of the canoe, and so forth. Practically +the only tools required are a stout knife or a pocket axe, and Mr. +Kemp shows how one may make shift even without these implements. More +elaborate camps and log cabins, also, are described and detailed plans +reproduced. Illustrated with drawings by the author. + +=EXERCISE AND HEALTH. By Dr. Woods Hutchinson.= Dr. Hutchinson takes +the common-sense view that the greatest problem in exercise for most +of us is to get enough of the right kind. The greatest error in +exercise is not to take enough, and the greatest danger in athletics +is in giving them up. The Chapter heads are illuminating. Errors in +Exercise--Exercise and the Heart--Muscle Maketh Man--The Danger of +Stopping Athletics--Exercise that Rests. It is written in a direct +matter-of-fact manner with an avoidance of medical terms, and a strong +emphasis on the rational, all-round manner of living that is best +calculated to bring a man to a ripe old age with little illness or +consciousness of body weakness. + + "_It contains good physiology as well as good common sense, + written by an acute observer and a logical reasoner, who has the + courage of his convictions and is a master of English + style._"--_D.A. Sargent, M.D., Sargent School for Physical + Education._ + + "_One of the most readable books ever written on physical + exercise._"--_Luther H. Gulick, M.D., Department of Child + Hygiene, Russell Sage Foundation._ + + "_A little book for the busy man written in brilliant + style._"--_Kansas City Star._ + +=THE FINE ART OF FISHING. By Samuel G. Camp.= Combines the pleasure of +catching fish with the gratification of following the sport in the +most approved manner. The suggestions offered are helpful to beginner +and expert anglers. The range of fish and fishing conditions covered +is wide and includes such subjects as "Casting Fine and Far Off," +"Strip-Casting for Bass," "Fishing For Mountain Trout" and "Autumn +Fishing for Lake Trout." The book is pervaded with a spirit of love +for the streamside and the out-doors generally which the genuine +angler will appreciate. A companion book to "Fishing Kits and +Equipment." The advice on outfitting so capably given in that book is +supplemented in this later work by equally valuable information on how +to use the equipment. + + "_Will encourage the beginner and give pleasure to the expert + fisherman._"--_N.Y. Sun._ + + "_A vein of catching enthusiasm runs through every + chapter._"--_Scientific American._ + +=FISHING KITS AND EQUIPMENT. By Samuel G. Camp.= A complete guide to +the angler buying a new outfit. Every detail of fishing kit of the +freshwater angler is described, from rodtip to creel and clothing. +Special emphasis is laid on outfitting for fly fishing, but full +instruction is also given to the man who wants to catch pickerel, +pike, muskellunge, lake-trout, bass and other fresh-water game fishes. +Prices are quoted for all articles recommended and the approved method +of selecting and testing the various rods, lines, leaders, etc., is +described. + + "_A complete guide to the angler buying a new outfit._"--_Peoria + Herald._ + + "_The man advised by Mr. Camp will catch his fish._"--_Seattle + P.I._ + + "_Even the seasoned angler will read this hook with + profit._"--_Chicago Tribune._ + + +=THE HORSE--Its Breeding, Care and Use. By David Buffum.= Mr. Buffum +takes up the common, every-day problems of the ordinary horse-user, +such as feeding, shoeing, simple home remedies, breaking and the cure +for various equine vices. An important chapter is that tracing the +influx of Arabian blood into the English and American horses and its +value and limitations. Chapters are included on draft-horses, carriage +horses, and the development of the two-minute trotter. It is +distinctly a sensible book for the sensible man who wishes to know how +he can improve his horses and his horsemanship at the same time. + + "_I am recommending it to our students as a useful reference + book for both the practical farmer and the student._"--_T. R. + Arkell, Animal Husbandman, N.H. Agricultural Experiment + Station._ + + "_Has a great deal of merit from a practical standpoint and is + valuable for reference work._"--_Prof. E.L. Jordon, Professor of + Animal Industry, Louisiana State University._ + +=MAKING AND KEEPING SOIL. By David Buffum.= This deals with the +various kinds of soil and their adaptibility to different crops, +common sense tests as to the use of soils, and also the common sense +methods of cultivation and fertilization in order to restore worn-out +soil and keep it at its highest productivity under constant use. + +=THE MOTOR BOAT--Its Selection, Care and Use. By H.W. Slauson.= The +intending purchaser of a motor boat is advised as to the type of boat +best suited to his particular needs, the power required for the +desired speeds, and the equipment necessary for the varying uses. The +care of the engine receives special attention and chapters are +included on the use of the boat in camping and cruising expeditions, +its care through the winter, and its efficiency in the summer. + +=NAVIGATION FOR THE AMATEUR. By Capt. E.T. Morton.= A short treatise +on the simpler methods of finding position at sea by the observation +of the sun's altitude and the use of the sextant and chronometer. It +is arranged especially for yachtsmen and amateurs who wish to know the +simpler formulae for the necessary navigation involved in taking a +boat anywhere off shore. Illustrated with drawings. + +=OUTDOOR SIGNALLING. By Elbert Wells.= Mr. Wells has perfected a +method of signalling by means of wig-wag, light, smoke, or whistle +which is as simple as it is effective. The fundamental principle can +be learnt in ten minutes and its application is far easier than that +of any other code now in use. It permits also the use of cipher and +can be adapted to almost any imaginable conditions of weather, light, +or topography. + + "_I find it to be the simplest and most practical book on + signalling published._"--_Frank H. Schrenk, Director of Camp + Belgrade._ + + "_One of the finest things of the kind I have ever seen. I + believe my seven year old boy can learn to use this system, and + I know that we will find it very useful here in our Boy Scout + work._"--_Lyman G. Haskell, Physical Director, Y.M.C.A., + Jacksonville, Fla._ + +=PRACTICAL POULTRY KEEPING. By R.B. Sando.= The chapters outlined in +this book are poultry keeping and keepers, housing and yarding, +fixtures and equipment, choosing and buying stock, foods and feeding, +hatching and raising chicks. Inbreeding, caponizing, etc., What to do +at different seasons. The merits of "secrets and systems", The truth +about common poultry fallacies and get-rich-quick schemes. Poultry +parasites and diseases. A complete list of the breeds and subjects is +attached. It is in effect a comprehensive manual for the instruction +of the man who desires to begin poultry raising on a large or small +scale and to avoid the ordinary mistakes to which the beginner is +prone. All the statements are based on the authors own experience and +special care has been taken to avoid sensationalism or exaggeration. + +=PROFITABLE BREEDS OF POULTRY. By Arthur S. Wheeler.= Mr. Wheeler has +chapters on some of the best known general purpose birds such as Rhode +Island Reds, Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Mediterraneans, Orpingtons, +and Cornish, describing the peculiarities and possibilities of each. +There are additional chapters on the method of handling a poultry farm +on a small scale with some instructions as to housing the birds, and +so forth, and also a chapter on the market side of poultry growing. + +=RIFLES AND RIFLE SHOOTING. By Charles Askins.= Part I describes the +various makes and mechanisms taking up such points as range and +adaptibility of the various calibers, the relative merits of lever, +bolt and pump action, the claims of the automatic, and so forth. Part +II deals with rifle shooting, giving full instruction for target +practice, snap shooting, and wing shooting. + +=SCOTTISH AND IRISH TERRIERS. By Williams Haynes.= This is a companion +book to The Airedale and deals with the origin of the breeds, the +standard types, approved methods of breeding, kenneling, training, +care and so forth, with chapters on showing and also on the ordinary +diseases and simple remedies. + +=SPORTING FIREARMS. By Horace Kephart.= This book is devided into two +parts, Part I dealing with the Rifle and Part II with the Shotgun. Mr. +Kephart goes at some length into the questions of range, trajectory +and killing power of the different types of rifles and charges and +also has chapters on rifle mechanisms, sights, barrels, and so forth. +In the part dealing with shotguns he takes up the question of range, +the effectiveness of various loads, suitability of the different types +of boring, the testing of the shotguns by pattern, and so forth. + +=TRACKS AND TRACKING. By Josef Brunner.= After twenty years of patient +study and practical experience, Mr. Brunner can, from his intimate +knowledge, speak with authority on this subject. "Tracks and Tracking" +shows how to follow intelligently even the most intricate animal or +bird tracks. It teaches how to interpret tracks of wild game and +decipher the many tell-tale signs of the chase that would otherwise +pass unnoticed. It proves how it is possible to tell from the +footprints the name, sex, speed, direction, whether and how wounded, +and many other things about wild animals and birds. All material has +been gathered first hand; the drawings and half-tones from photographs +form an important part of the work, as the author has made faithful +pictures of the tracks and signs of the game followed. The list is: The +White-Tailed or Virginia Deer--The Fan-Tailed Deer--The Mule-Deer--The +Wapiti or Elk--The Moose--The Mountain Sheep--The Antelope--The +Bear--The Cougar--The Lynx--The Domestic Cat--The Wolf--The Coyote--The +Fox--The Jack Rabbit--The Varying Hare--The Cottontail Rabbit--The +Squirrel--The Marten and the Black-Footed Ferret--The Otter--The +Mink--The Ermine--The Beaver--The Badger--The Porcupine--The +Skunk--Feathered Game--Upland Birds--Waterfowl--Predatory Birds--This +book is invaluable to the novice as well as the experienced hunter. + + "_This book studied carefully, will enable the reader to become + as well versed in tracking lore as he could by years of actual + experience._"--_Lewiston Journal._ + +=WING AND TRAP-SHOOTING. By Charles Askins.= The only practical manual +in existance dealing with the modern gun. It contains a full +discussion of the various methods, such as snap-shooting, swing and +half-swing, discusses the flight of birds with reference to the +gunner's problem of lead and range and makes special application of +the various points to the different birds commonly shot in this +country. A chapter is included on trap shooting and the book closes +with a forceful and common-sense presentation of the etiquette of the +field. + + "_It is difficult to understand how anyone who takes a delight + in hunting can afford to be without this valuable + book._"--_Chamber of Commerce Bulletin, Portland, Ore._ + + "_This book will prove an invaluable manual to the true + sportsman, whether he be a tyro or expert._"--_Book News + Monthly._ + + "_Its closing chapter on field etiquette deserves careful + reading._"--_N.Y. Times._ + +=THE YACHTSMAN'S HANDBOOK. By Commander C.S. Stanworth, U.S.N. and +Others.= Deals with the practical handling of sail boats, with some +light on the operation of the gasoline motor. It includes such +subjects as handling ground tackle, handling lines and taking +soundings, and use of the lead line; handling sails, engine troubles +that may be avoided, care of the gasoline motor and yachting +etiquette. + + + * * * * * + + +-----------------------------------------------------------+ + | Typographical errors corrected in text: | + | | + | Page 12: 'together with is long season' replaced with | + | 'together with its long season' | + | Page 32: prunned replaced with pruned | + | Page 36: profiable replaced with profitable | + | Page 65: humous replaced with humus | + | Page 82: 'it must be sour' corrected to | + | 'it must not be sour' In sentence referring | + | to lime which is used to reduce acidity | + | (sourness). | + | Page 88: prsent replaced with present | + | Page 105: tisses replaced with tissues | + | Page 107: 'carried over the winter cankers' corrected to | + | 'carried over the winter in cankers' | + | Page 126: Jose replaced with José | + | Page 163: (table) Syraying replaced with Spraying | + | Page 163: (table) Syraping replaced with Spraying | + | Page 164: 'The factors have always operated to deter' | + | corrected to 'Two factors have always operated | + | to deter' | + | | + +-----------------------------------------------------------+ + + * * * * * + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Apple Growing, by M. 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Burritt. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + P { margin-top: .5em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .5em; + text-indent: 1em; + } + H1 { + text-align: center; font-family: garamond, serif; /* all headings centered */ + } + H5,H6 { + text-align: center; font-family: garamond, serif; /* all headings centered */ + } + H2 { + text-align: center; font-family: garamond, serif; /* centered and coloured */ + } + H3 { + text-align: center; font-family: garamond, serif; /* centered and coloured */ + } + H4 { + text-align: center; font-family: garamond, serif; /* all headings centered */ + } + HR { width: 33%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + } + BODY{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + a {text-decoration: none} /* no lines under links */ + div.centered {text-align: center;} /* work around for IE centering with CSS problem part 1 */ + div.centered table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;} /* work around for IE centering with CSS problem part 2 */ + + .cen {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} /* centering paragraphs */ + .sc {font-variant: small-caps; font-size: 95%;} /* small caps, normal size */ + .noin {text-indent: 0em;} /* no indenting */ + .block {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 5%;} /* block indent */ + .block2 {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%; font-size: 90%;} /* block indent */ + .block3 {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%;} /* block indent */ + .right {text-align: right; padding-right: 2em;} /* right aligning paragraphs */ + .totoc {position: absolute; right: 2%; font-size: 75%; text-align: right;} /* Table of contents anchor */ + .hang {text-indent: -2em;} /* hanging indents */ + .tdr {text-align: right; padding-right: .5em; vertical-align: bottom;} /* right align cell */ + .tdr2 {text-align: right; padding-right: 1em; vertical-align: bottom;} /* right align cell */ + .tdr3 {text-align: right; padding-right: 2em; vertical-align: bottom;} /* right align cell */ + .tdr4 {text-align: right; padding-right: 2.5em; vertical-align: bottom;} /* right align cell */ + .tdc {text-align: center;} /* center align cell */ + .tdl {text-align: left;} /* left align cell */ + .tdcb {text-align: center; border: 1pt black solid; vertical-align: middle;} /* center align cell with full border*/ + .tdlp {text-align: left; padding-left: 1em; vertical-align: bottom;} /* left align cell */ + .tdlsc {text-align: left; font-variant: small-caps; font-size: 95%;} /* aligning cell content and small caps */ + .tdrsc {text-align: right; font-variant: small-caps; font-size: 95%;} /* aligning cell content and small caps */ + .tdcsc {text-align: center; font-variant: small-caps; font-size: 95%; vertical-align: middle; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} /* aligning cell content and small caps */ + .tr {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; margin-top: 5%; margin-bottom: 5%; padding: 1em; background-color: #f6f2f2; color: black; border: dotted black 1px;} /* transcriber's notes */ + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; right: 2%; + font-size: 75%; + color: silver; + background-color: inherit; + text-align: right; + text-indent: 0em; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal;} /* page numbers */ + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 90%;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: text-top; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .poem {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span {display: block; margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em;} + .poem span.pn { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; right: 2%; + font-size: 75%; + text-align: right; + text-indent: 0em; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + color: silver; background-color: inherit; + font-variant: normal;} /* page numbers in poems */ + + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Apple Growing, by M. C. Burritt + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Apple Growing + +Author: M. C. Burritt + +Release Date: March 9, 2007 [EBook #20770] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLE GROWING *** + + + + +Produced by Jeannie Howse, Steven Giacomelli and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> + +<div class="tr"> +<p class="cen" style="font-weight: bold;">Transcriber's Note:</p> +<br /> +<p class="noin">Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have been preserved.</p> +<p class="noin">Obvious typographical errors have been corrected in this text.<br /> +For a complete list, please see the <a href="#TN">end of this document</a>.</p> +</div> + +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<h3>APPLE GROWING</h3> + + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<h1> +APPLE<br /> +GROWING</h1> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<h3 style="margin-bottom: -1px;">BY</h3> +<h2 style="margin-top: -1px;">M.C. BURRITT</h2> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<h5>NEW YORK<br /> +OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY<br /> +MCMXII</h5> + +<br /> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<h5><span class="sc">Copyright, 1912, By</span><br /> +OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY.</h5> + +<br /> +<br /> +<h5>All rights reserved.</h5> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<hr /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span><br /> + +<h3>PREFACE</h3> +<br /> + +<p>In the preparation of this book I have tried to keep constantly before +me the conditions of the average farm in the Northeastern States with +its small apple orchard. It has been my aim to set down only such +facts as would be of practical value to an owner of such a farm and to +state these facts in the plain language of experience. This book is in +no sense intended as a final scientific treatment of the subject, and +if it is of any value in helping to make the fruit department of the +general farm more profitable the author will be entirely satisfied.</p> + +<p>The facts herein set down were first learned in the school of +practical experience on the writer's own farm in Western New York. +They were afterwards supplemented by some theoretical training and by +a rather wide observation of farm orchard conditions and methods in +New York, Pennsylvania, the New England States and other contiguous +territory. These facts were first put together in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>something like +their present form in the winter of 1909-10, when the writer gave a +series of lectures on Commercial Fruit Growing to the Short Courses in +Horticulture at Cornell University. These lectures were revised and +repeated in 1910-11 and are now put in their present form.</p> + +<p>The author's sincere thanks are due to Professor C.S. Wilson, of the +Department of Pomology at Cornell University, for many valuable facts +and suggestions used in this book, and for a careful reading of the +manuscript. He is also under obligations to Mr. Roy D. Anthony of the +same Department for corrections and suggestions on the chapters on +Insects and Diseases and on Spraying.</p> + +<p class="right sc">M.C. Burritt.</p> +<br /> +<p style="margin-left: 2em;">Hilton, N.Y.<br /> +February, 1912.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="toc" id="toc"></a><hr /> +<br /> + +<h3>CONTENTS</h3> +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Table of Contents"> + <tr> + <td class="tdr" width="15%"><span style="font-size: 80%;">CHAPTER</span></td> + <td class="tdl" width="70%"> </td> + <td class="tdr" width="15%"><span style="font-size: 80%;">PAGE</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">I.</td> + <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">The Outlook for the Growing of Apples</a></td> + <td class="tdr">11</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">II.</td> + <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">Planning for the Orchard</a></td> + <td class="tdr">18</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">III.</td> + <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">Planting and Growing the Orchard</a></td> + <td class="tdr">30</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">IV.</td> + <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">Pruning the Trees</a></td> + <td class="tdr">48</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">V.</td> + <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">Cultivation and Cover Cropping</a></td> + <td class="tdr">62</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">VI.</td> + <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Manuring and Fertilizing</a></td> + <td class="tdr">78</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">VII.</td> + <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Insects and Diseases Affecting the Apple</a></td> + <td class="tdr">92</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> + <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">The Principles and Practice of Spraying</a></td> + <td class="tdr">108</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">IX.</td> + <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">Harvesting and Storing</a></td> + <td class="tdr">127</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">X.</td> + <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">Markets and Marketing</a></td> + <td class="tdr">142</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XI.</td> + <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">Some Hints on Renovating Old Orchards</a></td> + <td class="tdr">153</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdr">XII.</td> + <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">The Cost of Growing Apples</a></td> + <td class="tdr">164</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<h1>APPLE GROWING</h1> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a><hr /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span><br /> + +<h3>CHAPTER I<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3> + +<h4>THE OUTLOOK FOR THE GROWING OF APPLES</h4> +<br /> + +<p>The apple has long been the most popular of our tree fruits, but the +last few years have seen a steady growth in its appreciation and use. +This is probably due in a large measure to a better knowledge of its +value and to the development of new methods of preparation for +consumption. Few fruits can be utilized in as many ways as can the +apple. In addition to the common use of the fresh fruit out of hand +and of the fresh, sweet juice as cider, this "King of Fruits" can be +cooked, baked, dried, canned, and made into jellies and other +appetizing dishes, to enumerate all of which would be to prepare a +list pages long. Few who have tasted once want to be without their +apple sauce and apple pies in season, not to mention the crisp, juicy +specimens to eat out of hand by the open fireplace in the long winter +evenings. Apples thus served call up pleasant memories to most of us, +but only recently have the culinary possibilities <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>of the apple, +especially as a dessert fruit, been fully realized.</p> + +<p>It is doubtless this realization of its great adaptability, together +with its long season, which have brought the apple into so great +demand of late. It is possible to have apples on the table in some +form the year round. The first summer apples are almost always with us +before the bottom of the Russet barrel is reached. Or, should the +fresh fruit be too expensive or for some reason fail altogether, the +housewife can fall back on the canned and dried fruit which are almost +as good.</p> + +<p>The tendency in the price of this staple fruit has been constantly +upward during the last decade. Many people are greatly surprised when +the fact that apples cost more than oranges is called to their +attention. The increase in consumption, due to the greater variety of +ways of preparing the apple for use, has undoubtedly been an important +factor in this higher price. But at least an equally important factor +is the marked decrease in the supply of this fruit. To those who are +not familiar with the facts, the great falling off in production which +the figures show will be no less than startling.</p> + +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span><br /> + +<p class="sc cen">Production of Apples in Barrels in the United States from 1896 to 1910</p> +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Production of Apples in Barrels"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="60%">1896</td> + <td class="tdr" width="20%">69,070,000</td> + <td class="tdr" width="20%"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1897</td> + <td class="tdr">41,530,000</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1898</td> + <td class="tdr">28,570,000</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1899</td> + <td class="tdr">37,460,000</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1900</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">56,820,000</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Total crop for five years</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">233,450,000</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Average crop for five years</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdr">46,690,000</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1901</td> + <td class="tdr">26,970,000</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1902</td> + <td class="tdr">46,625,000</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1903</td> + <td class="tdr">42,626,000</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1904</td> + <td class="tdr">45,360,000</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1905</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">24,310,000</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Total crop for five years</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">185,891,000</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Average crop for five years</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdr">37,178,200</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1906</td> + <td class="tdr">38,280,000</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1907</td> + <td class="tdr">29,540,000</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1908</td> + <td class="tdr">25,850,000</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1909</td> + <td class="tdr">25,415,000</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1910</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">23,825,000</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Total crop for five years</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">142,910,000</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Average crop for five years</td> + <td class="tdr">28,582,000</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3" style="padding: .5em;">Estimates of 1896, 1897, and 1898 from "Better Fruit," Vol. 5, + No. 5. All other years from the estimates of the "American Agriculturist."</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<br /> + +<p>It will thus be seen that the apple crop of 1910 was 45,245,000 +barrels less than that of 1896, and that during the whole period of +fifteen years the decline has been regular. The average annual crop of +the five year period ending with 1905 was 9,511,800 barrels less than +the average annual crop of the preceding five years ending with 1900, +and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>correspondingly the annual average crop of the last five years, +ending with 1910, was 8,596,200 barrels less than that of the second +five year period. Comparing the first and the last five year periods, +we find that the crop of the last was 18,108,000 barrels less than +that of the first. These facts alone are enough to explain the higher +price of this fruit during the last ten years.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Heavy Plantings.</span>—Moreover, it should be further noted that +this falling off in the apple crop has been in the face of the +heaviest plantings ever known in this country. During the last ten +years old fruit growing regions like western New York have practically +doubled their orchard plantings. Careful figures gathered by the New +York State Agricultural College in an orchard survey of Monroe County +show that 4,972 more trees (21,289 in all) were planted in one +representative township during the five year period from 1904 to 1908 +inclusive than were ever planted in any other equal period in its +history. New fruit regions like the Northwestern States and a large +part of the Shenandoah valley of Virginia have been developed by heavy +plantings. These three are all great commercial sections. To <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>them we +might add thousands of orchards which are scattered all over the +Northern and Eastern States, from Michigan to Maine and from Maine to +north Georgia.</p> + +<p>It is doubtful, however, if these scattered plantings have made good +the older trees which have died out. Scarcely a season passes that +hundreds of these old veteran trees are not blown down or badly +broken. Every wind takes its toll. After one of these windstorms in +Southern New York the writer estimated that at least twenty per cent +of all the standing old apple trees had been destroyed or badly +broken. In the commercial regions only a small part of the new +plantings have yet come to bearing and even here these probably do not +much more than make good the losses of old trees. So that on the +whole, heavy as our plantings have been, it is extremely doubtful if +they have very much more than made good the losses of the older trees +throughout the country. It is a fact worthy of note that this talk of +over-planting the apple has been going on for over thirty years, and +while the timid ones talked those who had faith in the business and +the courage of their convictions planted apples and reaped golden +harvests <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>while their neighbors still talked of over-planting.</p> + +<p>Whether or not it is true that we have over-planted the apple, it must +be admitted that at the present time the demand is so much greater +than the supply that the poorer of our people cannot afford to use +apples commonly, and that no class of farmer in the Northeastern +States is more prosperous than the fruit growers. The new plantings +must of necessity begin to bear and become factors in the market very +slowly. Meanwhile the great opportunity of the present lies in making +the most possible out of the older orchards which are already in +bearing. Practically all of these old farm orchards which can present +a fairly clean bill of health, and in which the varieties are +desirable, can with a small amount of well directed effort be put to +work at once and during the next ten years or more of their life time, +they may be made to add a substantial income to that of the general +farm. Now is a time of opportunity for the owner of the small farm +apple orchard.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Future of Apple Growing.</span>—In the writer's opinion the future +of apple growing in the United States is likely to shape itself +largely in the great commercial regions. As <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>these become more and +more developed and as the industry becomes more specialized the farmer +who is merely growing apples as a side line, except where he is +delivering directly to a special or a local market, will be crowded +out. Here as elsewhere it will be a case of the survival of the +fittest. In the production of apples commercially those growers who +can produce the best article the most cheaply are bound to win out in +the end.</p> + +<p>It would, therefore, seem to be advisable for the general farmer to +plant apples only under two conditions; first, when he has a very +favorable location and site and plants heavily enough to make it worth +while to have the equipment and skilled labor necessary to make the +enterprise a success, and second, when he can market his fruit +directly in a local market. It would appear that the immediate future +of apple growing in the United States lies in the small farm orchard +as well as in the commercial orchards, but that the more distant +future lies in the commercial orchard except where special conditions +surround the farm.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a><hr /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span><br /> + +<h3>CHAPTER II<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3> + +<h4>PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD</h4> +<br /> + +<p><span class="sc">Location.</span>—Having decided that under certain conditions the +planting of an apple orchard will prove a profitable venture, and +having ascertained that those conditions prevail on your farm, the +next step will be to determine the best location on the farm for the +orchard. In choosing this location it will be well to keep in mind the +relative importance of the orchard in the scheme of farm management. +If the orchard is merely a source of home supply, naturally it will +not require as important a position on the farm as will be the case if +it is expected to yield a larger share of the farm income. If the +relatively large net income per acre which it is possible to obtain +from an apple orchard is to be secured, the best possible location is +demanded.</p> + +<p>Contrary to the common ideas and practice of the past, the orchard +should not be put upon <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>the poorest soil on the farm. The best +orchards occupy the best soils, although fairly good results are often +obtained on poor or medium soils. The relative importance which is +attached to the orchard enterprise must also govern the choice of +soil. If apples are to be a prominent crop they should be given the +preference as to soil; if not, they may be given a place in accordance +with what is expected of them.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Soils.</span>—In general, the apple prefers a rather strong soil, +neither very heavy nor very light. Subsoil is rather more important +than surface soil, although the latter should be friable and easily +worked. The apple follows good timber successfully. Heavy clay soils +are apt to be too cold, compact, and wet; light sandy soils too loose +and dry. A medium clay loam or a gravelly clay loam, underlaid by a +somewhat heavier but fairly open clay subsoil is thought to be the +best soil for apples. Broadly considered, medium loams are best. The +lighter the soil the better will be the color of the fruit as a rule, +and so, also, the heavier the soil and the more nitrogen and moisture +it holds the greater the tendency to poorly colored fruit. In the same +way light <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>soils give poorer wood and foliage growth as compared with +the large rank leaves and wood of trees on heavy, rich soils.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Varietal Soil Preferences</span> are beginning to be recognized. We +cannot go into these in detail in this brief discussion. A few +suggestions regarding standard varieties must suffice. Medium to light +loams or heavy sandy loams, underlaid by slightly heavier loams or +clay loams, are preferred by the Baldwin, which has a wider soil +adaptation than practically any other variety. Baldwin soils should +dry quickly after a rain. Rhode Island Greening requires a rather +rich, moist, but well drained soil, containing an abundance of organic +matter. A light to heavy silty loam, underlaid by a silty clay loam, +is considered best.</p> + +<p>Northern Spy is very exacting in its soil requirements. A medium loam, +underlaid by a heavy loam or a light clay loam, is excellent. Heavy +soils give the Spy a greasy skin. Light soils cause the tree to grow +upright and to bear fruit of poor flavor. The King likes a soil +slightly lighter than the best Greening soils, but retentive of +moisture. Hubbardson will utilize the sandiest soil of any northern +variety, preferring rich, fine, sandy loams.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>The particular location of the apple orchard is largely a matter of +convenience. It should be remembered, however, that the apple requires +much and constant attention, therefore the orchard should be +convenient of access. The product is rather bulky, so that the haul to +the highway should be as short as possible. Other conditions being +equally good there, the common location near the buildings and highway +is best.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">The Site of the Orchard</span> is a more important matter. Two +essentials should be kept in mind, good air drainage and a +considerable elevation. Although it is not so apparent and therefore +less thought about, cold air runs down hill the same as water. Being +heavier, it falls to the surface of the land, flowing out through the +water channels and settling in pockets and depressions. Warm air, +being lighter, rises. It is desirable to avoid conditions of stagnant +air or cold air pockets where frost and fogs are liable to occur. A +free movement of air, especially a draining away of cold air, is best +secured by an elevation. Fifty to one hundred feet, or sometimes less, +is usually sufficient, especially where there is good outlet below. +Frosts occur in still, clear air and these <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>conditions occur most +frequently in the lower areas.</p> + +<p>Aspect or slope requires less attention. Southern exposures are warm +and hasten bud development and opening in spring. Northern exposures +are cold and retard the blossoming period. It is usually advisable to +plant the apple on the colder slopes which hold it back in spring +until all danger of late frosts is past. Northeast exposures are best +as a general rule. Choose a slope away from the prevailing wind if +possible. If this is impracticable it is often advisable to plant a +wind break of pine, spruce, or a quick, thick growing native tree to +protect the orchard from heavy winds.</p> + +<p>A large body of water is an important modifier of climate. Warming up +more slowly in the spring, it retards vegetation by slowly giving up +its cold. Vice versa, cooling more slowly in the fall giving up its +heat wards off the early frosts. It is therefore desirable to locate +near such bodies of water if possible. Their influence varies +according to their size and depth, and the distance of the orchard +from them. Good examples of this influence are the Chautauqua Grape +Belt on the eastern shore of Lake Erie <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>and the Western New York Apple +Belt on the south shore of Lake Ontario.</p> + +<p>Professor Brackett has well summed up the whole question: "The +selection of the soil and site for the apple orchard is not governed +by any arbitrary rule," he says. "All farms do not afford the best +soils or exposures for orchards. The owners of such as do not are +unfortunate, yet they should not feel discouraged to the extent of not +planting trees and caring for them afterward." There are a number of +factors which influence not only a person who wishes to locate, but +one already located, either favorably or unfavorably. About these even +the most intelligent orchardists often differ. We have only laid down +general principles and given opinions. Here as elsewhere application +is a matter of judgment.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Varieties.</span>—A proper soil and a good location and site having +been selected, the next important question to be decided is the +varieties to be planted. So much and so variable advice is given on +this question that many persons are at a loss as to what to plant and +too often decide the matter by planting the wrong varieties. Rightly +viewed, the question of varieties is a comparatively simple one. +Personal <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>preference, tempered by careful study of certain factors and +good judgment, are all that are required. Beginners, especially, are +too apt to rely entirely on another's opinion. The only safe way is to +learn the facts and then decide for yourself.</p> + +<p>We have already indicated that soil is a determinant in the choice of +varieties. This should be absolute. It is very unwise to try to grow +any variety on a soil where experience has shown that it does not do +well. The experience of your neighbors is the best guide in this +respect.</p> + +<p>The limitations of climate should also be carefully heeded. An apple +may be at its best in one latitude or one situation and at its worst +in another. Find out from experienced growers in your region, or from +your State Experiment Station what varieties are best adapted +climatically to the place where you live. It is an excellent rule +never to plant a variety that you cannot grow at least as well as any +one else, or still better, to plant a variety that you can grow better +than anyone else. Grow something that not everyone can grow. Do not +try to produce more of a variety of which there is already an over +supply.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>A few examples may make this more clear. Western New York is the home +of the Baldwin, the Twenty Ounce and the King. Albemarle Pippins grown +on the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge are famous. The Spitzenburg +appears at its best in the Northwest. The Northern Spy, the McIntosh, +and the Fameuse are not to be excelled as they are grown in the +Champlain Valley, in Vermont, or in Maine. To attempt to compete with +these sections in the growing of these varieties, except under equally +favorable conditions, would be foolish. Your section probably grows +some varieties to perfection. Find out what these varieties are and +plant them.</p> + +<p>All these are general factors to be observed which cannot be +specifically settled without knowing the soil and particular locality. +Certain other factors governing the choice of varieties can be more +definitely outlined. If the prospective orchardist will get these +factors thoroughly in mind and apply them with judgment mistakes in +planting should be much more rare. The more important ones are: The +purpose for which the fruit is intended to be used, whether for the +general market, a dessert or fancy trade, or for culinary and general +table use; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>whether the trees are to be permanent and long lived, or +temporary and used as fillers; whether the earliest possible income is +desired or whether this is to be secondary to the future development +of the orchard; whether the stock of the particular variety is strong +or weak growing; whether the variety is high, medium, or low as to +quality; and whether the market is to be local, distant, or export.</p> + +<p>The following tables were originally compiled by Professor C.S. Wilson +of Cornell University. They have been slightly revised and modified +for our purpose. We believe that they are essentially correct and that +they will be a safe guide for the reader to follow in his selection of +varieties:</p> + +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" width="65%" summary="Apple Varieties"> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc" width="50%">General Market Apples Commercial</td> + <td class="tdlsc" width="50%">Dessert or Fancy Trade Box Well</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Baldwin</td> + <td class="tdlp">McIntosh</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Ben Davis</td> + <td class="tdlp">Northern Spy</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Baldwin</td> + <td class="tdlp">McIntosh</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Ben Davis</td> + <td class="tdlp">Northern Spy</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Hubbardson</td> + <td class="tdlp">Fameuse</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Northern Spy</td> + <td class="tdlp">Wagener</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">King</td> + <td class="tdlp">Grimes Golden</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Rome Beauty</td> + <td class="tdlp">Yellow Newton</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Oldenburg</td> + <td class="tdlp">Red Canada</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Alexander</td> + <td class="tdlp">King</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Twenty Ounce</td> + <td class="tdlp">Sutton</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Winesap</td> + <td class="tdlp">Hubbardson</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">York Imperial</td> + <td class="tdlp">Esopus Spitzenburg</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc" colspan="2" style="padding-top: .5em; padding-left: 15%;">Culinary and General Table Use<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Rhode Island Greening</td> + <td class="tdlp">Grimes Golden</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Gravenstein</td> + <td class="tdlp">Twenty Ounce</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Newtown</td> + <td class="tdlp">Yellow Bellflower</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Alexander</td> + <td class="tdlp">Oldenburg</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Tolman Sweet</td> + <td class="tdlp">Sweet Winesap</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc" style="padding-top: .5em;">Good Permanent Trees</td> + <td class="tdlsc" style="padding-top: .5em;">Good Temporary Trees—Fillers</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Baldwin</td> + <td class="tdlp">McIntosh</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Rhode Island Greening</td> + <td class="tdlp">Wealthy</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Northern Spy</td> + <td class="tdlp">Wagener</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">McIntosh</td> + <td class="tdlp">Rome Beauty</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">*King</td> + <td class="tdlp">Oldenburg</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">*Twenty Ounce</td> + <td class="tdlp">Jonathan</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">*Hubbardson</td> + <td class="tdlp">Alexander</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Alexander</td> + <td class="tdlp">Twenty Ounce</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Rome Beauty</td> + <td class="tdlp">Hubbardson</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp" colspan="2" style="padding-top: .5em;">* When this variety is set as a permanent tree it should be top + worked on a hardier stock, such as Northern Spy.</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<br /> + +<p>Age at which variety may be expected to begin to fruit. (Add two years +for a paying crop).</p> + +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" width="65%" summary="Fruit Bearing Age"> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc" width="50%">Five Years or Under</td> + <td class="tdlsc" width="50%">Eight Years and Up</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Rome Beauty</td> + <td class="tdlp">Esopus Spitzenburg</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Oldenburg</td> + <td class="tdlp">Fall Pippin</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Maiden Blush</td> + <td class="tdlp">Golden Russet</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Wagener</td> + <td class="tdlp">Northern Spy</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Yellow Newton</td> + <td class="tdlp">Baldwin</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">McIntosh</td> + <td class="tdlp">Gravenstein</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Fameuse</td> + <td class="tdlp">Tolman Sweet</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">King</td> + <td class="tdlp"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Rhode Island Gr.</td> + <td class="tdlp"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Twenty Ounce</td> + <td class="tdlp"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Winesap</td> + <td class="tdlp"> </td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" width="65%" summary="Hardy vs. Weak"> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc" width="50%">Especially Hardy Stocks<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></td> + <td class="tdlsc" width="50%">Poor Rather Weak Growers*</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Northern Spy</td> + <td class="tdlp">King</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Tolman Sweet</td> + <td class="tdlp">Twenty Ounce</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Ben Davis</td> + <td class="tdlp">Esopus Spitzenburg</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Baldwin</td> + <td class="tdlp">Hubbardson</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Fameuse</td> + <td class="tdlp">Grimes Golden</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Winter Banana</td> + <td class="tdlp">Sutton</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp"> </td> + <td class="tdlp">Canada Red</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp" colspan="2" style="padding-top: .5em;">* Other varieties are medium.</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" width="65%" summary="Quality"> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc" width="50%">High in Quality</td> + <td class="tdlsc" width="50%">Local or Peddler's Varieties</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">McIntosh</td> + <td class="tdlp">Rhode Island Greening</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Esopus Spitzenburg</td> + <td class="tdlp">Wealthy</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Northern Spy</td> + <td class="tdlp">McIntosh</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Newtown</td> + <td class="tdlp">Fameuse</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Gravenstein</td> + <td class="tdlp">Tolman Sweet</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Red Canada</td> + <td class="tdlp">Grimes Golden</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Fameuse</td> + <td class="tdlp">Jonathan</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Grimes Golden</td> + <td class="tdlp"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Hubbardson</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Good General Market Varieties</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Rhode Island Greening</td> + <td class="tdlp">Baldwin</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp"> </td> + <td class="tdlp">Rhode Island</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc">Medium to Poor Quality</td> + <td class="tdlp">King</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Ben Davis</td> + <td class="tdlp">Twenty Ounce</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Oldenburg</td> + <td class="tdlp">McIntosh</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Rome Beauty</td> + <td class="tdlp">Hubbardson</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Roxbury Russet</td> + <td class="tdlp">Northern Spy</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc" colspan="2" style="padding-top: .5em; padding-left: 15%;">Good Export Varieties</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Baldwin</td> + <td class="tdlp">Newtown</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Ben Davis</td> + <td class="tdlp">Esopus Spitzenburg</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlp">Northern Spy</td> + <td class="tdlp">Jonathan</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<br /> + +<p>Only the best and most common varieties for the more northern +latitudes have been included in this list as it would make it too +cumbersome to classify all our known varieties. It <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>must be remembered +that this is not an arbitrary classification and that it is made as a +guide to indicate to the reader the general characteristics of the +variety. It should be used as such and not taken literally. The +characters of the different varieties grade into each other. For +example, the McIntosh is very high and the Ben Davis is very low in +quality but the King and the Twenty Ounce are neither very good nor +very poor, but midway between.</p> + +<p>We must again remind the reader that the choice of varieties is a +matter of judgment, tempered by the facts regarding them. One who is +not capable of rendering such judgment after studying his conditions +and the characteristics and requirements of leading varieties had +better stay out of the apple business entirely, as he will often be +called on for the exercise of good judgment in caring for the orchard. +The facts here given are intended as suggestive. The reader who +desires to know more of a particular variety will do well to consult +Beach's "Apples of New York," published by the Geneva Experiment +Station.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a><hr /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span><br /> + +<h3>CHAPTER III<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3> + +<h4>PLANTING AND GROWING THE ORCHARD</h4> +<br /> + +<p>The proper soil, site, and location having been selected, the solution +of the problems of orchard management is only just begun, although a +good start has certainly been made. Farm management brings constantly +to one's attention new problems and new phases of old problems, +whatever the type of farming. The skill with which these problems are +met and a solution found for them determines the success or failure of +the farm manager. To some men the details of the orchard business +offer the greatest obstacles, while to others it is the general +relationship of one detail to another which is difficult. Both are +essentials of good management. If we are able in this chapter to +remove some of these minor difficulties and at the same time indicate +the correct relationships we will have accomplished our purpose.</p> + +<p>As we come now to the actual plans for planting our orchard many +questions come up for <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>answer. When shall I plant? Where and of whom +shall I purchase my trees? How old should they be? Is it wise to use +fillers or temporary trees, and if so, what kind? How far apart should +the trees be planted and how many are required for an acre? What +arrangement of the trees is most advisable? How should the ground be +prepared? What is the best method of setting? When the trees are +planted should they be inter-cropped, and if so, with what? How should +the young trees be handled and cared for? He who would be a successful +orchardist must endeavor to answer these questions.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">When to Plant.</span>—The question of fall or spring planting is a +less important one with a comparatively hardy fruit like the apple +than it is with a more tender fruit like the peach. Apples may safely +be planted in the fall when soils are well drained and when the young +trees are well matured, both of which are very important if winter +injury is to be avoided. Fall planting has several distinct +advantages. During the winter fall planted trees become well +established in the soil which enables them to start root growth +earlier in the spring. Consequently the young trees are better able to +endure <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>droughts. In the fall the weather is usually more settled and +there is better opportunity to plant under favorable conditions than +in the unsettled weather of spring. It is usually possible, too, to +get a better selection of trees at the nursery in the fall because +most of the trees are not sold until midwinter.</p> + +<p>Still the fact remains that the common practice of spring planting is +the more conservative course. There is always danger of getting +immature trees in the fall, and of winter injury to fall planted +trees. Trees may be set in the fall any time after the buds are mature +which is usually after October 1st to 18th in the latitude of New +York. They should not be pruned back in the fall, as this invites +winter killing of the uppermost buds. The question of available time +must also be considered. On some farms fall offers more time; on +others, spring. To sum up the matter, plant at the most convenient +time, providing the conditions are favorable.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Where to Buy.</span>—But one rule as to where to buy trees can be +laid down. Buy where you can secure the best trees and where you can +be sure of the most reliable and honest dealers. Beware of the tree +agent, who has been guilty of more <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>dishonesty and misrepresentation +than almost any other traveling agent. Buy of a salesman under one +condition only, that he prove to you that he is the bona fide +representative of a well-known and reputable nursery firm, and then +make your order subject to investigation of the firm's standing and +finding it as represented.</p> + +<p>The safest course is usually to purchase of your home nurseryman with +whose standing and honesty you are familiar, and whose trees you can +personally inspect. Such a man has a reputation at stake and will have +an object in keeping your trade. Moreover, you will save freight, +secure fresher stock with less liability of injury in handling, and +get trees grown under your own conditions. If stock is purchased away +from home it is better to get it at a nursery in a more southern +latitude in order to secure trees of better growth.</p> + +<p>All trees should be purchased in the late summer or early fall when +the nurseryman has a full list of varieties and you can get the pick +of his stock. Select a well grown mature tree two years old from the +bud. One year old trees are preferred by many and if well grown and at +least five feet high they are probably best. But a one year old tree +is rather more <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>delicate, requiring careful handling and intelligent +training. Unless a person buys from a southern nursery and is an +expert in handling trees, the two year old tree is to be preferred, +but a skilful grower can make a more satisfactory tree from a one year +old seedling.</p> + +<p>The average buyer must depend largely on his nurseryman for getting +trees true to name, which is the reason for laying so much emphasis on +purchasing from an honest dealer. Some nurserymen guarantee their +varieties to be true to name, and all ought to do so. Buyers should +demand it. The seeds of the apple rarely come true to the variety +planted. They are therefore usually budded on one year old seedlings +imported from France. Sometimes they are whole or piece root grafted +which is equally as good a method of propagation.</p> + +<p>It is possible for a man to grow and bud or graft his own seedlings, +but hardly advisable for the average small grower or general farmer, +as it is usually expensive when done on a small scale and requires +considerable skill. Always buy a high grade tree. Seconds are often +equally as good as firsts when they are simply smaller as a result of +crowding in the nursery row. A tree which is second grade <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>because of +being stunted, crooked, or poorly grown should never be set. Thirds +are seldom worth considering at any price.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fillers.</span>—Whether or not the planter of an apple orchard +should use fillers is a question which he alone must decide. In the +writer's opinion there are more advantages than disadvantages in so +doing, but we must state both sides of the question and let the reader +judge for himself. The term "filler" is one used to designate a tree +planted in the orchard for the temporary purpose of profitably +occupying the space between the permanent trees while these are +growing and not yet in bearing. Fillers make a more complete use of +the land, bringing in larger as well as quicker returns from it, three +distinct advantages. (See Chapter XII, The Cost of Growing Apples.) On +the other hand, objections to their use are that they are often left +in so long that they crowd and seriously injure the permanent trees, +and that their care often requires different operations and at +different times from the other trees, such as spraying, which may +result in injury to the permanent trees in the orchard.</p> + +<p>Trees used as fillers for apples should have two important +characteristics; they should be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>rapid, vigorous growers and should +come into bearing at a very early age. Two kinds of fillers are +available, those of the same species, which may be either dwarf or +standard trees, and those of a different species, of which peaches and +plums, and possibly pears, are the best adapted. Dwarf trees may be +dismissed from our plans with the statement that they have rarely +proved profitable under ordinary conditions, as they are much more +difficult to grow than standards and when grown they have but few +advantages over them. The varieties of standard apples which are +advisable as fillers have been indicated in Chapter II.</p> + +<p>The use of peaches and the Japanese plums, both of which make +excellent fillers because they grow rapidly and come to heavy bearing +quickly, is limited to their soil and climatic adaptation. They are +adapted to the lighter phases of soil and the more moderate climates +and under other conditions are impracticable. On heavier soils and in +more rigorous climates the European plums and the more rapid and early +bearing pears, such as the Keiffer, make fairly good fillers.</p> + +<p>On the whole, the writer is inclined to advise the use of fillers in +the general farm orchard. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>Quicker returns from an investment of this +nature, which is usually heavy and which at best must be put off +several years, are very important. Under careful and intelligent +management the objections to their use are easily overcome.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Spacing and Arrangement of Trees.</span>—The distance apart of +planting depends on the variety planted. Close headed, upright growing +trees may be planted closer together than spreading varieties. Some +varieties grow larger than others, and the same variety may vary in +size on different soils. It is seldom advisable to plant standard +apple trees in the latitude of New York closer than thirty feet, or +farther apart than fifty feet. Trees of the nature of Twenty Ounce and +Oldenburg (Dutchess) should be planted from thirty-two to thirty-six +feet apart, while Baldwins, Rhode Island Greenings, and Northern Spies +represent the other extreme and will require forty, and sometimes +fifty feet of space. The method and thoroughness of pruning influences +the size of trees greatly, and hence the distance at which It is +necessary to set them.</p> + +<p>Varieties top worked on other stocks have a tendency to grow more +upright and may be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>set closer together. It should be remembered in +this connection that the roots of a tree extend considerably beyond +the spread of the branches. From thirty-five to forty feet is a good +average distance and trees should be trained so as to occupy this +space and no more. Where fillers are used the latter distance is best, +as the twenty feet apart at which the trees will then stand is close +enough for any standard variety.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Rectangular.</span>—The method of setting or the arrangement of the +trees will greatly influence the number of trees which may be put upon +an acre and the distance apart of the trees in the row. The most +common method in the past has been the regular square or rectangular +method, e.g., trees forty by forty feet, or forty by fifty feet, and +rows at right angles, and this is still preferred by many. It is easy +to lay out an orchard on this plan and there is less liability of +making mistakes. It is best adapted to regular fields with right angle +corners, especially where the orchard is to be cropped with a regular +rotation. All tillage operations are most easily performed in orchards +set on this plan.</p> + +<p>A slight modification of this arrangement which is often advisable, +especially where fillers <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>are used, is to set a tree in the center of +the square. The trees then stand like the five spots of a domino, and +the shortest distance between trees will be about twenty-seven feet +when the trees in the regular rows are forty by forty feet apart. This +plan practically doubles the number of trees which can be set on an +acre.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Hexagonal or Triangular.</span>—Another method of arrangement of +the trees which is becoming more and more popular is the hexagonal or +triangular system. More trees can be planted on an acre by this plan +than by any other, it being very economical of space. It makes all +adjacent trees equally distant from each other and is really a system +of equilateral triangles. This plan is better adapted to small areas +and especially to irregular ones, and should be employed where land is +expensive and culture very intensive. It is more difficult to set an +orchard after this method without error, and it is open to the +objection of inconvenience in cultural operations. Most people forget +that while the rows running cornerwise in a rectangular or square +field set after this plan may be a standard distance apart, yet the +right angle rows (not trees) in which it may be more <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>convenient to +work are actually much closer together.</p> + +<p>The best plan to follow to get the rows of trees straight on a level +field is what is known as the outside stake method. This plan requires +the placing of a row of stakes on each of the four sides of the field +where the trees are to be set and usually about two rows each way +through the middle. For this purpose ordinary building laths are best, +about one hundred and fifty laths, or three bundles, being required +for five acres, which is as large a unit as can be set at once by this +plan.</p> + +<p><i>First</i>, determine the distance from the road or fence to the first +tree row, which would be at least eighteen feet to allow for turning +the teams, and establish base lines on each side of the field at right +angles to each other.</p> + +<p><i>Second</i>, beginning at the given distance from the side of the field, +set up a row of stakes along these base lines at the exact distance +apart at which the trees are to be set and about half way between the +fence and the first right angle row. Do the same on all sides of the +field.</p> + +<p><i>Third</i>, by sighting across the field from one end stake to the other +the cross rows of stakes can be set through the middle of the field. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>These should be about six or eight rods apart, and care should be used +to avoid setting them where they will interfere with the sighting of +the right angle rows. This plan has the great merit of enabling the +entire orchard to be set without moving a stake, as no stake stands +where a tree is to be set. If the trees are set exactly where the +sight lines cross at right angles and if all rows are an equal +distance apart, the rows will be perfectly straight.</p> + +<p>On rough or rolling land this plan does not work well. Here more +simple methods, though requiring more time, must be used. Lines drawn +with a cord or marked across the field with a corn planter answer well +for small areas. Poles of the right length are often used to good +advantage. In setting trees after the hexagonal plan an equilateral +triangle made of light poles or wire is probably best, especially on +small rough areas, as it is very accurate, simple, and quite rapid. +Some men prefer to make measurements and set a stake at every point +where a tree is to be placed. In these cases a simple device locates +the original stakes after the hole has been dug. A light board about +six feet long with a notch in the center and holes with pegs in them +at each end <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>is placed with the notch at the stake. One end is then +swung round and the hole dug. When the end is replaced on its peg the +tree set in the hole should rest in the notch where the original stake +did.</p> + +<p>The following table shows the number of trees required per acre at +different distances for the square or rectangular method and for the +hexagonal method.</p> + +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="number of trees required per acre"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr">Sq.</td> + <td class="tdr">Hex.</td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr">Sq.</td> + <td class="tdr">Hex.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="15%">12 × 12</td> + <td class="tdr" width="10%">302</td> + <td class="tdr" width="10%">344</td> + <td class="tdl" width="20%"> </td> + <td class="tdl" width="15%">24 × 24</td> + <td class="tdr" width="10%">75</td> + <td class="tdr" width="10%">80</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">12 × 15</td> + <td class="tdr">242</td> + <td class="tdr">...</td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">24 × 30</td> + <td class="tdr">60</td> + <td class="tdr">..</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">15 × 15</td> + <td class="tdr">193</td> + <td class="tdr">224</td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">30 × 30</td> + <td class="tdr">48</td> + <td class="tdr">56</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">15 × 18</td> + <td class="tdr">161</td> + <td class="tdr">...</td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">30 × 36</td> + <td class="tdr">40</td> + <td class="tdr">..</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">15 × 20</td> + <td class="tdr">145</td> + <td class="tdr">...</td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">33 × 33</td> + <td class="tdr">40</td> + <td class="tdr">46</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">15 × 30</td> + <td class="tdr">96</td> + <td class="tdr">...</td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">30 × 48</td> + <td class="tdr">30</td> + <td class="tdr">..</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">18 × 18</td> + <td class="tdr">134</td> + <td class="tdr">156</td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">30 × 60</td> + <td class="tdr">24</td> + <td class="tdr">..</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">18 × 20</td> + <td class="tdr">121</td> + <td class="tdr">...</td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">36 × 36</td> + <td class="tdr">33</td> + <td class="tdr">39</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">20 × 20</td> + <td class="tdr">108</td> + <td class="tdr">124</td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">40 × 40</td> + <td class="tdr">27</td> + <td class="tdr">31</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">20 × 30</td> + <td class="tdr">72</td> + <td class="tdr">...</td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl">40 × 50</td> + <td class="tdr">21</td> + <td class="tdr">..</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<p>It will be noted that the hexagonal plan allows the setting of from +four to forty trees more per acre than the square plan, even when the +trees are set the same distance apart. This is the great advantage of +this plan over the square. Filling an orchard one way, <i>i.e.</i>, between +the permanent row, in one direction only, practically doubles the +trees which can be set on an acre; filling both ways quadruples the +number.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span><span class="sc">Preparation of Soil.</span>—The previous condition and treatment of +a soil for an orchard are important. If the soil has been in a good +rotation of field crops, including some cultivated crops, it should be +in prime condition for the trees. Old pastures and meadows should be +plowed up, cropped, and cultivated for a year or two before setting to +obtain the best and quickest results. If one is in a hurry, however, +this may be done after setting the trees. Good results are sometimes +obtained by setting trees right among the stumps on recently cleared +timberland. Where no stiff sod has formed the trees start quickly in +the rich soil.</p> + +<p>The best immediate treatment of land preparatory to setting the trees +should be such as to place the soil in good tilth. Deep plowing, +thorough cultivation, and the application of liberal amounts of +manure—twelve to fifteen loads per acre—are the most effective means +of doing this. The best crop immediately to precede trees is clover. +Sometimes an application of one thousand five hundred to two thousand +pounds of lime will help to insure a stand of clover and at the same +time improve the physical condition of the soil. Fall plowing is a +good practice on the medium loams and more <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>open soils, but on the +heavy clays spring plowing is to be preferred, as when plowed in the +fall these soils puddle and become hard to handle. Care should always +be taken to keep the orchard well furrowed out as standing water is +decidedly inimical to satisfactory tree-growth. Tile draining is +frequently advisable.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Intercropping.</span>—The question of intercropping a young orchard +is one to be carefully considered. As it is often practiced it is very +injurious to the orchard, but it is possible to manage crops so as to +be of very little harm to the trees. While the practice may be +inadvisable in many commercial orchards, yet on a general farm we +should by all means think that it was the right thing to do. Certain +facts must be remembered, however, which have a bearing on the +subject.</p> + +<p>Trees are a crop, as much as corn or grass. If we grow a crop between +the tree rows we must remember that we are double cropping the land +and that it must be fed and cared for accordingly. There is absolutely +no use in setting an apple orchard, expecting it to take care of +itself, "just growing," like Topsy, as numerous dilapidated and broken +down orchards bear ample testimony. If orchards are to be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>cropped +this must be judiciously done with the trees primarily in mind.</p> + +<p>The best crops to grow in a young apple orchard are those requiring +cultivation, or which permit the cultivation of the land early in the +season. Field beans, potatoes, and garden truck of all kinds, as small +vegetables, melons, etc., are among the very best crops to grow in the +young orchard. Corn will do if it does not shade the trees too much. +Small grain and grass should not be used, especially where they come +up close to the trees. These crops form too stiff a sod and use up too +much moisture. A mulch of straw, cut grass, or coarse manure will help +to correct this condition somewhat when these crops must be used. +After cultivation until midsummer buckwheat makes a satisfactory +orchard crop in some cases.</p> + +<p>A regular rotation may be used in the young orchard to advantage when +a space is left next the trees to receive cultivation. This space +should be at least two feet on each side of the tree the first year +and should be widened each year as the tree grows older and larger, to +four, six, and eight feet. This method has been used by the author +very successfully for a number of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>years. Some good rotations to use +in a growing orchard are: (1) Wheat or rye one year, clover one year, +beans or potatoes one year; (2) oats one year, clover one year, +potatoes one year; (3) beans one year, rye plowed under in spring, +followed by any cultivated crop one or two years. The essentials of a +good rotation for an orchard are: A humus and fertility supplying +crop, preferably clover, in the north, and cow peas in the south, and +at least two crops in four requiring cultivation up to the middle of +the summer.</p> + +<p>Most of the points regarding the management of young trees have +already been mentioned, but a few others should have attention +directed to them. Fall planted trees should not be cut back until +spring. In the spring all newly planted trees should have their tops +cut back rather severely to correspond with the injury to the roots in +transplanting, thus preserving the balance between root and top. This +will usually be about half to two-thirds the previous season's growth. +From three to five well distributed branches should be left with which +to form the top. During the first few years of their lives the young +apple trees will need little or no pruning, except <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>to shape them and +remove crossing or interfering branches.</p> + +<p>Constant cultivation at frequent intervals until midsummer should be +the rule with young growing trees, with which this is even more +important than with older trees. It is a good plan to plow the orchard +in fall where possible, always turning the furrows toward the trees, +leaving the dead furrows as drainage ditches between the rows. At +Beechwood Farm we have always banked the trees with earth in the fall, +using a shovel. This not only firms the soil about the tree, holding +it straight and strong through the winter, but it affords good +protection against rodents, especially mice. Where rabbits are +prevalent it is well to place a fine mesh wire netting around the +trees in addition to this.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a><hr /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span><br /> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3> + +<h4>PRUNING THE TREES</h4> +<br /> + +<p>Pruning is not an entirely artificial operation as one might at first +thought suppose. It is one of nature's most common processes. Nature +accomplishes this result through the principle of competition, by +starting many more trees on a given area than can possibly survive. In +the same way there is a surplus of buds and branches on each +individual tree. It is only by the crowding out and the perishing of +many buds, branches, and trees that others are enabled to reach +maturity and fulfill their purpose. This being too slow and too +expensive a process for him, man accomplishes in a day with the knife +and saw what nature is years in doing by crowding, shading, and +competition. Proper pruning is really an improvement on nature's +method.</p> + +<p>Neither is it true, as some claim, that pruning is a devitalizing +process. On the contrary it is often stimulating and may actually +increase <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>the vigor of a weak or declining tree. All practical +experience teaches us that pruning is a reasonable, necessary, and +advantageous process. True, it is often overdone, and improperly done. +As in many other things, certain fundamental principles underlie and +should govern practice. When these are known and observed, pruning +becomes a more simple matter.</p> + +<p>Heavy pruning during the dormant or winter season stimulates the +growth and tends to increase the production of wood. In the same way +pruning during the summer or growing season stimulates the growth and +tends to induce fruitfulness, if the tree remains healthy. But this +fruitfulness is apt to be at the expense of the vigor of the tree. On +the other hand, the pruning of the roots of a tree tends to check the +growth of wood, the same as poor feeding. As above noted heading back +a tree when dormant tends to stimulate it to a more vigorous growth.</p> + +<p>The habit of growth of a variety has much to do with its pruning. Some +varieties of apples are upright, others are spreading growers. Climate +and locality greatly affect these habits of growth. So also the habit +of a young tree <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>often differs from the habit of the same tree in old +age. The tendency is for a tree to continue its growth from its +uppermost or terminal buds. Although the heading in of new growth +checks this upward tendency and throws the energy of the tree into the +development of lateral and dormant buds, nevertheless the pruned tree +soon resumes its natural upward growing habit.</p> + +<p>Plant food is taken up by the minute tree rootlets in solution and +carried to the leaves where it is elaborated and then returned for use +to the growing tissues of the tree. Whenever there is any obstruction +above a bud the tendency is to throw the energy of the branch into a +lateral bud, but if the obstruction is below the bud the branch merely +thickens and growth is checked. When too heavy pruning is practiced +the balance between the roots and top is disturbed. This usually +results in what are commonly known as "suckers." These are caused by +an abnormal condition and while they may be the result of disease or +injury to the tree, they are often of great value in restoring or +readjusting the proper balance between the roots and top.</p> + +<p>Pruning a tree is a way of thinning the fruit <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>and a good one. It may +sometimes be used to influence the bearing year of trees like the +Baldwin, which have an alternate bearing habit, but this is a more +theoretical than practical method. Fruit bearing is determined more by +the habitual performance of the tree than by any method of pruning, +and this is especially true of old trees. It is easier to influence +young trees. Conditions which tend to produce heavy wood growth are +unfavorable for the formation and development of fruit buds. A +quiescent state is a better condition for this.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Reasons for Pruning.</span>—With these fundamental principles in +mind we may safely outline a method of pruning an apple tree. As the +desired end is different so will the method of pruning a young tree +differ from that of an old one. There are five important things for +which to prune a young tree, namely:</p> + +<p>1. To preserve a proper balance between the top and root at the time +of setting out. This usually means cutting off the broken and the very +long roots to a reasonable length and cutting back from one-half to +two-thirds of the growth of the previous season.</p> + +<p>2. To make the top open in order to admit the sunlight freely. In the +humid climate of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>Northeastern States, it is usually advisable to +prune a tree so as to have a rather open top. This is necessary in +order properly to color and mature the fruit.</p> + +<p>3. To regulate the number of limbs composing the top. Probably three +branches well distributed on the trunk would make most nearly the +ideal head, but as these cannot always be obtained the best practice +is to leave from three to five branches from which to form the top.</p> + +<p>4. To fix the branches at the proper height from the ground. This is +more or less a matter of opinion, some growers preferring a low and +others a high head. The character of the tree growth, the method of +culture, and the purpose of the tree whether temporary or permanent +greatly influence the height of the head. An upright growing variety +should be headed lower than a spreading one. Trees kept in sod or +under extensive methods can well be headed lower than those under more +intensive culture where it is desirable to carry on cultural +operations close around them. Permanent trees should be headed higher +than temporary trees. Apple trees should seldom be headed lower than a +foot from the ground, nor more than four feet above it. For upright +growing <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>varieties intended as permanents, the writer prefers three to +three and one-half feet and for more spreading varieties four feet; +while for temporary trees eighteen inches should be a good height.</p> + +<p>5. To do away with weak crotches and to remove crossing or interfering +branches. A crotch formed by two branches of equal size, especially +when the split is deep, is a weak crotch and should be avoided. Strong +crotches are formed by forcing the development of lateral buds and +making almost a right angle branch from the parent one. All branches +which rub each other, which tend to occupy the same space with +another, or which generally seem out of place, are better removed as +soon as any of these tendencies are found to exist.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Ideals in Pruning.</span>—The general method of pruning the old +trees and the ideal in mind for it will also influence the pruning of +the young tree, especially the shaping of it. Once determined upon, +the ideal should be consistently followed out in the pruning of the +tree as it becomes older. As the tree comes to bearing age it will be +necessary to prune somewhat <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>differently and for other purposes. These +we can conveniently consider under six heads:</p> + +<p>1. Every tree should be pruned with a definite ideal as to size, +shape, and degree of openness in mind. To have such an ideal is very +important. It is only by industriously and consistently carrying it +out that the ideal tree in these respects can be ever obtained. +Haphazard cutting and sawing without a definite purpose in mind are +really worse than no pruning at all.</p> + +<p>2. It almost goes without saying that to remove all dead, diseased, or +injured wood is a prime purpose of pruning. Dead and injured branches +open the way for rot and decay of contiguous branches, and disease +spreads through the tree. The removal of all such branches is as +essential to the health of the tree as it is to its good appearance. +In removing them the cut should be made well behind the diseased or +injured part to insure the checking of rot and disease.</p> + +<p>3. All mature apple trees should be so pruned as to keep them in the +most easily manageable shape and to facilitate in every possible way +the operations of tillage, spraying, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>and harvesting. It is most +important to have the tree low enough down so that spraying and +picking can be easily done. It is difficult to spray properly a tree +which is more than twenty-five feet in height. Even this height +necessitates a tower on the spray rig and the use of an extension +pole. An apple tree should be so pruned that all the fruit can be +readily picked from ladders not longer than eighteen to twenty-two +feet.</p> + +<p>Of course, if the tree has been allowed to get higher than this under +previous management, sometimes we have to make the best of a bad +situation. If the trees are too high head them back by cutting off the +leaders, but it is not always wise to lower all trees to twenty-two +feet. Heading back of old trees will be more fully discussed in the +chapter on "Renovating Old Orchards." Ladders longer than twenty-two +feet are heavy and clumsy to handle.</p> + +<p>If cultivation is to be carried on close up under the tree the lower +limbs must be pruned so as to allow this. It is not necessary, +however, to drive a team closer than twelve or fifteen feet from a +mature tree, contrary to the common belief and practice. Cultivation +is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>least important in the first few feet of space around a mature +tree. By the use of set-over tools, all that is necessary can be well +cultivated without crowding the team under or against the branches.</p> + +<p>4. As has been pointed out in the discussion of the pruning of young +trees, in humid regions where the sunlight is none too abundant +through the growing season, the open head is most desirable. Sunlight +on the leaves as well as on the fruit is essential to good color of +the fruit, and good color is a very important factor in the flavor and +attractive appearance of the fruit. An open center with upright +growing leaders removed gives the greatest opportunity for sunlight to +penetrate through the tree.</p> + +<p>5. As we have seen, pruning in the dormant season tends to increase +the vigor of the tree. Thus winter pruning serves to secure a normal +and vigorous wood growth, which is most essential to a healthy +fruit-bearing tree. On the other hand, such pruning may be excessive +and produce wood growth at the expense of fruit buds, throwing the +tree out of bearing.</p> + +<p>6. The sixth and last reason for pruning is to regulate the number and +distribution of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>wood and the fruit bearing buds. The proper +balance between these is greatly affected by pruning and can be best +regulated by experience with the particular tree or variety. A perfect +balance is hard to get, but with study and skill it can be closely +approximated. Pruning, too, may thin the fruit, as removing branches +removes fruit buds. This is best done by removing small branches near +the ends of larger ones. It is a much cheaper method of thinning than +picking off individual fruits, but not as effective.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Time of Pruning.</span>—The particular time of the year for pruning +is not vital. As between summer and winter pruning, winter is to be +preferred because of the physical effect on the tree. Summer pruning +is an unnatural process and should only be practiced as a last resort +to check growth or induce fruitfulness, as it may result in injury to +the tree. It is essential that a tree mature its foliage, which it +frequently does not do after summer pruning. Diseased, dead, or +injured wood should be removed when first observed, summer or winter.</p> + +<p>Spring is the logical and usually the most convenient time to prune on +the general farm. While dormant season pruning may be done <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>at any +time between November 1st and June 1st, the cuts heal more rapidly in +the spring when the sap begins to flow. In regions subject to severe +and drying winds in the winter, pruning should be deferred at least to +late winter. Considered from every standpoint, March and April are +quite the best months in which to prune. After the removal of useless +branches, the normal amount of food material is delivered to fewer +buds under greater sap pressure and the remaining buds are made more +strong and vigorous.</p> + +<p>In removing small branches with a knife or other cutting tool, the cut +should be made upward from below and opposite a bud. On upright +growing varieties the last bud left should be an outside one to induce +the tree to spread as much as possible, while on spreading trees +leaving as the last bud an inside one has a tendency to make the tree +grow more upright. Always cut close to the parent branch, never +leaving a stub no matter how young or old the tree.</p> + +<p>Cuts of lateral branches should be made just at the shoulder of the +branch where it joins the parent. A cut behind the shoulder will not +heal, neither will one too far ahead of it. A <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>stub left on a trunk or +large branch does not heal, but soon begins to rot at the end where +the heartwood is exposed. This gradually works back into the main +branch and the tree finally becomes "rotten at the heart." All that is +needed to complete the destruction is a heavy wind, an ice or a snow +storm, or a heavy load of fruit.</p> + +<p>All wounds more than two inches in diameter should be painted either +with a heavy lead paint, which is preferable, or with some gas tar +preparation. These things do not in themselves heal a cut, but they +keep out the decaying elements, air and moisture, thus helping to +preserve the branch and by protecting it to promote healing in +nature's way. A little lamp black will serve to deaden the color of +the paint.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Pruning Tools.</span>—The best tool to use in pruning is one which +brings you nearest to your work and over which you have the greatest +control to make all kinds of cuts. In the writer's experience no tool +does this so smoothly and conveniently as a properly shaped saw. A +good saw should be quite rigid, rather heavy at the butt, where its +depth should be about six inches, tapering down to about two inches at +the point. It should have a full, firm grip, be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>not more than thirty +inches long, and should always be kept sharp. Two-edged saws should +not be used because of the injury done to the tree when sawing in +crotches.</p> + +<p>Cutting shears are often very useful, especially the smaller, +one-handed type which is almost indispensable in pruning young trees. +The larger, two-handled shears are useful in thinning out the ends of +branches or in heading back new growth. They should not be too heavy, +as they are tiresome to use. The extension handled types are too +cumbersome, too slow to work with, and the operator is of necessity +too far away from his work for the best results.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Fruit Thinning.</span>—A matter which is quite nearly related to +pruning is thinning the fruit, and may properly be treated here. That +this is not as common a practice with most fruit-growers as it should +be, the great lack of uniformity in our ordinary market apples is +ample evidence. Many persons will at once raise the question as to +whether or not it is practicable to thin the fruit on large apple +trees. The answer is that many growers find it not only practicable, +but most profitable to do so. Wherever fruit of a uniform size and +color <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>is desired, thinning is a practical necessity, especially when +the crop of fruit is heavy.</p> + +<p>The proper time to thin the fruit is just after what is commonly known +as the "June drop," <i>i.e.</i>, the falling off of those fruits not well +enough pollinated or set to hold on to maturity. In thinning the fruit +should be taken off until they are not closer than from four to six +inches apart on the same branch, although the distance apart on any +branch will depend somewhat on the amount of the crop on other parts +of the tree. Never leave clusters of fruit on any branches, as some of +them are sure to be small and out of shape. Furthermore two apples +lying together afford a fine place for worms to get from one apple to +another and they seldom fail to improve the opportunity. Step ladders +and ordinary rung ladders are used to get at the fruit for thinning. +The cost of the operation is not nearly as large as might appear at +first thought and in practically all cases is a paying investment.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a><hr /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span><br /> + +<h3>CHAPTER V<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3> + +<h4>CULTIVATION AND COVER CROPPING</h4> +<br /> + +<p>In its broad sense cultivation is the treatment of the soil. Thus +understood orchard cultivation includes the sod mulch system as well +as the stirring of the soil with various implements. In its more +common and restricted meaning, however, cultivation is the stirring of +the soil about plants to encourage growth and productivity. To have +the apple tree in sod was once the commonly accepted method of orchard +treatment—a method of neglect and of "letting well enough alone." +With the advent of more scientific apple culture the stirring of the +soil has come to be the more popular method. But within the last few +years an improved modification of the old sod method, known as the sod +"mulch" system, has attracted much attention because of the success +with which a few men have practiced it. For a correct understanding of +these practices and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>of the relative desirability of these systems we +must again turn to underlying principles and purposes.</p> + +<p>It may be said on first thought that tillage is a practice contrary to +nature. But it accomplishes what nature does in another way. Tillage +has been practiced on other crops than trees for so long that we think +of it almost as a custom. There are, however, scientific and practical +reasons for tillage.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">The Effects of Tillage</span> on the soil are three fold, physical, +chemical, and increasing of water holding capacity. Tillage affects +the soil physically by fining and deepening it, thus increasing the +feeding area of roots, and by bringing about the more free admission +of air warms and dries the soil, thus reducing extremes of temperature +and moisture. Chemical activities are augmented by tillage in setting +free plant food, promoting nutrification, hastening the decomposition +of organic matter, and the extending of these agencies to greater +depth. Tillage conserves moisture by increasing the water holding +capacity of the soil and by checking evaporation.</p> + +<p>Of all these things which tillage accomplishes in a soil, two should +be especially emphasized <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>for the apple orchard, namely, soil moisture +and soil texture. That moisture is a very important consideration in +the apple orchard the effects of our frequent droughts are ample +evidence. The amount of rainfall in the Eastern States when it is +properly distributed is fully sufficient for the needs of an apple +tree. By enlarging the reservoir or water holding capacity of the soil +and by preventing the loss of water by evaporation, an excess of +rainfall in the spring may be held for later distribution and use.</p> + +<p>As a rule, the improvement of a poor soil texture is as effective as +the supplying of plant food and much cheaper. The latter is of no +consequence unless the plant can use it. Scientists tell us that there +is an abundance of plant food in most soils. The problem is to make it +available. Plant food must be in solution and in the form of a film +moisture surrounding the smallest soil particles in order to be +available to the fine plant rootlets which seek it. Good tillage +supplies these conditions. Can they be obtained equally well in +another way?</p> + +<p>It is claimed by the advocates of the sod mulch system of orchard +culture that it also supplies these conditions. Humus or decayed +vegetable matter holds moisture. Grass or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>other mulch decaying in the +soil increases its humus content and hence its water holding capacity. +By forming a mulch over the soil evaporation may be checked to some +extent, although probably not as effectively in a practical way, as by +cultivation. If there is a good grass sod in the orchard, moisture and +plant food made available by that moisture are utilized, and if the +grass is allowed to go back into the soil it continues to furnish +these elements to the tree. But there is a rapid evaporation of +moisture from the surface of the leaves of grass. In fact, grass may +well serve to remove an excess of moisture in wet seasons, or from wet +lands.</p> + +<p>Laying aside theoretical considerations, let us see what practical +experience teaches on this subject. We have the accurate data on a +large number of western New York orchards showing the results of +cultivation and other methods of soil management. These data are +overwhelmingly in the favor of cultivation. In Wayne County the +average yield of orchards tilled for five years or more was 271 +bushels per acre, as compared with 200 bushels per acre for those in +sod five years or more but otherwise well cared for,—an increase of +thirty-five per <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>cent. in favor of good tillage. In Orleans County, +under the same conditions, the increase in yield due to cultivation +was forty-five per cent. and in Niagara County it was twenty-two per +cent. Records were made on hundreds of orchards and the results should +be given great weight in determining the system to be practiced, as +intelligent consideration of trustworthy records is to be encouraged.</p> + +<p>These results were obtained in one region under its conditions and it +is quite possible, although not probable, that other conditions might +give different results. There are, however, special conditions as will +be pointed out later, under which the sod mulch method might be more +advisable than tillage. It is cheaper, makes a cleaner cover for the +drop fruit, avoids the damage from tillage implements to which tilled +trees are liable, and can be practiced on lands too steep to till. It +often happens, too, that it fits into the scheme of management on a +general farm better than the more intensive and specialized system of +cultivation. And it must be remembered that we are dealing with this +question from the point of view of the home farm rather than of the +commercial orchardist. So that where the sod mulch gives equally good +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>results it would be preferred under these conditions.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Late Fall and Early Spring Plowing.</span>—The common tillage +practice in the sections where it is most followed is to plow either +in late fall or as early as possible in the spring. Whether fall or +spring plowing is best depends on two things: the character of the +soil and convenience. On heavy clay soils where drainage is poor it is +not advisable to plow in the fall as the soil is apt to puddle and +then to bake when it dries, making it hard to handle. On gravel loams, +medium loams, and all well drained soils which are fairly open in +texture either fall or spring plowing is practiced depending on which +period affords the most time.</p> + +<p>On the general farm where there are several crops for which the land +must be prepared in spring, it would seem best to get as much of the +plowing as possible done in the fall. But a large crop of apples or a +large and late corn husking or potato digging may interfere with this +on some farms and make spring plowing more desirable. Always plan this +work in connection with the other farm work so as to give the best +distribution of labor.</p> + +<p>After fall plowing either the spring-tooth <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>harrow or the disk harrow +is best to use to work up the soil and no time should be lost in +getting at this as soon as the land is dry enough in the spring. +Sometimes the disk harrow can be used to work up the soil in the +orchard in the spring without any plowing at all, especially on loose +loams where there are few stones. But on newly plowed land a disk cuts +too deep and there is too great danger of injuring the roots. On +spring plowed land the spring-tooth harrow usually gives the best +results. After the soil is thoroughly fined and worked into a mellow +bed and as soon as the period of excessive moisture in spring is +passed, a lighter implement like the smoothing harrow or a light +shallow digging cultivator should be used to stir the surface of the +soil only.</p> + +<p>The growing period for an apple tree begins as early as growth starts +in the spring and continues up to about midsummer. If cultivation is +to stimulate growth as much as possible, it should be done during this +period. The first object of cultivation in the early spring is to +loosen up, aerate, and dry out the soil, which is usually too wet at +that time. As cultivation is continued the soil will become fined and +firmed again by the time drier weather <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>comes on. A fairly deep +digging and lump crushing tool is the best implement to use up to this +time, and a disk or spring-tooth harrow meets these requirements.</p> + +<p>After this period is passed and during drier weather, cultivation is +carried on for a different purpose, namely, to conserve moisture by +making a thin dust mulch of soil over the surface. This is best +accomplished by shallow-going implements of which the spike-tooth +harrow, the acme harrow, or a light wheel cultivator are best. As the +season and the amount of rainfall vary, so must tillage operations be +varied. In an early dry season begin with the lighter implements +earlier. In a late wet season keep the digging tools at work later. As +soon as the soil is in good physical condition the principal object of +tillage is to modify moisture conditions.</p> + +<p>As a matter of practice three to four harrowings at intervals of a +week to ten days are necessary. Sometimes more, sometimes less are +required, according to the character and condition of the soil and the +season. The later moisture-conserving tillage should also be carried +on every week or ten days, according to weather conditions. It is good +practice to stir <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>the soil after every heavy or moderately heavy rain. +Use the smoothing tools after light to medium rains and the heavier +tools after packing or beating rains. In practice from five to eight +or ten of these cultivations are necessary. The drier the season the +more necessary does frequent cultivation become.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">A Cover Crop</span> is so closely associated with tillage that it is +usually considered a part of the system. It should be sown in +midsummer as soon as tillage ceases. This time will vary from July +first to August fifteenth, depending on the locality, the rainfall, +the crop of fruit on the trees, and on how favorable the conditions +for securing a good stand of the cover crop are. The farther south the +locality, or the earlier the fruit, the sooner the crop should be +sown. Absence of sufficient rainfall necessitates a continuation of +the cultivation, both because it is necessary to conserve all the +moisture possible and because it is difficult to get a good stand of a +cover crop—especially of one having small seeds—at a dry time in +midsummer.</p> + +<p>In a year when there is a full crop of fruit on the trees cultivation +should be continued as late as possible as all the stimulus that can +thus be secured will be necessary to help the fruit <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>attain good size +and maturity, and at the same time enable the tree properly to mature +its fruit and leaf buds for the following year. On the other hand, in +a year when there is not a full crop of fruit cultivation should be +stopped early so as to avoid forcing a too rank growth of wood and +foliage and continuing the growth of the next season's buds so late +that they may not mature and therefore may be in danger of winter +killing.</p> + +<p>The different kinds of cover crops which may be used in the apple +orchard will be considered in the next chapter as they are so closely +associated with fertilization. Strictly speaking, however, a cover +crop is used principally to secure its mulching and physical effects +on the soil in the intervals between the seasons of tillage. In +addition to its physical and feeding effects the cover crop serves to +check the growth of trees in the latter part of the season by taking +up the nitrates and a part of the moisture, thus helping to ripen the +wood.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Sod Mulch.</span>—The ordinary sod culture which is practiced in so +many orchards should not be confused with the sod mulch system. The +one is a system of neglect, the other of intention. In the sod mulch +system the grass <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>sod is stimulated and encouraged and when the grass +dies or is cut, it is left on the ground to decay, forming a soil +mulch meanwhile. The removal of grass from the orchard as hay is poor +practice and should be discouraged. The grass mulch may well be +supplemented by the addition of other grass, straw, leaves, coarse +manure, or other similar materials. Sometimes this mulch is put on to +the depth of six inches or even a foot around the tree. Thus practiced +it is very effective in conserving moisture and in adding the humus +which is so necessary to the soil.</p> + +<p>Sod and tillage have somewhat different effects on the tree and on the +fruit. Let us see what these effects are. It is common knowledge that +fruit is more highly colored when grown in sod than when grown under a +tillage system. This is probably largely due to the fact that tillage +keeps the fruit growing so late that it does not mature so well or so +early. Fruit is usually two or three weeks later in tilled than in sod +orchards. It has been shown that fruit grown under tillage keeps from +two to four weeks longer than that grown in sod. It is claimed +also—but this is a disputed point—that tilled fruit has a better +quality and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>flavor. Certain it is that fruit grown in sod is drier +and less crisp and juicy.</p> + +<p>The effect of tillage on the trees is more marked and better known. +Tilled trees have a darker, richer green foliage, indicating a better +and more vigorous health. The leaves are also larger and more +numerous. They come out three or four days earlier in the spring and +stay on the trees two weeks later in the fall than the leaves on trees +kept in sod. Tilled trees make nearly twice the growth in a season +that those in sod do, in fact there is danger of their making wood +growth at the expense of fruit buds. Tillage also gives a deeper, +better distributed root system.</p> + +<p>Despite the advantages and the disadvantages of each system, there are +times, places, and circumstances under which one is more advisable +than the other. On lands rich in humus and in plant food and level so +as to be easily tillable, cultivation is without doubt the best +system. But it should be practiced in connection with cover crops, and +the orchard should be given occasional periods of rest in sod—say one +year in from three to five.</p> + +<p>The sod mulch system of orchard culture is probably better adapted to +rather wet good <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>grass land and where mulching material is cheap and +readily available. It is undoubtedly at its best on lands too steep or +rough to till, or otherwise unsuitable to cultivation. Tillage is the +more intensive method and where labor is scarce and high sod culture +might be more advisable for this reason, other conditions being not +too unfavorable.</p> + +<p>In order to illustrate a method of management under the tillage system +we may suggest the following as a good one for level to gently rolling +land:</p> + +<div class="block"><p class="hang">1912. Early plowing in spring, cultivation to July first to +fifteenth. Then sow red clover as a cover crop.</p> + +<p class="hang">1913. Repeat previous year's treatment, varying the time of +sowing cover crop according to conditions.</p> + +<p class="hang">1914. Let the clover grow, mowing and leaving on the ground as a +mulch, June fifteenth to twentieth, and again in August.</p> + +<p class="hang">1915. Plow early in spring, cultivate to midsummer, and then sow +rye or buckwheat as a cover crop July fifteenth to August +fifteenth.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>1916. Repeat 1915 treatment and if trees are not growing too +fast, sow clover or hairy vetch as a cover crop.</p> + +<p class="hang">1917. Same as 1912, etc.</p> +</div> + +<br /> + +<p><span class="sc">Pasturing the Orchard.</span>—The sod mulch system explains itself +and does not need illustration. Sod orchards are often managed as +pasture for animals, however, and this practice should be discussed. +An orchard is considered as pastured when a considerable number of +animals are turned into it for a greater or less portion of the year. +Results in orchards where pasturage has been thoroughly tried out show +that it is never advisable to pasture an orchard with horses or +cattle, but that fairly good results may be expected where sheep or +hogs are used.</p> + +<p>The evidence of yield of fruit and appearance of trees both indicate, +that pasturing an orchard with horses or cattle is about the worst +possible practice. These animals rub against the trees, break the +branches, browse the limbs and leaves, and destroy the fruit as high +as they can reach. All experience is against this practice which +cannot be too strongly deprecated.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>Pasturing an orchard with sheep, although a somewhat doubtful +practice, often gives good results. Sheep crop the grass close to the +ground and to some extent prevent the extensive evaporation which +usually takes place from the leaves of grass. Their well distributed +manure is worth considerable. They also browse the branches to some +extent and should not be allowed to run in the orchard late in the +season as they will destroy considerable fruit.</p> + +<p>Pasturing an orchard with swine gives better results than any other +pasture treatment of the orchard. Hogs do considerable rooting which +prevents the formation of a stiff sod and itself may often amount +almost to cultivation in well stocked orchards. A good deal of manure +is added to the soil, especially when the hogs are fed outside the +orchard. Hogs also destroy many insects by eating the wormy fruit.</p> + +<p>Pasturage of orchards has its advantages. It gives a double +utilization of the land. It is a cheap method of management. When the +animals are fed outside the orchard, as should always be the case, it +adds considerable plant food to the soil. When plenty of outside food +can be given and when the orchard is not <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>overstocked—the animals +should never be hungry—hogs and sheep may be used to advantage in +pasturing orchards. In very rough fields incapable of tillage, this is +undoubtedly the very best system of orchard management.</p> + +<p>Pasturage has the disadvantage of exposing young trees to injury from +the animals, but this may be at least partly avoided by protecting +them with stakes or a heavy wire meshed screen. Hogs especially soil +the fruit and make the land rough and difficult to drive over. Under +the proper conditions pasturage may be practiced to advantage, +especially on small areas and on the general farm where it is more +advantageous than it would be commercially.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a><hr /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span><br /> + +<h3>CHAPTER VI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3> + +<h4>MANURING AND FERTILIZING</h4> +<br /> + +<p>Cover crops may be said to be supplementary to tillage. In the +previous chapter this function has been discussed. It now remains to +point out another important function—that of a green manure crop +adding humus and plant food to the soil. Not only do some cover crops +add plant food and all humus to the soil, but they tend to conserve +these by preventing leaching, especially of nitrates, and they help to +render plant food more available by reworking it and leaving it in a +form more available for the tree. They sometimes act as a protection +against winter injury by holding snow and by their own bulk. They also +help to dry out the soil in spring, thus making the land tillable +earlier.</p> + +<p>There are two great classes of cover or green manure crops, leguminous +and non-leguminous. A non-leguminous crop merely adds humus and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>improves the physical condition of the soil. In itself it adds no +plant food, although it may take up, utilize, and leave behind plant +food in a more available form for the tree's use. But in addition to +these benefits, leguminous crops actually add to the soil plant food +in the form of nitrogen which they have the ability to assimilate from +the air by means of bacterial organisms on their roots.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Non-Leguminous Crops.</span>—The most important of the +non-leguminous crops are rye, buckwheat, turnips or rape, barley, +oats, and millet. The first mentioned are the most commonly used. Also +in order of importance the following are the usual leguminous cover +and green manure crops to be used: clovers, winter vetch, soy beans, +alfalfa, cow peas (first in the South). In order to determine the +relative advisability of the use of these various crops let us now +look at some of their characteristics and requirements.</p> + +<p>Rye is one of the best non-leguminous cover crops, especially in the +young orchard, as it does not grow as well in shade as in the open. A +particularly strong point about rye is that it grows rapidly quite +late in the fall and starts early in the spring. Starting earlier than +most <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>crops in the spring, it makes a considerable amount of growth +before the land is fit to plow. Especially in warmer climates rye +should not be sown too early in the fall—not usually before September +1st—because of this too heavy growth. Rye is also adapted to a great +variety of soils and hence will often grow where other crops will not +do well. About two bushels of seed are required per acre.</p> + +<p>Buckwheat is probably about equally as good as rye for an orchard +cover crop, although it does not produce quite as much organic matter. +It will germinate at almost any season of the year even if it is very +dry. It is a great soil improver because of its ability to feed and +thrive on soils too poor for other crops, due to its numerous shallow +feeding rootlets. It grows rapidly and covers the ground well, but +like rye does not thrive as well in shade. Buckwheat should not be +used to excess on the heavier types of soil as it is rather hard on +the land. One bushel of seed to an acre makes a good seeding.</p> + +<p>Turnips or rape often make good pioneer cover or green manure crops. +They are great soil improvement crops and it is comparatively easy to +secure a good stand of them even in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>dry weather. Sown in late July in +the North they will produce a great bulk of humus and add much +moisture to the soil, especially if they cover the ground well. Their +broad, abundant leaves and high tops also hold the snow well in +winter. Cow Horn is the best variety of turnips to use, as it is a +large, rank grower. Use one to two pounds of seed to the acre. Rape +makes an excellent pasture crop in an orchard both for sheep and hogs, +but especially for the former. Eight or nine pounds of seed are +necessary to the acre.</p> + +<p>Barley, oats, and millet are not as good crops as the foregoing, +because, with the possible exception of millet, they make their best +growth early in the season. Moreover they take up too much moisture +from the soil at a time when the tree most needs this moisture. In +fact they are sometimes used for this specific purpose on wet land in +too wet seasons. Two to two and one half bushels of oats or barley and +one to one and one half bushels of millet to the acre are necessary +for a good seeding.</p> + +<p>Although weeds can hardly be classified as cover crops, they are often +valuable ones. They grow rapidly and rank, making a large bulk of +humus, without the expense of seeding. If <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>they are not allowed to go +to seed so as to scatter the seed about the farm, they often make the +best of cover crops. This necessitates a mowing in September. Weeds +are plants out of place, and when these plants are in place they are +not necessarily weeds, as they have then become serviceable.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Legumes.</span>—In general, legumes are more valuable as cover and +green manure crops than non-leguminous plants, because as a rule they +are more rank growers and more deeply rooted, as well as because they +add nitrogen to the soil. But it is rather more difficult to secure a +good stand of most legumes than it is of the crops previously +mentioned for several reasons. As a rule the seeds are smaller and a +large seed usually has greater germinating power than a small one. +This often means much at the time of the year when the cover crop is +sown. Then legumes are more difficult to grow, requiring better soil +conditions. Still these should be present in good orchard soils. +Drainage must be good, the soil must be at least average in fertility +and physical condition, it must not be sour—hence it is often +necessary to use lime—and soils frequently require inoculation before +they will grow legumes satisfactorily.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>Where the clovers grow well they make excellent cover crops as well as +green manure crops. The chief difficulty with them is that of +obtaining a good stand in a dry midsummer. The mammoth red and the +medium red clovers are probably the best of their genus on the heavier +soils, while crimson clover is best on sandy soils and where it will +grow, on the lighter gravel loams. The latter is especially well +adapted to building up run down sandy soils. Although it is somewhat +easier to secure a stand of this clover, alsike does not grow rank +enough to make a good cover or green manure crop. Most clovers are +deep rooted plants and therefore great soil improvers physically as +well as being great nitrogen gatherers. The amounts of seed required +per acre for the different kinds are about as follows: mammoth fifteen +to twenty pounds; red (medium) twelve to fifteen pounds; crimson +twelve to fifteen pounds; and alsike ten to twelve pounds.</p> + +<p>Where it can be readily and successfully grown alfalfa is really a +better cover and green manure crop than the clovers. It is deeper +rooted, makes a better top growth, and therefore adds more nitrogen +and more humus to the soil than the clovers. It cannot <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>be recommended +for common use, however, as it is so difficult to grow except under +favorable conditions. It requires a more fertile soil than clover, a +soil with little or no acidity, good drainage, and usually the soil +must be inoculated. Only where these conditions prevail can alfalfa be +generally recommended.</p> + +<p>Vetch is an excellent cover and green manure crop, forming a thick, +close mat of herbage which makes a good cover for the soil. It is very +quick to start growing and a rapid grower in the spring. It also adds +larger quantities of nitrogen. The hairy or winter vetch lives through +the hard freezing winters. Summer vetch, although an equally good +grower, is killed by freezing. One bushel of seed is required per acre +and the seed is expensive, which is the greatest objection to the use +of this excellent crop.</p> + +<p>Two other less well known and used leguminous crops are well worth +trial as cover crops—soy beans in the North and cow peas in the +South. Both are great nitrogen gatherers and as they are rank and +rapid growers add large quantities of humus to the soil. Under +favorable conditions they will cover the ground with a perfect mat of +vegetation in a very short time. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>Being larger seeded, it is +considerably easier to obtain a stand on dry soils and in dry seasons +than it is of the smaller seeded clovers. It is usually best to sow in +drills the ordinary width, seven inches, apart.</p> + +<p>Cow peas are universally used as a cover and green manure crop in the +South, but they do not thrive so well in the North. One and one half +to two bushels of seed are required per acre. In the North the earlier +maturing varieties of soy beans are almost equally good. One to one +and one half bushels of seed are sown per acre.</p> + +<p>Leguminous cover crops are also the best and the cheapest source of +nitrogen for the apple orchard, after they are well established. Their +use may be overdone, however. Too much nitrogen results in a growth of +wood at the expense of fruit buds. To avoid this it is often advisable +to use non-leguminous and leguminous crops alternately, when the +orchard is making a satisfactory growth. Sometimes also these two +kinds of crops, as buckwheat and clover for example, may be combined +with good results. When this is done one half the usual amount of seed +of each should be used.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Early Plowing.</span>—Many people make the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>common mistake of +thinking that a green manure crop must be allowed to grow until late +in June in order to secure the maximum amount of growth. There are +several reasons why this is not good practice. In the first place +cultivation is most essential in the early spring as has been pointed +out. Then moisture is better conserved by plowing under the crop early +and a better physical condition of the soil secured. Plowing early in +the spring warms up the soil and sets plants to work more quickly. +Lastly, material rots much more quickly in the early spring when +moisture is more abundant, which is very important.</p> + +<p>An apple tree is as much a crop as anything grown on the farm and must +be so regarded by those who would become successful orchardists. When +it is not properly fed and cared for, good yields of fruit may not +justly be expected. Especially is this true of an orchard which is +being intercropped. But because of the fact that an apple tree is not +an annual crop but the product of many years' growth, because its root +system is deeper and more widely spread out than those of other crops, +and because the amount of plant food removed in a crop of fruit is +comparatively small, fertilization is less <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>important than many +persons would have us think. It is a fact that where orchards receive +good cultivation and a liberal supply of humus commercial fertilizers +give but medium results.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Elements of Fertility.</span>—Three elements are necessary for the +growth of apple trees, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. To these +lime may be added, although its benefit is indirect rather than direct +as a plant food. How badly any of these elements may be needed depends +on the soil, its previous treatment, and on the system of management. +By learning what are the effects of these elements on the tree and +fruit we may determine under what conditions, if any, their use is +advisable.</p> + +<p>Nitrogen promotes the growth of new wood and leaves, giving the latter +a dark green color. In fact the color of the leaves and the amount of +the wood growth are usually good indicators of the need of nitrogen. +Nitrogen in excess develops over vigorous growth and prevents the +maturity of wood and buds. It always has a tendency to delay the +maturity of the fruit by keeping it growing late. On many varieties it +tends to produce poorly colored fruits.</p> + +<p>When trees are making a normal amount of growth in a year—say a foot +to three feet or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>more—and when the leaves are of good size and a +dark green in color, there is little need of nitrogen. But when trees +are not growing satisfactorily and the leaves have a sickly yellow +color, then the need of nitrogen is evident. On early soils and in +long growing seasons nitrogen may be more freely and safely used than +under other conditions.</p> + +<p>The effect of phosphoric acid and potash on the tree and fruit is much +more uncertain. They are supposed to influence the quality and the +flavor of the fruit, giving better color and flavor, and this they +undoubtedly do to some extent. Potash probably gives the leaves a +darker green color. The precise effect of these two elements is at +present a subject of much discussion, one set of investigators +maintaining after a long and careful investigation that these effects +are too small to be worth while, and the other claiming that they have +a marked effect in the ways above indicated. The only safe guide is +the actual local result. If the fruit is satisfactory in every way it +will be of little use to try fertilizers. On the other hand, if it is +not, then it will pay to experiment with them. The needs of and the +results on different soils are so variable that it is always wise to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>experiment on a small scale before using fertilizers extensively.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Stable Manure.</span>—The necessary plant food is best supplied by +stable manure applied at the rate of ten loads per acre for a light +application to twenty loads per acre for a heavy application. This +amounts to a load for from two to five mature trees. Such an +application will not only go far toward supplying the necessary +nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, but especially if coarse will +add considerable humus and improve the physical condition of the soil.</p> + +<p>Except on land which washes badly, manure should be applied in the +fall and winter. It should not be piled near the trunk of the tree but +spread uniformly over the entire surface of the ground. It is +particularly important to spread the manure under and beyond the +farthest extent of the branches as this is the most important feeding +root area of the tree.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Commercial Fertilizers.</span>—Where manure is not available or +where it cannot be applied in sufficient amounts, commercial +fertilizers may be resorted to, after they have been experimentally +tested out. Leguminous cover crops are the best source of nitrogen, as +has been indicated, but where these do not grow well, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>or in seasons +when they have for some reason failed, nitrate of soda or dried blood +are good substitutes. From two hundred to three hundred pounds of one +or the other of these may be applied broadcast in the spring soon +after growth is well started and all danger of its being checked by +frost or cold weather is past. It is well to apply the nitrate of soda +in two applications a few weeks apart, especially on soils which are +leachy and in wet seasons, as part of the nitrogen may leach away if +all is applied at once. These should be thoroughly worked into the +soil with a spring-tooth harrow.</p> + +<p>To supply the other two elements, from two hundred to four hundred +pounds of treated rock phosphate or basic slag for the phosphoric +acid, and the same amount of sulphate of potash for the potash, should +be applied at any time in the early part of the season, preferably +just before a light rain, and worked into the soil as before. +Home-made wood ashes are a good source of both these elements, and +especially of the potash. They cannot be purchased economically in any +quantity, but on the general farm there could be no better way to +utilize the wood ashes made around the place than by applying them two +or three bushels to a full grown tree <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>every year or two. Wood ashes +are also a good source of lime, being about one-third calcium oxide. +Thus a large amount of available plant food will be supplied to the +tree, and where it is needed should result not only in better wood +growth but in the formation of vigorous leaf and fruit buds for the +following year.</p> + +<p>Lime is not usually considered as a fertilizer except on soils +actually deficient in it. But it will usually be advisable to apply +from one thousand five hundred to two thousand pounds of fresh burned +lime or its equivalent, in order to correct any natural soil acidity, +to hasten the decay of organic material, to increase the activity of +the soil bacteria, and to improve the physical condition of the soil +by floculating the soil particles and helping to break up lumpy soils. +Lime also helps to liberate plant food by recombining it with certain +other elements in the soil. All these effects make a more congenial +medium for the leguminous crops to grow in, and it is frequently +advisable to use lime for this purpose alone. After this first heavy +application about 800 pounds of lime should be applied per acre every +four or five years.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a><hr /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span><br /> + +<h3>CHAPTER VII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3> + +<h4>INSECTS AND DISEASES AFFECTING THE APPLE</h4> +<br /> + +<p>It is a common saying among farmers who have grown apples on their +farms for many years that there are many more pests to fight than +there used to be. How often we have heard a farmer tell of the perfect +apples that grew on a certain tree "when he was a boy," before people +had generally heard of codling moth, San José scale, apple scab, or +other troubles now only too common. "We never sprayed, but the apples +were fine," he says. Is this the usual glorification of the mythical +past or is it true? In all probability it is a little of both, but it +is undoubtedly true that insects and fungous diseases have increased +rapidly of late years.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Reasons for Pest Increase.</span>—When there is an abundance of +food and conditions are otherwise favorable, any animal or plant will +thrive better than when the food supply is scarce and conditions +unfavorable. As long as apple <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>trees were scattered and few in number +there was not the opportunity for the development of apple pests, but +as soon as they became numerous the prosperity of bugs and minute +plant parasites was wonderful to see. Another factor which has been at +least partly responsible for the great increase in our insect life is +that man has upset nature's balance by destroying so many birds, and, +by interfering with their natural surroundings, driven them away. +Birds are great destroyers of insects, and their presence in the +orchard should be encouraged in every possible way. Add to these facts +the marvelous fecundity of the insect tribe, and the increase is less +remarkable. Loss from these orchard pests has now run up into the +millions. It has been estimated that the loss in the United States +from wormy apples alone is over $11,000,000 annually. Thus has the +necessity for fighting these enemies of good fruit arisen.</p> + +<p>In order successfully to combat an insect or a disease it is very +necessary to have a somewhat detailed knowledge of its life history +and to know its most vulnerable point of attack. It is impossible to +work most intelligently and effectively without this knowledge, which +should include the several stages of the insect or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>disease, the point +of attack, the time of making it, and when and with what it can be +most easily destroyed. The number of insects and diseases which affect +the apple is so great that it is simply out of the question to treat +them all in detail here. We have therefore selected nine insects and +three diseases as those pests of the apple which are most common and +whose effects are usually most serious. The essential facts in their +life histories and their vulnerable points will now be pointed out. +The method of study may be taken as applicable to any other pests +which it may be necessary to combat.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Insect Pests.</span>—Of the many insects which affect either the +tree or the fruit of the apple, the nine selected probably inflict the +most damage and are the most difficult to control of all those in the +Northeastern States. According to their method of attack all insects +may be divided into two classes: biting and sucking. Biting insects +are those which actually eat parts of the tree, as the leaves or +fruit. These are combated by the use of stomach poisons as we shall +see in the following chapter. Sucking insects are those which do not +eat the tree or fruit directly, but by means of a tubelike proboscis +suck the juices or sap from the limbs, leaves or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>fruit. Of the biting +insects the five which we shall discuss are: (1) codling moth, (2) +apple maggot, (3) bud moth, (4) cigar case bearer, (5) curculio. The +four sucking insects discussed are: (6) San José scale, (7) oyster +shell scale, (8) blister mite, and (9) aphis or plant louse.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">The Codling Moth</span>, the most insidious of all apple pests, +is mainly responsible for wormy apples. The adult is a night flying +moth with a wing expanse of from one-half to three-quarters of an +inch. The moths appear about the time the apple trees are in bloom. +Each female is supposed to lay about fifty eggs which are deposited on +both the leaves and fruit, but mostly on the calyx end of the young +apples. The eggs hatch in about a week and the young larvae or +caterpillars begin at once to gnaw their way into the core of the +fruit. Three-fourths of them enter the apple through its blow end.</p> + +<p>After twenty to thirty days of eating in the apple, during which time +they become full grown and about three-quarters of an inch long, they +leave the apple, usually through its side. The full grown caterpillar +now secretes itself in the crevices in the bark of the tree or in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>rubbish beneath the tree and spins a tough but slight silken cocoon in +which the pupal period is passed. This lasts about a fortnight, when +the process is sometimes repeated, so that in the Eastern States there +are often two broods each season.</p> + +<p>The most vulnerable point in the career of this little animal is when +it is entering the fruit. If a fine poison spray covers the surface of +the fruit, and especially if it covers the calyx end of the apple +inside and out, when the young larvae begin to eat they will surely be +killed. It is estimated that birds destroy eighty-five per cent. of +the cocoons on the bark of trees.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Apple Maggot.</span>—It is fortunate that the apple maggot, +often called the railroad worm because of its winding tunnels all +through the fruit, is not as serious a pest as the codling moth for it +is much more difficult to control with a poison. A two-winged fly +appears in early summer and deposits her eggs in a puncture of the +skin of the apple. In a few days the eggs hatch and the maggots begin +to burrow indiscriminately through the fruit. The full grown larvae +are a greenish white in color and about a quarter of an inch long. +From the fruit this insect goes to the ground where the pupal stage +is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>passed in the soil. The next summer the fly again emerges and lays +its eggs.</p> + +<p>Spraying is not effective against this insect as the poison cannot be +placed where it will be eaten by the maggots. The best known remedy is +to destroy the fruit which drops to the ground and for this purpose +hogs in the orchard are very effective. The distribution of this +insect in the orchard is limited and it has shown a marked preference +for summer and autumn varieties.</p> + +<p>3. <span class="sc">The Bud Moth</span> closely resembles the codling moth in form +and size, but differs from it in color and life history. The larvae, +after hibernating through the winter, appear as little brown +caterpillars about May first or as soon as the buds begin to open, and +a week or two later begin their work of destruction. They inflict +great damage on the young leaf and fruit buds by feeding on them. When +full grown the larvae, cinnamon brown in color with a shining black +head, are about one-half inch long. They then roll themselves up in a +tube made from a leaf or parts of leaves securely fastened together +with silken threads. In this cocoon pupation, which lasts about ten +days, takes place. Early in June the moths appear. There is but <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>one +brood in the North. These insects can be successfully combated with a +poison spray applied early before the buds open.</p> + +<p>4. <span class="sc">The Cigar Case Bearer</span> winters in its case attached to a +twig. When the buds begin to open in the spring it moves to them, +carrying its case with it, and begins to feed on the young and tender +buds. By the time the leaves are well open, it has fed a good deal on +the tender buds and young leaves and is ready to make a new and larger +case. This it does by cutting a leaf to suit and then rolling it up in +the form of a cigar, whence its name. In this case the larvae continue +feeding about a month, causing much injury to the leaves, although +this is not as serious as the mutilation of the young buds in the +spring, before the tree is fully leafed out.</p> + +<p>About the last of June pupation takes place and in about ten days the +moth emerges. The eggs are then layed along the midribs of the leaves +and hatch in about fifteen days. The newly hatched larvae become leaf +miners during August, and migrate to the branches again in the fall +where they pass the winter. These leaf and bud eating insects can be +destroyed by applying a poison to the buds before they open <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>and again +later to the opening leaf and flower buds.</p> + +<p>5. <span class="sc">Curculio Beetles</span> pass the winter under leaves and grass. +In the spring they feed on the blossoms and the tender leaves. As soon +as the young fruits are formed the female deposits her eggs in a +puncture made just inside a short, crescent-shaped cut in the little +apple. The eggs soon hatch and the young grubs burrow into the fruit +to the core where they remain two or three weeks, or until full grown. +The larvae then bore their way out of the fruit and drop to the soil +where they pupate. The earliest of the beetles to emerge again feed on +the fruit. The principal damage from this pest comes from the feeding +of the beetles and the work of the larvae, although the latter is not +as bad in the apple as in the stone fruits. A poison on the young +foliage as soon as the beetles begin to feed is the best method of +combating curculio. Jarring the tree is not as practicable with the +apple as it is with the plum.</p> + +<p>6. <span class="sc">The San José Scale</span>, one of our worst apple tree pests, is +a sucking insect extracting the juices of the tree from the trunk, +limbs or branches, or even from the leaves and fruit when it is very +abundant. At first the growth <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>is checked only, but as the insects +develop their work finally results in the death of the part, unless +they are destroyed. The insect winters in an immature condition on the +bark under a grayish, circular, somewhat convex scale about the size +of a pinhead. The young, of which a great many broods are produced, +are soft bodied but soon form a scale. In the early spring small +two-winged insects issue from these scales.</p> + +<p>After mating the males die, but the females continue to grow and in +about a month begin the production of living young—minute, yellow, +oval creatures. These young settle on the bark and push their slender +beaks into the plant from which they begin to suck out the sap. In +about twelve days the insects molt and in eight to ten more they +change to pupae, and in from thirty-three to forty days are themselves +bearing young. A single female may give birth to four hundred young in +one season and there are several generations in a season. This great +prolificacy is what makes the scale so serious a pest.</p> + +<p>In fighting it every scale must be destroyed or thousands more are +soon born. In order to be able to use a strong enough mixture of lime +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>and sulphur to destroy them by smothering or choking the spray must be +applied on the dormant wood in the spring or fall or both. +Thoroughness is most essential.</p> + +<p>7. <span class="sc">The Oyster Shell Scale</span>, although it is essentially the +same in its habits and in its methods of sucking the sap from the tree +is not as bad a pest as the San José scale because it is less +prolific, there being but one brood a year. Still this scale often +destroys a branch and sometimes a whole tree. The "lice" winter as +eggs under the scale and hatch in late May or early June. After +crawling about the bark for two or three days, the young fix their +beaks into it and remain fastened there for life, sucking out the sap. +By the end of the season they have matured and secreted a scaly +covering under which their eggs for the next season's crop winter. A +smothering spray like lime and sulphur applied strong when the trees +are dormant will practically control this scale. But the young may be +destroyed in summer by a contact spray such as tobacco leaf extract or +whale oil soap.</p> + +<p>8. <span class="sc">The Leaf Blister Mite</span> is a small, four-legged animal, so +small as hardly to be visible to the naked eye. It passes the winter +in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>bud scales and as soon as these begin to open in the spring it +passes to the tender leaves which it punctures, producing light green +or reddish pimples according to the variety of apple. These later +develop into galls or blisters of a blackish or reddish brown color +and finally result in the destruction of the leaf. Trees are sometimes +practically defoliated by this pest, and this at a time when a good +foliage is most needed. Inside of the galls eggs are deposited and +when the young hatch they burrow in all directions. In October the +mites abandon the leaves to hibernate in the bud scales again. A +strong contact spray of lime sulphur when the trees are dormant +destroys the young mites while they are yet on the bud scales, which +is practically the only time when they are vulnerable.</p> + +<p>9. <span class="sc">Aphides</span>, or plant lice, are of seasonal importance. +Although nearly always present, it is only occasionally that they +become so numerous as seriously to damage mature apple trees. But they +are more often serious pests on young trees where they should be +carefully watched. Their presence is determined by the curled and +distorted condition of the terminal leaves on the under side of which +the green or pinkish lice will be found. Eggs deposited in autumn +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>pass the winter in this condition, hatching in the spring about the +time of the beginning of the growth of vegetation. From these winter +eggs females are hatched which bear living young, which may also bear +living young and so on for several generations until autumn, when eggs +are again deposited for the winter stage.</p> + +<p>Fortunately weather conditions together with parasitic and predaceous +insects hold them more or less in check. Because of the difficulty of +getting at the underside of the curled leaves where these lice mostly +work they are extremely hard to control. Lime and sulphur when the +trees are dormant destroy as many of the eggs as it comes in contact +with. A tobacco extract is quite effective as a contact spray in the +growing season. The trees must be closely watched and if the lice +appear in any considerable number they must be promptly attended to or +serious damage is likely to result.</p> + +<p>These are by no means all the insect pests which the fruit grower has +to combat, but they are usually the most important. Canker worm and +tent caterpillars often do great damage in unsprayed orchards, but +they are easily controlled by an application of a poison as soon <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>as +they appear. The same is true of other caterpillars and leaf eating +worms. Apple tree borers are frequently serious, especially in young +orchards, where the trees should be regularly "grubbed" and the borers +dug out or killed with a piece of wire. They may be prevented to some +extent by painting the tree trunks with a heavy lime and sulphur or +some gas tar preparation.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Diseases.</span>—Although not as numerous as insects, the diseases +which attack the apple inflict great damage and are fully as difficult +to control. They are caused by bacteria and by fungi which may be +compared to weeds growing on or in the tree instead of the soil. If +either of these works within the plant, as is sometimes the case, it +must be attacked before it enters. It is very necessary to be thorough +in order to control these diseases. Weather conditions influence +nearly all of them materially. Of those which attack the apple tree or +fruit we have selected three as the most serious and the most +necessary for the grower to combat, namely, (1) apple scab, (2) New +York apple tree canker, and (3) fire blight. To these should be added +in the South and middle latitudes, sooty blotch and bitter rot. +Baldwin <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>spot is also frequently serious in some seasons and +localities.</p> + +<p>(1) <span class="sc">The Apple Scab</span>, commonly known among growers as "the +fungus," is the most important of our common apple diseases and is +most evident on the fruit, although it attacks the leaves as well. In +some seasons the fruit is made almost unsalable. This disease lives +through the winter on old leaves. In the spring about blossoming time +the spores are scattered by the wind and other agencies, and reaching +the tender shoots germinate and enter the tissues of the plant. Their +development is greatly dependent on the weather. In a season in which +there is little fog or continued damp or humid weather, they may not +develop at all, but where these conditions are present they frequently +become very virulent.</p> + +<p>Spraying will be governed by the weather conditions, but the mixture +must be applied very promptly as soon as it is evident that it is +likely to be necessary and must cover every part of the tree to be +effective. The object is to prevent the spores from germinating, the +spray being entirely a preventive and in no sense a cure. The disease +most frequently first manifests itself on the tender new growth and on +the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>blossoms. Two mixtures have been found to control it, namely, +Bordeaux and a weak solution of lime and sulphur. One or other of +these should be applied just before the blossoms open, just before +they fall, and when necessary two and nine weeks later.</p> + +<p>(2) <span class="sc">New York Apple Tree Canker</span> is usually found mainly on the +trunks of old trees, but it also affects the smaller branches. +Practically every old or uncared for orchard has more or less of this +canker, and where it is not checked it eventually destroys the tree. +This fungus is the cause of most of the dead wood found in old +orchards. The surface of the canker is black and rough and covered +with minute black pimples. It lives over winter and spreads from one +branch or tree to another. As it most frequently enters a branch +through wounds made in pruning, these should be promptly painted over +with a heavy lead and oil paint. All diseased parts should be cut out +and removed as soon as observed. The value of spraying for this +disease is not definitely known, but it is seldom very troublesome in +well sprayed and well cared for orchards.</p> + +<p>(3) <span class="sc">Blight</span> appears on apple trees in three forms, as blossom +blight, as twig blight, and as <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>blight cankers. It is a bacterial +disease which is distributed by flies, bees, birds, etc., and cannot +be controlled by spraying. The bacteria are carried over the winter in +cankers on the main limbs and bodies of the trees, oozing out in a +sticky mass in the spring. These cankers should be cut out with a +sharp knife cutting well into the healthy bark and then washing the +wound with corrosive sublimate, one part to one thousand of water. +Cutting out and destroying are also the chief remedies to be used when +the blight appears in the twigs and blossoms. It is not usually as +serious on apples as on pears. Some varieties, like Alexander, are +more subject to it than others.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a><hr /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span><br /> + +<h3>CHAPTER VIII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3> + +<h4>THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF SPRAYING</h4> +<br /> + +<p>The spraying of fruit trees in the United States is of comparatively +recent origin, having been a general commercial practice for less than +two decades. It involves the principle of applying with force and in +the form of a fine rain or mist, water in which a poison or a +substance which kills by contact is suspended. The first application +of the principle was against chewing insects with hellebore. Pure +arsenic was early used and soon led to the use of other arsenicals.</p> + +<p>Our greatest fungicide, Bordeaux mixture, was discovered by accident +in 1882 when it was found to control mildew in France. Up until about +five years ago Bordeaux mixture as the fungicide and paris green as +the poison were almost universally used. Within the last few years, +however, there have been developed two substitutes which, although +known and used to some extent for twenty years, have only <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>recently +come into such general use as practically to replace the old sprays. +These are lime and sulphur as the fungicide and partial insecticide +and arsenate of lead as a partial insecticide.</p> + +<p>The necessity for and the advisability of spraying have already been +pointed out. There is an increasing demand for fine fruit the +supplying of which is possible only with thorough spraying. In the +humid East especially the competition of more progressive sections in +the West is demanding more and better spraying. There is no cure-all +in this process. It does not make a tree more fruitful except as it +improves its general health, but it does bring a larger percentage of +the fruit to perfection. Certain knowledge is fundamental; the grower +must know what he is spraying for, when and with what to combat it and +how to accomplish the desired result most effectively.</p> + +<p>Spraying is an insurance against anticipated troubles with the fruit, +and the best and most successful growers are those most completely +insured. It has many general advantages also. It stimulates the grower +to a greater interest in his business because of the extra knowledge +and skill required. It compels thoroughness. It necessitates spending +money, therefore a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>return is looked for. To be sure, it is only one +of the operations necessary to success, but it enables us to grow a +quality of fruit which we could not obtain without it.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Spray Materials</span> are conveniently divided into two classes, +insecticides and fungicides. An insecticide is a poison by which the +insect is killed either directly by eating it, or indirectly by the +caustic, smothering, or stifling effects resulting from closing its +breathing pores. Direct poisons are used for insects which eat some +part of the tree or fruit and are called stomach poisons. Sprays which +kill indirectly are used for insects which suck the sap or juice from +the tree or fruit and are called contact sprays. Arsenical compounds +have supplanted practically all other substances used to combat +external biting insects. Two stomach poisons are commonly used, +namely, arsenate of lead and paris green, but the former is rapidly +replacing the latter.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Arsenate of Lead</span> is prepared by mixing three parts of +crystallized arsenate of soda with seven parts of crystallized white +sugar (acetate) of lead in water, but it will not as a rule pay the +grower to mix his own material, as arsenate of lead can be purchased +in convenient <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>commercial form at a reasonable price. The preparation +on the market is a finely pulverized precipitate in two forms, one a +powder and the other a paste. These are probably about equally good +and are readily kept suspended in water. Less free arsenic is +contained in this form than in any other compound of arsenic, making +it safer to use, especially in heavy applications. Arsenate of lead +may be used without danger of burning the foliage as strong as five or +six pounds to fifty gallons of water, but three pounds is the usual +and a sufficient amount for the control of any apple insect for which +it is efficacious.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Paris Green</span> is being rapidly displaced by arsenate of lead +for several reasons. It is a compound of white arsenic, copper oxide, +and acetic acid. The commercial form is a crystal which in suspension +settles rapidly, a serious fault. It is more soluble than arsenate of +lead and hence there is greater danger of burning the foliage with it. +Moreover, it costs from twenty to twenty-five cents a pound, and the +arsenate of lead can be purchased for from eight to ten cents a pound.</p> + +<p>The amount which it is safe to use in fifty gallons of water is from +one-half to three-quarters of a pound. When paris green is used <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>alone +as a poison lime should be added. Both these arsenicals should be +thoroughly wet up by stirring in a smaller receptacle before they are +put into the spray tank, in order to get them in as complete +suspension as possible. They may be used in the same mixture with +Bordeaux or lime sulphur.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Contact Sprays.</span>—Four compounds are used as contact sprays in +combating sucking insects, namely, lime sulphur, soaps such as whale +oil soap, kerosene emulsion, and tobacco extract. Of these lime +sulphur is the most used and for winter spraying is probably the best. +This preparation is made by boiling together for one hour or until +they unite, twenty pounds of quick lime, fifteen pounds of flower of +sulphur, and fifty gallons of water. Although the home made mixture is +much cheaper than the commercial form which may be purchased on the +market, many people prefer the latter because of the inconvenience and +trouble of preparing the mixture, although there is nothing difficult +about it.</p> + +<p>This contact spray is used chiefly for the San José scale and the +blister mite, and in order to control these must be applied strong on +the dormant wood. The strength necessary will vary <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>from one part of +the mixture above mentioned or of the commercial preparation, to from +seven to ten parts of water, according to the density test of the +material, which should be around twenty-eight per cent. Beaumé (a +scale for measuring the density of a liquid) for home made, and +thirty-two per cent. for the commercial mixture.</p> + +<p>Any good soap is effective in destroying soft bodied insects such as +plant lice. The fish oil soaps, although variable in composition, are +often valuable, especially the one known in the trade as whale oil +soap. This soap dissolved in water by boiling at the rate of two +pounds of soap to one gallon of water, makes a good winter spray for +scale but should be applied before it gets cold as it is then apt to +become gelatinous. For a summer contact spray against lice, one pound +of soap to seven gallons of water is strong enough to be effective. It +is objectionable because of its odor and because it is disagreeable to +make and handle. Lime sulphur is to be preferred as a winter spray, +but the soap spray is often necessary and valuable for summer sucking +insects.</p> + +<p>Kerosene emulsion was formerly more commonly used than now against the +scale and plant <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>lice. It is a mixture of one-half pound of soap and +two gallons of kerosene in one gallon of water—preferably in hot +water. For dormant trees one gallon of this mixture should be diluted +with six gallons of water. While this spray is effective it is no more +so than lime-sulphur and is quite difficult and disagreeable to +handle. As a summer spray, however, it is often necessary. Several +preparations of petroleum known as the miscible oils are sometimes +used. Their use is the same as that of lime-sulphur and they are not +as good.</p> + +<p>Within the last few years a tobacco concoction known as black leaf +tobacco extract (nicotine sulphate) has come into quite common use. It +can be purchased commercially under various brand names, and should be +diluted according to its strength, but usually about one part to fifty +of water. It may be made by boiling one pound of good tobacco stems in +two gallons of water for one-half-hour. Objections to it are that it +evaporates very quickly, although it is supposed to be non-volatile, +and that it is expensive, but it is very convenient to use, can be +readily mixed with other summer sprays, and is very effective against +plant lice and mites.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bordeaux Mixture.</span> Fungicides are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>mixtures of chemical +compounds made up for the purpose of controlling plant diseases caused +by a class of plant weeds known as fungi. There are three commonly +well known and used fungicides, Bordeaux mixture, commercial lime +sulphur, and the self-boiled lime-sulphur. The Bordeaux mixture is the +best all-around fungicide known. It is a mixture of three pounds of +copper sulphate (blue vitriol or bluestone) with three or more pounds +of fresh burned stone lime in fifty gallons of water. The two +compounds should be put together as fruit growers say "with water +between," that is each should be diluted with the water separately +before the two are mixed.</p> + +<p>The best plan is to have stock mixtures of each in barrels, fifty +gallon cider or vinegar barrels making good receptacles for the +purpose. Place the bluestone in an old fertilizer or meal sack and +suspend it about midway in the barrel of water. In a few hours it will +all be dissolved and will remain in suspension for some length of time +very well. If say fifty pounds of the copper sulphate are dissolved in +fifty gallons of water, each gallon of water will contain one pound of +the bluestone, which makes a very convenient <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>way to measure it. So +also fifty pounds of fresh burned stone lime should be placed in a +barrel—in this case in the bottom of the barrel rather than in a +sack—just covered with water and allowed to slake, more water being +added as required up to fifty gallons. If too much water is added to +the lime at the first it will be "drowned" and its slaking checked. +These two stock mixtures, each gallon containing one pound of the +copper sulphate or one pound of the lime, are then mixed together.</p> + +<p>It is well to fill the tank about half full of water, then put in the +required amount of the copper sulphate, and after stirring well add +the lime milk. It is a good plan to add an excess of lime as it +minimizes the danger of burning and aids the mixture in sticking to +the leaves well. If one is sure that he has at least as much lime, or +an excess of lime, it will not be necessary to test the mixture, but +if he is not, a simple test may be made with ferro-cyanide of +potassium, obtained at a drug store. A few drops of this mixture will +disappear if the lime is equal or in excess of the copper sulphate, +that is, it will be neutralized, but if it is not, they will remain a +bright purplish red. Bordeaux mixture is used in strengths varying +from three to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>five pounds each of bluestone and lime in fifty gallons +of water, but the former is usually sufficient.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Lime-Sulphur.</span>—The more important fungicides, the commercial +lime sulphur and the self-boiled lime-sulphur, are practically +superseding Bordeaux as a fungicide, not because they are necessarily +better, but because there is frequently much burning of the foliage +and russeting of the fruit from the use of the Bordeaux. This is +unfortunate as the latter is a rather more effective fungicide as well +as more convenient and pleasant to use. The self-boiled lime sulphur +is a combination of lime and sulphur which is boiled by the heat of +the slaking lime alone, and makes a pretty good substitute for the +Bordeaux when it injures foliage or fruit. This preparation of lime +and sulphur differs from the commercial form used as a winter wash in +that it is wholly a mechanical mixture and not partly chemical like +the latter. It may therefore be used on the foliage in summer at a +greater strength, there being only a very small percentage of sulphur +in solution when the mixture is properly made.</p> + +<p>Equal amounts of lime and sulphur are used, these being from eight to +ten pounds each to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>fifty gallons of water. The mixture is best +prepared in larger quantities so as to get heat enough from the +slaking lime to produce a violent boiling for a few minutes. First, +place say forty pounds of lime in a barrel and pour on just water +enough to start it slaking nicely—about a gallon to each three or +four pounds of lime is usually sufficient. Then add the sulphur and +enough more water to slake the paste, keeping it well stirred +meanwhile. The violent boiling of the lime in slaking will cook the +mixture in from five to fifteen minutes, depending on the quality of +the lime and how fast it is slaked. Just as soon as the violent +boiling is over add enough cold water to stop all action. If this is +not done, some sulphur will unite with the lime and burning may be the +result.</p> + +<p>This self-boiled mixture is entirely harmless to apple foliage and +even appears to have a stimulating effect upon it. Against the apple +scab, however, it is not as effective as the boiled wash, or the +commercial preparations. For this disease a strength of from one to +thirty to one to forty (that is about one and one-half gallons of the +prepared mixture testing 31 to 33 Beaumé to fifty gallons of water) of +the commercial lime-sulphur is most effective.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span><span class="sc">Spray Pumps.</span>—The application of the foregoing spray mixtures +is fully as important as the sprays themselves, for on the right +application at the right time depends the efficacy of the spray. For +this purpose a considerable amount of special machinery has been +devised. Lack of space prevents us from going into much detail on this +question, so we must be content with merely outlining the different +types of machines and mentioning their accessories. Sprays are forced +through single, double or triple acting pumps, either by hand or +power. The three types of power available are traction, compressed +air, and gasoline, the last being the most used. Steam power is +practically obsolete.</p> + +<p>The knapsack is the simplest type of hand pump, but it is of no +practical use in the mature apple orchard. For small orchards and +small trees several types of hand pumps are quite effective. The lever +type of pump, where the handle is pushed from and pulled toward the +operator, probably gives the most power with the least tiring effect, +because it enables one to use the weight of the body to some extent. +It is best not to have the pump attached to the spray barrel or tank, +but set on a movable base of its <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>own, as then it can be used for any +one of a number of barrels. Such an outfit may be obtained for from +twenty-five to forty dollars.</p> + +<p>It is well to buy a standard make of pump, preferably from a nearby +dealer, so that repairs may be readily secured. For all orchards up to +three or four acres in size, and for larger orchards where the trees +are not over twelve or fifteen feet in height, this kind of spray rig +is the most practicable and advisable, when the expense is taken into +consideration. This applies especially to the general farm.</p> + +<p>The power of a traction sprayer is developed from the wheels. There is +much discussion as to whether sufficient power to throw an effective +spray can be supplied by this method. By accumulating considerable +pressure by extra driving at the ends of the rows and then skipping +every other tree in order to keep up the pressure, going over the rows +twice, a very satisfactory pressure can be obtained for trees which +are not too large. The argument for this type of machine, and it is +especially applicable on the general farm, is that it can be used for +other spraying on the farm as well as for the apple orchard, +especially for potatoes and small fruits. It is a comparatively cheap +type of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>power, particularly when it can be used for several purposes.</p> + +<p>The compressed air gas sprayer comes next in point of simplicity and +cost for a power sprayer. Its most economic use is found where +orcharding is carried on extensively enough to pay to compress the air +or gas right in the orchard. This is of course impracticable on the +general farm. Therefore the air or gas must be purchased and shipped +to the farm in steel tubes. This often causes delay at critical times +and is rather expensive. Moreover, the gas is open to the objection of +interfering with the lime-sulphur compound by precipitating some of +the sulphur.</p> + +<p>The gasoline engine is the most useful and popular type of power for +the orchard sprayer, as well as for general use on the farm. Many +makes are now so perfected that they give little or no trouble. One +and a half or two horsepower are fully sufficient for spraying, but +most farmers prefer from three to five horsepower in order to be able +to use the engine more for other purposes. The latter power is open to +objection for spraying purposes on account of its weight, as +especially in early spring it is very difficult to haul so heavy a rig +over the soft <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>ground. Such an outfit is also rather expensive. +Standard makes of gasoline engines of sufficient power for spraying +cost from $75.00 to $150.00 according to horsepower and efficiency. +For very large trees, for mature orchards, and for all orchards larger +than four or five acres, the gasoline engine is the best source of +power for spraying, particularly where it can be used for other +purposes on the farm.</p> + +<p>A double acting or two cylinder pump is most desirable. If there is +plenty of power a triplex or three cylinder pump is still better. The +requirements of a good pump are: sufficient power for the work desired +of it; strong but not too heavy; fewest possible number of parts +consistent with efficiency; brass parts and valves; and a good sized +air chamber. A number of standard makes of pumps answer these +conditions very well. Pumps should always be washed out with clean +water when the operator is through with them and the metal parts +coated with vaseline. Never leave water in a pump chamber or in the +engine jacket in cold weather.</p> + +<p>The ordinary hand pump and barrel give satisfactory use when placed on +a wagon, unless the trees are very high. But for large orchards, high +trees, and where larger tanks and power <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>pumps are used it is +desirable to have a special truck for the outfit. The front wheel +should be made low so as to turn under the tank to enable the driver +to make short turns around the trees. A tower is desirable where high +old trees are to be sprayed. This should be substantial but as small +as is consistent with the purpose so as not to catch on the limbs and +make it difficult to get close up around the trees. The height of the +platform must be regulated by the need and by the roughness of the +ground. On steep side hills the wagon body on which the tank rests +should be underslung.</p> + +<p>In order to get as near to the work as possible get a long hose—from +twenty to thirty feet according to circumstances. The best quality, +three to five ply, is none too good. Hose should be three-eighths to +one-half inch in diameter, one inch being too heavy. Extension rods +are a practical necessity. They should be ten to twelve feet long and +made of bamboo lined with brass, that is, as light as possible. +Nozzles are very important in thorough and effective spraying. There +is no best nozzle, nor one with which all the work can be done.</p> + +<p>Several things should be considered in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>selecting a nozzle. First of +all, it must be of convenient form so as not to catch in trees and so +constructed that it will not clog easily. Second, for apple trees it +should have good capacity and deliver as spreading a spray as +possible. Third, the nature of the spray is very important. +Insecticides should usually be applied with force in a comparatively +coarse driving spray, but fungicides should be applied in a fine mist +or fog so that they will settle on every part of the tree. Therein +lies the difficulty of applying insecticides and fungicides together.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Time of Spraying.</span>—Fortunately it is not necessary to make a +separate application for each insect and disease, but they may be +treated together to some extent. In most cases expediency demands that +the arsenicals be used with the fungicides. Many growers are finding +the most satisfactory results, however, from applying the arsenical +spray separately, just after the blossoms fall, because of the +physical impossibility of properly applying the two sprays—the +driving and the mist spray—together. For most practical purposes on +the general farm, three sprayings are necessary in order to secure +clean fruit and four, sometimes five, are often <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>advisable. These may +be summarized as follows:</p> + +<div class="block"><p>1. With lime-sulphur, winter strength, on the dormant wood in +early spring.</p> + +<p>2. With lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead just before the +blossoms open (may sometimes be omitted).</p> + +<p>3. With the same (or Bordeaux for scab) just after the blossoms +fall.</p> + +<p>4. With the same two or three weeks later.</p> + +<p>5. With arsenate of lead eight or nine weeks later (may sometimes +be omitted).</p> + +<div class="block2"><p class="noin">(In the south and middle latitudes where bitter rot and +apple blotch occur two other sprayings may be necessary.)</p></div> + +<p>6. With Bordeaux about eight or ten weeks after the blossoms +fall.</p> + +<p>7. Again with the same about two weeks later.</p></div> + +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span><br /> + +<p class="cen">A Calendar for Spraying Apples</p> +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary="A Calendar for Spraying Apples" style="border: 1pt black solid;"> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb" width="14%">INSECTS</td> + <td class="tdcb" width="14%">Nature of Injury</td> + <td class="tdcb" width="12%">Before Leaf Buds Open</td> + <td class="tdcb" width="12%">Before Flower Buds Open</td> + <td class="tdcb" width="12%">After Petals Fall</td> + <td class="tdcb" width="12%">In 2 to 3 Weeks</td> + <td class="tdcb" width="12%">In 8 to 9 Weeks</td> + <td class="tdcb" width="12%">Materials to Use</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb">Codling Moth</td> + <td class="tdcb">Eating Worm</td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb">Lead Arsenate or Par. Gr.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb">San José Scale</td> + <td class="tdcb">Sucking Insect</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb">Lime Sulphur</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb">Oyster Shell Scale</td> + <td class="tdcb">Sucking Insect</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb">Lime Sulphur</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb">Blister Mite</td> + <td class="tdcb">Leaf Miner</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb">Lime Sulphur</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb">Plant Louse</td> + <td class="tdcb">Sucking Insect</td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" colspan="2">when seen</td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb">Whale Oil Soap or Tobacco</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb">Cigar Case Bearer</td> + <td class="tdcb">Eating Insect</td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb">Lead Arsenate or Par. Gr.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb">Apple Maggot</td> + <td class="tdcb">Eating Worm</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb" colspan="2">destroy fruit</td> + <td class="tdcb">Lead Arsenate or Par. Gr.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb">Bud Moth</td> + <td class="tdcb">Eating Worm</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb">Lead Arsenate or Par. Gr.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb">Curculio</td> + <td class="tdcb">Eating Worm & Beetle</td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb">Lead Arsenate or Par. Gr.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb" style="font-size: 110%;"><b>Diseases</b></td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb">Apple Scab</td> + <td class="tdcb">Fungus</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb">if necessary</td> + <td class="tdcb">Lime Sulphur or Bordeaux 3-3.50</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb">New York Apple Tree Canker</td> + <td class="tdcb">Fungus</td> + <td class="tdcb">x?</td> + <td class="tdcb" colspan="2">cut out infections</td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb">Lime Sulphur</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb">Leaf Spot</td> + <td class="tdcb">Fungus</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb">Lime Sulphur</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdcb">Sooty Blotch</td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb"> </td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb">x</td> + <td class="tdcb">Bordeaux Mixture and Lime Sulphur</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a><hr /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span><br /> + +<h3>CHAPTER IX<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3> + +<h4>HARVESTING AND STORING</h4> +<br /> + +<p>Apples are practically never allowed to ripen on the trees but are +picked and shipped green. By "green" we mean not fully ripe, not ripe +enough to eat out of hand. This is necessary for all fruit which is to +be shipped any considerable distance or which is to be stored. Used in +this sense green has no reference to color, but as a matter of fact, +much of our fruit is picked too green, before it has even reached its +full size and is well colored. There is no exact time at which apples +must be picked, but this depends on many factors such as the variety, +the distance to be shipped, the soil, the climate, and various other +conditions, to say nothing of seasonal differences.</p> + +<p>The time at which any variety should be picked in a particular section +will be learned by experience. In general, apples should be left <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>on +the tree as long as possible in order to get the best size and color. +When the apples begin to drop badly it is a pretty sure indication +that it is time to pick. If the fruit is to be sold in the local +market or for immediate consumption, it may be allowed to get riper +than would otherwise be the case. With most varieties one picking is +sufficient, but in the case of varieties like the Wealthy which does +not ripen uniformly, or like the Twenty Ounce, which does not always +color evenly, two or three pickings should be made. Two or three +pickings are practically always necessary where fancy fruit is +desired, in order to get the ideal size, color, and uniformity.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Ladders.</span>—There are two general types of picking ladders, the +rung and the step ladders. For large trees the rung ladders are the +best. They may be obtained in lengths to suit the height of the tree. +Lengths of more than twenty-two or twenty-four feet become too heavy +and clumsy to handle, even when made of pine, which is the best +material as it is light and strong for its weight. In very old, high +trees extension rung ladders are sometimes used. They are also useful +for interior work but are heavy to handle. Rung ladders cost from ten +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>to twenty cents a running foot. Step ladders are useful only on young +and small trees. The two styles, the three (Japanese) and four legged, +are both quite satisfactory where one can reach the fruit from them.</p> + +<p>Receptacles for picking usually hold about half a bushel. Both baskets +and bags are used, some preferring one and some the other, and a +choice between them is merely a matter of personal preference. There +is a little less liability of bruising the apples in bags than in +baskets, but the latter are more convenient in some ways. Fruit should +never be thrown or dropped into a basket but always handled carefully. +Some varieties, as McIntosh, show almost every finger mark and +literally require handling with gloves.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Handling.</span>—The old custom of picking and laying on the ground +in the orchard is a poor one and should not be followed, as it causes +unnecessary handling and bruising. Moreover, fruit should be packed +and hauled to storage as soon after picking as possible. Picking and +placing directly on the packing table from which the apples are +immediately packed is the best plan where it is practicable, but as +the weather at picking time in the Eastern <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>States is frequently quite +uncertain, it is not always possible to follow this plan as closely as +can be done in the West, where dry air and sunshine prevail. Still, +wherever there is a considerable quantity of fruit and several +pickers, the plan of packing directly from the table is best. Many +growers pick in boxes and barrels and haul the apples to a packing +shed to be packed later. Convenience and expediency must govern the +general farmer who is not always at liberty to choose the best plan, +often having to do as he can.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Packing Tables</span> enable the grower to pack his fruit better +because he can see better what he is doing, and to handle the fruit +more cheaply and quickly and with less injury. They should be portable +so that they can be moved about the orchard. A convenient type has one +end mounted on wheels so that it can be pushed from one place to +another. The top of the table should be made of two strong layers of +canvas, one tacked firmly to the framework of the table with about +three or four inches of dip and the other laid loosely over it. This +plan provides a soft resting place for the fruit and the table can be +easily cleaned off by simply throwing back the upper layer of canvas.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>Three feet six inches is about the right width for the table, and the +same sloping to three feet four inches at one end, is the correct +height from the ground. Most packers like to have this gradual slope +to one end so that the apples will naturally feed toward that end. The +length may be anything up to eight or ten feet, beyond which the table +becomes heavy and unmanageable.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Barrels.</span>—The standard apple barrel adopted by the National +Apple Shippers' Association and made law in New York State has a +length of stave of twenty-eight and one-half inches and a diameter of +head of seventeen and one-eighth inches. The outside circumference of +the bilge is sixty-four inches and the distance between the heads is +twenty-six inches. It contains one hundred quarts dry measure. The +staves are mostly made of elm, pine, and red gum, and the heads +principally of pine with some beech and maple. In most apple growing +sections barrels are made in regular cooper shops where their +manufacture is a business by itself. Only the largest growers set up +their own barrels. Practically all barrels are purchased "knocked +down" and it costs from four to six cents each to set them up. Barrels +can <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>ordinarily be purchased for about thirty-five cents each, but the +cost varies somewhat with the season and the region.</p> + +<p>Apple packages should always present a neat, clean, and attractive +appearance. Never use flour barrels, soiled or ununiform barrels of +any kind. If a head cushion is used a good deal of waste from the +crushing and bruising of the fruit will be saved. A head lining of +plain or fringed paper also adds much to the attractiveness of the +package. The wrapping of apples for barrel packing is hardly +advisable. The fruit is pressed into the barrel tightly with one of +two types of presses, both of which are good.</p> + +<p>The lever press is more responsive and the pressure is more easily +changed, but it is harder to operate. The screw press distributes the +pressure more evenly with less injury to the fruit and is more +powerful.</p> + +<p>The steps in properly packing a barrel of apples are: First, see that +the middle and closed end hoops are tight, if necessary, nailing them +and clinching the nails; second, mark the head plainly with the grade +and variety and the name of the packer or owner; then place the barrel +on a solid floor or plank and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>lay in the facing papers (the face end +being packed first); select the "facers," which should be the best +representatives of the grade being packed, and <i>no others</i>, and place +them in two courses in regular order stems down; with a drop handle +basket fill the barrel, using care not to bruise the fruit, and +jarring the barrel back and forth on the plank as each basket is put +into it in order to settle the fruit firmly in place; lastly, arrange +a layer of apples stems up and apply the press, using a hatchet to get +the head in place and to drive on and tighten the hoops.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">The Box Package</span> is rapidly growing in favor, especially as a +carrier of fancy fruit. There is no standard box the size of which is +fixed by law unless it be a box labeled a bushel. But two sizes of +boxes are in common use, both probably being necessary on account of +the variation in the size of different varieties. The "Standard" box +is 10½ by 11½ by 18 inches inside measurement and contains 2,173.5 +cubic inches (the lawful stricken bushel is 2,150.4 cubic inches). The +"Special" box is 10 by 11 by 20 inches inside measurement and contains +2,200 cubic inches. The bulge when properly made will add about 150 +cubic inches <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>more, making the two boxes hold 2,323.5 cubic inches and +2,350 cubic inches respectively.</p> + +<p>Spruce is the most reliable and in general the best material. Fir is +sometimes used, but is likely to split. Pine is good if strong enough. +The ends should be of three-quarter-inch material; the sides of +three-eighth-inch, and the tops and bottoms—two pieces each—of +one-quarter-inch material. There should also be two cleats each for +top and bottom. The sides of the box should be nailed with four, +preferably five-penny cement-coated nails, at each end. The cleats +should be put neatly on each end and four nails put into them, going +through into the top and bottom. Boxes commonly come "knocked down" or +in the flat and are usually put together by the grower. They cost from +ten to thirteen cents each in the flat.</p> + +<p>There are several kinds of packs, depending on the size of the apples +and the choice of the grower. The diagonal pack with each apple +resting over the spaces between others is preferable, but on account +of the size of the apples one is often forced to use the straight pack +with the apples in regular right angle rows for some sizes. The offset +pack, first three (or four) on one side and then on the other, is +very <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>much like the diagonal, but not much used on account of its +accommodating too few apples in a box. The following table gives the +packs, number of rows, number of apples in the row, box to use, and +number of apples used to the box, as used at Hood River, Oregon:</p> + +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Packing Apples"> + <tr> + <td width="20%" class="tdc">Size expressed in No. apples per box</td> + <td width="15%" class="tdc">Tier</td> + <td width="15%" class="tdc">Pack</td> + <td width="15%" class="tdc">No. apples in row</td> + <td width="15%" class="tdc">No. layers in depth</td> + <td width="20%" class="tdc">Box used</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> 45</td> + <td class="tdc">3 </td> + <td class="tdlp">3 St.</td> + <td class="tdc">5-5</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdlp">Standard</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> 54</td> + <td class="tdc">3 </td> + <td class="tdlp">3 St.</td> + <td class="tdc">6-6</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdlp">Special</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> 54</td> + <td class="tdc">3 </td> + <td class="tdlp">3 St.</td> + <td class="tdc">6-6</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdlp">Special</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> 63</td> + <td class="tdc">3 </td> + <td class="tdlp">3 St.</td> + <td class="tdc">7-7</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdlp">Special</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> 64</td> + <td class="tdc">3½</td> + <td class="tdlp">2-2 Diag.</td> + <td class="tdc">4-4</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdlp">Standard</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> 72</td> + <td class="tdc">3½</td> + <td class="tdlp">2-2 Diag.</td> + <td class="tdc">4-5</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdlp">Standard</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> 80</td> + <td class="tdc">3½</td> + <td class="tdlp">2-2 Diag.</td> + <td class="tdc">5-5</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdlp">Standard</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> 88</td> + <td class="tdc">3½</td> + <td class="tdlp">2-2 Diag.</td> + <td class="tdc">5-6</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdlp">Standard</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc"> 96</td> + <td class="tdc">3½</td> + <td class="tdlp">2-2 Diag.</td> + <td class="tdc">6-6</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdlp">Special</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">104</td> + <td class="tdc">3½</td> + <td class="tdlp">2-2 Diag.</td> + <td class="tdc">6-7</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdlp">Special</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">112</td> + <td class="tdc">3½</td> + <td class="tdlp">2-2 Diag.</td> + <td class="tdc">7-7</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdlp">Special</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">120</td> + <td class="tdc">3½</td> + <td class="tdlp">2-2 Diag.</td> + <td class="tdc">7-8</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdlp">Special</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">128</td> + <td class="tdc">4 </td> + <td class="tdlp">4 St.</td> + <td class="tdc">8-8</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdlp">Special</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">144</td> + <td class="tdc">4 </td> + <td class="tdlp">4 St.</td> + <td class="tdc">9-9</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdlp">Special</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">150</td> + <td class="tdc">4½</td> + <td class="tdlp">3-2 Diag.</td> + <td class="tdc">6-6</td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdlp">Standard</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">163</td> + <td class="tdc">4½</td> + <td class="tdlp">3-2 Diag.</td> + <td class="tdc">6-7</td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdlp">Standard</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">175</td> + <td class="tdc">4½</td> + <td class="tdlp">3-2 Diag.</td> + <td class="tdc">7-7</td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdlp">Standard</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">185</td> + <td class="tdc">4¼</td> + <td class="tdlp">3-2 Diag.</td> + <td class="tdc">7-8</td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdlp">Special</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc">200</td> + <td class="tdc">4½</td> + <td class="tdlp">3-2 Diag.</td> + <td class="tdc">8-8</td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdlp">Special</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<br /> + +<p>It is good practice to wrap apples packed in boxes. For this purpose a +heavy-weight tissue paper in two sizes, 8 by 10 and 10 by 10, +according to the size of the apple, is used. A lining paper 18 by 24 +in size and "white news" in grade is first placed in the box. Between +the layers of apples a colored "tagboard" <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>paper, size 17¼ by 11 or 20 +by 9¾, according to the box used, is laid so as to make the layers +come out right at the top. In packing the box is inclined toward the +packer for convenience in placing the fruit. After laying in the +lining paper each apple is wrapped and put in place. As an aid to +picking up the thin wrapping paper a rubber "finger" is used on the +forefinger. When the box is packed the layers should stand a quarter +to a half inch higher in the middle than at the ends, in order to give +a bulge or spring to the top and bottom which holds the fruit firmly +in place without bruising.</p> + +<p>There has been much discussion as to whether the box or the barrel is +the better package for apples. This is needless, for as a matter of +fact each is best for its own particular purpose. The barrel is best +adapted as a package for large commercial quantities of fruit and +where labor could not be had to pack apples in boxes even if the trade +wanted them. The barrel permits the packing of a greater variety in +size and shape than does the box, and these can be more easily and +cheaply handled in packing.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the box is the ideal <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>package for small amounts of +fancy fruit, to be used for a family-or fruit-stand trade. It presents +a neater and more fancy appearance and is a more convenient package to +handle, as well as one which is more open to inspection. It already +has a better reputation as a quality container than the barrel. As a +fancy package for a limited private trade from the small general farm +orchard with high-class varieties like the Northern Spy, McIntosh, and +others there is no comparison of the box with the barrel.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Storage.</span>—Car refrigeration and cold storage of fruit are +comparatively modern developments. Few persons who have not been +affected directly realize what a tremendous influence they have had +upon the fruit, and particularly the apple industry. Apples could not +be shipped any very great distance. Crops had to be marketed +immediately and when they were large the markets were soon glutted and +the fruit became almost valueless. The first hot spell would +demoralize the trade altogether. Then later in the season the supply +would become exhausted and famine would ensue where but a few weeks +before there had been a feast. Under such conditions it is not +surprising that the apple industry did not <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>develop very rapidly and +that apple growing was mostly confined to areas near the larger +markets.</p> + +<p>The coming of the refrigerator car extended fruit-growing over a much +wider area. Refrigeration on shipboard opened up and enlarged the +export trade. Cold storage warehouses lengthened the season by holding +over the surplus of fruit, thus relieving fall gluts in the market and +providing a winter supply of apples. These conditions created a more +stable market with more uniform prices, extending the business from a +side issue to one of chief importance. Marketing has become almost a +business by itself, inducing the formation of growers' associations +and creating a profitable occupation for large dealers and commission +men. These conditions, too, have led to speculation.</p> + +<p>Two kinds of storage are used, common or cellar storage and cold +storage. Both are about equally available, but the latter is too +expensive for the small grower. There is always a question as to the +advisability of the small grower storing his fruit. Storage means a +degree of speculation. "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush," +especially when the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>bird is a good one. So far as rules can be laid +down, the following are pretty safe ones to keep in mind: It is safest +to store apples when they are of the highest quality; in a season most +unfavorable to common storage; when the fewest are being stored; when +the price in the fall is medium to low, never when high; and when one +can afford to lose the whole crop.</p> + +<p>Successful storage requires several things: good fruit, stored +immediately after picking, careful sorting and handling, subsequent +rest, and a reasonable control of the temperature. The functions of +storage are to arrest ripening, retard the development of disease, and +furnish a uniform, cold temperature. Storage of apples does not remedy +over-ripeness nor prevent deterioration of already diseased, bruised, +or partly rotted fruit. There are three general methods of storage: +(1) by ventilation, (2) by the use of ice and (3) by mechanical means.</p> + +<p>Cooling by ventilation offers the most practical system for a farm +storage. It requires that there be perfect insulation against outside +temperature changes, adequate ventilation, and careful watching of +temperatures. To provide for good insulation a dead air space is +necessary. This can be secured by a course of good <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>two-inch boards +with one or two layers of building paper inside and out, over a +framework of two-by-fours. Over the building paper tight, well matched +siding should be laid also inside and out. Two of the dead air spaces +will make insulation doubly sure.</p> + +<p>To provide for proper ventilation construct an intake for cold air at +the bottom, and an outlet for warm air at the top of the room. These +should serve all parts of the room, one being necessary for this +purpose every twelve to sixteen feet. Do not depend too much on +windows. Warm-air flues should be twelve inches square and six to +twelve feet long.</p> + +<p>The attention to such a house is most important. Keep it closed +tightly early in the fall with blinded windows. When nights get cool +open the doors and windows to let in cold air, closing them again +during the day. On hot days close the ventilators also. In this way a +temperature of 36 to 40 degrees Fahr. can be secured in early fall and +one of 32 to 33 degrees Fahr. later. This is probably the cheapest as +well as the most practical method of farm storage.</p> + +<p>Ice storage is quite practical in the North, but more expensive. The +principle of such a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>storage is to keep ice above the fruit, allowing +the cold air to flow down the sides of the room. A shaft in the middle +of the room will serve to remove the warm air. This method is open to +the objection of difficulty in storing the ice above the fruit. +Moreover the uniformity of its cold air supply is questionable. +Mechanical storage in which cold temperatures are secured by the +compression or absorption of gases is altogether impracticable for +individual growers, as it costs from $1.50 to $2.00 a barrel of +capacity to construct such a storage. Rents of this kind of storage +range from 10 to 25 cents a barrel per month, or 25 to 50 cents a +barrel for the season of from four to six months.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a><hr /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span><br /> + +<h3>CHAPTER X<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3> + +<h4>MARKETS AND MARKETING</h4> +<br /> + +<p>Having produced a good product, there remains the problem of making a +profitable and satisfactory disposition of it. In many ways marketing +is the measure of successful fruit growing. Of what use is it to prune +well, cultivate well, spray thoroughly, or even pack well the finest +kind of product, if after the expense of these operations is paid and +the railroad and commission agents have had their share, no profit +remains to the producer? Many growers find it easier to produce good +fruit than to market it at a good price, and this is especially true +of the general farmer. Failure to market well spells failure in the +business of fruit growing. Successful marketing presupposes a +knowledge of the requirements of different markets as to quality, +varieties, and supply demanded in those markets. Methods of +distribution are also one of the great factors in this problem of +marketing.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span><span class="sc">Types of Markets.</span>—There are two general types of markets, +the local, which is a special market and the general or wholesale +market, both of which have different but definite requirements. The +local market handles fruit in small quantities, but usually with a +larger margin of profit per unit to the producer. As a rule delivery +is direct in a local market, and thus commissions are saved. +Competition is also more or less limited to one's neighbors. More +varieties, including less well known ones, are called for. Appearance +does not count for as much as quality, which is of first importance. +Fruit may be riper as it is consumed more quickly and meets with less +rough handling. Packages are usually returned to the grower. Special +markets are often willing to pay extra for fruit out of season, and +they always require special study and adaptation to meet their needs.</p> + +<p>The general or wholesale market handles fruit in larger quantities, +usually with a smaller margin of profit. A selling agent or commission +man is the means of disposing of fruit in such a market, where +competition is open to the whole country and sometimes to the world. +Only standard well-known varieties find a ready <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>and profitable sale. +Great attention is paid to appearance and comparatively little to +quality. Fruit shipped to a wholesale market must be packed in a +standard package, which is not returned, but goes with the fruit, and +must be packed so as to endure rough treatment. Out of season fruit is +not in demand, but even the general market sometimes has special +preferences.</p> + +<p>Almost every market has favorite varieties for which it is willing to +pay a larger price than other markets. Just as Boston wants a brown +egg and New York a white one, so these and other cities have their +favorite varieties of apples. Some markets prefer a red apple, others +a green one, although the former is most generally popular. In the +mining and manufacturing towns working people want smaller green +apples, or "seconds," because they are cheaper. Many second-class +hotels prefer small apples, if they are well colored, as they go +farther. The fashionable restaurant and the fruit stand are the +markets for large, perfect, and highly colored specimens. Housewives +demand cooking apples like Greenings, hotels want a good out-of-hand +apple like the McIntosh, while private families have their <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>own +special favorites. As will readily be seen, the producer's problem is +to find the special market for what he grows.</p> + +<p>It has been said that different markets have special varietal +preferences, paying a better price for these than do other markets for +the same quality. We can only take the space here to point out a few +of these preferences. The Baldwin is by all odds our best general +market and export variety. It is the workingman's apple and finds its +best sale in our largest cities, particularly in New York and Chicago. +The Rhode Island Greening is a better seller in the northern markets +than it is in the southern, finding its best sale in Boston and in New +York. The Northern Spy is highly regarded by all our large northern +and eastern markets, is fairly well liked by the middle latitude +markets, but not popular south of Baltimore and Pittsburgh or west of +Milwaukee.</p> + +<p>Central western markets appear to prefer the Hubbardson, but this +apple is fairly good in all markets. King is well thought of nearly +everywhere. Ben Davis is a favorite in the South, New Orleans +especially preferring it on account of its keeping quality. Jonathan +has a good reputation everywhere. Dutchess of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>Oldenburg is regarded +as excellent in Buffalo and Chicago. Wealthy, although generally a +local market apple, is well known and liked in all markets. Twenty +Ounce is spoken well of nearly everywhere. The Fameuse is not well +liked in the South, but popular in the North, etc. These particular +facts as to varieties are best learned by experience and by +observation of the market quotations.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">The Commission Man.</span>—The present system of marketing fruit +products makes the commission man almost a necessity in the general +market. Neither the grower nor the local dealer can ship directly to +the consumer or even to the retailer, except in a very limited way. It +may be impracticable to devise any other workable system, but it must +be remembered that every man who touches a barrel of apples on its +journey from producer to consumer must be paid for doing so, and this +pay must come either out of the seller's price or be added to the +buyer's price. But so long as present conditions of marketing and +distribution prevail, so long will a selling agent in the general +market be necessary, and the evil cannot be ameliorated by ranting +against it.</p> + +<p>An unfortunate impression prevails that all <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>commission men are +dishonest. This is not true, although undoubtedly there are many +scoundrels among them, as they have shippers almost completely at +their mercy. The best method under our present system is to choose an +honest commission man in the city where you sell, to get acquainted +with him, to let him know that your trade will be in his hands only so +long as he treats you fairly, and then supply him with as good quality +of stuff as you can produce. This plan has worked out well with many +successful growers and marketers.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the greatest difficulty to be overcome in successfully finding +good markets is that of proper distribution. As has been pointed out +in the previous chapter, there has been a great increase in the +production of apples and hence in competition, accompanied by +speculation and more intensive methods in all phases of the business. +A necessity has arisen for the production of the best at a minimum +cost, as well as for finding the best market for that product. In the +rush for the best market every seller is apt to be guided only by his +own immediate interest without due regard for the fact that others are +acting in the same way or that there is a future. The result is the +piling up of fruit in a market <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>of high quotations, and a subsequent +drop in the price. Then all turn from such a market to a better one +with the result that a famine often results where but a few weeks or +even days before there had been a feast.</p> + +<p>Thus it often happens that one market may have more fruit than it can +possibly dispose of at the time, while another, perhaps equally good, +goes begging. Such conditions are ruinous to trade. Growers are +disappointed and ascribe the cause to the commission man. Consumers +are unable many times to profit by a glut in the market but promptly +blame the middleman or the grower when the supply is small and the +price high.</p> + +<p>Other difficulties with our system of marketing are non-uniformity of +the grades, the packages, or the fruit itself. There should be a clear +definition of just what "firsts" and "seconds" are and this definition +rigidly adhered to. Transportation is too frequently insufficient, not +rapid enough, especially when perishable fruit is shipped in small +lots, and usually at a too high rate. There are undoubtedly too many +middlemen between producer and consumer. Growers sell to local dealers +who sell to wholesalers at the receiving end. These <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>sell to +wholesalers at the consuming end, who may sell to jobbers, who sell to +retailers. Each man must have his profits, all of which greatly +increases costs.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Co-operation.</span>—Individuals have practically no power to +remedy such a state of affairs. So long as producers act independently +they will have little power either to bring about favorable +legislation or to better such market conditions. Acting together as a +unit growers have accomplished great things which can be repeated. The +co-operative principle has been well tried out in California, where it +was first put into operation with citrous fruits, in several other +Western States with apples, and in Michigan and the Province of +Ontario.</p> + +<p>Co-operative associations study carefully the law of supply and demand +and take steps to adapt their shipments to it. They standardize the +grade, the package, and the fruit, and govern their shipments to given +markets by the needs and the demands of those markets. Their unity of +effort enables them to make great savings in the purchase of supplies, +such as packages, spraying material, fertilizers, etc., and in +obtaining and distributing frequently knowledge of markets and market +conditions. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>They also advertise their products, making them better +known, creating a demand for them, and by means of correspondence or +traveling agents seek out the best markets.</p> + +<p>There are now several large fruit exchanges operating over wide +sections of country. But the local associations are the vital units in +any co-operative movement. Such associations should be incorporated +under State laws so that they can do all sorts of business when +necessary. Six simple objects should be kept in mind, namely, (1) to +prevent unnecessary competition, and to supervise and control +distribution of products; (2) to provide for uniformity in the grade, +package, and fruit; (3) to build up a high standard of excellence and +to create a demand for it; (4) to economize in buying supplies and +selling products; (5) to promote education regarding all phases of the +fruit business; and (6) when necessary to act as a buying and selling +agent for the community.</p> + +<p>Such an association requires a board of directors, a treasurer, and an +active and well-paid manager. The latter is most important, as upon +his honesty, ability, and energy will largely depend the success or +failure of the organization. Sometimes where fruit is packed in a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>central packing house or under an association brand or guarantee, a +foreman packer is also necessary. The capitalization required for such +an enterprise is not necessarily large, unless warehouses or packing +houses are built. These are usually better rented until the +organization becomes well established.</p> + +<p>The shares should be small so that every member may be financially +well represented, and members should be prohibited from holding more +than a small percentage of the total shares, in order to prevent +possible monopoly. Dividends on stock held should only be expected +from business done outside the association membership, interest on +money invested being obtained in the handling of members' products at +cost. Receipts should be given growers for just what they bring in, +and they should then be paid according to the grade of fruit which +they contribute, prices for the same grade being pooled. The charge to +growers for handling should be actual cost, but outsiders' products +should be handled at a small profit in order to induce them to come +into the association. The same method should be followed in purchasing +supplies.</p> + +<p>The general result of such co-operation is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>that the consumer gets a +better product for his money and the grower receives a better price +for his product. It is very essential to the success of the +organization that growers stick together, even through low prices and +discouragement which so often come, until they are firmly established. +Substantial reduction in the cost of the product to consumers can only +come by similar co-operation among them at the buying end and by the +co-operation of both consumers and producers for distribution and +handling in market.</p> + +<p>If a neighborhood does not feel yet ready to attack this problem in +this thorough and businesslike way, it will be advantageous and a step +in the right direction if they simply agree on certain standards of +quality and packing and then pool their product for marketing. This +method has also been followed with success.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a><hr /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span><br /> + +<h3>CHAPTER XI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3> + +<h4>SOME HINTS ON RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS</h4> +<br /> + +<p>Nearly every general farm in the humid part of the United States has +its small, old apple orchard. For the most part these orchards were +planted in order to have a home source of supply of this popular +fruit. In fact, but few orchards have been planted on a commercial +scale with a view of selling the fruit, until recently and outside of +a few sections. Therefore, as a rule we find these old farm orchards +to consist of a few acres containing from twenty-five to two hundred +trees. These trees are usually good standard varieties which have been +the source of much apple "sass," many an apple pie, and many a barrel +of cider-vinegar.</p> + +<p>Not having been set for profit, these trees received little care. +Orchards were cropped in the regular rotation, or with hay, or +pastured. Farmers then knew little of modern methods of orchard +management. The orchard was regarded as an incumbrance to the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>land, +which had to be farmed to as good advantage as possible under the +circumstances, and if the apple trees by any chance yielded a crop, +the owner regarded himself as fortunate indeed.</p> + +<p>But conditions have now changed. Both local and foreign markets have +been opened up and developed so that the demand for good fruit is +great. It will be some time before the thousands of acres of orchards +which have been and are being planted to meet this demand will be able +to do so in any adequate way. It has been shown in Chapter I how heavy +has been the falling off in the supply, even in the face of these +heavy plantings. Meanwhile we must turn to the old neglected farm +orchards for our supply of apples. Just at this particular time the +renovation of these old orchards offers a splendid opportunity to +increase the farm income.</p> + +<p>The question is a live one on nearly every general farm in the East. +Will it pay to try to renovate my old apple trees? If so, what should +I do to make them profitable? What will it cost and what returns may +be expected? The latter question will be taken up in the following +chapter, but here we must try to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>indicate under what conditions it +may pay to renovate an old orchard, as well as those under which it +may not pay, and also how to go about the problem.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Necessary Qualities.</span>—An apple orchard must have certain +qualifications in order to make it worth while to spend the time and +money necessary to accomplish the desired results. These we may take +up briefly under five heads: (1) varieties, (2) age, (3) number or +"stand" of trees, (4) vigor and health of the trees, and (5) soil, +site, and location. The discussion of these subjects in Chapters II +and III has equal application here, but we may perhaps point out their +specific application more definitely in the case of the old neglected +farm orchard.</p> + +<p>(1) Varieties should be desirable sorts. If they are the best standard +market varieties, as is often the case, so much the better. Otherwise +little is gained by improving the tree and fruit. Poor or unknown +varieties have little or no market value, except perhaps a very local +one. If the trees are not too old and are fairly vigorous, poor +varieties may sometimes be worked over by top grafting to better +varieties. Characteristics which may make, a variety <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>undesirable are: +inferior quality; unattractiveness in color, shape, or size; lack of +hardiness in the tree or keeping quality in the fruit; low yield; or +being unknown in the market with its consequent small demand. Summer +varieties are worth renovating only when they are in good demand in a +nearby local market.</p> + +<p>(2) Vigor is more important than age in the tree, but is closely +correlated with it. Ordinarily one should hesitate to try to renovate +a tree more than forty or fifty years old, but this must always depend +almost wholly on its condition and other characteristics.</p> + +<p>(3) In order to make a business of renovation and to do thorough work +which means expense, there must be enough of the orchard to justify +the expenditure of the time and money. This affects the results not +only in expense, but in economy in management, equipment, and +marketing. There should be at least an acre of say thirty trees, and +better, more than that number to justify the expense of time and money +necessary for renovation. One hundred trees would certainly justify +it, other conditions being favorable. Then, too, the trees should be +in such shape that they can be properly treated without too great +trouble and expense, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span><i>i.e.</i>, not too scattered or isolated or in the +midst of regular fields better adapted for other crops.</p> + +<p>(4) Vigor and good general health are of great importance. Many old +trees are too far gone with neglect, having been too long starved or +having their vitality too much weakened by disease to make an effort +for their rehabilitation worth while. Good vigor, even though it be +dormant, is absolutely essential. Disease weakens the tree, making the +expense of renovation greater. Moreover, all diseased branches must be +removed, requiring severe cutting and often seriously injuring the +tree. Disease too often stunts the tree to such an extent as to make +stimulation practically impossible. Such matters should be carefully +looked into before attempting renovation.</p> + +<p>(5) If the soil, site, and location are all unfavorable or even if two +of these are not good, time and money are likely to be wasted on +renovation. What constitutes unfavorable conditions in these respects +has already been pointed out in Chapter III.</p> + +<p>Practically the same principles of pruning, cultivation, fertilization +and spraying apply in the management of the old orchard as in any +other orchard. It may be well, however, to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>restate these, briefly +pointing out their special value and application to the old neglected +orchard together with the few modifications of practice necessary. The +steps to be taken are four: (1) pruning, (2) fertilizing, (3) +cultivating, and (4) spraying.</p> + +<p>(1) <span class="sc">Pruning.</span>—Old and long-neglected apple orchards usually +have a large amount of dead wood in them. This may be removed at any +time of the year, but fall and winter are good times to begin the +work. If the trees are high and the limbs scattered and sprawling so +that the middle of the trees is not well filled out, the trees should +be headed back rather severely. Such trees may safely have their +highest limbs cut back from five to ten feet. It is best not to remove +too many branches in one year, but to spread severe cutting back over +at least two years, as so much pruning at one time weakens the tree +and causes an excessive growth of "suckers." Each limb should be cut +back to a rather strong and vigorous lateral branch which may then +take up the growth of the upright one. The effect of such heading back +will be to stimulate the branches lower down and probably to bring in +more or less "suckers." The following year the best of these suckers +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>should be selected at proper points about the tree, headed in so as to +develop their lateral buds, and encouraged by the removal of all other +suckers to fill in the top and center of the tree in the way desired. +All such severe heading in should best be done in the early spring.</p> + +<p>(2) <span class="sc">Fertilizing.</span>—At some time during the late fall or winter +twelve to fifteen loads of stable manure should be applied broadcast +on each acre, scattering it well out under the ends of the branches. +This will amount to a load to from three to five trees. In case manure +is not available, or sometimes even supplementary to it in cases where +quick results are wanted 100 to 200 pounds of nitrate of soda, 300 to +500 pounds of acid phosphate, and 150 to 200 pounds of sulphate or +muriate of potash should be applied in two applications as a top +dressing in spring, as soon as growth starts, and thoroughly worked +into the soil. This will give the trees an abundance of available +plant food, which is usually badly needed, and help to stimulate them +to a vigorous growth. Such heavy feeding may easily be overdone and +should be adjusted according to conditions and the needs of the +orchard.</p> + +<p>(3) <span class="sc">Cultivating.</span>—If the orchard has <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>been in sod for a +number of years, as is often the case, it is usually best to plow it +in the fall about four inches deep, just deep enough to turn under the +sod. By so doing a large number of roots will probably be broken, but +such injury will be much more than offset by the stimulus to the trees +the next season. It is a good plan to apply the stable manure on the +top of this plowed ground early in the winter. Fall plowing gives a +better opportunity for rotting the sod and exposes to the winter +action of the elements the soil, which is usually stale and inactive +after lying so long unturned. In the spring the regular treatment with +springtooth and spiketooth harrows should be followed as outlined in +Chapter V.</p> + +<p>(4) <span class="sc">Spraying</span> in the old orchard is essentially the same as +elsewhere. It is necessary, however, to emphasize the first spray, the +dormant one, winter strength on the wood. This is the most important +spray for a neglected orchard and it should be very thoroughly +applied. It is a sort of cleaning-up spray for scale, fungus, and +insects which winter on the bark. In orchards where the San José scale +is bad a strong lime-sulphur spray should also be used in the late +fall in order to make doubly <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>sure a thorough cleaning up. It is +usually a pretty good plan to scrape old trees as high up as the +rough, shaggy bark extends, destroying the scrapings. For this purpose +an old and dull hoe does very well. This treatment will get rid of +many insects by destroying them and their winter quarters.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Patching Old Trees.</span>—A few suggestions on patching up the +weak places in an old tree may not be entirely out of place. The +question is often asked, will it pay to fill up the decayed centers or +sides of old trees? If the tree is otherwise desirable to save, it +usually will. Scrape out all the dead and rotten material, cleaning +down to the sound heart wood. Then fill up the cavity with a rough +cement, being careful to exclude all air and finishing with a smooth, +sloping surface so as to drain away all moisture. This treatment will +probably prevent further decay and often acts as a substantial +mechanical support.</p> + +<p>Trees which are badly split or which have so grown that a heavy crop +is likely to break them over should be braced with wires or bolts. +Where the limbs are close together a bolt driven right through them +with wide, strong washers at the ends is very effective in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>strengthening the tree. Where limbs must be braced from one side of +the tree across to the other wires are the best to use. They may be +fastened to bolts through the limbs with wide washers on the outside +hooks on the inside, or by passing the wire around the branches. In +the latter case some wide, fairly rigid material such as tin, pieces +of wood, or heavy leather should be used to protect the tree from the +wire which would otherwise cut into the bark and perhaps girdle the +limb.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Cost.</span>—For the benefit of those who would like to get some +idea of the probable cost of renovating old apple orchards, the +following estimate made by the writer in a recent government +publication on this subject is given. This estimate has been carefully +made up from actual records kept on several New York farms. Because +these costs are very variable according to the condition of the +orchard, both maximum and minimum amounts are given per acre for the +first year only.</p> + +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Probably cost of Renovating old Apple Orchards"> + <tr> + <td width="70%"> </td> + <td width="15%" class="tdc">Minimum cost</td> + <td width="15%" class="tdc">Maximum cost</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Plowing</td> + <td class="tdr">$2.00</td> + <td class="tdr">$3.00</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Manure, 10 to 20 loads at $1, or their equivalent in commercial fertilizer</td> + <td class="tdr">10.00</td> + <td class="tdr">20.00</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Hauling manure</td> + <td class="tdr">5.00</td> + <td class="tdr">10.00</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Pruning and hauling brush</td> + <td class="tdr">5.00</td> + <td class="tdr">10.00</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Disking or harrowing twice</td> + <td class="tdr">1.00</td> + <td class="tdr">1.50<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Disking or harrowing 3d or 4th time</td> + <td class="tdr">.50</td> + <td class="tdr">1.00</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Cultivating two to four times</td> + <td class="tdr">.50</td> + <td class="tdr">1.00</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Spraying once with L.S. dilution 1 to 9—material</td> + <td class="tdr">2.00</td> + <td class="tdr">4.00</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Spraying once, L.S., labor</td> + <td class="tdr">1.00</td> + <td class="tdr">1.50</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Spraying second time with L.S. dilution 1 to 40, labor and material</td> + <td class="tdr">1.50</td> + <td class="tdr">2.50</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Spraying third time with same</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">1.50</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">2.50</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" style="padding-left: 1.5em;">Total cost</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$30.00</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$57.00</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a><hr /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span><br /> + +<h3>CHAPTER XII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3> + +<h4>THE COST OF GROWING APPLES</h4> +<br /> + +<p>Two factors have always operated to deter many persons from taking up +fruit growing as a business or even as a side issue on the farm, and +they will probably continue to be an obstacle for more time to come. +These are the comparatively large investment required and the +necessarily long period of waiting before paying returns can be +obtained. Farmers who have not gone into the business of fruit growing +because they could not afford this heavy investment or to wait so long +for returns have been wise. Others who, though lacking the necessary +capital, still have planted heavily have learned to their sorrow the +importance of capital in the business both for the original investment +and to carry the enterprise. And yet with sufficient capital and the +proper conditions there is no more attractive or profitable line of +agriculture than fruit growing.</p> + +<p>Who knows what it costs to grow an orchard to bearing age? Or what it +costs to produce a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>barrel of apples? We venture to say that very few +persons do. Because of the large investment both in fixed and in +working capital it is most important to know these costs. Moreover an +accurate knowledge of the financial conditions and facts in any +business is of first importance to intelligent management. For these +reasons every grower ought to keep careful records of the cost and +income from each field or orchard every year in order to determine as +accurately as possible what his crops have cost him per unit and per +acre and what rate of interest he has realized on his investment. As +farming becomes more intensive competition increases, costs multiply, +and the margin of profit on any given unit becomes smaller. It +therefore becomes increasingly necessary to have accurate records on +the cost of production.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Factors in the Cost of Production.</span>—The value of records +depends on their accuracy and on their completeness. There are a great +many factors which enter into the cost of production. For convenience +these may be classified as cash costs and labor costs. Labor charges +should include the work of both men and teams at a rate determined <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>by +their actual cost or by a careful estimate. Man labor costs are easily +reckoned, as they are either simple cash or cash plus board and +certain privileges, the value of which should be estimated in cash.</p> + +<p>The value of horse labor is more difficult to determine. It is made up +of interest on valuation, depreciation, stable rental, feed, care, +etc. A fair estimate of this cost is $10 a month or $120 a year for a +horse. Cash costs are interest on the investment and on the equipment +in machinery, etc., or rental of the same, taxes, a proper share of +the general farm expenses such as insurance and repairs of buildings, +telephone, etc., the cost of spraying material, packages, fertilizers, +etc.</p> + +<p>There are many ways of keeping such a record. Any method which +accomplishes the result in a convenient and accurate manner is a good +one. It will usually be found necessary to keep a cash account or day +book, entering all items in enough detail to make possible their later +distribution to the proper field or crop, and also to keep a diary of +all labor. Any form of diary will answer the purpose, but one which +has ruled columns at the right side of the page in which to indicate +the crop or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>field worked upon, and the number of hours worked is more +convenient and therefore more desirable.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">An Example.</span>—For a number of years the author has kept such +records on his farm in western New York. As an illustration of the +method and in order to give the reader a general idea as to what the +costs above referred to are likely to be we venture to give the +following tables. It must be remembered, however, that practically +everyone of the above mentioned factors varies with the conditions +under which the orchard is managed and that these figures are not <i>an</i> +average but <i>one</i> average and on one farm. True averages are arrived +at only by bringing together a large number of figures. In any case, +the question of cost is essentially an individual problem on every +farm. These figures are of value only as an example of the method and +the cost on one farm under its own special conditions.</p> + +<p>The orchard for which the following figures were given was set in the +spring of 1903, and the records begin with that year and end with +1910, covering a period of eight years in all. Throughout this period +other crops have been <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>grown between the tree rows, thereby offsetting +to a large extent the cost of growing the orchard. Forty trees at the +north end of the orchard are pears, but they have received +substantially the same treatment as the apples and have not affected +the cost. In 1904, 211 plum trees were set as fillers one way. The +apple trees were set 36 by 36 feet apart, so that, filled one way, the +trees stand 18 by 36 feet apart. The orchard is ten rows wide and +forty-seven long, containing in all 467 trees.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bringing to Bearing Age.</span>—The first of the following tables +is given as a sample of one year's records, that of 1907, on this +orchard in order to show both the manner in which the costs were made +up and what the items amounted to in one year:</p> + +<br /> + +<p class="cen">FIELD A—1907. FIFTH YEAR</p> + +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Sample Of One Year's Records"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Total Hours</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Total cost</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Hours per acre</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Cost per acre</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Cost per 100</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Operation</td> + <td class="tdr2">Man</td> + <td class="tdr2">Horse</td> + <td class="tdr2">Man</td> + <td class="tdr2">Horse</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="23%" class="tdl">Mulching</td> + <td width="11%" class="tdr2">3</td> + <td width="11%" class="tdr2">6</td> + <td width="11%" class="tdr2">$1.05</td> + <td width="11%" class="tdr2">.455</td> + <td width="11%" class="tdr2">.91</td> + <td width="11%" class="tdr2">$0.16 </td> + <td width="11%" class="tdr2">$0.22</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Pruning</td> + <td class="tdr2">11</td> + <td class="tdr2">—</td> + <td class="tdr2">1.65</td> + <td class="tdr2">1.67 </td> + <td class="tdr2">—</td> + <td class="tdr2">.25 </td> + <td class="tdr2">.35</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" style="white-space: nowrap;">Cultivating 1</td> + <td class="tdr2">7</td> + <td class="tdr2">7</td> + <td class="tdr2">1.75</td> + <td class="tdr2">1.06 </td> + <td class="tdr2">1.06</td> + <td class="tdr2">.26 </td> + <td class="tdr2">.38</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Cultivating 2</td> + <td class="tdr2">10</td> + <td class="tdr2">10</td> + <td class="tdr2">2.50</td> + <td class="tdr2">1.51 </td> + <td class="tdr2">1.51</td> + <td class="tdr2">.38 </td> + <td class="tdr2">.54</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Cultivating 3</td> + <td class="tdr2">6</td> + <td class="tdr2">6</td> + <td class="tdr2">1.50</td> + <td class="tdr2">.91 </td> + <td class="tdr2">.91</td> + <td class="tdr2">.23 </td> + <td class="tdr2">.32</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Plowing in fall</td> + <td class="tdr2">47</td> + <td class="tdr2">94</td> + <td class="tdr2">16.45</td> + <td class="tdr2">7.12 </td> + <td class="tdr2">14.25</td> + <td class="tdr2">2.50 </td> + <td class="tdr2">3.52</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Banking trees</td> + <td class="tdr2">12</td> + <td class="tdr2">—</td> + <td class="tdr2">1.80</td> + <td class="tdr2">1.82 </td> + <td class="tdr2">—</td> + <td class="tdr2">.27 </td> + <td class="tdr2">.39</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Harrowing</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">21</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">42</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">7.35</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">3.18 </td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">6.36</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">1.11 </td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">1.58</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Total lab. cost.</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">117</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">165</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$34.05</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">17.73 </td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">25.00</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$5.16 </td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$7.30</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">4 loads manure at $1.50</td> + <td class="tdr2">6.00</td> + <td class="tdr2"> </td> + <td class="tdr2"> </td> + <td class="tdr2">.91 </td> + <td class="tdr2">1.29<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Equipment charge</td> + <td class="tdr2">1.15</td> + <td class="tdr2"> </td> + <td class="tdr2"> </td> + <td class="tdr2">.174</td> + <td class="tdr2">.25</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Taxes</td> + <td class="tdr2">5.29</td> + <td class="tdr2"> </td> + <td class="tdr2"> </td> + <td class="tdr2">.801</td> + <td class="tdr2">1.13</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Interest</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">38.48</td> + <td class="tdr2"> </td> + <td class="tdr2"> </td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">5.83 </td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">8.23</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Total cost</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$84.97</td> + <td class="tdr2"> </td> + <td class="tdr2"> </td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$12.875</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$18.20</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<br /> + +<p class="cen">INCOME, COST AND PROFIT ON BEANS—FIELD A—1907</p> + +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary="Income, Cost and Profit on Beans"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="40%">Income</td> + <td class="tdr" width="15%"> </td> + <td class="tdr" width="15%"> </td> + <td class="tdr" width="15%">Cost</td> + <td class="tdr" width="15%">Profit</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">75 bushels at $1.50</td> + <td class="tdr">$112.50</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">3½ tons pods at $6</td> + <td class="tdr">21.00</td> + <td class="tdr">$133.65</td> + <td class="tdr">$94.50</td> + <td class="tdr">$38.85</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<br /> + +<p class="cen">LOSS ON FIELD A—1907</p> + +<br /> + + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="40%" summary="Loss on Field A"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="63%"> </td> + <td class="tdr" width="15%">Total</td> + <td width="4%"> </td> + <td class="tdr" width="18%">Per acre</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Net income from beans</td> + <td class="tdr">$38.85</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="tdr">$5.89</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Cost of orchard</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">84.97</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">12.87</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" style="padding-left: 1em;">Loss</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$46.12</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$6.98</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<br /> + +<p>A summary of the cost of the orchard, the net income from the crop, +the income from the orchard and the profit and loss by years for the +eight years follows:</p> + +<br /> + +<p class="cen">SUMMARY OF COSTS FOR EIGHT YEARS, FIELD A</p> + +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Sample Of One Year's Records"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: bottom;">Crop grown</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Net income from crop</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Income from orchard</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Cost of orchard</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">6.6 acres</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">Year</td> + <td class="tdr2">Profit</td> + <td class="tdr2">Loss</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="10%" class="tdl">1903</td> + <td width="25%" class="tdl">Corn</td> + <td width="13%" class="tdr2">$ 15.17</td> + <td width="13%" class="tdr2">— </td> + <td width="13%" class="tdr2">$109.87</td> + <td width="13%" class="tdr2">— </td> + <td width="13%" class="tdr2">$ 94.70</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1904</td> + <td class="tdl">Beans</td> + <td class="tdr2">42.57</td> + <td class="tdr2">— </td> + <td class="tdr2">216.16</td> + <td class="tdr2">— </td> + <td class="tdr2">173.59</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1905</td> + <td class="tdl">Beans</td> + <td class="tdr2">43.13</td> + <td class="tdr2">— </td> + <td class="tdr2">83.78</td> + <td class="tdr2">— </td> + <td class="tdr2">40.65</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1906</td> + <td class="tdl">Beans</td> + <td class="tdr2">120.90</td> + <td class="tdr2">— </td> + <td class="tdr2">80.14</td> + <td class="tdr2">$40.76</td> + <td class="tdr2">— </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1907</td> + <td class="tdl">Beans</td> + <td class="tdr2">38.85</td> + <td class="tdr2">— </td> + <td class="tdr2">84.97</td> + <td class="tdr2">— </td> + <td class="tdr2">46.12</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1908</td> + <td class="tdl">Corn</td> + <td class="tdr2">37.68</td> + <td class="tdr2">— </td> + <td class="tdr2">64.22</td> + <td class="tdr2">— </td> + <td class="tdr2">26.54<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" style="vertical-align: top;">1909</td> + <td class="tdl">Oats and strawberries</td> + <td class="tdr2">100.61</td> + <td class="tdr2">$27.88</td> + <td class="tdr2">84.73</td> + <td class="tdr2">43.76</td> + <td class="tdr2">— </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1910</td> + <td class="tdl">Wheat</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">60.70</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">38.65</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">96.35</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">3.00</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">— </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" style="padding-left: .5em;">Totals</td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$459.61</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$66.53</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$620.22</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$87.52</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$381.60</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Net loss on field for eight years</td> + <td class="tdr2">$294.08</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Net loss on field for eight years</td> + <td class="tdr2">$294.08</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Average annual loss</td> + <td class="tdr2">38.76</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total cost an acre, exclusive of income</td> + <td class="tdr2">124.27</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total cost an acre, including income</td> + <td class="tdr2">44.55</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total net cost a hundred trees</td> + <td class="tdr2">62.97</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total net cost an apple tree</td> + <td class="tdr2">1.37</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total net cost an apple tree, exclusive of income</td> + <td class="tdr2">3.80</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total labor cost an acre</td> + <td class="tdr2">35.09</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total cash cost an acre</td> + <td class="tdr2">89.19</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<br /> + +<p>We find that this orchard has cost $124.27 an acre during the eight +years of its life, but that the $79.72 an acre of crops grown in the +orchard has brought this cost down to $44.55 an acre. It is safe to +say that the orchard would have cost even more than it did had it not +been for the crops, for many operations charged directly to the crops +would of necessity have been charged to the trees. The cost a hundred +trees does not mean much, as it often happens that not all the trees +are covered by an operation and as the number of trees an acre greatly +affects these costs.</p> + +<p>We have another and younger orchard upon which a record has been kept. +This orchard of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>five acres contains 126 standard apple trees, +"filled" both ways with 375 peach trees. It was set in the spring of +1908, so that the trees have grown four seasons. The permanents +(apples) are set 36 by 40 feet apart, so that, with the peaches +between, the trees stand 18 by 20 feet apart. A crop of beans has been +grown between the tree rows each season. The first season a full seven +rows, twenty-eight inches apart, were planted in the wider space; the +second and third season six rows, and the last season only four rows. +The crop has been very good each year until the last. One application +of manure, one crop of clover and one seeding of rye have been plowed +under, and in addition a liberal amount of commercial fertilizer has +been used with each crop. This year the peach trees bore their first +crop. The record of the four years is as follows:</p> + +<br /> + +<p class="cen">SUMMARY OF THE COST OF A FOUR-YEAR-OLD APPLE AND PEACH ORCHARD</p> + +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Sample Of One Year's Records"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" style="vertical-align: bottom;">Year</td> + <td class="tdl" style="vertical-align: bottom;">Crop grown</td> + <td class="tdc">Net income from crop</td> + <td class="tdc">Income from orchard</td> + <td class="tdc">Cost of orchard</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="vertical-align: bottom;">Profit</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="vertical-align: bottom;">Loss</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="10%" class="tdl">1908</td> + <td width="25%" class="tdl">Beans</td> + <td width="13%" class="tdr2">$63.37</td> + <td width="13%" class="tdr2">— </td> + <td width="13%" class="tdr2">$130.12</td> + <td width="13%" class="tdr2">— </td> + <td width="13%" class="tdr2">$62.75 </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1909</td> + <td class="tdl">Beans</td> + <td class="tdr2">66.70</td> + <td class="tdr2">— </td> + <td class="tdr2">$85.03</td> + <td class="tdr2">— </td> + <td class="tdr2">18.33 </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1910</td> + <td class="tdl">Beans</td> + <td class="tdr2">79.81</td> + <td class="tdr2">— </td> + <td class="tdr2">83.39</td> + <td class="tdr2">— </td> + <td class="tdr2">3.58 </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1911</td> + <td class="tdl">Beans</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">53.20</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">$46.05</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">61.95</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">$37.30</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">— </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" style="padding-left: 1em;">Totals</td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$267.08</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$46.05</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$360.49</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$37.30</td> + <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$84.66 </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total cost an acre, exclusive of income</td> + <td class="tdr2">$72.10 <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total cost an acre, exclusive of income</td> + <td class="tdr2">9.47 </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total net cost a hundred trees</td> + <td class="tdr2">4.73 </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total net cost an apple tree</td> + <td class="tdr2">.376</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total net cost an apple tree, exclusive of income</td> + <td class="tdr2">2.86 </td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<br /> + +<p>These figures show a still lower cost of growing trees to bearing age. +After paying all expenses connected with the growing of the trees, +including the interest on the land at $150 an acre, and deducting the +net profit from the crops of beans and the sales from the first crop +of peaches we find that the growing of the trees has cost us $9.47 an +acre, or 37½ cents an apple tree at four years old. Had no crop been +grown in the orchard it would have cost us at least $62.89 an acre +after deducting the income from the first peach crop. The peach trees +are now at full bearing age, and should show a good profit from this +time on. Possibly at five and certainly at six years of age this +orchard will entirely have paid for itself. The only possible further +charge which could be made against this orchard is the crop income +which might have been obtained from the land had the trees not been +there. We estimated that the presence of the trees cut down the crop +of beans from the land 30 per cent. As the average net income from +beans was $13.35 <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>an acre this would amount to $4 an acre a year—an +insignificant sum.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">In Bearing.</span>—Having given the reader an idea of the probable +cost of bringing an orchard to bearing age, it may be well also to +give the cost of producing apples in a mature apple orchard. Our +bearing apple orchard consists of 6.1 acres containing 234 trees. +About one-half of the trees, or 110, are 36 years old. The remainder +are nearly 50 years of age. As they are all in one block and handled +together, the charges cannot well be separated. One hundred and +thirty-four of the trees are Baldwins, 44 Twenty Ounce, 40 Tompkins +County Kings, and the remainder odd varieties. For the whole period of +ten years the orchard has had very good care and attention.</p> + +<p>A cover crop was not sown every year, but when it was used the charge +was made against the orchard. The manure charge, omitted because of +uncertainty as to the exact amount applied and as to its real value, +is the only thing lacking in this table.</p> + +<p>Two or three sprayings have been made every year. Until 1909, Bordeaux +mixture and Paris green were used, but since then the commercial +brands of lime sulphur and arsenate <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>of lead have taken their place, +nearly doubling the cost of the spray material. The average cost of +the material for spraying has been $2.50 per acre, or nearly three and +one-half cents per barrel of apples harvested. In 1910 this cost was +$3.92 per acre and seven cents a barrel.</p> + +<br /> + +<p class="cen">TABLE SHOWING THE ITEMS OF EXPENSE IN PRODUCING APPLES IN A SIX ACRE +ORCHARD</p> + +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="Items of Expense"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="12%">Year</td> + <td class="tdc" width="11%">Cover crop</td> + <td class="tdc" width="11%">Spraying mat.</td> + <td class="tdc" width="11%">Bar.</td> + <td class="tdc" width="11%">5% int. on inv.</td> + <td class="tdc" width="11%">Equip. charge</td> + <td class="tdc" width="11%">O'vh'd charge</td> + <td class="tdc" width="11%">Labor cost</td> + <td class="tdc" width="11%">Total cost</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1902</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdr">6.64</td> + <td class="tdr">$117.88</td> + <td class="tdr">$27.45</td> + <td class="tdr">$25.00</td> + <td class="tdr">$2.97</td> + <td class="tdr">$339.45</td> + <td class="tdr">$519.39</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1903</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdr">11.22</td> + <td class="tdr">164.92</td> + <td class="tdr">28.88</td> + <td class="tdr">25.00</td> + <td class="tdr">2.88</td> + <td class="tdr">249.55</td> + <td class="tdr">482.56</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1904</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdr">10.50</td> + <td class="tdr">109.90</td> + <td class="tdr">30.50</td> + <td class="tdr">25.00</td> + <td class="tdr">3.93</td> + <td class="tdr">180.55</td> + <td class="tdr">360.38</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1905</td> + <td class="tdr">$6.10</td> + <td class="tdr">12.45</td> + <td class="tdr">88.80</td> + <td class="tdr">30.50</td> + <td class="tdr">25.00</td> + <td class="tdr">3.40</td> + <td class="tdr">158.06</td> + <td class="tdr">324.31</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1906</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdr">14.85</td> + <td class="tdr">112.35</td> + <td class="tdr">33.06</td> + <td class="tdr">25.00</td> + <td class="tdr">4.78</td> + <td class="tdr">211.76</td> + <td class="tdr">401.80</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1907</td> + <td class="tdr">10.00</td> + <td class="tdr">16.85</td> + <td class="tdr">79.80</td> + <td class="tdr">35.56</td> + <td class="tdr">25.00</td> + <td class="tdr">4.89</td> + <td class="tdr">192.30</td> + <td class="tdr">364.40</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1908</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdr">9.75</td> + <td class="tdr">205.45</td> + <td class="tdr">37.76</td> + <td class="tdr">30.09</td> + <td class="tdr">5.09</td> + <td class="tdr">293.50</td> + <td class="tdr">583.55</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1909</td> + <td class="tdr">8.68</td> + <td class="tdr">19.26</td> + <td class="tdr">196.35</td> + <td class="tdr">41.97</td> + <td class="tdr">38.98</td> + <td class="tdr">5.91</td> + <td class="tdr">280.78</td> + <td class="tdr">591.93</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1910</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + <td class="tdr">23.89</td> + <td class="tdr">116.90</td> + <td class="tdr">45.75</td> + <td class="tdr">32.39</td> + <td class="tdr">5.58</td> + <td class="tdr">175.26</td> + <td class="tdr">399.77</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">1911</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">10.50</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">27.08</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">206.38</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">45.75</td> + <td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 0em; border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">32.39*</td> + <td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 0em; border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">5.53*</td> + <td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 0em; border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">275.00*</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">602.63</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">10 yr. av.</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$15.25</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$139.87</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$35.73</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$28.37</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$4.78</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$235.62</td> + <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$463.07</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Av. per acre</td> + <td class="tdr">2.50</td> + <td class="tdr">22.93</td> + <td class="tdr">5.86</td> + <td class="tdr">4.65</td> + <td class="tdr">.78</td> + <td class="tdr">38.63</td> + <td class="tdr">75.92</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Av. per bbl</td> + <td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 0em;">.036</td> + <td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 0em;">.327</td> + <td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 0em;">.084</td> + <td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 0em;">.066</td> + <td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 0em;">.011</td> + <td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 0em;">.552</td> + <td class="tdr">-1.08</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="9" style="padding-left: 2em;">* Partly estimated, records not yet complete.</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<br /> + +<p>The cost of the package has varied from 28 to 38 cents and has +averaged about 32½ cents, or $22.93 per acre. Of course the latter +amount varies greatly with the crop.</p> + +<p>Interest has in all cases been figured at five per cent., but as the +price of the land has varied from $90 an acre at the beginning of the +period to its present valuation of $160,00 an acre, due both to its +improvement and to a general <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>increase in the price of land, the +amount of interest has also varied. The same is true of the equipment +charge which has steadily increased each year. The average valuation +of the land for the ten-year period was $117.15 an acre. This means an +annual interest charge of $5.86 per acre, or 8½ cents a barrel. The +equipment charge, which is interest, repairs, and depreciation on the +machinery used in the orchard, amounts to more than 6½ cents a barrel, +or $4.65 per acre. Taxes and insurance on the buildings distributed +per acre for the farm average $.78 per acre, or a trifle over one cent +per barrel. These costs have also increased in the last few years.</p> + +<p>Labor is the largest single item. For the first four years this was +estimated on the basis of the cost for the last six years, for which +more careful records were kept. It is computed at its actual cost to +us on the farm, which was 15½ cents an hour for men and 13½ cents an +hour for horses. This amounts to $4.25 per day for man and team. The +cost of the labor to grow, pick, pack, and market a barrel of apples +was 55 cents, or $38.63 per acre with an average yield of 70 barrels +per acre.</p> + +<p>To sum up these items of cost we find that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>taking the average of ten +years with an annual crop of 427 barrels, or 70 per acre, on 6.1 acres +of old apple orchard that the costs per barrel have been as follows: +spray material, $.036; packages, $.327; interest on the land, $.084; +use of equipment, $.066; taxes, $.011; labor, $.552; and a total of +$1.08 per barrel. If the estimated cost of manure, six cents a barrel +be added, the total will be $1.14. As we have said, these costs per +barrel vary with the crop. When our yield was 100 barrels per acre the +cost per barrel was only $.99, but when it was 34 barrels per acre +this cost rose to $1.73 per barrel. In 1910 we grew a crop of 55 +barrels per acre for $1.20 per barrel.</p> + +<p>It may be of interest to some to know what the income and profit were +on this orchard. For this purpose we give the following table showing +the yield, income, cost, and net profit for each of the ten years, and +the average:</p> + +<br /> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="income and profit, 10 years"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" width="10%" style="vertical-align: bottom;">Year</td> + <td class="tdc" width="15%">Yield in bbls. per A.</td> + <td class="tdc" width="15%">Income bbls. only</td> + <td class="tdc" width="15%">Income inc. culls and drops</td> + <td class="tdc" width="15%">Cost per bbl.</td> + <td class="tdc" width="15%">Net bbls. alone</td> + <td class="tdc" width="15%">Profit inc. culls and drops</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1902</td> + <td class="tdr4">103</td> + <td class="tdr3">$1.96*</td> + <td class="tdr3">$1.46*</td> + <td class="tdr4">$.83</td> + <td class="tdr4">$1.13</td> + <td class="tdr4">$.63</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1903</td> + <td class="tdr4">71</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.90</td> + <td class="tdr4">2.23</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.11</td> + <td class="tdr4">.79</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.12</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1904</td> + <td class="tdr4">51</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.66</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.78</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.15</td> + <td class="tdr4">.51</td> + <td class="tdr4">.63</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1905</td> + <td class="tdr4">49</td> + <td class="tdr4">2.30</td> + <td class="tdr4">2.68</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.10</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.20</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.58</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1906</td> + <td class="tdr4">53</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.96</td> + <td class="tdr4">2.25</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.25</td> + <td class="tdr4">.71</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.30</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1907</td> + <td class="tdr4">34</td> + <td class="tdr4">3.49</td> + <td class="tdr4">4.10</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.73</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.76</td> + <td class="tdr4">2.37</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1908</td> + <td class="tdr4">96</td> + <td class="tdr4">2.03</td> + <td class="tdr4">2.32</td> + <td class="tdr4">.99</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.04</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.33</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1909</td> + <td class="tdr4">92</td> + <td class="tdr4">3.00</td> + <td class="tdr4">3.38</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.06</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.94</td> + <td class="tdr4">2.32</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">1910</td> + <td class="tdr4">55</td> + <td class="tdr4">2.69</td> + <td class="tdr4">3.03</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.20</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.49</td> + <td class="tdr4">1.83<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">1911</td> + <td class="tdr4" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">100</td> + <td class="tdr4" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">2.06</td> + <td class="tdr4" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">2.32</td> + <td class="tdr3" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">.99†</td> + <td class="tdr3" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">1.07†</td> + <td class="tdr3" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">1.33†</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">10 yr. av.</td> + <td class="tdr4" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">70</td> + <td class="tdr4" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">2.15</td> + <td class="tdr4" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">2.47</td> + <td class="tdr4" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">1.08</td> + <td class="tdr4" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">1.07</td> + <td class="tdr4" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">1.39</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="7" style="padding-left: 1em;"><p>* In arriving at these incomes different divisors were used. Two + hundred barrels of the crop were sold in bulk and these were not + used in getting the average income from barrels only, but were used + in getting the average income including culls and drops.</p> + <p>† Partly estimated, records not yet being complete for the season.</p></td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<br /> + +<h4>THE END</h4> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> + +<h2>OUTING<br /> +HANDBOOKS</h2> +<br /> + +<div class="block3"> +<p>¶ Each book deals with a separate subject and deals with it +thoroughly. If you want to know anything about Airedales an <b>OUTING +HANDBOOK</b> gives you all you want. If it's Apple Growing, another <b>OUTING +HANDBOOK</b> meets your need. The Fisherman, the Camper, the +Poultry-raiser, the Automobilist, the Horseman, all varieties of +outdoor enthusiasts, will find separate volumes for their separate +interests. There is no waste space.</p> + +<p>¶ The series is based on the plan of one subject to a book and each +book complete. The authors are experts. Each book has been specially +prepared for this series and all are published in uniform style, +flexible cloth binding, selling at the fixed price of seventy cents +per copy.</p> + +<p>¶ Two hundred titles are projected. The series covers all phases of +outdoor life, from bee-keeping to big game shooting. Among the books +now ready are those described on the following pages.</p> + +<h4 style="margin-bottom: -1px;">OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY</h4> +<h5 style="margin-top: -1px;">OUTING MAGAZINE Yachting OUTING HANDBOOKS<br /> +141-145 WEST 36th ST. NEW YORK 122 S. MICHIGAN AVE. CHICAGO</h5> +</div> + +<br /> +<br /> + +<div class="block3"> +<p><b>THE AIREDALE. By Williams Haynes.</b> The book opens with a short +chapter on the origin and development of the Airedale, as a +distinctive breed. The author then takes up the problems of type as +bearing on the selection of the dog, breeding, training and use. The +book is designed for the non-professional dog fancier, who wishes +common sense advice which does not involve elaborate preparation or +expenditure. Chapters are included on the care of the dog in the +kennel and simple remedies for ordinary diseases.</p> + +<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>A splendid book on the breed and should be in the hands of +every owner of an Airedale whether novice or breeder.</i>"—<i>The +Kennel Review.</i></p> + +<p class="noin">"<i>It ought to be read and studied by every Airedale owner and +admirer.</i>"—<i>Howard Keeler, Airedale Farm Kennels.</i></p></div> + +<br /> + +<p><b>APPLE GROWING. By M.C. Burritt.</b> Mr. Burritt takes up the question of +the profit in apple growing, the various kinds best suited to +different parts of the country and different conditions of soil, +topography, and so on. He discusses also the most approved methods of +planning a new orchard and takes up in detail the problems connected +with the cultivation, fertilization, and pruning. The book contains +chapters on the restoration of old orchards, the care of the trees, +their protection against various insect-enemies and blight, and the +most approved method of harvesting, handling and storing the fruit.</p> + +<br /> + +<p><b>THE AUTOMOBILE—Its Selection, Care and Use. By Robert Sloss.</b> This +is a plain, practical discussion of the things that every man needs to +know if he is to buy the right car and get the most out of it. The +various details of operation and care are given in simple, intelligent +terms. From it the car owner can easily learn the mechanism of his +motor and the art of locating motor trouble, as well as how to use his +car for the greatest pleasure. A chapter is included on building +garages.</p> + +<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>It is the one book dealing with autos, that gives reliable +information.</i>"—<i>The Grand Rapids (Mich.) Herald.</i></p></div> + +<br /> + +<p><b>BACKWOODS SURGERY AND MEDICINE. By Charles S. Moody, M.D.</b> A handy +book for the prudent lover of the woods who doesn't expect to be ill +but believes in being on the safe side. Common-sense methods for the +treatment of the ordinary wounds and accidents are described—setting +a broken limb, reducing a dislocation, caring for burns, cuts, etc. +Practical remedies for camp diseases are recommended, as well as the +ordinary indications of the most probable ailments. Includes a list of +the necessary medical and surgical supplies.</p> + +<div class="block2"><p class="noin"><i>The manager of a mine in Nome, Alaska, writes as follows: "I +have been on the trail for years (twelve in the Klondike and +Alaska) and have always wanted just such a book as Dr. Moody's +Backwoods Surgery and Medicine."</i></p></div> + +<br /> + +<p><b>CAMP COOKERY. By Horace Kephart.</b> "The less a man carries in his +pack, the more he must carry in his head," says Mr. Kephart. This book +tells what a man should carry in both pack and head. Every step is +traced—the selection of provisions and utensils, with the kind and +quantity of each, the preparation of game, the building of fires the +cooking of every conceivable kind of food that the camp outfit or +woods, fields, or streams may provide—even to the making of desserts. +Every receipt is the result of hard practice and long experience. +Every recipe has been carefully tested. It is the book for the man who +wants to dine well and wholesomely, but in true wilderness fashion +without reliance on grocery stores or elaborate camp outfits. It is +adapted equally well to the trips of every length and to all +conditions of climate, season or country; the best possible companion +for one who wants to travel light and live well. The chapter headings +tell their own story. Provisions—Utensils—Fires—Dressing and +Keeping Game and Fish—Meat—Game—Fish and Shell Fish—Cured Meats, +etc.—Eggs—Bread-stuffs and Cereals—Vegetables—Soups—Beverages and +Desserts.</p> + +<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>Scores of new hints may be obtained by the housekeeper as well +as the camper from Camp Cookery.</i>"—<i>Portland Oregonian.</i></p> + +<p class="noin">"<i>I am inclined to think that the advice contained in Mr. +Kephart's book is to be relied on. I had to stop reading his +receipts for cooking wild fowl—they made me hungry.</i>"—<i>New York +Herald.</i></p> + +<p class="noin">"<i>The most useful and valuable book to the camper yet +published.</i>"—<i>Grand Rapids Herald.</i></p> + +<p class="noin">"<i>Camp Cookery is destined to be in the kit of every tent dweller +in the country.</i>"—<i>Edwin Markham in the San Francisco Examiner.</i></p></div> + +<br /> + +<p><b>CAMPS AND CABINS. By Oliver Kemp.</b> A working guide for the man who +wants to know how to make a temporary shelter in the woods against the +storm or cold. This describes the making of lean-tos, brush shelters, +snow shelters, the utilization of the canoe, and so forth. Practically +the only tools required are a stout knife or a pocket axe, and Mr. +Kemp shows how one may make shift even without these implements. More +elaborate camps and log cabins, also, are described and detailed plans +reproduced. Illustrated with drawings by the author.</p> + +<br /> + +<p><b>EXERCISE AND HEALTH. By Dr. Woods Hutchinson.</b> Dr. Hutchinson takes +the common-sense view that the greatest problem in exercise for most +of us is to get enough of the right kind. The greatest error in +exercise is not to take enough, and the greatest danger in athletics +is in giving them up. The Chapter heads are illuminating. Errors in +Exercise—Exercise and the Heart—Muscle Maketh Man—The Danger of +Stopping Athletics—Exercise that Rests. It is written in a direct +matter-of-fact manner with an avoidance of medical terms, and a strong +emphasis on the rational, all-round manner of living that is best +calculated to bring a man to a ripe old age with little illness or +consciousness of body weakness.</p> + +<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>It contains good physiology as well as good common sense, +written by an acute observer and a logical reasoner, who has the +courage of his convictions and is a master of English +style.</i>"—<i>D.A. Sargent, M.D., Sargent School for Physical +Education.</i></p> + +<p class="noin">"<i>One of the most readable books ever written on physical +exercise.</i>"—<i>Luther H. Gulick, M.D., Department of Child +Hygiene, Russell Sage Foundation.</i></p> + +<p class="noin">"<i>A little book for the busy man written in brilliant +style.</i>"—<i>Kansas City Star.</i></p></div> + +<br /> + +<p><b>THE FINE ART OF FISHING. By Samuel G. Camp.</b> Combines the pleasure of +catching fish with the gratification of following the sport in the +most approved manner. The suggestions offered are helpful to beginner +and expert anglers. The range of fish and fishing conditions covered +is wide and includes such subjects as "Casting Fine and Far Off," +"Strip-Casting for Bass," "Fishing For Mountain Trout" and "Autumn +Fishing for Lake Trout." The book is pervaded with a spirit of love +for the streamside and the out-doors generally which the genuine +angler will appreciate. A companion book to "Fishing Kits and +Equipment." The advice on outfitting so capably given in that book is +supplemented in this later work by equally valuable information on how +to use the equipment.</p> + +<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>Will encourage the beginner and give pleasure to the expert +fisherman.</i>"—<i>N.Y. Sun.</i></p> + +<p class="noin">"<i>A vein of catching enthusiasm runs through every +chapter.</i>"—<i>Scientific American.</i></p></div> + +<br /> + +<p><b>FISHING KITS AND EQUIPMENT. By Samuel G. Camp.</b> A complete guide to +the angler buying a new outfit. Every detail of fishing kit of the +freshwater angler is described, from rodtip to creel and clothing. +Special emphasis is laid on outfitting for fly fishing, but full +instruction is also given to the man who wants to catch pickerel, +pike, muskellunge, lake-trout, bass and other fresh-water game fishes. +Prices are quoted for all articles recommended and the approved method +of selecting and testing the various rods, lines, leaders, etc., is +described.</p> + +<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>A complete guide to the angler buying a new outfit.</i>"—<i>Peoria +Herald.</i></p> + +<p class="noin">"<i>The man advised by Mr. Camp will catch his fish.</i>"—<i>Seattle +P.I.</i></p> + +<p class="noin">"<i>Even the seasoned angler will read this hook with +profit.</i>"—<i>Chicago Tribune.</i></p></div> + +<br /> + +<p><b>THE HORSE—Its Breeding, Care and Use. By David Buffum.</b> Mr. Buffum +takes up the common, every-day problems of the ordinary horse-user, +such as feeding, shoeing, simple home remedies, breaking and the cure +for various equine vices. An important chapter is that tracing the +influx of Arabian blood into the English and American horses and its +value and limitations. Chapters are included on draft-horses, carriage +horses, and the development of the two-minute trotter. It is +distinctly a sensible book for the sensible man who wishes to know how +he can improve his horses and his horsemanship at the same time.</p> + +<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>I am recommending it to our students as a useful reference book +for both the practical farmer and the student.</i>"—<i>T. R. Arkell, +Animal Husbandman, N.H. Agricultural Experiment Station.</i></p> + +<p class="noin">"<i>Has a great deal of merit from a practical standpoint and is +valuable for reference work.</i>"—<i>Prof. E.L. Jordon, Professor of +Animal Industry, Louisiana State University.</i></p></div> + +<br /> + +<p><b>MAKING AND KEEPING SOIL. By David Buffum.</b> This deals with the +various kinds of soil and their adaptibility to different crops, +common sense tests as to the use of soils, and also the common sense +methods of cultivation and fertilization in order to restore worn-out +soil and keep it at its highest productivity under constant use.</p> + +<br /> + +<p><b>THE MOTOR BOAT—Its Selection, Care and Use. By H.W. Slauson.</b> The +intending purchaser of a motor boat is advised as to the type of boat +best suited to his particular needs, the power required for the +desired speeds, and the equipment necessary for the varying uses. The +care of the engine receives special attention and chapters are +included on the use of the boat in camping and cruising expeditions, +its care through the winter, and its efficiency in the summer.</p> + +<br /> + +<p><b>NAVIGATION FOR THE AMATEUR. By Capt. E.T. Morton.</b> A short treatise +on the simpler methods of finding position at sea by the observation +of the sun's altitude and the use of the sextant and chronometer. It +is arranged especially for yachtsmen and amateurs who wish to know the +simpler formulae for the necessary navigation involved in taking a +boat anywhere off shore. Illustrated with drawings.</p> + +<br /> + +<p><b>OUTDOOR SIGNALLING. By Elbert Wells.</b> Mr. Wells has perfected a +method of signalling by means of wig-wag, light, smoke, or whistle +which is as simple as it is effective. The fundamental principle can +be learnt in ten minutes and its application is far easier than that +of any other code now in use. It permits also the use of cipher and +can be adapted to almost any imaginable conditions of weather, light, +or topography.</p> + +<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>I find it to be the simplest and most practical book on +signalling published.</i>"—<i>Frank H. Schrenk, Director of Camp +Belgrade.</i></p> + +<p class="noin">"<i>One of the finest things of the kind I have ever seen. I +believe my seven year old boy can learn to use this system, and I +know that we will find it very useful here in our Boy Scout +work.</i>"—<i>Lyman G. Haskell, Physical Director, Y.M.C.A., +Jacksonville, Fla.</i></p></div> + +<br /> + +<p><b>PRACTICAL POULTRY KEEPING. By R.B. Sando.</b> The chapters outlined in +this book are poultry keeping and keepers, housing and yarding, +fixtures and equipment, choosing and buying stock, foods and feeding, +hatching and raising chicks. Inbreeding, caponizing, etc., What to do +at different seasons. The merits of "secrets and systems", The truth +about common poultry fallacies and get-rich-quick schemes. Poultry +parasites and diseases. A complete list of the breeds and subjects is +attached. It is in effect a comprehensive manual for the instruction +of the man who desires to begin poultry raising on a large or small +scale and to avoid the ordinary mistakes to which the beginner is +prone. All the statements are based on the authors own experience and +special care has been taken to avoid sensationalism or exaggeration.</p> + +<br /> + +<p><b>PROFITABLE BREEDS OF POULTRY. By Arthur S. Wheeler.</b> Mr. Wheeler has +chapters on some of the best known general purpose birds such as Rhode +Island Reds, Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Mediterraneans, Orpingtons, +and Cornish, describing the peculiarities and possibilities of each. +There are additional chapters on the method of handling a poultry farm +on a small scale with some instructions as to housing the birds, and +so forth, and also a chapter on the market side of poultry growing.</p> + +<br /> + +<p><b>RIFLES AND RIFLE SHOOTING. By Charles Askins.</b> Part I describes the +various makes and mechanisms taking up such points as range and +adaptibility of the various calibers, the relative merits of lever, +bolt and pump action, the claims of the automatic, and so forth. Part +II deals with rifle shooting, giving full instruction for target +practice, snap shooting, and wing shooting.</p> + +<br /> + +<p><b>SCOTTISH AND IRISH TERRIERS. By Williams Haynes.</b> This is a companion +book to The Airedale and deals with the origin of the breeds, the +standard types, approved methods of breeding, kenneling, training, +care and so forth, with chapters on showing and also on the ordinary +diseases and simple remedies.</p> + +<br /> + +<p><b>SPORTING FIREARMS. By Horace Kephart.</b> This book is devided into two +parts, Part I dealing with the Rifle and Part II with the Shotgun. Mr. +Kephart goes at some length into the questions of range, trajectory +and killing power of the different types of rifles and charges and +also has chapters on rifle mechanisms, sights, barrels, and so forth. +In the part dealing with shotguns he takes up the question of range, +the effectiveness of various loads, suitability of the different types +of boring, the testing of the shotguns by pattern, and so forth.</p> + +<br /> + +<p><b>TRACKS AND TRACKING. By Josef Brunner.</b> After twenty years of patient +study and practical experience, Mr. Brunner can, from his intimate +knowledge, speak with authority on this subject. "Tracks and Tracking" +shows how to follow intelligently even the most intricate animal or +bird tracks. It teaches how to interpret tracks of wild game and +decipher the many tell-tale signs of the chase that would otherwise +pass unnoticed. It proves how it is possible to tell from the +footprints the name, sex, speed, direction, whether and how wounded, +and many other things about wild animals and birds. All material has +been gathered first hand; the drawings and half-tones from photographs +form an important part of the work, as the author has made faithful +pictures of the tracks and signs of the game followed. The list is: The +White-Tailed or Virginia Deer—The Fan-Tailed Deer—The Mule-Deer—The +Wapiti or Elk—The Moose—The Mountain Sheep—The Antelope—The +Bear—The Cougar—The Lynx—The Domestic Cat—The Wolf—The Coyote—The +Fox—The Jack Rabbit—The Varying Hare—The Cottontail Rabbit—The +Squirrel—The Marten and the Black-Footed Ferret—The Otter—The +Mink—The Ermine—The Beaver—The Badger—The Porcupine—The +Skunk—Feathered Game—Upland Birds—Waterfowl—Predatory Birds—This +book is invaluable to the novice as well as the experienced hunter.</p> + +<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>This book studied carefully, will enable the reader to become +as well versed in tracking lore as he could by years of actual +experience.</i>"—<i>Lewiston Journal.</i></p></div> + +<br /> + +<p><b>WING AND TRAP-SHOOTING. By Charles Askins.</b> The only practical manual +in existance dealing with the modern gun. It contains a full +discussion of the various methods, such as snap-shooting, swing and +half-swing, discusses the flight of birds with reference to the +gunner's problem of lead and range and makes special application of +the various points to the different birds commonly shot in this +country. A chapter is included on trap shooting and the book closes +with a forceful and common-sense presentation of the etiquette of the +field.</p> + +<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>It is difficult to understand how anyone who takes a delight in +hunting can afford to be without this valuable book.</i>"—<i>Chamber +of Commerce Bulletin, Portland, Ore.</i></p> + +<p class="noin">"<i>This book will prove an invaluable manual to the true +sportsman, whether he be a tyro or expert.</i>"—<i>Book News +Monthly.</i></p> + +<p class="noin">"<i>Its closing chapter on field etiquette deserves careful +reading.</i>"—<i>N.Y. Times.</i></p></div> + +<br /> + +<p><b>THE YACHTSMAN'S HANDBOOK. By Commander C.S. Stanworth, U.S.N. and +Others.</b> Deals with the practical handling of sail boats, with some +light on the operation of the gasoline motor. It includes such +subjects as handling ground tackle, handling lines and taking +soundings, and use of the lead line; handling sails, engine troubles +that may be avoided, care of the gasoline motor and yachting +etiquette.</p> +</div> + +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> + +<div class="tr"> +<p class="cen"><a name="TN" id="TN"></a>Typographical errors corrected in text:</p> +<br /> +Page 12: 'together with is long season' replaced with 'together with its long season'<br /> +Page 32: prunned replaced with pruned<br /> +Page 36: profiable replaced with profitable<br /> +Page 65: humous replaced with humus<br /> +Page 82: 'it must be sour' corrected to 'it must not be sour'. In sentence referring to lime which is used to reduce acidity (sourness).<br /> +Page 88: prsent replaced with present<br /> +Page 105: tisses replaced with tissues<br /> +Page 107: 'carried over the winter cankers' corrected to 'carried over the winter in cankers'<br /> +Page 126: Jose replaced with José<br /> +Page 163: (table) Syraying replaced with Spraying<br /> +Page 163: (table) Syraping replaced with Spraying<br /> +Page 164: 'The factors have always operated to deter' corrected to 'Two factors have always operated to deter'<br /> +</div> + + +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Apple Growing, by M. C. Burritt + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLE GROWING *** + +***** This file should be named 20770-h.htm or 20770-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/7/7/20770/ + +Produced by Jeannie Howse, Steven Giacomelli and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Apple Growing + +Author: M. C. Burritt + +Release Date: March 9, 2007 [EBook #20770] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLE GROWING *** + + + + +Produced by Jeannie Howse, Steven Giacomelli and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + + * * * * * + + +-----------------------------------------------------------+ + | Transcriber's Note: | + | | + | Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original | + | document have been preserved. | + | | + | Obvious typographical errors have been corrected in this | + | text. For a complete list, please see the end of this | + | document. | + | | + +-----------------------------------------------------------+ + + * * * * * + + + +APPLE GROWING + + + + +APPLE +GROWING + + + +BY +M.C. BURRITT + + + +NEW YORK +OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY +MCMXII + + + + +COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY +OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY. + + +All rights reserved. + + + + +PREFACE + + +In the preparation of this book I have tried to keep constantly before +me the conditions of the average farm in the Northeastern States with +its small apple orchard. It has been my aim to set down only such +facts as would be of practical value to an owner of such a farm and to +state these facts in the plain language of experience. This book is in +no sense intended as a final scientific treatment of the subject, and +if it is of any value in helping to make the fruit department of the +general farm more profitable the author will be entirely satisfied. + +The facts herein set down were first learned in the school of +practical experience on the writer's own farm in Western New York. +They were afterwards supplemented by some theoretical training and by +a rather wide observation of farm orchard conditions and methods in +New York, Pennsylvania, the New England States and other contiguous +territory. These facts were first put together in something like +their present form in the winter of 1909-10, when the writer gave a +series of lectures on Commercial Fruit Growing to the Short Courses in +Horticulture at Cornell University. These lectures were revised and +repeated in 1910-11 and are now put in their present form. + +The author's sincere thanks are due to Professor C.S. Wilson, of the +Department of Pomology at Cornell University, for many valuable facts +and suggestions used in this book, and for a careful reading of the +manuscript. He is also under obligations to Mr. Roy D. Anthony of the +same Department for corrections and suggestions on the chapters on +Insects and Diseases and on Spraying. + + M.C. BURRITT. + +Hilton, N.Y. +February, 1912. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER PAGE + +I. THE OUTLOOK FOR THE GROWING OF APPLES 11 + +II. PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD 18 + +III. PLANTING AND GROWING THE ORCHARD 30 + +IV. PRUNING THE TREES 48 + +V. CULTIVATION AND COVER CROPPING 62 + +VI. MANURING AND FERTILIZING 78 + +VII. INSECTS AND DISEASES AFFECTING THE APPLE 92 + +VIII. THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF SPRAYING 108 + +IX. HARVESTING AND STORING 127 + +X. MARKETS AND MARKETING 142 + +XI. SOME HINTS ON RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 153 + +XII. THE COST OF GROWING APPLES 164 + + + + +APPLE GROWING + + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE OUTLOOK FOR THE GROWING OF APPLES + + +The apple has long been the most popular of our tree fruits, but the +last few years have seen a steady growth in its appreciation and use. +This is probably due in a large measure to a better knowledge of its +value and to the development of new methods of preparation for +consumption. Few fruits can be utilized in as many ways as can the +apple. In addition to the common use of the fresh fruit out of hand +and of the fresh, sweet juice as cider, this "King of Fruits" can be +cooked, baked, dried, canned, and made into jellies and other +appetizing dishes, to enumerate all of which would be to prepare a +list pages long. Few who have tasted once want to be without their +apple sauce and apple pies in season, not to mention the crisp, juicy +specimens to eat out of hand by the open fireplace in the long winter +evenings. Apples thus served call up pleasant memories to most of us, +but only recently have the culinary possibilities of the apple, +especially as a dessert fruit, been fully realized. + +It is doubtless this realization of its great adaptability, together +with its long season, which have brought the apple into so great +demand of late. It is possible to have apples on the table in some +form the year round. The first summer apples are almost always with us +before the bottom of the Russet barrel is reached. Or, should the +fresh fruit be too expensive or for some reason fail altogether, the +housewife can fall back on the canned and dried fruit which are almost +as good. + +The tendency in the price of this staple fruit has been constantly +upward during the last decade. Many people are greatly surprised when +the fact that apples cost more than oranges is called to their +attention. The increase in consumption, due to the greater variety of +ways of preparing the apple for use, has undoubtedly been an important +factor in this higher price. But at least an equally important factor +is the marked decrease in the supply of this fruit. To those who are +not familiar with the facts, the great falling off in production which +the figures show will be no less than startling. + + +PRODUCTION OF APPLES IN BARRELS IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 1896 TO 1910 + + 1896 69,070,000 + 1897 41,530,000 + 1898 28,570,000 + 1899 37,460,000 + 1900 56,820,000 + ----------- + Total crop for five years 233,450,000 + Average crop for five years 46,690,000 + 1901 26,970,000 + 1902 46,625,000 + 1903 42,626,000 + 1904 45,360,000 + 1905 24,310,000 + ------------ + Total crop for five years 185,891,000 + Average crop for five years 37,178,200 + 1906 38,280,000 + 1907 29,540,000 + 1908 25,850,000 + 1909 25,415,000 + 1910 23,825,000 + Total crop for five years 142,910,000 + ------------ + Average crop for five years 28,582,000 + + Estimates of 1896, 1897, and 1898 from "Better Fruit," Vol. 5, + No. 5. All other years from the estimates of the "American + Agriculturist." + +It will thus be seen that the apple crop of 1910 was 45,245,000 +barrels less than that of 1896, and that during the whole period of +fifteen years the decline has been regular. The average annual crop of +the five year period ending with 1905 was 9,511,800 barrels less than +the average annual crop of the preceding five years ending with 1900, +and correspondingly the annual average crop of the last five years, +ending with 1910, was 8,596,200 barrels less than that of the second +five year period. Comparing the first and the last five year periods, +we find that the crop of the last was 18,108,000 barrels less than +that of the first. These facts alone are enough to explain the higher +price of this fruit during the last ten years. + +HEAVY PLANTINGS.--Moreover, it should be further noted that this +falling off in the apple crop has been in the face of the heaviest +plantings ever known in this country. During the last ten years old +fruit growing regions like western New York have practically doubled +their orchard plantings. Careful figures gathered by the New York +State Agricultural College in an orchard survey of Monroe County show +that 4,972 more trees (21,289 in all) were planted in one +representative township during the five year period from 1904 to 1908 +inclusive than were ever planted in any other equal period in its +history. New fruit regions like the Northwestern States and a large +part of the Shenandoah valley of Virginia have been developed by heavy +plantings. These three are all great commercial sections. To them we +might add thousands of orchards which are scattered all over the +Northern and Eastern States, from Michigan to Maine and from Maine to +north Georgia. + +It is doubtful, however, if these scattered plantings have made good +the older trees which have died out. Scarcely a season passes that +hundreds of these old veteran trees are not blown down or badly +broken. Every wind takes its toll. After one of these windstorms in +Southern New York the writer estimated that at least twenty per cent +of all the standing old apple trees had been destroyed or badly +broken. In the commercial regions only a small part of the new +plantings have yet come to bearing and even here these probably do not +much more than make good the losses of old trees. So that on the +whole, heavy as our plantings have been, it is extremely doubtful if +they have very much more than made good the losses of the older trees +throughout the country. It is a fact worthy of note that this talk of +over-planting the apple has been going on for over thirty years, and +while the timid ones talked those who had faith in the business and +the courage of their convictions planted apples and reaped golden +harvests while their neighbors still talked of over-planting. + +Whether or not it is true that we have over-planted the apple, it must +be admitted that at the present time the demand is so much greater +than the supply that the poorer of our people cannot afford to use +apples commonly, and that no class of farmer in the Northeastern +States is more prosperous than the fruit growers. The new plantings +must of necessity begin to bear and become factors in the market very +slowly. Meanwhile the great opportunity of the present lies in making +the most possible out of the older orchards which are already in +bearing. Practically all of these old farm orchards which can present +a fairly clean bill of health, and in which the varieties are +desirable, can with a small amount of well directed effort be put to +work at once and during the next ten years or more of their life time, +they may be made to add a substantial income to that of the general +farm. Now is a time of opportunity for the owner of the small farm +apple orchard. + +FUTURE OF APPLE GROWING.--In the writer's opinion the future of apple +growing in the United States is likely to shape itself largely in the +great commercial regions. As these become more and more developed and +as the industry becomes more specialized the farmer who is merely +growing apples as a side line, except where he is delivering directly +to a special or a local market, will be crowded out. Here as elsewhere +it will be a case of the survival of the fittest. In the production of +apples commercially those growers who can produce the best article the +most cheaply are bound to win out in the end. + +It would, therefore, seem to be advisable for the general farmer to +plant apples only under two conditions; first, when he has a very +favorable location and site and plants heavily enough to make it worth +while to have the equipment and skilled labor necessary to make the +enterprise a success, and second, when he can market his fruit +directly in a local market. It would appear that the immediate future +of apple growing in the United States lies in the small farm orchard +as well as in the commercial orchards, but that the more distant +future lies in the commercial orchard except where special conditions +surround the farm. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD + + +LOCATION.--Having decided that under certain conditions the planting +of an apple orchard will prove a profitable venture, and having +ascertained that those conditions prevail on your farm, the next step +will be to determine the best location on the farm for the orchard. In +choosing this location it will be well to keep in mind the relative +importance of the orchard in the scheme of farm management. If the +orchard is merely a source of home supply, naturally it will not +require as important a position on the farm as will be the case if it +is expected to yield a larger share of the farm income. If the +relatively large net income per acre which it is possible to obtain +from an apple orchard is to be secured, the best possible location is +demanded. + +Contrary to the common ideas and practice of the past, the orchard +should not be put upon the poorest soil on the farm. The best +orchards occupy the best soils, although fairly good results are often +obtained on poor or medium soils. The relative importance which is +attached to the orchard enterprise must also govern the choice of +soil. If apples are to be a prominent crop they should be given the +preference as to soil; if not, they may be given a place in accordance +with what is expected of them. + +SOILS.--In general, the apple prefers a rather strong soil, neither +very heavy nor very light. Subsoil is rather more important than +surface soil, although the latter should be friable and easily worked. +The apple follows good timber successfully. Heavy clay soils are apt +to be too cold, compact, and wet; light sandy soils too loose and dry. +A medium clay loam or a gravelly clay loam, underlaid by a somewhat +heavier but fairly open clay subsoil is thought to be the best soil +for apples. Broadly considered, medium loams are best. The lighter the +soil the better will be the color of the fruit as a rule, and so, +also, the heavier the soil and the more nitrogen and moisture it holds +the greater the tendency to poorly colored fruit. In the same way +light soils give poorer wood and foliage growth as compared with the +large rank leaves and wood of trees on heavy, rich soils. + +VARIETAL SOIL PREFERENCES are beginning to be recognized. We cannot go +into these in detail in this brief discussion. A few suggestions +regarding standard varieties must suffice. Medium to light loams or +heavy sandy loams, underlaid by slightly heavier loams or clay loams, +are preferred by the Baldwin, which has a wider soil adaptation than +practically any other variety. Baldwin soils should dry quickly after +a rain. Rhode Island Greening requires a rather rich, moist, but well +drained soil, containing an abundance of organic matter. A light to +heavy silty loam, underlaid by a silty clay loam, is considered best. + +Northern Spy is very exacting in its soil requirements. A medium loam, +underlaid by a heavy loam or a light clay loam, is excellent. Heavy +soils give the Spy a greasy skin. Light soils cause the tree to grow +upright and to bear fruit of poor flavor. The King likes a soil +slightly lighter than the best Greening soils, but retentive of +moisture. Hubbardson will utilize the sandiest soil of any northern +variety, preferring rich, fine, sandy loams. + +The particular location of the apple orchard is largely a matter of +convenience. It should be remembered, however, that the apple requires +much and constant attention, therefore the orchard should be +convenient of access. The product is rather bulky, so that the haul to +the highway should be as short as possible. Other conditions being +equally good there, the common location near the buildings and highway +is best. + +THE SITE OF THE ORCHARD is a more important matter. Two essentials +should be kept in mind, good air drainage and a considerable +elevation. Although it is not so apparent and therefore less thought +about, cold air runs down hill the same as water. Being heavier, it +falls to the surface of the land, flowing out through the water +channels and settling in pockets and depressions. Warm air, being +lighter, rises. It is desirable to avoid conditions of stagnant air or +cold air pockets where frost and fogs are liable to occur. A free +movement of air, especially a draining away of cold air, is best +secured by an elevation. Fifty to one hundred feet, or sometimes less, +is usually sufficient, especially where there is good outlet below. +Frosts occur in still, clear air and these conditions occur most +frequently in the lower areas. + +Aspect or slope requires less attention. Southern exposures are warm +and hasten bud development and opening in spring. Northern exposures +are cold and retard the blossoming period. It is usually advisable to +plant the apple on the colder slopes which hold it back in spring +until all danger of late frosts is past. Northeast exposures are best +as a general rule. Choose a slope away from the prevailing wind if +possible. If this is impracticable it is often advisable to plant a +wind break of pine, spruce, or a quick, thick growing native tree to +protect the orchard from heavy winds. + +A large body of water is an important modifier of climate. Warming up +more slowly in the spring, it retards vegetation by slowly giving up +its cold. Vice versa, cooling more slowly in the fall giving up its +heat wards off the early frosts. It is therefore desirable to locate +near such bodies of water if possible. Their influence varies +according to their size and depth, and the distance of the orchard +from them. Good examples of this influence are the Chautauqua Grape +Belt on the eastern shore of Lake Erie and the Western New York Apple +Belt on the south shore of Lake Ontario. + +Professor Brackett has well summed up the whole question: "The +selection of the soil and site for the apple orchard is not governed +by any arbitrary rule," he says. "All farms do not afford the best +soils or exposures for orchards. The owners of such as do not are +unfortunate, yet they should not feel discouraged to the extent of not +planting trees and caring for them afterward." There are a number of +factors which influence not only a person who wishes to locate, but +one already located, either favorably or unfavorably. About these even +the most intelligent orchardists often differ. We have only laid down +general principles and given opinions. Here as elsewhere application +is a matter of judgment. + +VARIETIES.--A proper soil and a good location and site having been +selected, the next important question to be decided is the varieties +to be planted. So much and so variable advice is given on this +question that many persons are at a loss as to what to plant and too +often decide the matter by planting the wrong varieties. Rightly +viewed, the question of varieties is a comparatively simple one. +Personal preference, tempered by careful study of certain factors and +good judgment, are all that are required. Beginners, especially, are +too apt to rely entirely on another's opinion. The only safe way is to +learn the facts and then decide for yourself. + +We have already indicated that soil is a determinant in the choice of +varieties. This should be absolute. It is very unwise to try to grow +any variety on a soil where experience has shown that it does not do +well. The experience of your neighbors is the best guide in this +respect. + +The limitations of climate should also be carefully heeded. An apple +may be at its best in one latitude or one situation and at its worst +in another. Find out from experienced growers in your region, or from +your State Experiment Station what varieties are best adapted +climatically to the place where you live. It is an excellent rule +never to plant a variety that you cannot grow at least as well as any +one else, or still better, to plant a variety that you can grow better +than anyone else. Grow something that not everyone can grow. Do not +try to produce more of a variety of which there is already an over +supply. + +A few examples may make this more clear. Western New York is the home +of the Baldwin, the Twenty Ounce and the King. Albemarle Pippins grown +on the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge are famous. The Spitzenburg +appears at its best in the Northwest. The Northern Spy, the McIntosh, +and the Fameuse are not to be excelled as they are grown in the +Champlain Valley, in Vermont, or in Maine. To attempt to compete with +these sections in the growing of these varieties, except under equally +favorable conditions, would be foolish. Your section probably grows +some varieties to perfection. Find out what these varieties are and +plant them. + +All these are general factors to be observed which cannot be +specifically settled without knowing the soil and particular locality. +Certain other factors governing the choice of varieties can be more +definitely outlined. If the prospective orchardist will get these +factors thoroughly in mind and apply them with judgment mistakes in +planting should be much more rare. The more important ones are: The +purpose for which the fruit is intended to be used, whether for the +general market, a dessert or fancy trade, or for culinary and general +table use; whether the trees are to be permanent and long lived, or +temporary and used as fillers; whether the earliest possible income is +desired or whether this is to be secondary to the future development +of the orchard; whether the stock of the particular variety is strong +or weak growing; whether the variety is high, medium, or low as to +quality; and whether the market is to be local, distant, or export. + +The following tables were originally compiled by Professor C.S. Wilson +of Cornell University. They have been slightly revised and modified +for our purpose. We believe that they are essentially correct and that +they will be a safe guide for the reader to follow in his selection of +varieties: + +GENERAL MARKET APPLES DESSERT OR FANCY TRADE +COMMERCIAL BOX WELL + + Baldwin McIntosh + Ben Davis Northern Spy + Hubbardson Fameuse + Northern Spy Wagener + King Grimes Golden + Rome Beauty Yellow Newton + Oldenburg Red Canada + Alexander King + Twenty Ounce Sutton + Winesap Hubbardson + York Imperial Esopus Spitzenburg + + CULINARY AND GENERAL TABLE USE + + Rhode Island Greening Grimes Golden + Gravenstein Twenty Ounce + Newtown Yellow Bellflower + Alexander Oldenburg + Tolman Sweet Sweet Winesap + +GOOD PERMANENT GOOD TEMPORARY +TREES TREES--FILLERS + + Baldwin McIntosh + Rhode Island Greening Wealthy + Northern Spy Wagener + McIntosh Rome Beauty + *King Oldenburg + *Twenty Ounce Jonathan + *Hubbardson Alexander + Alexander Twenty Ounce + Rome Beauty Hubbardson + + + * When this variety is set as a permanent tree it should be top + worked on a hardier stock, such as Northern Spy. + +Age at which variety may be expected to begin to fruit. (Add two years +for a paying crop). + +FIVE YEARS OR UNDER EIGHT YEARS AND UP + + Rome Beauty Esopus Spitzenburg + Oldenburg Fall Pippin + Maiden Blush Golden Russet + Wagener Northern Spy + Yellow Newton Baldwin + McIntosh Gravenstein + Fameuse Tolman Sweet + King + Rhode Island Gr. + Twenty Ounce + Winesap + +ESPECIALLY HARDY STOCKS POOR RATHER WEAK GROWERS* + + Northern Spy King + Tolman Sweet Twenty Ounce + Ben Davis Esopus Spitzenburg + Baldwin Hubbardson + Fameuse Grimes Golden + Winter Banana Sutton + Canada Red + +* Other varieties are medium. + +HIGH IN QUALITY LOCAL OR PEDDLER'S VARIETIES + + McIntosh Rhode Island Greening + Esopus Spitzenburg Wealthy + Northern Spy McIntosh + Newtown Fameuse + Gravenstein Tolman Sweet + Red Canada Grimes Golden + Fameuse Jonathan + Grimes Golden + Hubbardson GOOD GENERAL MARKET VARIETIES + Rhode Island Greening + Baldwin +MEDIUM TO POOR QUALITY Rhode Island + King + Ben Davis Twenty Ounce + Oldenburg McIntosh + Rome Beauty Hubbardson + Roxbury Russet Northern Spy + + GOOD EXPORT VARIETIES + + Baldwin Newtown + Ben Davis Esopus Spitzenburg + Northern Spy Jonathan + +Only the best and most common varieties for the more northern +latitudes have been included in this list as it would make it too +cumbersome to classify all our known varieties. It must be remembered +that this is not an arbitrary classification and that it is made as a +guide to indicate to the reader the general characteristics of the +variety. It should be used as such and not taken literally. The +characters of the different varieties grade into each other. For +example, the McIntosh is very high and the Ben Davis is very low in +quality but the King and the Twenty Ounce are neither very good nor +very poor, but midway between. + +We must again remind the reader that the choice of varieties is a +matter of judgment, tempered by the facts regarding them. One who is +not capable of rendering such judgment after studying his conditions +and the characteristics and requirements of leading varieties had +better stay out of the apple business entirely, as he will often be +called on for the exercise of good judgment in caring for the orchard. +The facts here given are intended as suggestive. The reader who +desires to know more of a particular variety will do well to consult +Beach's "Apples of New York," published by the Geneva Experiment +Station. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +PLANTING AND GROWING THE ORCHARD + + +The proper soil, site, and location having been selected, the solution +of the problems of orchard management is only just begun, although a +good start has certainly been made. Farm management brings constantly +to one's attention new problems and new phases of old problems, +whatever the type of farming. The skill with which these problems are +met and a solution found for them determines the success or failure of +the farm manager. To some men the details of the orchard business +offer the greatest obstacles, while to others it is the general +relationship of one detail to another which is difficult. Both are +essentials of good management. If we are able in this chapter to +remove some of these minor difficulties and at the same time indicate +the correct relationships we will have accomplished our purpose. + +As we come now to the actual plans for planting our orchard many +questions come up for answer. When shall I plant? Where and of whom +shall I purchase my trees? How old should they be? Is it wise to use +fillers or temporary trees, and if so, what kind? How far apart should +the trees be planted and how many are required for an acre? What +arrangement of the trees is most advisable? How should the ground be +prepared? What is the best method of setting? When the trees are +planted should they be inter-cropped, and if so, with what? How should +the young trees be handled and cared for? He who would be a successful +orchardist must endeavor to answer these questions. + +WHEN TO PLANT.--The question of fall or spring planting is a less +important one with a comparatively hardy fruit like the apple than it +is with a more tender fruit like the peach. Apples may safely be +planted in the fall when soils are well drained and when the young +trees are well matured, both of which are very important if winter +injury is to be avoided. Fall planting has several distinct +advantages. During the winter fall planted trees become well +established in the soil which enables them to start root growth +earlier in the spring. Consequently the young trees are better able to +endure droughts. In the fall the weather is usually more settled and +there is better opportunity to plant under favorable conditions than +in the unsettled weather of spring. It is usually possible, too, to +get a better selection of trees at the nursery in the fall because +most of the trees are not sold until midwinter. + +Still the fact remains that the common practice of spring planting is +the more conservative course. There is always danger of getting +immature trees in the fall, and of winter injury to fall planted +trees. Trees may be set in the fall any time after the buds are mature +which is usually after October 1st to 18th in the latitude of New +York. They should not be pruned back in the fall, as this invites +winter killing of the uppermost buds. The question of available time +must also be considered. On some farms fall offers more time; on +others, spring. To sum up the matter, plant at the most convenient +time, providing the conditions are favorable. + +WHERE TO BUY.--But one rule as to where to buy trees can be laid down. +Buy where you can secure the best trees and where you can be sure of +the most reliable and honest dealers. Beware of the tree agent, who +has been guilty of more dishonesty and misrepresentation than almost +any other traveling agent. Buy of a salesman under one condition only, +that he prove to you that he is the bona fide representative of a +well-known and reputable nursery firm, and then make your order +subject to investigation of the firm's standing and finding it as +represented. + +The safest course is usually to purchase of your home nurseryman with +whose standing and honesty you are familiar, and whose trees you can +personally inspect. Such a man has a reputation at stake and will have +an object in keeping your trade. Moreover, you will save freight, +secure fresher stock with less liability of injury in handling, and +get trees grown under your own conditions. If stock is purchased away +from home it is better to get it at a nursery in a more southern +latitude in order to secure trees of better growth. + +All trees should be purchased in the late summer or early fall when +the nurseryman has a full list of varieties and you can get the pick +of his stock. Select a well grown mature tree two years old from the +bud. One year old trees are preferred by many and if well grown and at +least five feet high they are probably best. But a one year old tree +is rather more delicate, requiring careful handling and intelligent +training. Unless a person buys from a southern nursery and is an +expert in handling trees, the two year old tree is to be preferred, +but a skilful grower can make a more satisfactory tree from a one year +old seedling. + +The average buyer must depend largely on his nurseryman for getting +trees true to name, which is the reason for laying so much emphasis on +purchasing from an honest dealer. Some nurserymen guarantee their +varieties to be true to name, and all ought to do so. Buyers should +demand it. The seeds of the apple rarely come true to the variety +planted. They are therefore usually budded on one year old seedlings +imported from France. Sometimes they are whole or piece root grafted +which is equally as good a method of propagation. + +It is possible for a man to grow and bud or graft his own seedlings, +but hardly advisable for the average small grower or general farmer, +as it is usually expensive when done on a small scale and requires +considerable skill. Always buy a high grade tree. Seconds are often +equally as good as firsts when they are simply smaller as a result of +crowding in the nursery row. A tree which is second grade because of +being stunted, crooked, or poorly grown should never be set. Thirds +are seldom worth considering at any price. + +FILLERS.--Whether or not the planter of an apple orchard should use +fillers is a question which he alone must decide. In the writer's +opinion there are more advantages than disadvantages in so doing, but +we must state both sides of the question and let the reader judge for +himself. The term "filler" is one used to designate a tree planted in +the orchard for the temporary purpose of profitably occupying the +space between the permanent trees while these are growing and not yet +in bearing. Fillers make a more complete use of the land, bringing in +larger as well as quicker returns from it, three distinct advantages. +(See Chapter XII, The Cost of Growing Apples.) On the other hand, +objections to their use are that they are often left in so long that +they crowd and seriously injure the permanent trees, and that their +care often requires different operations and at different times from +the other trees, such as spraying, which may result in injury to the +permanent trees in the orchard. + +Trees used as fillers for apples should have two important +characteristics; they should be rapid, vigorous growers and should +come into bearing at a very early age. Two kinds of fillers are +available, those of the same species, which may be either dwarf or +standard trees, and those of a different species, of which peaches and +plums, and possibly pears, are the best adapted. Dwarf trees may be +dismissed from our plans with the statement that they have rarely +proved profitable under ordinary conditions, as they are much more +difficult to grow than standards and when grown they have but few +advantages over them. The varieties of standard apples which are +advisable as fillers have been indicated in Chapter II. + +The use of peaches and the Japanese plums, both of which make +excellent fillers because they grow rapidly and come to heavy bearing +quickly, is limited to their soil and climatic adaptation. They are +adapted to the lighter phases of soil and the more moderate climates +and under other conditions are impracticable. On heavier soils and in +more rigorous climates the European plums and the more rapid and early +bearing pears, such as the Keiffer, make fairly good fillers. + +On the whole, the writer is inclined to advise the use of fillers in +the general farm orchard. Quicker returns from an investment of this +nature, which is usually heavy and which at best must be put off +several years, are very important. Under careful and intelligent +management the objections to their use are easily overcome. + +SPACING AND ARRANGEMENT OF TREES.--The distance apart of planting +depends on the variety planted. Close headed, upright growing trees +may be planted closer together than spreading varieties. Some +varieties grow larger than others, and the same variety may vary in +size on different soils. It is seldom advisable to plant standard +apple trees in the latitude of New York closer than thirty feet, or +farther apart than fifty feet. Trees of the nature of Twenty Ounce and +Oldenburg (Dutchess) should be planted from thirty-two to thirty-six +feet apart, while Baldwins, Rhode Island Greenings, and Northern Spies +represent the other extreme and will require forty, and sometimes +fifty feet of space. The method and thoroughness of pruning influences +the size of trees greatly, and hence the distance at which It is +necessary to set them. + +Varieties top worked on other stocks have a tendency to grow more +upright and may be set closer together. It should be remembered in +this connection that the roots of a tree extend considerably beyond +the spread of the branches. From thirty-five to forty feet is a good +average distance and trees should be trained so as to occupy this +space and no more. Where fillers are used the latter distance is best, +as the twenty feet apart at which the trees will then stand is close +enough for any standard variety. + +RECTANGULAR.--The method of setting or the arrangement of the trees +will greatly influence the number of trees which may be put upon an +acre and the distance apart of the trees in the row. The most common +method in the past has been the regular square or rectangular method, +e.g., trees forty by forty feet, or forty by fifty feet, and rows at +right angles, and this is still preferred by many. It is easy to lay +out an orchard on this plan and there is less liability of making +mistakes. It is best adapted to regular fields with right angle +corners, especially where the orchard is to be cropped with a regular +rotation. All tillage operations are most easily performed in orchards +set on this plan. + +A slight modification of this arrangement which is often advisable, +especially where fillers are used, is to set a tree in the center of +the square. The trees then stand like the five spots of a domino, and +the shortest distance between trees will be about twenty-seven feet +when the trees in the regular rows are forty by forty feet apart. This +plan practically doubles the number of trees which can be set on an +acre. + +HEXAGONAL OR TRIANGULAR.--Another method of arrangement of the trees +which is becoming more and more popular is the hexagonal or triangular +system. More trees can be planted on an acre by this plan than by any +other, it being very economical of space. It makes all adjacent trees +equally distant from each other and is really a system of equilateral +triangles. This plan is better adapted to small areas and especially +to irregular ones, and should be employed where land is expensive and +culture very intensive. It is more difficult to set an orchard after +this method without error, and it is open to the objection of +inconvenience in cultural operations. Most people forget that while +the rows running cornerwise in a rectangular or square field set after +this plan may be a standard distance apart, yet the right angle rows +(not trees) in which it may be more convenient to work are actually +much closer together. + +The best plan to follow to get the rows of trees straight on a level +field is what is known as the outside stake method. This plan requires +the placing of a row of stakes on each of the four sides of the field +where the trees are to be set and usually about two rows each way +through the middle. For this purpose ordinary building laths are best, +about one hundred and fifty laths, or three bundles, being required +for five acres, which is as large a unit as can be set at once by this +plan. + +_First_, determine the distance from the road or fence to the first +tree row, which would be at least eighteen feet to allow for turning +the teams, and establish base lines on each side of the field at right +angles to each other. + +_Second_, beginning at the given distance from the side of the field, +set up a row of stakes along these base lines at the exact distance +apart at which the trees are to be set and about half way between the +fence and the first right angle row. Do the same on all sides of the +field. + +_Third_, by sighting across the field from one end stake to the other +the cross rows of stakes can be set through the middle of the field. +These should be about six or eight rods apart, and care should be used +to avoid setting them where they will interfere with the sighting of +the right angle rows. This plan has the great merit of enabling the +entire orchard to be set without moving a stake, as no stake stands +where a tree is to be set. If the trees are set exactly where the +sight lines cross at right angles and if all rows are an equal +distance apart, the rows will be perfectly straight. + +On rough or rolling land this plan does not work well. Here more +simple methods, though requiring more time, must be used. Lines drawn +with a cord or marked across the field with a corn planter answer well +for small areas. Poles of the right length are often used to good +advantage. In setting trees after the hexagonal plan an equilateral +triangle made of light poles or wire is probably best, especially on +small rough areas, as it is very accurate, simple, and quite rapid. +Some men prefer to make measurements and set a stake at every point +where a tree is to be placed. In these cases a simple device locates +the original stakes after the hole has been dug. A light board about +six feet long with a notch in the center and holes with pegs in them +at each end is placed with the notch at the stake. One end is then +swung round and the hole dug. When the end is replaced on its peg the +tree set in the hole should rest in the notch where the original stake +did. + +The following table shows the number of trees required per acre at +different distances for the square or rectangular method and for the +hexagonal method. + + Sq. Hex. Sq. Hex. + + 12 x 12 302 344 24 x 24 75 80 + 12 x 15 242 ... 24 x 30 60 .. + 15 x 15 193 224 30 x 30 48 56 + 15 x 18 161 ... 30 x 36 40 .. + 15 x 20 145 ... 33 x 33 40 46 + 15 x 30 96 ... 30 x 48 30 .. + 18 x 18 134 156 30 x 60 24 .. + 18 x 20 121 ... 36 x 36 33 39 + 20 x 20 108 124 40 x 40 27 31 + 20 x 30 72 ... 40 x 50 21 .. + +It will be noted that the hexagonal plan allows the setting of from +four to forty trees more per acre than the square plan, even when the +trees are set the same distance apart. This is the great advantage of +this plan over the square. Filling an orchard one way, i.e., between +the permanent row, in one direction only, practically doubles the +trees which can be set on an acre; filling both ways quadruples the +number. + +PREPARATION OF SOIL.--The previous condition and treatment of a soil +for an orchard are important. If the soil has been in a good rotation +of field crops, including some cultivated crops, it should be in prime +condition for the trees. Old pastures and meadows should be plowed up, +cropped, and cultivated for a year or two before setting to obtain the +best and quickest results. If one is in a hurry, however, this may be +done after setting the trees. Good results are sometimes obtained by +setting trees right among the stumps on recently cleared timberland. +Where no stiff sod has formed the trees start quickly in the rich +soil. + +The best immediate treatment of land preparatory to setting the trees +should be such as to place the soil in good tilth. Deep plowing, +thorough cultivation, and the application of liberal amounts of +manure--twelve to fifteen loads per acre--are the most effective means +of doing this. The best crop immediately to precede trees is clover. +Sometimes an application of one thousand five hundred to two thousand +pounds of lime will help to insure a stand of clover and at the same +time improve the physical condition of the soil. Fall plowing is a +good practice on the medium loams and more open soils, but on the +heavy clays spring plowing is to be preferred, as when plowed in the +fall these soils puddle and become hard to handle. Care should always +be taken to keep the orchard well furrowed out as standing water is +decidedly inimical to satisfactory tree-growth. Tile draining is +frequently advisable. + +INTERCROPPING.--The question of intercropping a young orchard is one +to be carefully considered. As it is often practiced it is very +injurious to the orchard, but it is possible to manage crops so as to +be of very little harm to the trees. While the practice may be +inadvisable in many commercial orchards, yet on a general farm we +should by all means think that it was the right thing to do. Certain +facts must be remembered, however, which have a bearing on the +subject. + +Trees are a crop, as much as corn or grass. If we grow a crop between +the tree rows we must remember that we are double cropping the land +and that it must be fed and cared for accordingly. There is absolutely +no use in setting an apple orchard, expecting it to take care of +itself, "just growing," like Topsy, as numerous dilapidated and broken +down orchards bear ample testimony. If orchards are to be cropped +this must be judiciously done with the trees primarily in mind. + +The best crops to grow in a young apple orchard are those requiring +cultivation, or which permit the cultivation of the land early in the +season. Field beans, potatoes, and garden truck of all kinds, as small +vegetables, melons, etc., are among the very best crops to grow in the +young orchard. Corn will do if it does not shade the trees too much. +Small grain and grass should not be used, especially where they come +up close to the trees. These crops form too stiff a sod and use up too +much moisture. A mulch of straw, cut grass, or coarse manure will help +to correct this condition somewhat when these crops must be used. +After cultivation until midsummer buckwheat makes a satisfactory +orchard crop in some cases. + +A regular rotation may be used in the young orchard to advantage when +a space is left next the trees to receive cultivation. This space +should be at least two feet on each side of the tree the first year +and should be widened each year as the tree grows older and larger, to +four, six, and eight feet. This method has been used by the author +very successfully for a number of years. Some good rotations to use +in a growing orchard are: (1) Wheat or rye one year, clover one year, +beans or potatoes one year; (2) oats one year, clover one year, +potatoes one year; (3) beans one year, rye plowed under in spring, +followed by any cultivated crop one or two years. The essentials of a +good rotation for an orchard are: A humus and fertility supplying +crop, preferably clover, in the north, and cow peas in the south, and +at least two crops in four requiring cultivation up to the middle of +the summer. + +Most of the points regarding the management of young trees have +already been mentioned, but a few others should have attention +directed to them. Fall planted trees should not be cut back until +spring. In the spring all newly planted trees should have their tops +cut back rather severely to correspond with the injury to the roots in +transplanting, thus preserving the balance between root and top. This +will usually be about half to two-thirds the previous season's growth. +From three to five well distributed branches should be left with which +to form the top. During the first few years of their lives the young +apple trees will need little or no pruning, except to shape them and +remove crossing or interfering branches. + +Constant cultivation at frequent intervals until midsummer should be +the rule with young growing trees, with which this is even more +important than with older trees. It is a good plan to plow the orchard +in fall where possible, always turning the furrows toward the trees, +leaving the dead furrows as drainage ditches between the rows. At +Beechwood Farm we have always banked the trees with earth in the fall, +using a shovel. This not only firms the soil about the tree, holding +it straight and strong through the winter, but it affords good +protection against rodents, especially mice. Where rabbits are +prevalent it is well to place a fine mesh wire netting around the +trees in addition to this. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +PRUNING THE TREES + + +Pruning is not an entirely artificial operation as one might at first +thought suppose. It is one of nature's most common processes. Nature +accomplishes this result through the principle of competition, by +starting many more trees on a given area than can possibly survive. In +the same way there is a surplus of buds and branches on each +individual tree. It is only by the crowding out and the perishing of +many buds, branches, and trees that others are enabled to reach +maturity and fulfill their purpose. This being too slow and too +expensive a process for him, man accomplishes in a day with the knife +and saw what nature is years in doing by crowding, shading, and +competition. Proper pruning is really an improvement on nature's +method. + +Neither is it true, as some claim, that pruning is a devitalizing +process. On the contrary it is often stimulating and may actually +increase the vigor of a weak or declining tree. All practical +experience teaches us that pruning is a reasonable, necessary, and +advantageous process. True, it is often overdone, and improperly done. +As in many other things, certain fundamental principles underlie and +should govern practice. When these are known and observed, pruning +becomes a more simple matter. + +Heavy pruning during the dormant or winter season stimulates the +growth and tends to increase the production of wood. In the same way +pruning during the summer or growing season stimulates the growth and +tends to induce fruitfulness, if the tree remains healthy. But this +fruitfulness is apt to be at the expense of the vigor of the tree. On +the other hand, the pruning of the roots of a tree tends to check the +growth of wood, the same as poor feeding. As above noted heading back +a tree when dormant tends to stimulate it to a more vigorous growth. + +The habit of growth of a variety has much to do with its pruning. Some +varieties of apples are upright, others are spreading growers. Climate +and locality greatly affect these habits of growth. So also the habit +of a young tree often differs from the habit of the same tree in old +age. The tendency is for a tree to continue its growth from its +uppermost or terminal buds. Although the heading in of new growth +checks this upward tendency and throws the energy of the tree into the +development of lateral and dormant buds, nevertheless the pruned tree +soon resumes its natural upward growing habit. + +Plant food is taken up by the minute tree rootlets in solution and +carried to the leaves where it is elaborated and then returned for use +to the growing tissues of the tree. Whenever there is any obstruction +above a bud the tendency is to throw the energy of the branch into a +lateral bud, but if the obstruction is below the bud the branch merely +thickens and growth is checked. When too heavy pruning is practiced +the balance between the roots and top is disturbed. This usually +results in what are commonly known as "suckers." These are caused by +an abnormal condition and while they may be the result of disease or +injury to the tree, they are often of great value in restoring or +readjusting the proper balance between the roots and top. + +Pruning a tree is a way of thinning the fruit and a good one. It may +sometimes be used to influence the bearing year of trees like the +Baldwin, which have an alternate bearing habit, but this is a more +theoretical than practical method. Fruit bearing is determined more by +the habitual performance of the tree than by any method of pruning, +and this is especially true of old trees. It is easier to influence +young trees. Conditions which tend to produce heavy wood growth are +unfavorable for the formation and development of fruit buds. A +quiescent state is a better condition for this. + +REASONS FOR PRUNING.--With these fundamental principles in mind we may +safely outline a method of pruning an apple tree. As the desired end +is different so will the method of pruning a young tree differ from +that of an old one. There are five important things for which to prune +a young tree, namely: + +1. To preserve a proper balance between the top and root at the time +of setting out. This usually means cutting off the broken and the very +long roots to a reasonable length and cutting back from one-half to +two-thirds of the growth of the previous season. + +2. To make the top open in order to admit the sunlight freely. In the +humid climate of the Northeastern States, it is usually advisable to +prune a tree so as to have a rather open top. This is necessary in +order properly to color and mature the fruit. + +3. To regulate the number of limbs composing the top. Probably three +branches well distributed on the trunk would make most nearly the +ideal head, but as these cannot always be obtained the best practice +is to leave from three to five branches from which to form the top. + +4. To fix the branches at the proper height from the ground. This is +more or less a matter of opinion, some growers preferring a low and +others a high head. The character of the tree growth, the method of +culture, and the purpose of the tree whether temporary or permanent +greatly influence the height of the head. An upright growing variety +should be headed lower than a spreading one. Trees kept in sod or +under extensive methods can well be headed lower than those under more +intensive culture where it is desirable to carry on cultural +operations close around them. Permanent trees should be headed higher +than temporary trees. Apple trees should seldom be headed lower than a +foot from the ground, nor more than four feet above it. For upright +growing varieties intended as permanents, the writer prefers three to +three and one-half feet and for more spreading varieties four feet; +while for temporary trees eighteen inches should be a good height. + +5. To do away with weak crotches and to remove crossing or interfering +branches. A crotch formed by two branches of equal size, especially +when the split is deep, is a weak crotch and should be avoided. Strong +crotches are formed by forcing the development of lateral buds and +making almost a right angle branch from the parent one. All branches +which rub each other, which tend to occupy the same space with +another, or which generally seem out of place, are better removed as +soon as any of these tendencies are found to exist. + +IDEALS IN PRUNING.--The general method of pruning the old trees and +the ideal in mind for it will also influence the pruning of the young +tree, especially the shaping of it. Once determined upon, the ideal +should be consistently followed out in the pruning of the tree as it +becomes older. As the tree comes to bearing age it will be necessary +to prune somewhat differently and for other purposes. These we can +conveniently consider under six heads: + +1. Every tree should be pruned with a definite ideal as to size, +shape, and degree of openness in mind. To have such an ideal is very +important. It is only by industriously and consistently carrying it +out that the ideal tree in these respects can be ever obtained. +Haphazard cutting and sawing without a definite purpose in mind are +really worse than no pruning at all. + +2. It almost goes without saying that to remove all dead, diseased, or +injured wood is a prime purpose of pruning. Dead and injured branches +open the way for rot and decay of contiguous branches, and disease +spreads through the tree. The removal of all such branches is as +essential to the health of the tree as it is to its good appearance. +In removing them the cut should be made well behind the diseased or +injured part to insure the checking of rot and disease. + +3. All mature apple trees should be so pruned as to keep them in the +most easily manageable shape and to facilitate in every possible way +the operations of tillage, spraying, and harvesting. It is most +important to have the tree low enough down so that spraying and +picking can be easily done. It is difficult to spray properly a tree +which is more than twenty-five feet in height. Even this height +necessitates a tower on the spray rig and the use of an extension +pole. An apple tree should be so pruned that all the fruit can be +readily picked from ladders not longer than eighteen to twenty-two +feet. + +Of course, if the tree has been allowed to get higher than this under +previous management, sometimes we have to make the best of a bad +situation. If the trees are too high head them back by cutting off the +leaders, but it is not always wise to lower all trees to twenty-two +feet. Heading back of old trees will be more fully discussed in the +chapter on "Renovating Old Orchards." Ladders longer than twenty-two +feet are heavy and clumsy to handle. + +If cultivation is to be carried on close up under the tree the lower +limbs must be pruned so as to allow this. It is not necessary, +however, to drive a team closer than twelve or fifteen feet from a +mature tree, contrary to the common belief and practice. Cultivation +is least important in the first few feet of space around a mature +tree. By the use of set-over tools, all that is necessary can be well +cultivated without crowding the team under or against the branches. + +4. As has been pointed out in the discussion of the pruning of young +trees, in humid regions where the sunlight is none too abundant +through the growing season, the open head is most desirable. Sunlight +on the leaves as well as on the fruit is essential to good color of +the fruit, and good color is a very important factor in the flavor and +attractive appearance of the fruit. An open center with upright +growing leaders removed gives the greatest opportunity for sunlight to +penetrate through the tree. + +5. As we have seen, pruning in the dormant season tends to increase +the vigor of the tree. Thus winter pruning serves to secure a normal +and vigorous wood growth, which is most essential to a healthy +fruit-bearing tree. On the other hand, such pruning may be excessive +and produce wood growth at the expense of fruit buds, throwing the +tree out of bearing. + +6. The sixth and last reason for pruning is to regulate the number and +distribution of the wood and the fruit bearing buds. The proper +balance between these is greatly affected by pruning and can be best +regulated by experience with the particular tree or variety. A perfect +balance is hard to get, but with study and skill it can be closely +approximated. Pruning, too, may thin the fruit, as removing branches +removes fruit buds. This is best done by removing small branches near +the ends of larger ones. It is a much cheaper method of thinning than +picking off individual fruits, but not as effective. + +TIME OF PRUNING.--The particular time of the year for pruning is not +vital. As between summer and winter pruning, winter is to be preferred +because of the physical effect on the tree. Summer pruning is an +unnatural process and should only be practiced as a last resort to +check growth or induce fruitfulness, as it may result in injury to the +tree. It is essential that a tree mature its foliage, which it +frequently does not do after summer pruning. Diseased, dead, or +injured wood should be removed when first observed, summer or winter. + +Spring is the logical and usually the most convenient time to prune on +the general farm. While dormant season pruning may be done at any +time between November 1st and June 1st, the cuts heal more rapidly in +the spring when the sap begins to flow. In regions subject to severe +and drying winds in the winter, pruning should be deferred at least to +late winter. Considered from every standpoint, March and April are +quite the best months in which to prune. After the removal of useless +branches, the normal amount of food material is delivered to fewer +buds under greater sap pressure and the remaining buds are made more +strong and vigorous. + +In removing small branches with a knife or other cutting tool, the cut +should be made upward from below and opposite a bud. On upright +growing varieties the last bud left should be an outside one to induce +the tree to spread as much as possible, while on spreading trees +leaving as the last bud an inside one has a tendency to make the tree +grow more upright. Always cut close to the parent branch, never +leaving a stub no matter how young or old the tree. + +Cuts of lateral branches should be made just at the shoulder of the +branch where it joins the parent. A cut behind the shoulder will not +heal, neither will one too far ahead of it. A stub left on a trunk or +large branch does not heal, but soon begins to rot at the end where +the heartwood is exposed. This gradually works back into the main +branch and the tree finally becomes "rotten at the heart." All that is +needed to complete the destruction is a heavy wind, an ice or a snow +storm, or a heavy load of fruit. + +All wounds more than two inches in diameter should be painted either +with a heavy lead paint, which is preferable, or with some gas tar +preparation. These things do not in themselves heal a cut, but they +keep out the decaying elements, air and moisture, thus helping to +preserve the branch and by protecting it to promote healing in +nature's way. A little lamp black will serve to deaden the color of +the paint. + +PRUNING TOOLS.--The best tool to use in pruning is one which brings +you nearest to your work and over which you have the greatest control +to make all kinds of cuts. In the writer's experience no tool does +this so smoothly and conveniently as a properly shaped saw. A good saw +should be quite rigid, rather heavy at the butt, where its depth +should be about six inches, tapering down to about two inches at the +point. It should have a full, firm grip, be not more than thirty +inches long, and should always be kept sharp. Two-edged saws should +not be used because of the injury done to the tree when sawing in +crotches. + +Cutting shears are often very useful, especially the smaller, +one-handed type which is almost indispensable in pruning young trees. +The larger, two-handled shears are useful in thinning out the ends of +branches or in heading back new growth. They should not be too heavy, +as they are tiresome to use. The extension handled types are too +cumbersome, too slow to work with, and the operator is of necessity +too far away from his work for the best results. + +FRUIT THINNING.--A matter which is quite nearly related to pruning is +thinning the fruit, and may properly be treated here. That this is not +as common a practice with most fruit-growers as it should be, the +great lack of uniformity in our ordinary market apples is ample +evidence. Many persons will at once raise the question as to whether +or not it is practicable to thin the fruit on large apple trees. The +answer is that many growers find it not only practicable, but most +profitable to do so. Wherever fruit of a uniform size and color is +desired, thinning is a practical necessity, especially when the crop +of fruit is heavy. + +The proper time to thin the fruit is just after what is commonly known +as the "June drop," i.e., the falling off of those fruits not well +enough pollinated or set to hold on to maturity. In thinning the fruit +should be taken off until they are not closer than from four to six +inches apart on the same branch, although the distance apart on any +branch will depend somewhat on the amount of the crop on other parts +of the tree. Never leave clusters of fruit on any branches, as some of +them are sure to be small and out of shape. Furthermore two apples +lying together afford a fine place for worms to get from one apple to +another and they seldom fail to improve the opportunity. Step ladders +and ordinary rung ladders are used to get at the fruit for thinning. +The cost of the operation is not nearly as large as might appear at +first thought and in practically all cases is a paying investment. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +CULTIVATION AND COVER CROPPING + + +In its broad sense cultivation is the treatment of the soil. Thus +understood orchard cultivation includes the sod mulch system as well +as the stirring of the soil with various implements. In its more +common and restricted meaning, however, cultivation is the stirring of +the soil about plants to encourage growth and productivity. To have +the apple tree in sod was once the commonly accepted method of orchard +treatment--a method of neglect and of "letting well enough alone." +With the advent of more scientific apple culture the stirring of the +soil has come to be the more popular method. But within the last few +years an improved modification of the old sod method, known as the sod +"mulch" system, has attracted much attention because of the success +with which a few men have practiced it. For a correct understanding of +these practices and of the relative desirability of these systems we +must again turn to underlying principles and purposes. + +It may be said on first thought that tillage is a practice contrary to +nature. But it accomplishes what nature does in another way. Tillage +has been practiced on other crops than trees for so long that we think +of it almost as a custom. There are, however, scientific and practical +reasons for tillage. + +THE EFFECTS OF TILLAGE on the soil are three fold, physical, chemical, +and increasing of water holding capacity. Tillage affects the soil +physically by fining and deepening it, thus increasing the feeding +area of roots, and by bringing about the more free admission of air +warms and dries the soil, thus reducing extremes of temperature and +moisture. Chemical activities are augmented by tillage in setting free +plant food, promoting nutrification, hastening the decomposition of +organic matter, and the extending of these agencies to greater depth. +Tillage conserves moisture by increasing the water holding capacity of +the soil and by checking evaporation. + +Of all these things which tillage accomplishes in a soil, two should +be especially emphasized for the apple orchard, namely, soil moisture +and soil texture. That moisture is a very important consideration in +the apple orchard the effects of our frequent droughts are ample +evidence. The amount of rainfall in the Eastern States when it is +properly distributed is fully sufficient for the needs of an apple +tree. By enlarging the reservoir or water holding capacity of the soil +and by preventing the loss of water by evaporation, an excess of +rainfall in the spring may be held for later distribution and use. + +As a rule, the improvement of a poor soil texture is as effective as +the supplying of plant food and much cheaper. The latter is of no +consequence unless the plant can use it. Scientists tell us that there +is an abundance of plant food in most soils. The problem is to make it +available. Plant food must be in solution and in the form of a film +moisture surrounding the smallest soil particles in order to be +available to the fine plant rootlets which seek it. Good tillage +supplies these conditions. Can they be obtained equally well in +another way? + +It is claimed by the advocates of the sod mulch system of orchard +culture that it also supplies these conditions. Humus or decayed +vegetable matter holds moisture. Grass or other mulch decaying in the +soil increases its humus content and hence its water holding capacity. +By forming a mulch over the soil evaporation may be checked to some +extent, although probably not as effectively in a practical way, as by +cultivation. If there is a good grass sod in the orchard, moisture and +plant food made available by that moisture are utilized, and if the +grass is allowed to go back into the soil it continues to furnish +these elements to the tree. But there is a rapid evaporation of +moisture from the surface of the leaves of grass. In fact, grass may +well serve to remove an excess of moisture in wet seasons, or from wet +lands. + +Laying aside theoretical considerations, let us see what practical +experience teaches on this subject. We have the accurate data on a +large number of western New York orchards showing the results of +cultivation and other methods of soil management. These data are +overwhelmingly in the favor of cultivation. In Wayne County the +average yield of orchards tilled for five years or more was 271 +bushels per acre, as compared with 200 bushels per acre for those in +sod five years or more but otherwise well cared for,--an increase of +thirty-five per cent. in favor of good tillage. In Orleans County, +under the same conditions, the increase in yield due to cultivation +was forty-five per cent. and in Niagara County it was twenty-two per +cent. Records were made on hundreds of orchards and the results should +be given great weight in determining the system to be practiced, as +intelligent consideration of trustworthy records is to be encouraged. + +These results were obtained in one region under its conditions and it +is quite possible, although not probable, that other conditions might +give different results. There are, however, special conditions as will +be pointed out later, under which the sod mulch method might be more +advisable than tillage. It is cheaper, makes a cleaner cover for the +drop fruit, avoids the damage from tillage implements to which tilled +trees are liable, and can be practiced on lands too steep to till. It +often happens, too, that it fits into the scheme of management on a +general farm better than the more intensive and specialized system of +cultivation. And it must be remembered that we are dealing with this +question from the point of view of the home farm rather than of the +commercial orchardist. So that where the sod mulch gives equally good +results it would be preferred under these conditions. + +LATE FALL AND EARLY SPRING PLOWING.--The common tillage practice in +the sections where it is most followed is to plow either in late fall +or as early as possible in the spring. Whether fall or spring plowing +is best depends on two things: the character of the soil and +convenience. On heavy clay soils where drainage is poor it is not +advisable to plow in the fall as the soil is apt to puddle and then to +bake when it dries, making it hard to handle. On gravel loams, medium +loams, and all well drained soils which are fairly open in texture +either fall or spring plowing is practiced depending on which period +affords the most time. + +On the general farm where there are several crops for which the land +must be prepared in spring, it would seem best to get as much of the +plowing as possible done in the fall. But a large crop of apples or a +large and late corn husking or potato digging may interfere with this +on some farms and make spring plowing more desirable. Always plan this +work in connection with the other farm work so as to give the best +distribution of labor. + +After fall plowing either the spring-tooth harrow or the disk harrow +is best to use to work up the soil and no time should be lost in +getting at this as soon as the land is dry enough in the spring. +Sometimes the disk harrow can be used to work up the soil in the +orchard in the spring without any plowing at all, especially on loose +loams where there are few stones. But on newly plowed land a disk cuts +too deep and there is too great danger of injuring the roots. On +spring plowed land the spring-tooth harrow usually gives the best +results. After the soil is thoroughly fined and worked into a mellow +bed and as soon as the period of excessive moisture in spring is +passed, a lighter implement like the smoothing harrow or a light +shallow digging cultivator should be used to stir the surface of the +soil only. + +The growing period for an apple tree begins as early as growth starts +in the spring and continues up to about midsummer. If cultivation is +to stimulate growth as much as possible, it should be done during this +period. The first object of cultivation in the early spring is to +loosen up, aerate, and dry out the soil, which is usually too wet at +that time. As cultivation is continued the soil will become fined and +firmed again by the time drier weather comes on. A fairly deep +digging and lump crushing tool is the best implement to use up to this +time, and a disk or spring-tooth harrow meets these requirements. + +After this period is passed and during drier weather, cultivation is +carried on for a different purpose, namely, to conserve moisture by +making a thin dust mulch of soil over the surface. This is best +accomplished by shallow-going implements of which the spike-tooth +harrow, the acme harrow, or a light wheel cultivator are best. As the +season and the amount of rainfall vary, so must tillage operations be +varied. In an early dry season begin with the lighter implements +earlier. In a late wet season keep the digging tools at work later. As +soon as the soil is in good physical condition the principal object of +tillage is to modify moisture conditions. + +As a matter of practice three to four harrowings at intervals of a +week to ten days are necessary. Sometimes more, sometimes less are +required, according to the character and condition of the soil and the +season. The later moisture-conserving tillage should also be carried +on every week or ten days, according to weather conditions. It is good +practice to stir the soil after every heavy or moderately heavy rain. +Use the smoothing tools after light to medium rains and the heavier +tools after packing or beating rains. In practice from five to eight +or ten of these cultivations are necessary. The drier the season the +more necessary does frequent cultivation become. + +A COVER CROP is so closely associated with tillage that it is usually +considered a part of the system. It should be sown in midsummer as soon +as tillage ceases. This time will vary from July first to August +fifteenth, depending on the locality, the rainfall, the crop of fruit +on the trees, and on how favorable the conditions for securing a good +stand of the cover crop are. The farther south the locality, or the +earlier the fruit, the sooner the crop should be sown. Absence of +sufficient rainfall necessitates a continuation of the cultivation, +both because it is necessary to conserve all the moisture possible and +because it is difficult to get a good stand of a cover crop--especially +of one having small seeds--at a dry time in midsummer. + +In a year when there is a full crop of fruit on the trees cultivation +should be continued as late as possible as all the stimulus that can +thus be secured will be necessary to help the fruit attain good size +and maturity, and at the same time enable the tree properly to mature +its fruit and leaf buds for the following year. On the other hand, in +a year when there is not a full crop of fruit cultivation should be +stopped early so as to avoid forcing a too rank growth of wood and +foliage and continuing the growth of the next season's buds so late +that they may not mature and therefore may be in danger of winter +killing. + +The different kinds of cover crops which may be used in the apple +orchard will be considered in the next chapter as they are so closely +associated with fertilization. Strictly speaking, however, a cover +crop is used principally to secure its mulching and physical effects +on the soil in the intervals between the seasons of tillage. In +addition to its physical and feeding effects the cover crop serves to +check the growth of trees in the latter part of the season by taking +up the nitrates and a part of the moisture, thus helping to ripen the +wood. + +SOD MULCH.--The ordinary sod culture which is practiced in so many +orchards should not be confused with the sod mulch system. The one is +a system of neglect, the other of intention. In the sod mulch system +the grass sod is stimulated and encouraged and when the grass dies or +is cut, it is left on the ground to decay, forming a soil mulch +meanwhile. The removal of grass from the orchard as hay is poor +practice and should be discouraged. The grass mulch may well be +supplemented by the addition of other grass, straw, leaves, coarse +manure, or other similar materials. Sometimes this mulch is put on to +the depth of six inches or even a foot around the tree. Thus practiced +it is very effective in conserving moisture and in adding the humus +which is so necessary to the soil. + +Sod and tillage have somewhat different effects on the tree and on the +fruit. Let us see what these effects are. It is common knowledge that +fruit is more highly colored when grown in sod than when grown under a +tillage system. This is probably largely due to the fact that tillage +keeps the fruit growing so late that it does not mature so well or so +early. Fruit is usually two or three weeks later in tilled than in sod +orchards. It has been shown that fruit grown under tillage keeps from +two to four weeks longer than that grown in sod. It is claimed +also--but this is a disputed point--that tilled fruit has a better +quality and flavor. Certain it is that fruit grown in sod is drier +and less crisp and juicy. + +The effect of tillage on the trees is more marked and better known. +Tilled trees have a darker, richer green foliage, indicating a better +and more vigorous health. The leaves are also larger and more +numerous. They come out three or four days earlier in the spring and +stay on the trees two weeks later in the fall than the leaves on trees +kept in sod. Tilled trees make nearly twice the growth in a season +that those in sod do, in fact there is danger of their making wood +growth at the expense of fruit buds. Tillage also gives a deeper, +better distributed root system. + +Despite the advantages and the disadvantages of each system, there are +times, places, and circumstances under which one is more advisable +than the other. On lands rich in humus and in plant food and level so +as to be easily tillable, cultivation is without doubt the best +system. But it should be practiced in connection with cover crops, and +the orchard should be given occasional periods of rest in sod--say one +year in from three to five. + +The sod mulch system of orchard culture is probably better adapted to +rather wet good grass land and where mulching material is cheap and +readily available. It is undoubtedly at its best on lands too steep or +rough to till, or otherwise unsuitable to cultivation. Tillage is the +more intensive method and where labor is scarce and high sod culture +might be more advisable for this reason, other conditions being not +too unfavorable. + +In order to illustrate a method of management under the tillage system +we may suggest the following as a good one for level to gently rolling +land: + + 1912. Early plowing in spring, cultivation to July first to + fifteenth. Then sow red clover as a cover crop. + + 1913. Repeat previous year's treatment, varying the time of + sowing cover crop according to conditions. + + 1914. Let the clover grow, mowing and leaving on the ground as a + mulch, June fifteenth to twentieth, and again in August. + + 1915. Plow early in spring, cultivate to midsummer, and then sow + rye or buckwheat as a cover crop July fifteenth to August + fifteenth. + + 1916. Repeat 1915 treatment and if trees are not growing too + fast, sow clover or hairy vetch as a cover crop. + + 1917. Same as 1912, etc. + +PASTURING THE ORCHARD.--The sod mulch system explains itself and does +not need illustration. Sod orchards are often managed as pasture for +animals, however, and this practice should be discussed. An orchard is +considered as pastured when a considerable number of animals are +turned into it for a greater or less portion of the year. Results in +orchards where pasturage has been thoroughly tried out show that it is +never advisable to pasture an orchard with horses or cattle, but that +fairly good results may be expected where sheep or hogs are used. + +The evidence of yield of fruit and appearance of trees both indicate, +that pasturing an orchard with horses or cattle is about the worst +possible practice. These animals rub against the trees, break the +branches, browse the limbs and leaves, and destroy the fruit as high +as they can reach. All experience is against this practice which +cannot be too strongly deprecated. + +Pasturing an orchard with sheep, although a somewhat doubtful +practice, often gives good results. Sheep crop the grass close to the +ground and to some extent prevent the extensive evaporation which +usually takes place from the leaves of grass. Their well distributed +manure is worth considerable. They also browse the branches to some +extent and should not be allowed to run in the orchard late in the +season as they will destroy considerable fruit. + +Pasturing an orchard with swine gives better results than any other +pasture treatment of the orchard. Hogs do considerable rooting which +prevents the formation of a stiff sod and itself may often amount +almost to cultivation in well stocked orchards. A good deal of manure +is added to the soil, especially when the hogs are fed outside the +orchard. Hogs also destroy many insects by eating the wormy fruit. + +Pasturage of orchards has its advantages. It gives a double +utilization of the land. It is a cheap method of management. When the +animals are fed outside the orchard, as should always be the case, it +adds considerable plant food to the soil. When plenty of outside food +can be given and when the orchard is not overstocked--the animals +should never be hungry--hogs and sheep may be used to advantage in +pasturing orchards. In very rough fields incapable of tillage, this is +undoubtedly the very best system of orchard management. + +Pasturage has the disadvantage of exposing young trees to injury from +the animals, but this may be at least partly avoided by protecting +them with stakes or a heavy wire meshed screen. Hogs especially soil +the fruit and make the land rough and difficult to drive over. Under +the proper conditions pasturage may be practiced to advantage, +especially on small areas and on the general farm where it is more +advantageous than it would be commercially. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +MANURING AND FERTILIZING + + +Cover crops may be said to be supplementary to tillage. In the +previous chapter this function has been discussed. It now remains to +point out another important function--that of a green manure crop +adding humus and plant food to the soil. Not only do some cover crops +add plant food and all humus to the soil, but they tend to conserve +these by preventing leaching, especially of nitrates, and they help to +render plant food more available by reworking it and leaving it in a +form more available for the tree. They sometimes act as a protection +against winter injury by holding snow and by their own bulk. They also +help to dry out the soil in spring, thus making the land tillable +earlier. + +There are two great classes of cover or green manure crops, leguminous +and non-leguminous. A non-leguminous crop merely adds humus and +improves the physical condition of the soil. In itself it adds no +plant food, although it may take up, utilize, and leave behind plant +food in a more available form for the tree's use. But in addition to +these benefits, leguminous crops actually add to the soil plant food +in the form of nitrogen which they have the ability to assimilate from +the air by means of bacterial organisms on their roots. + +NON-LEGUMINOUS CROPS.--The most important of the non-leguminous crops +are rye, buckwheat, turnips or rape, barley, oats, and millet. The +first mentioned are the most commonly used. Also in order of +importance the following are the usual leguminous cover and green +manure crops to be used: clovers, winter vetch, soy beans, alfalfa, +cow peas (first in the South). In order to determine the relative +advisability of the use of these various crops let us now look at some +of their characteristics and requirements. + +Rye is one of the best non-leguminous cover crops, especially in the +young orchard, as it does not grow as well in shade as in the open. A +particularly strong point about rye is that it grows rapidly quite +late in the fall and starts early in the spring. Starting earlier than +most crops in the spring, it makes a considerable amount of growth +before the land is fit to plow. Especially in warmer climates rye +should not be sown too early in the fall--not usually before September +1st--because of this too heavy growth. Rye is also adapted to a great +variety of soils and hence will often grow where other crops will not +do well. About two bushels of seed are required per acre. + +Buckwheat is probably about equally as good as rye for an orchard +cover crop, although it does not produce quite as much organic matter. +It will germinate at almost any season of the year even if it is very +dry. It is a great soil improver because of its ability to feed and +thrive on soils too poor for other crops, due to its numerous shallow +feeding rootlets. It grows rapidly and covers the ground well, but +like rye does not thrive as well in shade. Buckwheat should not be +used to excess on the heavier types of soil as it is rather hard on +the land. One bushel of seed to an acre makes a good seeding. + +Turnips or rape often make good pioneer cover or green manure crops. +They are great soil improvement crops and it is comparatively easy to +secure a good stand of them even in dry weather. Sown in late July in +the North they will produce a great bulk of humus and add much +moisture to the soil, especially if they cover the ground well. Their +broad, abundant leaves and high tops also hold the snow well in +winter. Cow Horn is the best variety of turnips to use, as it is a +large, rank grower. Use one to two pounds of seed to the acre. Rape +makes an excellent pasture crop in an orchard both for sheep and hogs, +but especially for the former. Eight or nine pounds of seed are +necessary to the acre. + +Barley, oats, and millet are not as good crops as the foregoing, +because, with the possible exception of millet, they make their best +growth early in the season. Moreover they take up too much moisture +from the soil at a time when the tree most needs this moisture. In +fact they are sometimes used for this specific purpose on wet land in +too wet seasons. Two to two and one half bushels of oats or barley and +one to one and one half bushels of millet to the acre are necessary +for a good seeding. + +Although weeds can hardly be classified as cover crops, they are often +valuable ones. They grow rapidly and rank, making a large bulk of +humus, without the expense of seeding. If they are not allowed to go +to seed so as to scatter the seed about the farm, they often make the +best of cover crops. This necessitates a mowing in September. Weeds +are plants out of place, and when these plants are in place they are +not necessarily weeds, as they have then become serviceable. + +LEGUMES.--In general, legumes are more valuable as cover and green +manure crops than non-leguminous plants, because as a rule they are +more rank growers and more deeply rooted, as well as because they add +nitrogen to the soil. But it is rather more difficult to secure a good +stand of most legumes than it is of the crops previously mentioned for +several reasons. As a rule the seeds are smaller and a large seed +usually has greater germinating power than a small one. This often +means much at the time of the year when the cover crop is sown. Then +legumes are more difficult to grow, requiring better soil conditions. +Still these should be present in good orchard soils. Drainage must be +good, the soil must be at least average in fertility and physical +condition, it must not be sour--hence it is often necessary to use +lime--and soils frequently require inoculation before they will grow +legumes satisfactorily. + +Where the clovers grow well they make excellent cover crops as well as +green manure crops. The chief difficulty with them is that of +obtaining a good stand in a dry midsummer. The mammoth red and the +medium red clovers are probably the best of their genus on the heavier +soils, while crimson clover is best on sandy soils and where it will +grow, on the lighter gravel loams. The latter is especially well +adapted to building up run down sandy soils. Although it is somewhat +easier to secure a stand of this clover, alsike does not grow rank +enough to make a good cover or green manure crop. Most clovers are +deep rooted plants and therefore great soil improvers physically as +well as being great nitrogen gatherers. The amounts of seed required +per acre for the different kinds are about as follows: mammoth fifteen +to twenty pounds; red (medium) twelve to fifteen pounds; crimson +twelve to fifteen pounds; and alsike ten to twelve pounds. + +Where it can be readily and successfully grown alfalfa is really a +better cover and green manure crop than the clovers. It is deeper +rooted, makes a better top growth, and therefore adds more nitrogen +and more humus to the soil than the clovers. It cannot be recommended +for common use, however, as it is so difficult to grow except under +favorable conditions. It requires a more fertile soil than clover, a +soil with little or no acidity, good drainage, and usually the soil +must be inoculated. Only where these conditions prevail can alfalfa be +generally recommended. + +Vetch is an excellent cover and green manure crop, forming a thick, +close mat of herbage which makes a good cover for the soil. It is very +quick to start growing and a rapid grower in the spring. It also adds +larger quantities of nitrogen. The hairy or winter vetch lives through +the hard freezing winters. Summer vetch, although an equally good +grower, is killed by freezing. One bushel of seed is required per acre +and the seed is expensive, which is the greatest objection to the use +of this excellent crop. + +Two other less well known and used leguminous crops are well worth +trial as cover crops--soy beans in the North and cow peas in the +South. Both are great nitrogen gatherers and as they are rank and +rapid growers add large quantities of humus to the soil. Under +favorable conditions they will cover the ground with a perfect mat of +vegetation in a very short time. Being larger seeded, it is +considerably easier to obtain a stand on dry soils and in dry seasons +than it is of the smaller seeded clovers. It is usually best to sow in +drills the ordinary width, seven inches, apart. + +Cow peas are universally used as a cover and green manure crop in the +South, but they do not thrive so well in the North. One and one half +to two bushels of seed are required per acre. In the North the earlier +maturing varieties of soy beans are almost equally good. One to one +and one half bushels of seed are sown per acre. + +Leguminous cover crops are also the best and the cheapest source of +nitrogen for the apple orchard, after they are well established. Their +use may be overdone, however. Too much nitrogen results in a growth of +wood at the expense of fruit buds. To avoid this it is often advisable +to use non-leguminous and leguminous crops alternately, when the +orchard is making a satisfactory growth. Sometimes also these two +kinds of crops, as buckwheat and clover for example, may be combined +with good results. When this is done one half the usual amount of seed +of each should be used. + +EARLY PLOWING.--Many people make the common mistake of thinking that +a green manure crop must be allowed to grow until late in June in +order to secure the maximum amount of growth. There are several +reasons why this is not good practice. In the first place cultivation +is most essential in the early spring as has been pointed out. Then +moisture is better conserved by plowing under the crop early and a +better physical condition of the soil secured. Plowing early in the +spring warms up the soil and sets plants to work more quickly. Lastly, +material rots much more quickly in the early spring when moisture is +more abundant, which is very important. + +An apple tree is as much a crop as anything grown on the farm and must +be so regarded by those who would become successful orchardists. When +it is not properly fed and cared for, good yields of fruit may not +justly be expected. Especially is this true of an orchard which is +being intercropped. But because of the fact that an apple tree is not +an annual crop but the product of many years' growth, because its root +system is deeper and more widely spread out than those of other crops, +and because the amount of plant food removed in a crop of fruit is +comparatively small, fertilization is less important than many +persons would have us think. It is a fact that where orchards receive +good cultivation and a liberal supply of humus commercial fertilizers +give but medium results. + +ELEMENTS OF FERTILITY.--Three elements are necessary for the growth of +apple trees, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. To these lime may +be added, although its benefit is indirect rather than direct as a +plant food. How badly any of these elements may be needed depends on +the soil, its previous treatment, and on the system of management. By +learning what are the effects of these elements on the tree and fruit +we may determine under what conditions, if any, their use is +advisable. + +Nitrogen promotes the growth of new wood and leaves, giving the latter +a dark green color. In fact the color of the leaves and the amount of +the wood growth are usually good indicators of the need of nitrogen. +Nitrogen in excess develops over vigorous growth and prevents the +maturity of wood and buds. It always has a tendency to delay the +maturity of the fruit by keeping it growing late. On many varieties it +tends to produce poorly colored fruits. + +When trees are making a normal amount of growth in a year--say a foot +to three feet or more--and when the leaves are of good size and a +dark green in color, there is little need of nitrogen. But when trees +are not growing satisfactorily and the leaves have a sickly yellow +color, then the need of nitrogen is evident. On early soils and in +long growing seasons nitrogen may be more freely and safely used than +under other conditions. + +The effect of phosphoric acid and potash on the tree and fruit is much +more uncertain. They are supposed to influence the quality and the +flavor of the fruit, giving better color and flavor, and this they +undoubtedly do to some extent. Potash probably gives the leaves a +darker green color. The precise effect of these two elements is at +present a subject of much discussion, one set of investigators +maintaining after a long and careful investigation that these effects +are too small to be worth while, and the other claiming that they have +a marked effect in the ways above indicated. The only safe guide is +the actual local result. If the fruit is satisfactory in every way it +will be of little use to try fertilizers. On the other hand, if it is +not, then it will pay to experiment with them. The needs of and the +results on different soils are so variable that it is always wise to +experiment on a small scale before using fertilizers extensively. + +STABLE MANURE.--The necessary plant food is best supplied by stable +manure applied at the rate of ten loads per acre for a light +application to twenty loads per acre for a heavy application. This +amounts to a load for from two to five mature trees. Such an +application will not only go far toward supplying the necessary +nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, but especially if coarse will +add considerable humus and improve the physical condition of the soil. + +Except on land which washes badly, manure should be applied in the +fall and winter. It should not be piled near the trunk of the tree but +spread uniformly over the entire surface of the ground. It is +particularly important to spread the manure under and beyond the +farthest extent of the branches as this is the most important feeding +root area of the tree. + +COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.--Where manure is not available or where it +cannot be applied in sufficient amounts, commercial fertilizers may be +resorted to, after they have been experimentally tested out. +Leguminous cover crops are the best source of nitrogen, as has been +indicated, but where these do not grow well, or in seasons when they +have for some reason failed, nitrate of soda or dried blood are good +substitutes. From two hundred to three hundred pounds of one or the +other of these may be applied broadcast in the spring soon after +growth is well started and all danger of its being checked by frost or +cold weather is past. It is well to apply the nitrate of soda in two +applications a few weeks apart, especially on soils which are leachy +and in wet seasons, as part of the nitrogen may leach away if all is +applied at once. These should be thoroughly worked into the soil with +a spring-tooth harrow. + +To supply the other two elements, from two hundred to four hundred +pounds of treated rock phosphate or basic slag for the phosphoric +acid, and the same amount of sulphate of potash for the potash, should +be applied at any time in the early part of the season, preferably +just before a light rain, and worked into the soil as before. +Home-made wood ashes are a good source of both these elements, and +especially of the potash. They cannot be purchased economically in any +quantity, but on the general farm there could be no better way to +utilize the wood ashes made around the place than by applying them two +or three bushels to a full grown tree every year or two. Wood ashes +are also a good source of lime, being about one-third calcium oxide. +Thus a large amount of available plant food will be supplied to the +tree, and where it is needed should result not only in better wood +growth but in the formation of vigorous leaf and fruit buds for the +following year. + +Lime is not usually considered as a fertilizer except on soils +actually deficient in it. But it will usually be advisable to apply +from one thousand five hundred to two thousand pounds of fresh burned +lime or its equivalent, in order to correct any natural soil acidity, +to hasten the decay of organic material, to increase the activity of +the soil bacteria, and to improve the physical condition of the soil +by floculating the soil particles and helping to break up lumpy soils. +Lime also helps to liberate plant food by recombining it with certain +other elements in the soil. All these effects make a more congenial +medium for the leguminous crops to grow in, and it is frequently +advisable to use lime for this purpose alone. After this first heavy +application about 800 pounds of lime should be applied per acre every +four or five years. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +INSECTS AND DISEASES AFFECTING THE APPLE + + +It is a common saying among farmers who have grown apples on their +farms for many years that there are many more pests to fight than +there used to be. How often we have heard a farmer tell of the perfect +apples that grew on a certain tree "when he was a boy," before people +had generally heard of codling moth, San Jose scale, apple scab, or +other troubles now only too common. "We never sprayed, but the apples +were fine," he says. Is this the usual glorification of the mythical +past or is it true? In all probability it is a little of both, but it +is undoubtedly true that insects and fungous diseases have increased +rapidly of late years. + +REASONS FOR PEST INCREASE.--When there is an abundance of food and +conditions are otherwise favorable, any animal or plant will thrive +better than when the food supply is scarce and conditions unfavorable. +As long as apple trees were scattered and few in number there was not +the opportunity for the development of apple pests, but as soon as +they became numerous the prosperity of bugs and minute plant parasites +was wonderful to see. Another factor which has been at least partly +responsible for the great increase in our insect life is that man has +upset nature's balance by destroying so many birds, and, by +interfering with their natural surroundings, driven them away. Birds +are great destroyers of insects, and their presence in the orchard +should be encouraged in every possible way. Add to these facts the +marvelous fecundity of the insect tribe, and the increase is less +remarkable. Loss from these orchard pests has now run up into the +millions. It has been estimated that the loss in the United States +from wormy apples alone is over $11,000,000 annually. Thus has the +necessity for fighting these enemies of good fruit arisen. + +In order successfully to combat an insect or a disease it is very +necessary to have a somewhat detailed knowledge of its life history +and to know its most vulnerable point of attack. It is impossible to +work most intelligently and effectively without this knowledge, which +should include the several stages of the insect or disease, the point +of attack, the time of making it, and when and with what it can be +most easily destroyed. The number of insects and diseases which affect +the apple is so great that it is simply out of the question to treat +them all in detail here. We have therefore selected nine insects and +three diseases as those pests of the apple which are most common and +whose effects are usually most serious. The essential facts in their +life histories and their vulnerable points will now be pointed out. +The method of study may be taken as applicable to any other pests +which it may be necessary to combat. + +INSECT PESTS.--Of the many insects which affect either the tree or the +fruit of the apple, the nine selected probably inflict the most damage +and are the most difficult to control of all those in the Northeastern +States. According to their method of attack all insects may be divided +into two classes: biting and sucking. Biting insects are those which +actually eat parts of the tree, as the leaves or fruit. These are +combated by the use of stomach poisons as we shall see in the +following chapter. Sucking insects are those which do not eat the tree +or fruit directly, but by means of a tubelike proboscis suck the +juices or sap from the limbs, leaves or fruit. Of the biting insects +the five which we shall discuss are: (1) codling moth, (2) apple +maggot, (3) bud moth, (4) cigar case bearer, (5) curculio. The four +sucking insects discussed are: (6) San Jose scale, (7) oyster shell +scale, (8) blister mite, and (9) aphis or plant louse. + +1. THE CODLING MOTH, the most insidious of all apple pests, is mainly +responsible for wormy apples. The adult is a night flying moth with a +wing expanse of from one-half to three-quarters of an inch. The moths +appear about the time the apple trees are in bloom. Each female is +supposed to lay about fifty eggs which are deposited on both the +leaves and fruit, but mostly on the calyx end of the young apples. The +eggs hatch in about a week and the young larvae or caterpillars begin +at once to gnaw their way into the core of the fruit. Three-fourths of +them enter the apple through its blow end. + +After twenty to thirty days of eating in the apple, during which time +they become full grown and about three-quarters of an inch long, they +leave the apple, usually through its side. The full grown caterpillar +now secretes itself in the crevices in the bark of the tree or in +rubbish beneath the tree and spins a tough but slight silken cocoon in +which the pupal period is passed. This lasts about a fortnight, when +the process is sometimes repeated, so that in the Eastern States there +are often two broods each season. + +The most vulnerable point in the career of this little animal is when +it is entering the fruit. If a fine poison spray covers the surface of +the fruit, and especially if it covers the calyx end of the apple +inside and out, when the young larvae begin to eat they will surely be +killed. It is estimated that birds destroy eighty-five per cent. of +the cocoons on the bark of trees. + +2. APPLE MAGGOT.--It is fortunate that the apple maggot, often called +the railroad worm because of its winding tunnels all through the +fruit, is not as serious a pest as the codling moth for it is much +more difficult to control with a poison. A two-winged fly appears in +early summer and deposits her eggs in a puncture of the skin of the +apple. In a few days the eggs hatch and the maggots begin to burrow +indiscriminately through the fruit. The full grown larvae are a +greenish white in color and about a quarter of an inch long. From the +fruit this insect goes to the ground where the pupal stage is passed +in the soil. The next summer the fly again emerges and lays its eggs. + +Spraying is not effective against this insect as the poison cannot be +placed where it will be eaten by the maggots. The best known remedy is +to destroy the fruit which drops to the ground and for this purpose +hogs in the orchard are very effective. The distribution of this +insect in the orchard is limited and it has shown a marked preference +for summer and autumn varieties. + +3. THE BUD MOTH closely resembles the codling moth in form and size, +but differs from it in color and life history. The larvae, after +hibernating through the winter, appear as little brown caterpillars +about May first or as soon as the buds begin to open, and a week or +two later begin their work of destruction. They inflict great damage +on the young leaf and fruit buds by feeding on them. When full grown +the larvae, cinnamon brown in color with a shining black head, are +about one-half inch long. They then roll themselves up in a tube made +from a leaf or parts of leaves securely fastened together with silken +threads. In this cocoon pupation, which lasts about ten days, takes +place. Early in June the moths appear. There is but one brood in the +North. These insects can be successfully combated with a poison spray +applied early before the buds open. + +4. THE CIGAR CASE BEARER winters in its case attached to a twig. When +the buds begin to open in the spring it moves to them, carrying its +case with it, and begins to feed on the young and tender buds. By the +time the leaves are well open, it has fed a good deal on the tender +buds and young leaves and is ready to make a new and larger case. This +it does by cutting a leaf to suit and then rolling it up in the form +of a cigar, whence its name. In this case the larvae continue feeding +about a month, causing much injury to the leaves, although this is not +as serious as the mutilation of the young buds in the spring, before +the tree is fully leafed out. + +About the last of June pupation takes place and in about ten days the +moth emerges. The eggs are then layed along the midribs of the leaves +and hatch in about fifteen days. The newly hatched larvae become leaf +miners during August, and migrate to the branches again in the fall +where they pass the winter. These leaf and bud eating insects can be +destroyed by applying a poison to the buds before they open and again +later to the opening leaf and flower buds. + +5. CURCULIO BEETLES pass the winter under leaves and grass. In the +spring they feed on the blossoms and the tender leaves. As soon as the +young fruits are formed the female deposits her eggs in a puncture +made just inside a short, crescent-shaped cut in the little apple. The +eggs soon hatch and the young grubs burrow into the fruit to the core +where they remain two or three weeks, or until full grown. The larvae +then bore their way out of the fruit and drop to the soil where they +pupate. The earliest of the beetles to emerge again feed on the fruit. +The principal damage from this pest comes from the feeding of the +beetles and the work of the larvae, although the latter is not as bad +in the apple as in the stone fruits. A poison on the young foliage as +soon as the beetles begin to feed is the best method of combating +curculio. Jarring the tree is not as practicable with the apple as it +is with the plum. + +6. THE SAN JOSE SCALE, one of our worst apple tree pests, is a sucking +insect extracting the juices of the tree from the trunk, limbs or +branches, or even from the leaves and fruit when it is very abundant. +At first the growth is checked only, but as the insects develop their +work finally results in the death of the part, unless they are +destroyed. The insect winters in an immature condition on the bark +under a grayish, circular, somewhat convex scale about the size of a +pinhead. The young, of which a great many broods are produced, are +soft bodied but soon form a scale. In the early spring small +two-winged insects issue from these scales. + +After mating the males die, but the females continue to grow and in +about a month begin the production of living young--minute, yellow, +oval creatures. These young settle on the bark and push their slender +beaks into the plant from which they begin to suck out the sap. In +about twelve days the insects molt and in eight to ten more they +change to pupae, and in from thirty-three to forty days are themselves +bearing young. A single female may give birth to four hundred young in +one season and there are several generations in a season. This great +prolificacy is what makes the scale so serious a pest. + +In fighting it every scale must be destroyed or thousands more are +soon born. In order to be able to use a strong enough mixture of lime +and sulphur to destroy them by smothering or choking the spray must be +applied on the dormant wood in the spring or fall or both. +Thoroughness is most essential. + +7. THE OYSTER SHELL SCALE, although it is essentially the same in its +habits and in its methods of sucking the sap from the tree is not as +bad a pest as the San Jose scale because it is less prolific, there +being but one brood a year. Still this scale often destroys a branch +and sometimes a whole tree. The "lice" winter as eggs under the scale +and hatch in late May or early June. After crawling about the bark for +two or three days, the young fix their beaks into it and remain +fastened there for life, sucking out the sap. By the end of the season +they have matured and secreted a scaly covering under which their eggs +for the next season's crop winter. A smothering spray like lime and +sulphur applied strong when the trees are dormant will practically +control this scale. But the young may be destroyed in summer by a +contact spray such as tobacco leaf extract or whale oil soap. + +8. THE LEAF BLISTER MITE is a small, four-legged animal, so small as +hardly to be visible to the naked eye. It passes the winter in the +bud scales and as soon as these begin to open in the spring it passes +to the tender leaves which it punctures, producing light green or +reddish pimples according to the variety of apple. These later develop +into galls or blisters of a blackish or reddish brown color and +finally result in the destruction of the leaf. Trees are sometimes +practically defoliated by this pest, and this at a time when a good +foliage is most needed. Inside of the galls eggs are deposited and +when the young hatch they burrow in all directions. In October the +mites abandon the leaves to hibernate in the bud scales again. A +strong contact spray of lime sulphur when the trees are dormant +destroys the young mites while they are yet on the bud scales, which +is practically the only time when they are vulnerable. + +9. APHIDES, or plant lice, are of seasonal importance. Although nearly +always present, it is only occasionally that they become so numerous +as seriously to damage mature apple trees. But they are more often +serious pests on young trees where they should be carefully watched. +Their presence is determined by the curled and distorted condition of +the terminal leaves on the under side of which the green or pinkish +lice will be found. Eggs deposited in autumn pass the winter in this +condition, hatching in the spring about the time of the beginning of +the growth of vegetation. From these winter eggs females are hatched +which bear living young, which may also bear living young and so on +for several generations until autumn, when eggs are again deposited +for the winter stage. + +Fortunately weather conditions together with parasitic and predaceous +insects hold them more or less in check. Because of the difficulty of +getting at the underside of the curled leaves where these lice mostly +work they are extremely hard to control. Lime and sulphur when the +trees are dormant destroy as many of the eggs as it comes in contact +with. A tobacco extract is quite effective as a contact spray in the +growing season. The trees must be closely watched and if the lice +appear in any considerable number they must be promptly attended to or +serious damage is likely to result. + +These are by no means all the insect pests which the fruit grower has +to combat, but they are usually the most important. Canker worm and +tent caterpillars often do great damage in unsprayed orchards, but +they are easily controlled by an application of a poison as soon as +they appear. The same is true of other caterpillars and leaf eating +worms. Apple tree borers are frequently serious, especially in young +orchards, where the trees should be regularly "grubbed" and the borers +dug out or killed with a piece of wire. They may be prevented to some +extent by painting the tree trunks with a heavy lime and sulphur or +some gas tar preparation. + +DISEASES.--Although not as numerous as insects, the diseases which +attack the apple inflict great damage and are fully as difficult to +control. They are caused by bacteria and by fungi which may be +compared to weeds growing on or in the tree instead of the soil. If +either of these works within the plant, as is sometimes the case, it +must be attacked before it enters. It is very necessary to be thorough +in order to control these diseases. Weather conditions influence +nearly all of them materially. Of those which attack the apple tree or +fruit we have selected three as the most serious and the most +necessary for the grower to combat, namely, (1) apple scab, (2) New +York apple tree canker, and (3) fire blight. To these should be added +in the South and middle latitudes, sooty blotch and bitter rot. +Baldwin spot is also frequently serious in some seasons and +localities. + +(1) THE APPLE SCAB, commonly known among growers as "the fungus," is +the most important of our common apple diseases and is most evident on +the fruit, although it attacks the leaves as well. In some seasons the +fruit is made almost unsalable. This disease lives through the winter +on old leaves. In the spring about blossoming time the spores are +scattered by the wind and other agencies, and reaching the tender +shoots germinate and enter the tissues of the plant. Their development +is greatly dependent on the weather. In a season in which there is +little fog or continued damp or humid weather, they may not develop at +all, but where these conditions are present they frequently become +very virulent. + +Spraying will be governed by the weather conditions, but the mixture +must be applied very promptly as soon as it is evident that it is +likely to be necessary and must cover every part of the tree to be +effective. The object is to prevent the spores from germinating, the +spray being entirely a preventive and in no sense a cure. The disease +most frequently first manifests itself on the tender new growth and on +the blossoms. Two mixtures have been found to control it, namely, +Bordeaux and a weak solution of lime and sulphur. One or other of +these should be applied just before the blossoms open, just before +they fall, and when necessary two and nine weeks later. + +(2) NEW YORK APPLE TREE CANKER is usually found mainly on the trunks +of old trees, but it also affects the smaller branches. Practically +every old or uncared for orchard has more or less of this canker, and +where it is not checked it eventually destroys the tree. This fungus +is the cause of most of the dead wood found in old orchards. The +surface of the canker is black and rough and covered with minute black +pimples. It lives over winter and spreads from one branch or tree to +another. As it most frequently enters a branch through wounds made in +pruning, these should be promptly painted over with a heavy lead and +oil paint. All diseased parts should be cut out and removed as soon as +observed. The value of spraying for this disease is not definitely +known, but it is seldom very troublesome in well sprayed and well +cared for orchards. + +(3) BLIGHT appears on apple trees in three forms, as blossom blight, +as twig blight, and as blight cankers. It is a bacterial disease +which is distributed by flies, bees, birds, etc., and cannot be +controlled by spraying. The bacteria are carried over the winter in +cankers on the main limbs and bodies of the trees, oozing out in a +sticky mass in the spring. These cankers should be cut out with a +sharp knife cutting well into the healthy bark and then washing the +wound with corrosive sublimate, one part to one thousand of water. +Cutting out and destroying are also the chief remedies to be used when +the blight appears in the twigs and blossoms. It is not usually as +serious on apples as on pears. Some varieties, like Alexander, are +more subject to it than others. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF SPRAYING + + +The spraying of fruit trees in the United States is of comparatively +recent origin, having been a general commercial practice for less than +two decades. It involves the principle of applying with force and in +the form of a fine rain or mist, water in which a poison or a +substance which kills by contact is suspended. The first application +of the principle was against chewing insects with hellebore. Pure +arsenic was early used and soon led to the use of other arsenicals. + +Our greatest fungicide, Bordeaux mixture, was discovered by accident +in 1882 when it was found to control mildew in France. Up until about +five years ago Bordeaux mixture as the fungicide and paris green as +the poison were almost universally used. Within the last few years, +however, there have been developed two substitutes which, although +known and used to some extent for twenty years, have only recently +come into such general use as practically to replace the old sprays. +These are lime and sulphur as the fungicide and partial insecticide +and arsenate of lead as a partial insecticide. + +The necessity for and the advisability of spraying have already been +pointed out. There is an increasing demand for fine fruit the +supplying of which is possible only with thorough spraying. In the +humid East especially the competition of more progressive sections in +the West is demanding more and better spraying. There is no cure-all +in this process. It does not make a tree more fruitful except as it +improves its general health, but it does bring a larger percentage of +the fruit to perfection. Certain knowledge is fundamental; the grower +must know what he is spraying for, when and with what to combat it and +how to accomplish the desired result most effectively. + +Spraying is an insurance against anticipated troubles with the fruit, +and the best and most successful growers are those most completely +insured. It has many general advantages also. It stimulates the grower +to a greater interest in his business because of the extra knowledge +and skill required. It compels thoroughness. It necessitates spending +money, therefore a return is looked for. To be sure, it is only one +of the operations necessary to success, but it enables us to grow a +quality of fruit which we could not obtain without it. + +SPRAY MATERIALS are conveniently divided into two classes, +insecticides and fungicides. An insecticide is a poison by which the +insect is killed either directly by eating it, or indirectly by the +caustic, smothering, or stifling effects resulting from closing its +breathing pores. Direct poisons are used for insects which eat some +part of the tree or fruit and are called stomach poisons. Sprays which +kill indirectly are used for insects which suck the sap or juice from +the tree or fruit and are called contact sprays. Arsenical compounds +have supplanted practically all other substances used to combat +external biting insects. Two stomach poisons are commonly used, +namely, arsenate of lead and paris green, but the former is rapidly +replacing the latter. + +ARSENATE OF LEAD is prepared by mixing three parts of crystallized +arsenate of soda with seven parts of crystallized white sugar +(acetate) of lead in water, but it will not as a rule pay the grower +to mix his own material, as arsenate of lead can be purchased in +convenient commercial form at a reasonable price. The preparation on +the market is a finely pulverized precipitate in two forms, one a +powder and the other a paste. These are probably about equally good +and are readily kept suspended in water. Less free arsenic is +contained in this form than in any other compound of arsenic, making +it safer to use, especially in heavy applications. Arsenate of lead +may be used without danger of burning the foliage as strong as five or +six pounds to fifty gallons of water, but three pounds is the usual +and a sufficient amount for the control of any apple insect for which +it is efficacious. + +PARIS GREEN is being rapidly displaced by arsenate of lead for several +reasons. It is a compound of white arsenic, copper oxide, and acetic +acid. The commercial form is a crystal which in suspension settles +rapidly, a serious fault. It is more soluble than arsenate of lead and +hence there is greater danger of burning the foliage with it. +Moreover, it costs from twenty to twenty-five cents a pound, and the +arsenate of lead can be purchased for from eight to ten cents a pound. + +The amount which it is safe to use in fifty gallons of water is from +one-half to three-quarters of a pound. When paris green is used alone +as a poison lime should be added. Both these arsenicals should be +thoroughly wet up by stirring in a smaller receptacle before they are +put into the spray tank, in order to get them in as complete +suspension as possible. They may be used in the same mixture with +Bordeaux or lime sulphur. + +CONTACT SPRAYS.--Four compounds are used as contact sprays in +combating sucking insects, namely, lime sulphur, soaps such as whale +oil soap, kerosene emulsion, and tobacco extract. Of these lime +sulphur is the most used and for winter spraying is probably the best. +This preparation is made by boiling together for one hour or until +they unite, twenty pounds of quick lime, fifteen pounds of flower of +sulphur, and fifty gallons of water. Although the home made mixture is +much cheaper than the commercial form which may be purchased on the +market, many people prefer the latter because of the inconvenience and +trouble of preparing the mixture, although there is nothing difficult +about it. + +This contact spray is used chiefly for the San Jose scale and the +blister mite, and in order to control these must be applied strong on +the dormant wood. The strength necessary will vary from one part of +the mixture above mentioned or of the commercial preparation, to from +seven to ten parts of water, according to the density test of the +material, which should be around twenty-eight per cent. Beaume (a +scale for measuring the density of a liquid) for home made, and +thirty-two per cent. for the commercial mixture. + +Any good soap is effective in destroying soft bodied insects such as +plant lice. The fish oil soaps, although variable in composition, are +often valuable, especially the one known in the trade as whale oil +soap. This soap dissolved in water by boiling at the rate of two +pounds of soap to one gallon of water, makes a good winter spray for +scale but should be applied before it gets cold as it is then apt to +become gelatinous. For a summer contact spray against lice, one pound +of soap to seven gallons of water is strong enough to be effective. It +is objectionable because of its odor and because it is disagreeable to +make and handle. Lime sulphur is to be preferred as a winter spray, +but the soap spray is often necessary and valuable for summer sucking +insects. + +Kerosene emulsion was formerly more commonly used than now against the +scale and plant lice. It is a mixture of one-half pound of soap and +two gallons of kerosene in one gallon of water--preferably in hot +water. For dormant trees one gallon of this mixture should be diluted +with six gallons of water. While this spray is effective it is no more +so than lime-sulphur and is quite difficult and disagreeable to +handle. As a summer spray, however, it is often necessary. Several +preparations of petroleum known as the miscible oils are sometimes +used. Their use is the same as that of lime-sulphur and they are not +as good. + +Within the last few years a tobacco concoction known as black leaf +tobacco extract (nicotine sulphate) has come into quite common use. It +can be purchased commercially under various brand names, and should be +diluted according to its strength, but usually about one part to fifty +of water. It may be made by boiling one pound of good tobacco stems in +two gallons of water for one-half-hour. Objections to it are that it +evaporates very quickly, although it is supposed to be non-volatile, +and that it is expensive, but it is very convenient to use, can be +readily mixed with other summer sprays, and is very effective against +plant lice and mites. + +BORDEAUX MIXTURE. Fungicides are mixtures of chemical compounds made +up for the purpose of controlling plant diseases caused by a class of +plant weeds known as fungi. There are three commonly well known and +used fungicides, Bordeaux mixture, commercial lime sulphur, and the +self-boiled lime-sulphur. The Bordeaux mixture is the best all-around +fungicide known. It is a mixture of three pounds of copper sulphate +(blue vitriol or bluestone) with three or more pounds of fresh burned +stone lime in fifty gallons of water. The two compounds should be put +together as fruit growers say "with water between," that is each +should be diluted with the water separately before the two are mixed. + +The best plan is to have stock mixtures of each in barrels, fifty +gallon cider or vinegar barrels making good receptacles for the +purpose. Place the bluestone in an old fertilizer or meal sack and +suspend it about midway in the barrel of water. In a few hours it will +all be dissolved and will remain in suspension for some length of time +very well. If say fifty pounds of the copper sulphate are dissolved in +fifty gallons of water, each gallon of water will contain one pound of +the bluestone, which makes a very convenient way to measure it. So +also fifty pounds of fresh burned stone lime should be placed in a +barrel--in this case in the bottom of the barrel rather than in a +sack--just covered with water and allowed to slake, more water being +added as required up to fifty gallons. If too much water is added to +the lime at the first it will be "drowned" and its slaking checked. +These two stock mixtures, each gallon containing one pound of the +copper sulphate or one pound of the lime, are then mixed together. + +It is well to fill the tank about half full of water, then put in the +required amount of the copper sulphate, and after stirring well add +the lime milk. It is a good plan to add an excess of lime as it +minimizes the danger of burning and aids the mixture in sticking to +the leaves well. If one is sure that he has at least as much lime, or +an excess of lime, it will not be necessary to test the mixture, but +if he is not, a simple test may be made with ferro-cyanide of +potassium, obtained at a drug store. A few drops of this mixture will +disappear if the lime is equal or in excess of the copper sulphate, +that is, it will be neutralized, but if it is not, they will remain a +bright purplish red. Bordeaux mixture is used in strengths varying +from three to five pounds each of bluestone and lime in fifty gallons +of water, but the former is usually sufficient. + +LIME-SULPHUR.--The more important fungicides, the commercial lime +sulphur and the self-boiled lime-sulphur, are practically superseding +Bordeaux as a fungicide, not because they are necessarily better, but +because there is frequently much burning of the foliage and russeting +of the fruit from the use of the Bordeaux. This is unfortunate as the +latter is a rather more effective fungicide as well as more convenient +and pleasant to use. The self-boiled lime sulphur is a combination of +lime and sulphur which is boiled by the heat of the slaking lime +alone, and makes a pretty good substitute for the Bordeaux when it +injures foliage or fruit. This preparation of lime and sulphur differs +from the commercial form used as a winter wash in that it is wholly a +mechanical mixture and not partly chemical like the latter. It may +therefore be used on the foliage in summer at a greater strength, +there being only a very small percentage of sulphur in solution when +the mixture is properly made. + +Equal amounts of lime and sulphur are used, these being from eight to +ten pounds each to fifty gallons of water. The mixture is best +prepared in larger quantities so as to get heat enough from the +slaking lime to produce a violent boiling for a few minutes. First, +place say forty pounds of lime in a barrel and pour on just water +enough to start it slaking nicely--about a gallon to each three or +four pounds of lime is usually sufficient. Then add the sulphur and +enough more water to slake the paste, keeping it well stirred +meanwhile. The violent boiling of the lime in slaking will cook the +mixture in from five to fifteen minutes, depending on the quality of +the lime and how fast it is slaked. Just as soon as the violent +boiling is over add enough cold water to stop all action. If this is +not done, some sulphur will unite with the lime and burning may be the +result. + +This self-boiled mixture is entirely harmless to apple foliage and +even appears to have a stimulating effect upon it. Against the apple +scab, however, it is not as effective as the boiled wash, or the +commercial preparations. For this disease a strength of from one to +thirty to one to forty (that is about one and one-half gallons of the +prepared mixture testing 31 to 33 Beaume to fifty gallons of water) of +the commercial lime-sulphur is most effective. + +SPRAY PUMPS.--The application of the foregoing spray mixtures is fully +as important as the sprays themselves, for on the right application at +the right time depends the efficacy of the spray. For this purpose a +considerable amount of special machinery has been devised. Lack of +space prevents us from going into much detail on this question, so we +must be content with merely outlining the different types of machines +and mentioning their accessories. Sprays are forced through single, +double or triple acting pumps, either by hand or power. The three +types of power available are traction, compressed air, and gasoline, +the last being the most used. Steam power is practically obsolete. + +The knapsack is the simplest type of hand pump, but it is of no +practical use in the mature apple orchard. For small orchards and +small trees several types of hand pumps are quite effective. The lever +type of pump, where the handle is pushed from and pulled toward the +operator, probably gives the most power with the least tiring effect, +because it enables one to use the weight of the body to some extent. +It is best not to have the pump attached to the spray barrel or tank, +but set on a movable base of its own, as then it can be used for any +one of a number of barrels. Such an outfit may be obtained for from +twenty-five to forty dollars. + +It is well to buy a standard make of pump, preferably from a nearby +dealer, so that repairs may be readily secured. For all orchards up to +three or four acres in size, and for larger orchards where the trees +are not over twelve or fifteen feet in height, this kind of spray rig +is the most practicable and advisable, when the expense is taken into +consideration. This applies especially to the general farm. + +The power of a traction sprayer is developed from the wheels. There is +much discussion as to whether sufficient power to throw an effective +spray can be supplied by this method. By accumulating considerable +pressure by extra driving at the ends of the rows and then skipping +every other tree in order to keep up the pressure, going over the rows +twice, a very satisfactory pressure can be obtained for trees which +are not too large. The argument for this type of machine, and it is +especially applicable on the general farm, is that it can be used for +other spraying on the farm as well as for the apple orchard, +especially for potatoes and small fruits. It is a comparatively cheap +type of power, particularly when it can be used for several purposes. + +The compressed air gas sprayer comes next in point of simplicity and +cost for a power sprayer. Its most economic use is found where +orcharding is carried on extensively enough to pay to compress the air +or gas right in the orchard. This is of course impracticable on the +general farm. Therefore the air or gas must be purchased and shipped +to the farm in steel tubes. This often causes delay at critical times +and is rather expensive. Moreover, the gas is open to the objection of +interfering with the lime-sulphur compound by precipitating some of +the sulphur. + +The gasoline engine is the most useful and popular type of power for +the orchard sprayer, as well as for general use on the farm. Many +makes are now so perfected that they give little or no trouble. One +and a half or two horsepower are fully sufficient for spraying, but +most farmers prefer from three to five horsepower in order to be able +to use the engine more for other purposes. The latter power is open to +objection for spraying purposes on account of its weight, as +especially in early spring it is very difficult to haul so heavy a rig +over the soft ground. Such an outfit is also rather expensive. +Standard makes of gasoline engines of sufficient power for spraying +cost from $75.00 to $150.00 according to horsepower and efficiency. +For very large trees, for mature orchards, and for all orchards larger +than four or five acres, the gasoline engine is the best source of +power for spraying, particularly where it can be used for other +purposes on the farm. + +A double acting or two cylinder pump is most desirable. If there is +plenty of power a triplex or three cylinder pump is still better. The +requirements of a good pump are: sufficient power for the work desired +of it; strong but not too heavy; fewest possible number of parts +consistent with efficiency; brass parts and valves; and a good sized +air chamber. A number of standard makes of pumps answer these +conditions very well. Pumps should always be washed out with clean +water when the operator is through with them and the metal parts +coated with vaseline. Never leave water in a pump chamber or in the +engine jacket in cold weather. + +The ordinary hand pump and barrel give satisfactory use when placed on +a wagon, unless the trees are very high. But for large orchards, high +trees, and where larger tanks and power pumps are used it is +desirable to have a special truck for the outfit. The front wheel +should be made low so as to turn under the tank to enable the driver +to make short turns around the trees. A tower is desirable where high +old trees are to be sprayed. This should be substantial but as small +as is consistent with the purpose so as not to catch on the limbs and +make it difficult to get close up around the trees. The height of the +platform must be regulated by the need and by the roughness of the +ground. On steep side hills the wagon body on which the tank rests +should be underslung. + +In order to get as near to the work as possible get a long hose--from +twenty to thirty feet according to circumstances. The best quality, +three to five ply, is none too good. Hose should be three-eighths to +one-half inch in diameter, one inch being too heavy. Extension rods +are a practical necessity. They should be ten to twelve feet long and +made of bamboo lined with brass, that is, as light as possible. +Nozzles are very important in thorough and effective spraying. There +is no best nozzle, nor one with which all the work can be done. + +Several things should be considered in selecting a nozzle. First of +all, it must be of convenient form so as not to catch in trees and so +constructed that it will not clog easily. Second, for apple trees it +should have good capacity and deliver as spreading a spray as +possible. Third, the nature of the spray is very important. +Insecticides should usually be applied with force in a comparatively +coarse driving spray, but fungicides should be applied in a fine mist +or fog so that they will settle on every part of the tree. Therein +lies the difficulty of applying insecticides and fungicides together. + +TIME OF SPRAYING.--Fortunately it is not necessary to make a separate +application for each insect and disease, but they may be treated +together to some extent. In most cases expediency demands that the +arsenicals be used with the fungicides. Many growers are finding the +most satisfactory results, however, from applying the arsenical spray +separately, just after the blossoms fall, because of the physical +impossibility of properly applying the two sprays--the driving and the +mist spray--together. For most practical purposes on the general farm, +three sprayings are necessary in order to secure clean fruit and four, +sometimes five, are often advisable. These may be summarized as +follows: + + 1. With lime-sulphur, winter strength, on the dormant wood in + early spring. + + 2. With lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead just before the + blossoms open (may sometimes be omitted). + + 3. With the same (or Bordeaux for scab) just after the blossoms + fall. + + 4. With the same two or three weeks later. + + 5. With arsenate of lead eight or nine weeks later (may + sometimes be omitted). + + (In the south and middle latitudes where bitter rot and apple + blotch occur two other sprayings may be necessary.) + + 6. With Bordeaux about eight or ten weeks after the blossoms fall. + + 7. Again with the same about two weeks later. + + +A Calendar for Spraying Apples + +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +INSECTS | Nature | Before | Before | After | In 2 | In 8 | Materials + | of | Leaf | Flower | Petals | to 3 | to 9 | to + | Injury | Buds | Buds | Fall | Weeks | Weeks | Use + | | Open | Open | | | | +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Codling | Eating | | | x | x | x | Lead +Moth | Worm | | | | | | Arsenate + | | | | | | | or + | | | | | | | Par. Gr. +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +San Jose|Sucking | x | | | | | Lime +Scale | Insect | | | | | | Sulphur +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Oyster | Sucking| x | | | | | Lime +Shell | Insect | | | | | | Sulphur +Scale | | | | | | | +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Blister | Leaf | x | | | | | Lime +Mite | Miner | | | | | | Sulphur +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Plant | Sucking| | when seen | | | Whale Oil +Louse | Insect | | | | | | Soap or + | | | | | | | Tobacco +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Cigar | Eating | | x | x | x | | Lead +Case | Insect | | | | | | Arsenate +Bearer | | | | | | | or + | | | | | | | Par. Gr. +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Apple | Eating | x | x | | destroy fruit | Lead +Maggot | Worm | | | | | | Arsenate + | | | | | | | or + | | | | | | | Par. Gr. +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Bud | Eating | x | x | x | | | Lead +Moth | Worm | | | | | | Arsenate + | | | | | | | or + | | | | | | | Par. Gr. +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Curculio| Eating | | x | x | | | Lead + | Worm & | | | | | | Arsenate + | Beetle | | | | | | or Par. Gr. +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +=Diseases=| | | | | | | +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Apple | Fungus | x | x | x | x | if | Lime +Scab | | | | | |necessary| Sulphur + | | | | | | | or + | | | | | | | Bordeaux + | | | | | | | 3-3.50 +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- + | | | | | | | +New York| Fungus | x? | cut out | | | Lime +Apple | | | infections | | | Sulphur +Tree | | | | | | | +Canker | | | | | | | +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Leaf | Fungus | x | x | x | | | Lime +Spot | | | | | | | Sulphur +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- +Sooty | | | | x | x | x | Bordeaux +Blotch | | | | | | | Mixture + | | | | | | | and Lime + | | | | | | | Sulphur +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +HARVESTING AND STORING + + +Apples are practically never allowed to ripen on the trees but are +picked and shipped green. By "green" we mean not fully ripe, not ripe +enough to eat out of hand. This is necessary for all fruit which is to +be shipped any considerable distance or which is to be stored. Used in +this sense green has no reference to color, but as a matter of fact, +much of our fruit is picked too green, before it has even reached its +full size and is well colored. There is no exact time at which apples +must be picked, but this depends on many factors such as the variety, +the distance to be shipped, the soil, the climate, and various other +conditions, to say nothing of seasonal differences. + +The time at which any variety should be picked in a particular section +will be learned by experience. In general, apples should be left on +the tree as long as possible in order to get the best size and color. +When the apples begin to drop badly it is a pretty sure indication +that it is time to pick. If the fruit is to be sold in the local +market or for immediate consumption, it may be allowed to get riper +than would otherwise be the case. With most varieties one picking is +sufficient, but in the case of varieties like the Wealthy which does +not ripen uniformly, or like the Twenty Ounce, which does not always +color evenly, two or three pickings should be made. Two or three +pickings are practically always necessary where fancy fruit is +desired, in order to get the ideal size, color, and uniformity. + +LADDERS.--There are two general types of picking ladders, the rung and +the step ladders. For large trees the rung ladders are the best. They +may be obtained in lengths to suit the height of the tree. Lengths of +more than twenty-two or twenty-four feet become too heavy and clumsy +to handle, even when made of pine, which is the best material as it is +light and strong for its weight. In very old, high trees extension +rung ladders are sometimes used. They are also useful for interior +work but are heavy to handle. Rung ladders cost from ten to twenty +cents a running foot. Step ladders are useful only on young and small +trees. The two styles, the three (Japanese) and four legged, are both +quite satisfactory where one can reach the fruit from them. + +Receptacles for picking usually hold about half a bushel. Both baskets +and bags are used, some preferring one and some the other, and a +choice between them is merely a matter of personal preference. There +is a little less liability of bruising the apples in bags than in +baskets, but the latter are more convenient in some ways. Fruit should +never be thrown or dropped into a basket but always handled carefully. +Some varieties, as McIntosh, show almost every finger mark and +literally require handling with gloves. + +HANDLING.--The old custom of picking and laying on the ground in the +orchard is a poor one and should not be followed, as it causes +unnecessary handling and bruising. Moreover, fruit should be packed +and hauled to storage as soon after picking as possible. Picking and +placing directly on the packing table from which the apples are +immediately packed is the best plan where it is practicable, but as +the weather at picking time in the Eastern States is frequently quite +uncertain, it is not always possible to follow this plan as closely as +can be done in the West, where dry air and sunshine prevail. Still, +wherever there is a considerable quantity of fruit and several +pickers, the plan of packing directly from the table is best. Many +growers pick in boxes and barrels and haul the apples to a packing +shed to be packed later. Convenience and expediency must govern the +general farmer who is not always at liberty to choose the best plan, +often having to do as he can. + +PACKING TABLES enable the grower to pack his fruit better because he +can see better what he is doing, and to handle the fruit more cheaply +and quickly and with less injury. They should be portable so that they +can be moved about the orchard. A convenient type has one end mounted +on wheels so that it can be pushed from one place to another. The top +of the table should be made of two strong layers of canvas, one tacked +firmly to the framework of the table with about three or four inches +of dip and the other laid loosely over it. This plan provides a soft +resting place for the fruit and the table can be easily cleaned off by +simply throwing back the upper layer of canvas. + +Three feet six inches is about the right width for the table, and the +same sloping to three feet four inches at one end, is the correct +height from the ground. Most packers like to have this gradual slope +to one end so that the apples will naturally feed toward that end. The +length may be anything up to eight or ten feet, beyond which the table +becomes heavy and unmanageable. + +BARRELS.--The standard apple barrel adopted by the National Apple +Shippers' Association and made law in New York State has a length of +stave of twenty-eight and one-half inches and a diameter of head of +seventeen and one-eighth inches. The outside circumference of the +bilge is sixty-four inches and the distance between the heads is +twenty-six inches. It contains one hundred quarts dry measure. The +staves are mostly made of elm, pine, and red gum, and the heads +principally of pine with some beech and maple. In most apple growing +sections barrels are made in regular cooper shops where their +manufacture is a business by itself. Only the largest growers set up +their own barrels. Practically all barrels are purchased "knocked +down" and it costs from four to six cents each to set them up. Barrels +can ordinarily be purchased for about thirty-five cents each, but the +cost varies somewhat with the season and the region. + +Apple packages should always present a neat, clean, and attractive +appearance. Never use flour barrels, soiled or ununiform barrels of +any kind. If a head cushion is used a good deal of waste from the +crushing and bruising of the fruit will be saved. A head lining of +plain or fringed paper also adds much to the attractiveness of the +package. The wrapping of apples for barrel packing is hardly +advisable. The fruit is pressed into the barrel tightly with one of +two types of presses, both of which are good. + +The lever press is more responsive and the pressure is more easily +changed, but it is harder to operate. The screw press distributes the +pressure more evenly with less injury to the fruit and is more +powerful. + +The steps in properly packing a barrel of apples are: First, see that +the middle and closed end hoops are tight, if necessary, nailing them +and clinching the nails; second, mark the head plainly with the grade +and variety and the name of the packer or owner; then place the barrel +on a solid floor or plank and lay in the facing papers (the face end +being packed first); select the "facers," which should be the best +representatives of the grade being packed, and _no others_, and place +them in two courses in regular order stems down; with a drop handle +basket fill the barrel, using care not to bruise the fruit, and +jarring the barrel back and forth on the plank as each basket is put +into it in order to settle the fruit firmly in place; lastly, arrange +a layer of apples stems up and apply the press, using a hatchet to get +the head in place and to drive on and tighten the hoops. + +THE BOX PACKAGE is rapidly growing in favor, especially as a carrier +of fancy fruit. There is no standard box the size of which is fixed by +law unless it be a box labeled a bushel. But two sizes of boxes are in +common use, both probably being necessary on account of the variation +in the size of different varieties. The "Standard" box is 101/2 by 111/2 +by 18 inches inside measurement and contains 2,173.5 cubic inches (the +lawful stricken bushel is 2,150.4 cubic inches). The "Special" box is +10 by 11 by 20 inches inside measurement and contains 2,200 cubic +inches. The bulge when properly made will add about 150 cubic inches +more, making the two boxes hold 2,323.5 cubic inches and 2,350 cubic +inches respectively. + +Spruce is the most reliable and in general the best material. Fir is +sometimes used, but is likely to split. Pine is good if strong enough. +The ends should be of three-quarter-inch material; the sides of +three-eighth-inch, and the tops and bottoms--two pieces each--of +one-quarter-inch material. There should also be two cleats each for +top and bottom. The sides of the box should be nailed with four, +preferably five-penny cement-coated nails, at each end. The cleats +should be put neatly on each end and four nails put into them, going +through into the top and bottom. Boxes commonly come "knocked down" or +in the flat and are usually put together by the grower. They cost from +ten to thirteen cents each in the flat. + +There are several kinds of packs, depending on the size of the apples +and the choice of the grower. The diagonal pack with each apple +resting over the spaces between others is preferable, but on account +of the size of the apples one is often forced to use the straight pack +with the apples in regular right angle rows for some sizes. The offset +pack, first three (or four) on one side and then on the other, is +very much like the diagonal, but not much used on account of its +accommodating too few apples in a box. The following table gives the +packs, number of rows, number of apples in the row, box to use, and +number of apples used to the box, as used at Hood River, Oregon: + + No. + Size expressed apples No. + in No. apples in layers in Box + per box Tier Pack row depth used +-------------------------------------------------------------------- + 45 3 3 St. 5-5 3 Standard + 54 3 3 St. 6-6 3 Special + 63 3 3 St. 7-7 3 Special + 64 31/2 2-2 Diag. 4-4 4 Standard + 72 31/2 2-2 Diag. 4-5 4 Standard + 80 31/2 2-2 Diag. 5-5 4 Standard + 88 31/2 2-2 Diag. 5-6 4 Standard + 96 31/2 2-2 Diag. 6-6 4 Special + 104 31/2 2-2 Diag. 6-7 4 Special + 112 31/2 2-2 Diag. 7-7 4 Special + 120 31/2 2-2 Diag. 7-8 4 Special + 128 4 4 St. 8-8 4 Special + 144 4 4 St. 9-9 4 Special + 150 41/2 3-2 Diag. 6-6 5 Standard + 163 41/2 3-2 Diag. 6-7 5 Standard + 175 41/2 3-2 Diag. 7-7 5 Standard + 185 41/4 3-2 Diag. 7-8 5 Special + 200 41/2 3-2 Diag. 8-8 5 Special + +It is good practice to wrap apples packed in boxes. For this purpose a +heavy-weight tissue paper in two sizes, 8 by 10 and 10 by 10, +according to the size of the apple, is used. A lining paper 18 by 24 +in size and "white news" in grade is first placed in the box. Between +the layers of apples a colored "tagboard" paper, size 171/4 by 11 or 20 +by 93/4, according to the box used, is laid so as to make the layers +come out right at the top. In packing the box is inclined toward the +packer for convenience in placing the fruit. After laying in the +lining paper each apple is wrapped and put in place. As an aid to +picking up the thin wrapping paper a rubber "finger" is used on the +forefinger. When the box is packed the layers should stand a quarter +to a half inch higher in the middle than at the ends, in order to give +a bulge or spring to the top and bottom which holds the fruit firmly +in place without bruising. + +There has been much discussion as to whether the box or the barrel is +the better package for apples. This is needless, for as a matter of +fact each is best for its own particular purpose. The barrel is best +adapted as a package for large commercial quantities of fruit and +where labor could not be had to pack apples in boxes even if the trade +wanted them. The barrel permits the packing of a greater variety in +size and shape than does the box, and these can be more easily and +cheaply handled in packing. + +On the other hand, the box is the ideal package for small amounts of +fancy fruit, to be used for a family-or fruit-stand trade. It presents +a neater and more fancy appearance and is a more convenient package to +handle, as well as one which is more open to inspection. It already +has a better reputation as a quality container than the barrel. As a +fancy package for a limited private trade from the small general farm +orchard with high-class varieties like the Northern Spy, McIntosh, and +others there is no comparison of the box with the barrel. + +STORAGE.--Car refrigeration and cold storage of fruit are +comparatively modern developments. Few persons who have not been +affected directly realize what a tremendous influence they have had +upon the fruit, and particularly the apple industry. Apples could not +be shipped any very great distance. Crops had to be marketed +immediately and when they were large the markets were soon glutted and +the fruit became almost valueless. The first hot spell would +demoralize the trade altogether. Then later in the season the supply +would become exhausted and famine would ensue where but a few weeks +before there had been a feast. Under such conditions it is not +surprising that the apple industry did not develop very rapidly and +that apple growing was mostly confined to areas near the larger +markets. + +The coming of the refrigerator car extended fruit-growing over a much +wider area. Refrigeration on shipboard opened up and enlarged the +export trade. Cold storage warehouses lengthened the season by holding +over the surplus of fruit, thus relieving fall gluts in the market and +providing a winter supply of apples. These conditions created a more +stable market with more uniform prices, extending the business from a +side issue to one of chief importance. Marketing has become almost a +business by itself, inducing the formation of growers' associations +and creating a profitable occupation for large dealers and commission +men. These conditions, too, have led to speculation. + +Two kinds of storage are used, common or cellar storage and cold +storage. Both are about equally available, but the latter is too +expensive for the small grower. There is always a question as to the +advisability of the small grower storing his fruit. Storage means a +degree of speculation. "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush," +especially when the bird is a good one. So far as rules can be laid +down, the following are pretty safe ones to keep in mind: It is safest +to store apples when they are of the highest quality; in a season most +unfavorable to common storage; when the fewest are being stored; when +the price in the fall is medium to low, never when high; and when one +can afford to lose the whole crop. + +Successful storage requires several things: good fruit, stored +immediately after picking, careful sorting and handling, subsequent +rest, and a reasonable control of the temperature. The functions of +storage are to arrest ripening, retard the development of disease, and +furnish a uniform, cold temperature. Storage of apples does not remedy +over-ripeness nor prevent deterioration of already diseased, bruised, +or partly rotted fruit. There are three general methods of storage: +(1) by ventilation, (2) by the use of ice and (3) by mechanical means. + +Cooling by ventilation offers the most practical system for a farm +storage. It requires that there be perfect insulation against outside +temperature changes, adequate ventilation, and careful watching of +temperatures. To provide for good insulation a dead air space is +necessary. This can be secured by a course of good two-inch boards +with one or two layers of building paper inside and out, over a +framework of two-by-fours. Over the building paper tight, well matched +siding should be laid also inside and out. Two of the dead air spaces +will make insulation doubly sure. + +To provide for proper ventilation construct an intake for cold air at +the bottom, and an outlet for warm air at the top of the room. These +should serve all parts of the room, one being necessary for this +purpose every twelve to sixteen feet. Do not depend too much on +windows. Warm-air flues should be twelve inches square and six to +twelve feet long. + +The attention to such a house is most important. Keep it closed +tightly early in the fall with blinded windows. When nights get cool +open the doors and windows to let in cold air, closing them again +during the day. On hot days close the ventilators also. In this way a +temperature of 36 to 40 degrees Fahr. can be secured in early fall and +one of 32 to 33 degrees Fahr. later. This is probably the cheapest as +well as the most practical method of farm storage. + +Ice storage is quite practical in the North, but more expensive. The +principle of such a storage is to keep ice above the fruit, allowing +the cold air to flow down the sides of the room. A shaft in the middle +of the room will serve to remove the warm air. This method is open to +the objection of difficulty in storing the ice above the fruit. +Moreover the uniformity of its cold air supply is questionable. +Mechanical storage in which cold temperatures are secured by the +compression or absorption of gases is altogether impracticable for +individual growers, as it costs from $1.50 to $2.00 a barrel of +capacity to construct such a storage. Rents of this kind of storage +range from 10 to 25 cents a barrel per month, or 25 to 50 cents a +barrel for the season of from four to six months. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +MARKETS AND MARKETING + + +Having produced a good product, there remains the problem of making a +profitable and satisfactory disposition of it. In many ways marketing +is the measure of successful fruit growing. Of what use is it to prune +well, cultivate well, spray thoroughly, or even pack well the finest +kind of product, if after the expense of these operations is paid and +the railroad and commission agents have had their share, no profit +remains to the producer? Many growers find it easier to produce good +fruit than to market it at a good price, and this is especially true +of the general farmer. Failure to market well spells failure in the +business of fruit growing. Successful marketing presupposes a +knowledge of the requirements of different markets as to quality, +varieties, and supply demanded in those markets. Methods of +distribution are also one of the great factors in this problem of +marketing. + +TYPES OF MARKETS.--There are two general types of markets, the local, +which is a special market and the general or wholesale market, both of +which have different but definite requirements. The local market +handles fruit in small quantities, but usually with a larger margin of +profit per unit to the producer. As a rule delivery is direct in a +local market, and thus commissions are saved. Competition is also more +or less limited to one's neighbors. More varieties, including less +well known ones, are called for. Appearance does not count for as much +as quality, which is of first importance. Fruit may be riper as it is +consumed more quickly and meets with less rough handling. Packages are +usually returned to the grower. Special markets are often willing to +pay extra for fruit out of season, and they always require special +study and adaptation to meet their needs. + +The general or wholesale market handles fruit in larger quantities, +usually with a smaller margin of profit. A selling agent or commission +man is the means of disposing of fruit in such a market, where +competition is open to the whole country and sometimes to the world. +Only standard well-known varieties find a ready and profitable sale. +Great attention is paid to appearance and comparatively little to +quality. Fruit shipped to a wholesale market must be packed in a +standard package, which is not returned, but goes with the fruit, and +must be packed so as to endure rough treatment. Out of season fruit is +not in demand, but even the general market sometimes has special +preferences. + +Almost every market has favorite varieties for which it is willing to +pay a larger price than other markets. Just as Boston wants a brown +egg and New York a white one, so these and other cities have their +favorite varieties of apples. Some markets prefer a red apple, others +a green one, although the former is most generally popular. In the +mining and manufacturing towns working people want smaller green +apples, or "seconds," because they are cheaper. Many second-class +hotels prefer small apples, if they are well colored, as they go +farther. The fashionable restaurant and the fruit stand are the +markets for large, perfect, and highly colored specimens. Housewives +demand cooking apples like Greenings, hotels want a good out-of-hand +apple like the McIntosh, while private families have their own +special favorites. As will readily be seen, the producer's problem is +to find the special market for what he grows. + +It has been said that different markets have special varietal +preferences, paying a better price for these than do other markets for +the same quality. We can only take the space here to point out a few +of these preferences. The Baldwin is by all odds our best general +market and export variety. It is the workingman's apple and finds its +best sale in our largest cities, particularly in New York and Chicago. +The Rhode Island Greening is a better seller in the northern markets +than it is in the southern, finding its best sale in Boston and in New +York. The Northern Spy is highly regarded by all our large northern +and eastern markets, is fairly well liked by the middle latitude +markets, but not popular south of Baltimore and Pittsburgh or west of +Milwaukee. + +Central western markets appear to prefer the Hubbardson, but this +apple is fairly good in all markets. King is well thought of nearly +everywhere. Ben Davis is a favorite in the South, New Orleans +especially preferring it on account of its keeping quality. Jonathan +has a good reputation everywhere. Dutchess of Oldenburg is regarded +as excellent in Buffalo and Chicago. Wealthy, although generally a +local market apple, is well known and liked in all markets. Twenty +Ounce is spoken well of nearly everywhere. The Fameuse is not well +liked in the South, but popular in the North, etc. These particular +facts as to varieties are best learned by experience and by +observation of the market quotations. + +THE COMMISSION MAN.--The present system of marketing fruit products +makes the commission man almost a necessity in the general market. +Neither the grower nor the local dealer can ship directly to the +consumer or even to the retailer, except in a very limited way. It may +be impracticable to devise any other workable system, but it must be +remembered that every man who touches a barrel of apples on its +journey from producer to consumer must be paid for doing so, and this +pay must come either out of the seller's price or be added to the +buyer's price. But so long as present conditions of marketing and +distribution prevail, so long will a selling agent in the general +market be necessary, and the evil cannot be ameliorated by ranting +against it. + +An unfortunate impression prevails that all commission men are +dishonest. This is not true, although undoubtedly there are many +scoundrels among them, as they have shippers almost completely at +their mercy. The best method under our present system is to choose an +honest commission man in the city where you sell, to get acquainted +with him, to let him know that your trade will be in his hands only so +long as he treats you fairly, and then supply him with as good quality +of stuff as you can produce. This plan has worked out well with many +successful growers and marketers. + +Perhaps the greatest difficulty to be overcome in successfully finding +good markets is that of proper distribution. As has been pointed out +in the previous chapter, there has been a great increase in the +production of apples and hence in competition, accompanied by +speculation and more intensive methods in all phases of the business. +A necessity has arisen for the production of the best at a minimum +cost, as well as for finding the best market for that product. In the +rush for the best market every seller is apt to be guided only by his +own immediate interest without due regard for the fact that others are +acting in the same way or that there is a future. The result is the +piling up of fruit in a market of high quotations, and a subsequent +drop in the price. Then all turn from such a market to a better one +with the result that a famine often results where but a few weeks or +even days before there had been a feast. + +Thus it often happens that one market may have more fruit than it can +possibly dispose of at the time, while another, perhaps equally good, +goes begging. Such conditions are ruinous to trade. Growers are +disappointed and ascribe the cause to the commission man. Consumers +are unable many times to profit by a glut in the market but promptly +blame the middleman or the grower when the supply is small and the +price high. + +Other difficulties with our system of marketing are non-uniformity of +the grades, the packages, or the fruit itself. There should be a clear +definition of just what "firsts" and "seconds" are and this definition +rigidly adhered to. Transportation is too frequently insufficient, not +rapid enough, especially when perishable fruit is shipped in small +lots, and usually at a too high rate. There are undoubtedly too many +middlemen between producer and consumer. Growers sell to local dealers +who sell to wholesalers at the receiving end. These sell to +wholesalers at the consuming end, who may sell to jobbers, who sell to +retailers. Each man must have his profits, all of which greatly +increases costs. + +CO-OPERATION.--Individuals have practically no power to remedy such a +state of affairs. So long as producers act independently they will +have little power either to bring about favorable legislation or to +better such market conditions. Acting together as a unit growers have +accomplished great things which can be repeated. The co-operative +principle has been well tried out in California, where it was first +put into operation with citrous fruits, in several other Western +States with apples, and in Michigan and the Province of Ontario. + +Co-operative associations study carefully the law of supply and demand +and take steps to adapt their shipments to it. They standardize the +grade, the package, and the fruit, and govern their shipments to given +markets by the needs and the demands of those markets. Their unity of +effort enables them to make great savings in the purchase of supplies, +such as packages, spraying material, fertilizers, etc., and in +obtaining and distributing frequently knowledge of markets and market +conditions. They also advertise their products, making them better +known, creating a demand for them, and by means of correspondence or +traveling agents seek out the best markets. + +There are now several large fruit exchanges operating over wide +sections of country. But the local associations are the vital units in +any co-operative movement. Such associations should be incorporated +under State laws so that they can do all sorts of business when +necessary. Six simple objects should be kept in mind, namely, (1) to +prevent unnecessary competition, and to supervise and control +distribution of products; (2) to provide for uniformity in the grade, +package, and fruit; (3) to build up a high standard of excellence and +to create a demand for it; (4) to economize in buying supplies and +selling products; (5) to promote education regarding all phases of the +fruit business; and (6) when necessary to act as a buying and selling +agent for the community. + +Such an association requires a board of directors, a treasurer, and an +active and well-paid manager. The latter is most important, as upon +his honesty, ability, and energy will largely depend the success or +failure of the organization. Sometimes where fruit is packed in a +central packing house or under an association brand or guarantee, a +foreman packer is also necessary. The capitalization required for such +an enterprise is not necessarily large, unless warehouses or packing +houses are built. These are usually better rented until the +organization becomes well established. + +The shares should be small so that every member may be financially +well represented, and members should be prohibited from holding more +than a small percentage of the total shares, in order to prevent +possible monopoly. Dividends on stock held should only be expected +from business done outside the association membership, interest on +money invested being obtained in the handling of members' products at +cost. Receipts should be given growers for just what they bring in, +and they should then be paid according to the grade of fruit which +they contribute, prices for the same grade being pooled. The charge to +growers for handling should be actual cost, but outsiders' products +should be handled at a small profit in order to induce them to come +into the association. The same method should be followed in purchasing +supplies. + +The general result of such co-operation is that the consumer gets a +better product for his money and the grower receives a better price +for his product. It is very essential to the success of the +organization that growers stick together, even through low prices and +discouragement which so often come, until they are firmly established. +Substantial reduction in the cost of the product to consumers can only +come by similar co-operation among them at the buying end and by the +co-operation of both consumers and producers for distribution and +handling in market. + +If a neighborhood does not feel yet ready to attack this problem in +this thorough and businesslike way, it will be advantageous and a step +in the right direction if they simply agree on certain standards of +quality and packing and then pool their product for marketing. This +method has also been followed with success. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +SOME HINTS ON RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS + + +Nearly every general farm in the humid part of the United States has +its small, old apple orchard. For the most part these orchards were +planted in order to have a home source of supply of this popular +fruit. In fact, but few orchards have been planted on a commercial +scale with a view of selling the fruit, until recently and outside of +a few sections. Therefore, as a rule we find these old farm orchards +to consist of a few acres containing from twenty-five to two hundred +trees. These trees are usually good standard varieties which have been +the source of much apple "sass," many an apple pie, and many a barrel +of cider-vinegar. + +Not having been set for profit, these trees received little care. +Orchards were cropped in the regular rotation, or with hay, or +pastured. Farmers then knew little of modern methods of orchard +management. The orchard was regarded as an incumbrance to the land, +which had to be farmed to as good advantage as possible under the +circumstances, and if the apple trees by any chance yielded a crop, +the owner regarded himself as fortunate indeed. + +But conditions have now changed. Both local and foreign markets have +been opened up and developed so that the demand for good fruit is +great. It will be some time before the thousands of acres of orchards +which have been and are being planted to meet this demand will be able +to do so in any adequate way. It has been shown in Chapter I how heavy +has been the falling off in the supply, even in the face of these +heavy plantings. Meanwhile we must turn to the old neglected farm +orchards for our supply of apples. Just at this particular time the +renovation of these old orchards offers a splendid opportunity to +increase the farm income. + +The question is a live one on nearly every general farm in the East. +Will it pay to try to renovate my old apple trees? If so, what should +I do to make them profitable? What will it cost and what returns may +be expected? The latter question will be taken up in the following +chapter, but here we must try to indicate under what conditions it +may pay to renovate an old orchard, as well as those under which it +may not pay, and also how to go about the problem. + +NECESSARY QUALITIES.--An apple orchard must have certain +qualifications in order to make it worth while to spend the time and +money necessary to accomplish the desired results. These we may take +up briefly under five heads: (1) varieties, (2) age, (3) number or +"stand" of trees, (4) vigor and health of the trees, and (5) soil, +site, and location. The discussion of these subjects in Chapters II +and III has equal application here, but we may perhaps point out their +specific application more definitely in the case of the old neglected +farm orchard. + +(1) Varieties should be desirable sorts. If they are the best standard +market varieties, as is often the case, so much the better. Otherwise +little is gained by improving the tree and fruit. Poor or unknown +varieties have little or no market value, except perhaps a very local +one. If the trees are not too old and are fairly vigorous, poor +varieties may sometimes be worked over by top grafting to better +varieties. Characteristics which may make, a variety undesirable are: +inferior quality; unattractiveness in color, shape, or size; lack of +hardiness in the tree or keeping quality in the fruit; low yield; or +being unknown in the market with its consequent small demand. Summer +varieties are worth renovating only when they are in good demand in a +nearby local market. + +(2) Vigor is more important than age in the tree, but is closely +correlated with it. Ordinarily one should hesitate to try to renovate +a tree more than forty or fifty years old, but this must always depend +almost wholly on its condition and other characteristics. + +(3) In order to make a business of renovation and to do thorough work +which means expense, there must be enough of the orchard to justify +the expenditure of the time and money. This affects the results not +only in expense, but in economy in management, equipment, and +marketing. There should be at least an acre of say thirty trees, and +better, more than that number to justify the expense of time and money +necessary for renovation. One hundred trees would certainly justify +it, other conditions being favorable. Then, too, the trees should be +in such shape that they can be properly treated without too great +trouble and expense, i.e., not too scattered or isolated or in the +midst of regular fields better adapted for other crops. + +(4) Vigor and good general health are of great importance. Many old +trees are too far gone with neglect, having been too long starved or +having their vitality too much weakened by disease to make an effort +for their rehabilitation worth while. Good vigor, even though it be +dormant, is absolutely essential. Disease weakens the tree, making the +expense of renovation greater. Moreover, all diseased branches must be +removed, requiring severe cutting and often seriously injuring the +tree. Disease too often stunts the tree to such an extent as to make +stimulation practically impossible. Such matters should be carefully +looked into before attempting renovation. + +(5) If the soil, site, and location are all unfavorable or even if two +of these are not good, time and money are likely to be wasted on +renovation. What constitutes unfavorable conditions in these respects +has already been pointed out in Chapter III. + +Practically the same principles of pruning, cultivation, fertilization +and spraying apply in the management of the old orchard as in any +other orchard. It may be well, however, to restate these, briefly +pointing out their special value and application to the old neglected +orchard together with the few modifications of practice necessary. The +steps to be taken are four: (1) pruning, (2) fertilizing, (3) +cultivating, and (4) spraying. + +(1) PRUNING.--Old and long-neglected apple orchards usually have a +large amount of dead wood in them. This may be removed at any time of +the year, but fall and winter are good times to begin the work. If the +trees are high and the limbs scattered and sprawling so that the +middle of the trees is not well filled out, the trees should be headed +back rather severely. Such trees may safely have their highest limbs +cut back from five to ten feet. It is best not to remove too many +branches in one year, but to spread severe cutting back over at least +two years, as so much pruning at one time weakens the tree and causes +an excessive growth of "suckers." Each limb should be cut back to a +rather strong and vigorous lateral branch which may then take up the +growth of the upright one. The effect of such heading back will be to +stimulate the branches lower down and probably to bring in more or +less "suckers." The following year the best of these suckers should +be selected at proper points about the tree, headed in so as to +develop their lateral buds, and encouraged by the removal of all other +suckers to fill in the top and center of the tree in the way desired. +All such severe heading in should best be done in the early spring. + +(2) FERTILIZING.--At some time during the late fall or winter twelve +to fifteen loads of stable manure should be applied broadcast on each +acre, scattering it well out under the ends of the branches. This will +amount to a load to from three to five trees. In case manure is not +available, or sometimes even supplementary to it in cases where quick +results are wanted 100 to 200 pounds of nitrate of soda, 300 to 500 +pounds of acid phosphate, and 150 to 200 pounds of sulphate or muriate +of potash should be applied in two applications as a top dressing in +spring, as soon as growth starts, and thoroughly worked into the soil. +This will give the trees an abundance of available plant food, which +is usually badly needed, and help to stimulate them to a vigorous +growth. Such heavy feeding may easily be overdone and should be +adjusted according to conditions and the needs of the orchard. + +(3) CULTIVATING.--If the orchard has been in sod for a number of +years, as is often the case, it is usually best to plow it in the fall +about four inches deep, just deep enough to turn under the sod. By so +doing a large number of roots will probably be broken, but such injury +will be much more than offset by the stimulus to the trees the next +season. It is a good plan to apply the stable manure on the top of +this plowed ground early in the winter. Fall plowing gives a better +opportunity for rotting the sod and exposes to the winter action of +the elements the soil, which is usually stale and inactive after lying +so long unturned. In the spring the regular treatment with springtooth +and spiketooth harrows should be followed as outlined in Chapter V. + +(4) SPRAYING in the old orchard is essentially the same as elsewhere. +It is necessary, however, to emphasize the first spray, the dormant +one, winter strength on the wood. This is the most important spray for +a neglected orchard and it should be very thoroughly applied. It is a +sort of cleaning-up spray for scale, fungus, and insects which winter +on the bark. In orchards where the San Jose scale is bad a strong +lime-sulphur spray should also be used in the late fall in order to +make doubly sure a thorough cleaning up. It is usually a pretty good +plan to scrape old trees as high up as the rough, shaggy bark extends, +destroying the scrapings. For this purpose an old and dull hoe does +very well. This treatment will get rid of many insects by destroying +them and their winter quarters. + +PATCHING OLD TREES.--A few suggestions on patching up the weak places +in an old tree may not be entirely out of place. The question is often +asked, will it pay to fill up the decayed centers or sides of old +trees? If the tree is otherwise desirable to save, it usually will. +Scrape out all the dead and rotten material, cleaning down to the +sound heart wood. Then fill up the cavity with a rough cement, being +careful to exclude all air and finishing with a smooth, sloping +surface so as to drain away all moisture. This treatment will probably +prevent further decay and often acts as a substantial mechanical +support. + +Trees which are badly split or which have so grown that a heavy crop +is likely to break them over should be braced with wires or bolts. +Where the limbs are close together a bolt driven right through them +with wide, strong washers at the ends is very effective in +strengthening the tree. Where limbs must be braced from one side of +the tree across to the other wires are the best to use. They may be +fastened to bolts through the limbs with wide washers on the outside +hooks on the inside, or by passing the wire around the branches. In +the latter case some wide, fairly rigid material such as tin, pieces +of wood, or heavy leather should be used to protect the tree from the +wire which would otherwise cut into the bark and perhaps girdle the +limb. + +COST.--For the benefit of those who would like to get some idea of the +probable cost of renovating old apple orchards, the following estimate +made by the writer in a recent government publication on this subject +is given. This estimate has been carefully made up from actual records +kept on several New York farms. Because these costs are very variable +according to the condition of the orchard, both maximum and minimum +amounts are given per acre for the first year only. + + Minimum Maximum + cost cost + + Plowing $2.00 $3.00 + Manure, 10 to 20 loads at $1, or their + equivalent in commercial fertilizer 10.00 20.00 + Hauling manure 5.00 10.00 + Pruning and hauling brush 5.00 10.00 + Disking or harrowing twice 1.00 1.50 + Disking or harrowing 3d or 4th time .50 1.00 + Cultivating two to four times .50 1.00 + Spraying once with L.S. dilution 1 to + 9--material 2.00 4.00 + Spraying once, L.S., labor 1.00 1.50 + Spraying second time with L.S. dilution + 1 to 40, labor and material 1.50 2.50 + Spraying third time with same 1.50 2.50 + ------ ------ + Total cost $30.00 $57.00 + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +THE COST OF GROWING APPLES + + +Two factors have always operated to deter many persons from taking up +fruit growing as a business or even as a side issue on the farm, and +they will probably continue to be an obstacle for more time to come. +These are the comparatively large investment required and the +necessarily long period of waiting before paying returns can be +obtained. Farmers who have not gone into the business of fruit growing +because they could not afford this heavy investment or to wait so long +for returns have been wise. Others who, though lacking the necessary +capital, still have planted heavily have learned to their sorrow the +importance of capital in the business both for the original investment +and to carry the enterprise. And yet with sufficient capital and the +proper conditions there is no more attractive or profitable line of +agriculture than fruit growing. + +Who knows what it costs to grow an orchard to bearing age? Or what it +costs to produce a barrel of apples? We venture to say that very few +persons do. Because of the large investment both in fixed and in +working capital it is most important to know these costs. Moreover an +accurate knowledge of the financial conditions and facts in any +business is of first importance to intelligent management. For these +reasons every grower ought to keep careful records of the cost and +income from each field or orchard every year in order to determine as +accurately as possible what his crops have cost him per unit and per +acre and what rate of interest he has realized on his investment. As +farming becomes more intensive competition increases, costs multiply, +and the margin of profit on any given unit becomes smaller. It +therefore becomes increasingly necessary to have accurate records on +the cost of production. + +FACTORS IN THE COST OF PRODUCTION.--The value of records depends on +their accuracy and on their completeness. There are a great many +factors which enter into the cost of production. For convenience these +may be classified as cash costs and labor costs. Labor charges should +include the work of both men and teams at a rate determined by their +actual cost or by a careful estimate. Man labor costs are easily +reckoned, as they are either simple cash or cash plus board and +certain privileges, the value of which should be estimated in cash. + +The value of horse labor is more difficult to determine. It is made up +of interest on valuation, depreciation, stable rental, feed, care, +etc. A fair estimate of this cost is $10 a month or $120 a year for a +horse. Cash costs are interest on the investment and on the equipment +in machinery, etc., or rental of the same, taxes, a proper share of +the general farm expenses such as insurance and repairs of buildings, +telephone, etc., the cost of spraying material, packages, fertilizers, +etc. + +There are many ways of keeping such a record. Any method which +accomplishes the result in a convenient and accurate manner is a good +one. It will usually be found necessary to keep a cash account or day +book, entering all items in enough detail to make possible their later +distribution to the proper field or crop, and also to keep a diary of +all labor. Any form of diary will answer the purpose, but one which +has ruled columns at the right side of the page in which to indicate +the crop or field worked upon, and the number of hours worked is more +convenient and therefore more desirable. + +AN EXAMPLE.--For a number of years the author has kept such records on +his farm in western New York. As an illustration of the method and in +order to give the reader a general idea as to what the costs above +referred to are likely to be we venture to give the following tables. +It must be remembered, however, that practically everyone of the above +mentioned factors varies with the conditions under which the orchard +is managed and that these figures are not _an_ average but _one_ +average and on one farm. True averages are arrived at only by bringing +together a large number of figures. In any case, the question of cost +is essentially an individual problem on every farm. These figures are +of value only as an example of the method and the cost on one farm +under its own special conditions. + +The orchard for which the following figures were given was set in the +spring of 1903, and the records begin with that year and end with +1910, covering a period of eight years in all. Throughout this period +other crops have been grown between the tree rows, thereby offsetting +to a large extent the cost of growing the orchard. Forty trees at the +north end of the orchard are pears, but they have received +substantially the same treatment as the apples and have not affected +the cost. In 1904, 211 plum trees were set as fillers one way. The +apple trees were set 36 by 36 feet apart, so that, filled one way, the +trees stand 18 by 36 feet apart. The orchard is ten rows wide and +forty-seven long, containing in all 467 trees. + +BRINGING TO BEARING AGE.--The first of the following tables is given +as a sample of one year's records, that of 1907, on this orchard in +order to show both the manner in which the costs were made up and what +the items amounted to in one year: + +FIELD A--1907. FIFTH YEAR + + Total Hours Cost Cost + hours Total per acre per per +Operation Man Horse cost Man Horse acre 100 +Mulching 3 6 $1.05 .455 .91 $0.16 $0.22 +Pruning 11 ... 1.65 1.67 ... .25 .35 +Cultivating 1 7 7 1.75 1.06 1.06 .26 .38 +Cultivating 2 10 10 2.50 1.51 1.51 .38 .54 +Cultivating 3 6 6 1.50 .91 .91 .23 .32 +Plowing in fall 47 94 16.45 7.12 14.25 2.50 3.52 +Banking trees 12 ... 1.80 1.82 ... .27 .39 +Harrowing 21 42 7.35 3.18 6.36 1.11 1.58 + --- --- ------ ----- ----- ----- ----- +Total lab. cost. 117 165 $34.05 17.73 25.00 $5.16 $7.30 + +4 loads manure at $1.50 6.00 .91 1.29 +Equipment charge 1.15 .174 .25 +Taxes 5.29 .801 1.13 +Interest 38.48 5.83 8.23 + ------ ------- ------ +Total cost $84.97 $12.875 $18.20 + +INCOME, COST AND PROFIT ON BEANS--FIELD A--1907 + + Income Cost Profit + 75 bushels at $1.50 $112.50 + 31/2 tons pods at $6 21.00 $133.65 $94.50 $38.85 + +LOSS ON FIELD A--1907 + + Total Per acre + Net income from beans $38.85 $5.89 + Cost of orchard 84.97 12.87 + ------ ------ + Loss $46.12 $6.98 + +A summary of the cost of the orchard, the net income from the crop, +the income from the orchard and the profit and loss by years for the +eight years follows: + +SUMMARY OF COSTS FOR EIGHT YEARS, FIELD A + + Net Income + Crop income from Cost of 6.6 acres + Year grown from crop orchard orchard Profit Loss + 1903 Corn $ 15.17 ... $109.87 ... $ 94.70 + 1904 Beans 42.57 ... 216.16 ... 173.59 + 1905 Beans 43.13 ... 83.78 ... 40.65 + 1906 Beans 120.90 ... 80.14 $40.76 ... + 1907 Beans 38.85 ... 84.97 ... 46.12 + 1908 Corn 37.68 ... 64.22 ... 26.54 + 1909 Oats and + strawberries 100.61 $27.88 84.73 43.76 ... + 1910 Wheat 60.70 38.65 96.35 3.00 ... + ------- ------ ------- ------ ------- + Totals $459.61 $66.53 $620.22 $87.52 $381.60 + +Net loss on field for eight years $294.08 +Average annual loss 38.76 +Total cost an acre, exclusive of income 124.27 +Total cost an acre, including income 44.55 +Total net cost a hundred trees 62.97 +Total net cost an apple tree 1.37 +Total net cost an apple tree, exclusive of income 3.80 +Total labor cost an acre 35.09 +Total cash cost an acre 89.19 + +We find that this orchard has cost $124.27 an acre during the eight +years of its life, but that the $79.72 an acre of crops grown in the +orchard has brought this cost down to $44.55 an acre. It is safe to +say that the orchard would have cost even more than it did had it not +been for the crops, for many operations charged directly to the crops +would of necessity have been charged to the trees. The cost a hundred +trees does not mean much, as it often happens that not all the trees +are covered by an operation and as the number of trees an acre greatly +affects these costs. + +We have another and younger orchard upon which a record has been kept. +This orchard of five acres contains 126 standard apple trees, +"filled" both ways with 375 peach trees. It was set in the spring of +1908, so that the trees have grown four seasons. The permanents +(apples) are set 36 by 40 feet apart, so that, with the peaches +between, the trees stand 18 by 20 feet apart. A crop of beans has been +grown between the tree rows each season. The first season a full seven +rows, twenty-eight inches apart, were planted in the wider space; the +second and third season six rows, and the last season only four rows. +The crop has been very good each year until the last. One application +of manure, one crop of clover and one seeding of rye have been plowed +under, and in addition a liberal amount of commercial fertilizer has +been used with each crop. This year the peach trees bore their first +crop. The record of the four years is as follows: + +SUMMARY OF THE COST OF A FOUR-YEAR-OLD APPLE AND PEACH ORCHARD + + Net Income + Crop income from Cost of +Year grown from crop orchard orchard Profit Loss + +1908 Beans $63.37 ... $130.12 ... $62.75 +1909 Beans 66.70 ... $85.03 ... 18.33 +1910 Beans 79.81 ... 83.39 ... 3.58 +1911 Beans 53.20 $46.05 61.95 $37.30 ... + ------- ------ ------- ------ ------ + Totals $267.08 $46.05 $360.49 $37.30 $84.66 + +Total cost an acre, exclusive of income $72.10 +Total cost an acre, including income 9.47 +Total net cost a hundred trees 4.73 +Total net cost an apple tree .376 +Total net cost an apple tree, exclusive of income 2.86 + +These figures show a still lower cost of growing trees to bearing age. +After paying all expenses connected with the growing of the trees, +including the interest on the land at $150 an acre, and deducting the +net profit from the crops of beans and the sales from the first crop +of peaches we find that the growing of the trees has cost us $9.47 an +acre, or 371/2 cents an apple tree at four years old. Had no crop been +grown in the orchard it would have cost us at least $62.89 an acre +after deducting the income from the first peach crop. The peach trees +are now at full bearing age, and should show a good profit from this +time on. Possibly at five and certainly at six years of age this +orchard will entirely have paid for itself. The only possible further +charge which could be made against this orchard is the crop income +which might have been obtained from the land had the trees not been +there. We estimated that the presence of the trees cut down the crop +of beans from the land 30 per cent. As the average net income from +beans was $13.35 an acre this would amount to $4 an acre a year--an +insignificant sum. + +IN BEARING.--Having given the reader an idea of the probable cost of +bringing an orchard to bearing age, it may be well also to give the +cost of producing apples in a mature apple orchard. Our bearing apple +orchard consists of 6.1 acres containing 234 trees. About one-half of +the trees, or 110, are 36 years old. The remainder are nearly 50 years +of age. As they are all in one block and handled together, the charges +cannot well be separated. One hundred and thirty-four of the trees are +Baldwins, 44 Twenty Ounce, 40 Tompkins County Kings, and the remainder +odd varieties. For the whole period of ten years the orchard has had +very good care and attention. + +A cover crop was not sown every year, but when it was used the charge +was made against the orchard. The manure charge, omitted because of +uncertainty as to the exact amount applied and as to its real value, +is the only thing lacking in this table. + +Two or three sprayings have been made every year. Until 1909, Bordeaux +mixture and Paris green were used, but since then the commercial +brands of lime sulphur and arsenate of lead have taken their place, +nearly doubling the cost of the spray material. The average cost of +the material for spraying has been $2.50 per acre, or nearly three and +one-half cents per barrel of apples harvested. In 1910 this cost was +$3.92 per acre and seven cents a barrel. + +TABLE SHOWING THE ITEMS OF EXPENSE IN PRODUCING APPLES IN A SIX ACRE +ORCHARD + +-------+------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+-------- + | | | | 5% | | | | + | Cover|Spraying| | int. | Equip.| O'vh'd| Labor | Total +Year | crop |mat. | Bar. |on inv.|charge |charge | cost | cost +-------+------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+-------- +1902 | |$6.64 |$117.88|$27.45 |$25.00 |$2.97 |$339.45 |$519.39 +1903 | |11.22 | 164.92| 28.88 | 25.00 | 2.88 | 249.55 | 482.56 +1904 | |10.50 | 109.90| 30.50 | 25.00 | 3.93 | 180.55 | 360.38 +1905 |$6.10 |12.45 | 88.80| 30.50 | 25.00 | 3.40 | 158.06 | 324.31 +1906 | |14.85 | 112.35| 33.06 | 25.00 | 4.78 | 211.76 | 401.80 +1907 |10.00 |16.85 | 79.80| 35.56 | 25.00 | 4.89 | 192.30 | 364.40 +1908 | | 9.75 | 205.45| 37.76 | 30.09 | 5.09 | 293.50 | 583.55 +1909 | 8.68 |19.26 | 196.35| 41.97 | 38.98 | 5.91 | 280.78 | 591.93 +1910 | |23.89 | 116.90| 45.75 | 32.39 | 5.58 | 175.26 | 399.77 +1911 |10.50 |27.08 | 206.38| 45.75 | 32.39*| 5.53* | 275.00*| 602.63 +-------+------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+-------- +10 yr. av. $15.25 $139.87 $35.73 $28.37 $4.78 $235.62 $463.07 +Av. per acre 2.50 22.93 5.86 4.65 .78 38.63 75.92 +Av. per bbl .036 .327 .084 .066 .011 .552 -1.08 + +* Partly estimated, records not yet complete. +------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +The cost of the package has varied from 28 to 38 cents and has +averaged about 321/2 cents, or $22.93 per acre. Of course the latter +amount varies greatly with the crop. + +Interest has in all cases been figured at five per cent., but as the +price of the land has varied from $90 an acre at the beginning of the +period to its present valuation of $160,00 an acre, due both to its +improvement and to a general increase in the price of land, the +amount of interest has also varied. The same is true of the equipment +charge which has steadily increased each year. The average valuation +of the land for the ten-year period was $117.15 an acre. This means an +annual interest charge of $5.86 per acre, or 81/2 cents a barrel. The +equipment charge, which is interest, repairs, and depreciation on the +machinery used in the orchard, amounts to more than 61/2 cents a barrel, +or $4.65 per acre. Taxes and insurance on the buildings distributed +per acre for the farm average $.78 per acre, or a trifle over one cent +per barrel. These costs have also increased in the last few years. + +Labor is the largest single item. For the first four years this was +estimated on the basis of the cost for the last six years, for which +more careful records were kept. It is computed at its actual cost to +us on the farm, which was 151/2 cents an hour for men and 131/2 cents an +hour for horses. This amounts to $4.25 per day for man and team. The +cost of the labor to grow, pick, pack, and market a barrel of apples +was 55 cents, or $38.63 per acre with an average yield of 70 barrels +per acre. + +To sum up these items of cost we find that taking the average of ten +years with an annual crop of 427 barrels, or 70 per acre, on 6.1 acres +of old apple orchard that the costs per barrel have been as follows: +spray material, $.036; packages, $.327; interest on the land, $.084; +use of equipment, $.066; taxes, $.011; labor, $.552; and a total of +$1.08 per barrel. If the estimated cost of manure, six cents a barrel +be added, the total will be $1.14. As we have said, these costs per +barrel vary with the crop. When our yield was 100 barrels per acre the +cost per barrel was only $.99, but when it was 34 barrels per acre +this cost rose to $1.73 per barrel. In 1910 we grew a crop of 55 +barrels per acre for $1.20 per barrel. + +It may be of interest to some to know what the income and profit were +on this orchard. For this purpose we give the following table showing +the yield, income, cost, and net profit for each of the ten years, and +the average: + + Yield in Income Income Cost Net Profit + bbls. bbls. inc. culls per bbls. inc. culls + Year per A. only and drops bbl. alone and drops + 1902 103 $1.96* $1.46* $.83 $1.13 $.63 + 1903 71 1.90 2.23 1.11 .79 1.12 + 1904 51 1.66 1.78 1.15 .51 .63 + 1905 49 2.30 2.68 1.10 1.20 1.58 + 1906 53 1.96 2.25 1.25 .71 1.30 + 1907 34 3.49 4.10 1.73 1.76 2.37 + 1908 96 2.03 2.32 .99 1.04 1.33 + 1909 92 3.00 3.38 1.06 1.94 2.32 + 1910 55 2.69 3.03 1.20 1.49 1.83 + 1911 100 2.06 2.32 .99¤ 1.07¤ 1.33¤ +---------------------------------------------------------------------- +10 yr. + av. 70 2.15 2.47 1.08 1.07 1.39 + + * In arriving at these incomes different divisors were used. Two + hundred barrels of the crop were sold in bulk and these were not + used in getting the average income from barrels only, but were used + in getting the average income including culls and drops. + + ¤ Partly estimated, records not yet being complete for the season. + + +THE END + + + + +OUTING + +HANDBOOKS + +¶ Each book deals with a separate subject and deals with it +thoroughly. If you want to know anything about Airedales an OUTING +HANDBOOK gives you all you want. If it's Apple Growing, another OUTING +HANDBOOK meets your need. The Fisherman, the Camper, the +Poultry-raiser, the Automobilist, the Horseman, all varieties of +outdoor enthusiasts, will find separate volumes for their separate +interests. There is no waste space. + +¶ The series is based on the plan of one subject to a book and each +book complete. The authors are experts. Each book has been specially +prepared for this series and all are published in uniform style, +flexible cloth binding, selling at the fixed price of seventy cents +per copy. + +¶ Two hundred titles are projected. The series covers all phases of +outdoor life, from bee-keeping to big game shooting. Among the books +now ready are those described on the following pages. + + OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY + OUTING MAGAZINE Yachting OUTING HANDBOOKS + 141-145 WEST 36th ST. NEW YORK 122 S. MICHIGAN AVE. CHICAGO + +=THE AIREDALE. By Williams Haynes.= The book opens with a short +chapter on the origin and development of the Airedale, as a +distinctive breed. The author then takes up the problems of type as +bearing on the selection of the dog, breeding, training and use. The +book is designed for the non-professional dog fancier, who wishes +common sense advice which does not involve elaborate preparation or +expenditure. Chapters are included on the care of the dog in the +kennel and simple remedies for ordinary diseases. + + "_A splendid book on the breed and should be in the hands of + every owner of an Airedale whether novice or breeder._"--_The + Kennel Review._ + + "_It ought to be read and studied by every Airedale owner and + admirer._"--_Howard Keeler, Airedale Farm Kennels._ + +=APPLE GROWING. By M.C. Burritt.= Mr. Burritt takes up the question of +the profit in apple growing, the various kinds best suited to +different parts of the country and different conditions of soil, +topography, and so on. He discusses also the most approved methods of +planning a new orchard and takes up in detail the problems connected +with the cultivation, fertilization, and pruning. The book contains +chapters on the restoration of old orchards, the care of the trees, +their protection against various insect-enemies and blight, and the +most approved method of harvesting, handling and storing the fruit. + +=THE AUTOMOBILE--Its Selection, Care and Use. By Robert Sloss.= This +is a plain, practical discussion of the things that every man needs to +know if he is to buy the right car and get the most out of it. The +various details of operation and care are given in simple, intelligent +terms. From it the car owner can easily learn the mechanism of his +motor and the art of locating motor trouble, as well as how to use his +car for the greatest pleasure. A chapter is included on building +garages. + + "_It is the one book dealing with autos, that gives reliable + information._"--_The Grand Rapids (Mich.) Herald._ + +=BACKWOODS SURGERY AND MEDICINE. By Charles S. Moody, M.D.= A handy +book for the prudent lover of the woods who doesn't expect to be ill +but believes in being on the safe side. Common-sense methods for the +treatment of the ordinary wounds and accidents are described--setting +a broken limb, reducing a dislocation, caring for burns, cuts, etc. +Practical remedies for camp diseases are recommended, as well as the +ordinary indications of the most probable ailments. Includes a list of +the necessary medical and surgical supplies. + + _The manager of a mine in Nome, Alaska, writes as follows: "I + have been on the trail for years (twelve in the Klondike and + Alaska) and have always wanted just such a book as Dr. Moody's + Backwoods Surgery and Medicine."_ + +=CAMP COOKERY. By Horace Kephart.= "The less a man carries in his +pack, the more he must carry in his head," says Mr. Kephart. This book +tells what a man should carry in both pack and head. Every step is +traced--the selection of provisions and utensils, with the kind and +quantity of each, the preparation of game, the building of fires the +cooking of every conceivable kind of food that the camp outfit or +woods, fields, or streams may provide--even to the making of desserts. +Every receipt is the result of hard practice and long experience. +Every recipe has been carefully tested. It is the book for the man who +wants to dine well and wholesomely, but in true wilderness fashion +without reliance on grocery stores or elaborate camp outfits. It is +adapted equally well to the trips of every length and to all +conditions of climate, season or country; the best possible companion +for one who wants to travel light and live well. The chapter headings +tell their own story. Provisions--Utensils--Fires--Dressing and +Keeping Game and Fish--Meat--Game--Fish and Shell Fish--Cured Meats, +etc.--Eggs--Bread-stuffs and Cereals--Vegetables--Soups--Beverages and +Desserts. + + "_Scores of new hints may be obtained by the housekeeper as well + as the camper from Camp Cookery._"--_Portland Oregonian._ + + "_I am inclined to think that the advice contained in Mr. + Kephart's book is to be relied on. I had to stop reading his + receipts for cooking wild fowl--they made me hungry._"--_New + York Herald._ + + "_The most useful and valuable book to the camper yet + published._"--_Grand Rapids Herald._ + + "_Camp Cookery is destined to be in the kit of every tent + dweller in the country._"--_Edwin Markham in the San Francisco + Examiner._ + +=CAMPS AND CABINS. By Oliver Kemp.= A working guide for the man who +wants to know how to make a temporary shelter in the woods against the +storm or cold. This describes the making of lean-tos, brush shelters, +snow shelters, the utilization of the canoe, and so forth. Practically +the only tools required are a stout knife or a pocket axe, and Mr. +Kemp shows how one may make shift even without these implements. More +elaborate camps and log cabins, also, are described and detailed plans +reproduced. Illustrated with drawings by the author. + +=EXERCISE AND HEALTH. By Dr. Woods Hutchinson.= Dr. Hutchinson takes +the common-sense view that the greatest problem in exercise for most +of us is to get enough of the right kind. The greatest error in +exercise is not to take enough, and the greatest danger in athletics +is in giving them up. The Chapter heads are illuminating. Errors in +Exercise--Exercise and the Heart--Muscle Maketh Man--The Danger of +Stopping Athletics--Exercise that Rests. It is written in a direct +matter-of-fact manner with an avoidance of medical terms, and a strong +emphasis on the rational, all-round manner of living that is best +calculated to bring a man to a ripe old age with little illness or +consciousness of body weakness. + + "_It contains good physiology as well as good common sense, + written by an acute observer and a logical reasoner, who has the + courage of his convictions and is a master of English + style._"--_D.A. Sargent, M.D., Sargent School for Physical + Education._ + + "_One of the most readable books ever written on physical + exercise._"--_Luther H. Gulick, M.D., Department of Child + Hygiene, Russell Sage Foundation._ + + "_A little book for the busy man written in brilliant + style._"--_Kansas City Star._ + +=THE FINE ART OF FISHING. By Samuel G. Camp.= Combines the pleasure of +catching fish with the gratification of following the sport in the +most approved manner. The suggestions offered are helpful to beginner +and expert anglers. The range of fish and fishing conditions covered +is wide and includes such subjects as "Casting Fine and Far Off," +"Strip-Casting for Bass," "Fishing For Mountain Trout" and "Autumn +Fishing for Lake Trout." The book is pervaded with a spirit of love +for the streamside and the out-doors generally which the genuine +angler will appreciate. A companion book to "Fishing Kits and +Equipment." The advice on outfitting so capably given in that book is +supplemented in this later work by equally valuable information on how +to use the equipment. + + "_Will encourage the beginner and give pleasure to the expert + fisherman._"--_N.Y. Sun._ + + "_A vein of catching enthusiasm runs through every + chapter._"--_Scientific American._ + +=FISHING KITS AND EQUIPMENT. By Samuel G. Camp.= A complete guide to +the angler buying a new outfit. Every detail of fishing kit of the +freshwater angler is described, from rodtip to creel and clothing. +Special emphasis is laid on outfitting for fly fishing, but full +instruction is also given to the man who wants to catch pickerel, +pike, muskellunge, lake-trout, bass and other fresh-water game fishes. +Prices are quoted for all articles recommended and the approved method +of selecting and testing the various rods, lines, leaders, etc., is +described. + + "_A complete guide to the angler buying a new outfit._"--_Peoria + Herald._ + + "_The man advised by Mr. Camp will catch his fish._"--_Seattle + P.I._ + + "_Even the seasoned angler will read this hook with + profit._"--_Chicago Tribune._ + + +=THE HORSE--Its Breeding, Care and Use. By David Buffum.= Mr. Buffum +takes up the common, every-day problems of the ordinary horse-user, +such as feeding, shoeing, simple home remedies, breaking and the cure +for various equine vices. An important chapter is that tracing the +influx of Arabian blood into the English and American horses and its +value and limitations. Chapters are included on draft-horses, carriage +horses, and the development of the two-minute trotter. It is +distinctly a sensible book for the sensible man who wishes to know how +he can improve his horses and his horsemanship at the same time. + + "_I am recommending it to our students as a useful reference + book for both the practical farmer and the student._"--_T. R. + Arkell, Animal Husbandman, N.H. Agricultural Experiment + Station._ + + "_Has a great deal of merit from a practical standpoint and is + valuable for reference work._"--_Prof. E.L. Jordon, Professor of + Animal Industry, Louisiana State University._ + +=MAKING AND KEEPING SOIL. By David Buffum.= This deals with the +various kinds of soil and their adaptibility to different crops, +common sense tests as to the use of soils, and also the common sense +methods of cultivation and fertilization in order to restore worn-out +soil and keep it at its highest productivity under constant use. + +=THE MOTOR BOAT--Its Selection, Care and Use. By H.W. Slauson.= The +intending purchaser of a motor boat is advised as to the type of boat +best suited to his particular needs, the power required for the +desired speeds, and the equipment necessary for the varying uses. The +care of the engine receives special attention and chapters are +included on the use of the boat in camping and cruising expeditions, +its care through the winter, and its efficiency in the summer. + +=NAVIGATION FOR THE AMATEUR. By Capt. E.T. Morton.= A short treatise +on the simpler methods of finding position at sea by the observation +of the sun's altitude and the use of the sextant and chronometer. It +is arranged especially for yachtsmen and amateurs who wish to know the +simpler formulae for the necessary navigation involved in taking a +boat anywhere off shore. Illustrated with drawings. + +=OUTDOOR SIGNALLING. By Elbert Wells.= Mr. Wells has perfected a +method of signalling by means of wig-wag, light, smoke, or whistle +which is as simple as it is effective. The fundamental principle can +be learnt in ten minutes and its application is far easier than that +of any other code now in use. It permits also the use of cipher and +can be adapted to almost any imaginable conditions of weather, light, +or topography. + + "_I find it to be the simplest and most practical book on + signalling published._"--_Frank H. Schrenk, Director of Camp + Belgrade._ + + "_One of the finest things of the kind I have ever seen. I + believe my seven year old boy can learn to use this system, and + I know that we will find it very useful here in our Boy Scout + work._"--_Lyman G. Haskell, Physical Director, Y.M.C.A., + Jacksonville, Fla._ + +=PRACTICAL POULTRY KEEPING. By R.B. Sando.= The chapters outlined in +this book are poultry keeping and keepers, housing and yarding, +fixtures and equipment, choosing and buying stock, foods and feeding, +hatching and raising chicks. Inbreeding, caponizing, etc., What to do +at different seasons. The merits of "secrets and systems", The truth +about common poultry fallacies and get-rich-quick schemes. Poultry +parasites and diseases. A complete list of the breeds and subjects is +attached. It is in effect a comprehensive manual for the instruction +of the man who desires to begin poultry raising on a large or small +scale and to avoid the ordinary mistakes to which the beginner is +prone. All the statements are based on the authors own experience and +special care has been taken to avoid sensationalism or exaggeration. + +=PROFITABLE BREEDS OF POULTRY. By Arthur S. Wheeler.= Mr. Wheeler has +chapters on some of the best known general purpose birds such as Rhode +Island Reds, Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Mediterraneans, Orpingtons, +and Cornish, describing the peculiarities and possibilities of each. +There are additional chapters on the method of handling a poultry farm +on a small scale with some instructions as to housing the birds, and +so forth, and also a chapter on the market side of poultry growing. + +=RIFLES AND RIFLE SHOOTING. By Charles Askins.= Part I describes the +various makes and mechanisms taking up such points as range and +adaptibility of the various calibers, the relative merits of lever, +bolt and pump action, the claims of the automatic, and so forth. Part +II deals with rifle shooting, giving full instruction for target +practice, snap shooting, and wing shooting. + +=SCOTTISH AND IRISH TERRIERS. By Williams Haynes.= This is a companion +book to The Airedale and deals with the origin of the breeds, the +standard types, approved methods of breeding, kenneling, training, +care and so forth, with chapters on showing and also on the ordinary +diseases and simple remedies. + +=SPORTING FIREARMS. By Horace Kephart.= This book is devided into two +parts, Part I dealing with the Rifle and Part II with the Shotgun. Mr. +Kephart goes at some length into the questions of range, trajectory +and killing power of the different types of rifles and charges and +also has chapters on rifle mechanisms, sights, barrels, and so forth. +In the part dealing with shotguns he takes up the question of range, +the effectiveness of various loads, suitability of the different types +of boring, the testing of the shotguns by pattern, and so forth. + +=TRACKS AND TRACKING. By Josef Brunner.= After twenty years of patient +study and practical experience, Mr. Brunner can, from his intimate +knowledge, speak with authority on this subject. "Tracks and Tracking" +shows how to follow intelligently even the most intricate animal or +bird tracks. It teaches how to interpret tracks of wild game and +decipher the many tell-tale signs of the chase that would otherwise +pass unnoticed. It proves how it is possible to tell from the +footprints the name, sex, speed, direction, whether and how wounded, +and many other things about wild animals and birds. All material has +been gathered first hand; the drawings and half-tones from photographs +form an important part of the work, as the author has made faithful +pictures of the tracks and signs of the game followed. The list is: The +White-Tailed or Virginia Deer--The Fan-Tailed Deer--The Mule-Deer--The +Wapiti or Elk--The Moose--The Mountain Sheep--The Antelope--The +Bear--The Cougar--The Lynx--The Domestic Cat--The Wolf--The Coyote--The +Fox--The Jack Rabbit--The Varying Hare--The Cottontail Rabbit--The +Squirrel--The Marten and the Black-Footed Ferret--The Otter--The +Mink--The Ermine--The Beaver--The Badger--The Porcupine--The +Skunk--Feathered Game--Upland Birds--Waterfowl--Predatory Birds--This +book is invaluable to the novice as well as the experienced hunter. + + "_This book studied carefully, will enable the reader to become + as well versed in tracking lore as he could by years of actual + experience._"--_Lewiston Journal._ + +=WING AND TRAP-SHOOTING. By Charles Askins.= The only practical manual +in existance dealing with the modern gun. It contains a full +discussion of the various methods, such as snap-shooting, swing and +half-swing, discusses the flight of birds with reference to the +gunner's problem of lead and range and makes special application of +the various points to the different birds commonly shot in this +country. A chapter is included on trap shooting and the book closes +with a forceful and common-sense presentation of the etiquette of the +field. + + "_It is difficult to understand how anyone who takes a delight + in hunting can afford to be without this valuable + book._"--_Chamber of Commerce Bulletin, Portland, Ore._ + + "_This book will prove an invaluable manual to the true + sportsman, whether he be a tyro or expert._"--_Book News + Monthly._ + + "_Its closing chapter on field etiquette deserves careful + reading._"--_N.Y. Times._ + +=THE YACHTSMAN'S HANDBOOK. By Commander C.S. Stanworth, U.S.N. and +Others.= Deals with the practical handling of sail boats, with some +light on the operation of the gasoline motor. It includes such +subjects as handling ground tackle, handling lines and taking +soundings, and use of the lead line; handling sails, engine troubles +that may be avoided, care of the gasoline motor and yachting +etiquette. + + + * * * * * + + +-----------------------------------------------------------+ + | Typographical errors corrected in text: | + | | + | Page 12: 'together with is long season' replaced with | + | 'together with its long season' | + | Page 32: prunned replaced with pruned | + | Page 36: profiable replaced with profitable | + | Page 65: humous replaced with humus | + | Page 82: 'it must be sour' corrected to | + | 'it must not be sour' In sentence referring | + | to lime which is used to reduce acidity | + | (sourness). | + | Page 88: prsent replaced with present | + | Page 105: tisses replaced with tissues | + | Page 107: 'carried over the winter cankers' corrected to | + | 'carried over the winter in cankers' | + | Page 126: Jose replaced with Jose | + | Page 163: (table) Syraying replaced with Spraying | + | Page 163: (table) Syraping replaced with Spraying | + | Page 164: 'The factors have always operated to deter' | + | corrected to 'Two factors have always operated | + | to deter' | + | | + +-----------------------------------------------------------+ + + * * * * * + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Apple Growing, by M. 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