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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Apple Growing, by M. C. Burritt
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Apple Growing
+
+Author: M. C. Burritt
+
+Release Date: March 9, 2007 [EBook #20770]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLE GROWING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jeannie Howse, Steven Giacomelli and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
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+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    +-----------------------------------------------------------+
+    | Transcriber's Note:                                       |
+    |                                                           |
+    | Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original     |
+    | document have been preserved.                             |
+    |                                                           |
+    | Obvious typographical errors have been corrected in this  |
+    | text. For a complete list, please see the end of this     |
+    | document.                                                 |
+    |                                                           |
+    +-----------------------------------------------------------+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+APPLE GROWING
+
+
+
+
+APPLE
+GROWING
+
+
+
+BY
+M.C. BURRITT
+
+
+
+NEW YORK
+OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY
+MCMXII
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY
+OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY.
+
+
+All rights reserved.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In the preparation of this book I have tried to keep constantly before
+me the conditions of the average farm in the Northeastern States with
+its small apple orchard. It has been my aim to set down only such
+facts as would be of practical value to an owner of such a farm and to
+state these facts in the plain language of experience. This book is in
+no sense intended as a final scientific treatment of the subject, and
+if it is of any value in helping to make the fruit department of the
+general farm more profitable the author will be entirely satisfied.
+
+The facts herein set down were first learned in the school of
+practical experience on the writer's own farm in Western New York.
+They were afterwards supplemented by some theoretical training and by
+a rather wide observation of farm orchard conditions and methods in
+New York, Pennsylvania, the New England States and other contiguous
+territory. These facts were first put together in something like
+their present form in the winter of 1909-10, when the writer gave a
+series of lectures on Commercial Fruit Growing to the Short Courses in
+Horticulture at Cornell University. These lectures were revised and
+repeated in 1910-11 and are now put in their present form.
+
+The author's sincere thanks are due to Professor C.S. Wilson, of the
+Department of Pomology at Cornell University, for many valuable facts
+and suggestions used in this book, and for a careful reading of the
+manuscript. He is also under obligations to Mr. Roy D. Anthony of the
+same Department for corrections and suggestions on the chapters on
+Insects and Diseases and on Spraying.
+
+                                                  M.C. BURRITT.
+
+Hilton, N.Y.
+February, 1912.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER                                                      PAGE
+
+I. THE OUTLOOK FOR THE GROWING OF APPLES                       11
+
+II. PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD                                   18
+
+III. PLANTING AND GROWING THE ORCHARD                          30
+
+IV. PRUNING THE TREES                                          48
+
+V. CULTIVATION AND COVER CROPPING                              62
+
+VI. MANURING AND FERTILIZING                                   78
+
+VII. INSECTS AND DISEASES AFFECTING THE APPLE                  92
+
+VIII. THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF SPRAYING                 108
+
+IX. HARVESTING AND STORING                                    127
+
+X. MARKETS AND MARKETING                                      142
+
+XI. SOME HINTS ON RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS                     153
+
+XII. THE COST OF GROWING APPLES                               164
+
+
+
+
+APPLE GROWING
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE OUTLOOK FOR THE GROWING OF APPLES
+
+
+The apple has long been the most popular of our tree fruits, but the
+last few years have seen a steady growth in its appreciation and use.
+This is probably due in a large measure to a better knowledge of its
+value and to the development of new methods of preparation for
+consumption. Few fruits can be utilized in as many ways as can the
+apple. In addition to the common use of the fresh fruit out of hand
+and of the fresh, sweet juice as cider, this "King of Fruits" can be
+cooked, baked, dried, canned, and made into jellies and other
+appetizing dishes, to enumerate all of which would be to prepare a
+list pages long. Few who have tasted once want to be without their
+apple sauce and apple pies in season, not to mention the crisp, juicy
+specimens to eat out of hand by the open fireplace in the long winter
+evenings. Apples thus served call up pleasant memories to most of us,
+but only recently have the culinary possibilities of the apple,
+especially as a dessert fruit, been fully realized.
+
+It is doubtless this realization of its great adaptability, together
+with its long season, which have brought the apple into so great
+demand of late. It is possible to have apples on the table in some
+form the year round. The first summer apples are almost always with us
+before the bottom of the Russet barrel is reached. Or, should the
+fresh fruit be too expensive or for some reason fail altogether, the
+housewife can fall back on the canned and dried fruit which are almost
+as good.
+
+The tendency in the price of this staple fruit has been constantly
+upward during the last decade. Many people are greatly surprised when
+the fact that apples cost more than oranges is called to their
+attention. The increase in consumption, due to the greater variety of
+ways of preparing the apple for use, has undoubtedly been an important
+factor in this higher price. But at least an equally important factor
+is the marked decrease in the supply of this fruit. To those who are
+not familiar with the facts, the great falling off in production which
+the figures show will be no less than startling.
+
+
+PRODUCTION OF APPLES IN BARRELS IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 1896 TO 1910
+
+ 1896                                   69,070,000
+ 1897                                   41,530,000
+ 1898                                   28,570,000
+ 1899                                   37,460,000
+ 1900                                   56,820,000
+                                       -----------
+ Total crop for five years             233,450,000
+ Average crop for five years                       46,690,000
+ 1901                                   26,970,000
+ 1902                                   46,625,000
+ 1903                                   42,626,000
+ 1904                                   45,360,000
+ 1905                                   24,310,000
+                                       ------------
+ Total crop for five years             185,891,000
+ Average crop for five years                       37,178,200
+ 1906                                   38,280,000
+ 1907                                   29,540,000
+ 1908                                   25,850,000
+ 1909                                   25,415,000
+ 1910                                   23,825,000
+ Total crop for five years             142,910,000
+                                      ------------
+ Average crop for five years                       28,582,000
+
+ Estimates of 1896, 1897, and 1898 from "Better Fruit," Vol. 5,
+ No. 5. All other years from the estimates of the "American
+ Agriculturist."
+
+It will thus be seen that the apple crop of 1910 was 45,245,000
+barrels less than that of 1896, and that during the whole period of
+fifteen years the decline has been regular. The average annual crop of
+the five year period ending with 1905 was 9,511,800 barrels less than
+the average annual crop of the preceding five years ending with 1900,
+and correspondingly the annual average crop of the last five years,
+ending with 1910, was 8,596,200 barrels less than that of the second
+five year period. Comparing the first and the last five year periods,
+we find that the crop of the last was 18,108,000 barrels less than
+that of the first. These facts alone are enough to explain the higher
+price of this fruit during the last ten years.
+
+HEAVY PLANTINGS.--Moreover, it should be further noted that this
+falling off in the apple crop has been in the face of the heaviest
+plantings ever known in this country. During the last ten years old
+fruit growing regions like western New York have practically doubled
+their orchard plantings. Careful figures gathered by the New York
+State Agricultural College in an orchard survey of Monroe County show
+that 4,972 more trees (21,289 in all) were planted in one
+representative township during the five year period from 1904 to 1908
+inclusive than were ever planted in any other equal period in its
+history. New fruit regions like the Northwestern States and a large
+part of the Shenandoah valley of Virginia have been developed by heavy
+plantings. These three are all great commercial sections. To them we
+might add thousands of orchards which are scattered all over the
+Northern and Eastern States, from Michigan to Maine and from Maine to
+north Georgia.
+
+It is doubtful, however, if these scattered plantings have made good
+the older trees which have died out. Scarcely a season passes that
+hundreds of these old veteran trees are not blown down or badly
+broken. Every wind takes its toll. After one of these windstorms in
+Southern New York the writer estimated that at least twenty per cent
+of all the standing old apple trees had been destroyed or badly
+broken. In the commercial regions only a small part of the new
+plantings have yet come to bearing and even here these probably do not
+much more than make good the losses of old trees. So that on the
+whole, heavy as our plantings have been, it is extremely doubtful if
+they have very much more than made good the losses of the older trees
+throughout the country. It is a fact worthy of note that this talk of
+over-planting the apple has been going on for over thirty years, and
+while the timid ones talked those who had faith in the business and
+the courage of their convictions planted apples and reaped golden
+harvests while their neighbors still talked of over-planting.
+
+Whether or not it is true that we have over-planted the apple, it must
+be admitted that at the present time the demand is so much greater
+than the supply that the poorer of our people cannot afford to use
+apples commonly, and that no class of farmer in the Northeastern
+States is more prosperous than the fruit growers. The new plantings
+must of necessity begin to bear and become factors in the market very
+slowly. Meanwhile the great opportunity of the present lies in making
+the most possible out of the older orchards which are already in
+bearing. Practically all of these old farm orchards which can present
+a fairly clean bill of health, and in which the varieties are
+desirable, can with a small amount of well directed effort be put to
+work at once and during the next ten years or more of their life time,
+they may be made to add a substantial income to that of the general
+farm. Now is a time of opportunity for the owner of the small farm
+apple orchard.
+
+FUTURE OF APPLE GROWING.--In the writer's opinion the future of apple
+growing in the United States is likely to shape itself largely in the
+great commercial regions. As these become more and more developed and
+as the industry becomes more specialized the farmer who is merely
+growing apples as a side line, except where he is delivering directly
+to a special or a local market, will be crowded out. Here as elsewhere
+it will be a case of the survival of the fittest. In the production of
+apples commercially those growers who can produce the best article the
+most cheaply are bound to win out in the end.
+
+It would, therefore, seem to be advisable for the general farmer to
+plant apples only under two conditions; first, when he has a very
+favorable location and site and plants heavily enough to make it worth
+while to have the equipment and skilled labor necessary to make the
+enterprise a success, and second, when he can market his fruit
+directly in a local market. It would appear that the immediate future
+of apple growing in the United States lies in the small farm orchard
+as well as in the commercial orchards, but that the more distant
+future lies in the commercial orchard except where special conditions
+surround the farm.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD
+
+
+LOCATION.--Having decided that under certain conditions the planting
+of an apple orchard will prove a profitable venture, and having
+ascertained that those conditions prevail on your farm, the next step
+will be to determine the best location on the farm for the orchard. In
+choosing this location it will be well to keep in mind the relative
+importance of the orchard in the scheme of farm management. If the
+orchard is merely a source of home supply, naturally it will not
+require as important a position on the farm as will be the case if it
+is expected to yield a larger share of the farm income. If the
+relatively large net income per acre which it is possible to obtain
+from an apple orchard is to be secured, the best possible location is
+demanded.
+
+Contrary to the common ideas and practice of the past, the orchard
+should not be put upon the poorest soil on the farm. The best
+orchards occupy the best soils, although fairly good results are often
+obtained on poor or medium soils. The relative importance which is
+attached to the orchard enterprise must also govern the choice of
+soil. If apples are to be a prominent crop they should be given the
+preference as to soil; if not, they may be given a place in accordance
+with what is expected of them.
+
+SOILS.--In general, the apple prefers a rather strong soil, neither
+very heavy nor very light. Subsoil is rather more important than
+surface soil, although the latter should be friable and easily worked.
+The apple follows good timber successfully. Heavy clay soils are apt
+to be too cold, compact, and wet; light sandy soils too loose and dry.
+A medium clay loam or a gravelly clay loam, underlaid by a somewhat
+heavier but fairly open clay subsoil is thought to be the best soil
+for apples. Broadly considered, medium loams are best. The lighter the
+soil the better will be the color of the fruit as a rule, and so,
+also, the heavier the soil and the more nitrogen and moisture it holds
+the greater the tendency to poorly colored fruit. In the same way
+light soils give poorer wood and foliage growth as compared with the
+large rank leaves and wood of trees on heavy, rich soils.
+
+VARIETAL SOIL PREFERENCES are beginning to be recognized. We cannot go
+into these in detail in this brief discussion. A few suggestions
+regarding standard varieties must suffice. Medium to light loams or
+heavy sandy loams, underlaid by slightly heavier loams or clay loams,
+are preferred by the Baldwin, which has a wider soil adaptation than
+practically any other variety. Baldwin soils should dry quickly after
+a rain. Rhode Island Greening requires a rather rich, moist, but well
+drained soil, containing an abundance of organic matter. A light to
+heavy silty loam, underlaid by a silty clay loam, is considered best.
+
+Northern Spy is very exacting in its soil requirements. A medium loam,
+underlaid by a heavy loam or a light clay loam, is excellent. Heavy
+soils give the Spy a greasy skin. Light soils cause the tree to grow
+upright and to bear fruit of poor flavor. The King likes a soil
+slightly lighter than the best Greening soils, but retentive of
+moisture. Hubbardson will utilize the sandiest soil of any northern
+variety, preferring rich, fine, sandy loams.
+
+The particular location of the apple orchard is largely a matter of
+convenience. It should be remembered, however, that the apple requires
+much and constant attention, therefore the orchard should be
+convenient of access. The product is rather bulky, so that the haul to
+the highway should be as short as possible. Other conditions being
+equally good there, the common location near the buildings and highway
+is best.
+
+THE SITE OF THE ORCHARD is a more important matter. Two essentials
+should be kept in mind, good air drainage and a considerable
+elevation. Although it is not so apparent and therefore less thought
+about, cold air runs down hill the same as water. Being heavier, it
+falls to the surface of the land, flowing out through the water
+channels and settling in pockets and depressions. Warm air, being
+lighter, rises. It is desirable to avoid conditions of stagnant air or
+cold air pockets where frost and fogs are liable to occur. A free
+movement of air, especially a draining away of cold air, is best
+secured by an elevation. Fifty to one hundred feet, or sometimes less,
+is usually sufficient, especially where there is good outlet below.
+Frosts occur in still, clear air and these conditions occur most
+frequently in the lower areas.
+
+Aspect or slope requires less attention. Southern exposures are warm
+and hasten bud development and opening in spring. Northern exposures
+are cold and retard the blossoming period. It is usually advisable to
+plant the apple on the colder slopes which hold it back in spring
+until all danger of late frosts is past. Northeast exposures are best
+as a general rule. Choose a slope away from the prevailing wind if
+possible. If this is impracticable it is often advisable to plant a
+wind break of pine, spruce, or a quick, thick growing native tree to
+protect the orchard from heavy winds.
+
+A large body of water is an important modifier of climate. Warming up
+more slowly in the spring, it retards vegetation by slowly giving up
+its cold. Vice versa, cooling more slowly in the fall giving up its
+heat wards off the early frosts. It is therefore desirable to locate
+near such bodies of water if possible. Their influence varies
+according to their size and depth, and the distance of the orchard
+from them. Good examples of this influence are the Chautauqua Grape
+Belt on the eastern shore of Lake Erie and the Western New York Apple
+Belt on the south shore of Lake Ontario.
+
+Professor Brackett has well summed up the whole question: "The
+selection of the soil and site for the apple orchard is not governed
+by any arbitrary rule," he says. "All farms do not afford the best
+soils or exposures for orchards. The owners of such as do not are
+unfortunate, yet they should not feel discouraged to the extent of not
+planting trees and caring for them afterward." There are a number of
+factors which influence not only a person who wishes to locate, but
+one already located, either favorably or unfavorably. About these even
+the most intelligent orchardists often differ. We have only laid down
+general principles and given opinions. Here as elsewhere application
+is a matter of judgment.
+
+VARIETIES.--A proper soil and a good location and site having been
+selected, the next important question to be decided is the varieties
+to be planted. So much and so variable advice is given on this
+question that many persons are at a loss as to what to plant and too
+often decide the matter by planting the wrong varieties. Rightly
+viewed, the question of varieties is a comparatively simple one.
+Personal preference, tempered by careful study of certain factors and
+good judgment, are all that are required. Beginners, especially, are
+too apt to rely entirely on another's opinion. The only safe way is to
+learn the facts and then decide for yourself.
+
+We have already indicated that soil is a determinant in the choice of
+varieties. This should be absolute. It is very unwise to try to grow
+any variety on a soil where experience has shown that it does not do
+well. The experience of your neighbors is the best guide in this
+respect.
+
+The limitations of climate should also be carefully heeded. An apple
+may be at its best in one latitude or one situation and at its worst
+in another. Find out from experienced growers in your region, or from
+your State Experiment Station what varieties are best adapted
+climatically to the place where you live. It is an excellent rule
+never to plant a variety that you cannot grow at least as well as any
+one else, or still better, to plant a variety that you can grow better
+than anyone else. Grow something that not everyone can grow. Do not
+try to produce more of a variety of which there is already an over
+supply.
+
+A few examples may make this more clear. Western New York is the home
+of the Baldwin, the Twenty Ounce and the King. Albemarle Pippins grown
+on the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge are famous. The Spitzenburg
+appears at its best in the Northwest. The Northern Spy, the McIntosh,
+and the Fameuse are not to be excelled as they are grown in the
+Champlain Valley, in Vermont, or in Maine. To attempt to compete with
+these sections in the growing of these varieties, except under equally
+favorable conditions, would be foolish. Your section probably grows
+some varieties to perfection. Find out what these varieties are and
+plant them.
+
+All these are general factors to be observed which cannot be
+specifically settled without knowing the soil and particular locality.
+Certain other factors governing the choice of varieties can be more
+definitely outlined. If the prospective orchardist will get these
+factors thoroughly in mind and apply them with judgment mistakes in
+planting should be much more rare. The more important ones are: The
+purpose for which the fruit is intended to be used, whether for the
+general market, a dessert or fancy trade, or for culinary and general
+table use; whether the trees are to be permanent and long lived, or
+temporary and used as fillers; whether the earliest possible income is
+desired or whether this is to be secondary to the future development
+of the orchard; whether the stock of the particular variety is strong
+or weak growing; whether the variety is high, medium, or low as to
+quality; and whether the market is to be local, distant, or export.
+
+The following tables were originally compiled by Professor C.S. Wilson
+of Cornell University. They have been slightly revised and modified
+for our purpose. We believe that they are essentially correct and that
+they will be a safe guide for the reader to follow in his selection of
+varieties:
+
+GENERAL MARKET APPLES                  DESSERT OR FANCY TRADE
+COMMERCIAL                             BOX WELL
+
+ Baldwin                               McIntosh
+ Ben Davis                             Northern Spy
+ Hubbardson                            Fameuse
+ Northern Spy                          Wagener
+ King                                  Grimes Golden
+ Rome Beauty                           Yellow Newton
+ Oldenburg                             Red Canada
+ Alexander                             King
+ Twenty Ounce                          Sutton
+ Winesap                               Hubbardson
+ York Imperial                         Esopus Spitzenburg
+
+              CULINARY AND GENERAL TABLE USE
+
+ Rhode Island Greening                 Grimes Golden
+ Gravenstein                           Twenty Ounce
+ Newtown                               Yellow Bellflower
+ Alexander                             Oldenburg
+ Tolman Sweet                          Sweet Winesap
+
+GOOD PERMANENT                         GOOD TEMPORARY
+TREES                                  TREES--FILLERS
+
+ Baldwin                               McIntosh
+ Rhode Island Greening                 Wealthy
+ Northern Spy                          Wagener
+ McIntosh                              Rome Beauty
+ *King                                 Oldenburg
+ *Twenty Ounce                         Jonathan
+ *Hubbardson                           Alexander
+ Alexander                             Twenty Ounce
+ Rome Beauty                           Hubbardson
+
+
+  * When this variety is set as a permanent tree it should be top
+    worked on a hardier stock, such as Northern Spy.
+
+Age at which variety may be expected to begin to fruit. (Add two years
+for a paying crop).
+
+FIVE YEARS OR UNDER                    EIGHT YEARS AND UP
+
+ Rome Beauty                           Esopus Spitzenburg
+ Oldenburg                             Fall Pippin
+ Maiden Blush                          Golden Russet
+ Wagener                               Northern Spy
+ Yellow Newton                         Baldwin
+ McIntosh                              Gravenstein
+ Fameuse                               Tolman Sweet
+ King
+ Rhode Island Gr.
+ Twenty Ounce
+ Winesap
+
+ESPECIALLY HARDY STOCKS                POOR RATHER WEAK GROWERS*
+
+ Northern Spy                          King
+ Tolman Sweet                          Twenty Ounce
+ Ben Davis                             Esopus Spitzenburg
+ Baldwin                               Hubbardson
+ Fameuse                               Grimes Golden
+ Winter Banana                         Sutton
+                                       Canada Red
+
+* Other varieties are medium.
+
+HIGH IN QUALITY                        LOCAL OR PEDDLER'S VARIETIES
+
+ McIntosh                              Rhode Island Greening
+ Esopus Spitzenburg                    Wealthy
+ Northern Spy                          McIntosh
+ Newtown                               Fameuse
+ Gravenstein                           Tolman Sweet
+ Red Canada                            Grimes Golden
+ Fameuse                               Jonathan
+ Grimes Golden
+ Hubbardson                             GOOD GENERAL MARKET VARIETIES
+ Rhode Island Greening
+                                       Baldwin
+MEDIUM TO POOR QUALITY                 Rhode Island
+                                       King
+ Ben Davis                             Twenty Ounce
+ Oldenburg                             McIntosh
+ Rome Beauty                           Hubbardson
+ Roxbury Russet                        Northern Spy
+
+                GOOD EXPORT VARIETIES
+
+ Baldwin                               Newtown
+ Ben Davis                             Esopus Spitzenburg
+ Northern Spy                          Jonathan
+
+Only the best and most common varieties for the more northern
+latitudes have been included in this list as it would make it too
+cumbersome to classify all our known varieties. It must be remembered
+that this is not an arbitrary classification and that it is made as a
+guide to indicate to the reader the general characteristics of the
+variety. It should be used as such and not taken literally. The
+characters of the different varieties grade into each other. For
+example, the McIntosh is very high and the Ben Davis is very low in
+quality but the King and the Twenty Ounce are neither very good nor
+very poor, but midway between.
+
+We must again remind the reader that the choice of varieties is a
+matter of judgment, tempered by the facts regarding them. One who is
+not capable of rendering such judgment after studying his conditions
+and the characteristics and requirements of leading varieties had
+better stay out of the apple business entirely, as he will often be
+called on for the exercise of good judgment in caring for the orchard.
+The facts here given are intended as suggestive. The reader who
+desires to know more of a particular variety will do well to consult
+Beach's "Apples of New York," published by the Geneva Experiment
+Station.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+PLANTING AND GROWING THE ORCHARD
+
+
+The proper soil, site, and location having been selected, the solution
+of the problems of orchard management is only just begun, although a
+good start has certainly been made. Farm management brings constantly
+to one's attention new problems and new phases of old problems,
+whatever the type of farming. The skill with which these problems are
+met and a solution found for them determines the success or failure of
+the farm manager. To some men the details of the orchard business
+offer the greatest obstacles, while to others it is the general
+relationship of one detail to another which is difficult. Both are
+essentials of good management. If we are able in this chapter to
+remove some of these minor difficulties and at the same time indicate
+the correct relationships we will have accomplished our purpose.
+
+As we come now to the actual plans for planting our orchard many
+questions come up for answer. When shall I plant? Where and of whom
+shall I purchase my trees? How old should they be? Is it wise to use
+fillers or temporary trees, and if so, what kind? How far apart should
+the trees be planted and how many are required for an acre? What
+arrangement of the trees is most advisable? How should the ground be
+prepared? What is the best method of setting? When the trees are
+planted should they be inter-cropped, and if so, with what? How should
+the young trees be handled and cared for? He who would be a successful
+orchardist must endeavor to answer these questions.
+
+WHEN TO PLANT.--The question of fall or spring planting is a less
+important one with a comparatively hardy fruit like the apple than it
+is with a more tender fruit like the peach. Apples may safely be
+planted in the fall when soils are well drained and when the young
+trees are well matured, both of which are very important if winter
+injury is to be avoided. Fall planting has several distinct
+advantages. During the winter fall planted trees become well
+established in the soil which enables them to start root growth
+earlier in the spring. Consequently the young trees are better able to
+endure droughts. In the fall the weather is usually more settled and
+there is better opportunity to plant under favorable conditions than
+in the unsettled weather of spring. It is usually possible, too, to
+get a better selection of trees at the nursery in the fall because
+most of the trees are not sold until midwinter.
+
+Still the fact remains that the common practice of spring planting is
+the more conservative course. There is always danger of getting
+immature trees in the fall, and of winter injury to fall planted
+trees. Trees may be set in the fall any time after the buds are mature
+which is usually after October 1st to 18th in the latitude of New
+York. They should not be pruned back in the fall, as this invites
+winter killing of the uppermost buds. The question of available time
+must also be considered. On some farms fall offers more time; on
+others, spring. To sum up the matter, plant at the most convenient
+time, providing the conditions are favorable.
+
+WHERE TO BUY.--But one rule as to where to buy trees can be laid down.
+Buy where you can secure the best trees and where you can be sure of
+the most reliable and honest dealers. Beware of the tree agent, who
+has been guilty of more dishonesty and misrepresentation than almost
+any other traveling agent. Buy of a salesman under one condition only,
+that he prove to you that he is the bona fide representative of a
+well-known and reputable nursery firm, and then make your order
+subject to investigation of the firm's standing and finding it as
+represented.
+
+The safest course is usually to purchase of your home nurseryman with
+whose standing and honesty you are familiar, and whose trees you can
+personally inspect. Such a man has a reputation at stake and will have
+an object in keeping your trade. Moreover, you will save freight,
+secure fresher stock with less liability of injury in handling, and
+get trees grown under your own conditions. If stock is purchased away
+from home it is better to get it at a nursery in a more southern
+latitude in order to secure trees of better growth.
+
+All trees should be purchased in the late summer or early fall when
+the nurseryman has a full list of varieties and you can get the pick
+of his stock. Select a well grown mature tree two years old from the
+bud. One year old trees are preferred by many and if well grown and at
+least five feet high they are probably best. But a one year old tree
+is rather more delicate, requiring careful handling and intelligent
+training. Unless a person buys from a southern nursery and is an
+expert in handling trees, the two year old tree is to be preferred,
+but a skilful grower can make a more satisfactory tree from a one year
+old seedling.
+
+The average buyer must depend largely on his nurseryman for getting
+trees true to name, which is the reason for laying so much emphasis on
+purchasing from an honest dealer. Some nurserymen guarantee their
+varieties to be true to name, and all ought to do so. Buyers should
+demand it. The seeds of the apple rarely come true to the variety
+planted. They are therefore usually budded on one year old seedlings
+imported from France. Sometimes they are whole or piece root grafted
+which is equally as good a method of propagation.
+
+It is possible for a man to grow and bud or graft his own seedlings,
+but hardly advisable for the average small grower or general farmer,
+as it is usually expensive when done on a small scale and requires
+considerable skill. Always buy a high grade tree. Seconds are often
+equally as good as firsts when they are simply smaller as a result of
+crowding in the nursery row. A tree which is second grade because of
+being stunted, crooked, or poorly grown should never be set. Thirds
+are seldom worth considering at any price.
+
+FILLERS.--Whether or not the planter of an apple orchard should use
+fillers is a question which he alone must decide. In the writer's
+opinion there are more advantages than disadvantages in so doing, but
+we must state both sides of the question and let the reader judge for
+himself. The term "filler" is one used to designate a tree planted in
+the orchard for the temporary purpose of profitably occupying the
+space between the permanent trees while these are growing and not yet
+in bearing. Fillers make a more complete use of the land, bringing in
+larger as well as quicker returns from it, three distinct advantages.
+(See Chapter XII, The Cost of Growing Apples.) On the other hand,
+objections to their use are that they are often left in so long that
+they crowd and seriously injure the permanent trees, and that their
+care often requires different operations and at different times from
+the other trees, such as spraying, which may result in injury to the
+permanent trees in the orchard.
+
+Trees used as fillers for apples should have two important
+characteristics; they should be rapid, vigorous growers and should
+come into bearing at a very early age. Two kinds of fillers are
+available, those of the same species, which may be either dwarf or
+standard trees, and those of a different species, of which peaches and
+plums, and possibly pears, are the best adapted. Dwarf trees may be
+dismissed from our plans with the statement that they have rarely
+proved profitable under ordinary conditions, as they are much more
+difficult to grow than standards and when grown they have but few
+advantages over them. The varieties of standard apples which are
+advisable as fillers have been indicated in Chapter II.
+
+The use of peaches and the Japanese plums, both of which make
+excellent fillers because they grow rapidly and come to heavy bearing
+quickly, is limited to their soil and climatic adaptation. They are
+adapted to the lighter phases of soil and the more moderate climates
+and under other conditions are impracticable. On heavier soils and in
+more rigorous climates the European plums and the more rapid and early
+bearing pears, such as the Keiffer, make fairly good fillers.
+
+On the whole, the writer is inclined to advise the use of fillers in
+the general farm orchard. Quicker returns from an investment of this
+nature, which is usually heavy and which at best must be put off
+several years, are very important. Under careful and intelligent
+management the objections to their use are easily overcome.
+
+SPACING AND ARRANGEMENT OF TREES.--The distance apart of planting
+depends on the variety planted. Close headed, upright growing trees
+may be planted closer together than spreading varieties. Some
+varieties grow larger than others, and the same variety may vary in
+size on different soils. It is seldom advisable to plant standard
+apple trees in the latitude of New York closer than thirty feet, or
+farther apart than fifty feet. Trees of the nature of Twenty Ounce and
+Oldenburg (Dutchess) should be planted from thirty-two to thirty-six
+feet apart, while Baldwins, Rhode Island Greenings, and Northern Spies
+represent the other extreme and will require forty, and sometimes
+fifty feet of space. The method and thoroughness of pruning influences
+the size of trees greatly, and hence the distance at which It is
+necessary to set them.
+
+Varieties top worked on other stocks have a tendency to grow more
+upright and may be set closer together. It should be remembered in
+this connection that the roots of a tree extend considerably beyond
+the spread of the branches. From thirty-five to forty feet is a good
+average distance and trees should be trained so as to occupy this
+space and no more. Where fillers are used the latter distance is best,
+as the twenty feet apart at which the trees will then stand is close
+enough for any standard variety.
+
+RECTANGULAR.--The method of setting or the arrangement of the trees
+will greatly influence the number of trees which may be put upon an
+acre and the distance apart of the trees in the row. The most common
+method in the past has been the regular square or rectangular method,
+e.g., trees forty by forty feet, or forty by fifty feet, and rows at
+right angles, and this is still preferred by many. It is easy to lay
+out an orchard on this plan and there is less liability of making
+mistakes. It is best adapted to regular fields with right angle
+corners, especially where the orchard is to be cropped with a regular
+rotation. All tillage operations are most easily performed in orchards
+set on this plan.
+
+A slight modification of this arrangement which is often advisable,
+especially where fillers are used, is to set a tree in the center of
+the square. The trees then stand like the five spots of a domino, and
+the shortest distance between trees will be about twenty-seven feet
+when the trees in the regular rows are forty by forty feet apart. This
+plan practically doubles the number of trees which can be set on an
+acre.
+
+HEXAGONAL OR TRIANGULAR.--Another method of arrangement of the trees
+which is becoming more and more popular is the hexagonal or triangular
+system. More trees can be planted on an acre by this plan than by any
+other, it being very economical of space. It makes all adjacent trees
+equally distant from each other and is really a system of equilateral
+triangles. This plan is better adapted to small areas and especially
+to irregular ones, and should be employed where land is expensive and
+culture very intensive. It is more difficult to set an orchard after
+this method without error, and it is open to the objection of
+inconvenience in cultural operations. Most people forget that while
+the rows running cornerwise in a rectangular or square field set after
+this plan may be a standard distance apart, yet the right angle rows
+(not trees) in which it may be more convenient to work are actually
+much closer together.
+
+The best plan to follow to get the rows of trees straight on a level
+field is what is known as the outside stake method. This plan requires
+the placing of a row of stakes on each of the four sides of the field
+where the trees are to be set and usually about two rows each way
+through the middle. For this purpose ordinary building laths are best,
+about one hundred and fifty laths, or three bundles, being required
+for five acres, which is as large a unit as can be set at once by this
+plan.
+
+_First_, determine the distance from the road or fence to the first
+tree row, which would be at least eighteen feet to allow for turning
+the teams, and establish base lines on each side of the field at right
+angles to each other.
+
+_Second_, beginning at the given distance from the side of the field,
+set up a row of stakes along these base lines at the exact distance
+apart at which the trees are to be set and about half way between the
+fence and the first right angle row. Do the same on all sides of the
+field.
+
+_Third_, by sighting across the field from one end stake to the other
+the cross rows of stakes can be set through the middle of the field.
+These should be about six or eight rods apart, and care should be used
+to avoid setting them where they will interfere with the sighting of
+the right angle rows. This plan has the great merit of enabling the
+entire orchard to be set without moving a stake, as no stake stands
+where a tree is to be set. If the trees are set exactly where the
+sight lines cross at right angles and if all rows are an equal
+distance apart, the rows will be perfectly straight.
+
+On rough or rolling land this plan does not work well. Here more
+simple methods, though requiring more time, must be used. Lines drawn
+with a cord or marked across the field with a corn planter answer well
+for small areas. Poles of the right length are often used to good
+advantage. In setting trees after the hexagonal plan an equilateral
+triangle made of light poles or wire is probably best, especially on
+small rough areas, as it is very accurate, simple, and quite rapid.
+Some men prefer to make measurements and set a stake at every point
+where a tree is to be placed. In these cases a simple device locates
+the original stakes after the hole has been dug. A light board about
+six feet long with a notch in the center and holes with pegs in them
+at each end is placed with the notch at the stake. One end is then
+swung round and the hole dug. When the end is replaced on its peg the
+tree set in the hole should rest in the notch where the original stake
+did.
+
+The following table shows the number of trees required per acre at
+different distances for the square or rectangular method and for the
+hexagonal method.
+
+             Sq.  Hex.                     Sq.  Hex.
+
+ 12 × 12     302   344         24 × 24      75    80
+ 12 × 15     242   ...         24 × 30      60    ..
+ 15 × 15     193   224         30 × 30      48    56
+ 15 × 18     161   ...         30 × 36      40    ..
+ 15 × 20     145   ...         33 × 33      40    46
+ 15 × 30     96    ...         30 × 48      30    ..
+ 18 × 18     134   156         30 × 60      24    ..
+ 18 × 20     121   ...         36 × 36      33    39
+ 20 × 20     108   124         40 × 40      27    31
+ 20 × 30     72    ...         40 × 50      21    ..
+
+It will be noted that the hexagonal plan allows the setting of from
+four to forty trees more per acre than the square plan, even when the
+trees are set the same distance apart. This is the great advantage of
+this plan over the square. Filling an orchard one way, i.e., between
+the permanent row, in one direction only, practically doubles the
+trees which can be set on an acre; filling both ways quadruples the
+number.
+
+PREPARATION OF SOIL.--The previous condition and treatment of a soil
+for an orchard are important. If the soil has been in a good rotation
+of field crops, including some cultivated crops, it should be in prime
+condition for the trees. Old pastures and meadows should be plowed up,
+cropped, and cultivated for a year or two before setting to obtain the
+best and quickest results. If one is in a hurry, however, this may be
+done after setting the trees. Good results are sometimes obtained by
+setting trees right among the stumps on recently cleared timberland.
+Where no stiff sod has formed the trees start quickly in the rich
+soil.
+
+The best immediate treatment of land preparatory to setting the trees
+should be such as to place the soil in good tilth. Deep plowing,
+thorough cultivation, and the application of liberal amounts of
+manure--twelve to fifteen loads per acre--are the most effective means
+of doing this. The best crop immediately to precede trees is clover.
+Sometimes an application of one thousand five hundred to two thousand
+pounds of lime will help to insure a stand of clover and at the same
+time improve the physical condition of the soil. Fall plowing is a
+good practice on the medium loams and more open soils, but on the
+heavy clays spring plowing is to be preferred, as when plowed in the
+fall these soils puddle and become hard to handle. Care should always
+be taken to keep the orchard well furrowed out as standing water is
+decidedly inimical to satisfactory tree-growth. Tile draining is
+frequently advisable.
+
+INTERCROPPING.--The question of intercropping a young orchard is one
+to be carefully considered. As it is often practiced it is very
+injurious to the orchard, but it is possible to manage crops so as to
+be of very little harm to the trees. While the practice may be
+inadvisable in many commercial orchards, yet on a general farm we
+should by all means think that it was the right thing to do. Certain
+facts must be remembered, however, which have a bearing on the
+subject.
+
+Trees are a crop, as much as corn or grass. If we grow a crop between
+the tree rows we must remember that we are double cropping the land
+and that it must be fed and cared for accordingly. There is absolutely
+no use in setting an apple orchard, expecting it to take care of
+itself, "just growing," like Topsy, as numerous dilapidated and broken
+down orchards bear ample testimony. If orchards are to be cropped
+this must be judiciously done with the trees primarily in mind.
+
+The best crops to grow in a young apple orchard are those requiring
+cultivation, or which permit the cultivation of the land early in the
+season. Field beans, potatoes, and garden truck of all kinds, as small
+vegetables, melons, etc., are among the very best crops to grow in the
+young orchard. Corn will do if it does not shade the trees too much.
+Small grain and grass should not be used, especially where they come
+up close to the trees. These crops form too stiff a sod and use up too
+much moisture. A mulch of straw, cut grass, or coarse manure will help
+to correct this condition somewhat when these crops must be used.
+After cultivation until midsummer buckwheat makes a satisfactory
+orchard crop in some cases.
+
+A regular rotation may be used in the young orchard to advantage when
+a space is left next the trees to receive cultivation. This space
+should be at least two feet on each side of the tree the first year
+and should be widened each year as the tree grows older and larger, to
+four, six, and eight feet. This method has been used by the author
+very successfully for a number of years. Some good rotations to use
+in a growing orchard are: (1) Wheat or rye one year, clover one year,
+beans or potatoes one year; (2) oats one year, clover one year,
+potatoes one year; (3) beans one year, rye plowed under in spring,
+followed by any cultivated crop one or two years. The essentials of a
+good rotation for an orchard are: A humus and fertility supplying
+crop, preferably clover, in the north, and cow peas in the south, and
+at least two crops in four requiring cultivation up to the middle of
+the summer.
+
+Most of the points regarding the management of young trees have
+already been mentioned, but a few others should have attention
+directed to them. Fall planted trees should not be cut back until
+spring. In the spring all newly planted trees should have their tops
+cut back rather severely to correspond with the injury to the roots in
+transplanting, thus preserving the balance between root and top. This
+will usually be about half to two-thirds the previous season's growth.
+From three to five well distributed branches should be left with which
+to form the top. During the first few years of their lives the young
+apple trees will need little or no pruning, except to shape them and
+remove crossing or interfering branches.
+
+Constant cultivation at frequent intervals until midsummer should be
+the rule with young growing trees, with which this is even more
+important than with older trees. It is a good plan to plow the orchard
+in fall where possible, always turning the furrows toward the trees,
+leaving the dead furrows as drainage ditches between the rows. At
+Beechwood Farm we have always banked the trees with earth in the fall,
+using a shovel. This not only firms the soil about the tree, holding
+it straight and strong through the winter, but it affords good
+protection against rodents, especially mice. Where rabbits are
+prevalent it is well to place a fine mesh wire netting around the
+trees in addition to this.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+PRUNING THE TREES
+
+
+Pruning is not an entirely artificial operation as one might at first
+thought suppose. It is one of nature's most common processes. Nature
+accomplishes this result through the principle of competition, by
+starting many more trees on a given area than can possibly survive. In
+the same way there is a surplus of buds and branches on each
+individual tree. It is only by the crowding out and the perishing of
+many buds, branches, and trees that others are enabled to reach
+maturity and fulfill their purpose. This being too slow and too
+expensive a process for him, man accomplishes in a day with the knife
+and saw what nature is years in doing by crowding, shading, and
+competition. Proper pruning is really an improvement on nature's
+method.
+
+Neither is it true, as some claim, that pruning is a devitalizing
+process. On the contrary it is often stimulating and may actually
+increase the vigor of a weak or declining tree. All practical
+experience teaches us that pruning is a reasonable, necessary, and
+advantageous process. True, it is often overdone, and improperly done.
+As in many other things, certain fundamental principles underlie and
+should govern practice. When these are known and observed, pruning
+becomes a more simple matter.
+
+Heavy pruning during the dormant or winter season stimulates the
+growth and tends to increase the production of wood. In the same way
+pruning during the summer or growing season stimulates the growth and
+tends to induce fruitfulness, if the tree remains healthy. But this
+fruitfulness is apt to be at the expense of the vigor of the tree. On
+the other hand, the pruning of the roots of a tree tends to check the
+growth of wood, the same as poor feeding. As above noted heading back
+a tree when dormant tends to stimulate it to a more vigorous growth.
+
+The habit of growth of a variety has much to do with its pruning. Some
+varieties of apples are upright, others are spreading growers. Climate
+and locality greatly affect these habits of growth. So also the habit
+of a young tree often differs from the habit of the same tree in old
+age. The tendency is for a tree to continue its growth from its
+uppermost or terminal buds. Although the heading in of new growth
+checks this upward tendency and throws the energy of the tree into the
+development of lateral and dormant buds, nevertheless the pruned tree
+soon resumes its natural upward growing habit.
+
+Plant food is taken up by the minute tree rootlets in solution and
+carried to the leaves where it is elaborated and then returned for use
+to the growing tissues of the tree. Whenever there is any obstruction
+above a bud the tendency is to throw the energy of the branch into a
+lateral bud, but if the obstruction is below the bud the branch merely
+thickens and growth is checked. When too heavy pruning is practiced
+the balance between the roots and top is disturbed. This usually
+results in what are commonly known as "suckers." These are caused by
+an abnormal condition and while they may be the result of disease or
+injury to the tree, they are often of great value in restoring or
+readjusting the proper balance between the roots and top.
+
+Pruning a tree is a way of thinning the fruit and a good one. It may
+sometimes be used to influence the bearing year of trees like the
+Baldwin, which have an alternate bearing habit, but this is a more
+theoretical than practical method. Fruit bearing is determined more by
+the habitual performance of the tree than by any method of pruning,
+and this is especially true of old trees. It is easier to influence
+young trees. Conditions which tend to produce heavy wood growth are
+unfavorable for the formation and development of fruit buds. A
+quiescent state is a better condition for this.
+
+REASONS FOR PRUNING.--With these fundamental principles in mind we may
+safely outline a method of pruning an apple tree. As the desired end
+is different so will the method of pruning a young tree differ from
+that of an old one. There are five important things for which to prune
+a young tree, namely:
+
+1. To preserve a proper balance between the top and root at the time
+of setting out. This usually means cutting off the broken and the very
+long roots to a reasonable length and cutting back from one-half to
+two-thirds of the growth of the previous season.
+
+2. To make the top open in order to admit the sunlight freely. In the
+humid climate of the Northeastern States, it is usually advisable to
+prune a tree so as to have a rather open top. This is necessary in
+order properly to color and mature the fruit.
+
+3. To regulate the number of limbs composing the top. Probably three
+branches well distributed on the trunk would make most nearly the
+ideal head, but as these cannot always be obtained the best practice
+is to leave from three to five branches from which to form the top.
+
+4. To fix the branches at the proper height from the ground. This is
+more or less a matter of opinion, some growers preferring a low and
+others a high head. The character of the tree growth, the method of
+culture, and the purpose of the tree whether temporary or permanent
+greatly influence the height of the head. An upright growing variety
+should be headed lower than a spreading one. Trees kept in sod or
+under extensive methods can well be headed lower than those under more
+intensive culture where it is desirable to carry on cultural
+operations close around them. Permanent trees should be headed higher
+than temporary trees. Apple trees should seldom be headed lower than a
+foot from the ground, nor more than four feet above it. For upright
+growing varieties intended as permanents, the writer prefers three to
+three and one-half feet and for more spreading varieties four feet;
+while for temporary trees eighteen inches should be a good height.
+
+5. To do away with weak crotches and to remove crossing or interfering
+branches. A crotch formed by two branches of equal size, especially
+when the split is deep, is a weak crotch and should be avoided. Strong
+crotches are formed by forcing the development of lateral buds and
+making almost a right angle branch from the parent one. All branches
+which rub each other, which tend to occupy the same space with
+another, or which generally seem out of place, are better removed as
+soon as any of these tendencies are found to exist.
+
+IDEALS IN PRUNING.--The general method of pruning the old trees and
+the ideal in mind for it will also influence the pruning of the young
+tree, especially the shaping of it. Once determined upon, the ideal
+should be consistently followed out in the pruning of the tree as it
+becomes older. As the tree comes to bearing age it will be necessary
+to prune somewhat differently and for other purposes. These we can
+conveniently consider under six heads:
+
+1. Every tree should be pruned with a definite ideal as to size,
+shape, and degree of openness in mind. To have such an ideal is very
+important. It is only by industriously and consistently carrying it
+out that the ideal tree in these respects can be ever obtained.
+Haphazard cutting and sawing without a definite purpose in mind are
+really worse than no pruning at all.
+
+2. It almost goes without saying that to remove all dead, diseased, or
+injured wood is a prime purpose of pruning. Dead and injured branches
+open the way for rot and decay of contiguous branches, and disease
+spreads through the tree. The removal of all such branches is as
+essential to the health of the tree as it is to its good appearance.
+In removing them the cut should be made well behind the diseased or
+injured part to insure the checking of rot and disease.
+
+3. All mature apple trees should be so pruned as to keep them in the
+most easily manageable shape and to facilitate in every possible way
+the operations of tillage, spraying, and harvesting. It is most
+important to have the tree low enough down so that spraying and
+picking can be easily done. It is difficult to spray properly a tree
+which is more than twenty-five feet in height. Even this height
+necessitates a tower on the spray rig and the use of an extension
+pole. An apple tree should be so pruned that all the fruit can be
+readily picked from ladders not longer than eighteen to twenty-two
+feet.
+
+Of course, if the tree has been allowed to get higher than this under
+previous management, sometimes we have to make the best of a bad
+situation. If the trees are too high head them back by cutting off the
+leaders, but it is not always wise to lower all trees to twenty-two
+feet. Heading back of old trees will be more fully discussed in the
+chapter on "Renovating Old Orchards." Ladders longer than twenty-two
+feet are heavy and clumsy to handle.
+
+If cultivation is to be carried on close up under the tree the lower
+limbs must be pruned so as to allow this. It is not necessary,
+however, to drive a team closer than twelve or fifteen feet from a
+mature tree, contrary to the common belief and practice. Cultivation
+is least important in the first few feet of space around a mature
+tree. By the use of set-over tools, all that is necessary can be well
+cultivated without crowding the team under or against the branches.
+
+4. As has been pointed out in the discussion of the pruning of young
+trees, in humid regions where the sunlight is none too abundant
+through the growing season, the open head is most desirable. Sunlight
+on the leaves as well as on the fruit is essential to good color of
+the fruit, and good color is a very important factor in the flavor and
+attractive appearance of the fruit. An open center with upright
+growing leaders removed gives the greatest opportunity for sunlight to
+penetrate through the tree.
+
+5. As we have seen, pruning in the dormant season tends to increase
+the vigor of the tree. Thus winter pruning serves to secure a normal
+and vigorous wood growth, which is most essential to a healthy
+fruit-bearing tree. On the other hand, such pruning may be excessive
+and produce wood growth at the expense of fruit buds, throwing the
+tree out of bearing.
+
+6. The sixth and last reason for pruning is to regulate the number and
+distribution of the wood and the fruit bearing buds. The proper
+balance between these is greatly affected by pruning and can be best
+regulated by experience with the particular tree or variety. A perfect
+balance is hard to get, but with study and skill it can be closely
+approximated. Pruning, too, may thin the fruit, as removing branches
+removes fruit buds. This is best done by removing small branches near
+the ends of larger ones. It is a much cheaper method of thinning than
+picking off individual fruits, but not as effective.
+
+TIME OF PRUNING.--The particular time of the year for pruning is not
+vital. As between summer and winter pruning, winter is to be preferred
+because of the physical effect on the tree. Summer pruning is an
+unnatural process and should only be practiced as a last resort to
+check growth or induce fruitfulness, as it may result in injury to the
+tree. It is essential that a tree mature its foliage, which it
+frequently does not do after summer pruning. Diseased, dead, or
+injured wood should be removed when first observed, summer or winter.
+
+Spring is the logical and usually the most convenient time to prune on
+the general farm. While dormant season pruning may be done at any
+time between November 1st and June 1st, the cuts heal more rapidly in
+the spring when the sap begins to flow. In regions subject to severe
+and drying winds in the winter, pruning should be deferred at least to
+late winter. Considered from every standpoint, March and April are
+quite the best months in which to prune. After the removal of useless
+branches, the normal amount of food material is delivered to fewer
+buds under greater sap pressure and the remaining buds are made more
+strong and vigorous.
+
+In removing small branches with a knife or other cutting tool, the cut
+should be made upward from below and opposite a bud. On upright
+growing varieties the last bud left should be an outside one to induce
+the tree to spread as much as possible, while on spreading trees
+leaving as the last bud an inside one has a tendency to make the tree
+grow more upright. Always cut close to the parent branch, never
+leaving a stub no matter how young or old the tree.
+
+Cuts of lateral branches should be made just at the shoulder of the
+branch where it joins the parent. A cut behind the shoulder will not
+heal, neither will one too far ahead of it. A stub left on a trunk or
+large branch does not heal, but soon begins to rot at the end where
+the heartwood is exposed. This gradually works back into the main
+branch and the tree finally becomes "rotten at the heart." All that is
+needed to complete the destruction is a heavy wind, an ice or a snow
+storm, or a heavy load of fruit.
+
+All wounds more than two inches in diameter should be painted either
+with a heavy lead paint, which is preferable, or with some gas tar
+preparation. These things do not in themselves heal a cut, but they
+keep out the decaying elements, air and moisture, thus helping to
+preserve the branch and by protecting it to promote healing in
+nature's way. A little lamp black will serve to deaden the color of
+the paint.
+
+PRUNING TOOLS.--The best tool to use in pruning is one which brings
+you nearest to your work and over which you have the greatest control
+to make all kinds of cuts. In the writer's experience no tool does
+this so smoothly and conveniently as a properly shaped saw. A good saw
+should be quite rigid, rather heavy at the butt, where its depth
+should be about six inches, tapering down to about two inches at the
+point. It should have a full, firm grip, be not more than thirty
+inches long, and should always be kept sharp. Two-edged saws should
+not be used because of the injury done to the tree when sawing in
+crotches.
+
+Cutting shears are often very useful, especially the smaller,
+one-handed type which is almost indispensable in pruning young trees.
+The larger, two-handled shears are useful in thinning out the ends of
+branches or in heading back new growth. They should not be too heavy,
+as they are tiresome to use. The extension handled types are too
+cumbersome, too slow to work with, and the operator is of necessity
+too far away from his work for the best results.
+
+FRUIT THINNING.--A matter which is quite nearly related to pruning is
+thinning the fruit, and may properly be treated here. That this is not
+as common a practice with most fruit-growers as it should be, the
+great lack of uniformity in our ordinary market apples is ample
+evidence. Many persons will at once raise the question as to whether
+or not it is practicable to thin the fruit on large apple trees. The
+answer is that many growers find it not only practicable, but most
+profitable to do so. Wherever fruit of a uniform size and color is
+desired, thinning is a practical necessity, especially when the crop
+of fruit is heavy.
+
+The proper time to thin the fruit is just after what is commonly known
+as the "June drop," i.e., the falling off of those fruits not well
+enough pollinated or set to hold on to maturity. In thinning the fruit
+should be taken off until they are not closer than from four to six
+inches apart on the same branch, although the distance apart on any
+branch will depend somewhat on the amount of the crop on other parts
+of the tree. Never leave clusters of fruit on any branches, as some of
+them are sure to be small and out of shape. Furthermore two apples
+lying together afford a fine place for worms to get from one apple to
+another and they seldom fail to improve the opportunity. Step ladders
+and ordinary rung ladders are used to get at the fruit for thinning.
+The cost of the operation is not nearly as large as might appear at
+first thought and in practically all cases is a paying investment.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CULTIVATION AND COVER CROPPING
+
+
+In its broad sense cultivation is the treatment of the soil. Thus
+understood orchard cultivation includes the sod mulch system as well
+as the stirring of the soil with various implements. In its more
+common and restricted meaning, however, cultivation is the stirring of
+the soil about plants to encourage growth and productivity. To have
+the apple tree in sod was once the commonly accepted method of orchard
+treatment--a method of neglect and of "letting well enough alone."
+With the advent of more scientific apple culture the stirring of the
+soil has come to be the more popular method. But within the last few
+years an improved modification of the old sod method, known as the sod
+"mulch" system, has attracted much attention because of the success
+with which a few men have practiced it. For a correct understanding of
+these practices and of the relative desirability of these systems we
+must again turn to underlying principles and purposes.
+
+It may be said on first thought that tillage is a practice contrary to
+nature. But it accomplishes what nature does in another way. Tillage
+has been practiced on other crops than trees for so long that we think
+of it almost as a custom. There are, however, scientific and practical
+reasons for tillage.
+
+THE EFFECTS OF TILLAGE on the soil are three fold, physical, chemical,
+and increasing of water holding capacity. Tillage affects the soil
+physically by fining and deepening it, thus increasing the feeding
+area of roots, and by bringing about the more free admission of air
+warms and dries the soil, thus reducing extremes of temperature and
+moisture. Chemical activities are augmented by tillage in setting free
+plant food, promoting nutrification, hastening the decomposition of
+organic matter, and the extending of these agencies to greater depth.
+Tillage conserves moisture by increasing the water holding capacity of
+the soil and by checking evaporation.
+
+Of all these things which tillage accomplishes in a soil, two should
+be especially emphasized for the apple orchard, namely, soil moisture
+and soil texture. That moisture is a very important consideration in
+the apple orchard the effects of our frequent droughts are ample
+evidence. The amount of rainfall in the Eastern States when it is
+properly distributed is fully sufficient for the needs of an apple
+tree. By enlarging the reservoir or water holding capacity of the soil
+and by preventing the loss of water by evaporation, an excess of
+rainfall in the spring may be held for later distribution and use.
+
+As a rule, the improvement of a poor soil texture is as effective as
+the supplying of plant food and much cheaper. The latter is of no
+consequence unless the plant can use it. Scientists tell us that there
+is an abundance of plant food in most soils. The problem is to make it
+available. Plant food must be in solution and in the form of a film
+moisture surrounding the smallest soil particles in order to be
+available to the fine plant rootlets which seek it. Good tillage
+supplies these conditions. Can they be obtained equally well in
+another way?
+
+It is claimed by the advocates of the sod mulch system of orchard
+culture that it also supplies these conditions. Humus or decayed
+vegetable matter holds moisture. Grass or other mulch decaying in the
+soil increases its humus content and hence its water holding capacity.
+By forming a mulch over the soil evaporation may be checked to some
+extent, although probably not as effectively in a practical way, as by
+cultivation. If there is a good grass sod in the orchard, moisture and
+plant food made available by that moisture are utilized, and if the
+grass is allowed to go back into the soil it continues to furnish
+these elements to the tree. But there is a rapid evaporation of
+moisture from the surface of the leaves of grass. In fact, grass may
+well serve to remove an excess of moisture in wet seasons, or from wet
+lands.
+
+Laying aside theoretical considerations, let us see what practical
+experience teaches on this subject. We have the accurate data on a
+large number of western New York orchards showing the results of
+cultivation and other methods of soil management. These data are
+overwhelmingly in the favor of cultivation. In Wayne County the
+average yield of orchards tilled for five years or more was 271
+bushels per acre, as compared with 200 bushels per acre for those in
+sod five years or more but otherwise well cared for,--an increase of
+thirty-five per cent. in favor of good tillage. In Orleans County,
+under the same conditions, the increase in yield due to cultivation
+was forty-five per cent. and in Niagara County it was twenty-two per
+cent. Records were made on hundreds of orchards and the results should
+be given great weight in determining the system to be practiced, as
+intelligent consideration of trustworthy records is to be encouraged.
+
+These results were obtained in one region under its conditions and it
+is quite possible, although not probable, that other conditions might
+give different results. There are, however, special conditions as will
+be pointed out later, under which the sod mulch method might be more
+advisable than tillage. It is cheaper, makes a cleaner cover for the
+drop fruit, avoids the damage from tillage implements to which tilled
+trees are liable, and can be practiced on lands too steep to till. It
+often happens, too, that it fits into the scheme of management on a
+general farm better than the more intensive and specialized system of
+cultivation. And it must be remembered that we are dealing with this
+question from the point of view of the home farm rather than of the
+commercial orchardist. So that where the sod mulch gives equally good
+results it would be preferred under these conditions.
+
+LATE FALL AND EARLY SPRING PLOWING.--The common tillage practice in
+the sections where it is most followed is to plow either in late fall
+or as early as possible in the spring. Whether fall or spring plowing
+is best depends on two things: the character of the soil and
+convenience. On heavy clay soils where drainage is poor it is not
+advisable to plow in the fall as the soil is apt to puddle and then to
+bake when it dries, making it hard to handle. On gravel loams, medium
+loams, and all well drained soils which are fairly open in texture
+either fall or spring plowing is practiced depending on which period
+affords the most time.
+
+On the general farm where there are several crops for which the land
+must be prepared in spring, it would seem best to get as much of the
+plowing as possible done in the fall. But a large crop of apples or a
+large and late corn husking or potato digging may interfere with this
+on some farms and make spring plowing more desirable. Always plan this
+work in connection with the other farm work so as to give the best
+distribution of labor.
+
+After fall plowing either the spring-tooth harrow or the disk harrow
+is best to use to work up the soil and no time should be lost in
+getting at this as soon as the land is dry enough in the spring.
+Sometimes the disk harrow can be used to work up the soil in the
+orchard in the spring without any plowing at all, especially on loose
+loams where there are few stones. But on newly plowed land a disk cuts
+too deep and there is too great danger of injuring the roots. On
+spring plowed land the spring-tooth harrow usually gives the best
+results. After the soil is thoroughly fined and worked into a mellow
+bed and as soon as the period of excessive moisture in spring is
+passed, a lighter implement like the smoothing harrow or a light
+shallow digging cultivator should be used to stir the surface of the
+soil only.
+
+The growing period for an apple tree begins as early as growth starts
+in the spring and continues up to about midsummer. If cultivation is
+to stimulate growth as much as possible, it should be done during this
+period. The first object of cultivation in the early spring is to
+loosen up, aerate, and dry out the soil, which is usually too wet at
+that time. As cultivation is continued the soil will become fined and
+firmed again by the time drier weather comes on. A fairly deep
+digging and lump crushing tool is the best implement to use up to this
+time, and a disk or spring-tooth harrow meets these requirements.
+
+After this period is passed and during drier weather, cultivation is
+carried on for a different purpose, namely, to conserve moisture by
+making a thin dust mulch of soil over the surface. This is best
+accomplished by shallow-going implements of which the spike-tooth
+harrow, the acme harrow, or a light wheel cultivator are best. As the
+season and the amount of rainfall vary, so must tillage operations be
+varied. In an early dry season begin with the lighter implements
+earlier. In a late wet season keep the digging tools at work later. As
+soon as the soil is in good physical condition the principal object of
+tillage is to modify moisture conditions.
+
+As a matter of practice three to four harrowings at intervals of a
+week to ten days are necessary. Sometimes more, sometimes less are
+required, according to the character and condition of the soil and the
+season. The later moisture-conserving tillage should also be carried
+on every week or ten days, according to weather conditions. It is good
+practice to stir the soil after every heavy or moderately heavy rain.
+Use the smoothing tools after light to medium rains and the heavier
+tools after packing or beating rains. In practice from five to eight
+or ten of these cultivations are necessary. The drier the season the
+more necessary does frequent cultivation become.
+
+A COVER CROP is so closely associated with tillage that it is usually
+considered a part of the system. It should be sown in midsummer as soon
+as tillage ceases. This time will vary from July first to August
+fifteenth, depending on the locality, the rainfall, the crop of fruit
+on the trees, and on how favorable the conditions for securing a good
+stand of the cover crop are. The farther south the locality, or the
+earlier the fruit, the sooner the crop should be sown. Absence of
+sufficient rainfall necessitates a continuation of the cultivation,
+both because it is necessary to conserve all the moisture possible and
+because it is difficult to get a good stand of a cover crop--especially
+of one having small seeds--at a dry time in midsummer.
+
+In a year when there is a full crop of fruit on the trees cultivation
+should be continued as late as possible as all the stimulus that can
+thus be secured will be necessary to help the fruit attain good size
+and maturity, and at the same time enable the tree properly to mature
+its fruit and leaf buds for the following year. On the other hand, in
+a year when there is not a full crop of fruit cultivation should be
+stopped early so as to avoid forcing a too rank growth of wood and
+foliage and continuing the growth of the next season's buds so late
+that they may not mature and therefore may be in danger of winter
+killing.
+
+The different kinds of cover crops which may be used in the apple
+orchard will be considered in the next chapter as they are so closely
+associated with fertilization. Strictly speaking, however, a cover
+crop is used principally to secure its mulching and physical effects
+on the soil in the intervals between the seasons of tillage. In
+addition to its physical and feeding effects the cover crop serves to
+check the growth of trees in the latter part of the season by taking
+up the nitrates and a part of the moisture, thus helping to ripen the
+wood.
+
+SOD MULCH.--The ordinary sod culture which is practiced in so many
+orchards should not be confused with the sod mulch system. The one is
+a system of neglect, the other of intention. In the sod mulch system
+the grass sod is stimulated and encouraged and when the grass dies or
+is cut, it is left on the ground to decay, forming a soil mulch
+meanwhile. The removal of grass from the orchard as hay is poor
+practice and should be discouraged. The grass mulch may well be
+supplemented by the addition of other grass, straw, leaves, coarse
+manure, or other similar materials. Sometimes this mulch is put on to
+the depth of six inches or even a foot around the tree. Thus practiced
+it is very effective in conserving moisture and in adding the humus
+which is so necessary to the soil.
+
+Sod and tillage have somewhat different effects on the tree and on the
+fruit. Let us see what these effects are. It is common knowledge that
+fruit is more highly colored when grown in sod than when grown under a
+tillage system. This is probably largely due to the fact that tillage
+keeps the fruit growing so late that it does not mature so well or so
+early. Fruit is usually two or three weeks later in tilled than in sod
+orchards. It has been shown that fruit grown under tillage keeps from
+two to four weeks longer than that grown in sod. It is claimed
+also--but this is a disputed point--that tilled fruit has a better
+quality and flavor. Certain it is that fruit grown in sod is drier
+and less crisp and juicy.
+
+The effect of tillage on the trees is more marked and better known.
+Tilled trees have a darker, richer green foliage, indicating a better
+and more vigorous health. The leaves are also larger and more
+numerous. They come out three or four days earlier in the spring and
+stay on the trees two weeks later in the fall than the leaves on trees
+kept in sod. Tilled trees make nearly twice the growth in a season
+that those in sod do, in fact there is danger of their making wood
+growth at the expense of fruit buds. Tillage also gives a deeper,
+better distributed root system.
+
+Despite the advantages and the disadvantages of each system, there are
+times, places, and circumstances under which one is more advisable
+than the other. On lands rich in humus and in plant food and level so
+as to be easily tillable, cultivation is without doubt the best
+system. But it should be practiced in connection with cover crops, and
+the orchard should be given occasional periods of rest in sod--say one
+year in from three to five.
+
+The sod mulch system of orchard culture is probably better adapted to
+rather wet good grass land and where mulching material is cheap and
+readily available. It is undoubtedly at its best on lands too steep or
+rough to till, or otherwise unsuitable to cultivation. Tillage is the
+more intensive method and where labor is scarce and high sod culture
+might be more advisable for this reason, other conditions being not
+too unfavorable.
+
+In order to illustrate a method of management under the tillage system
+we may suggest the following as a good one for level to gently rolling
+land:
+
+   1912. Early plowing in spring, cultivation to July first to
+         fifteenth. Then sow red clover as a cover crop.
+
+   1913. Repeat previous year's treatment, varying the time of
+         sowing cover crop according to conditions.
+
+   1914. Let the clover grow, mowing and leaving on the ground as a
+         mulch, June fifteenth to twentieth, and again in August.
+
+   1915. Plow early in spring, cultivate to midsummer, and then sow
+         rye or buckwheat as a cover crop July fifteenth to August
+         fifteenth.
+
+   1916. Repeat 1915 treatment and if trees are not growing too
+         fast, sow clover or hairy vetch as a cover crop.
+
+   1917. Same as 1912, etc.
+
+PASTURING THE ORCHARD.--The sod mulch system explains itself and does
+not need illustration. Sod orchards are often managed as pasture for
+animals, however, and this practice should be discussed. An orchard is
+considered as pastured when a considerable number of animals are
+turned into it for a greater or less portion of the year. Results in
+orchards where pasturage has been thoroughly tried out show that it is
+never advisable to pasture an orchard with horses or cattle, but that
+fairly good results may be expected where sheep or hogs are used.
+
+The evidence of yield of fruit and appearance of trees both indicate,
+that pasturing an orchard with horses or cattle is about the worst
+possible practice. These animals rub against the trees, break the
+branches, browse the limbs and leaves, and destroy the fruit as high
+as they can reach. All experience is against this practice which
+cannot be too strongly deprecated.
+
+Pasturing an orchard with sheep, although a somewhat doubtful
+practice, often gives good results. Sheep crop the grass close to the
+ground and to some extent prevent the extensive evaporation which
+usually takes place from the leaves of grass. Their well distributed
+manure is worth considerable. They also browse the branches to some
+extent and should not be allowed to run in the orchard late in the
+season as they will destroy considerable fruit.
+
+Pasturing an orchard with swine gives better results than any other
+pasture treatment of the orchard. Hogs do considerable rooting which
+prevents the formation of a stiff sod and itself may often amount
+almost to cultivation in well stocked orchards. A good deal of manure
+is added to the soil, especially when the hogs are fed outside the
+orchard. Hogs also destroy many insects by eating the wormy fruit.
+
+Pasturage of orchards has its advantages. It gives a double
+utilization of the land. It is a cheap method of management. When the
+animals are fed outside the orchard, as should always be the case, it
+adds considerable plant food to the soil. When plenty of outside food
+can be given and when the orchard is not overstocked--the animals
+should never be hungry--hogs and sheep may be used to advantage in
+pasturing orchards. In very rough fields incapable of tillage, this is
+undoubtedly the very best system of orchard management.
+
+Pasturage has the disadvantage of exposing young trees to injury from
+the animals, but this may be at least partly avoided by protecting
+them with stakes or a heavy wire meshed screen. Hogs especially soil
+the fruit and make the land rough and difficult to drive over. Under
+the proper conditions pasturage may be practiced to advantage,
+especially on small areas and on the general farm where it is more
+advantageous than it would be commercially.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+MANURING AND FERTILIZING
+
+
+Cover crops may be said to be supplementary to tillage. In the
+previous chapter this function has been discussed. It now remains to
+point out another important function--that of a green manure crop
+adding humus and plant food to the soil. Not only do some cover crops
+add plant food and all humus to the soil, but they tend to conserve
+these by preventing leaching, especially of nitrates, and they help to
+render plant food more available by reworking it and leaving it in a
+form more available for the tree. They sometimes act as a protection
+against winter injury by holding snow and by their own bulk. They also
+help to dry out the soil in spring, thus making the land tillable
+earlier.
+
+There are two great classes of cover or green manure crops, leguminous
+and non-leguminous. A non-leguminous crop merely adds humus and
+improves the physical condition of the soil. In itself it adds no
+plant food, although it may take up, utilize, and leave behind plant
+food in a more available form for the tree's use. But in addition to
+these benefits, leguminous crops actually add to the soil plant food
+in the form of nitrogen which they have the ability to assimilate from
+the air by means of bacterial organisms on their roots.
+
+NON-LEGUMINOUS CROPS.--The most important of the non-leguminous crops
+are rye, buckwheat, turnips or rape, barley, oats, and millet. The
+first mentioned are the most commonly used. Also in order of
+importance the following are the usual leguminous cover and green
+manure crops to be used: clovers, winter vetch, soy beans, alfalfa,
+cow peas (first in the South). In order to determine the relative
+advisability of the use of these various crops let us now look at some
+of their characteristics and requirements.
+
+Rye is one of the best non-leguminous cover crops, especially in the
+young orchard, as it does not grow as well in shade as in the open. A
+particularly strong point about rye is that it grows rapidly quite
+late in the fall and starts early in the spring. Starting earlier than
+most crops in the spring, it makes a considerable amount of growth
+before the land is fit to plow. Especially in warmer climates rye
+should not be sown too early in the fall--not usually before September
+1st--because of this too heavy growth. Rye is also adapted to a great
+variety of soils and hence will often grow where other crops will not
+do well. About two bushels of seed are required per acre.
+
+Buckwheat is probably about equally as good as rye for an orchard
+cover crop, although it does not produce quite as much organic matter.
+It will germinate at almost any season of the year even if it is very
+dry. It is a great soil improver because of its ability to feed and
+thrive on soils too poor for other crops, due to its numerous shallow
+feeding rootlets. It grows rapidly and covers the ground well, but
+like rye does not thrive as well in shade. Buckwheat should not be
+used to excess on the heavier types of soil as it is rather hard on
+the land. One bushel of seed to an acre makes a good seeding.
+
+Turnips or rape often make good pioneer cover or green manure crops.
+They are great soil improvement crops and it is comparatively easy to
+secure a good stand of them even in dry weather. Sown in late July in
+the North they will produce a great bulk of humus and add much
+moisture to the soil, especially if they cover the ground well. Their
+broad, abundant leaves and high tops also hold the snow well in
+winter. Cow Horn is the best variety of turnips to use, as it is a
+large, rank grower. Use one to two pounds of seed to the acre. Rape
+makes an excellent pasture crop in an orchard both for sheep and hogs,
+but especially for the former. Eight or nine pounds of seed are
+necessary to the acre.
+
+Barley, oats, and millet are not as good crops as the foregoing,
+because, with the possible exception of millet, they make their best
+growth early in the season. Moreover they take up too much moisture
+from the soil at a time when the tree most needs this moisture. In
+fact they are sometimes used for this specific purpose on wet land in
+too wet seasons. Two to two and one half bushels of oats or barley and
+one to one and one half bushels of millet to the acre are necessary
+for a good seeding.
+
+Although weeds can hardly be classified as cover crops, they are often
+valuable ones. They grow rapidly and rank, making a large bulk of
+humus, without the expense of seeding. If they are not allowed to go
+to seed so as to scatter the seed about the farm, they often make the
+best of cover crops. This necessitates a mowing in September. Weeds
+are plants out of place, and when these plants are in place they are
+not necessarily weeds, as they have then become serviceable.
+
+LEGUMES.--In general, legumes are more valuable as cover and green
+manure crops than non-leguminous plants, because as a rule they are
+more rank growers and more deeply rooted, as well as because they add
+nitrogen to the soil. But it is rather more difficult to secure a good
+stand of most legumes than it is of the crops previously mentioned for
+several reasons. As a rule the seeds are smaller and a large seed
+usually has greater germinating power than a small one. This often
+means much at the time of the year when the cover crop is sown. Then
+legumes are more difficult to grow, requiring better soil conditions.
+Still these should be present in good orchard soils. Drainage must be
+good, the soil must be at least average in fertility and physical
+condition, it must not be sour--hence it is often necessary to use
+lime--and soils frequently require inoculation before they will grow
+legumes satisfactorily.
+
+Where the clovers grow well they make excellent cover crops as well as
+green manure crops. The chief difficulty with them is that of
+obtaining a good stand in a dry midsummer. The mammoth red and the
+medium red clovers are probably the best of their genus on the heavier
+soils, while crimson clover is best on sandy soils and where it will
+grow, on the lighter gravel loams. The latter is especially well
+adapted to building up run down sandy soils. Although it is somewhat
+easier to secure a stand of this clover, alsike does not grow rank
+enough to make a good cover or green manure crop. Most clovers are
+deep rooted plants and therefore great soil improvers physically as
+well as being great nitrogen gatherers. The amounts of seed required
+per acre for the different kinds are about as follows: mammoth fifteen
+to twenty pounds; red (medium) twelve to fifteen pounds; crimson
+twelve to fifteen pounds; and alsike ten to twelve pounds.
+
+Where it can be readily and successfully grown alfalfa is really a
+better cover and green manure crop than the clovers. It is deeper
+rooted, makes a better top growth, and therefore adds more nitrogen
+and more humus to the soil than the clovers. It cannot be recommended
+for common use, however, as it is so difficult to grow except under
+favorable conditions. It requires a more fertile soil than clover, a
+soil with little or no acidity, good drainage, and usually the soil
+must be inoculated. Only where these conditions prevail can alfalfa be
+generally recommended.
+
+Vetch is an excellent cover and green manure crop, forming a thick,
+close mat of herbage which makes a good cover for the soil. It is very
+quick to start growing and a rapid grower in the spring. It also adds
+larger quantities of nitrogen. The hairy or winter vetch lives through
+the hard freezing winters. Summer vetch, although an equally good
+grower, is killed by freezing. One bushel of seed is required per acre
+and the seed is expensive, which is the greatest objection to the use
+of this excellent crop.
+
+Two other less well known and used leguminous crops are well worth
+trial as cover crops--soy beans in the North and cow peas in the
+South. Both are great nitrogen gatherers and as they are rank and
+rapid growers add large quantities of humus to the soil. Under
+favorable conditions they will cover the ground with a perfect mat of
+vegetation in a very short time. Being larger seeded, it is
+considerably easier to obtain a stand on dry soils and in dry seasons
+than it is of the smaller seeded clovers. It is usually best to sow in
+drills the ordinary width, seven inches, apart.
+
+Cow peas are universally used as a cover and green manure crop in the
+South, but they do not thrive so well in the North. One and one half
+to two bushels of seed are required per acre. In the North the earlier
+maturing varieties of soy beans are almost equally good. One to one
+and one half bushels of seed are sown per acre.
+
+Leguminous cover crops are also the best and the cheapest source of
+nitrogen for the apple orchard, after they are well established. Their
+use may be overdone, however. Too much nitrogen results in a growth of
+wood at the expense of fruit buds. To avoid this it is often advisable
+to use non-leguminous and leguminous crops alternately, when the
+orchard is making a satisfactory growth. Sometimes also these two
+kinds of crops, as buckwheat and clover for example, may be combined
+with good results. When this is done one half the usual amount of seed
+of each should be used.
+
+EARLY PLOWING.--Many people make the common mistake of thinking that
+a green manure crop must be allowed to grow until late in June in
+order to secure the maximum amount of growth. There are several
+reasons why this is not good practice. In the first place cultivation
+is most essential in the early spring as has been pointed out. Then
+moisture is better conserved by plowing under the crop early and a
+better physical condition of the soil secured. Plowing early in the
+spring warms up the soil and sets plants to work more quickly. Lastly,
+material rots much more quickly in the early spring when moisture is
+more abundant, which is very important.
+
+An apple tree is as much a crop as anything grown on the farm and must
+be so regarded by those who would become successful orchardists. When
+it is not properly fed and cared for, good yields of fruit may not
+justly be expected. Especially is this true of an orchard which is
+being intercropped. But because of the fact that an apple tree is not
+an annual crop but the product of many years' growth, because its root
+system is deeper and more widely spread out than those of other crops,
+and because the amount of plant food removed in a crop of fruit is
+comparatively small, fertilization is less important than many
+persons would have us think. It is a fact that where orchards receive
+good cultivation and a liberal supply of humus commercial fertilizers
+give but medium results.
+
+ELEMENTS OF FERTILITY.--Three elements are necessary for the growth of
+apple trees, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. To these lime may
+be added, although its benefit is indirect rather than direct as a
+plant food. How badly any of these elements may be needed depends on
+the soil, its previous treatment, and on the system of management. By
+learning what are the effects of these elements on the tree and fruit
+we may determine under what conditions, if any, their use is
+advisable.
+
+Nitrogen promotes the growth of new wood and leaves, giving the latter
+a dark green color. In fact the color of the leaves and the amount of
+the wood growth are usually good indicators of the need of nitrogen.
+Nitrogen in excess develops over vigorous growth and prevents the
+maturity of wood and buds. It always has a tendency to delay the
+maturity of the fruit by keeping it growing late. On many varieties it
+tends to produce poorly colored fruits.
+
+When trees are making a normal amount of growth in a year--say a foot
+to three feet or more--and when the leaves are of good size and a
+dark green in color, there is little need of nitrogen. But when trees
+are not growing satisfactorily and the leaves have a sickly yellow
+color, then the need of nitrogen is evident. On early soils and in
+long growing seasons nitrogen may be more freely and safely used than
+under other conditions.
+
+The effect of phosphoric acid and potash on the tree and fruit is much
+more uncertain. They are supposed to influence the quality and the
+flavor of the fruit, giving better color and flavor, and this they
+undoubtedly do to some extent. Potash probably gives the leaves a
+darker green color. The precise effect of these two elements is at
+present a subject of much discussion, one set of investigators
+maintaining after a long and careful investigation that these effects
+are too small to be worth while, and the other claiming that they have
+a marked effect in the ways above indicated. The only safe guide is
+the actual local result. If the fruit is satisfactory in every way it
+will be of little use to try fertilizers. On the other hand, if it is
+not, then it will pay to experiment with them. The needs of and the
+results on different soils are so variable that it is always wise to
+experiment on a small scale before using fertilizers extensively.
+
+STABLE MANURE.--The necessary plant food is best supplied by stable
+manure applied at the rate of ten loads per acre for a light
+application to twenty loads per acre for a heavy application. This
+amounts to a load for from two to five mature trees. Such an
+application will not only go far toward supplying the necessary
+nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, but especially if coarse will
+add considerable humus and improve the physical condition of the soil.
+
+Except on land which washes badly, manure should be applied in the
+fall and winter. It should not be piled near the trunk of the tree but
+spread uniformly over the entire surface of the ground. It is
+particularly important to spread the manure under and beyond the
+farthest extent of the branches as this is the most important feeding
+root area of the tree.
+
+COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.--Where manure is not available or where it
+cannot be applied in sufficient amounts, commercial fertilizers may be
+resorted to, after they have been experimentally tested out.
+Leguminous cover crops are the best source of nitrogen, as has been
+indicated, but where these do not grow well, or in seasons when they
+have for some reason failed, nitrate of soda or dried blood are good
+substitutes. From two hundred to three hundred pounds of one or the
+other of these may be applied broadcast in the spring soon after
+growth is well started and all danger of its being checked by frost or
+cold weather is past. It is well to apply the nitrate of soda in two
+applications a few weeks apart, especially on soils which are leachy
+and in wet seasons, as part of the nitrogen may leach away if all is
+applied at once. These should be thoroughly worked into the soil with
+a spring-tooth harrow.
+
+To supply the other two elements, from two hundred to four hundred
+pounds of treated rock phosphate or basic slag for the phosphoric
+acid, and the same amount of sulphate of potash for the potash, should
+be applied at any time in the early part of the season, preferably
+just before a light rain, and worked into the soil as before.
+Home-made wood ashes are a good source of both these elements, and
+especially of the potash. They cannot be purchased economically in any
+quantity, but on the general farm there could be no better way to
+utilize the wood ashes made around the place than by applying them two
+or three bushels to a full grown tree every year or two. Wood ashes
+are also a good source of lime, being about one-third calcium oxide.
+Thus a large amount of available plant food will be supplied to the
+tree, and where it is needed should result not only in better wood
+growth but in the formation of vigorous leaf and fruit buds for the
+following year.
+
+Lime is not usually considered as a fertilizer except on soils
+actually deficient in it. But it will usually be advisable to apply
+from one thousand five hundred to two thousand pounds of fresh burned
+lime or its equivalent, in order to correct any natural soil acidity,
+to hasten the decay of organic material, to increase the activity of
+the soil bacteria, and to improve the physical condition of the soil
+by floculating the soil particles and helping to break up lumpy soils.
+Lime also helps to liberate plant food by recombining it with certain
+other elements in the soil. All these effects make a more congenial
+medium for the leguminous crops to grow in, and it is frequently
+advisable to use lime for this purpose alone. After this first heavy
+application about 800 pounds of lime should be applied per acre every
+four or five years.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+INSECTS AND DISEASES AFFECTING THE APPLE
+
+
+It is a common saying among farmers who have grown apples on their
+farms for many years that there are many more pests to fight than
+there used to be. How often we have heard a farmer tell of the perfect
+apples that grew on a certain tree "when he was a boy," before people
+had generally heard of codling moth, San José scale, apple scab, or
+other troubles now only too common. "We never sprayed, but the apples
+were fine," he says. Is this the usual glorification of the mythical
+past or is it true? In all probability it is a little of both, but it
+is undoubtedly true that insects and fungous diseases have increased
+rapidly of late years.
+
+REASONS FOR PEST INCREASE.--When there is an abundance of food and
+conditions are otherwise favorable, any animal or plant will thrive
+better than when the food supply is scarce and conditions unfavorable.
+As long as apple trees were scattered and few in number there was not
+the opportunity for the development of apple pests, but as soon as
+they became numerous the prosperity of bugs and minute plant parasites
+was wonderful to see. Another factor which has been at least partly
+responsible for the great increase in our insect life is that man has
+upset nature's balance by destroying so many birds, and, by
+interfering with their natural surroundings, driven them away. Birds
+are great destroyers of insects, and their presence in the orchard
+should be encouraged in every possible way. Add to these facts the
+marvelous fecundity of the insect tribe, and the increase is less
+remarkable. Loss from these orchard pests has now run up into the
+millions. It has been estimated that the loss in the United States
+from wormy apples alone is over $11,000,000 annually. Thus has the
+necessity for fighting these enemies of good fruit arisen.
+
+In order successfully to combat an insect or a disease it is very
+necessary to have a somewhat detailed knowledge of its life history
+and to know its most vulnerable point of attack. It is impossible to
+work most intelligently and effectively without this knowledge, which
+should include the several stages of the insect or disease, the point
+of attack, the time of making it, and when and with what it can be
+most easily destroyed. The number of insects and diseases which affect
+the apple is so great that it is simply out of the question to treat
+them all in detail here. We have therefore selected nine insects and
+three diseases as those pests of the apple which are most common and
+whose effects are usually most serious. The essential facts in their
+life histories and their vulnerable points will now be pointed out.
+The method of study may be taken as applicable to any other pests
+which it may be necessary to combat.
+
+INSECT PESTS.--Of the many insects which affect either the tree or the
+fruit of the apple, the nine selected probably inflict the most damage
+and are the most difficult to control of all those in the Northeastern
+States. According to their method of attack all insects may be divided
+into two classes: biting and sucking. Biting insects are those which
+actually eat parts of the tree, as the leaves or fruit. These are
+combated by the use of stomach poisons as we shall see in the
+following chapter. Sucking insects are those which do not eat the tree
+or fruit directly, but by means of a tubelike proboscis suck the
+juices or sap from the limbs, leaves or fruit. Of the biting insects
+the five which we shall discuss are: (1) codling moth, (2) apple
+maggot, (3) bud moth, (4) cigar case bearer, (5) curculio. The four
+sucking insects discussed are: (6) San José scale, (7) oyster shell
+scale, (8) blister mite, and (9) aphis or plant louse.
+
+1. THE CODLING MOTH, the most insidious of all apple pests, is mainly
+responsible for wormy apples. The adult is a night flying moth with a
+wing expanse of from one-half to three-quarters of an inch. The moths
+appear about the time the apple trees are in bloom. Each female is
+supposed to lay about fifty eggs which are deposited on both the
+leaves and fruit, but mostly on the calyx end of the young apples. The
+eggs hatch in about a week and the young larvae or caterpillars begin
+at once to gnaw their way into the core of the fruit. Three-fourths of
+them enter the apple through its blow end.
+
+After twenty to thirty days of eating in the apple, during which time
+they become full grown and about three-quarters of an inch long, they
+leave the apple, usually through its side. The full grown caterpillar
+now secretes itself in the crevices in the bark of the tree or in
+rubbish beneath the tree and spins a tough but slight silken cocoon in
+which the pupal period is passed. This lasts about a fortnight, when
+the process is sometimes repeated, so that in the Eastern States there
+are often two broods each season.
+
+The most vulnerable point in the career of this little animal is when
+it is entering the fruit. If a fine poison spray covers the surface of
+the fruit, and especially if it covers the calyx end of the apple
+inside and out, when the young larvae begin to eat they will surely be
+killed. It is estimated that birds destroy eighty-five per cent. of
+the cocoons on the bark of trees.
+
+2. APPLE MAGGOT.--It is fortunate that the apple maggot, often called
+the railroad worm because of its winding tunnels all through the
+fruit, is not as serious a pest as the codling moth for it is much
+more difficult to control with a poison. A two-winged fly appears in
+early summer and deposits her eggs in a puncture of the skin of the
+apple. In a few days the eggs hatch and the maggots begin to burrow
+indiscriminately through the fruit. The full grown larvae are a
+greenish white in color and about a quarter of an inch long. From the
+fruit this insect goes to the ground where the pupal stage is passed
+in the soil. The next summer the fly again emerges and lays its eggs.
+
+Spraying is not effective against this insect as the poison cannot be
+placed where it will be eaten by the maggots. The best known remedy is
+to destroy the fruit which drops to the ground and for this purpose
+hogs in the orchard are very effective. The distribution of this
+insect in the orchard is limited and it has shown a marked preference
+for summer and autumn varieties.
+
+3. THE BUD MOTH closely resembles the codling moth in form and size,
+but differs from it in color and life history. The larvae, after
+hibernating through the winter, appear as little brown caterpillars
+about May first or as soon as the buds begin to open, and a week or
+two later begin their work of destruction. They inflict great damage
+on the young leaf and fruit buds by feeding on them. When full grown
+the larvae, cinnamon brown in color with a shining black head, are
+about one-half inch long. They then roll themselves up in a tube made
+from a leaf or parts of leaves securely fastened together with silken
+threads. In this cocoon pupation, which lasts about ten days, takes
+place. Early in June the moths appear. There is but one brood in the
+North. These insects can be successfully combated with a poison spray
+applied early before the buds open.
+
+4. THE CIGAR CASE BEARER winters in its case attached to a twig. When
+the buds begin to open in the spring it moves to them, carrying its
+case with it, and begins to feed on the young and tender buds. By the
+time the leaves are well open, it has fed a good deal on the tender
+buds and young leaves and is ready to make a new and larger case. This
+it does by cutting a leaf to suit and then rolling it up in the form
+of a cigar, whence its name. In this case the larvae continue feeding
+about a month, causing much injury to the leaves, although this is not
+as serious as the mutilation of the young buds in the spring, before
+the tree is fully leafed out.
+
+About the last of June pupation takes place and in about ten days the
+moth emerges. The eggs are then layed along the midribs of the leaves
+and hatch in about fifteen days. The newly hatched larvae become leaf
+miners during August, and migrate to the branches again in the fall
+where they pass the winter. These leaf and bud eating insects can be
+destroyed by applying a poison to the buds before they open and again
+later to the opening leaf and flower buds.
+
+5. CURCULIO BEETLES pass the winter under leaves and grass. In the
+spring they feed on the blossoms and the tender leaves. As soon as the
+young fruits are formed the female deposits her eggs in a puncture
+made just inside a short, crescent-shaped cut in the little apple. The
+eggs soon hatch and the young grubs burrow into the fruit to the core
+where they remain two or three weeks, or until full grown. The larvae
+then bore their way out of the fruit and drop to the soil where they
+pupate. The earliest of the beetles to emerge again feed on the fruit.
+The principal damage from this pest comes from the feeding of the
+beetles and the work of the larvae, although the latter is not as bad
+in the apple as in the stone fruits. A poison on the young foliage as
+soon as the beetles begin to feed is the best method of combating
+curculio. Jarring the tree is not as practicable with the apple as it
+is with the plum.
+
+6. THE SAN JOSÉ SCALE, one of our worst apple tree pests, is a sucking
+insect extracting the juices of the tree from the trunk, limbs or
+branches, or even from the leaves and fruit when it is very abundant.
+At first the growth is checked only, but as the insects develop their
+work finally results in the death of the part, unless they are
+destroyed. The insect winters in an immature condition on the bark
+under a grayish, circular, somewhat convex scale about the size of a
+pinhead. The young, of which a great many broods are produced, are
+soft bodied but soon form a scale. In the early spring small
+two-winged insects issue from these scales.
+
+After mating the males die, but the females continue to grow and in
+about a month begin the production of living young--minute, yellow,
+oval creatures. These young settle on the bark and push their slender
+beaks into the plant from which they begin to suck out the sap. In
+about twelve days the insects molt and in eight to ten more they
+change to pupae, and in from thirty-three to forty days are themselves
+bearing young. A single female may give birth to four hundred young in
+one season and there are several generations in a season. This great
+prolificacy is what makes the scale so serious a pest.
+
+In fighting it every scale must be destroyed or thousands more are
+soon born. In order to be able to use a strong enough mixture of lime
+and sulphur to destroy them by smothering or choking the spray must be
+applied on the dormant wood in the spring or fall or both.
+Thoroughness is most essential.
+
+7. THE OYSTER SHELL SCALE, although it is essentially the same in its
+habits and in its methods of sucking the sap from the tree is not as
+bad a pest as the San José scale because it is less prolific, there
+being but one brood a year. Still this scale often destroys a branch
+and sometimes a whole tree. The "lice" winter as eggs under the scale
+and hatch in late May or early June. After crawling about the bark for
+two or three days, the young fix their beaks into it and remain
+fastened there for life, sucking out the sap. By the end of the season
+they have matured and secreted a scaly covering under which their eggs
+for the next season's crop winter. A smothering spray like lime and
+sulphur applied strong when the trees are dormant will practically
+control this scale. But the young may be destroyed in summer by a
+contact spray such as tobacco leaf extract or whale oil soap.
+
+8. THE LEAF BLISTER MITE is a small, four-legged animal, so small as
+hardly to be visible to the naked eye. It passes the winter in the
+bud scales and as soon as these begin to open in the spring it passes
+to the tender leaves which it punctures, producing light green or
+reddish pimples according to the variety of apple. These later develop
+into galls or blisters of a blackish or reddish brown color and
+finally result in the destruction of the leaf. Trees are sometimes
+practically defoliated by this pest, and this at a time when a good
+foliage is most needed. Inside of the galls eggs are deposited and
+when the young hatch they burrow in all directions. In October the
+mites abandon the leaves to hibernate in the bud scales again. A
+strong contact spray of lime sulphur when the trees are dormant
+destroys the young mites while they are yet on the bud scales, which
+is practically the only time when they are vulnerable.
+
+9. APHIDES, or plant lice, are of seasonal importance. Although nearly
+always present, it is only occasionally that they become so numerous
+as seriously to damage mature apple trees. But they are more often
+serious pests on young trees where they should be carefully watched.
+Their presence is determined by the curled and distorted condition of
+the terminal leaves on the under side of which the green or pinkish
+lice will be found. Eggs deposited in autumn pass the winter in this
+condition, hatching in the spring about the time of the beginning of
+the growth of vegetation. From these winter eggs females are hatched
+which bear living young, which may also bear living young and so on
+for several generations until autumn, when eggs are again deposited
+for the winter stage.
+
+Fortunately weather conditions together with parasitic and predaceous
+insects hold them more or less in check. Because of the difficulty of
+getting at the underside of the curled leaves where these lice mostly
+work they are extremely hard to control. Lime and sulphur when the
+trees are dormant destroy as many of the eggs as it comes in contact
+with. A tobacco extract is quite effective as a contact spray in the
+growing season. The trees must be closely watched and if the lice
+appear in any considerable number they must be promptly attended to or
+serious damage is likely to result.
+
+These are by no means all the insect pests which the fruit grower has
+to combat, but they are usually the most important. Canker worm and
+tent caterpillars often do great damage in unsprayed orchards, but
+they are easily controlled by an application of a poison as soon as
+they appear. The same is true of other caterpillars and leaf eating
+worms. Apple tree borers are frequently serious, especially in young
+orchards, where the trees should be regularly "grubbed" and the borers
+dug out or killed with a piece of wire. They may be prevented to some
+extent by painting the tree trunks with a heavy lime and sulphur or
+some gas tar preparation.
+
+DISEASES.--Although not as numerous as insects, the diseases which
+attack the apple inflict great damage and are fully as difficult to
+control. They are caused by bacteria and by fungi which may be
+compared to weeds growing on or in the tree instead of the soil. If
+either of these works within the plant, as is sometimes the case, it
+must be attacked before it enters. It is very necessary to be thorough
+in order to control these diseases. Weather conditions influence
+nearly all of them materially. Of those which attack the apple tree or
+fruit we have selected three as the most serious and the most
+necessary for the grower to combat, namely, (1) apple scab, (2) New
+York apple tree canker, and (3) fire blight. To these should be added
+in the South and middle latitudes, sooty blotch and bitter rot.
+Baldwin spot is also frequently serious in some seasons and
+localities.
+
+(1) THE APPLE SCAB, commonly known among growers as "the fungus," is
+the most important of our common apple diseases and is most evident on
+the fruit, although it attacks the leaves as well. In some seasons the
+fruit is made almost unsalable. This disease lives through the winter
+on old leaves. In the spring about blossoming time the spores are
+scattered by the wind and other agencies, and reaching the tender
+shoots germinate and enter the tissues of the plant. Their development
+is greatly dependent on the weather. In a season in which there is
+little fog or continued damp or humid weather, they may not develop at
+all, but where these conditions are present they frequently become
+very virulent.
+
+Spraying will be governed by the weather conditions, but the mixture
+must be applied very promptly as soon as it is evident that it is
+likely to be necessary and must cover every part of the tree to be
+effective. The object is to prevent the spores from germinating, the
+spray being entirely a preventive and in no sense a cure. The disease
+most frequently first manifests itself on the tender new growth and on
+the blossoms. Two mixtures have been found to control it, namely,
+Bordeaux and a weak solution of lime and sulphur. One or other of
+these should be applied just before the blossoms open, just before
+they fall, and when necessary two and nine weeks later.
+
+(2) NEW YORK APPLE TREE CANKER is usually found mainly on the trunks
+of old trees, but it also affects the smaller branches. Practically
+every old or uncared for orchard has more or less of this canker, and
+where it is not checked it eventually destroys the tree. This fungus
+is the cause of most of the dead wood found in old orchards. The
+surface of the canker is black and rough and covered with minute black
+pimples. It lives over winter and spreads from one branch or tree to
+another. As it most frequently enters a branch through wounds made in
+pruning, these should be promptly painted over with a heavy lead and
+oil paint. All diseased parts should be cut out and removed as soon as
+observed. The value of spraying for this disease is not definitely
+known, but it is seldom very troublesome in well sprayed and well
+cared for orchards.
+
+(3) BLIGHT appears on apple trees in three forms, as blossom blight,
+as twig blight, and as blight cankers. It is a bacterial disease
+which is distributed by flies, bees, birds, etc., and cannot be
+controlled by spraying. The bacteria are carried over the winter in
+cankers on the main limbs and bodies of the trees, oozing out in a
+sticky mass in the spring. These cankers should be cut out with a
+sharp knife cutting well into the healthy bark and then washing the
+wound with corrosive sublimate, one part to one thousand of water.
+Cutting out and destroying are also the chief remedies to be used when
+the blight appears in the twigs and blossoms. It is not usually as
+serious on apples as on pears. Some varieties, like Alexander, are
+more subject to it than others.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF SPRAYING
+
+
+The spraying of fruit trees in the United States is of comparatively
+recent origin, having been a general commercial practice for less than
+two decades. It involves the principle of applying with force and in
+the form of a fine rain or mist, water in which a poison or a
+substance which kills by contact is suspended. The first application
+of the principle was against chewing insects with hellebore. Pure
+arsenic was early used and soon led to the use of other arsenicals.
+
+Our greatest fungicide, Bordeaux mixture, was discovered by accident
+in 1882 when it was found to control mildew in France. Up until about
+five years ago Bordeaux mixture as the fungicide and paris green as
+the poison were almost universally used. Within the last few years,
+however, there have been developed two substitutes which, although
+known and used to some extent for twenty years, have only recently
+come into such general use as practically to replace the old sprays.
+These are lime and sulphur as the fungicide and partial insecticide
+and arsenate of lead as a partial insecticide.
+
+The necessity for and the advisability of spraying have already been
+pointed out. There is an increasing demand for fine fruit the
+supplying of which is possible only with thorough spraying. In the
+humid East especially the competition of more progressive sections in
+the West is demanding more and better spraying. There is no cure-all
+in this process. It does not make a tree more fruitful except as it
+improves its general health, but it does bring a larger percentage of
+the fruit to perfection. Certain knowledge is fundamental; the grower
+must know what he is spraying for, when and with what to combat it and
+how to accomplish the desired result most effectively.
+
+Spraying is an insurance against anticipated troubles with the fruit,
+and the best and most successful growers are those most completely
+insured. It has many general advantages also. It stimulates the grower
+to a greater interest in his business because of the extra knowledge
+and skill required. It compels thoroughness. It necessitates spending
+money, therefore a return is looked for. To be sure, it is only one
+of the operations necessary to success, but it enables us to grow a
+quality of fruit which we could not obtain without it.
+
+SPRAY MATERIALS are conveniently divided into two classes,
+insecticides and fungicides. An insecticide is a poison by which the
+insect is killed either directly by eating it, or indirectly by the
+caustic, smothering, or stifling effects resulting from closing its
+breathing pores. Direct poisons are used for insects which eat some
+part of the tree or fruit and are called stomach poisons. Sprays which
+kill indirectly are used for insects which suck the sap or juice from
+the tree or fruit and are called contact sprays. Arsenical compounds
+have supplanted practically all other substances used to combat
+external biting insects. Two stomach poisons are commonly used,
+namely, arsenate of lead and paris green, but the former is rapidly
+replacing the latter.
+
+ARSENATE OF LEAD is prepared by mixing three parts of crystallized
+arsenate of soda with seven parts of crystallized white sugar
+(acetate) of lead in water, but it will not as a rule pay the grower
+to mix his own material, as arsenate of lead can be purchased in
+convenient commercial form at a reasonable price. The preparation on
+the market is a finely pulverized precipitate in two forms, one a
+powder and the other a paste. These are probably about equally good
+and are readily kept suspended in water. Less free arsenic is
+contained in this form than in any other compound of arsenic, making
+it safer to use, especially in heavy applications. Arsenate of lead
+may be used without danger of burning the foliage as strong as five or
+six pounds to fifty gallons of water, but three pounds is the usual
+and a sufficient amount for the control of any apple insect for which
+it is efficacious.
+
+PARIS GREEN is being rapidly displaced by arsenate of lead for several
+reasons. It is a compound of white arsenic, copper oxide, and acetic
+acid. The commercial form is a crystal which in suspension settles
+rapidly, a serious fault. It is more soluble than arsenate of lead and
+hence there is greater danger of burning the foliage with it.
+Moreover, it costs from twenty to twenty-five cents a pound, and the
+arsenate of lead can be purchased for from eight to ten cents a pound.
+
+The amount which it is safe to use in fifty gallons of water is from
+one-half to three-quarters of a pound. When paris green is used alone
+as a poison lime should be added. Both these arsenicals should be
+thoroughly wet up by stirring in a smaller receptacle before they are
+put into the spray tank, in order to get them in as complete
+suspension as possible. They may be used in the same mixture with
+Bordeaux or lime sulphur.
+
+CONTACT SPRAYS.--Four compounds are used as contact sprays in
+combating sucking insects, namely, lime sulphur, soaps such as whale
+oil soap, kerosene emulsion, and tobacco extract. Of these lime
+sulphur is the most used and for winter spraying is probably the best.
+This preparation is made by boiling together for one hour or until
+they unite, twenty pounds of quick lime, fifteen pounds of flower of
+sulphur, and fifty gallons of water. Although the home made mixture is
+much cheaper than the commercial form which may be purchased on the
+market, many people prefer the latter because of the inconvenience and
+trouble of preparing the mixture, although there is nothing difficult
+about it.
+
+This contact spray is used chiefly for the San José scale and the
+blister mite, and in order to control these must be applied strong on
+the dormant wood. The strength necessary will vary from one part of
+the mixture above mentioned or of the commercial preparation, to from
+seven to ten parts of water, according to the density test of the
+material, which should be around twenty-eight per cent. Beaumé (a
+scale for measuring the density of a liquid) for home made, and
+thirty-two per cent. for the commercial mixture.
+
+Any good soap is effective in destroying soft bodied insects such as
+plant lice. The fish oil soaps, although variable in composition, are
+often valuable, especially the one known in the trade as whale oil
+soap. This soap dissolved in water by boiling at the rate of two
+pounds of soap to one gallon of water, makes a good winter spray for
+scale but should be applied before it gets cold as it is then apt to
+become gelatinous. For a summer contact spray against lice, one pound
+of soap to seven gallons of water is strong enough to be effective. It
+is objectionable because of its odor and because it is disagreeable to
+make and handle. Lime sulphur is to be preferred as a winter spray,
+but the soap spray is often necessary and valuable for summer sucking
+insects.
+
+Kerosene emulsion was formerly more commonly used than now against the
+scale and plant lice. It is a mixture of one-half pound of soap and
+two gallons of kerosene in one gallon of water--preferably in hot
+water. For dormant trees one gallon of this mixture should be diluted
+with six gallons of water. While this spray is effective it is no more
+so than lime-sulphur and is quite difficult and disagreeable to
+handle. As a summer spray, however, it is often necessary. Several
+preparations of petroleum known as the miscible oils are sometimes
+used. Their use is the same as that of lime-sulphur and they are not
+as good.
+
+Within the last few years a tobacco concoction known as black leaf
+tobacco extract (nicotine sulphate) has come into quite common use. It
+can be purchased commercially under various brand names, and should be
+diluted according to its strength, but usually about one part to fifty
+of water. It may be made by boiling one pound of good tobacco stems in
+two gallons of water for one-half-hour. Objections to it are that it
+evaporates very quickly, although it is supposed to be non-volatile,
+and that it is expensive, but it is very convenient to use, can be
+readily mixed with other summer sprays, and is very effective against
+plant lice and mites.
+
+BORDEAUX MIXTURE. Fungicides are mixtures of chemical compounds made
+up for the purpose of controlling plant diseases caused by a class of
+plant weeds known as fungi. There are three commonly well known and
+used fungicides, Bordeaux mixture, commercial lime sulphur, and the
+self-boiled lime-sulphur. The Bordeaux mixture is the best all-around
+fungicide known. It is a mixture of three pounds of copper sulphate
+(blue vitriol or bluestone) with three or more pounds of fresh burned
+stone lime in fifty gallons of water. The two compounds should be put
+together as fruit growers say "with water between," that is each
+should be diluted with the water separately before the two are mixed.
+
+The best plan is to have stock mixtures of each in barrels, fifty
+gallon cider or vinegar barrels making good receptacles for the
+purpose. Place the bluestone in an old fertilizer or meal sack and
+suspend it about midway in the barrel of water. In a few hours it will
+all be dissolved and will remain in suspension for some length of time
+very well. If say fifty pounds of the copper sulphate are dissolved in
+fifty gallons of water, each gallon of water will contain one pound of
+the bluestone, which makes a very convenient way to measure it. So
+also fifty pounds of fresh burned stone lime should be placed in a
+barrel--in this case in the bottom of the barrel rather than in a
+sack--just covered with water and allowed to slake, more water being
+added as required up to fifty gallons. If too much water is added to
+the lime at the first it will be "drowned" and its slaking checked.
+These two stock mixtures, each gallon containing one pound of the
+copper sulphate or one pound of the lime, are then mixed together.
+
+It is well to fill the tank about half full of water, then put in the
+required amount of the copper sulphate, and after stirring well add
+the lime milk. It is a good plan to add an excess of lime as it
+minimizes the danger of burning and aids the mixture in sticking to
+the leaves well. If one is sure that he has at least as much lime, or
+an excess of lime, it will not be necessary to test the mixture, but
+if he is not, a simple test may be made with ferro-cyanide of
+potassium, obtained at a drug store. A few drops of this mixture will
+disappear if the lime is equal or in excess of the copper sulphate,
+that is, it will be neutralized, but if it is not, they will remain a
+bright purplish red. Bordeaux mixture is used in strengths varying
+from three to five pounds each of bluestone and lime in fifty gallons
+of water, but the former is usually sufficient.
+
+LIME-SULPHUR.--The more important fungicides, the commercial lime
+sulphur and the self-boiled lime-sulphur, are practically superseding
+Bordeaux as a fungicide, not because they are necessarily better, but
+because there is frequently much burning of the foliage and russeting
+of the fruit from the use of the Bordeaux. This is unfortunate as the
+latter is a rather more effective fungicide as well as more convenient
+and pleasant to use. The self-boiled lime sulphur is a combination of
+lime and sulphur which is boiled by the heat of the slaking lime
+alone, and makes a pretty good substitute for the Bordeaux when it
+injures foliage or fruit. This preparation of lime and sulphur differs
+from the commercial form used as a winter wash in that it is wholly a
+mechanical mixture and not partly chemical like the latter. It may
+therefore be used on the foliage in summer at a greater strength,
+there being only a very small percentage of sulphur in solution when
+the mixture is properly made.
+
+Equal amounts of lime and sulphur are used, these being from eight to
+ten pounds each to fifty gallons of water. The mixture is best
+prepared in larger quantities so as to get heat enough from the
+slaking lime to produce a violent boiling for a few minutes. First,
+place say forty pounds of lime in a barrel and pour on just water
+enough to start it slaking nicely--about a gallon to each three or
+four pounds of lime is usually sufficient. Then add the sulphur and
+enough more water to slake the paste, keeping it well stirred
+meanwhile. The violent boiling of the lime in slaking will cook the
+mixture in from five to fifteen minutes, depending on the quality of
+the lime and how fast it is slaked. Just as soon as the violent
+boiling is over add enough cold water to stop all action. If this is
+not done, some sulphur will unite with the lime and burning may be the
+result.
+
+This self-boiled mixture is entirely harmless to apple foliage and
+even appears to have a stimulating effect upon it. Against the apple
+scab, however, it is not as effective as the boiled wash, or the
+commercial preparations. For this disease a strength of from one to
+thirty to one to forty (that is about one and one-half gallons of the
+prepared mixture testing 31 to 33 Beaumé to fifty gallons of water) of
+the commercial lime-sulphur is most effective.
+
+SPRAY PUMPS.--The application of the foregoing spray mixtures is fully
+as important as the sprays themselves, for on the right application at
+the right time depends the efficacy of the spray. For this purpose a
+considerable amount of special machinery has been devised. Lack of
+space prevents us from going into much detail on this question, so we
+must be content with merely outlining the different types of machines
+and mentioning their accessories. Sprays are forced through single,
+double or triple acting pumps, either by hand or power. The three
+types of power available are traction, compressed air, and gasoline,
+the last being the most used. Steam power is practically obsolete.
+
+The knapsack is the simplest type of hand pump, but it is of no
+practical use in the mature apple orchard. For small orchards and
+small trees several types of hand pumps are quite effective. The lever
+type of pump, where the handle is pushed from and pulled toward the
+operator, probably gives the most power with the least tiring effect,
+because it enables one to use the weight of the body to some extent.
+It is best not to have the pump attached to the spray barrel or tank,
+but set on a movable base of its own, as then it can be used for any
+one of a number of barrels. Such an outfit may be obtained for from
+twenty-five to forty dollars.
+
+It is well to buy a standard make of pump, preferably from a nearby
+dealer, so that repairs may be readily secured. For all orchards up to
+three or four acres in size, and for larger orchards where the trees
+are not over twelve or fifteen feet in height, this kind of spray rig
+is the most practicable and advisable, when the expense is taken into
+consideration. This applies especially to the general farm.
+
+The power of a traction sprayer is developed from the wheels. There is
+much discussion as to whether sufficient power to throw an effective
+spray can be supplied by this method. By accumulating considerable
+pressure by extra driving at the ends of the rows and then skipping
+every other tree in order to keep up the pressure, going over the rows
+twice, a very satisfactory pressure can be obtained for trees which
+are not too large. The argument for this type of machine, and it is
+especially applicable on the general farm, is that it can be used for
+other spraying on the farm as well as for the apple orchard,
+especially for potatoes and small fruits. It is a comparatively cheap
+type of power, particularly when it can be used for several purposes.
+
+The compressed air gas sprayer comes next in point of simplicity and
+cost for a power sprayer. Its most economic use is found where
+orcharding is carried on extensively enough to pay to compress the air
+or gas right in the orchard. This is of course impracticable on the
+general farm. Therefore the air or gas must be purchased and shipped
+to the farm in steel tubes. This often causes delay at critical times
+and is rather expensive. Moreover, the gas is open to the objection of
+interfering with the lime-sulphur compound by precipitating some of
+the sulphur.
+
+The gasoline engine is the most useful and popular type of power for
+the orchard sprayer, as well as for general use on the farm. Many
+makes are now so perfected that they give little or no trouble. One
+and a half or two horsepower are fully sufficient for spraying, but
+most farmers prefer from three to five horsepower in order to be able
+to use the engine more for other purposes. The latter power is open to
+objection for spraying purposes on account of its weight, as
+especially in early spring it is very difficult to haul so heavy a rig
+over the soft ground. Such an outfit is also rather expensive.
+Standard makes of gasoline engines of sufficient power for spraying
+cost from $75.00 to $150.00 according to horsepower and efficiency.
+For very large trees, for mature orchards, and for all orchards larger
+than four or five acres, the gasoline engine is the best source of
+power for spraying, particularly where it can be used for other
+purposes on the farm.
+
+A double acting or two cylinder pump is most desirable. If there is
+plenty of power a triplex or three cylinder pump is still better. The
+requirements of a good pump are: sufficient power for the work desired
+of it; strong but not too heavy; fewest possible number of parts
+consistent with efficiency; brass parts and valves; and a good sized
+air chamber. A number of standard makes of pumps answer these
+conditions very well. Pumps should always be washed out with clean
+water when the operator is through with them and the metal parts
+coated with vaseline. Never leave water in a pump chamber or in the
+engine jacket in cold weather.
+
+The ordinary hand pump and barrel give satisfactory use when placed on
+a wagon, unless the trees are very high. But for large orchards, high
+trees, and where larger tanks and power pumps are used it is
+desirable to have a special truck for the outfit. The front wheel
+should be made low so as to turn under the tank to enable the driver
+to make short turns around the trees. A tower is desirable where high
+old trees are to be sprayed. This should be substantial but as small
+as is consistent with the purpose so as not to catch on the limbs and
+make it difficult to get close up around the trees. The height of the
+platform must be regulated by the need and by the roughness of the
+ground. On steep side hills the wagon body on which the tank rests
+should be underslung.
+
+In order to get as near to the work as possible get a long hose--from
+twenty to thirty feet according to circumstances. The best quality,
+three to five ply, is none too good. Hose should be three-eighths to
+one-half inch in diameter, one inch being too heavy. Extension rods
+are a practical necessity. They should be ten to twelve feet long and
+made of bamboo lined with brass, that is, as light as possible.
+Nozzles are very important in thorough and effective spraying. There
+is no best nozzle, nor one with which all the work can be done.
+
+Several things should be considered in selecting a nozzle. First of
+all, it must be of convenient form so as not to catch in trees and so
+constructed that it will not clog easily. Second, for apple trees it
+should have good capacity and deliver as spreading a spray as
+possible. Third, the nature of the spray is very important.
+Insecticides should usually be applied with force in a comparatively
+coarse driving spray, but fungicides should be applied in a fine mist
+or fog so that they will settle on every part of the tree. Therein
+lies the difficulty of applying insecticides and fungicides together.
+
+TIME OF SPRAYING.--Fortunately it is not necessary to make a separate
+application for each insect and disease, but they may be treated
+together to some extent. In most cases expediency demands that the
+arsenicals be used with the fungicides. Many growers are finding the
+most satisfactory results, however, from applying the arsenical spray
+separately, just after the blossoms fall, because of the physical
+impossibility of properly applying the two sprays--the driving and the
+mist spray--together. For most practical purposes on the general farm,
+three sprayings are necessary in order to secure clean fruit and four,
+sometimes five, are often advisable. These may be summarized as
+follows:
+
+    1. With lime-sulphur, winter strength, on the dormant wood in
+    early spring.
+
+    2. With lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead just before the
+    blossoms open (may sometimes be omitted).
+
+    3. With the same (or Bordeaux for scab) just after the blossoms
+    fall.
+
+    4. With the same two or three weeks later.
+
+    5. With arsenate of lead eight or nine weeks later (may
+    sometimes be omitted).
+
+      (In the south and middle latitudes where bitter rot and apple
+      blotch occur two other sprayings may be necessary.)
+
+    6. With Bordeaux about eight or ten weeks after the blossoms fall.
+
+    7. Again with the same about two weeks later.
+
+
+A Calendar for Spraying Apples
+
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+INSECTS | Nature | Before | Before | After  | In 2  |  In 8   | Materials
+        | of     | Leaf   | Flower | Petals | to 3  |  to 9   | to
+        | Injury | Buds   | Buds   | Fall   | Weeks |  Weeks  | Use
+        |        | Open   | Open   |        |       |         |
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Codling | Eating |        |        |    x   |    x  |    x    | Lead
+Moth    | Worm   |        |        |        |       |         | Arsenate
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | or
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | Par. Gr.
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+San José|Sucking |   x    |        |        |       |         | Lime
+Scale   | Insect |        |        |        |       |         | Sulphur
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Oyster  | Sucking|   x    |        |        |       |         | Lime
+Shell   | Insect |        |        |        |       |         | Sulphur
+Scale   |        |        |        |        |       |         |
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Blister | Leaf   |   x    |        |        |       |         | Lime
+Mite    | Miner  |        |        |        |       |         | Sulphur
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Plant   | Sucking|        |   when seen     |       |         | Whale Oil
+Louse   | Insect |        |        |        |       |         | Soap or
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | Tobacco
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Cigar   | Eating |        |   x    |    x   |     x |         | Lead
+Case    | Insect |        |        |        |       |         | Arsenate
+Bearer  |        |        |        |        |       |         | or
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | Par. Gr.
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Apple   | Eating |  x     |   x    |        | destroy fruit   | Lead
+Maggot  | Worm   |        |        |        |       |         | Arsenate
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | or
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | Par. Gr.
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Bud     | Eating |  x     |   x    |    x   |       |         | Lead
+Moth    | Worm   |        |        |        |       |         | Arsenate
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | or
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | Par. Gr.
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Curculio| Eating |        |   x    |    x   |       |         | Lead
+        | Worm & |        |        |        |       |         | Arsenate
+        | Beetle |        |        |        |       |         | or Par. Gr.
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+=Diseases=|        |        |        |        |       |         |
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Apple   | Fungus |  x     |   x    |    x   |     x | if      | Lime
+Scab    |        |        |        |        |       |necessary| Sulphur
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | or
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | Bordeaux
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | 3-3.50
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         |
+New York| Fungus |   x?   |    cut out      |       |         | Lime
+Apple   |        |        |    infections   |       |         | Sulphur
+Tree    |        |        |        |        |       |         |
+Canker  |        |        |        |        |       |         |
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Leaf    | Fungus |  x     |   x    |    x   |       |         | Lime
+Spot    |        |        |        |        |       |         | Sulphur
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Sooty   |        |        |        |    x   |   x   |    x    | Bordeaux
+Blotch  |        |        |        |        |       |         | Mixture
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | and Lime
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | Sulphur
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+HARVESTING AND STORING
+
+
+Apples are practically never allowed to ripen on the trees but are
+picked and shipped green. By "green" we mean not fully ripe, not ripe
+enough to eat out of hand. This is necessary for all fruit which is to
+be shipped any considerable distance or which is to be stored. Used in
+this sense green has no reference to color, but as a matter of fact,
+much of our fruit is picked too green, before it has even reached its
+full size and is well colored. There is no exact time at which apples
+must be picked, but this depends on many factors such as the variety,
+the distance to be shipped, the soil, the climate, and various other
+conditions, to say nothing of seasonal differences.
+
+The time at which any variety should be picked in a particular section
+will be learned by experience. In general, apples should be left on
+the tree as long as possible in order to get the best size and color.
+When the apples begin to drop badly it is a pretty sure indication
+that it is time to pick. If the fruit is to be sold in the local
+market or for immediate consumption, it may be allowed to get riper
+than would otherwise be the case. With most varieties one picking is
+sufficient, but in the case of varieties like the Wealthy which does
+not ripen uniformly, or like the Twenty Ounce, which does not always
+color evenly, two or three pickings should be made. Two or three
+pickings are practically always necessary where fancy fruit is
+desired, in order to get the ideal size, color, and uniformity.
+
+LADDERS.--There are two general types of picking ladders, the rung and
+the step ladders. For large trees the rung ladders are the best. They
+may be obtained in lengths to suit the height of the tree. Lengths of
+more than twenty-two or twenty-four feet become too heavy and clumsy
+to handle, even when made of pine, which is the best material as it is
+light and strong for its weight. In very old, high trees extension
+rung ladders are sometimes used. They are also useful for interior
+work but are heavy to handle. Rung ladders cost from ten to twenty
+cents a running foot. Step ladders are useful only on young and small
+trees. The two styles, the three (Japanese) and four legged, are both
+quite satisfactory where one can reach the fruit from them.
+
+Receptacles for picking usually hold about half a bushel. Both baskets
+and bags are used, some preferring one and some the other, and a
+choice between them is merely a matter of personal preference. There
+is a little less liability of bruising the apples in bags than in
+baskets, but the latter are more convenient in some ways. Fruit should
+never be thrown or dropped into a basket but always handled carefully.
+Some varieties, as McIntosh, show almost every finger mark and
+literally require handling with gloves.
+
+HANDLING.--The old custom of picking and laying on the ground in the
+orchard is a poor one and should not be followed, as it causes
+unnecessary handling and bruising. Moreover, fruit should be packed
+and hauled to storage as soon after picking as possible. Picking and
+placing directly on the packing table from which the apples are
+immediately packed is the best plan where it is practicable, but as
+the weather at picking time in the Eastern States is frequently quite
+uncertain, it is not always possible to follow this plan as closely as
+can be done in the West, where dry air and sunshine prevail. Still,
+wherever there is a considerable quantity of fruit and several
+pickers, the plan of packing directly from the table is best. Many
+growers pick in boxes and barrels and haul the apples to a packing
+shed to be packed later. Convenience and expediency must govern the
+general farmer who is not always at liberty to choose the best plan,
+often having to do as he can.
+
+PACKING TABLES enable the grower to pack his fruit better because he
+can see better what he is doing, and to handle the fruit more cheaply
+and quickly and with less injury. They should be portable so that they
+can be moved about the orchard. A convenient type has one end mounted
+on wheels so that it can be pushed from one place to another. The top
+of the table should be made of two strong layers of canvas, one tacked
+firmly to the framework of the table with about three or four inches
+of dip and the other laid loosely over it. This plan provides a soft
+resting place for the fruit and the table can be easily cleaned off by
+simply throwing back the upper layer of canvas.
+
+Three feet six inches is about the right width for the table, and the
+same sloping to three feet four inches at one end, is the correct
+height from the ground. Most packers like to have this gradual slope
+to one end so that the apples will naturally feed toward that end. The
+length may be anything up to eight or ten feet, beyond which the table
+becomes heavy and unmanageable.
+
+BARRELS.--The standard apple barrel adopted by the National Apple
+Shippers' Association and made law in New York State has a length of
+stave of twenty-eight and one-half inches and a diameter of head of
+seventeen and one-eighth inches. The outside circumference of the
+bilge is sixty-four inches and the distance between the heads is
+twenty-six inches. It contains one hundred quarts dry measure. The
+staves are mostly made of elm, pine, and red gum, and the heads
+principally of pine with some beech and maple. In most apple growing
+sections barrels are made in regular cooper shops where their
+manufacture is a business by itself. Only the largest growers set up
+their own barrels. Practically all barrels are purchased "knocked
+down" and it costs from four to six cents each to set them up. Barrels
+can ordinarily be purchased for about thirty-five cents each, but the
+cost varies somewhat with the season and the region.
+
+Apple packages should always present a neat, clean, and attractive
+appearance. Never use flour barrels, soiled or ununiform barrels of
+any kind. If a head cushion is used a good deal of waste from the
+crushing and bruising of the fruit will be saved. A head lining of
+plain or fringed paper also adds much to the attractiveness of the
+package. The wrapping of apples for barrel packing is hardly
+advisable. The fruit is pressed into the barrel tightly with one of
+two types of presses, both of which are good.
+
+The lever press is more responsive and the pressure is more easily
+changed, but it is harder to operate. The screw press distributes the
+pressure more evenly with less injury to the fruit and is more
+powerful.
+
+The steps in properly packing a barrel of apples are: First, see that
+the middle and closed end hoops are tight, if necessary, nailing them
+and clinching the nails; second, mark the head plainly with the grade
+and variety and the name of the packer or owner; then place the barrel
+on a solid floor or plank and lay in the facing papers (the face end
+being packed first); select the "facers," which should be the best
+representatives of the grade being packed, and _no others_, and place
+them in two courses in regular order stems down; with a drop handle
+basket fill the barrel, using care not to bruise the fruit, and
+jarring the barrel back and forth on the plank as each basket is put
+into it in order to settle the fruit firmly in place; lastly, arrange
+a layer of apples stems up and apply the press, using a hatchet to get
+the head in place and to drive on and tighten the hoops.
+
+THE BOX PACKAGE is rapidly growing in favor, especially as a carrier
+of fancy fruit. There is no standard box the size of which is fixed by
+law unless it be a box labeled a bushel. But two sizes of boxes are in
+common use, both probably being necessary on account of the variation
+in the size of different varieties. The "Standard" box is 10½ by 11½
+by 18 inches inside measurement and contains 2,173.5 cubic inches (the
+lawful stricken bushel is 2,150.4 cubic inches). The "Special" box is
+10 by 11 by 20 inches inside measurement and contains 2,200 cubic
+inches. The bulge when properly made will add about 150 cubic inches
+more, making the two boxes hold 2,323.5 cubic inches and 2,350 cubic
+inches respectively.
+
+Spruce is the most reliable and in general the best material. Fir is
+sometimes used, but is likely to split. Pine is good if strong enough.
+The ends should be of three-quarter-inch material; the sides of
+three-eighth-inch, and the tops and bottoms--two pieces each--of
+one-quarter-inch material. There should also be two cleats each for
+top and bottom. The sides of the box should be nailed with four,
+preferably five-penny cement-coated nails, at each end. The cleats
+should be put neatly on each end and four nails put into them, going
+through into the top and bottom. Boxes commonly come "knocked down" or
+in the flat and are usually put together by the grower. They cost from
+ten to thirteen cents each in the flat.
+
+There are several kinds of packs, depending on the size of the apples
+and the choice of the grower. The diagonal pack with each apple
+resting over the spaces between others is preferable, but on account
+of the size of the apples one is often forced to use the straight pack
+with the apples in regular right angle rows for some sizes. The offset
+pack, first three (or four) on one side and then on the other, is
+very much like the diagonal, but not much used on account of its
+accommodating too few apples in a box. The following table gives the
+packs, number of rows, number of apples in the row, box to use, and
+number of apples used to the box, as used at Hood River, Oregon:
+
+                                        No.
+  Size expressed                       apples      No.
+  in No. apples                         in      layers in   Box
+  per box          Tier       Pack      row       depth     used
+--------------------------------------------------------------------
+     45            3       3 St.        5-5         3       Standard
+     54            3       3 St.        6-6         3       Special
+     63            3       3 St.        7-7         3       Special
+     64            3½      2-2 Diag.    4-4         4       Standard
+     72            3½      2-2 Diag.    4-5         4       Standard
+     80            3½      2-2 Diag.    5-5         4       Standard
+     88            3½      2-2 Diag.    5-6         4       Standard
+     96            3½      2-2 Diag.    6-6         4       Special
+     104           3½      2-2 Diag.    6-7         4       Special
+     112           3½      2-2 Diag.    7-7         4       Special
+     120           3½      2-2 Diag.    7-8         4       Special
+     128           4       4 St.        8-8         4       Special
+     144           4       4 St.        9-9         4       Special
+     150           4½      3-2 Diag.    6-6         5       Standard
+     163           4½      3-2 Diag.    6-7         5       Standard
+     175           4½      3-2 Diag.    7-7         5       Standard
+     185           4¼      3-2 Diag.    7-8         5       Special
+     200           4½      3-2 Diag.    8-8         5       Special
+
+It is good practice to wrap apples packed in boxes. For this purpose a
+heavy-weight tissue paper in two sizes, 8 by 10 and 10 by 10,
+according to the size of the apple, is used. A lining paper 18 by 24
+in size and "white news" in grade is first placed in the box. Between
+the layers of apples a colored "tagboard" paper, size 17¼ by 11 or 20
+by 9¾, according to the box used, is laid so as to make the layers
+come out right at the top. In packing the box is inclined toward the
+packer for convenience in placing the fruit. After laying in the
+lining paper each apple is wrapped and put in place. As an aid to
+picking up the thin wrapping paper a rubber "finger" is used on the
+forefinger. When the box is packed the layers should stand a quarter
+to a half inch higher in the middle than at the ends, in order to give
+a bulge or spring to the top and bottom which holds the fruit firmly
+in place without bruising.
+
+There has been much discussion as to whether the box or the barrel is
+the better package for apples. This is needless, for as a matter of
+fact each is best for its own particular purpose. The barrel is best
+adapted as a package for large commercial quantities of fruit and
+where labor could not be had to pack apples in boxes even if the trade
+wanted them. The barrel permits the packing of a greater variety in
+size and shape than does the box, and these can be more easily and
+cheaply handled in packing.
+
+On the other hand, the box is the ideal package for small amounts of
+fancy fruit, to be used for a family-or fruit-stand trade. It presents
+a neater and more fancy appearance and is a more convenient package to
+handle, as well as one which is more open to inspection. It already
+has a better reputation as a quality container than the barrel. As a
+fancy package for a limited private trade from the small general farm
+orchard with high-class varieties like the Northern Spy, McIntosh, and
+others there is no comparison of the box with the barrel.
+
+STORAGE.--Car refrigeration and cold storage of fruit are
+comparatively modern developments. Few persons who have not been
+affected directly realize what a tremendous influence they have had
+upon the fruit, and particularly the apple industry. Apples could not
+be shipped any very great distance. Crops had to be marketed
+immediately and when they were large the markets were soon glutted and
+the fruit became almost valueless. The first hot spell would
+demoralize the trade altogether. Then later in the season the supply
+would become exhausted and famine would ensue where but a few weeks
+before there had been a feast. Under such conditions it is not
+surprising that the apple industry did not develop very rapidly and
+that apple growing was mostly confined to areas near the larger
+markets.
+
+The coming of the refrigerator car extended fruit-growing over a much
+wider area. Refrigeration on shipboard opened up and enlarged the
+export trade. Cold storage warehouses lengthened the season by holding
+over the surplus of fruit, thus relieving fall gluts in the market and
+providing a winter supply of apples. These conditions created a more
+stable market with more uniform prices, extending the business from a
+side issue to one of chief importance. Marketing has become almost a
+business by itself, inducing the formation of growers' associations
+and creating a profitable occupation for large dealers and commission
+men. These conditions, too, have led to speculation.
+
+Two kinds of storage are used, common or cellar storage and cold
+storage. Both are about equally available, but the latter is too
+expensive for the small grower. There is always a question as to the
+advisability of the small grower storing his fruit. Storage means a
+degree of speculation. "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush,"
+especially when the bird is a good one. So far as rules can be laid
+down, the following are pretty safe ones to keep in mind: It is safest
+to store apples when they are of the highest quality; in a season most
+unfavorable to common storage; when the fewest are being stored; when
+the price in the fall is medium to low, never when high; and when one
+can afford to lose the whole crop.
+
+Successful storage requires several things: good fruit, stored
+immediately after picking, careful sorting and handling, subsequent
+rest, and a reasonable control of the temperature. The functions of
+storage are to arrest ripening, retard the development of disease, and
+furnish a uniform, cold temperature. Storage of apples does not remedy
+over-ripeness nor prevent deterioration of already diseased, bruised,
+or partly rotted fruit. There are three general methods of storage:
+(1) by ventilation, (2) by the use of ice and (3) by mechanical means.
+
+Cooling by ventilation offers the most practical system for a farm
+storage. It requires that there be perfect insulation against outside
+temperature changes, adequate ventilation, and careful watching of
+temperatures. To provide for good insulation a dead air space is
+necessary. This can be secured by a course of good two-inch boards
+with one or two layers of building paper inside and out, over a
+framework of two-by-fours. Over the building paper tight, well matched
+siding should be laid also inside and out. Two of the dead air spaces
+will make insulation doubly sure.
+
+To provide for proper ventilation construct an intake for cold air at
+the bottom, and an outlet for warm air at the top of the room. These
+should serve all parts of the room, one being necessary for this
+purpose every twelve to sixteen feet. Do not depend too much on
+windows. Warm-air flues should be twelve inches square and six to
+twelve feet long.
+
+The attention to such a house is most important. Keep it closed
+tightly early in the fall with blinded windows. When nights get cool
+open the doors and windows to let in cold air, closing them again
+during the day. On hot days close the ventilators also. In this way a
+temperature of 36 to 40 degrees Fahr. can be secured in early fall and
+one of 32 to 33 degrees Fahr. later. This is probably the cheapest as
+well as the most practical method of farm storage.
+
+Ice storage is quite practical in the North, but more expensive. The
+principle of such a storage is to keep ice above the fruit, allowing
+the cold air to flow down the sides of the room. A shaft in the middle
+of the room will serve to remove the warm air. This method is open to
+the objection of difficulty in storing the ice above the fruit.
+Moreover the uniformity of its cold air supply is questionable.
+Mechanical storage in which cold temperatures are secured by the
+compression or absorption of gases is altogether impracticable for
+individual growers, as it costs from $1.50 to $2.00 a barrel of
+capacity to construct such a storage. Rents of this kind of storage
+range from 10 to 25 cents a barrel per month, or 25 to 50 cents a
+barrel for the season of from four to six months.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MARKETS AND MARKETING
+
+
+Having produced a good product, there remains the problem of making a
+profitable and satisfactory disposition of it. In many ways marketing
+is the measure of successful fruit growing. Of what use is it to prune
+well, cultivate well, spray thoroughly, or even pack well the finest
+kind of product, if after the expense of these operations is paid and
+the railroad and commission agents have had their share, no profit
+remains to the producer? Many growers find it easier to produce good
+fruit than to market it at a good price, and this is especially true
+of the general farmer. Failure to market well spells failure in the
+business of fruit growing. Successful marketing presupposes a
+knowledge of the requirements of different markets as to quality,
+varieties, and supply demanded in those markets. Methods of
+distribution are also one of the great factors in this problem of
+marketing.
+
+TYPES OF MARKETS.--There are two general types of markets, the local,
+which is a special market and the general or wholesale market, both of
+which have different but definite requirements. The local market
+handles fruit in small quantities, but usually with a larger margin of
+profit per unit to the producer. As a rule delivery is direct in a
+local market, and thus commissions are saved. Competition is also more
+or less limited to one's neighbors. More varieties, including less
+well known ones, are called for. Appearance does not count for as much
+as quality, which is of first importance. Fruit may be riper as it is
+consumed more quickly and meets with less rough handling. Packages are
+usually returned to the grower. Special markets are often willing to
+pay extra for fruit out of season, and they always require special
+study and adaptation to meet their needs.
+
+The general or wholesale market handles fruit in larger quantities,
+usually with a smaller margin of profit. A selling agent or commission
+man is the means of disposing of fruit in such a market, where
+competition is open to the whole country and sometimes to the world.
+Only standard well-known varieties find a ready and profitable sale.
+Great attention is paid to appearance and comparatively little to
+quality. Fruit shipped to a wholesale market must be packed in a
+standard package, which is not returned, but goes with the fruit, and
+must be packed so as to endure rough treatment. Out of season fruit is
+not in demand, but even the general market sometimes has special
+preferences.
+
+Almost every market has favorite varieties for which it is willing to
+pay a larger price than other markets. Just as Boston wants a brown
+egg and New York a white one, so these and other cities have their
+favorite varieties of apples. Some markets prefer a red apple, others
+a green one, although the former is most generally popular. In the
+mining and manufacturing towns working people want smaller green
+apples, or "seconds," because they are cheaper. Many second-class
+hotels prefer small apples, if they are well colored, as they go
+farther. The fashionable restaurant and the fruit stand are the
+markets for large, perfect, and highly colored specimens. Housewives
+demand cooking apples like Greenings, hotels want a good out-of-hand
+apple like the McIntosh, while private families have their own
+special favorites. As will readily be seen, the producer's problem is
+to find the special market for what he grows.
+
+It has been said that different markets have special varietal
+preferences, paying a better price for these than do other markets for
+the same quality. We can only take the space here to point out a few
+of these preferences. The Baldwin is by all odds our best general
+market and export variety. It is the workingman's apple and finds its
+best sale in our largest cities, particularly in New York and Chicago.
+The Rhode Island Greening is a better seller in the northern markets
+than it is in the southern, finding its best sale in Boston and in New
+York. The Northern Spy is highly regarded by all our large northern
+and eastern markets, is fairly well liked by the middle latitude
+markets, but not popular south of Baltimore and Pittsburgh or west of
+Milwaukee.
+
+Central western markets appear to prefer the Hubbardson, but this
+apple is fairly good in all markets. King is well thought of nearly
+everywhere. Ben Davis is a favorite in the South, New Orleans
+especially preferring it on account of its keeping quality. Jonathan
+has a good reputation everywhere. Dutchess of Oldenburg is regarded
+as excellent in Buffalo and Chicago. Wealthy, although generally a
+local market apple, is well known and liked in all markets. Twenty
+Ounce is spoken well of nearly everywhere. The Fameuse is not well
+liked in the South, but popular in the North, etc. These particular
+facts as to varieties are best learned by experience and by
+observation of the market quotations.
+
+THE COMMISSION MAN.--The present system of marketing fruit products
+makes the commission man almost a necessity in the general market.
+Neither the grower nor the local dealer can ship directly to the
+consumer or even to the retailer, except in a very limited way. It may
+be impracticable to devise any other workable system, but it must be
+remembered that every man who touches a barrel of apples on its
+journey from producer to consumer must be paid for doing so, and this
+pay must come either out of the seller's price or be added to the
+buyer's price. But so long as present conditions of marketing and
+distribution prevail, so long will a selling agent in the general
+market be necessary, and the evil cannot be ameliorated by ranting
+against it.
+
+An unfortunate impression prevails that all commission men are
+dishonest. This is not true, although undoubtedly there are many
+scoundrels among them, as they have shippers almost completely at
+their mercy. The best method under our present system is to choose an
+honest commission man in the city where you sell, to get acquainted
+with him, to let him know that your trade will be in his hands only so
+long as he treats you fairly, and then supply him with as good quality
+of stuff as you can produce. This plan has worked out well with many
+successful growers and marketers.
+
+Perhaps the greatest difficulty to be overcome in successfully finding
+good markets is that of proper distribution. As has been pointed out
+in the previous chapter, there has been a great increase in the
+production of apples and hence in competition, accompanied by
+speculation and more intensive methods in all phases of the business.
+A necessity has arisen for the production of the best at a minimum
+cost, as well as for finding the best market for that product. In the
+rush for the best market every seller is apt to be guided only by his
+own immediate interest without due regard for the fact that others are
+acting in the same way or that there is a future. The result is the
+piling up of fruit in a market of high quotations, and a subsequent
+drop in the price. Then all turn from such a market to a better one
+with the result that a famine often results where but a few weeks or
+even days before there had been a feast.
+
+Thus it often happens that one market may have more fruit than it can
+possibly dispose of at the time, while another, perhaps equally good,
+goes begging. Such conditions are ruinous to trade. Growers are
+disappointed and ascribe the cause to the commission man. Consumers
+are unable many times to profit by a glut in the market but promptly
+blame the middleman or the grower when the supply is small and the
+price high.
+
+Other difficulties with our system of marketing are non-uniformity of
+the grades, the packages, or the fruit itself. There should be a clear
+definition of just what "firsts" and "seconds" are and this definition
+rigidly adhered to. Transportation is too frequently insufficient, not
+rapid enough, especially when perishable fruit is shipped in small
+lots, and usually at a too high rate. There are undoubtedly too many
+middlemen between producer and consumer. Growers sell to local dealers
+who sell to wholesalers at the receiving end. These sell to
+wholesalers at the consuming end, who may sell to jobbers, who sell to
+retailers. Each man must have his profits, all of which greatly
+increases costs.
+
+CO-OPERATION.--Individuals have practically no power to remedy such a
+state of affairs. So long as producers act independently they will
+have little power either to bring about favorable legislation or to
+better such market conditions. Acting together as a unit growers have
+accomplished great things which can be repeated. The co-operative
+principle has been well tried out in California, where it was first
+put into operation with citrous fruits, in several other Western
+States with apples, and in Michigan and the Province of Ontario.
+
+Co-operative associations study carefully the law of supply and demand
+and take steps to adapt their shipments to it. They standardize the
+grade, the package, and the fruit, and govern their shipments to given
+markets by the needs and the demands of those markets. Their unity of
+effort enables them to make great savings in the purchase of supplies,
+such as packages, spraying material, fertilizers, etc., and in
+obtaining and distributing frequently knowledge of markets and market
+conditions. They also advertise their products, making them better
+known, creating a demand for them, and by means of correspondence or
+traveling agents seek out the best markets.
+
+There are now several large fruit exchanges operating over wide
+sections of country. But the local associations are the vital units in
+any co-operative movement. Such associations should be incorporated
+under State laws so that they can do all sorts of business when
+necessary. Six simple objects should be kept in mind, namely, (1) to
+prevent unnecessary competition, and to supervise and control
+distribution of products; (2) to provide for uniformity in the grade,
+package, and fruit; (3) to build up a high standard of excellence and
+to create a demand for it; (4) to economize in buying supplies and
+selling products; (5) to promote education regarding all phases of the
+fruit business; and (6) when necessary to act as a buying and selling
+agent for the community.
+
+Such an association requires a board of directors, a treasurer, and an
+active and well-paid manager. The latter is most important, as upon
+his honesty, ability, and energy will largely depend the success or
+failure of the organization. Sometimes where fruit is packed in a
+central packing house or under an association brand or guarantee, a
+foreman packer is also necessary. The capitalization required for such
+an enterprise is not necessarily large, unless warehouses or packing
+houses are built. These are usually better rented until the
+organization becomes well established.
+
+The shares should be small so that every member may be financially
+well represented, and members should be prohibited from holding more
+than a small percentage of the total shares, in order to prevent
+possible monopoly. Dividends on stock held should only be expected
+from business done outside the association membership, interest on
+money invested being obtained in the handling of members' products at
+cost. Receipts should be given growers for just what they bring in,
+and they should then be paid according to the grade of fruit which
+they contribute, prices for the same grade being pooled. The charge to
+growers for handling should be actual cost, but outsiders' products
+should be handled at a small profit in order to induce them to come
+into the association. The same method should be followed in purchasing
+supplies.
+
+The general result of such co-operation is that the consumer gets a
+better product for his money and the grower receives a better price
+for his product. It is very essential to the success of the
+organization that growers stick together, even through low prices and
+discouragement which so often come, until they are firmly established.
+Substantial reduction in the cost of the product to consumers can only
+come by similar co-operation among them at the buying end and by the
+co-operation of both consumers and producers for distribution and
+handling in market.
+
+If a neighborhood does not feel yet ready to attack this problem in
+this thorough and businesslike way, it will be advantageous and a step
+in the right direction if they simply agree on certain standards of
+quality and packing and then pool their product for marketing. This
+method has also been followed with success.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+SOME HINTS ON RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS
+
+
+Nearly every general farm in the humid part of the United States has
+its small, old apple orchard. For the most part these orchards were
+planted in order to have a home source of supply of this popular
+fruit. In fact, but few orchards have been planted on a commercial
+scale with a view of selling the fruit, until recently and outside of
+a few sections. Therefore, as a rule we find these old farm orchards
+to consist of a few acres containing from twenty-five to two hundred
+trees. These trees are usually good standard varieties which have been
+the source of much apple "sass," many an apple pie, and many a barrel
+of cider-vinegar.
+
+Not having been set for profit, these trees received little care.
+Orchards were cropped in the regular rotation, or with hay, or
+pastured. Farmers then knew little of modern methods of orchard
+management. The orchard was regarded as an incumbrance to the land,
+which had to be farmed to as good advantage as possible under the
+circumstances, and if the apple trees by any chance yielded a crop,
+the owner regarded himself as fortunate indeed.
+
+But conditions have now changed. Both local and foreign markets have
+been opened up and developed so that the demand for good fruit is
+great. It will be some time before the thousands of acres of orchards
+which have been and are being planted to meet this demand will be able
+to do so in any adequate way. It has been shown in Chapter I how heavy
+has been the falling off in the supply, even in the face of these
+heavy plantings. Meanwhile we must turn to the old neglected farm
+orchards for our supply of apples. Just at this particular time the
+renovation of these old orchards offers a splendid opportunity to
+increase the farm income.
+
+The question is a live one on nearly every general farm in the East.
+Will it pay to try to renovate my old apple trees? If so, what should
+I do to make them profitable? What will it cost and what returns may
+be expected? The latter question will be taken up in the following
+chapter, but here we must try to indicate under what conditions it
+may pay to renovate an old orchard, as well as those under which it
+may not pay, and also how to go about the problem.
+
+NECESSARY QUALITIES.--An apple orchard must have certain
+qualifications in order to make it worth while to spend the time and
+money necessary to accomplish the desired results. These we may take
+up briefly under five heads: (1) varieties, (2) age, (3) number or
+"stand" of trees, (4) vigor and health of the trees, and (5) soil,
+site, and location. The discussion of these subjects in Chapters II
+and III has equal application here, but we may perhaps point out their
+specific application more definitely in the case of the old neglected
+farm orchard.
+
+(1) Varieties should be desirable sorts. If they are the best standard
+market varieties, as is often the case, so much the better. Otherwise
+little is gained by improving the tree and fruit. Poor or unknown
+varieties have little or no market value, except perhaps a very local
+one. If the trees are not too old and are fairly vigorous, poor
+varieties may sometimes be worked over by top grafting to better
+varieties. Characteristics which may make, a variety undesirable are:
+inferior quality; unattractiveness in color, shape, or size; lack of
+hardiness in the tree or keeping quality in the fruit; low yield; or
+being unknown in the market with its consequent small demand. Summer
+varieties are worth renovating only when they are in good demand in a
+nearby local market.
+
+(2) Vigor is more important than age in the tree, but is closely
+correlated with it. Ordinarily one should hesitate to try to renovate
+a tree more than forty or fifty years old, but this must always depend
+almost wholly on its condition and other characteristics.
+
+(3) In order to make a business of renovation and to do thorough work
+which means expense, there must be enough of the orchard to justify
+the expenditure of the time and money. This affects the results not
+only in expense, but in economy in management, equipment, and
+marketing. There should be at least an acre of say thirty trees, and
+better, more than that number to justify the expense of time and money
+necessary for renovation. One hundred trees would certainly justify
+it, other conditions being favorable. Then, too, the trees should be
+in such shape that they can be properly treated without too great
+trouble and expense, i.e., not too scattered or isolated or in the
+midst of regular fields better adapted for other crops.
+
+(4) Vigor and good general health are of great importance. Many old
+trees are too far gone with neglect, having been too long starved or
+having their vitality too much weakened by disease to make an effort
+for their rehabilitation worth while. Good vigor, even though it be
+dormant, is absolutely essential. Disease weakens the tree, making the
+expense of renovation greater. Moreover, all diseased branches must be
+removed, requiring severe cutting and often seriously injuring the
+tree. Disease too often stunts the tree to such an extent as to make
+stimulation practically impossible. Such matters should be carefully
+looked into before attempting renovation.
+
+(5) If the soil, site, and location are all unfavorable or even if two
+of these are not good, time and money are likely to be wasted on
+renovation. What constitutes unfavorable conditions in these respects
+has already been pointed out in Chapter III.
+
+Practically the same principles of pruning, cultivation, fertilization
+and spraying apply in the management of the old orchard as in any
+other orchard. It may be well, however, to restate these, briefly
+pointing out their special value and application to the old neglected
+orchard together with the few modifications of practice necessary. The
+steps to be taken are four: (1) pruning, (2) fertilizing, (3)
+cultivating, and (4) spraying.
+
+(1) PRUNING.--Old and long-neglected apple orchards usually have a
+large amount of dead wood in them. This may be removed at any time of
+the year, but fall and winter are good times to begin the work. If the
+trees are high and the limbs scattered and sprawling so that the
+middle of the trees is not well filled out, the trees should be headed
+back rather severely. Such trees may safely have their highest limbs
+cut back from five to ten feet. It is best not to remove too many
+branches in one year, but to spread severe cutting back over at least
+two years, as so much pruning at one time weakens the tree and causes
+an excessive growth of "suckers." Each limb should be cut back to a
+rather strong and vigorous lateral branch which may then take up the
+growth of the upright one. The effect of such heading back will be to
+stimulate the branches lower down and probably to bring in more or
+less "suckers." The following year the best of these suckers should
+be selected at proper points about the tree, headed in so as to
+develop their lateral buds, and encouraged by the removal of all other
+suckers to fill in the top and center of the tree in the way desired.
+All such severe heading in should best be done in the early spring.
+
+(2) FERTILIZING.--At some time during the late fall or winter twelve
+to fifteen loads of stable manure should be applied broadcast on each
+acre, scattering it well out under the ends of the branches. This will
+amount to a load to from three to five trees. In case manure is not
+available, or sometimes even supplementary to it in cases where quick
+results are wanted 100 to 200 pounds of nitrate of soda, 300 to 500
+pounds of acid phosphate, and 150 to 200 pounds of sulphate or muriate
+of potash should be applied in two applications as a top dressing in
+spring, as soon as growth starts, and thoroughly worked into the soil.
+This will give the trees an abundance of available plant food, which
+is usually badly needed, and help to stimulate them to a vigorous
+growth. Such heavy feeding may easily be overdone and should be
+adjusted according to conditions and the needs of the orchard.
+
+(3) CULTIVATING.--If the orchard has been in sod for a number of
+years, as is often the case, it is usually best to plow it in the fall
+about four inches deep, just deep enough to turn under the sod. By so
+doing a large number of roots will probably be broken, but such injury
+will be much more than offset by the stimulus to the trees the next
+season. It is a good plan to apply the stable manure on the top of
+this plowed ground early in the winter. Fall plowing gives a better
+opportunity for rotting the sod and exposes to the winter action of
+the elements the soil, which is usually stale and inactive after lying
+so long unturned. In the spring the regular treatment with springtooth
+and spiketooth harrows should be followed as outlined in Chapter V.
+
+(4) SPRAYING in the old orchard is essentially the same as elsewhere.
+It is necessary, however, to emphasize the first spray, the dormant
+one, winter strength on the wood. This is the most important spray for
+a neglected orchard and it should be very thoroughly applied. It is a
+sort of cleaning-up spray for scale, fungus, and insects which winter
+on the bark. In orchards where the San José scale is bad a strong
+lime-sulphur spray should also be used in the late fall in order to
+make doubly sure a thorough cleaning up. It is usually a pretty good
+plan to scrape old trees as high up as the rough, shaggy bark extends,
+destroying the scrapings. For this purpose an old and dull hoe does
+very well. This treatment will get rid of many insects by destroying
+them and their winter quarters.
+
+PATCHING OLD TREES.--A few suggestions on patching up the weak places
+in an old tree may not be entirely out of place. The question is often
+asked, will it pay to fill up the decayed centers or sides of old
+trees? If the tree is otherwise desirable to save, it usually will.
+Scrape out all the dead and rotten material, cleaning down to the
+sound heart wood. Then fill up the cavity with a rough cement, being
+careful to exclude all air and finishing with a smooth, sloping
+surface so as to drain away all moisture. This treatment will probably
+prevent further decay and often acts as a substantial mechanical
+support.
+
+Trees which are badly split or which have so grown that a heavy crop
+is likely to break them over should be braced with wires or bolts.
+Where the limbs are close together a bolt driven right through them
+with wide, strong washers at the ends is very effective in
+strengthening the tree. Where limbs must be braced from one side of
+the tree across to the other wires are the best to use. They may be
+fastened to bolts through the limbs with wide washers on the outside
+hooks on the inside, or by passing the wire around the branches. In
+the latter case some wide, fairly rigid material such as tin, pieces
+of wood, or heavy leather should be used to protect the tree from the
+wire which would otherwise cut into the bark and perhaps girdle the
+limb.
+
+COST.--For the benefit of those who would like to get some idea of the
+probable cost of renovating old apple orchards, the following estimate
+made by the writer in a recent government publication on this subject
+is given. This estimate has been carefully made up from actual records
+kept on several New York farms. Because these costs are very variable
+according to the condition of the orchard, both maximum and minimum
+amounts are given per acre for the first year only.
+
+                                             Minimum      Maximum
+                                              cost         cost
+
+ Plowing                                      $2.00        $3.00
+ Manure, 10 to 20 loads at $1, or their
+   equivalent in commercial fertilizer        10.00        20.00
+ Hauling manure                                5.00        10.00
+ Pruning and hauling brush                     5.00        10.00
+ Disking or harrowing twice                    1.00         1.50
+ Disking or harrowing 3d or 4th time            .50         1.00
+ Cultivating two to four times                  .50         1.00
+ Spraying once with L.S. dilution 1 to
+   9--material                                 2.00         4.00
+ Spraying once, L.S., labor                    1.00         1.50
+ Spraying second time with L.S. dilution
+   1 to 40, labor and material                 1.50         2.50
+ Spraying third time with same                 1.50         2.50
+                                             ------       ------
+     Total cost                              $30.00       $57.00
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE COST OF GROWING APPLES
+
+
+Two factors have always operated to deter many persons from taking up
+fruit growing as a business or even as a side issue on the farm, and
+they will probably continue to be an obstacle for more time to come.
+These are the comparatively large investment required and the
+necessarily long period of waiting before paying returns can be
+obtained. Farmers who have not gone into the business of fruit growing
+because they could not afford this heavy investment or to wait so long
+for returns have been wise. Others who, though lacking the necessary
+capital, still have planted heavily have learned to their sorrow the
+importance of capital in the business both for the original investment
+and to carry the enterprise. And yet with sufficient capital and the
+proper conditions there is no more attractive or profitable line of
+agriculture than fruit growing.
+
+Who knows what it costs to grow an orchard to bearing age? Or what it
+costs to produce a barrel of apples? We venture to say that very few
+persons do. Because of the large investment both in fixed and in
+working capital it is most important to know these costs. Moreover an
+accurate knowledge of the financial conditions and facts in any
+business is of first importance to intelligent management. For these
+reasons every grower ought to keep careful records of the cost and
+income from each field or orchard every year in order to determine as
+accurately as possible what his crops have cost him per unit and per
+acre and what rate of interest he has realized on his investment. As
+farming becomes more intensive competition increases, costs multiply,
+and the margin of profit on any given unit becomes smaller. It
+therefore becomes increasingly necessary to have accurate records on
+the cost of production.
+
+FACTORS IN THE COST OF PRODUCTION.--The value of records depends on
+their accuracy and on their completeness. There are a great many
+factors which enter into the cost of production. For convenience these
+may be classified as cash costs and labor costs. Labor charges should
+include the work of both men and teams at a rate determined by their
+actual cost or by a careful estimate. Man labor costs are easily
+reckoned, as they are either simple cash or cash plus board and
+certain privileges, the value of which should be estimated in cash.
+
+The value of horse labor is more difficult to determine. It is made up
+of interest on valuation, depreciation, stable rental, feed, care,
+etc. A fair estimate of this cost is $10 a month or $120 a year for a
+horse. Cash costs are interest on the investment and on the equipment
+in machinery, etc., or rental of the same, taxes, a proper share of
+the general farm expenses such as insurance and repairs of buildings,
+telephone, etc., the cost of spraying material, packages, fertilizers,
+etc.
+
+There are many ways of keeping such a record. Any method which
+accomplishes the result in a convenient and accurate manner is a good
+one. It will usually be found necessary to keep a cash account or day
+book, entering all items in enough detail to make possible their later
+distribution to the proper field or crop, and also to keep a diary of
+all labor. Any form of diary will answer the purpose, but one which
+has ruled columns at the right side of the page in which to indicate
+the crop or field worked upon, and the number of hours worked is more
+convenient and therefore more desirable.
+
+AN EXAMPLE.--For a number of years the author has kept such records on
+his farm in western New York. As an illustration of the method and in
+order to give the reader a general idea as to what the costs above
+referred to are likely to be we venture to give the following tables.
+It must be remembered, however, that practically everyone of the above
+mentioned factors varies with the conditions under which the orchard
+is managed and that these figures are not _an_ average but _one_
+average and on one farm. True averages are arrived at only by bringing
+together a large number of figures. In any case, the question of cost
+is essentially an individual problem on every farm. These figures are
+of value only as an example of the method and the cost on one farm
+under its own special conditions.
+
+The orchard for which the following figures were given was set in the
+spring of 1903, and the records begin with that year and end with
+1910, covering a period of eight years in all. Throughout this period
+other crops have been grown between the tree rows, thereby offsetting
+to a large extent the cost of growing the orchard. Forty trees at the
+north end of the orchard are pears, but they have received
+substantially the same treatment as the apples and have not affected
+the cost. In 1904, 211 plum trees were set as fillers one way. The
+apple trees were set 36 by 36 feet apart, so that, filled one way, the
+trees stand 18 by 36 feet apart. The orchard is ten rows wide and
+forty-seven long, containing in all 467 trees.
+
+BRINGING TO BEARING AGE.--The first of the following tables is given
+as a sample of one year's records, that of 1907, on this orchard in
+order to show both the manner in which the costs were made up and what
+the items amounted to in one year:
+
+FIELD A--1907. FIFTH YEAR
+
+                         Total                Hours       Cost      Cost
+                         hours    Total     per acre      per       per
+Operation             Man  Horse   cost    Man   Horse    acre      100
+Mulching               3     6    $1.05     .455    .91   $0.16    $0.22
+Pruning               11   ...     1.65    1.67    ...      .25      .35
+Cultivating 1          7     7     1.75    1.06    1.06     .26      .38
+Cultivating 2         10    10     2.50    1.51    1.51     .38      .54
+Cultivating 3          6     6     1.50    .91      .91     .23      .32
+Plowing in fall       47    94    16.45    7.12   14.25    2.50     3.52
+Banking trees         12   ...     1.80    1.82    ...      .27      .39
+Harrowing             21    42     7.35    3.18    6.36    1.11     1.58
+                     ---   ---   ------   -----   -----   -----    -----
+Total lab. cost.     117   165   $34.05   17.73   25.00   $5.16    $7.30
+
+4 loads manure at $1.50            6.00                     .91     1.29
+Equipment charge                   1.15                     .174     .25
+Taxes                              5.29                     .801    1.13
+Interest                          38.48                    5.83     8.23
+                                 ------                  -------  ------
+Total cost                       $84.97                  $12.875  $18.20
+
+INCOME, COST AND PROFIT ON BEANS--FIELD A--1907
+
+ Income                                        Cost   Profit
+ 75 bushels at $1.50        $112.50
+ 3½ tons pods at $6           21.00  $133.65  $94.50  $38.85
+
+LOSS ON FIELD A--1907
+
+                                    Total  Per acre
+ Net income from beans             $38.85   $5.89
+ Cost of orchard                    84.97   12.87
+                                   ------  ------
+   Loss                            $46.12   $6.98
+
+A summary of the cost of the orchard, the net income from the crop,
+the income from the orchard and the profit and loss by years for the
+eight years follows:
+
+SUMMARY OF COSTS FOR EIGHT YEARS, FIELD A
+
+                       Net      Income
+        Crop         income      from      Cost of       6.6 acres
+ Year   grown       from crop   orchard    orchard     Profit   Loss
+ 1903   Corn        $ 15.17      ...       $109.87      ...    $ 94.70
+ 1904   Beans         42.57      ...        216.16      ...     173.59
+ 1905   Beans         43.13      ...         83.78      ...      40.65
+ 1906   Beans        120.90      ...         80.14    $40.76      ...
+ 1907   Beans         38.85      ...         84.97      ...      46.12
+ 1908   Corn          37.68      ...         64.22      ...      26.54
+ 1909   Oats and
+        strawberries 100.61     $27.88       84.73     43.76      ...
+ 1910   Wheat         60.70      38.65       96.35      3.00      ...
+                    -------     ------     -------    ------   -------
+  Totals            $459.61     $66.53     $620.22    $87.52   $381.60
+
+Net loss on field for eight years                              $294.08
+Average annual loss                                              38.76
+Total cost an acre, exclusive of income                         124.27
+Total cost an acre, including income                             44.55
+Total net cost a hundred trees                                   62.97
+Total net cost an apple tree                                      1.37
+Total net cost an apple tree, exclusive of income                 3.80
+Total labor cost an acre                                         35.09
+Total cash cost an acre                                          89.19
+
+We find that this orchard has cost $124.27 an acre during the eight
+years of its life, but that the $79.72 an acre of crops grown in the
+orchard has brought this cost down to $44.55 an acre. It is safe to
+say that the orchard would have cost even more than it did had it not
+been for the crops, for many operations charged directly to the crops
+would of necessity have been charged to the trees. The cost a hundred
+trees does not mean much, as it often happens that not all the trees
+are covered by an operation and as the number of trees an acre greatly
+affects these costs.
+
+We have another and younger orchard upon which a record has been kept.
+This orchard of five acres contains 126 standard apple trees,
+"filled" both ways with 375 peach trees. It was set in the spring of
+1908, so that the trees have grown four seasons. The permanents
+(apples) are set 36 by 40 feet apart, so that, with the peaches
+between, the trees stand 18 by 20 feet apart. A crop of beans has been
+grown between the tree rows each season. The first season a full seven
+rows, twenty-eight inches apart, were planted in the wider space; the
+second and third season six rows, and the last season only four rows.
+The crop has been very good each year until the last. One application
+of manure, one crop of clover and one seeding of rye have been plowed
+under, and in addition a liberal amount of commercial fertilizer has
+been used with each crop. This year the peach trees bore their first
+crop. The record of the four years is as follows:
+
+SUMMARY OF THE COST OF A FOUR-YEAR-OLD APPLE AND PEACH ORCHARD
+
+                       Net      Income
+       Crop          income      from      Cost of
+Year   grown        from crop   orchard    orchard    Profit     Loss
+
+1908   Beans        $63.37        ...      $130.12     ...     $62.75
+1909   Beans         66.70        ...       $85.03     ...      18.33
+1910   Beans         79.81        ...        83.39     ...       3.58
+1911   Beans         53.20      $46.05       61.95   $37.30      ...
+                   -------      ------     -------   ------    ------
+  Totals           $267.08      $46.05     $360.49   $37.30    $84.66
+
+Total cost an acre, exclusive of income                        $72.10
+Total cost an acre, including income                             9.47
+Total net cost a hundred trees                                   4.73
+Total net cost an apple tree                                      .376
+Total net cost an apple tree, exclusive of income                2.86
+
+These figures show a still lower cost of growing trees to bearing age.
+After paying all expenses connected with the growing of the trees,
+including the interest on the land at $150 an acre, and deducting the
+net profit from the crops of beans and the sales from the first crop
+of peaches we find that the growing of the trees has cost us $9.47 an
+acre, or 37½ cents an apple tree at four years old. Had no crop been
+grown in the orchard it would have cost us at least $62.89 an acre
+after deducting the income from the first peach crop. The peach trees
+are now at full bearing age, and should show a good profit from this
+time on. Possibly at five and certainly at six years of age this
+orchard will entirely have paid for itself. The only possible further
+charge which could be made against this orchard is the crop income
+which might have been obtained from the land had the trees not been
+there. We estimated that the presence of the trees cut down the crop
+of beans from the land 30 per cent. As the average net income from
+beans was $13.35 an acre this would amount to $4 an acre a year--an
+insignificant sum.
+
+IN BEARING.--Having given the reader an idea of the probable cost of
+bringing an orchard to bearing age, it may be well also to give the
+cost of producing apples in a mature apple orchard. Our bearing apple
+orchard consists of 6.1 acres containing 234 trees. About one-half of
+the trees, or 110, are 36 years old. The remainder are nearly 50 years
+of age. As they are all in one block and handled together, the charges
+cannot well be separated. One hundred and thirty-four of the trees are
+Baldwins, 44 Twenty Ounce, 40 Tompkins County Kings, and the remainder
+odd varieties. For the whole period of ten years the orchard has had
+very good care and attention.
+
+A cover crop was not sown every year, but when it was used the charge
+was made against the orchard. The manure charge, omitted because of
+uncertainty as to the exact amount applied and as to its real value,
+is the only thing lacking in this table.
+
+Two or three sprayings have been made every year. Until 1909, Bordeaux
+mixture and Paris green were used, but since then the commercial
+brands of lime sulphur and arsenate of lead have taken their place,
+nearly doubling the cost of the spray material. The average cost of
+the material for spraying has been $2.50 per acre, or nearly three and
+one-half cents per barrel of apples harvested. In 1910 this cost was
+$3.92 per acre and seven cents a barrel.
+
+TABLE SHOWING THE ITEMS OF EXPENSE IN PRODUCING APPLES IN A SIX ACRE
+ORCHARD
+
+-------+------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------
+       |      |        |       |  5%   |       |       |        |
+       | Cover|Spraying|       | int.  | Equip.| O'vh'd|  Labor | Total
+Year   | crop |mat.    | Bar.  |on inv.|charge |charge | cost   | cost
+-------+------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------
+1902   |      |$6.64   |$117.88|$27.45 |$25.00 |$2.97  |$339.45 |$519.39
+1903   |      |11.22   | 164.92| 28.88 | 25.00 | 2.88  | 249.55 | 482.56
+1904   |      |10.50   | 109.90| 30.50 | 25.00 | 3.93  | 180.55 | 360.38
+1905   |$6.10 |12.45   |  88.80| 30.50 | 25.00 | 3.40  | 158.06 | 324.31
+1906   |      |14.85   | 112.35| 33.06 | 25.00 | 4.78  | 211.76 | 401.80
+1907   |10.00 |16.85   |  79.80| 35.56 | 25.00 | 4.89  | 192.30 | 364.40
+1908   |      | 9.75   | 205.45| 37.76 | 30.09 | 5.09  | 293.50 | 583.55
+1909   | 8.68 |19.26   | 196.35| 41.97 | 38.98 | 5.91  | 280.78 | 591.93
+1910   |      |23.89   | 116.90| 45.75 | 32.39 | 5.58  | 175.26 | 399.77
+1911   |10.50 |27.08   | 206.38| 45.75 | 32.39*| 5.53* | 275.00*| 602.63
+-------+------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------
+10 yr. av.    $15.25    $139.87  $35.73 $28.37  $4.78   $235.62  $463.07
+Av. per acre    2.50      22.93    5.86   4.65    .78     38.63    75.92
+Av. per bbl      .036       .327    .084   .066   .011      .552   -1.08
+
+* Partly estimated, records not yet complete.
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+The cost of the package has varied from 28 to 38 cents and has
+averaged about 32½ cents, or $22.93 per acre. Of course the latter
+amount varies greatly with the crop.
+
+Interest has in all cases been figured at five per cent., but as the
+price of the land has varied from $90 an acre at the beginning of the
+period to its present valuation of $160,00 an acre, due both to its
+improvement and to a general increase in the price of land, the
+amount of interest has also varied. The same is true of the equipment
+charge which has steadily increased each year. The average valuation
+of the land for the ten-year period was $117.15 an acre. This means an
+annual interest charge of $5.86 per acre, or 8½ cents a barrel. The
+equipment charge, which is interest, repairs, and depreciation on the
+machinery used in the orchard, amounts to more than 6½ cents a barrel,
+or $4.65 per acre. Taxes and insurance on the buildings distributed
+per acre for the farm average $.78 per acre, or a trifle over one cent
+per barrel. These costs have also increased in the last few years.
+
+Labor is the largest single item. For the first four years this was
+estimated on the basis of the cost for the last six years, for which
+more careful records were kept. It is computed at its actual cost to
+us on the farm, which was 15½ cents an hour for men and 13½ cents an
+hour for horses. This amounts to $4.25 per day for man and team. The
+cost of the labor to grow, pick, pack, and market a barrel of apples
+was 55 cents, or $38.63 per acre with an average yield of 70 barrels
+per acre.
+
+To sum up these items of cost we find that taking the average of ten
+years with an annual crop of 427 barrels, or 70 per acre, on 6.1 acres
+of old apple orchard that the costs per barrel have been as follows:
+spray material, $.036; packages, $.327; interest on the land, $.084;
+use of equipment, $.066; taxes, $.011; labor, $.552; and a total of
+$1.08 per barrel. If the estimated cost of manure, six cents a barrel
+be added, the total will be $1.14. As we have said, these costs per
+barrel vary with the crop. When our yield was 100 barrels per acre the
+cost per barrel was only $.99, but when it was 34 barrels per acre
+this cost rose to $1.73 per barrel. In 1910 we grew a crop of 55
+barrels per acre for $1.20 per barrel.
+
+It may be of interest to some to know what the income and profit were
+on this orchard. For this purpose we give the following table showing
+the yield, income, cost, and net profit for each of the ten years, and
+the average:
+
+        Yield in    Income   Income         Cost     Net     Profit
+        bbls.       bbls.    inc. culls     per      bbls.   inc. culls
+ Year   per A.      only     and drops      bbl.     alone   and drops
+ 1902   103         $1.96*   $1.46*         $.83     $1.13     $.63
+ 1903    71          1.90     2.23          1.11       .79     1.12
+ 1904    51          1.66     1.78          1.15       .51      .63
+ 1905    49          2.30     2.68          1.10      1.20     1.58
+ 1906    53          1.96     2.25          1.25       .71     1.30
+ 1907    34          3.49     4.10          1.73      1.76     2.37
+ 1908    96          2.03     2.32           .99      1.04     1.33
+ 1909    92          3.00     3.38          1.06      1.94     2.32
+ 1910    55          2.69     3.03          1.20      1.49     1.83
+ 1911   100          2.06     2.32           .99¤     1.07¤    1.33¤
+----------------------------------------------------------------------
+10 yr.
+ av.     70          2.15     2.47          1.08      1.07     1.39
+
+  * In arriving at these incomes different divisors were used. Two
+  hundred barrels of the crop were sold in bulk and these were not
+  used in getting the average income from barrels only, but were used
+  in getting the average income including culls and drops.
+
+  ¤ Partly estimated, records not yet being complete for the season.
+
+
+THE END
+
+
+
+
+OUTING
+
+HANDBOOKS
+
+¶ Each book deals with a separate subject and deals with it
+thoroughly. If you want to know anything about Airedales an OUTING
+HANDBOOK gives you all you want. If it's Apple Growing, another OUTING
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+Poultry-raiser, the Automobilist, the Horseman, all varieties of
+outdoor enthusiasts, will find separate volumes for their separate
+interests. There is no waste space.
+
+¶ The series is based on the plan of one subject to a book and each
+book complete. The authors are experts. Each book has been specially
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+per copy.
+
+¶ Two hundred titles are projected. The series covers all phases of
+outdoor life, from bee-keeping to big game shooting. Among the books
+now ready are those described on the following pages.
+
+    OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY
+    OUTING MAGAZINE  Yachting  OUTING HANDBOOKS
+    141-145 WEST 36th ST. NEW YORK  122 S. MICHIGAN AVE. CHICAGO
+
+=THE AIREDALE. By Williams Haynes.= The book opens with a short
+chapter on the origin and development of the Airedale, as a
+distinctive breed. The author then takes up the problems of type as
+bearing on the selection of the dog, breeding, training and use. The
+book is designed for the non-professional dog fancier, who wishes
+common sense advice which does not involve elaborate preparation or
+expenditure. Chapters are included on the care of the dog in the
+kennel and simple remedies for ordinary diseases.
+
+    "_A splendid book on the breed and should be in the hands of
+    every owner of an Airedale whether novice or breeder._"--_The
+    Kennel Review._
+
+    "_It ought to be read and studied by every Airedale owner and
+    admirer._"--_Howard Keeler, Airedale Farm Kennels._
+
+=APPLE GROWING. By M.C. Burritt.= Mr. Burritt takes up the question of
+the profit in apple growing, the various kinds best suited to
+different parts of the country and different conditions of soil,
+topography, and so on. He discusses also the most approved methods of
+planning a new orchard and takes up in detail the problems connected
+with the cultivation, fertilization, and pruning. The book contains
+chapters on the restoration of old orchards, the care of the trees,
+their protection against various insect-enemies and blight, and the
+most approved method of harvesting, handling and storing the fruit.
+
+=THE AUTOMOBILE--Its Selection, Care and Use. By Robert Sloss.= This
+is a plain, practical discussion of the things that every man needs to
+know if he is to buy the right car and get the most out of it. The
+various details of operation and care are given in simple, intelligent
+terms. From it the car owner can easily learn the mechanism of his
+motor and the art of locating motor trouble, as well as how to use his
+car for the greatest pleasure. A chapter is included on building
+garages.
+
+    "_It is the one book dealing with autos, that gives reliable
+    information._"--_The Grand Rapids (Mich.) Herald._
+
+=BACKWOODS SURGERY AND MEDICINE. By Charles S. Moody, M.D.= A handy
+book for the prudent lover of the woods who doesn't expect to be ill
+but believes in being on the safe side. Common-sense methods for the
+treatment of the ordinary wounds and accidents are described--setting
+a broken limb, reducing a dislocation, caring for burns, cuts, etc.
+Practical remedies for camp diseases are recommended, as well as the
+ordinary indications of the most probable ailments. Includes a list of
+the necessary medical and surgical supplies.
+
+    _The manager of a mine in Nome, Alaska, writes as follows: "I
+    have been on the trail for years (twelve in the Klondike and
+    Alaska) and have always wanted just such a book as Dr. Moody's
+    Backwoods Surgery and Medicine."_
+
+=CAMP COOKERY. By Horace Kephart.= "The less a man carries in his
+pack, the more he must carry in his head," says Mr. Kephart. This book
+tells what a man should carry in both pack and head. Every step is
+traced--the selection of provisions and utensils, with the kind and
+quantity of each, the preparation of game, the building of fires the
+cooking of every conceivable kind of food that the camp outfit or
+woods, fields, or streams may provide--even to the making of desserts.
+Every receipt is the result of hard practice and long experience.
+Every recipe has been carefully tested. It is the book for the man who
+wants to dine well and wholesomely, but in true wilderness fashion
+without reliance on grocery stores or elaborate camp outfits. It is
+adapted equally well to the trips of every length and to all
+conditions of climate, season or country; the best possible companion
+for one who wants to travel light and live well. The chapter headings
+tell their own story. Provisions--Utensils--Fires--Dressing and
+Keeping Game and Fish--Meat--Game--Fish and Shell Fish--Cured Meats,
+etc.--Eggs--Bread-stuffs and Cereals--Vegetables--Soups--Beverages and
+Desserts.
+
+    "_Scores of new hints may be obtained by the housekeeper as well
+    as the camper from Camp Cookery._"--_Portland Oregonian._
+
+    "_I am inclined to think that the advice contained in Mr.
+    Kephart's book is to be relied on. I had to stop reading his
+    receipts for cooking wild fowl--they made me hungry._"--_New
+    York Herald._
+
+    "_The most useful and valuable book to the camper yet
+    published._"--_Grand Rapids Herald._
+
+    "_Camp Cookery is destined to be in the kit of every tent
+    dweller in the country._"--_Edwin Markham in the San Francisco
+    Examiner._
+
+=CAMPS AND CABINS. By Oliver Kemp.= A working guide for the man who
+wants to know how to make a temporary shelter in the woods against the
+storm or cold. This describes the making of lean-tos, brush shelters,
+snow shelters, the utilization of the canoe, and so forth. Practically
+the only tools required are a stout knife or a pocket axe, and Mr.
+Kemp shows how one may make shift even without these implements. More
+elaborate camps and log cabins, also, are described and detailed plans
+reproduced. Illustrated with drawings by the author.
+
+=EXERCISE AND HEALTH. By Dr. Woods Hutchinson.= Dr. Hutchinson takes
+the common-sense view that the greatest problem in exercise for most
+of us is to get enough of the right kind. The greatest error in
+exercise is not to take enough, and the greatest danger in athletics
+is in giving them up. The Chapter heads are illuminating. Errors in
+Exercise--Exercise and the Heart--Muscle Maketh Man--The Danger of
+Stopping Athletics--Exercise that Rests. It is written in a direct
+matter-of-fact manner with an avoidance of medical terms, and a strong
+emphasis on the rational, all-round manner of living that is best
+calculated to bring a man to a ripe old age with little illness or
+consciousness of body weakness.
+
+    "_It contains good physiology as well as good common sense,
+    written by an acute observer and a logical reasoner, who has the
+    courage of his convictions and is a master of English
+    style._"--_D.A. Sargent, M.D., Sargent School for Physical
+    Education._
+
+    "_One of the most readable books ever written on physical
+    exercise._"--_Luther H. Gulick, M.D., Department of Child
+    Hygiene, Russell Sage Foundation._
+
+    "_A little book for the busy man written in brilliant
+    style._"--_Kansas City Star._
+
+=THE FINE ART OF FISHING. By Samuel G. Camp.= Combines the pleasure of
+catching fish with the gratification of following the sport in the
+most approved manner. The suggestions offered are helpful to beginner
+and expert anglers. The range of fish and fishing conditions covered
+is wide and includes such subjects as "Casting Fine and Far Off,"
+"Strip-Casting for Bass," "Fishing For Mountain Trout" and "Autumn
+Fishing for Lake Trout." The book is pervaded with a spirit of love
+for the streamside and the out-doors generally which the genuine
+angler will appreciate. A companion book to "Fishing Kits and
+Equipment." The advice on outfitting so capably given in that book is
+supplemented in this later work by equally valuable information on how
+to use the equipment.
+
+    "_Will encourage the beginner and give pleasure to the expert
+    fisherman._"--_N.Y. Sun._
+
+    "_A vein of catching enthusiasm runs through every
+    chapter._"--_Scientific American._
+
+=FISHING KITS AND EQUIPMENT. By Samuel G. Camp.= A complete guide to
+the angler buying a new outfit. Every detail of fishing kit of the
+freshwater angler is described, from rodtip to creel and clothing.
+Special emphasis is laid on outfitting for fly fishing, but full
+instruction is also given to the man who wants to catch pickerel,
+pike, muskellunge, lake-trout, bass and other fresh-water game fishes.
+Prices are quoted for all articles recommended and the approved method
+of selecting and testing the various rods, lines, leaders, etc., is
+described.
+
+    "_A complete guide to the angler buying a new outfit._"--_Peoria
+    Herald._
+
+    "_The man advised by Mr. Camp will catch his fish._"--_Seattle
+    P.I._
+
+    "_Even the seasoned angler will read this hook with
+    profit._"--_Chicago Tribune._
+
+
+=THE HORSE--Its Breeding, Care and Use. By David Buffum.= Mr. Buffum
+takes up the common, every-day problems of the ordinary horse-user,
+such as feeding, shoeing, simple home remedies, breaking and the cure
+for various equine vices. An important chapter is that tracing the
+influx of Arabian blood into the English and American horses and its
+value and limitations. Chapters are included on draft-horses, carriage
+horses, and the development of the two-minute trotter. It is
+distinctly a sensible book for the sensible man who wishes to know how
+he can improve his horses and his horsemanship at the same time.
+
+    "_I am recommending it to our students as a useful reference
+    book for both the practical farmer and the student._"--_T. R.
+    Arkell, Animal Husbandman, N.H. Agricultural Experiment
+    Station._
+
+    "_Has a great deal of merit from a practical standpoint and is
+    valuable for reference work._"--_Prof. E.L. Jordon, Professor of
+    Animal Industry, Louisiana State University._
+
+=MAKING AND KEEPING SOIL. By David Buffum.= This deals with the
+various kinds of soil and their adaptibility to different crops,
+common sense tests as to the use of soils, and also the common sense
+methods of cultivation and fertilization in order to restore worn-out
+soil and keep it at its highest productivity under constant use.
+
+=THE MOTOR BOAT--Its Selection, Care and Use. By H.W. Slauson.= The
+intending purchaser of a motor boat is advised as to the type of boat
+best suited to his particular needs, the power required for the
+desired speeds, and the equipment necessary for the varying uses. The
+care of the engine receives special attention and chapters are
+included on the use of the boat in camping and cruising expeditions,
+its care through the winter, and its efficiency in the summer.
+
+=NAVIGATION FOR THE AMATEUR. By Capt. E.T. Morton.= A short treatise
+on the simpler methods of finding position at sea by the observation
+of the sun's altitude and the use of the sextant and chronometer. It
+is arranged especially for yachtsmen and amateurs who wish to know the
+simpler formulae for the necessary navigation involved in taking a
+boat anywhere off shore. Illustrated with drawings.
+
+=OUTDOOR SIGNALLING. By Elbert Wells.= Mr. Wells has perfected a
+method of signalling by means of wig-wag, light, smoke, or whistle
+which is as simple as it is effective. The fundamental principle can
+be learnt in ten minutes and its application is far easier than that
+of any other code now in use. It permits also the use of cipher and
+can be adapted to almost any imaginable conditions of weather, light,
+or topography.
+
+    "_I find it to be the simplest and most practical book on
+    signalling published._"--_Frank H. Schrenk, Director of Camp
+    Belgrade._
+
+    "_One of the finest things of the kind I have ever seen. I
+    believe my seven year old boy can learn to use this system, and
+    I know that we will find it very useful here in our Boy Scout
+    work._"--_Lyman G. Haskell, Physical Director, Y.M.C.A.,
+    Jacksonville, Fla._
+
+=PRACTICAL POULTRY KEEPING. By R.B. Sando.= The chapters outlined in
+this book are poultry keeping and keepers, housing and yarding,
+fixtures and equipment, choosing and buying stock, foods and feeding,
+hatching and raising chicks. Inbreeding, caponizing, etc., What to do
+at different seasons. The merits of "secrets and systems", The truth
+about common poultry fallacies and get-rich-quick schemes. Poultry
+parasites and diseases. A complete list of the breeds and subjects is
+attached. It is in effect a comprehensive manual for the instruction
+of the man who desires to begin poultry raising on a large or small
+scale and to avoid the ordinary mistakes to which the beginner is
+prone. All the statements are based on the authors own experience and
+special care has been taken to avoid sensationalism or exaggeration.
+
+=PROFITABLE BREEDS OF POULTRY. By Arthur S. Wheeler.= Mr. Wheeler has
+chapters on some of the best known general purpose birds such as Rhode
+Island Reds, Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Mediterraneans, Orpingtons,
+and Cornish, describing the peculiarities and possibilities of each.
+There are additional chapters on the method of handling a poultry farm
+on a small scale with some instructions as to housing the birds, and
+so forth, and also a chapter on the market side of poultry growing.
+
+=RIFLES AND RIFLE SHOOTING. By Charles Askins.= Part I describes the
+various makes and mechanisms taking up such points as range and
+adaptibility of the various calibers, the relative merits of lever,
+bolt and pump action, the claims of the automatic, and so forth. Part
+II deals with rifle shooting, giving full instruction for target
+practice, snap shooting, and wing shooting.
+
+=SCOTTISH AND IRISH TERRIERS. By Williams Haynes.= This is a companion
+book to The Airedale and deals with the origin of the breeds, the
+standard types, approved methods of breeding, kenneling, training,
+care and so forth, with chapters on showing and also on the ordinary
+diseases and simple remedies.
+
+=SPORTING FIREARMS. By Horace Kephart.= This book is devided into two
+parts, Part I dealing with the Rifle and Part II with the Shotgun. Mr.
+Kephart goes at some length into the questions of range, trajectory
+and killing power of the different types of rifles and charges and
+also has chapters on rifle mechanisms, sights, barrels, and so forth.
+In the part dealing with shotguns he takes up the question of range,
+the effectiveness of various loads, suitability of the different types
+of boring, the testing of the shotguns by pattern, and so forth.
+
+=TRACKS AND TRACKING. By Josef Brunner.= After twenty years of patient
+study and practical experience, Mr. Brunner can, from his intimate
+knowledge, speak with authority on this subject. "Tracks and Tracking"
+shows how to follow intelligently even the most intricate animal or
+bird tracks. It teaches how to interpret tracks of wild game and
+decipher the many tell-tale signs of the chase that would otherwise
+pass unnoticed. It proves how it is possible to tell from the
+footprints the name, sex, speed, direction, whether and how wounded,
+and many other things about wild animals and birds. All material has
+been gathered first hand; the drawings and half-tones from photographs
+form an important part of the work, as the author has made faithful
+pictures of the tracks and signs of the game followed. The list is: The
+White-Tailed or Virginia Deer--The Fan-Tailed Deer--The Mule-Deer--The
+Wapiti or Elk--The Moose--The Mountain Sheep--The Antelope--The
+Bear--The Cougar--The Lynx--The Domestic Cat--The Wolf--The Coyote--The
+Fox--The Jack Rabbit--The Varying Hare--The Cottontail Rabbit--The
+Squirrel--The Marten and the Black-Footed Ferret--The Otter--The
+Mink--The Ermine--The Beaver--The Badger--The Porcupine--The
+Skunk--Feathered Game--Upland Birds--Waterfowl--Predatory Birds--This
+book is invaluable to the novice as well as the experienced hunter.
+
+    "_This book studied carefully, will enable the reader to become
+    as well versed in tracking lore as he could by years of actual
+    experience._"--_Lewiston Journal._
+
+=WING AND TRAP-SHOOTING. By Charles Askins.= The only practical manual
+in existance dealing with the modern gun. It contains a full
+discussion of the various methods, such as snap-shooting, swing and
+half-swing, discusses the flight of birds with reference to the
+gunner's problem of lead and range and makes special application of
+the various points to the different birds commonly shot in this
+country. A chapter is included on trap shooting and the book closes
+with a forceful and common-sense presentation of the etiquette of the
+field.
+
+    "_It is difficult to understand how anyone who takes a delight
+    in hunting can afford to be without this valuable
+    book._"--_Chamber of Commerce Bulletin, Portland, Ore._
+
+    "_This book will prove an invaluable manual to the true
+    sportsman, whether he be a tyro or expert._"--_Book News
+    Monthly._
+
+    "_Its closing chapter on field etiquette deserves careful
+    reading._"--_N.Y. Times._
+
+=THE YACHTSMAN'S HANDBOOK. By Commander C.S. Stanworth, U.S.N. and
+Others.= Deals with the practical handling of sail boats, with some
+light on the operation of the gasoline motor. It includes such
+subjects as handling ground tackle, handling lines and taking
+soundings, and use of the lead line; handling sails, engine troubles
+that may be avoided, care of the gasoline motor and yachting
+etiquette.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    +-----------------------------------------------------------+
+    | Typographical errors corrected in text:                   |
+    |                                                           |
+    | Page  12: 'together with is long season' replaced with    |
+    |           'together with its long season'                 |
+    | Page  32: prunned replaced with pruned                    |
+    | Page  36: profiable replaced with profitable              |
+    | Page  65: humous replaced with humus                      |
+    | Page  82: 'it must be sour' corrected to                  |
+    |           'it must not be sour' In sentence referring     |
+    |           to lime which is used to reduce acidity         |
+    |           (sourness).                                     |
+    | Page  88: prsent replaced with present                    |
+    | Page 105: tisses replaced with tissues                    |
+    | Page 107: 'carried over the winter cankers' corrected to  |
+    |           'carried over the winter in cankers'            |
+    | Page 126: Jose replaced with José                         |
+    | Page 163: (table) Syraying replaced with Spraying         |
+    | Page 163: (table) Syraping replaced with Spraying         |
+    | Page 164: 'The factors have always operated to deter'     |
+    |           corrected to 'Two factors have always operated  |
+    |           to deter'                                       |
+    |                                                           |
+    +-----------------------------------------------------------+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Apple Growing, by M. C. Burritt
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLE GROWING ***
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+***** This file should be named 20770-8.txt or 20770-8.zip *****
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Apple Growing, by M. C. Burritt
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Apple Growing
+
+Author: M. C. Burritt
+
+Release Date: March 9, 2007 [EBook #20770]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLE GROWING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jeannie Howse, Steven Giacomelli and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images produced by Core Historical
+Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+
+<div class="tr">
+<p class="cen" style="font-weight: bold;">Transcriber's Note:</p>
+<br />
+<p class="noin">Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have been preserved.</p>
+<p class="noin">Obvious typographical errors have been corrected in this text.<br />
+For a complete list, please see the <a href="#TN">end of this document</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h3>APPLE GROWING</h3>
+
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h1>
+APPLE<br />
+GROWING</h1>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<h3 style="margin-bottom: -1px;">BY</h3>
+<h2 style="margin-top: -1px;">M.C. BURRITT</h2>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h5>NEW YORK<br />
+OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY<br />
+MCMXII</h5>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Copyright, 1912, By</span><br />
+OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY.</h5>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<h5>All rights reserved.</h5>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>PREFACE</h3>
+<br />
+
+<p>In the preparation of this book I have tried to keep constantly before
+me the conditions of the average farm in the Northeastern States with
+its small apple orchard. It has been my aim to set down only such
+facts as would be of practical value to an owner of such a farm and to
+state these facts in the plain language of experience. This book is in
+no sense intended as a final scientific treatment of the subject, and
+if it is of any value in helping to make the fruit department of the
+general farm more profitable the author will be entirely satisfied.</p>
+
+<p>The facts herein set down were first learned in the school of
+practical experience on the writer's own farm in Western New York.
+They were afterwards supplemented by some theoretical training and by
+a rather wide observation of farm orchard conditions and methods in
+New York, Pennsylvania, the New England States and other contiguous
+territory. These facts were first put together in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>something like
+their present form in the winter of 1909-10, when the writer gave a
+series of lectures on Commercial Fruit Growing to the Short Courses in
+Horticulture at Cornell University. These lectures were revised and
+repeated in 1910-11 and are now put in their present form.</p>
+
+<p>The author's sincere thanks are due to Professor C.S. Wilson, of the
+Department of Pomology at Cornell University, for many valuable facts
+and suggestions used in this book, and for a careful reading of the
+manuscript. He is also under obligations to Mr. Roy D. Anthony of the
+same Department for corrections and suggestions on the chapters on
+Insects and Diseases and on Spraying.</p>
+
+<p class="right sc">M.C. Burritt.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="margin-left: 2em;">Hilton, N.Y.<br />
+February, 1912.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="toc" id="toc"></a><hr />
+<br />
+
+<h3>CONTENTS</h3>
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Table of Contents">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr" width="15%"><span style="font-size: 80%;">CHAPTER</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl" width="70%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="15%"><span style="font-size: 80%;">PAGE</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">I.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">The Outlook for the Growing of Apples</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">11</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">II.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">Planning for the Orchard</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">18</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">III.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">Planting and Growing the Orchard</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">30</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">IV.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">Pruning the Trees</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">48</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">V.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">Cultivation and Cover Cropping</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">62</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">VI.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Manuring and Fertilizing</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">78</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">VII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Insects and Diseases Affecting the Apple</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">92</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">VIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">The Principles and Practice of Spraying</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">108</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">IX.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">Harvesting and Storing</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">127</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">X.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">Markets and Marketing</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">142</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XI.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">Some Hints on Renovating Old Orchards</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">153</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">The Cost of Growing Apples</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">164</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h1>APPLE GROWING</h1>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER I<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE OUTLOOK FOR THE GROWING OF APPLES</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>The apple has long been the most popular of our tree fruits, but the
+last few years have seen a steady growth in its appreciation and use.
+This is probably due in a large measure to a better knowledge of its
+value and to the development of new methods of preparation for
+consumption. Few fruits can be utilized in as many ways as can the
+apple. In addition to the common use of the fresh fruit out of hand
+and of the fresh, sweet juice as cider, this "King of Fruits" can be
+cooked, baked, dried, canned, and made into jellies and other
+appetizing dishes, to enumerate all of which would be to prepare a
+list pages long. Few who have tasted once want to be without their
+apple sauce and apple pies in season, not to mention the crisp, juicy
+specimens to eat out of hand by the open fireplace in the long winter
+evenings. Apples thus served call up pleasant memories to most of us,
+but only recently have the culinary possibilities <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>of the apple,
+especially as a dessert fruit, been fully realized.</p>
+
+<p>It is doubtless this realization of its great adaptability, together
+with its long season, which have brought the apple into so great
+demand of late. It is possible to have apples on the table in some
+form the year round. The first summer apples are almost always with us
+before the bottom of the Russet barrel is reached. Or, should the
+fresh fruit be too expensive or for some reason fail altogether, the
+housewife can fall back on the canned and dried fruit which are almost
+as good.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency in the price of this staple fruit has been constantly
+upward during the last decade. Many people are greatly surprised when
+the fact that apples cost more than oranges is called to their
+attention. The increase in consumption, due to the greater variety of
+ways of preparing the apple for use, has undoubtedly been an important
+factor in this higher price. But at least an equally important factor
+is the marked decrease in the supply of this fruit. To those who are
+not familiar with the facts, the great falling off in production which
+the figures show will be no less than startling.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span><br />
+
+<p class="sc cen">Production of Apples in Barrels in the United States from 1896 to 1910</p>
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Production of Apples in Barrels">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="60%">1896</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="20%">69,070,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="20%">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1897</td>
+  <td class="tdr">41,530,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1898</td>
+  <td class="tdr">28,570,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1899</td>
+  <td class="tdr">37,460,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1900</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">56,820,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Total crop for five years</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">233,450,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Average crop for five years</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">46,690,000</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1901</td>
+  <td class="tdr">26,970,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1902</td>
+  <td class="tdr">46,625,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1903</td>
+  <td class="tdr">42,626,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1904</td>
+  <td class="tdr">45,360,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1905</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">24,310,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Total crop for five years</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">185,891,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Average crop for five years</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">37,178,200</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1906</td>
+  <td class="tdr">38,280,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1907</td>
+  <td class="tdr">29,540,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1908</td>
+  <td class="tdr">25,850,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1909</td>
+  <td class="tdr">25,415,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1910</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">23,825,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Total crop for five years</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">142,910,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Average crop for five years</td>
+  <td class="tdr">28,582,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="3" style="padding: .5em;">Estimates of 1896, 1897, and 1898 from "Better Fruit," Vol. 5,
+ No. 5. All other years from the estimates of the "American Agriculturist."</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p>It will thus be seen that the apple crop of 1910 was 45,245,000
+barrels less than that of 1896, and that during the whole period of
+fifteen years the decline has been regular. The average annual crop of
+the five year period ending with 1905 was 9,511,800 barrels less than
+the average annual crop of the preceding five years ending with 1900,
+and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>correspondingly the annual average crop of the last five years,
+ending with 1910, was 8,596,200 barrels less than that of the second
+five year period. Comparing the first and the last five year periods,
+we find that the crop of the last was 18,108,000 barrels less than
+that of the first. These facts alone are enough to explain the higher
+price of this fruit during the last ten years.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Heavy Plantings.</span>&mdash;Moreover, it should be further noted that
+this falling off in the apple crop has been in the face of the
+heaviest plantings ever known in this country. During the last ten
+years old fruit growing regions like western New York have practically
+doubled their orchard plantings. Careful figures gathered by the New
+York State Agricultural College in an orchard survey of Monroe County
+show that 4,972 more trees (21,289 in all) were planted in one
+representative township during the five year period from 1904 to 1908
+inclusive than were ever planted in any other equal period in its
+history. New fruit regions like the Northwestern States and a large
+part of the Shenandoah valley of Virginia have been developed by heavy
+plantings. These three are all great commercial sections. To <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>them we
+might add thousands of orchards which are scattered all over the
+Northern and Eastern States, from Michigan to Maine and from Maine to
+north Georgia.</p>
+
+<p>It is doubtful, however, if these scattered plantings have made good
+the older trees which have died out. Scarcely a season passes that
+hundreds of these old veteran trees are not blown down or badly
+broken. Every wind takes its toll. After one of these windstorms in
+Southern New York the writer estimated that at least twenty per cent
+of all the standing old apple trees had been destroyed or badly
+broken. In the commercial regions only a small part of the new
+plantings have yet come to bearing and even here these probably do not
+much more than make good the losses of old trees. So that on the
+whole, heavy as our plantings have been, it is extremely doubtful if
+they have very much more than made good the losses of the older trees
+throughout the country. It is a fact worthy of note that this talk of
+over-planting the apple has been going on for over thirty years, and
+while the timid ones talked those who had faith in the business and
+the courage of their convictions planted apples and reaped golden
+harvests <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>while their neighbors still talked of over-planting.</p>
+
+<p>Whether or not it is true that we have over-planted the apple, it must
+be admitted that at the present time the demand is so much greater
+than the supply that the poorer of our people cannot afford to use
+apples commonly, and that no class of farmer in the Northeastern
+States is more prosperous than the fruit growers. The new plantings
+must of necessity begin to bear and become factors in the market very
+slowly. Meanwhile the great opportunity of the present lies in making
+the most possible out of the older orchards which are already in
+bearing. Practically all of these old farm orchards which can present
+a fairly clean bill of health, and in which the varieties are
+desirable, can with a small amount of well directed effort be put to
+work at once and during the next ten years or more of their life time,
+they may be made to add a substantial income to that of the general
+farm. Now is a time of opportunity for the owner of the small farm
+apple orchard.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Future of Apple Growing.</span>&mdash;In the writer's opinion the future
+of apple growing in the United States is likely to shape itself
+largely in the great commercial regions. As <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>these become more and
+more developed and as the industry becomes more specialized the farmer
+who is merely growing apples as a side line, except where he is
+delivering directly to a special or a local market, will be crowded
+out. Here as elsewhere it will be a case of the survival of the
+fittest. In the production of apples commercially those growers who
+can produce the best article the most cheaply are bound to win out in
+the end.</p>
+
+<p>It would, therefore, seem to be advisable for the general farmer to
+plant apples only under two conditions; first, when he has a very
+favorable location and site and plants heavily enough to make it worth
+while to have the equipment and skilled labor necessary to make the
+enterprise a success, and second, when he can market his fruit
+directly in a local market. It would appear that the immediate future
+of apple growing in the United States lies in the small farm orchard
+as well as in the commercial orchards, but that the more distant
+future lies in the commercial orchard except where special conditions
+surround the farm.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER II<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p><span class="sc">Location.</span>&mdash;Having decided that under certain conditions the
+planting of an apple orchard will prove a profitable venture, and
+having ascertained that those conditions prevail on your farm, the
+next step will be to determine the best location on the farm for the
+orchard. In choosing this location it will be well to keep in mind the
+relative importance of the orchard in the scheme of farm management.
+If the orchard is merely a source of home supply, naturally it will
+not require as important a position on the farm as will be the case if
+it is expected to yield a larger share of the farm income. If the
+relatively large net income per acre which it is possible to obtain
+from an apple orchard is to be secured, the best possible location is
+demanded.</p>
+
+<p>Contrary to the common ideas and practice of the past, the orchard
+should not be put upon <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>the poorest soil on the farm. The best
+orchards occupy the best soils, although fairly good results are often
+obtained on poor or medium soils. The relative importance which is
+attached to the orchard enterprise must also govern the choice of
+soil. If apples are to be a prominent crop they should be given the
+preference as to soil; if not, they may be given a place in accordance
+with what is expected of them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Soils.</span>&mdash;In general, the apple prefers a rather strong soil,
+neither very heavy nor very light. Subsoil is rather more important
+than surface soil, although the latter should be friable and easily
+worked. The apple follows good timber successfully. Heavy clay soils
+are apt to be too cold, compact, and wet; light sandy soils too loose
+and dry. A medium clay loam or a gravelly clay loam, underlaid by a
+somewhat heavier but fairly open clay subsoil is thought to be the
+best soil for apples. Broadly considered, medium loams are best. The
+lighter the soil the better will be the color of the fruit as a rule,
+and so, also, the heavier the soil and the more nitrogen and moisture
+it holds the greater the tendency to poorly colored fruit. In the same
+way light <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>soils give poorer wood and foliage growth as compared with
+the large rank leaves and wood of trees on heavy, rich soils.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Varietal Soil Preferences</span> are beginning to be recognized. We
+cannot go into these in detail in this brief discussion. A few
+suggestions regarding standard varieties must suffice. Medium to light
+loams or heavy sandy loams, underlaid by slightly heavier loams or
+clay loams, are preferred by the Baldwin, which has a wider soil
+adaptation than practically any other variety. Baldwin soils should
+dry quickly after a rain. Rhode Island Greening requires a rather
+rich, moist, but well drained soil, containing an abundance of organic
+matter. A light to heavy silty loam, underlaid by a silty clay loam,
+is considered best.</p>
+
+<p>Northern Spy is very exacting in its soil requirements. A medium loam,
+underlaid by a heavy loam or a light clay loam, is excellent. Heavy
+soils give the Spy a greasy skin. Light soils cause the tree to grow
+upright and to bear fruit of poor flavor. The King likes a soil
+slightly lighter than the best Greening soils, but retentive of
+moisture. Hubbardson will utilize the sandiest soil of any northern
+variety, preferring rich, fine, sandy loams.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>The particular location of the apple orchard is largely a matter of
+convenience. It should be remembered, however, that the apple requires
+much and constant attention, therefore the orchard should be
+convenient of access. The product is rather bulky, so that the haul to
+the highway should be as short as possible. Other conditions being
+equally good there, the common location near the buildings and highway
+is best.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">The Site of the Orchard</span> is a more important matter. Two
+essentials should be kept in mind, good air drainage and a
+considerable elevation. Although it is not so apparent and therefore
+less thought about, cold air runs down hill the same as water. Being
+heavier, it falls to the surface of the land, flowing out through the
+water channels and settling in pockets and depressions. Warm air,
+being lighter, rises. It is desirable to avoid conditions of stagnant
+air or cold air pockets where frost and fogs are liable to occur. A
+free movement of air, especially a draining away of cold air, is best
+secured by an elevation. Fifty to one hundred feet, or sometimes less,
+is usually sufficient, especially where there is good outlet below.
+Frosts occur in still, clear air and these <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>conditions occur most
+frequently in the lower areas.</p>
+
+<p>Aspect or slope requires less attention. Southern exposures are warm
+and hasten bud development and opening in spring. Northern exposures
+are cold and retard the blossoming period. It is usually advisable to
+plant the apple on the colder slopes which hold it back in spring
+until all danger of late frosts is past. Northeast exposures are best
+as a general rule. Choose a slope away from the prevailing wind if
+possible. If this is impracticable it is often advisable to plant a
+wind break of pine, spruce, or a quick, thick growing native tree to
+protect the orchard from heavy winds.</p>
+
+<p>A large body of water is an important modifier of climate. Warming up
+more slowly in the spring, it retards vegetation by slowly giving up
+its cold. Vice versa, cooling more slowly in the fall giving up its
+heat wards off the early frosts. It is therefore desirable to locate
+near such bodies of water if possible. Their influence varies
+according to their size and depth, and the distance of the orchard
+from them. Good examples of this influence are the Chautauqua Grape
+Belt on the eastern shore of Lake Erie <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>and the Western New York Apple
+Belt on the south shore of Lake Ontario.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Brackett has well summed up the whole question: "The
+selection of the soil and site for the apple orchard is not governed
+by any arbitrary rule," he says. "All farms do not afford the best
+soils or exposures for orchards. The owners of such as do not are
+unfortunate, yet they should not feel discouraged to the extent of not
+planting trees and caring for them afterward." There are a number of
+factors which influence not only a person who wishes to locate, but
+one already located, either favorably or unfavorably. About these even
+the most intelligent orchardists often differ. We have only laid down
+general principles and given opinions. Here as elsewhere application
+is a matter of judgment.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Varieties.</span>&mdash;A proper soil and a good location and site having
+been selected, the next important question to be decided is the
+varieties to be planted. So much and so variable advice is given on
+this question that many persons are at a loss as to what to plant and
+too often decide the matter by planting the wrong varieties. Rightly
+viewed, the question of varieties is a comparatively simple one.
+Personal <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>preference, tempered by careful study of certain factors and
+good judgment, are all that are required. Beginners, especially, are
+too apt to rely entirely on another's opinion. The only safe way is to
+learn the facts and then decide for yourself.</p>
+
+<p>We have already indicated that soil is a determinant in the choice of
+varieties. This should be absolute. It is very unwise to try to grow
+any variety on a soil where experience has shown that it does not do
+well. The experience of your neighbors is the best guide in this
+respect.</p>
+
+<p>The limitations of climate should also be carefully heeded. An apple
+may be at its best in one latitude or one situation and at its worst
+in another. Find out from experienced growers in your region, or from
+your State Experiment Station what varieties are best adapted
+climatically to the place where you live. It is an excellent rule
+never to plant a variety that you cannot grow at least as well as any
+one else, or still better, to plant a variety that you can grow better
+than anyone else. Grow something that not everyone can grow. Do not
+try to produce more of a variety of which there is already an over
+supply.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>A few examples may make this more clear. Western New York is the home
+of the Baldwin, the Twenty Ounce and the King. Albemarle Pippins grown
+on the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge are famous. The Spitzenburg
+appears at its best in the Northwest. The Northern Spy, the McIntosh,
+and the Fameuse are not to be excelled as they are grown in the
+Champlain Valley, in Vermont, or in Maine. To attempt to compete with
+these sections in the growing of these varieties, except under equally
+favorable conditions, would be foolish. Your section probably grows
+some varieties to perfection. Find out what these varieties are and
+plant them.</p>
+
+<p>All these are general factors to be observed which cannot be
+specifically settled without knowing the soil and particular locality.
+Certain other factors governing the choice of varieties can be more
+definitely outlined. If the prospective orchardist will get these
+factors thoroughly in mind and apply them with judgment mistakes in
+planting should be much more rare. The more important ones are: The
+purpose for which the fruit is intended to be used, whether for the
+general market, a dessert or fancy trade, or for culinary and general
+table use; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>whether the trees are to be permanent and long lived, or
+temporary and used as fillers; whether the earliest possible income is
+desired or whether this is to be secondary to the future development
+of the orchard; whether the stock of the particular variety is strong
+or weak growing; whether the variety is high, medium, or low as to
+quality; and whether the market is to be local, distant, or export.</p>
+
+<p>The following tables were originally compiled by Professor C.S. Wilson
+of Cornell University. They have been slightly revised and modified
+for our purpose. We believe that they are essentially correct and that
+they will be a safe guide for the reader to follow in his selection of
+varieties:</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" width="65%" summary="Apple Varieties">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlsc" width="50%">General Market Apples Commercial</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc" width="50%">Dessert or Fancy Trade Box Well</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Baldwin</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">McIntosh</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Ben Davis</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Northern Spy</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Baldwin</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">McIntosh</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Ben Davis</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Northern Spy</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Hubbardson</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Fameuse</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Northern Spy</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Wagener</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">King</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Grimes Golden</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Rome Beauty</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Yellow Newton</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Oldenburg</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Red Canada</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Alexander</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">King</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Twenty Ounce</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Sutton</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Winesap</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Hubbardson</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">York Imperial</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Esopus Spitzenburg</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlsc" colspan="2" style="padding-top: .5em; padding-left: 15%;">Culinary and General Table Use<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Rhode Island Greening</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Grimes Golden</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Gravenstein</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Twenty Ounce</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Newtown</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Yellow Bellflower</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Alexander</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Oldenburg</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Tolman Sweet</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Sweet Winesap</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlsc" style="padding-top: .5em;">Good Permanent Trees</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc" style="padding-top: .5em;">Good Temporary Trees&mdash;Fillers</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Baldwin</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">McIntosh</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Rhode Island Greening</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Wealthy</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Northern Spy</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Wagener</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">McIntosh</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Rome Beauty</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">*King</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Oldenburg</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">*Twenty Ounce</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Jonathan</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">*Hubbardson</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Alexander</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Alexander</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Twenty Ounce</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Rome Beauty</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Hubbardson</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp" colspan="2" style="padding-top: .5em;">* When this variety is set as a permanent tree it should be top
+    worked on a hardier stock, such as Northern Spy.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p>Age at which variety may be expected to begin to fruit. (Add two years
+for a paying crop).</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" width="65%" summary="Fruit Bearing Age">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlsc" width="50%">Five Years or Under</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc" width="50%">Eight Years and Up</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Rome Beauty</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Esopus Spitzenburg</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Oldenburg</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Fall Pippin</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Maiden Blush</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Golden Russet</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Wagener</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Northern Spy</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Yellow Newton</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Baldwin</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">McIntosh</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Gravenstein</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Fameuse</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Tolman Sweet</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">King</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Rhode Island Gr.</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Twenty Ounce</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Winesap</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" width="65%" summary="Hardy vs. Weak">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlsc" width="50%">Especially Hardy Stocks<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></td>
+  <td class="tdlsc" width="50%">Poor Rather Weak Growers*</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Northern Spy</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">King</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Tolman Sweet</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Twenty Ounce</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Ben Davis</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Esopus Spitzenburg</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Baldwin</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Hubbardson</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Fameuse</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Grimes Golden</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Winter Banana</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Sutton</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Canada Red</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp" colspan="2" style="padding-top: .5em;">* Other varieties are medium.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" width="65%" summary="Quality">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlsc" width="50%">High in Quality</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc" width="50%">Local or Peddler's Varieties</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">McIntosh</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Rhode Island Greening</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Esopus Spitzenburg</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Wealthy</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Northern Spy</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">McIntosh</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Newtown</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Fameuse</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Gravenstein</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Tolman Sweet</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Red Canada</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Grimes Golden</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Fameuse</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Jonathan</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Grimes Golden</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Hubbardson</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc">Good General Market Varieties</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Rhode Island Greening</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Baldwin</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Rhode Island</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlsc">Medium to Poor Quality</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">King</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Ben Davis</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Twenty Ounce</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Oldenburg</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">McIntosh</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Rome Beauty</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Hubbardson</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Roxbury Russet</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Northern Spy</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlsc" colspan="2" style="padding-top: .5em; padding-left: 15%;">Good Export Varieties</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Baldwin</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Newtown</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Ben Davis</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Esopus Spitzenburg</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Northern Spy</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Jonathan</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p>Only the best and most common varieties for the more northern
+latitudes have been included in this list as it would make it too
+cumbersome to classify all our known varieties. It <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>must be remembered
+that this is not an arbitrary classification and that it is made as a
+guide to indicate to the reader the general characteristics of the
+variety. It should be used as such and not taken literally. The
+characters of the different varieties grade into each other. For
+example, the McIntosh is very high and the Ben Davis is very low in
+quality but the King and the Twenty Ounce are neither very good nor
+very poor, but midway between.</p>
+
+<p>We must again remind the reader that the choice of varieties is a
+matter of judgment, tempered by the facts regarding them. One who is
+not capable of rendering such judgment after studying his conditions
+and the characteristics and requirements of leading varieties had
+better stay out of the apple business entirely, as he will often be
+called on for the exercise of good judgment in caring for the orchard.
+The facts here given are intended as suggestive. The reader who
+desires to know more of a particular variety will do well to consult
+Beach's "Apples of New York," published by the Geneva Experiment
+Station.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER III<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>PLANTING AND GROWING THE ORCHARD</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>The proper soil, site, and location having been selected, the solution
+of the problems of orchard management is only just begun, although a
+good start has certainly been made. Farm management brings constantly
+to one's attention new problems and new phases of old problems,
+whatever the type of farming. The skill with which these problems are
+met and a solution found for them determines the success or failure of
+the farm manager. To some men the details of the orchard business
+offer the greatest obstacles, while to others it is the general
+relationship of one detail to another which is difficult. Both are
+essentials of good management. If we are able in this chapter to
+remove some of these minor difficulties and at the same time indicate
+the correct relationships we will have accomplished our purpose.</p>
+
+<p>As we come now to the actual plans for planting our orchard many
+questions come up for <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>answer. When shall I plant? Where and of whom
+shall I purchase my trees? How old should they be? Is it wise to use
+fillers or temporary trees, and if so, what kind? How far apart should
+the trees be planted and how many are required for an acre? What
+arrangement of the trees is most advisable? How should the ground be
+prepared? What is the best method of setting? When the trees are
+planted should they be inter-cropped, and if so, with what? How should
+the young trees be handled and cared for? He who would be a successful
+orchardist must endeavor to answer these questions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">When to Plant.</span>&mdash;The question of fall or spring planting is a
+less important one with a comparatively hardy fruit like the apple
+than it is with a more tender fruit like the peach. Apples may safely
+be planted in the fall when soils are well drained and when the young
+trees are well matured, both of which are very important if winter
+injury is to be avoided. Fall planting has several distinct
+advantages. During the winter fall planted trees become well
+established in the soil which enables them to start root growth
+earlier in the spring. Consequently the young trees are better able to
+endure <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>droughts. In the fall the weather is usually more settled and
+there is better opportunity to plant under favorable conditions than
+in the unsettled weather of spring. It is usually possible, too, to
+get a better selection of trees at the nursery in the fall because
+most of the trees are not sold until midwinter.</p>
+
+<p>Still the fact remains that the common practice of spring planting is
+the more conservative course. There is always danger of getting
+immature trees in the fall, and of winter injury to fall planted
+trees. Trees may be set in the fall any time after the buds are mature
+which is usually after October 1st to 18th in the latitude of New
+York. They should not be pruned back in the fall, as this invites
+winter killing of the uppermost buds. The question of available time
+must also be considered. On some farms fall offers more time; on
+others, spring. To sum up the matter, plant at the most convenient
+time, providing the conditions are favorable.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Where to Buy.</span>&mdash;But one rule as to where to buy trees can be
+laid down. Buy where you can secure the best trees and where you can
+be sure of the most reliable and honest dealers. Beware of the tree
+agent, who has been guilty of more <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>dishonesty and misrepresentation
+than almost any other traveling agent. Buy of a salesman under one
+condition only, that he prove to you that he is the bona fide
+representative of a well-known and reputable nursery firm, and then
+make your order subject to investigation of the firm's standing and
+finding it as represented.</p>
+
+<p>The safest course is usually to purchase of your home nurseryman with
+whose standing and honesty you are familiar, and whose trees you can
+personally inspect. Such a man has a reputation at stake and will have
+an object in keeping your trade. Moreover, you will save freight,
+secure fresher stock with less liability of injury in handling, and
+get trees grown under your own conditions. If stock is purchased away
+from home it is better to get it at a nursery in a more southern
+latitude in order to secure trees of better growth.</p>
+
+<p>All trees should be purchased in the late summer or early fall when
+the nurseryman has a full list of varieties and you can get the pick
+of his stock. Select a well grown mature tree two years old from the
+bud. One year old trees are preferred by many and if well grown and at
+least five feet high they are probably best. But a one year old tree
+is rather more <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>delicate, requiring careful handling and intelligent
+training. Unless a person buys from a southern nursery and is an
+expert in handling trees, the two year old tree is to be preferred,
+but a skilful grower can make a more satisfactory tree from a one year
+old seedling.</p>
+
+<p>The average buyer must depend largely on his nurseryman for getting
+trees true to name, which is the reason for laying so much emphasis on
+purchasing from an honest dealer. Some nurserymen guarantee their
+varieties to be true to name, and all ought to do so. Buyers should
+demand it. The seeds of the apple rarely come true to the variety
+planted. They are therefore usually budded on one year old seedlings
+imported from France. Sometimes they are whole or piece root grafted
+which is equally as good a method of propagation.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible for a man to grow and bud or graft his own seedlings,
+but hardly advisable for the average small grower or general farmer,
+as it is usually expensive when done on a small scale and requires
+considerable skill. Always buy a high grade tree. Seconds are often
+equally as good as firsts when they are simply smaller as a result of
+crowding in the nursery row. A tree which is second grade <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>because of
+being stunted, crooked, or poorly grown should never be set. Thirds
+are seldom worth considering at any price.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fillers.</span>&mdash;Whether or not the planter of an apple orchard
+should use fillers is a question which he alone must decide. In the
+writer's opinion there are more advantages than disadvantages in so
+doing, but we must state both sides of the question and let the reader
+judge for himself. The term "filler" is one used to designate a tree
+planted in the orchard for the temporary purpose of profitably
+occupying the space between the permanent trees while these are
+growing and not yet in bearing. Fillers make a more complete use of
+the land, bringing in larger as well as quicker returns from it, three
+distinct advantages. (See Chapter XII, The Cost of Growing Apples.) On
+the other hand, objections to their use are that they are often left
+in so long that they crowd and seriously injure the permanent trees,
+and that their care often requires different operations and at
+different times from the other trees, such as spraying, which may
+result in injury to the permanent trees in the orchard.</p>
+
+<p>Trees used as fillers for apples should have two important
+characteristics; they should be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>rapid, vigorous growers and should
+come into bearing at a very early age. Two kinds of fillers are
+available, those of the same species, which may be either dwarf or
+standard trees, and those of a different species, of which peaches and
+plums, and possibly pears, are the best adapted. Dwarf trees may be
+dismissed from our plans with the statement that they have rarely
+proved profitable under ordinary conditions, as they are much more
+difficult to grow than standards and when grown they have but few
+advantages over them. The varieties of standard apples which are
+advisable as fillers have been indicated in Chapter II.</p>
+
+<p>The use of peaches and the Japanese plums, both of which make
+excellent fillers because they grow rapidly and come to heavy bearing
+quickly, is limited to their soil and climatic adaptation. They are
+adapted to the lighter phases of soil and the more moderate climates
+and under other conditions are impracticable. On heavier soils and in
+more rigorous climates the European plums and the more rapid and early
+bearing pears, such as the Keiffer, make fairly good fillers.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, the writer is inclined to advise the use of fillers in
+the general farm orchard. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>Quicker returns from an investment of this
+nature, which is usually heavy and which at best must be put off
+several years, are very important. Under careful and intelligent
+management the objections to their use are easily overcome.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Spacing and Arrangement of Trees.</span>&mdash;The distance apart of
+planting depends on the variety planted. Close headed, upright growing
+trees may be planted closer together than spreading varieties. Some
+varieties grow larger than others, and the same variety may vary in
+size on different soils. It is seldom advisable to plant standard
+apple trees in the latitude of New York closer than thirty feet, or
+farther apart than fifty feet. Trees of the nature of Twenty Ounce and
+Oldenburg (Dutchess) should be planted from thirty-two to thirty-six
+feet apart, while Baldwins, Rhode Island Greenings, and Northern Spies
+represent the other extreme and will require forty, and sometimes
+fifty feet of space. The method and thoroughness of pruning influences
+the size of trees greatly, and hence the distance at which It is
+necessary to set them.</p>
+
+<p>Varieties top worked on other stocks have a tendency to grow more
+upright and may be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>set closer together. It should be remembered in
+this connection that the roots of a tree extend considerably beyond
+the spread of the branches. From thirty-five to forty feet is a good
+average distance and trees should be trained so as to occupy this
+space and no more. Where fillers are used the latter distance is best,
+as the twenty feet apart at which the trees will then stand is close
+enough for any standard variety.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Rectangular.</span>&mdash;The method of setting or the arrangement of the
+trees will greatly influence the number of trees which may be put upon
+an acre and the distance apart of the trees in the row. The most
+common method in the past has been the regular square or rectangular
+method, e.g., trees forty by forty feet, or forty by fifty feet, and
+rows at right angles, and this is still preferred by many. It is easy
+to lay out an orchard on this plan and there is less liability of
+making mistakes. It is best adapted to regular fields with right angle
+corners, especially where the orchard is to be cropped with a regular
+rotation. All tillage operations are most easily performed in orchards
+set on this plan.</p>
+
+<p>A slight modification of this arrangement which is often advisable,
+especially where fillers <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>are used, is to set a tree in the center of
+the square. The trees then stand like the five spots of a domino, and
+the shortest distance between trees will be about twenty-seven feet
+when the trees in the regular rows are forty by forty feet apart. This
+plan practically doubles the number of trees which can be set on an
+acre.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Hexagonal or Triangular.</span>&mdash;Another method of arrangement of
+the trees which is becoming more and more popular is the hexagonal or
+triangular system. More trees can be planted on an acre by this plan
+than by any other, it being very economical of space. It makes all
+adjacent trees equally distant from each other and is really a system
+of equilateral triangles. This plan is better adapted to small areas
+and especially to irregular ones, and should be employed where land is
+expensive and culture very intensive. It is more difficult to set an
+orchard after this method without error, and it is open to the
+objection of inconvenience in cultural operations. Most people forget
+that while the rows running cornerwise in a rectangular or square
+field set after this plan may be a standard distance apart, yet the
+right angle rows (not trees) in which it may be more <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>convenient to
+work are actually much closer together.</p>
+
+<p>The best plan to follow to get the rows of trees straight on a level
+field is what is known as the outside stake method. This plan requires
+the placing of a row of stakes on each of the four sides of the field
+where the trees are to be set and usually about two rows each way
+through the middle. For this purpose ordinary building laths are best,
+about one hundred and fifty laths, or three bundles, being required
+for five acres, which is as large a unit as can be set at once by this
+plan.</p>
+
+<p><i>First</i>, determine the distance from the road or fence to the first
+tree row, which would be at least eighteen feet to allow for turning
+the teams, and establish base lines on each side of the field at right
+angles to each other.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second</i>, beginning at the given distance from the side of the field,
+set up a row of stakes along these base lines at the exact distance
+apart at which the trees are to be set and about half way between the
+fence and the first right angle row. Do the same on all sides of the
+field.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third</i>, by sighting across the field from one end stake to the other
+the cross rows of stakes can be set through the middle of the field.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>These should be about six or eight rods apart, and care should be used
+to avoid setting them where they will interfere with the sighting of
+the right angle rows. This plan has the great merit of enabling the
+entire orchard to be set without moving a stake, as no stake stands
+where a tree is to be set. If the trees are set exactly where the
+sight lines cross at right angles and if all rows are an equal
+distance apart, the rows will be perfectly straight.</p>
+
+<p>On rough or rolling land this plan does not work well. Here more
+simple methods, though requiring more time, must be used. Lines drawn
+with a cord or marked across the field with a corn planter answer well
+for small areas. Poles of the right length are often used to good
+advantage. In setting trees after the hexagonal plan an equilateral
+triangle made of light poles or wire is probably best, especially on
+small rough areas, as it is very accurate, simple, and quite rapid.
+Some men prefer to make measurements and set a stake at every point
+where a tree is to be placed. In these cases a simple device locates
+the original stakes after the hole has been dug. A light board about
+six feet long with a notch in the center and holes with pegs in them
+at each end <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>is placed with the notch at the stake. One end is then
+swung round and the hole dug. When the end is replaced on its peg the
+tree set in the hole should rest in the notch where the original stake
+did.</p>
+
+<p>The following table shows the number of trees required per acre at
+different distances for the square or rectangular method and for the
+hexagonal method.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="number of trees required per acre">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">Sq.</td>
+  <td class="tdr">Hex.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">Sq.</td>
+  <td class="tdr">Hex.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="15%">12 &times; 12</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="10%">302</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="10%">344</td>
+  <td class="tdl" width="20%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl" width="15%">24 &times; 24</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="10%">75</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="10%">80</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">12 &times; 15</td>
+  <td class="tdr">242</td>
+  <td class="tdr">...</td>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">24 &times; 30</td>
+  <td class="tdr">60</td>
+  <td class="tdr">..</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">15 &times; 15</td>
+  <td class="tdr">193</td>
+  <td class="tdr">224</td>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">30 &times; 30</td>
+  <td class="tdr">48</td>
+  <td class="tdr">56</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">15 &times; 18</td>
+  <td class="tdr">161</td>
+  <td class="tdr">...</td>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">30 &times; 36</td>
+  <td class="tdr">40</td>
+  <td class="tdr">..</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">15 &times; 20</td>
+  <td class="tdr">145</td>
+  <td class="tdr">...</td>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">33 &times; 33</td>
+  <td class="tdr">40</td>
+  <td class="tdr">46</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">15 &times; 30</td>
+  <td class="tdr">96</td>
+  <td class="tdr">...</td>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">30 &times; 48</td>
+  <td class="tdr">30</td>
+  <td class="tdr">..</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">18 &times; 18</td>
+  <td class="tdr">134</td>
+  <td class="tdr">156</td>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">30 &times; 60</td>
+  <td class="tdr">24</td>
+  <td class="tdr">..</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">18 &times; 20</td>
+  <td class="tdr">121</td>
+  <td class="tdr">...</td>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">36 &times; 36</td>
+  <td class="tdr">33</td>
+  <td class="tdr">39</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">20 &times; 20</td>
+  <td class="tdr">108</td>
+  <td class="tdr">124</td>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">40 &times; 40</td>
+  <td class="tdr">27</td>
+  <td class="tdr">31</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">20 &times; 30</td>
+  <td class="tdr">72</td>
+  <td class="tdr">...</td>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">40 &times; 50</td>
+  <td class="tdr">21</td>
+  <td class="tdr">..</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<p>It will be noted that the hexagonal plan allows the setting of from
+four to forty trees more per acre than the square plan, even when the
+trees are set the same distance apart. This is the great advantage of
+this plan over the square. Filling an orchard one way, <i>i.e.</i>, between
+the permanent row, in one direction only, practically doubles the
+trees which can be set on an acre; filling both ways quadruples the
+number.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span><span class="sc">Preparation of Soil.</span>&mdash;The previous condition and treatment of
+a soil for an orchard are important. If the soil has been in a good
+rotation of field crops, including some cultivated crops, it should be
+in prime condition for the trees. Old pastures and meadows should be
+plowed up, cropped, and cultivated for a year or two before setting to
+obtain the best and quickest results. If one is in a hurry, however,
+this may be done after setting the trees. Good results are sometimes
+obtained by setting trees right among the stumps on recently cleared
+timberland. Where no stiff sod has formed the trees start quickly in
+the rich soil.</p>
+
+<p>The best immediate treatment of land preparatory to setting the trees
+should be such as to place the soil in good tilth. Deep plowing,
+thorough cultivation, and the application of liberal amounts of
+manure&mdash;twelve to fifteen loads per acre&mdash;are the most effective means
+of doing this. The best crop immediately to precede trees is clover.
+Sometimes an application of one thousand five hundred to two thousand
+pounds of lime will help to insure a stand of clover and at the same
+time improve the physical condition of the soil. Fall plowing is a
+good practice on the medium loams and more <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>open soils, but on the
+heavy clays spring plowing is to be preferred, as when plowed in the
+fall these soils puddle and become hard to handle. Care should always
+be taken to keep the orchard well furrowed out as standing water is
+decidedly inimical to satisfactory tree-growth. Tile draining is
+frequently advisable.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Intercropping.</span>&mdash;The question of intercropping a young orchard
+is one to be carefully considered. As it is often practiced it is very
+injurious to the orchard, but it is possible to manage crops so as to
+be of very little harm to the trees. While the practice may be
+inadvisable in many commercial orchards, yet on a general farm we
+should by all means think that it was the right thing to do. Certain
+facts must be remembered, however, which have a bearing on the
+subject.</p>
+
+<p>Trees are a crop, as much as corn or grass. If we grow a crop between
+the tree rows we must remember that we are double cropping the land
+and that it must be fed and cared for accordingly. There is absolutely
+no use in setting an apple orchard, expecting it to take care of
+itself, "just growing," like Topsy, as numerous dilapidated and broken
+down orchards bear ample testimony. If orchards are to be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>cropped
+this must be judiciously done with the trees primarily in mind.</p>
+
+<p>The best crops to grow in a young apple orchard are those requiring
+cultivation, or which permit the cultivation of the land early in the
+season. Field beans, potatoes, and garden truck of all kinds, as small
+vegetables, melons, etc., are among the very best crops to grow in the
+young orchard. Corn will do if it does not shade the trees too much.
+Small grain and grass should not be used, especially where they come
+up close to the trees. These crops form too stiff a sod and use up too
+much moisture. A mulch of straw, cut grass, or coarse manure will help
+to correct this condition somewhat when these crops must be used.
+After cultivation until midsummer buckwheat makes a satisfactory
+orchard crop in some cases.</p>
+
+<p>A regular rotation may be used in the young orchard to advantage when
+a space is left next the trees to receive cultivation. This space
+should be at least two feet on each side of the tree the first year
+and should be widened each year as the tree grows older and larger, to
+four, six, and eight feet. This method has been used by the author
+very successfully for a number of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>years. Some good rotations to use
+in a growing orchard are: (1) Wheat or rye one year, clover one year,
+beans or potatoes one year; (2) oats one year, clover one year,
+potatoes one year; (3) beans one year, rye plowed under in spring,
+followed by any cultivated crop one or two years. The essentials of a
+good rotation for an orchard are: A humus and fertility supplying
+crop, preferably clover, in the north, and cow peas in the south, and
+at least two crops in four requiring cultivation up to the middle of
+the summer.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the points regarding the management of young trees have
+already been mentioned, but a few others should have attention
+directed to them. Fall planted trees should not be cut back until
+spring. In the spring all newly planted trees should have their tops
+cut back rather severely to correspond with the injury to the roots in
+transplanting, thus preserving the balance between root and top. This
+will usually be about half to two-thirds the previous season's growth.
+From three to five well distributed branches should be left with which
+to form the top. During the first few years of their lives the young
+apple trees will need little or no pruning, except <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>to shape them and
+remove crossing or interfering branches.</p>
+
+<p>Constant cultivation at frequent intervals until midsummer should be
+the rule with young growing trees, with which this is even more
+important than with older trees. It is a good plan to plow the orchard
+in fall where possible, always turning the furrows toward the trees,
+leaving the dead furrows as drainage ditches between the rows. At
+Beechwood Farm we have always banked the trees with earth in the fall,
+using a shovel. This not only firms the soil about the tree, holding
+it straight and strong through the winter, but it affords good
+protection against rodents, especially mice. Where rabbits are
+prevalent it is well to place a fine mesh wire netting around the
+trees in addition to this.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER IV<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>PRUNING THE TREES</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>Pruning is not an entirely artificial operation as one might at first
+thought suppose. It is one of nature's most common processes. Nature
+accomplishes this result through the principle of competition, by
+starting many more trees on a given area than can possibly survive. In
+the same way there is a surplus of buds and branches on each
+individual tree. It is only by the crowding out and the perishing of
+many buds, branches, and trees that others are enabled to reach
+maturity and fulfill their purpose. This being too slow and too
+expensive a process for him, man accomplishes in a day with the knife
+and saw what nature is years in doing by crowding, shading, and
+competition. Proper pruning is really an improvement on nature's
+method.</p>
+
+<p>Neither is it true, as some claim, that pruning is a devitalizing
+process. On the contrary it is often stimulating and may actually
+increase <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>the vigor of a weak or declining tree. All practical
+experience teaches us that pruning is a reasonable, necessary, and
+advantageous process. True, it is often overdone, and improperly done.
+As in many other things, certain fundamental principles underlie and
+should govern practice. When these are known and observed, pruning
+becomes a more simple matter.</p>
+
+<p>Heavy pruning during the dormant or winter season stimulates the
+growth and tends to increase the production of wood. In the same way
+pruning during the summer or growing season stimulates the growth and
+tends to induce fruitfulness, if the tree remains healthy. But this
+fruitfulness is apt to be at the expense of the vigor of the tree. On
+the other hand, the pruning of the roots of a tree tends to check the
+growth of wood, the same as poor feeding. As above noted heading back
+a tree when dormant tends to stimulate it to a more vigorous growth.</p>
+
+<p>The habit of growth of a variety has much to do with its pruning. Some
+varieties of apples are upright, others are spreading growers. Climate
+and locality greatly affect these habits of growth. So also the habit
+of a young tree <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>often differs from the habit of the same tree in old
+age. The tendency is for a tree to continue its growth from its
+uppermost or terminal buds. Although the heading in of new growth
+checks this upward tendency and throws the energy of the tree into the
+development of lateral and dormant buds, nevertheless the pruned tree
+soon resumes its natural upward growing habit.</p>
+
+<p>Plant food is taken up by the minute tree rootlets in solution and
+carried to the leaves where it is elaborated and then returned for use
+to the growing tissues of the tree. Whenever there is any obstruction
+above a bud the tendency is to throw the energy of the branch into a
+lateral bud, but if the obstruction is below the bud the branch merely
+thickens and growth is checked. When too heavy pruning is practiced
+the balance between the roots and top is disturbed. This usually
+results in what are commonly known as "suckers." These are caused by
+an abnormal condition and while they may be the result of disease or
+injury to the tree, they are often of great value in restoring or
+readjusting the proper balance between the roots and top.</p>
+
+<p>Pruning a tree is a way of thinning the fruit <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>and a good one. It may
+sometimes be used to influence the bearing year of trees like the
+Baldwin, which have an alternate bearing habit, but this is a more
+theoretical than practical method. Fruit bearing is determined more by
+the habitual performance of the tree than by any method of pruning,
+and this is especially true of old trees. It is easier to influence
+young trees. Conditions which tend to produce heavy wood growth are
+unfavorable for the formation and development of fruit buds. A
+quiescent state is a better condition for this.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Reasons for Pruning.</span>&mdash;With these fundamental principles in
+mind we may safely outline a method of pruning an apple tree. As the
+desired end is different so will the method of pruning a young tree
+differ from that of an old one. There are five important things for
+which to prune a young tree, namely:</p>
+
+<p>1. To preserve a proper balance between the top and root at the time
+of setting out. This usually means cutting off the broken and the very
+long roots to a reasonable length and cutting back from one-half to
+two-thirds of the growth of the previous season.</p>
+
+<p>2. To make the top open in order to admit the sunlight freely. In the
+humid climate of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>Northeastern States, it is usually advisable to
+prune a tree so as to have a rather open top. This is necessary in
+order properly to color and mature the fruit.</p>
+
+<p>3. To regulate the number of limbs composing the top. Probably three
+branches well distributed on the trunk would make most nearly the
+ideal head, but as these cannot always be obtained the best practice
+is to leave from three to five branches from which to form the top.</p>
+
+<p>4. To fix the branches at the proper height from the ground. This is
+more or less a matter of opinion, some growers preferring a low and
+others a high head. The character of the tree growth, the method of
+culture, and the purpose of the tree whether temporary or permanent
+greatly influence the height of the head. An upright growing variety
+should be headed lower than a spreading one. Trees kept in sod or
+under extensive methods can well be headed lower than those under more
+intensive culture where it is desirable to carry on cultural
+operations close around them. Permanent trees should be headed higher
+than temporary trees. Apple trees should seldom be headed lower than a
+foot from the ground, nor more than four feet above it. For upright
+growing <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>varieties intended as permanents, the writer prefers three to
+three and one-half feet and for more spreading varieties four feet;
+while for temporary trees eighteen inches should be a good height.</p>
+
+<p>5. To do away with weak crotches and to remove crossing or interfering
+branches. A crotch formed by two branches of equal size, especially
+when the split is deep, is a weak crotch and should be avoided. Strong
+crotches are formed by forcing the development of lateral buds and
+making almost a right angle branch from the parent one. All branches
+which rub each other, which tend to occupy the same space with
+another, or which generally seem out of place, are better removed as
+soon as any of these tendencies are found to exist.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Ideals in Pruning.</span>&mdash;The general method of pruning the old
+trees and the ideal in mind for it will also influence the pruning of
+the young tree, especially the shaping of it. Once determined upon,
+the ideal should be consistently followed out in the pruning of the
+tree as it becomes older. As the tree comes to bearing age it will be
+necessary to prune somewhat <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>differently and for other purposes. These
+we can conveniently consider under six heads:</p>
+
+<p>1. Every tree should be pruned with a definite ideal as to size,
+shape, and degree of openness in mind. To have such an ideal is very
+important. It is only by industriously and consistently carrying it
+out that the ideal tree in these respects can be ever obtained.
+Haphazard cutting and sawing without a definite purpose in mind are
+really worse than no pruning at all.</p>
+
+<p>2. It almost goes without saying that to remove all dead, diseased, or
+injured wood is a prime purpose of pruning. Dead and injured branches
+open the way for rot and decay of contiguous branches, and disease
+spreads through the tree. The removal of all such branches is as
+essential to the health of the tree as it is to its good appearance.
+In removing them the cut should be made well behind the diseased or
+injured part to insure the checking of rot and disease.</p>
+
+<p>3. All mature apple trees should be so pruned as to keep them in the
+most easily manageable shape and to facilitate in every possible way
+the operations of tillage, spraying, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>and harvesting. It is most
+important to have the tree low enough down so that spraying and
+picking can be easily done. It is difficult to spray properly a tree
+which is more than twenty-five feet in height. Even this height
+necessitates a tower on the spray rig and the use of an extension
+pole. An apple tree should be so pruned that all the fruit can be
+readily picked from ladders not longer than eighteen to twenty-two
+feet.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, if the tree has been allowed to get higher than this under
+previous management, sometimes we have to make the best of a bad
+situation. If the trees are too high head them back by cutting off the
+leaders, but it is not always wise to lower all trees to twenty-two
+feet. Heading back of old trees will be more fully discussed in the
+chapter on "Renovating Old Orchards." Ladders longer than twenty-two
+feet are heavy and clumsy to handle.</p>
+
+<p>If cultivation is to be carried on close up under the tree the lower
+limbs must be pruned so as to allow this. It is not necessary,
+however, to drive a team closer than twelve or fifteen feet from a
+mature tree, contrary to the common belief and practice. Cultivation
+is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>least important in the first few feet of space around a mature
+tree. By the use of set-over tools, all that is necessary can be well
+cultivated without crowding the team under or against the branches.</p>
+
+<p>4. As has been pointed out in the discussion of the pruning of young
+trees, in humid regions where the sunlight is none too abundant
+through the growing season, the open head is most desirable. Sunlight
+on the leaves as well as on the fruit is essential to good color of
+the fruit, and good color is a very important factor in the flavor and
+attractive appearance of the fruit. An open center with upright
+growing leaders removed gives the greatest opportunity for sunlight to
+penetrate through the tree.</p>
+
+<p>5. As we have seen, pruning in the dormant season tends to increase
+the vigor of the tree. Thus winter pruning serves to secure a normal
+and vigorous wood growth, which is most essential to a healthy
+fruit-bearing tree. On the other hand, such pruning may be excessive
+and produce wood growth at the expense of fruit buds, throwing the
+tree out of bearing.</p>
+
+<p>6. The sixth and last reason for pruning is to regulate the number and
+distribution of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>wood and the fruit bearing buds. The proper
+balance between these is greatly affected by pruning and can be best
+regulated by experience with the particular tree or variety. A perfect
+balance is hard to get, but with study and skill it can be closely
+approximated. Pruning, too, may thin the fruit, as removing branches
+removes fruit buds. This is best done by removing small branches near
+the ends of larger ones. It is a much cheaper method of thinning than
+picking off individual fruits, but not as effective.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Time of Pruning.</span>&mdash;The particular time of the year for pruning
+is not vital. As between summer and winter pruning, winter is to be
+preferred because of the physical effect on the tree. Summer pruning
+is an unnatural process and should only be practiced as a last resort
+to check growth or induce fruitfulness, as it may result in injury to
+the tree. It is essential that a tree mature its foliage, which it
+frequently does not do after summer pruning. Diseased, dead, or
+injured wood should be removed when first observed, summer or winter.</p>
+
+<p>Spring is the logical and usually the most convenient time to prune on
+the general farm. While dormant season pruning may be done <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>at any
+time between November 1st and June 1st, the cuts heal more rapidly in
+the spring when the sap begins to flow. In regions subject to severe
+and drying winds in the winter, pruning should be deferred at least to
+late winter. Considered from every standpoint, March and April are
+quite the best months in which to prune. After the removal of useless
+branches, the normal amount of food material is delivered to fewer
+buds under greater sap pressure and the remaining buds are made more
+strong and vigorous.</p>
+
+<p>In removing small branches with a knife or other cutting tool, the cut
+should be made upward from below and opposite a bud. On upright
+growing varieties the last bud left should be an outside one to induce
+the tree to spread as much as possible, while on spreading trees
+leaving as the last bud an inside one has a tendency to make the tree
+grow more upright. Always cut close to the parent branch, never
+leaving a stub no matter how young or old the tree.</p>
+
+<p>Cuts of lateral branches should be made just at the shoulder of the
+branch where it joins the parent. A cut behind the shoulder will not
+heal, neither will one too far ahead of it. A <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>stub left on a trunk or
+large branch does not heal, but soon begins to rot at the end where
+the heartwood is exposed. This gradually works back into the main
+branch and the tree finally becomes "rotten at the heart." All that is
+needed to complete the destruction is a heavy wind, an ice or a snow
+storm, or a heavy load of fruit.</p>
+
+<p>All wounds more than two inches in diameter should be painted either
+with a heavy lead paint, which is preferable, or with some gas tar
+preparation. These things do not in themselves heal a cut, but they
+keep out the decaying elements, air and moisture, thus helping to
+preserve the branch and by protecting it to promote healing in
+nature's way. A little lamp black will serve to deaden the color of
+the paint.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Pruning Tools.</span>&mdash;The best tool to use in pruning is one which
+brings you nearest to your work and over which you have the greatest
+control to make all kinds of cuts. In the writer's experience no tool
+does this so smoothly and conveniently as a properly shaped saw. A
+good saw should be quite rigid, rather heavy at the butt, where its
+depth should be about six inches, tapering down to about two inches at
+the point. It should have a full, firm grip, be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>not more than thirty
+inches long, and should always be kept sharp. Two-edged saws should
+not be used because of the injury done to the tree when sawing in
+crotches.</p>
+
+<p>Cutting shears are often very useful, especially the smaller,
+one-handed type which is almost indispensable in pruning young trees.
+The larger, two-handled shears are useful in thinning out the ends of
+branches or in heading back new growth. They should not be too heavy,
+as they are tiresome to use. The extension handled types are too
+cumbersome, too slow to work with, and the operator is of necessity
+too far away from his work for the best results.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Fruit Thinning.</span>&mdash;A matter which is quite nearly related to
+pruning is thinning the fruit, and may properly be treated here. That
+this is not as common a practice with most fruit-growers as it should
+be, the great lack of uniformity in our ordinary market apples is
+ample evidence. Many persons will at once raise the question as to
+whether or not it is practicable to thin the fruit on large apple
+trees. The answer is that many growers find it not only practicable,
+but most profitable to do so. Wherever fruit of a uniform size and
+color <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>is desired, thinning is a practical necessity, especially when
+the crop of fruit is heavy.</p>
+
+<p>The proper time to thin the fruit is just after what is commonly known
+as the "June drop," <i>i.e.</i>, the falling off of those fruits not well
+enough pollinated or set to hold on to maturity. In thinning the fruit
+should be taken off until they are not closer than from four to six
+inches apart on the same branch, although the distance apart on any
+branch will depend somewhat on the amount of the crop on other parts
+of the tree. Never leave clusters of fruit on any branches, as some of
+them are sure to be small and out of shape. Furthermore two apples
+lying together afford a fine place for worms to get from one apple to
+another and they seldom fail to improve the opportunity. Step ladders
+and ordinary rung ladders are used to get at the fruit for thinning.
+The cost of the operation is not nearly as large as might appear at
+first thought and in practically all cases is a paying investment.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER V<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>CULTIVATION AND COVER CROPPING</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>In its broad sense cultivation is the treatment of the soil. Thus
+understood orchard cultivation includes the sod mulch system as well
+as the stirring of the soil with various implements. In its more
+common and restricted meaning, however, cultivation is the stirring of
+the soil about plants to encourage growth and productivity. To have
+the apple tree in sod was once the commonly accepted method of orchard
+treatment&mdash;a method of neglect and of "letting well enough alone."
+With the advent of more scientific apple culture the stirring of the
+soil has come to be the more popular method. But within the last few
+years an improved modification of the old sod method, known as the sod
+"mulch" system, has attracted much attention because of the success
+with which a few men have practiced it. For a correct understanding of
+these practices and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>of the relative desirability of these systems we
+must again turn to underlying principles and purposes.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said on first thought that tillage is a practice contrary to
+nature. But it accomplishes what nature does in another way. Tillage
+has been practiced on other crops than trees for so long that we think
+of it almost as a custom. There are, however, scientific and practical
+reasons for tillage.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">The Effects of Tillage</span> on the soil are three fold, physical,
+chemical, and increasing of water holding capacity. Tillage affects
+the soil physically by fining and deepening it, thus increasing the
+feeding area of roots, and by bringing about the more free admission
+of air warms and dries the soil, thus reducing extremes of temperature
+and moisture. Chemical activities are augmented by tillage in setting
+free plant food, promoting nutrification, hastening the decomposition
+of organic matter, and the extending of these agencies to greater
+depth. Tillage conserves moisture by increasing the water holding
+capacity of the soil and by checking evaporation.</p>
+
+<p>Of all these things which tillage accomplishes in a soil, two should
+be especially emphasized <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>for the apple orchard, namely, soil moisture
+and soil texture. That moisture is a very important consideration in
+the apple orchard the effects of our frequent droughts are ample
+evidence. The amount of rainfall in the Eastern States when it is
+properly distributed is fully sufficient for the needs of an apple
+tree. By enlarging the reservoir or water holding capacity of the soil
+and by preventing the loss of water by evaporation, an excess of
+rainfall in the spring may be held for later distribution and use.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, the improvement of a poor soil texture is as effective as
+the supplying of plant food and much cheaper. The latter is of no
+consequence unless the plant can use it. Scientists tell us that there
+is an abundance of plant food in most soils. The problem is to make it
+available. Plant food must be in solution and in the form of a film
+moisture surrounding the smallest soil particles in order to be
+available to the fine plant rootlets which seek it. Good tillage
+supplies these conditions. Can they be obtained equally well in
+another way?</p>
+
+<p>It is claimed by the advocates of the sod mulch system of orchard
+culture that it also supplies these conditions. Humus or decayed
+vegetable matter holds moisture. Grass or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>other mulch decaying in the
+soil increases its humus content and hence its water holding capacity.
+By forming a mulch over the soil evaporation may be checked to some
+extent, although probably not as effectively in a practical way, as by
+cultivation. If there is a good grass sod in the orchard, moisture and
+plant food made available by that moisture are utilized, and if the
+grass is allowed to go back into the soil it continues to furnish
+these elements to the tree. But there is a rapid evaporation of
+moisture from the surface of the leaves of grass. In fact, grass may
+well serve to remove an excess of moisture in wet seasons, or from wet
+lands.</p>
+
+<p>Laying aside theoretical considerations, let us see what practical
+experience teaches on this subject. We have the accurate data on a
+large number of western New York orchards showing the results of
+cultivation and other methods of soil management. These data are
+overwhelmingly in the favor of cultivation. In Wayne County the
+average yield of orchards tilled for five years or more was 271
+bushels per acre, as compared with 200 bushels per acre for those in
+sod five years or more but otherwise well cared for,&mdash;an increase of
+thirty-five per <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>cent. in favor of good tillage. In Orleans County,
+under the same conditions, the increase in yield due to cultivation
+was forty-five per cent. and in Niagara County it was twenty-two per
+cent. Records were made on hundreds of orchards and the results should
+be given great weight in determining the system to be practiced, as
+intelligent consideration of trustworthy records is to be encouraged.</p>
+
+<p>These results were obtained in one region under its conditions and it
+is quite possible, although not probable, that other conditions might
+give different results. There are, however, special conditions as will
+be pointed out later, under which the sod mulch method might be more
+advisable than tillage. It is cheaper, makes a cleaner cover for the
+drop fruit, avoids the damage from tillage implements to which tilled
+trees are liable, and can be practiced on lands too steep to till. It
+often happens, too, that it fits into the scheme of management on a
+general farm better than the more intensive and specialized system of
+cultivation. And it must be remembered that we are dealing with this
+question from the point of view of the home farm rather than of the
+commercial orchardist. So that where the sod mulch gives equally good
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>results it would be preferred under these conditions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Late Fall and Early Spring Plowing.</span>&mdash;The common tillage
+practice in the sections where it is most followed is to plow either
+in late fall or as early as possible in the spring. Whether fall or
+spring plowing is best depends on two things: the character of the
+soil and convenience. On heavy clay soils where drainage is poor it is
+not advisable to plow in the fall as the soil is apt to puddle and
+then to bake when it dries, making it hard to handle. On gravel loams,
+medium loams, and all well drained soils which are fairly open in
+texture either fall or spring plowing is practiced depending on which
+period affords the most time.</p>
+
+<p>On the general farm where there are several crops for which the land
+must be prepared in spring, it would seem best to get as much of the
+plowing as possible done in the fall. But a large crop of apples or a
+large and late corn husking or potato digging may interfere with this
+on some farms and make spring plowing more desirable. Always plan this
+work in connection with the other farm work so as to give the best
+distribution of labor.</p>
+
+<p>After fall plowing either the spring-tooth <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>harrow or the disk harrow
+is best to use to work up the soil and no time should be lost in
+getting at this as soon as the land is dry enough in the spring.
+Sometimes the disk harrow can be used to work up the soil in the
+orchard in the spring without any plowing at all, especially on loose
+loams where there are few stones. But on newly plowed land a disk cuts
+too deep and there is too great danger of injuring the roots. On
+spring plowed land the spring-tooth harrow usually gives the best
+results. After the soil is thoroughly fined and worked into a mellow
+bed and as soon as the period of excessive moisture in spring is
+passed, a lighter implement like the smoothing harrow or a light
+shallow digging cultivator should be used to stir the surface of the
+soil only.</p>
+
+<p>The growing period for an apple tree begins as early as growth starts
+in the spring and continues up to about midsummer. If cultivation is
+to stimulate growth as much as possible, it should be done during this
+period. The first object of cultivation in the early spring is to
+loosen up, aerate, and dry out the soil, which is usually too wet at
+that time. As cultivation is continued the soil will become fined and
+firmed again by the time drier weather <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>comes on. A fairly deep
+digging and lump crushing tool is the best implement to use up to this
+time, and a disk or spring-tooth harrow meets these requirements.</p>
+
+<p>After this period is passed and during drier weather, cultivation is
+carried on for a different purpose, namely, to conserve moisture by
+making a thin dust mulch of soil over the surface. This is best
+accomplished by shallow-going implements of which the spike-tooth
+harrow, the acme harrow, or a light wheel cultivator are best. As the
+season and the amount of rainfall vary, so must tillage operations be
+varied. In an early dry season begin with the lighter implements
+earlier. In a late wet season keep the digging tools at work later. As
+soon as the soil is in good physical condition the principal object of
+tillage is to modify moisture conditions.</p>
+
+<p>As a matter of practice three to four harrowings at intervals of a
+week to ten days are necessary. Sometimes more, sometimes less are
+required, according to the character and condition of the soil and the
+season. The later moisture-conserving tillage should also be carried
+on every week or ten days, according to weather conditions. It is good
+practice to stir <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>the soil after every heavy or moderately heavy rain.
+Use the smoothing tools after light to medium rains and the heavier
+tools after packing or beating rains. In practice from five to eight
+or ten of these cultivations are necessary. The drier the season the
+more necessary does frequent cultivation become.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">A Cover Crop</span> is so closely associated with tillage that it is
+usually considered a part of the system. It should be sown in
+midsummer as soon as tillage ceases. This time will vary from July
+first to August fifteenth, depending on the locality, the rainfall,
+the crop of fruit on the trees, and on how favorable the conditions
+for securing a good stand of the cover crop are. The farther south the
+locality, or the earlier the fruit, the sooner the crop should be
+sown. Absence of sufficient rainfall necessitates a continuation of
+the cultivation, both because it is necessary to conserve all the
+moisture possible and because it is difficult to get a good stand of a
+cover crop&mdash;especially of one having small seeds&mdash;at a dry time in
+midsummer.</p>
+
+<p>In a year when there is a full crop of fruit on the trees cultivation
+should be continued as late as possible as all the stimulus that can
+thus be secured will be necessary to help the fruit <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>attain good size
+and maturity, and at the same time enable the tree properly to mature
+its fruit and leaf buds for the following year. On the other hand, in
+a year when there is not a full crop of fruit cultivation should be
+stopped early so as to avoid forcing a too rank growth of wood and
+foliage and continuing the growth of the next season's buds so late
+that they may not mature and therefore may be in danger of winter
+killing.</p>
+
+<p>The different kinds of cover crops which may be used in the apple
+orchard will be considered in the next chapter as they are so closely
+associated with fertilization. Strictly speaking, however, a cover
+crop is used principally to secure its mulching and physical effects
+on the soil in the intervals between the seasons of tillage. In
+addition to its physical and feeding effects the cover crop serves to
+check the growth of trees in the latter part of the season by taking
+up the nitrates and a part of the moisture, thus helping to ripen the
+wood.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Sod Mulch.</span>&mdash;The ordinary sod culture which is practiced in so
+many orchards should not be confused with the sod mulch system. The
+one is a system of neglect, the other of intention. In the sod mulch
+system the grass <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>sod is stimulated and encouraged and when the grass
+dies or is cut, it is left on the ground to decay, forming a soil
+mulch meanwhile. The removal of grass from the orchard as hay is poor
+practice and should be discouraged. The grass mulch may well be
+supplemented by the addition of other grass, straw, leaves, coarse
+manure, or other similar materials. Sometimes this mulch is put on to
+the depth of six inches or even a foot around the tree. Thus practiced
+it is very effective in conserving moisture and in adding the humus
+which is so necessary to the soil.</p>
+
+<p>Sod and tillage have somewhat different effects on the tree and on the
+fruit. Let us see what these effects are. It is common knowledge that
+fruit is more highly colored when grown in sod than when grown under a
+tillage system. This is probably largely due to the fact that tillage
+keeps the fruit growing so late that it does not mature so well or so
+early. Fruit is usually two or three weeks later in tilled than in sod
+orchards. It has been shown that fruit grown under tillage keeps from
+two to four weeks longer than that grown in sod. It is claimed
+also&mdash;but this is a disputed point&mdash;that tilled fruit has a better
+quality and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>flavor. Certain it is that fruit grown in sod is drier
+and less crisp and juicy.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of tillage on the trees is more marked and better known.
+Tilled trees have a darker, richer green foliage, indicating a better
+and more vigorous health. The leaves are also larger and more
+numerous. They come out three or four days earlier in the spring and
+stay on the trees two weeks later in the fall than the leaves on trees
+kept in sod. Tilled trees make nearly twice the growth in a season
+that those in sod do, in fact there is danger of their making wood
+growth at the expense of fruit buds. Tillage also gives a deeper,
+better distributed root system.</p>
+
+<p>Despite the advantages and the disadvantages of each system, there are
+times, places, and circumstances under which one is more advisable
+than the other. On lands rich in humus and in plant food and level so
+as to be easily tillable, cultivation is without doubt the best
+system. But it should be practiced in connection with cover crops, and
+the orchard should be given occasional periods of rest in sod&mdash;say one
+year in from three to five.</p>
+
+<p>The sod mulch system of orchard culture is probably better adapted to
+rather wet good <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>grass land and where mulching material is cheap and
+readily available. It is undoubtedly at its best on lands too steep or
+rough to till, or otherwise unsuitable to cultivation. Tillage is the
+more intensive method and where labor is scarce and high sod culture
+might be more advisable for this reason, other conditions being not
+too unfavorable.</p>
+
+<p>In order to illustrate a method of management under the tillage system
+we may suggest the following as a good one for level to gently rolling
+land:</p>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang">1912. Early plowing in spring, cultivation to July first to
+fifteenth. Then sow red clover as a cover crop.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">1913. Repeat previous year's treatment, varying the time of
+sowing cover crop according to conditions.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">1914. Let the clover grow, mowing and leaving on the ground as a
+mulch, June fifteenth to twentieth, and again in August.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">1915. Plow early in spring, cultivate to midsummer, and then sow
+rye or buckwheat as a cover crop July fifteenth to August
+fifteenth.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>1916. Repeat 1915 treatment and if trees are not growing too
+fast, sow clover or hairy vetch as a cover crop.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">1917. Same as 1912, etc.</p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><span class="sc">Pasturing the Orchard.</span>&mdash;The sod mulch system explains itself
+and does not need illustration. Sod orchards are often managed as
+pasture for animals, however, and this practice should be discussed.
+An orchard is considered as pastured when a considerable number of
+animals are turned into it for a greater or less portion of the year.
+Results in orchards where pasturage has been thoroughly tried out show
+that it is never advisable to pasture an orchard with horses or
+cattle, but that fairly good results may be expected where sheep or
+hogs are used.</p>
+
+<p>The evidence of yield of fruit and appearance of trees both indicate,
+that pasturing an orchard with horses or cattle is about the worst
+possible practice. These animals rub against the trees, break the
+branches, browse the limbs and leaves, and destroy the fruit as high
+as they can reach. All experience is against this practice which
+cannot be too strongly deprecated.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>Pasturing an orchard with sheep, although a somewhat doubtful
+practice, often gives good results. Sheep crop the grass close to the
+ground and to some extent prevent the extensive evaporation which
+usually takes place from the leaves of grass. Their well distributed
+manure is worth considerable. They also browse the branches to some
+extent and should not be allowed to run in the orchard late in the
+season as they will destroy considerable fruit.</p>
+
+<p>Pasturing an orchard with swine gives better results than any other
+pasture treatment of the orchard. Hogs do considerable rooting which
+prevents the formation of a stiff sod and itself may often amount
+almost to cultivation in well stocked orchards. A good deal of manure
+is added to the soil, especially when the hogs are fed outside the
+orchard. Hogs also destroy many insects by eating the wormy fruit.</p>
+
+<p>Pasturage of orchards has its advantages. It gives a double
+utilization of the land. It is a cheap method of management. When the
+animals are fed outside the orchard, as should always be the case, it
+adds considerable plant food to the soil. When plenty of outside food
+can be given and when the orchard is not <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>overstocked&mdash;the animals
+should never be hungry&mdash;hogs and sheep may be used to advantage in
+pasturing orchards. In very rough fields incapable of tillage, this is
+undoubtedly the very best system of orchard management.</p>
+
+<p>Pasturage has the disadvantage of exposing young trees to injury from
+the animals, but this may be at least partly avoided by protecting
+them with stakes or a heavy wire meshed screen. Hogs especially soil
+the fruit and make the land rough and difficult to drive over. Under
+the proper conditions pasturage may be practiced to advantage,
+especially on small areas and on the general farm where it is more
+advantageous than it would be commercially.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER VI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>MANURING AND FERTILIZING</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>Cover crops may be said to be supplementary to tillage. In the
+previous chapter this function has been discussed. It now remains to
+point out another important function&mdash;that of a green manure crop
+adding humus and plant food to the soil. Not only do some cover crops
+add plant food and all humus to the soil, but they tend to conserve
+these by preventing leaching, especially of nitrates, and they help to
+render plant food more available by reworking it and leaving it in a
+form more available for the tree. They sometimes act as a protection
+against winter injury by holding snow and by their own bulk. They also
+help to dry out the soil in spring, thus making the land tillable
+earlier.</p>
+
+<p>There are two great classes of cover or green manure crops, leguminous
+and non-leguminous. A non-leguminous crop merely adds humus and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>improves the physical condition of the soil. In itself it adds no
+plant food, although it may take up, utilize, and leave behind plant
+food in a more available form for the tree's use. But in addition to
+these benefits, leguminous crops actually add to the soil plant food
+in the form of nitrogen which they have the ability to assimilate from
+the air by means of bacterial organisms on their roots.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Non-Leguminous Crops.</span>&mdash;The most important of the
+non-leguminous crops are rye, buckwheat, turnips or rape, barley,
+oats, and millet. The first mentioned are the most commonly used. Also
+in order of importance the following are the usual leguminous cover
+and green manure crops to be used: clovers, winter vetch, soy beans,
+alfalfa, cow peas (first in the South). In order to determine the
+relative advisability of the use of these various crops let us now
+look at some of their characteristics and requirements.</p>
+
+<p>Rye is one of the best non-leguminous cover crops, especially in the
+young orchard, as it does not grow as well in shade as in the open. A
+particularly strong point about rye is that it grows rapidly quite
+late in the fall and starts early in the spring. Starting earlier than
+most <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>crops in the spring, it makes a considerable amount of growth
+before the land is fit to plow. Especially in warmer climates rye
+should not be sown too early in the fall&mdash;not usually before September
+1st&mdash;because of this too heavy growth. Rye is also adapted to a great
+variety of soils and hence will often grow where other crops will not
+do well. About two bushels of seed are required per acre.</p>
+
+<p>Buckwheat is probably about equally as good as rye for an orchard
+cover crop, although it does not produce quite as much organic matter.
+It will germinate at almost any season of the year even if it is very
+dry. It is a great soil improver because of its ability to feed and
+thrive on soils too poor for other crops, due to its numerous shallow
+feeding rootlets. It grows rapidly and covers the ground well, but
+like rye does not thrive as well in shade. Buckwheat should not be
+used to excess on the heavier types of soil as it is rather hard on
+the land. One bushel of seed to an acre makes a good seeding.</p>
+
+<p>Turnips or rape often make good pioneer cover or green manure crops.
+They are great soil improvement crops and it is comparatively easy to
+secure a good stand of them even in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>dry weather. Sown in late July in
+the North they will produce a great bulk of humus and add much
+moisture to the soil, especially if they cover the ground well. Their
+broad, abundant leaves and high tops also hold the snow well in
+winter. Cow Horn is the best variety of turnips to use, as it is a
+large, rank grower. Use one to two pounds of seed to the acre. Rape
+makes an excellent pasture crop in an orchard both for sheep and hogs,
+but especially for the former. Eight or nine pounds of seed are
+necessary to the acre.</p>
+
+<p>Barley, oats, and millet are not as good crops as the foregoing,
+because, with the possible exception of millet, they make their best
+growth early in the season. Moreover they take up too much moisture
+from the soil at a time when the tree most needs this moisture. In
+fact they are sometimes used for this specific purpose on wet land in
+too wet seasons. Two to two and one half bushels of oats or barley and
+one to one and one half bushels of millet to the acre are necessary
+for a good seeding.</p>
+
+<p>Although weeds can hardly be classified as cover crops, they are often
+valuable ones. They grow rapidly and rank, making a large bulk of
+humus, without the expense of seeding. If <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>they are not allowed to go
+to seed so as to scatter the seed about the farm, they often make the
+best of cover crops. This necessitates a mowing in September. Weeds
+are plants out of place, and when these plants are in place they are
+not necessarily weeds, as they have then become serviceable.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Legumes.</span>&mdash;In general, legumes are more valuable as cover and
+green manure crops than non-leguminous plants, because as a rule they
+are more rank growers and more deeply rooted, as well as because they
+add nitrogen to the soil. But it is rather more difficult to secure a
+good stand of most legumes than it is of the crops previously
+mentioned for several reasons. As a rule the seeds are smaller and a
+large seed usually has greater germinating power than a small one.
+This often means much at the time of the year when the cover crop is
+sown. Then legumes are more difficult to grow, requiring better soil
+conditions. Still these should be present in good orchard soils.
+Drainage must be good, the soil must be at least average in fertility
+and physical condition, it must not be sour&mdash;hence it is often
+necessary to use lime&mdash;and soils frequently require inoculation before
+they will grow legumes satisfactorily.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>Where the clovers grow well they make excellent cover crops as well as
+green manure crops. The chief difficulty with them is that of
+obtaining a good stand in a dry midsummer. The mammoth red and the
+medium red clovers are probably the best of their genus on the heavier
+soils, while crimson clover is best on sandy soils and where it will
+grow, on the lighter gravel loams. The latter is especially well
+adapted to building up run down sandy soils. Although it is somewhat
+easier to secure a stand of this clover, alsike does not grow rank
+enough to make a good cover or green manure crop. Most clovers are
+deep rooted plants and therefore great soil improvers physically as
+well as being great nitrogen gatherers. The amounts of seed required
+per acre for the different kinds are about as follows: mammoth fifteen
+to twenty pounds; red (medium) twelve to fifteen pounds; crimson
+twelve to fifteen pounds; and alsike ten to twelve pounds.</p>
+
+<p>Where it can be readily and successfully grown alfalfa is really a
+better cover and green manure crop than the clovers. It is deeper
+rooted, makes a better top growth, and therefore adds more nitrogen
+and more humus to the soil than the clovers. It cannot <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>be recommended
+for common use, however, as it is so difficult to grow except under
+favorable conditions. It requires a more fertile soil than clover, a
+soil with little or no acidity, good drainage, and usually the soil
+must be inoculated. Only where these conditions prevail can alfalfa be
+generally recommended.</p>
+
+<p>Vetch is an excellent cover and green manure crop, forming a thick,
+close mat of herbage which makes a good cover for the soil. It is very
+quick to start growing and a rapid grower in the spring. It also adds
+larger quantities of nitrogen. The hairy or winter vetch lives through
+the hard freezing winters. Summer vetch, although an equally good
+grower, is killed by freezing. One bushel of seed is required per acre
+and the seed is expensive, which is the greatest objection to the use
+of this excellent crop.</p>
+
+<p>Two other less well known and used leguminous crops are well worth
+trial as cover crops&mdash;soy beans in the North and cow peas in the
+South. Both are great nitrogen gatherers and as they are rank and
+rapid growers add large quantities of humus to the soil. Under
+favorable conditions they will cover the ground with a perfect mat of
+vegetation in a very short time. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>Being larger seeded, it is
+considerably easier to obtain a stand on dry soils and in dry seasons
+than it is of the smaller seeded clovers. It is usually best to sow in
+drills the ordinary width, seven inches, apart.</p>
+
+<p>Cow peas are universally used as a cover and green manure crop in the
+South, but they do not thrive so well in the North. One and one half
+to two bushels of seed are required per acre. In the North the earlier
+maturing varieties of soy beans are almost equally good. One to one
+and one half bushels of seed are sown per acre.</p>
+
+<p>Leguminous cover crops are also the best and the cheapest source of
+nitrogen for the apple orchard, after they are well established. Their
+use may be overdone, however. Too much nitrogen results in a growth of
+wood at the expense of fruit buds. To avoid this it is often advisable
+to use non-leguminous and leguminous crops alternately, when the
+orchard is making a satisfactory growth. Sometimes also these two
+kinds of crops, as buckwheat and clover for example, may be combined
+with good results. When this is done one half the usual amount of seed
+of each should be used.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Early Plowing.</span>&mdash;Many people make the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>common mistake of
+thinking that a green manure crop must be allowed to grow until late
+in June in order to secure the maximum amount of growth. There are
+several reasons why this is not good practice. In the first place
+cultivation is most essential in the early spring as has been pointed
+out. Then moisture is better conserved by plowing under the crop early
+and a better physical condition of the soil secured. Plowing early in
+the spring warms up the soil and sets plants to work more quickly.
+Lastly, material rots much more quickly in the early spring when
+moisture is more abundant, which is very important.</p>
+
+<p>An apple tree is as much a crop as anything grown on the farm and must
+be so regarded by those who would become successful orchardists. When
+it is not properly fed and cared for, good yields of fruit may not
+justly be expected. Especially is this true of an orchard which is
+being intercropped. But because of the fact that an apple tree is not
+an annual crop but the product of many years' growth, because its root
+system is deeper and more widely spread out than those of other crops,
+and because the amount of plant food removed in a crop of fruit is
+comparatively small, fertilization is less <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>important than many
+persons would have us think. It is a fact that where orchards receive
+good cultivation and a liberal supply of humus commercial fertilizers
+give but medium results.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Elements of Fertility.</span>&mdash;Three elements are necessary for the
+growth of apple trees, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. To these
+lime may be added, although its benefit is indirect rather than direct
+as a plant food. How badly any of these elements may be needed depends
+on the soil, its previous treatment, and on the system of management.
+By learning what are the effects of these elements on the tree and
+fruit we may determine under what conditions, if any, their use is
+advisable.</p>
+
+<p>Nitrogen promotes the growth of new wood and leaves, giving the latter
+a dark green color. In fact the color of the leaves and the amount of
+the wood growth are usually good indicators of the need of nitrogen.
+Nitrogen in excess develops over vigorous growth and prevents the
+maturity of wood and buds. It always has a tendency to delay the
+maturity of the fruit by keeping it growing late. On many varieties it
+tends to produce poorly colored fruits.</p>
+
+<p>When trees are making a normal amount of growth in a year&mdash;say a foot
+to three feet or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>more&mdash;and when the leaves are of good size and a
+dark green in color, there is little need of nitrogen. But when trees
+are not growing satisfactorily and the leaves have a sickly yellow
+color, then the need of nitrogen is evident. On early soils and in
+long growing seasons nitrogen may be more freely and safely used than
+under other conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of phosphoric acid and potash on the tree and fruit is much
+more uncertain. They are supposed to influence the quality and the
+flavor of the fruit, giving better color and flavor, and this they
+undoubtedly do to some extent. Potash probably gives the leaves a
+darker green color. The precise effect of these two elements is at
+present a subject of much discussion, one set of investigators
+maintaining after a long and careful investigation that these effects
+are too small to be worth while, and the other claiming that they have
+a marked effect in the ways above indicated. The only safe guide is
+the actual local result. If the fruit is satisfactory in every way it
+will be of little use to try fertilizers. On the other hand, if it is
+not, then it will pay to experiment with them. The needs of and the
+results on different soils are so variable that it is always wise to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>experiment on a small scale before using fertilizers extensively.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Stable Manure.</span>&mdash;The necessary plant food is best supplied by
+stable manure applied at the rate of ten loads per acre for a light
+application to twenty loads per acre for a heavy application. This
+amounts to a load for from two to five mature trees. Such an
+application will not only go far toward supplying the necessary
+nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, but especially if coarse will
+add considerable humus and improve the physical condition of the soil.</p>
+
+<p>Except on land which washes badly, manure should be applied in the
+fall and winter. It should not be piled near the trunk of the tree but
+spread uniformly over the entire surface of the ground. It is
+particularly important to spread the manure under and beyond the
+farthest extent of the branches as this is the most important feeding
+root area of the tree.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Commercial Fertilizers.</span>&mdash;Where manure is not available or
+where it cannot be applied in sufficient amounts, commercial
+fertilizers may be resorted to, after they have been experimentally
+tested out. Leguminous cover crops are the best source of nitrogen, as
+has been indicated, but where these do not grow well, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>or in seasons
+when they have for some reason failed, nitrate of soda or dried blood
+are good substitutes. From two hundred to three hundred pounds of one
+or the other of these may be applied broadcast in the spring soon
+after growth is well started and all danger of its being checked by
+frost or cold weather is past. It is well to apply the nitrate of soda
+in two applications a few weeks apart, especially on soils which are
+leachy and in wet seasons, as part of the nitrogen may leach away if
+all is applied at once. These should be thoroughly worked into the
+soil with a spring-tooth harrow.</p>
+
+<p>To supply the other two elements, from two hundred to four hundred
+pounds of treated rock phosphate or basic slag for the phosphoric
+acid, and the same amount of sulphate of potash for the potash, should
+be applied at any time in the early part of the season, preferably
+just before a light rain, and worked into the soil as before.
+Home-made wood ashes are a good source of both these elements, and
+especially of the potash. They cannot be purchased economically in any
+quantity, but on the general farm there could be no better way to
+utilize the wood ashes made around the place than by applying them two
+or three bushels to a full grown tree <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>every year or two. Wood ashes
+are also a good source of lime, being about one-third calcium oxide.
+Thus a large amount of available plant food will be supplied to the
+tree, and where it is needed should result not only in better wood
+growth but in the formation of vigorous leaf and fruit buds for the
+following year.</p>
+
+<p>Lime is not usually considered as a fertilizer except on soils
+actually deficient in it. But it will usually be advisable to apply
+from one thousand five hundred to two thousand pounds of fresh burned
+lime or its equivalent, in order to correct any natural soil acidity,
+to hasten the decay of organic material, to increase the activity of
+the soil bacteria, and to improve the physical condition of the soil
+by floculating the soil particles and helping to break up lumpy soils.
+Lime also helps to liberate plant food by recombining it with certain
+other elements in the soil. All these effects make a more congenial
+medium for the leguminous crops to grow in, and it is frequently
+advisable to use lime for this purpose alone. After this first heavy
+application about 800 pounds of lime should be applied per acre every
+four or five years.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER VII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>INSECTS AND DISEASES AFFECTING THE APPLE</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>It is a common saying among farmers who have grown apples on their
+farms for many years that there are many more pests to fight than
+there used to be. How often we have heard a farmer tell of the perfect
+apples that grew on a certain tree "when he was a boy," before people
+had generally heard of codling moth, San Jos&eacute; scale, apple scab, or
+other troubles now only too common. "We never sprayed, but the apples
+were fine," he says. Is this the usual glorification of the mythical
+past or is it true? In all probability it is a little of both, but it
+is undoubtedly true that insects and fungous diseases have increased
+rapidly of late years.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Reasons for Pest Increase.</span>&mdash;When there is an abundance of
+food and conditions are otherwise favorable, any animal or plant will
+thrive better than when the food supply is scarce and conditions
+unfavorable. As long as apple <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>trees were scattered and few in number
+there was not the opportunity for the development of apple pests, but
+as soon as they became numerous the prosperity of bugs and minute
+plant parasites was wonderful to see. Another factor which has been at
+least partly responsible for the great increase in our insect life is
+that man has upset nature's balance by destroying so many birds, and,
+by interfering with their natural surroundings, driven them away.
+Birds are great destroyers of insects, and their presence in the
+orchard should be encouraged in every possible way. Add to these facts
+the marvelous fecundity of the insect tribe, and the increase is less
+remarkable. Loss from these orchard pests has now run up into the
+millions. It has been estimated that the loss in the United States
+from wormy apples alone is over $11,000,000 annually. Thus has the
+necessity for fighting these enemies of good fruit arisen.</p>
+
+<p>In order successfully to combat an insect or a disease it is very
+necessary to have a somewhat detailed knowledge of its life history
+and to know its most vulnerable point of attack. It is impossible to
+work most intelligently and effectively without this knowledge, which
+should include the several stages of the insect or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>disease, the point
+of attack, the time of making it, and when and with what it can be
+most easily destroyed. The number of insects and diseases which affect
+the apple is so great that it is simply out of the question to treat
+them all in detail here. We have therefore selected nine insects and
+three diseases as those pests of the apple which are most common and
+whose effects are usually most serious. The essential facts in their
+life histories and their vulnerable points will now be pointed out.
+The method of study may be taken as applicable to any other pests
+which it may be necessary to combat.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Insect Pests.</span>&mdash;Of the many insects which affect either the
+tree or the fruit of the apple, the nine selected probably inflict the
+most damage and are the most difficult to control of all those in the
+Northeastern States. According to their method of attack all insects
+may be divided into two classes: biting and sucking. Biting insects
+are those which actually eat parts of the tree, as the leaves or
+fruit. These are combated by the use of stomach poisons as we shall
+see in the following chapter. Sucking insects are those which do not
+eat the tree or fruit directly, but by means of a tubelike proboscis
+suck the juices or sap from the limbs, leaves or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>fruit. Of the biting
+insects the five which we shall discuss are: (1) codling moth, (2)
+apple maggot, (3) bud moth, (4) cigar case bearer, (5) curculio. The
+four sucking insects discussed are: (6) San Jos&eacute; scale, (7) oyster
+shell scale, (8) blister mite, and (9) aphis or plant louse.</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">The Codling Moth</span>, the most insidious of all apple pests,
+is mainly responsible for wormy apples. The adult is a night flying
+moth with a wing expanse of from one-half to three-quarters of an
+inch. The moths appear about the time the apple trees are in bloom.
+Each female is supposed to lay about fifty eggs which are deposited on
+both the leaves and fruit, but mostly on the calyx end of the young
+apples. The eggs hatch in about a week and the young larvae or
+caterpillars begin at once to gnaw their way into the core of the
+fruit. Three-fourths of them enter the apple through its blow end.</p>
+
+<p>After twenty to thirty days of eating in the apple, during which time
+they become full grown and about three-quarters of an inch long, they
+leave the apple, usually through its side. The full grown caterpillar
+now secretes itself in the crevices in the bark of the tree or in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>rubbish beneath the tree and spins a tough but slight silken cocoon in
+which the pupal period is passed. This lasts about a fortnight, when
+the process is sometimes repeated, so that in the Eastern States there
+are often two broods each season.</p>
+
+<p>The most vulnerable point in the career of this little animal is when
+it is entering the fruit. If a fine poison spray covers the surface of
+the fruit, and especially if it covers the calyx end of the apple
+inside and out, when the young larvae begin to eat they will surely be
+killed. It is estimated that birds destroy eighty-five per cent. of
+the cocoons on the bark of trees.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Apple Maggot.</span>&mdash;It is fortunate that the apple maggot,
+often called the railroad worm because of its winding tunnels all
+through the fruit, is not as serious a pest as the codling moth for it
+is much more difficult to control with a poison. A two-winged fly
+appears in early summer and deposits her eggs in a puncture of the
+skin of the apple. In a few days the eggs hatch and the maggots begin
+to burrow indiscriminately through the fruit. The full grown larvae
+are a greenish white in color and about a quarter of an inch long.
+From the fruit this insect goes to the ground where the pupal stage
+is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>passed in the soil. The next summer the fly again emerges and lays
+its eggs.</p>
+
+<p>Spraying is not effective against this insect as the poison cannot be
+placed where it will be eaten by the maggots. The best known remedy is
+to destroy the fruit which drops to the ground and for this purpose
+hogs in the orchard are very effective. The distribution of this
+insect in the orchard is limited and it has shown a marked preference
+for summer and autumn varieties.</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="sc">The Bud Moth</span> closely resembles the codling moth in form
+and size, but differs from it in color and life history. The larvae,
+after hibernating through the winter, appear as little brown
+caterpillars about May first or as soon as the buds begin to open, and
+a week or two later begin their work of destruction. They inflict
+great damage on the young leaf and fruit buds by feeding on them. When
+full grown the larvae, cinnamon brown in color with a shining black
+head, are about one-half inch long. They then roll themselves up in a
+tube made from a leaf or parts of leaves securely fastened together
+with silken threads. In this cocoon pupation, which lasts about ten
+days, takes place. Early in June the moths appear. There is but <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>one
+brood in the North. These insects can be successfully combated with a
+poison spray applied early before the buds open.</p>
+
+<p>4. <span class="sc">The Cigar Case Bearer</span> winters in its case attached to a
+twig. When the buds begin to open in the spring it moves to them,
+carrying its case with it, and begins to feed on the young and tender
+buds. By the time the leaves are well open, it has fed a good deal on
+the tender buds and young leaves and is ready to make a new and larger
+case. This it does by cutting a leaf to suit and then rolling it up in
+the form of a cigar, whence its name. In this case the larvae continue
+feeding about a month, causing much injury to the leaves, although
+this is not as serious as the mutilation of the young buds in the
+spring, before the tree is fully leafed out.</p>
+
+<p>About the last of June pupation takes place and in about ten days the
+moth emerges. The eggs are then layed along the midribs of the leaves
+and hatch in about fifteen days. The newly hatched larvae become leaf
+miners during August, and migrate to the branches again in the fall
+where they pass the winter. These leaf and bud eating insects can be
+destroyed by applying a poison to the buds before they open <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>and again
+later to the opening leaf and flower buds.</p>
+
+<p>5. <span class="sc">Curculio Beetles</span> pass the winter under leaves and grass.
+In the spring they feed on the blossoms and the tender leaves. As soon
+as the young fruits are formed the female deposits her eggs in a
+puncture made just inside a short, crescent-shaped cut in the little
+apple. The eggs soon hatch and the young grubs burrow into the fruit
+to the core where they remain two or three weeks, or until full grown.
+The larvae then bore their way out of the fruit and drop to the soil
+where they pupate. The earliest of the beetles to emerge again feed on
+the fruit. The principal damage from this pest comes from the feeding
+of the beetles and the work of the larvae, although the latter is not
+as bad in the apple as in the stone fruits. A poison on the young
+foliage as soon as the beetles begin to feed is the best method of
+combating curculio. Jarring the tree is not as practicable with the
+apple as it is with the plum.</p>
+
+<p>6. <span class="sc">The San Jos&eacute; Scale</span>, one of our worst apple tree pests, is
+a sucking insect extracting the juices of the tree from the trunk,
+limbs or branches, or even from the leaves and fruit when it is very
+abundant. At first the growth <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>is checked only, but as the insects
+develop their work finally results in the death of the part, unless
+they are destroyed. The insect winters in an immature condition on the
+bark under a grayish, circular, somewhat convex scale about the size
+of a pinhead. The young, of which a great many broods are produced,
+are soft bodied but soon form a scale. In the early spring small
+two-winged insects issue from these scales.</p>
+
+<p>After mating the males die, but the females continue to grow and in
+about a month begin the production of living young&mdash;minute, yellow,
+oval creatures. These young settle on the bark and push their slender
+beaks into the plant from which they begin to suck out the sap. In
+about twelve days the insects molt and in eight to ten more they
+change to pupae, and in from thirty-three to forty days are themselves
+bearing young. A single female may give birth to four hundred young in
+one season and there are several generations in a season. This great
+prolificacy is what makes the scale so serious a pest.</p>
+
+<p>In fighting it every scale must be destroyed or thousands more are
+soon born. In order to be able to use a strong enough mixture of lime
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>and sulphur to destroy them by smothering or choking the spray must be
+applied on the dormant wood in the spring or fall or both.
+Thoroughness is most essential.</p>
+
+<p>7. <span class="sc">The Oyster Shell Scale</span>, although it is essentially the
+same in its habits and in its methods of sucking the sap from the tree
+is not as bad a pest as the San Jos&eacute; scale because it is less
+prolific, there being but one brood a year. Still this scale often
+destroys a branch and sometimes a whole tree. The "lice" winter as
+eggs under the scale and hatch in late May or early June. After
+crawling about the bark for two or three days, the young fix their
+beaks into it and remain fastened there for life, sucking out the sap.
+By the end of the season they have matured and secreted a scaly
+covering under which their eggs for the next season's crop winter. A
+smothering spray like lime and sulphur applied strong when the trees
+are dormant will practically control this scale. But the young may be
+destroyed in summer by a contact spray such as tobacco leaf extract or
+whale oil soap.</p>
+
+<p>8. <span class="sc">The Leaf Blister Mite</span> is a small, four-legged animal, so
+small as hardly to be visible to the naked eye. It passes the winter
+in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>bud scales and as soon as these begin to open in the spring it
+passes to the tender leaves which it punctures, producing light green
+or reddish pimples according to the variety of apple. These later
+develop into galls or blisters of a blackish or reddish brown color
+and finally result in the destruction of the leaf. Trees are sometimes
+practically defoliated by this pest, and this at a time when a good
+foliage is most needed. Inside of the galls eggs are deposited and
+when the young hatch they burrow in all directions. In October the
+mites abandon the leaves to hibernate in the bud scales again. A
+strong contact spray of lime sulphur when the trees are dormant
+destroys the young mites while they are yet on the bud scales, which
+is practically the only time when they are vulnerable.</p>
+
+<p>9. <span class="sc">Aphides</span>, or plant lice, are of seasonal importance.
+Although nearly always present, it is only occasionally that they
+become so numerous as seriously to damage mature apple trees. But they
+are more often serious pests on young trees where they should be
+carefully watched. Their presence is determined by the curled and
+distorted condition of the terminal leaves on the under side of which
+the green or pinkish lice will be found. Eggs deposited in autumn
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>pass the winter in this condition, hatching in the spring about the
+time of the beginning of the growth of vegetation. From these winter
+eggs females are hatched which bear living young, which may also bear
+living young and so on for several generations until autumn, when eggs
+are again deposited for the winter stage.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately weather conditions together with parasitic and predaceous
+insects hold them more or less in check. Because of the difficulty of
+getting at the underside of the curled leaves where these lice mostly
+work they are extremely hard to control. Lime and sulphur when the
+trees are dormant destroy as many of the eggs as it comes in contact
+with. A tobacco extract is quite effective as a contact spray in the
+growing season. The trees must be closely watched and if the lice
+appear in any considerable number they must be promptly attended to or
+serious damage is likely to result.</p>
+
+<p>These are by no means all the insect pests which the fruit grower has
+to combat, but they are usually the most important. Canker worm and
+tent caterpillars often do great damage in unsprayed orchards, but
+they are easily controlled by an application of a poison as soon <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>as
+they appear. The same is true of other caterpillars and leaf eating
+worms. Apple tree borers are frequently serious, especially in young
+orchards, where the trees should be regularly "grubbed" and the borers
+dug out or killed with a piece of wire. They may be prevented to some
+extent by painting the tree trunks with a heavy lime and sulphur or
+some gas tar preparation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Diseases.</span>&mdash;Although not as numerous as insects, the diseases
+which attack the apple inflict great damage and are fully as difficult
+to control. They are caused by bacteria and by fungi which may be
+compared to weeds growing on or in the tree instead of the soil. If
+either of these works within the plant, as is sometimes the case, it
+must be attacked before it enters. It is very necessary to be thorough
+in order to control these diseases. Weather conditions influence
+nearly all of them materially. Of those which attack the apple tree or
+fruit we have selected three as the most serious and the most
+necessary for the grower to combat, namely, (1) apple scab, (2) New
+York apple tree canker, and (3) fire blight. To these should be added
+in the South and middle latitudes, sooty blotch and bitter rot.
+Baldwin <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>spot is also frequently serious in some seasons and
+localities.</p>
+
+<p>(1) <span class="sc">The Apple Scab</span>, commonly known among growers as "the
+fungus," is the most important of our common apple diseases and is
+most evident on the fruit, although it attacks the leaves as well. In
+some seasons the fruit is made almost unsalable. This disease lives
+through the winter on old leaves. In the spring about blossoming time
+the spores are scattered by the wind and other agencies, and reaching
+the tender shoots germinate and enter the tissues of the plant. Their
+development is greatly dependent on the weather. In a season in which
+there is little fog or continued damp or humid weather, they may not
+develop at all, but where these conditions are present they frequently
+become very virulent.</p>
+
+<p>Spraying will be governed by the weather conditions, but the mixture
+must be applied very promptly as soon as it is evident that it is
+likely to be necessary and must cover every part of the tree to be
+effective. The object is to prevent the spores from germinating, the
+spray being entirely a preventive and in no sense a cure. The disease
+most frequently first manifests itself on the tender new growth and on
+the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>blossoms. Two mixtures have been found to control it, namely,
+Bordeaux and a weak solution of lime and sulphur. One or other of
+these should be applied just before the blossoms open, just before
+they fall, and when necessary two and nine weeks later.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <span class="sc">New York Apple Tree Canker</span> is usually found mainly on the
+trunks of old trees, but it also affects the smaller branches.
+Practically every old or uncared for orchard has more or less of this
+canker, and where it is not checked it eventually destroys the tree.
+This fungus is the cause of most of the dead wood found in old
+orchards. The surface of the canker is black and rough and covered
+with minute black pimples. It lives over winter and spreads from one
+branch or tree to another. As it most frequently enters a branch
+through wounds made in pruning, these should be promptly painted over
+with a heavy lead and oil paint. All diseased parts should be cut out
+and removed as soon as observed. The value of spraying for this
+disease is not definitely known, but it is seldom very troublesome in
+well sprayed and well cared for orchards.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <span class="sc">Blight</span> appears on apple trees in three forms, as blossom
+blight, as twig blight, and as <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>blight cankers. It is a bacterial
+disease which is distributed by flies, bees, birds, etc., and cannot
+be controlled by spraying. The bacteria are carried over the winter in
+cankers on the main limbs and bodies of the trees, oozing out in a
+sticky mass in the spring. These cankers should be cut out with a
+sharp knife cutting well into the healthy bark and then washing the
+wound with corrosive sublimate, one part to one thousand of water.
+Cutting out and destroying are also the chief remedies to be used when
+the blight appears in the twigs and blossoms. It is not usually as
+serious on apples as on pears. Some varieties, like Alexander, are
+more subject to it than others.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER VIII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF SPRAYING</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>The spraying of fruit trees in the United States is of comparatively
+recent origin, having been a general commercial practice for less than
+two decades. It involves the principle of applying with force and in
+the form of a fine rain or mist, water in which a poison or a
+substance which kills by contact is suspended. The first application
+of the principle was against chewing insects with hellebore. Pure
+arsenic was early used and soon led to the use of other arsenicals.</p>
+
+<p>Our greatest fungicide, Bordeaux mixture, was discovered by accident
+in 1882 when it was found to control mildew in France. Up until about
+five years ago Bordeaux mixture as the fungicide and paris green as
+the poison were almost universally used. Within the last few years,
+however, there have been developed two substitutes which, although
+known and used to some extent for twenty years, have only <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>recently
+come into such general use as practically to replace the old sprays.
+These are lime and sulphur as the fungicide and partial insecticide
+and arsenate of lead as a partial insecticide.</p>
+
+<p>The necessity for and the advisability of spraying have already been
+pointed out. There is an increasing demand for fine fruit the
+supplying of which is possible only with thorough spraying. In the
+humid East especially the competition of more progressive sections in
+the West is demanding more and better spraying. There is no cure-all
+in this process. It does not make a tree more fruitful except as it
+improves its general health, but it does bring a larger percentage of
+the fruit to perfection. Certain knowledge is fundamental; the grower
+must know what he is spraying for, when and with what to combat it and
+how to accomplish the desired result most effectively.</p>
+
+<p>Spraying is an insurance against anticipated troubles with the fruit,
+and the best and most successful growers are those most completely
+insured. It has many general advantages also. It stimulates the grower
+to a greater interest in his business because of the extra knowledge
+and skill required. It compels thoroughness. It necessitates spending
+money, therefore a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>return is looked for. To be sure, it is only one
+of the operations necessary to success, but it enables us to grow a
+quality of fruit which we could not obtain without it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Spray Materials</span> are conveniently divided into two classes,
+insecticides and fungicides. An insecticide is a poison by which the
+insect is killed either directly by eating it, or indirectly by the
+caustic, smothering, or stifling effects resulting from closing its
+breathing pores. Direct poisons are used for insects which eat some
+part of the tree or fruit and are called stomach poisons. Sprays which
+kill indirectly are used for insects which suck the sap or juice from
+the tree or fruit and are called contact sprays. Arsenical compounds
+have supplanted practically all other substances used to combat
+external biting insects. Two stomach poisons are commonly used,
+namely, arsenate of lead and paris green, but the former is rapidly
+replacing the latter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Arsenate of Lead</span> is prepared by mixing three parts of
+crystallized arsenate of soda with seven parts of crystallized white
+sugar (acetate) of lead in water, but it will not as a rule pay the
+grower to mix his own material, as arsenate of lead can be purchased
+in convenient <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>commercial form at a reasonable price. The preparation
+on the market is a finely pulverized precipitate in two forms, one a
+powder and the other a paste. These are probably about equally good
+and are readily kept suspended in water. Less free arsenic is
+contained in this form than in any other compound of arsenic, making
+it safer to use, especially in heavy applications. Arsenate of lead
+may be used without danger of burning the foliage as strong as five or
+six pounds to fifty gallons of water, but three pounds is the usual
+and a sufficient amount for the control of any apple insect for which
+it is efficacious.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Paris Green</span> is being rapidly displaced by arsenate of lead
+for several reasons. It is a compound of white arsenic, copper oxide,
+and acetic acid. The commercial form is a crystal which in suspension
+settles rapidly, a serious fault. It is more soluble than arsenate of
+lead and hence there is greater danger of burning the foliage with it.
+Moreover, it costs from twenty to twenty-five cents a pound, and the
+arsenate of lead can be purchased for from eight to ten cents a pound.</p>
+
+<p>The amount which it is safe to use in fifty gallons of water is from
+one-half to three-quarters of a pound. When paris green is used <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>alone
+as a poison lime should be added. Both these arsenicals should be
+thoroughly wet up by stirring in a smaller receptacle before they are
+put into the spray tank, in order to get them in as complete
+suspension as possible. They may be used in the same mixture with
+Bordeaux or lime sulphur.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Contact Sprays.</span>&mdash;Four compounds are used as contact sprays in
+combating sucking insects, namely, lime sulphur, soaps such as whale
+oil soap, kerosene emulsion, and tobacco extract. Of these lime
+sulphur is the most used and for winter spraying is probably the best.
+This preparation is made by boiling together for one hour or until
+they unite, twenty pounds of quick lime, fifteen pounds of flower of
+sulphur, and fifty gallons of water. Although the home made mixture is
+much cheaper than the commercial form which may be purchased on the
+market, many people prefer the latter because of the inconvenience and
+trouble of preparing the mixture, although there is nothing difficult
+about it.</p>
+
+<p>This contact spray is used chiefly for the San Jos&eacute; scale and the
+blister mite, and in order to control these must be applied strong on
+the dormant wood. The strength necessary will vary <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>from one part of
+the mixture above mentioned or of the commercial preparation, to from
+seven to ten parts of water, according to the density test of the
+material, which should be around twenty-eight per cent. Beaum&eacute; (a
+scale for measuring the density of a liquid) for home made, and
+thirty-two per cent. for the commercial mixture.</p>
+
+<p>Any good soap is effective in destroying soft bodied insects such as
+plant lice. The fish oil soaps, although variable in composition, are
+often valuable, especially the one known in the trade as whale oil
+soap. This soap dissolved in water by boiling at the rate of two
+pounds of soap to one gallon of water, makes a good winter spray for
+scale but should be applied before it gets cold as it is then apt to
+become gelatinous. For a summer contact spray against lice, one pound
+of soap to seven gallons of water is strong enough to be effective. It
+is objectionable because of its odor and because it is disagreeable to
+make and handle. Lime sulphur is to be preferred as a winter spray,
+but the soap spray is often necessary and valuable for summer sucking
+insects.</p>
+
+<p>Kerosene emulsion was formerly more commonly used than now against the
+scale and plant <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>lice. It is a mixture of one-half pound of soap and
+two gallons of kerosene in one gallon of water&mdash;preferably in hot
+water. For dormant trees one gallon of this mixture should be diluted
+with six gallons of water. While this spray is effective it is no more
+so than lime-sulphur and is quite difficult and disagreeable to
+handle. As a summer spray, however, it is often necessary. Several
+preparations of petroleum known as the miscible oils are sometimes
+used. Their use is the same as that of lime-sulphur and they are not
+as good.</p>
+
+<p>Within the last few years a tobacco concoction known as black leaf
+tobacco extract (nicotine sulphate) has come into quite common use. It
+can be purchased commercially under various brand names, and should be
+diluted according to its strength, but usually about one part to fifty
+of water. It may be made by boiling one pound of good tobacco stems in
+two gallons of water for one-half-hour. Objections to it are that it
+evaporates very quickly, although it is supposed to be non-volatile,
+and that it is expensive, but it is very convenient to use, can be
+readily mixed with other summer sprays, and is very effective against
+plant lice and mites.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bordeaux Mixture.</span> Fungicides are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>mixtures of chemical
+compounds made up for the purpose of controlling plant diseases caused
+by a class of plant weeds known as fungi. There are three commonly
+well known and used fungicides, Bordeaux mixture, commercial lime
+sulphur, and the self-boiled lime-sulphur. The Bordeaux mixture is the
+best all-around fungicide known. It is a mixture of three pounds of
+copper sulphate (blue vitriol or bluestone) with three or more pounds
+of fresh burned stone lime in fifty gallons of water. The two
+compounds should be put together as fruit growers say "with water
+between," that is each should be diluted with the water separately
+before the two are mixed.</p>
+
+<p>The best plan is to have stock mixtures of each in barrels, fifty
+gallon cider or vinegar barrels making good receptacles for the
+purpose. Place the bluestone in an old fertilizer or meal sack and
+suspend it about midway in the barrel of water. In a few hours it will
+all be dissolved and will remain in suspension for some length of time
+very well. If say fifty pounds of the copper sulphate are dissolved in
+fifty gallons of water, each gallon of water will contain one pound of
+the bluestone, which makes a very convenient <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>way to measure it. So
+also fifty pounds of fresh burned stone lime should be placed in a
+barrel&mdash;in this case in the bottom of the barrel rather than in a
+sack&mdash;just covered with water and allowed to slake, more water being
+added as required up to fifty gallons. If too much water is added to
+the lime at the first it will be "drowned" and its slaking checked.
+These two stock mixtures, each gallon containing one pound of the
+copper sulphate or one pound of the lime, are then mixed together.</p>
+
+<p>It is well to fill the tank about half full of water, then put in the
+required amount of the copper sulphate, and after stirring well add
+the lime milk. It is a good plan to add an excess of lime as it
+minimizes the danger of burning and aids the mixture in sticking to
+the leaves well. If one is sure that he has at least as much lime, or
+an excess of lime, it will not be necessary to test the mixture, but
+if he is not, a simple test may be made with ferro-cyanide of
+potassium, obtained at a drug store. A few drops of this mixture will
+disappear if the lime is equal or in excess of the copper sulphate,
+that is, it will be neutralized, but if it is not, they will remain a
+bright purplish red. Bordeaux mixture is used in strengths varying
+from three to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>five pounds each of bluestone and lime in fifty gallons
+of water, but the former is usually sufficient.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Lime-Sulphur.</span>&mdash;The more important fungicides, the commercial
+lime sulphur and the self-boiled lime-sulphur, are practically
+superseding Bordeaux as a fungicide, not because they are necessarily
+better, but because there is frequently much burning of the foliage
+and russeting of the fruit from the use of the Bordeaux. This is
+unfortunate as the latter is a rather more effective fungicide as well
+as more convenient and pleasant to use. The self-boiled lime sulphur
+is a combination of lime and sulphur which is boiled by the heat of
+the slaking lime alone, and makes a pretty good substitute for the
+Bordeaux when it injures foliage or fruit. This preparation of lime
+and sulphur differs from the commercial form used as a winter wash in
+that it is wholly a mechanical mixture and not partly chemical like
+the latter. It may therefore be used on the foliage in summer at a
+greater strength, there being only a very small percentage of sulphur
+in solution when the mixture is properly made.</p>
+
+<p>Equal amounts of lime and sulphur are used, these being from eight to
+ten pounds each to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>fifty gallons of water. The mixture is best
+prepared in larger quantities so as to get heat enough from the
+slaking lime to produce a violent boiling for a few minutes. First,
+place say forty pounds of lime in a barrel and pour on just water
+enough to start it slaking nicely&mdash;about a gallon to each three or
+four pounds of lime is usually sufficient. Then add the sulphur and
+enough more water to slake the paste, keeping it well stirred
+meanwhile. The violent boiling of the lime in slaking will cook the
+mixture in from five to fifteen minutes, depending on the quality of
+the lime and how fast it is slaked. Just as soon as the violent
+boiling is over add enough cold water to stop all action. If this is
+not done, some sulphur will unite with the lime and burning may be the
+result.</p>
+
+<p>This self-boiled mixture is entirely harmless to apple foliage and
+even appears to have a stimulating effect upon it. Against the apple
+scab, however, it is not as effective as the boiled wash, or the
+commercial preparations. For this disease a strength of from one to
+thirty to one to forty (that is about one and one-half gallons of the
+prepared mixture testing 31 to 33 Beaum&eacute; to fifty gallons of water) of
+the commercial lime-sulphur is most effective.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span><span class="sc">Spray Pumps.</span>&mdash;The application of the foregoing spray mixtures
+is fully as important as the sprays themselves, for on the right
+application at the right time depends the efficacy of the spray. For
+this purpose a considerable amount of special machinery has been
+devised. Lack of space prevents us from going into much detail on this
+question, so we must be content with merely outlining the different
+types of machines and mentioning their accessories. Sprays are forced
+through single, double or triple acting pumps, either by hand or
+power. The three types of power available are traction, compressed
+air, and gasoline, the last being the most used. Steam power is
+practically obsolete.</p>
+
+<p>The knapsack is the simplest type of hand pump, but it is of no
+practical use in the mature apple orchard. For small orchards and
+small trees several types of hand pumps are quite effective. The lever
+type of pump, where the handle is pushed from and pulled toward the
+operator, probably gives the most power with the least tiring effect,
+because it enables one to use the weight of the body to some extent.
+It is best not to have the pump attached to the spray barrel or tank,
+but set on a movable base of its <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>own, as then it can be used for any
+one of a number of barrels. Such an outfit may be obtained for from
+twenty-five to forty dollars.</p>
+
+<p>It is well to buy a standard make of pump, preferably from a nearby
+dealer, so that repairs may be readily secured. For all orchards up to
+three or four acres in size, and for larger orchards where the trees
+are not over twelve or fifteen feet in height, this kind of spray rig
+is the most practicable and advisable, when the expense is taken into
+consideration. This applies especially to the general farm.</p>
+
+<p>The power of a traction sprayer is developed from the wheels. There is
+much discussion as to whether sufficient power to throw an effective
+spray can be supplied by this method. By accumulating considerable
+pressure by extra driving at the ends of the rows and then skipping
+every other tree in order to keep up the pressure, going over the rows
+twice, a very satisfactory pressure can be obtained for trees which
+are not too large. The argument for this type of machine, and it is
+especially applicable on the general farm, is that it can be used for
+other spraying on the farm as well as for the apple orchard,
+especially for potatoes and small fruits. It is a comparatively cheap
+type of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>power, particularly when it can be used for several purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The compressed air gas sprayer comes next in point of simplicity and
+cost for a power sprayer. Its most economic use is found where
+orcharding is carried on extensively enough to pay to compress the air
+or gas right in the orchard. This is of course impracticable on the
+general farm. Therefore the air or gas must be purchased and shipped
+to the farm in steel tubes. This often causes delay at critical times
+and is rather expensive. Moreover, the gas is open to the objection of
+interfering with the lime-sulphur compound by precipitating some of
+the sulphur.</p>
+
+<p>The gasoline engine is the most useful and popular type of power for
+the orchard sprayer, as well as for general use on the farm. Many
+makes are now so perfected that they give little or no trouble. One
+and a half or two horsepower are fully sufficient for spraying, but
+most farmers prefer from three to five horsepower in order to be able
+to use the engine more for other purposes. The latter power is open to
+objection for spraying purposes on account of its weight, as
+especially in early spring it is very difficult to haul so heavy a rig
+over the soft <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>ground. Such an outfit is also rather expensive.
+Standard makes of gasoline engines of sufficient power for spraying
+cost from $75.00 to $150.00 according to horsepower and efficiency.
+For very large trees, for mature orchards, and for all orchards larger
+than four or five acres, the gasoline engine is the best source of
+power for spraying, particularly where it can be used for other
+purposes on the farm.</p>
+
+<p>A double acting or two cylinder pump is most desirable. If there is
+plenty of power a triplex or three cylinder pump is still better. The
+requirements of a good pump are: sufficient power for the work desired
+of it; strong but not too heavy; fewest possible number of parts
+consistent with efficiency; brass parts and valves; and a good sized
+air chamber. A number of standard makes of pumps answer these
+conditions very well. Pumps should always be washed out with clean
+water when the operator is through with them and the metal parts
+coated with vaseline. Never leave water in a pump chamber or in the
+engine jacket in cold weather.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary hand pump and barrel give satisfactory use when placed on
+a wagon, unless the trees are very high. But for large orchards, high
+trees, and where larger tanks and power <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>pumps are used it is
+desirable to have a special truck for the outfit. The front wheel
+should be made low so as to turn under the tank to enable the driver
+to make short turns around the trees. A tower is desirable where high
+old trees are to be sprayed. This should be substantial but as small
+as is consistent with the purpose so as not to catch on the limbs and
+make it difficult to get close up around the trees. The height of the
+platform must be regulated by the need and by the roughness of the
+ground. On steep side hills the wagon body on which the tank rests
+should be underslung.</p>
+
+<p>In order to get as near to the work as possible get a long hose&mdash;from
+twenty to thirty feet according to circumstances. The best quality,
+three to five ply, is none too good. Hose should be three-eighths to
+one-half inch in diameter, one inch being too heavy. Extension rods
+are a practical necessity. They should be ten to twelve feet long and
+made of bamboo lined with brass, that is, as light as possible.
+Nozzles are very important in thorough and effective spraying. There
+is no best nozzle, nor one with which all the work can be done.</p>
+
+<p>Several things should be considered in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>selecting a nozzle. First of
+all, it must be of convenient form so as not to catch in trees and so
+constructed that it will not clog easily. Second, for apple trees it
+should have good capacity and deliver as spreading a spray as
+possible. Third, the nature of the spray is very important.
+Insecticides should usually be applied with force in a comparatively
+coarse driving spray, but fungicides should be applied in a fine mist
+or fog so that they will settle on every part of the tree. Therein
+lies the difficulty of applying insecticides and fungicides together.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Time of Spraying.</span>&mdash;Fortunately it is not necessary to make a
+separate application for each insect and disease, but they may be
+treated together to some extent. In most cases expediency demands that
+the arsenicals be used with the fungicides. Many growers are finding
+the most satisfactory results, however, from applying the arsenical
+spray separately, just after the blossoms fall, because of the
+physical impossibility of properly applying the two sprays&mdash;the
+driving and the mist spray&mdash;together. For most practical purposes on
+the general farm, three sprayings are necessary in order to secure
+clean fruit and four, sometimes five, are often <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>advisable. These may
+be summarized as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="block"><p>1. With lime-sulphur, winter strength, on the dormant wood in
+early spring.</p>
+
+<p>2. With lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead just before the
+blossoms open (may sometimes be omitted).</p>
+
+<p>3. With the same (or Bordeaux for scab) just after the blossoms
+fall.</p>
+
+<p>4. With the same two or three weeks later.</p>
+
+<p>5. With arsenate of lead eight or nine weeks later (may sometimes
+be omitted).</p>
+
+<div class="block2"><p class="noin">(In the south and middle latitudes where bitter rot and
+apple blotch occur two other sprayings may be necessary.)</p></div>
+
+<p>6. With Bordeaux about eight or ten weeks after the blossoms
+fall.</p>
+
+<p>7. Again with the same about two weeks later.</p></div>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span><br />
+
+<p class="cen">A Calendar for Spraying Apples</p>
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary="A Calendar for Spraying Apples" style="border: 1pt black solid;">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcb" width="14%">INSECTS</td>
+  <td class="tdcb" width="14%">Nature of Injury</td>
+  <td class="tdcb" width="12%">Before Leaf Buds Open</td>
+  <td class="tdcb" width="12%">Before Flower Buds Open</td>
+  <td class="tdcb" width="12%">After Petals Fall</td>
+  <td class="tdcb" width="12%">In 2 to 3 Weeks</td>
+  <td class="tdcb" width="12%">In 8 to 9 Weeks</td>
+  <td class="tdcb" width="12%">Materials to Use</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcb">Codling Moth</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Eating Worm</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Lead Arsenate or Par. Gr.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcb">San Jos&eacute; Scale</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Sucking Insect</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Lime Sulphur</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcb">Oyster Shell Scale</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Sucking Insect</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Lime Sulphur</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcb">Blister Mite</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Leaf Miner</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Lime Sulphur</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcb">Plant Louse</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Sucking Insect</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb" colspan="2">when seen</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Whale Oil Soap or Tobacco</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcb">Cigar Case Bearer</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Eating Insect</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Lead Arsenate or Par. Gr.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcb">Apple Maggot</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Eating Worm</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb" colspan="2">destroy fruit</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Lead Arsenate or Par. Gr.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcb">Bud Moth</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Eating Worm</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Lead Arsenate or Par. Gr.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcb">Curculio</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Eating Worm &amp; Beetle</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Lead Arsenate or Par. Gr.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcb" style="font-size: 110%;"><b>Diseases</b></td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcb">Apple Scab</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Fungus</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">if necessary</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Lime Sulphur or Bordeaux 3-3.50</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcb">New York Apple Tree Canker</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Fungus</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x?</td>
+  <td class="tdcb" colspan="2">cut out infections</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Lime Sulphur</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcb">Leaf Spot</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Fungus</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Lime Sulphur</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdcb">Sooty Blotch</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">x</td>
+  <td class="tdcb">Bordeaux Mixture and Lime Sulphur</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER IX<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>HARVESTING AND STORING</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>Apples are practically never allowed to ripen on the trees but are
+picked and shipped green. By "green" we mean not fully ripe, not ripe
+enough to eat out of hand. This is necessary for all fruit which is to
+be shipped any considerable distance or which is to be stored. Used in
+this sense green has no reference to color, but as a matter of fact,
+much of our fruit is picked too green, before it has even reached its
+full size and is well colored. There is no exact time at which apples
+must be picked, but this depends on many factors such as the variety,
+the distance to be shipped, the soil, the climate, and various other
+conditions, to say nothing of seasonal differences.</p>
+
+<p>The time at which any variety should be picked in a particular section
+will be learned by experience. In general, apples should be left <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>on
+the tree as long as possible in order to get the best size and color.
+When the apples begin to drop badly it is a pretty sure indication
+that it is time to pick. If the fruit is to be sold in the local
+market or for immediate consumption, it may be allowed to get riper
+than would otherwise be the case. With most varieties one picking is
+sufficient, but in the case of varieties like the Wealthy which does
+not ripen uniformly, or like the Twenty Ounce, which does not always
+color evenly, two or three pickings should be made. Two or three
+pickings are practically always necessary where fancy fruit is
+desired, in order to get the ideal size, color, and uniformity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Ladders.</span>&mdash;There are two general types of picking ladders, the
+rung and the step ladders. For large trees the rung ladders are the
+best. They may be obtained in lengths to suit the height of the tree.
+Lengths of more than twenty-two or twenty-four feet become too heavy
+and clumsy to handle, even when made of pine, which is the best
+material as it is light and strong for its weight. In very old, high
+trees extension rung ladders are sometimes used. They are also useful
+for interior work but are heavy to handle. Rung ladders cost from ten
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>to twenty cents a running foot. Step ladders are useful only on young
+and small trees. The two styles, the three (Japanese) and four legged,
+are both quite satisfactory where one can reach the fruit from them.</p>
+
+<p>Receptacles for picking usually hold about half a bushel. Both baskets
+and bags are used, some preferring one and some the other, and a
+choice between them is merely a matter of personal preference. There
+is a little less liability of bruising the apples in bags than in
+baskets, but the latter are more convenient in some ways. Fruit should
+never be thrown or dropped into a basket but always handled carefully.
+Some varieties, as McIntosh, show almost every finger mark and
+literally require handling with gloves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Handling.</span>&mdash;The old custom of picking and laying on the ground
+in the orchard is a poor one and should not be followed, as it causes
+unnecessary handling and bruising. Moreover, fruit should be packed
+and hauled to storage as soon after picking as possible. Picking and
+placing directly on the packing table from which the apples are
+immediately packed is the best plan where it is practicable, but as
+the weather at picking time in the Eastern <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>States is frequently quite
+uncertain, it is not always possible to follow this plan as closely as
+can be done in the West, where dry air and sunshine prevail. Still,
+wherever there is a considerable quantity of fruit and several
+pickers, the plan of packing directly from the table is best. Many
+growers pick in boxes and barrels and haul the apples to a packing
+shed to be packed later. Convenience and expediency must govern the
+general farmer who is not always at liberty to choose the best plan,
+often having to do as he can.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Packing Tables</span> enable the grower to pack his fruit better
+because he can see better what he is doing, and to handle the fruit
+more cheaply and quickly and with less injury. They should be portable
+so that they can be moved about the orchard. A convenient type has one
+end mounted on wheels so that it can be pushed from one place to
+another. The top of the table should be made of two strong layers of
+canvas, one tacked firmly to the framework of the table with about
+three or four inches of dip and the other laid loosely over it. This
+plan provides a soft resting place for the fruit and the table can be
+easily cleaned off by simply throwing back the upper layer of canvas.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>Three feet six inches is about the right width for the table, and the
+same sloping to three feet four inches at one end, is the correct
+height from the ground. Most packers like to have this gradual slope
+to one end so that the apples will naturally feed toward that end. The
+length may be anything up to eight or ten feet, beyond which the table
+becomes heavy and unmanageable.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Barrels.</span>&mdash;The standard apple barrel adopted by the National
+Apple Shippers' Association and made law in New York State has a
+length of stave of twenty-eight and one-half inches and a diameter of
+head of seventeen and one-eighth inches. The outside circumference of
+the bilge is sixty-four inches and the distance between the heads is
+twenty-six inches. It contains one hundred quarts dry measure. The
+staves are mostly made of elm, pine, and red gum, and the heads
+principally of pine with some beech and maple. In most apple growing
+sections barrels are made in regular cooper shops where their
+manufacture is a business by itself. Only the largest growers set up
+their own barrels. Practically all barrels are purchased "knocked
+down" and it costs from four to six cents each to set them up. Barrels
+can <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>ordinarily be purchased for about thirty-five cents each, but the
+cost varies somewhat with the season and the region.</p>
+
+<p>Apple packages should always present a neat, clean, and attractive
+appearance. Never use flour barrels, soiled or ununiform barrels of
+any kind. If a head cushion is used a good deal of waste from the
+crushing and bruising of the fruit will be saved. A head lining of
+plain or fringed paper also adds much to the attractiveness of the
+package. The wrapping of apples for barrel packing is hardly
+advisable. The fruit is pressed into the barrel tightly with one of
+two types of presses, both of which are good.</p>
+
+<p>The lever press is more responsive and the pressure is more easily
+changed, but it is harder to operate. The screw press distributes the
+pressure more evenly with less injury to the fruit and is more
+powerful.</p>
+
+<p>The steps in properly packing a barrel of apples are: First, see that
+the middle and closed end hoops are tight, if necessary, nailing them
+and clinching the nails; second, mark the head plainly with the grade
+and variety and the name of the packer or owner; then place the barrel
+on a solid floor or plank and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>lay in the facing papers (the face end
+being packed first); select the "facers," which should be the best
+representatives of the grade being packed, and <i>no others</i>, and place
+them in two courses in regular order stems down; with a drop handle
+basket fill the barrel, using care not to bruise the fruit, and
+jarring the barrel back and forth on the plank as each basket is put
+into it in order to settle the fruit firmly in place; lastly, arrange
+a layer of apples stems up and apply the press, using a hatchet to get
+the head in place and to drive on and tighten the hoops.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">The Box Package</span> is rapidly growing in favor, especially as a
+carrier of fancy fruit. There is no standard box the size of which is
+fixed by law unless it be a box labeled a bushel. But two sizes of
+boxes are in common use, both probably being necessary on account of
+the variation in the size of different varieties. The "Standard" box
+is 10&frac12; by 11&frac12; by 18 inches inside measurement and contains 2,173.5
+cubic inches (the lawful stricken bushel is 2,150.4 cubic inches). The
+"Special" box is 10 by 11 by 20 inches inside measurement and contains
+2,200 cubic inches. The bulge when properly made will add about 150
+cubic inches <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>more, making the two boxes hold 2,323.5 cubic inches and
+2,350 cubic inches respectively.</p>
+
+<p>Spruce is the most reliable and in general the best material. Fir is
+sometimes used, but is likely to split. Pine is good if strong enough.
+The ends should be of three-quarter-inch material; the sides of
+three-eighth-inch, and the tops and bottoms&mdash;two pieces each&mdash;of
+one-quarter-inch material. There should also be two cleats each for
+top and bottom. The sides of the box should be nailed with four,
+preferably five-penny cement-coated nails, at each end. The cleats
+should be put neatly on each end and four nails put into them, going
+through into the top and bottom. Boxes commonly come "knocked down" or
+in the flat and are usually put together by the grower. They cost from
+ten to thirteen cents each in the flat.</p>
+
+<p>There are several kinds of packs, depending on the size of the apples
+and the choice of the grower. The diagonal pack with each apple
+resting over the spaces between others is preferable, but on account
+of the size of the apples one is often forced to use the straight pack
+with the apples in regular right angle rows for some sizes. The offset
+pack, first three (or four) on one side and then on the other, is
+very <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>much like the diagonal, but not much used on account of its
+accommodating too few apples in a box. The following table gives the
+packs, number of rows, number of apples in the row, box to use, and
+number of apples used to the box, as used at Hood River, Oregon:</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Packing Apples">
+  <tr>
+  <td width="20%" class="tdc">Size expressed in No. apples per box</td>
+  <td width="15%" class="tdc">Tier</td>
+  <td width="15%" class="tdc">Pack</td>
+  <td width="15%" class="tdc">No. apples in row</td>
+  <td width="15%" class="tdc">No. layers in depth</td>
+  <td width="20%" class="tdc">Box used</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;45</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">3 St.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">5-5</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Standard</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;54</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">3 St.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">6-6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Special</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;54</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">3 St.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">6-6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Special</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;63</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">3 St.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">7-7</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Special</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;64</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3&frac12;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">2-2 Diag.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4-4</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Standard</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;72</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3&frac12;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">2-2 Diag.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4-5</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Standard</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;80</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3&frac12;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">2-2 Diag.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">5-5</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Standard</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;88</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3&frac12;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">2-2 Diag.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">5-6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Standard</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;96</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3&frac12;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">2-2 Diag.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">6-6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Special</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">104</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3&frac12;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">2-2 Diag.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">6-7</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Special</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">112</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3&frac12;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">2-2 Diag.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">7-7</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Special</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">120</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3&frac12;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">2-2 Diag.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">7-8</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Special</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">128</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">4 St.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">8-8</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Special</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">144</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">4 St.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">9-9</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Special</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">150</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4&frac12;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">3-2 Diag.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">6-6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">5</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Standard</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">163</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4&frac12;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">3-2 Diag.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">6-7</td>
+  <td class="tdc">5</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Standard</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">175</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4&frac12;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">3-2 Diag.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">7-7</td>
+  <td class="tdc">5</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Standard</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">185</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4&frac14;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">3-2 Diag.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">7-8</td>
+  <td class="tdc">5</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Special</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc">200</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4&frac12;</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">3-2 Diag.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">8-8</td>
+  <td class="tdc">5</td>
+  <td class="tdlp">Special</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p>It is good practice to wrap apples packed in boxes. For this purpose a
+heavy-weight tissue paper in two sizes, 8 by 10 and 10 by 10,
+according to the size of the apple, is used. A lining paper 18 by 24
+in size and "white news" in grade is first placed in the box. Between
+the layers of apples a colored "tagboard" <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>paper, size 17&frac14; by 11 or 20
+by 9&frac34;, according to the box used, is laid so as to make the layers
+come out right at the top. In packing the box is inclined toward the
+packer for convenience in placing the fruit. After laying in the
+lining paper each apple is wrapped and put in place. As an aid to
+picking up the thin wrapping paper a rubber "finger" is used on the
+forefinger. When the box is packed the layers should stand a quarter
+to a half inch higher in the middle than at the ends, in order to give
+a bulge or spring to the top and bottom which holds the fruit firmly
+in place without bruising.</p>
+
+<p>There has been much discussion as to whether the box or the barrel is
+the better package for apples. This is needless, for as a matter of
+fact each is best for its own particular purpose. The barrel is best
+adapted as a package for large commercial quantities of fruit and
+where labor could not be had to pack apples in boxes even if the trade
+wanted them. The barrel permits the packing of a greater variety in
+size and shape than does the box, and these can be more easily and
+cheaply handled in packing.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the box is the ideal <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>package for small amounts of
+fancy fruit, to be used for a family-or fruit-stand trade. It presents
+a neater and more fancy appearance and is a more convenient package to
+handle, as well as one which is more open to inspection. It already
+has a better reputation as a quality container than the barrel. As a
+fancy package for a limited private trade from the small general farm
+orchard with high-class varieties like the Northern Spy, McIntosh, and
+others there is no comparison of the box with the barrel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Storage.</span>&mdash;Car refrigeration and cold storage of fruit are
+comparatively modern developments. Few persons who have not been
+affected directly realize what a tremendous influence they have had
+upon the fruit, and particularly the apple industry. Apples could not
+be shipped any very great distance. Crops had to be marketed
+immediately and when they were large the markets were soon glutted and
+the fruit became almost valueless. The first hot spell would
+demoralize the trade altogether. Then later in the season the supply
+would become exhausted and famine would ensue where but a few weeks
+before there had been a feast. Under such conditions it is not
+surprising that the apple industry did not <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>develop very rapidly and
+that apple growing was mostly confined to areas near the larger
+markets.</p>
+
+<p>The coming of the refrigerator car extended fruit-growing over a much
+wider area. Refrigeration on shipboard opened up and enlarged the
+export trade. Cold storage warehouses lengthened the season by holding
+over the surplus of fruit, thus relieving fall gluts in the market and
+providing a winter supply of apples. These conditions created a more
+stable market with more uniform prices, extending the business from a
+side issue to one of chief importance. Marketing has become almost a
+business by itself, inducing the formation of growers' associations
+and creating a profitable occupation for large dealers and commission
+men. These conditions, too, have led to speculation.</p>
+
+<p>Two kinds of storage are used, common or cellar storage and cold
+storage. Both are about equally available, but the latter is too
+expensive for the small grower. There is always a question as to the
+advisability of the small grower storing his fruit. Storage means a
+degree of speculation. "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush,"
+especially when the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>bird is a good one. So far as rules can be laid
+down, the following are pretty safe ones to keep in mind: It is safest
+to store apples when they are of the highest quality; in a season most
+unfavorable to common storage; when the fewest are being stored; when
+the price in the fall is medium to low, never when high; and when one
+can afford to lose the whole crop.</p>
+
+<p>Successful storage requires several things: good fruit, stored
+immediately after picking, careful sorting and handling, subsequent
+rest, and a reasonable control of the temperature. The functions of
+storage are to arrest ripening, retard the development of disease, and
+furnish a uniform, cold temperature. Storage of apples does not remedy
+over-ripeness nor prevent deterioration of already diseased, bruised,
+or partly rotted fruit. There are three general methods of storage:
+(1) by ventilation, (2) by the use of ice and (3) by mechanical means.</p>
+
+<p>Cooling by ventilation offers the most practical system for a farm
+storage. It requires that there be perfect insulation against outside
+temperature changes, adequate ventilation, and careful watching of
+temperatures. To provide for good insulation a dead air space is
+necessary. This can be secured by a course of good <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>two-inch boards
+with one or two layers of building paper inside and out, over a
+framework of two-by-fours. Over the building paper tight, well matched
+siding should be laid also inside and out. Two of the dead air spaces
+will make insulation doubly sure.</p>
+
+<p>To provide for proper ventilation construct an intake for cold air at
+the bottom, and an outlet for warm air at the top of the room. These
+should serve all parts of the room, one being necessary for this
+purpose every twelve to sixteen feet. Do not depend too much on
+windows. Warm-air flues should be twelve inches square and six to
+twelve feet long.</p>
+
+<p>The attention to such a house is most important. Keep it closed
+tightly early in the fall with blinded windows. When nights get cool
+open the doors and windows to let in cold air, closing them again
+during the day. On hot days close the ventilators also. In this way a
+temperature of 36 to 40 degrees Fahr. can be secured in early fall and
+one of 32 to 33 degrees Fahr. later. This is probably the cheapest as
+well as the most practical method of farm storage.</p>
+
+<p>Ice storage is quite practical in the North, but more expensive. The
+principle of such a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>storage is to keep ice above the fruit, allowing
+the cold air to flow down the sides of the room. A shaft in the middle
+of the room will serve to remove the warm air. This method is open to
+the objection of difficulty in storing the ice above the fruit.
+Moreover the uniformity of its cold air supply is questionable.
+Mechanical storage in which cold temperatures are secured by the
+compression or absorption of gases is altogether impracticable for
+individual growers, as it costs from $1.50 to $2.00 a barrel of
+capacity to construct such a storage. Rents of this kind of storage
+range from 10 to 25 cents a barrel per month, or 25 to 50 cents a
+barrel for the season of from four to six months.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER X<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>MARKETS AND MARKETING</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>Having produced a good product, there remains the problem of making a
+profitable and satisfactory disposition of it. In many ways marketing
+is the measure of successful fruit growing. Of what use is it to prune
+well, cultivate well, spray thoroughly, or even pack well the finest
+kind of product, if after the expense of these operations is paid and
+the railroad and commission agents have had their share, no profit
+remains to the producer? Many growers find it easier to produce good
+fruit than to market it at a good price, and this is especially true
+of the general farmer. Failure to market well spells failure in the
+business of fruit growing. Successful marketing presupposes a
+knowledge of the requirements of different markets as to quality,
+varieties, and supply demanded in those markets. Methods of
+distribution are also one of the great factors in this problem of
+marketing.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span><span class="sc">Types of Markets.</span>&mdash;There are two general types of markets,
+the local, which is a special market and the general or wholesale
+market, both of which have different but definite requirements. The
+local market handles fruit in small quantities, but usually with a
+larger margin of profit per unit to the producer. As a rule delivery
+is direct in a local market, and thus commissions are saved.
+Competition is also more or less limited to one's neighbors. More
+varieties, including less well known ones, are called for. Appearance
+does not count for as much as quality, which is of first importance.
+Fruit may be riper as it is consumed more quickly and meets with less
+rough handling. Packages are usually returned to the grower. Special
+markets are often willing to pay extra for fruit out of season, and
+they always require special study and adaptation to meet their needs.</p>
+
+<p>The general or wholesale market handles fruit in larger quantities,
+usually with a smaller margin of profit. A selling agent or commission
+man is the means of disposing of fruit in such a market, where
+competition is open to the whole country and sometimes to the world.
+Only standard well-known varieties find a ready <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>and profitable sale.
+Great attention is paid to appearance and comparatively little to
+quality. Fruit shipped to a wholesale market must be packed in a
+standard package, which is not returned, but goes with the fruit, and
+must be packed so as to endure rough treatment. Out of season fruit is
+not in demand, but even the general market sometimes has special
+preferences.</p>
+
+<p>Almost every market has favorite varieties for which it is willing to
+pay a larger price than other markets. Just as Boston wants a brown
+egg and New York a white one, so these and other cities have their
+favorite varieties of apples. Some markets prefer a red apple, others
+a green one, although the former is most generally popular. In the
+mining and manufacturing towns working people want smaller green
+apples, or "seconds," because they are cheaper. Many second-class
+hotels prefer small apples, if they are well colored, as they go
+farther. The fashionable restaurant and the fruit stand are the
+markets for large, perfect, and highly colored specimens. Housewives
+demand cooking apples like Greenings, hotels want a good out-of-hand
+apple like the McIntosh, while private families have their <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>own
+special favorites. As will readily be seen, the producer's problem is
+to find the special market for what he grows.</p>
+
+<p>It has been said that different markets have special varietal
+preferences, paying a better price for these than do other markets for
+the same quality. We can only take the space here to point out a few
+of these preferences. The Baldwin is by all odds our best general
+market and export variety. It is the workingman's apple and finds its
+best sale in our largest cities, particularly in New York and Chicago.
+The Rhode Island Greening is a better seller in the northern markets
+than it is in the southern, finding its best sale in Boston and in New
+York. The Northern Spy is highly regarded by all our large northern
+and eastern markets, is fairly well liked by the middle latitude
+markets, but not popular south of Baltimore and Pittsburgh or west of
+Milwaukee.</p>
+
+<p>Central western markets appear to prefer the Hubbardson, but this
+apple is fairly good in all markets. King is well thought of nearly
+everywhere. Ben Davis is a favorite in the South, New Orleans
+especially preferring it on account of its keeping quality. Jonathan
+has a good reputation everywhere. Dutchess of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>Oldenburg is regarded
+as excellent in Buffalo and Chicago. Wealthy, although generally a
+local market apple, is well known and liked in all markets. Twenty
+Ounce is spoken well of nearly everywhere. The Fameuse is not well
+liked in the South, but popular in the North, etc. These particular
+facts as to varieties are best learned by experience and by
+observation of the market quotations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">The Commission Man.</span>&mdash;The present system of marketing fruit
+products makes the commission man almost a necessity in the general
+market. Neither the grower nor the local dealer can ship directly to
+the consumer or even to the retailer, except in a very limited way. It
+may be impracticable to devise any other workable system, but it must
+be remembered that every man who touches a barrel of apples on its
+journey from producer to consumer must be paid for doing so, and this
+pay must come either out of the seller's price or be added to the
+buyer's price. But so long as present conditions of marketing and
+distribution prevail, so long will a selling agent in the general
+market be necessary, and the evil cannot be ameliorated by ranting
+against it.</p>
+
+<p>An unfortunate impression prevails that all <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>commission men are
+dishonest. This is not true, although undoubtedly there are many
+scoundrels among them, as they have shippers almost completely at
+their mercy. The best method under our present system is to choose an
+honest commission man in the city where you sell, to get acquainted
+with him, to let him know that your trade will be in his hands only so
+long as he treats you fairly, and then supply him with as good quality
+of stuff as you can produce. This plan has worked out well with many
+successful growers and marketers.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the greatest difficulty to be overcome in successfully finding
+good markets is that of proper distribution. As has been pointed out
+in the previous chapter, there has been a great increase in the
+production of apples and hence in competition, accompanied by
+speculation and more intensive methods in all phases of the business.
+A necessity has arisen for the production of the best at a minimum
+cost, as well as for finding the best market for that product. In the
+rush for the best market every seller is apt to be guided only by his
+own immediate interest without due regard for the fact that others are
+acting in the same way or that there is a future. The result is the
+piling up of fruit in a market <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>of high quotations, and a subsequent
+drop in the price. Then all turn from such a market to a better one
+with the result that a famine often results where but a few weeks or
+even days before there had been a feast.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it often happens that one market may have more fruit than it can
+possibly dispose of at the time, while another, perhaps equally good,
+goes begging. Such conditions are ruinous to trade. Growers are
+disappointed and ascribe the cause to the commission man. Consumers
+are unable many times to profit by a glut in the market but promptly
+blame the middleman or the grower when the supply is small and the
+price high.</p>
+
+<p>Other difficulties with our system of marketing are non-uniformity of
+the grades, the packages, or the fruit itself. There should be a clear
+definition of just what "firsts" and "seconds" are and this definition
+rigidly adhered to. Transportation is too frequently insufficient, not
+rapid enough, especially when perishable fruit is shipped in small
+lots, and usually at a too high rate. There are undoubtedly too many
+middlemen between producer and consumer. Growers sell to local dealers
+who sell to wholesalers at the receiving end. These <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>sell to
+wholesalers at the consuming end, who may sell to jobbers, who sell to
+retailers. Each man must have his profits, all of which greatly
+increases costs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Co-operation.</span>&mdash;Individuals have practically no power to
+remedy such a state of affairs. So long as producers act independently
+they will have little power either to bring about favorable
+legislation or to better such market conditions. Acting together as a
+unit growers have accomplished great things which can be repeated. The
+co-operative principle has been well tried out in California, where it
+was first put into operation with citrous fruits, in several other
+Western States with apples, and in Michigan and the Province of
+Ontario.</p>
+
+<p>Co-operative associations study carefully the law of supply and demand
+and take steps to adapt their shipments to it. They standardize the
+grade, the package, and the fruit, and govern their shipments to given
+markets by the needs and the demands of those markets. Their unity of
+effort enables them to make great savings in the purchase of supplies,
+such as packages, spraying material, fertilizers, etc., and in
+obtaining and distributing frequently knowledge of markets and market
+conditions. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>They also advertise their products, making them better
+known, creating a demand for them, and by means of correspondence or
+traveling agents seek out the best markets.</p>
+
+<p>There are now several large fruit exchanges operating over wide
+sections of country. But the local associations are the vital units in
+any co-operative movement. Such associations should be incorporated
+under State laws so that they can do all sorts of business when
+necessary. Six simple objects should be kept in mind, namely, (1) to
+prevent unnecessary competition, and to supervise and control
+distribution of products; (2) to provide for uniformity in the grade,
+package, and fruit; (3) to build up a high standard of excellence and
+to create a demand for it; (4) to economize in buying supplies and
+selling products; (5) to promote education regarding all phases of the
+fruit business; and (6) when necessary to act as a buying and selling
+agent for the community.</p>
+
+<p>Such an association requires a board of directors, a treasurer, and an
+active and well-paid manager. The latter is most important, as upon
+his honesty, ability, and energy will largely depend the success or
+failure of the organization. Sometimes where fruit is packed in a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>central packing house or under an association brand or guarantee, a
+foreman packer is also necessary. The capitalization required for such
+an enterprise is not necessarily large, unless warehouses or packing
+houses are built. These are usually better rented until the
+organization becomes well established.</p>
+
+<p>The shares should be small so that every member may be financially
+well represented, and members should be prohibited from holding more
+than a small percentage of the total shares, in order to prevent
+possible monopoly. Dividends on stock held should only be expected
+from business done outside the association membership, interest on
+money invested being obtained in the handling of members' products at
+cost. Receipts should be given growers for just what they bring in,
+and they should then be paid according to the grade of fruit which
+they contribute, prices for the same grade being pooled. The charge to
+growers for handling should be actual cost, but outsiders' products
+should be handled at a small profit in order to induce them to come
+into the association. The same method should be followed in purchasing
+supplies.</p>
+
+<p>The general result of such co-operation is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>that the consumer gets a
+better product for his money and the grower receives a better price
+for his product. It is very essential to the success of the
+organization that growers stick together, even through low prices and
+discouragement which so often come, until they are firmly established.
+Substantial reduction in the cost of the product to consumers can only
+come by similar co-operation among them at the buying end and by the
+co-operation of both consumers and producers for distribution and
+handling in market.</p>
+
+<p>If a neighborhood does not feel yet ready to attack this problem in
+this thorough and businesslike way, it will be advantageous and a step
+in the right direction if they simply agree on certain standards of
+quality and packing and then pool their product for marketing. This
+method has also been followed with success.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>SOME HINTS ON RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>Nearly every general farm in the humid part of the United States has
+its small, old apple orchard. For the most part these orchards were
+planted in order to have a home source of supply of this popular
+fruit. In fact, but few orchards have been planted on a commercial
+scale with a view of selling the fruit, until recently and outside of
+a few sections. Therefore, as a rule we find these old farm orchards
+to consist of a few acres containing from twenty-five to two hundred
+trees. These trees are usually good standard varieties which have been
+the source of much apple "sass," many an apple pie, and many a barrel
+of cider-vinegar.</p>
+
+<p>Not having been set for profit, these trees received little care.
+Orchards were cropped in the regular rotation, or with hay, or
+pastured. Farmers then knew little of modern methods of orchard
+management. The orchard was regarded as an incumbrance to the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>land,
+which had to be farmed to as good advantage as possible under the
+circumstances, and if the apple trees by any chance yielded a crop,
+the owner regarded himself as fortunate indeed.</p>
+
+<p>But conditions have now changed. Both local and foreign markets have
+been opened up and developed so that the demand for good fruit is
+great. It will be some time before the thousands of acres of orchards
+which have been and are being planted to meet this demand will be able
+to do so in any adequate way. It has been shown in Chapter I how heavy
+has been the falling off in the supply, even in the face of these
+heavy plantings. Meanwhile we must turn to the old neglected farm
+orchards for our supply of apples. Just at this particular time the
+renovation of these old orchards offers a splendid opportunity to
+increase the farm income.</p>
+
+<p>The question is a live one on nearly every general farm in the East.
+Will it pay to try to renovate my old apple trees? If so, what should
+I do to make them profitable? What will it cost and what returns may
+be expected? The latter question will be taken up in the following
+chapter, but here we must try to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>indicate under what conditions it
+may pay to renovate an old orchard, as well as those under which it
+may not pay, and also how to go about the problem.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Necessary Qualities.</span>&mdash;An apple orchard must have certain
+qualifications in order to make it worth while to spend the time and
+money necessary to accomplish the desired results. These we may take
+up briefly under five heads: (1) varieties, (2) age, (3) number or
+"stand" of trees, (4) vigor and health of the trees, and (5) soil,
+site, and location. The discussion of these subjects in Chapters II
+and III has equal application here, but we may perhaps point out their
+specific application more definitely in the case of the old neglected
+farm orchard.</p>
+
+<p>(1) Varieties should be desirable sorts. If they are the best standard
+market varieties, as is often the case, so much the better. Otherwise
+little is gained by improving the tree and fruit. Poor or unknown
+varieties have little or no market value, except perhaps a very local
+one. If the trees are not too old and are fairly vigorous, poor
+varieties may sometimes be worked over by top grafting to better
+varieties. Characteristics which may make, a variety <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>undesirable are:
+inferior quality; unattractiveness in color, shape, or size; lack of
+hardiness in the tree or keeping quality in the fruit; low yield; or
+being unknown in the market with its consequent small demand. Summer
+varieties are worth renovating only when they are in good demand in a
+nearby local market.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Vigor is more important than age in the tree, but is closely
+correlated with it. Ordinarily one should hesitate to try to renovate
+a tree more than forty or fifty years old, but this must always depend
+almost wholly on its condition and other characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>(3) In order to make a business of renovation and to do thorough work
+which means expense, there must be enough of the orchard to justify
+the expenditure of the time and money. This affects the results not
+only in expense, but in economy in management, equipment, and
+marketing. There should be at least an acre of say thirty trees, and
+better, more than that number to justify the expense of time and money
+necessary for renovation. One hundred trees would certainly justify
+it, other conditions being favorable. Then, too, the trees should be
+in such shape that they can be properly treated without too great
+trouble and expense, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span><i>i.e.</i>, not too scattered or isolated or in the
+midst of regular fields better adapted for other crops.</p>
+
+<p>(4) Vigor and good general health are of great importance. Many old
+trees are too far gone with neglect, having been too long starved or
+having their vitality too much weakened by disease to make an effort
+for their rehabilitation worth while. Good vigor, even though it be
+dormant, is absolutely essential. Disease weakens the tree, making the
+expense of renovation greater. Moreover, all diseased branches must be
+removed, requiring severe cutting and often seriously injuring the
+tree. Disease too often stunts the tree to such an extent as to make
+stimulation practically impossible. Such matters should be carefully
+looked into before attempting renovation.</p>
+
+<p>(5) If the soil, site, and location are all unfavorable or even if two
+of these are not good, time and money are likely to be wasted on
+renovation. What constitutes unfavorable conditions in these respects
+has already been pointed out in Chapter III.</p>
+
+<p>Practically the same principles of pruning, cultivation, fertilization
+and spraying apply in the management of the old orchard as in any
+other orchard. It may be well, however, to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>restate these, briefly
+pointing out their special value and application to the old neglected
+orchard together with the few modifications of practice necessary. The
+steps to be taken are four: (1) pruning, (2) fertilizing, (3)
+cultivating, and (4) spraying.</p>
+
+<p>(1) <span class="sc">Pruning.</span>&mdash;Old and long-neglected apple orchards usually
+have a large amount of dead wood in them. This may be removed at any
+time of the year, but fall and winter are good times to begin the
+work. If the trees are high and the limbs scattered and sprawling so
+that the middle of the trees is not well filled out, the trees should
+be headed back rather severely. Such trees may safely have their
+highest limbs cut back from five to ten feet. It is best not to remove
+too many branches in one year, but to spread severe cutting back over
+at least two years, as so much pruning at one time weakens the tree
+and causes an excessive growth of "suckers." Each limb should be cut
+back to a rather strong and vigorous lateral branch which may then
+take up the growth of the upright one. The effect of such heading back
+will be to stimulate the branches lower down and probably to bring in
+more or less "suckers." The following year the best of these suckers
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>should be selected at proper points about the tree, headed in so as to
+develop their lateral buds, and encouraged by the removal of all other
+suckers to fill in the top and center of the tree in the way desired.
+All such severe heading in should best be done in the early spring.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <span class="sc">Fertilizing.</span>&mdash;At some time during the late fall or winter
+twelve to fifteen loads of stable manure should be applied broadcast
+on each acre, scattering it well out under the ends of the branches.
+This will amount to a load to from three to five trees. In case manure
+is not available, or sometimes even supplementary to it in cases where
+quick results are wanted 100 to 200 pounds of nitrate of soda, 300 to
+500 pounds of acid phosphate, and 150 to 200 pounds of sulphate or
+muriate of potash should be applied in two applications as a top
+dressing in spring, as soon as growth starts, and thoroughly worked
+into the soil. This will give the trees an abundance of available
+plant food, which is usually badly needed, and help to stimulate them
+to a vigorous growth. Such heavy feeding may easily be overdone and
+should be adjusted according to conditions and the needs of the
+orchard.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <span class="sc">Cultivating.</span>&mdash;If the orchard has <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>been in sod for a
+number of years, as is often the case, it is usually best to plow it
+in the fall about four inches deep, just deep enough to turn under the
+sod. By so doing a large number of roots will probably be broken, but
+such injury will be much more than offset by the stimulus to the trees
+the next season. It is a good plan to apply the stable manure on the
+top of this plowed ground early in the winter. Fall plowing gives a
+better opportunity for rotting the sod and exposes to the winter
+action of the elements the soil, which is usually stale and inactive
+after lying so long unturned. In the spring the regular treatment with
+springtooth and spiketooth harrows should be followed as outlined in
+Chapter V.</p>
+
+<p>(4) <span class="sc">Spraying</span> in the old orchard is essentially the same as
+elsewhere. It is necessary, however, to emphasize the first spray, the
+dormant one, winter strength on the wood. This is the most important
+spray for a neglected orchard and it should be very thoroughly
+applied. It is a sort of cleaning-up spray for scale, fungus, and
+insects which winter on the bark. In orchards where the San Jos&eacute; scale
+is bad a strong lime-sulphur spray should also be used in the late
+fall in order to make doubly <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>sure a thorough cleaning up. It is
+usually a pretty good plan to scrape old trees as high up as the
+rough, shaggy bark extends, destroying the scrapings. For this purpose
+an old and dull hoe does very well. This treatment will get rid of
+many insects by destroying them and their winter quarters.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Patching Old Trees.</span>&mdash;A few suggestions on patching up the
+weak places in an old tree may not be entirely out of place. The
+question is often asked, will it pay to fill up the decayed centers or
+sides of old trees? If the tree is otherwise desirable to save, it
+usually will. Scrape out all the dead and rotten material, cleaning
+down to the sound heart wood. Then fill up the cavity with a rough
+cement, being careful to exclude all air and finishing with a smooth,
+sloping surface so as to drain away all moisture. This treatment will
+probably prevent further decay and often acts as a substantial
+mechanical support.</p>
+
+<p>Trees which are badly split or which have so grown that a heavy crop
+is likely to break them over should be braced with wires or bolts.
+Where the limbs are close together a bolt driven right through them
+with wide, strong washers at the ends is very effective in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>strengthening the tree. Where limbs must be braced from one side of
+the tree across to the other wires are the best to use. They may be
+fastened to bolts through the limbs with wide washers on the outside
+hooks on the inside, or by passing the wire around the branches. In
+the latter case some wide, fairly rigid material such as tin, pieces
+of wood, or heavy leather should be used to protect the tree from the
+wire which would otherwise cut into the bark and perhaps girdle the
+limb.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Cost.</span>&mdash;For the benefit of those who would like to get some
+idea of the probable cost of renovating old apple orchards, the
+following estimate made by the writer in a recent government
+publication on this subject is given. This estimate has been carefully
+made up from actual records kept on several New York farms. Because
+these costs are very variable according to the condition of the
+orchard, both maximum and minimum amounts are given per acre for the
+first year only.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Probably cost of Renovating old Apple Orchards">
+  <tr>
+  <td width="70%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td width="15%" class="tdc">Minimum cost</td>
+  <td width="15%" class="tdc">Maximum cost</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Plowing</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$2.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$3.00</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Manure, 10 to 20 loads at $1, or their equivalent in commercial fertilizer</td>
+  <td class="tdr">10.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr">20.00</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Hauling manure</td>
+  <td class="tdr">5.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr">10.00</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Pruning and hauling brush</td>
+  <td class="tdr">5.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr">10.00</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Disking or harrowing twice</td>
+  <td class="tdr">1.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr">1.50<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Disking or harrowing 3d or 4th time</td>
+  <td class="tdr">.50</td>
+  <td class="tdr">1.00</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Cultivating two to four times</td>
+  <td class="tdr">.50</td>
+  <td class="tdr">1.00</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Spraying once with L.S. dilution 1 to 9&mdash;material</td>
+  <td class="tdr">2.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr">4.00</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Spraying once, L.S., labor</td>
+  <td class="tdr">1.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr">1.50</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Spraying second time with L.S. dilution 1 to 40, labor and material</td>
+  <td class="tdr">1.50</td>
+  <td class="tdr">2.50</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Spraying third time with same</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">1.50</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">2.50</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" style="padding-left: 1.5em;">Total cost</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$30.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$57.00</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE COST OF GROWING APPLES</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>Two factors have always operated to deter many persons from taking up
+fruit growing as a business or even as a side issue on the farm, and
+they will probably continue to be an obstacle for more time to come.
+These are the comparatively large investment required and the
+necessarily long period of waiting before paying returns can be
+obtained. Farmers who have not gone into the business of fruit growing
+because they could not afford this heavy investment or to wait so long
+for returns have been wise. Others who, though lacking the necessary
+capital, still have planted heavily have learned to their sorrow the
+importance of capital in the business both for the original investment
+and to carry the enterprise. And yet with sufficient capital and the
+proper conditions there is no more attractive or profitable line of
+agriculture than fruit growing.</p>
+
+<p>Who knows what it costs to grow an orchard to bearing age? Or what it
+costs to produce a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>barrel of apples? We venture to say that very few
+persons do. Because of the large investment both in fixed and in
+working capital it is most important to know these costs. Moreover an
+accurate knowledge of the financial conditions and facts in any
+business is of first importance to intelligent management. For these
+reasons every grower ought to keep careful records of the cost and
+income from each field or orchard every year in order to determine as
+accurately as possible what his crops have cost him per unit and per
+acre and what rate of interest he has realized on his investment. As
+farming becomes more intensive competition increases, costs multiply,
+and the margin of profit on any given unit becomes smaller. It
+therefore becomes increasingly necessary to have accurate records on
+the cost of production.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Factors in the Cost of Production.</span>&mdash;The value of records
+depends on their accuracy and on their completeness. There are a great
+many factors which enter into the cost of production. For convenience
+these may be classified as cash costs and labor costs. Labor charges
+should include the work of both men and teams at a rate determined <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>by
+their actual cost or by a careful estimate. Man labor costs are easily
+reckoned, as they are either simple cash or cash plus board and
+certain privileges, the value of which should be estimated in cash.</p>
+
+<p>The value of horse labor is more difficult to determine. It is made up
+of interest on valuation, depreciation, stable rental, feed, care,
+etc. A fair estimate of this cost is $10 a month or $120 a year for a
+horse. Cash costs are interest on the investment and on the equipment
+in machinery, etc., or rental of the same, taxes, a proper share of
+the general farm expenses such as insurance and repairs of buildings,
+telephone, etc., the cost of spraying material, packages, fertilizers,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p>There are many ways of keeping such a record. Any method which
+accomplishes the result in a convenient and accurate manner is a good
+one. It will usually be found necessary to keep a cash account or day
+book, entering all items in enough detail to make possible their later
+distribution to the proper field or crop, and also to keep a diary of
+all labor. Any form of diary will answer the purpose, but one which
+has ruled columns at the right side of the page in which to indicate
+the crop or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>field worked upon, and the number of hours worked is more
+convenient and therefore more desirable.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">An Example.</span>&mdash;For a number of years the author has kept such
+records on his farm in western New York. As an illustration of the
+method and in order to give the reader a general idea as to what the
+costs above referred to are likely to be we venture to give the
+following tables. It must be remembered, however, that practically
+everyone of the above mentioned factors varies with the conditions
+under which the orchard is managed and that these figures are not <i>an</i>
+average but <i>one</i> average and on one farm. True averages are arrived
+at only by bringing together a large number of figures. In any case,
+the question of cost is essentially an individual problem on every
+farm. These figures are of value only as an example of the method and
+the cost on one farm under its own special conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The orchard for which the following figures were given was set in the
+spring of 1903, and the records begin with that year and end with
+1910, covering a period of eight years in all. Throughout this period
+other crops have been <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>grown between the tree rows, thereby offsetting
+to a large extent the cost of growing the orchard. Forty trees at the
+north end of the orchard are pears, but they have received
+substantially the same treatment as the apples and have not affected
+the cost. In 1904, 211 plum trees were set as fillers one way. The
+apple trees were set 36 by 36 feet apart, so that, filled one way, the
+trees stand 18 by 36 feet apart. The orchard is ten rows wide and
+forty-seven long, containing in all 467 trees.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bringing to Bearing Age.</span>&mdash;The first of the following tables
+is given as a sample of one year's records, that of 1907, on this
+orchard in order to show both the manner in which the costs were made
+up and what the items amounted to in one year:</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">FIELD A&mdash;1907. FIFTH YEAR</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Sample Of One Year's Records">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Total Hours</td>
+  <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Total cost</td>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Hours per acre</td>
+  <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Cost per acre</td>
+  <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Cost per 100</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Operation</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">Man</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">Horse</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">Man</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">Horse</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td width="23%" class="tdl">Mulching</td>
+  <td width="11%" class="tdr2">3</td>
+  <td width="11%" class="tdr2">6</td>
+  <td width="11%" class="tdr2">$1.05</td>
+  <td width="11%" class="tdr2">.455</td>
+  <td width="11%" class="tdr2">.91</td>
+  <td width="11%" class="tdr2">$0.16&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td width="11%" class="tdr2">$0.22</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Pruning</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">11</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">1.65</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">1.67&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">.25&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">.35</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" style="white-space: nowrap;">Cultivating 1</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">7</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">7</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">1.75</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">1.06&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">1.06</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">.26&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">.38</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Cultivating 2</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">10</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">10</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">2.50</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">1.51&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">1.51</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">.38&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">.54</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Cultivating 3</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">6</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">6</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">1.50</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">.91&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">.91</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">.23&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">.32</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Plowing in fall</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">47</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">94</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">16.45</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">7.12&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">14.25</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">2.50&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">3.52</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Banking trees</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">12</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">1.80</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">1.82&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">.27&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">.39</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Harrowing</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">21</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">42</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">7.35</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">3.18&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">6.36</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">1.11&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">1.58</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Total lab. cost.</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">117</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">165</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$34.05</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">17.73&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">25.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$5.16&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$7.30</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="3">4 loads manure at $1.50</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">6.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">.91&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">1.29<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Equipment charge</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">1.15</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">.174</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">.25</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Taxes</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">5.29</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">.801</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">1.13</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Interest</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">38.48</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">5.83&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">8.23</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Total cost</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$84.97</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$12.875</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$18.20</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">INCOME, COST AND PROFIT ON BEANS&mdash;FIELD A&mdash;1907</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary="Income, Cost and Profit on Beans">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="40%">Income</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="15%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="15%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="15%">Cost</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="15%">Profit</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">75 bushels at $1.50</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$112.50</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">3&frac12; tons pods at $6</td>
+  <td class="tdr">21.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$133.65</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$94.50</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$38.85</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">LOSS ON FIELD A&mdash;1907</p>
+
+<br />
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="40%" summary="Loss on Field A">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="63%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="15%">Total</td>
+  <td width="4%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="18%">Per acre</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Net income from beans</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$38.85</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$5.89</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Cost of orchard</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">84.97</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">12.87</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" style="padding-left: 1em;">Loss</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$46.12</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$6.98</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p>A summary of the cost of the orchard, the net income from the crop,
+the income from the orchard and the profit and loss by years for the
+eight years follows:</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">SUMMARY OF COSTS FOR EIGHT YEARS, FIELD A</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Sample Of One Year's Records">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: bottom;">Crop grown</td>
+  <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Net income from crop</td>
+  <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Income from orchard</td>
+  <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Cost of orchard</td>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="2">6.6 acres</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Year</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">Profit</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">Loss</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td width="10%" class="tdl">1903</td>
+  <td width="25%" class="tdl">Corn</td>
+  <td width="13%" class="tdr2">$ 15.17</td>
+  <td width="13%" class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td width="13%" class="tdr2">$109.87</td>
+  <td width="13%" class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td width="13%" class="tdr2">$ 94.70</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1904</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Beans</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">42.57</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">216.16</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">173.59</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1905</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Beans</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">43.13</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">83.78</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">40.65</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1906</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Beans</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">120.90</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">80.14</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">$40.76</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1907</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Beans</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">38.85</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">84.97</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">46.12</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1908</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Corn</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">37.68</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">64.22</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">26.54<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" style="vertical-align: top;">1909</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Oats and strawberries</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">100.61</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">$27.88</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">84.73</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">43.76</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1910</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Wheat</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">60.70</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">38.65</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">96.35</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">3.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" style="padding-left: .5em;">Totals</td>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$459.61</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$66.53</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$620.22</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$87.52</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$381.60</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Net loss on field for eight years</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">$294.08</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Net loss on field for eight years</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">$294.08</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Average annual loss</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">38.76</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total cost an acre, exclusive of income</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">124.27</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total cost an acre, including income</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">44.55</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total net cost a hundred trees</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">62.97</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total net cost an apple tree</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">1.37</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total net cost an apple tree, exclusive of income</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">3.80</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total labor cost an acre</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">35.09</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total cash cost an acre</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">89.19</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p>We find that this orchard has cost $124.27 an acre during the eight
+years of its life, but that the $79.72 an acre of crops grown in the
+orchard has brought this cost down to $44.55 an acre. It is safe to
+say that the orchard would have cost even more than it did had it not
+been for the crops, for many operations charged directly to the crops
+would of necessity have been charged to the trees. The cost a hundred
+trees does not mean much, as it often happens that not all the trees
+are covered by an operation and as the number of trees an acre greatly
+affects these costs.</p>
+
+<p>We have another and younger orchard upon which a record has been kept.
+This orchard of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>five acres contains 126 standard apple trees,
+"filled" both ways with 375 peach trees. It was set in the spring of
+1908, so that the trees have grown four seasons. The permanents
+(apples) are set 36 by 40 feet apart, so that, with the peaches
+between, the trees stand 18 by 20 feet apart. A crop of beans has been
+grown between the tree rows each season. The first season a full seven
+rows, twenty-eight inches apart, were planted in the wider space; the
+second and third season six rows, and the last season only four rows.
+The crop has been very good each year until the last. One application
+of manure, one crop of clover and one seeding of rye have been plowed
+under, and in addition a liberal amount of commercial fertilizer has
+been used with each crop. This year the peach trees bore their first
+crop. The record of the four years is as follows:</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">SUMMARY OF THE COST OF A FOUR-YEAR-OLD APPLE AND PEACH ORCHARD</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Sample Of One Year's Records">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" style="vertical-align: bottom;">Year</td>
+  <td class="tdl" style="vertical-align: bottom;">Crop grown</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Net income from crop</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Income from orchard</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Cost of orchard</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="vertical-align: bottom;">Profit</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="vertical-align: bottom;">Loss</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td width="10%" class="tdl">1908</td>
+  <td width="25%" class="tdl">Beans</td>
+  <td width="13%" class="tdr2">$63.37</td>
+  <td width="13%" class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td width="13%" class="tdr2">$130.12</td>
+  <td width="13%" class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td width="13%" class="tdr2">$62.75&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1909</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Beans</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">66.70</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">$85.03</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">18.33&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1910</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Beans</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">79.81</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">83.39</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">3.58&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1911</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Beans</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">53.20</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">$46.05</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">61.95</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">$37.30</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">&mdash;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" style="padding-left: 1em;">Totals</td>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$267.08</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$46.05</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$360.49</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$37.30</td>
+  <td class="tdr2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$84.66&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total cost an acre, exclusive of income</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">$72.10&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total cost an acre, exclusive of income</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">9.47&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total net cost a hundred trees</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">4.73&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total net cost an apple tree</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">.376</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="6">Total net cost an apple tree, exclusive of income</td>
+  <td class="tdr2">2.86&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p>These figures show a still lower cost of growing trees to bearing age.
+After paying all expenses connected with the growing of the trees,
+including the interest on the land at $150 an acre, and deducting the
+net profit from the crops of beans and the sales from the first crop
+of peaches we find that the growing of the trees has cost us $9.47 an
+acre, or 37&frac12; cents an apple tree at four years old. Had no crop been
+grown in the orchard it would have cost us at least $62.89 an acre
+after deducting the income from the first peach crop. The peach trees
+are now at full bearing age, and should show a good profit from this
+time on. Possibly at five and certainly at six years of age this
+orchard will entirely have paid for itself. The only possible further
+charge which could be made against this orchard is the crop income
+which might have been obtained from the land had the trees not been
+there. We estimated that the presence of the trees cut down the crop
+of beans from the land 30 per cent. As the average net income from
+beans was $13.35 <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>an acre this would amount to $4 an acre a year&mdash;an
+insignificant sum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">In Bearing.</span>&mdash;Having given the reader an idea of the probable
+cost of bringing an orchard to bearing age, it may be well also to
+give the cost of producing apples in a mature apple orchard. Our
+bearing apple orchard consists of 6.1 acres containing 234 trees.
+About one-half of the trees, or 110, are 36 years old. The remainder
+are nearly 50 years of age. As they are all in one block and handled
+together, the charges cannot well be separated. One hundred and
+thirty-four of the trees are Baldwins, 44 Twenty Ounce, 40 Tompkins
+County Kings, and the remainder odd varieties. For the whole period of
+ten years the orchard has had very good care and attention.</p>
+
+<p>A cover crop was not sown every year, but when it was used the charge
+was made against the orchard. The manure charge, omitted because of
+uncertainty as to the exact amount applied and as to its real value,
+is the only thing lacking in this table.</p>
+
+<p>Two or three sprayings have been made every year. Until 1909, Bordeaux
+mixture and Paris green were used, but since then the commercial
+brands of lime sulphur and arsenate <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>of lead have taken their place,
+nearly doubling the cost of the spray material. The average cost of
+the material for spraying has been $2.50 per acre, or nearly three and
+one-half cents per barrel of apples harvested. In 1910 this cost was
+$3.92 per acre and seven cents a barrel.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">TABLE SHOWING THE ITEMS OF EXPENSE IN PRODUCING APPLES IN A SIX ACRE
+ORCHARD</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="Items of Expense">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="12%">Year</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="11%">Cover crop</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="11%">Spraying mat.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="11%">Bar.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="11%">5% int. on inv.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="11%">Equip. charge</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="11%">O'vh'd charge</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="11%">Labor cost</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="11%">Total cost</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1902</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">6.64</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$117.88</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$27.45</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$25.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$2.97</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$339.45</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$519.39</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1903</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">11.22</td>
+  <td class="tdr">164.92</td>
+  <td class="tdr">28.88</td>
+  <td class="tdr">25.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr">2.88</td>
+  <td class="tdr">249.55</td>
+  <td class="tdr">482.56</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1904</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">10.50</td>
+  <td class="tdr">109.90</td>
+  <td class="tdr">30.50</td>
+  <td class="tdr">25.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr">3.93</td>
+  <td class="tdr">180.55</td>
+  <td class="tdr">360.38</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1905</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$6.10</td>
+  <td class="tdr">12.45</td>
+  <td class="tdr">88.80</td>
+  <td class="tdr">30.50</td>
+  <td class="tdr">25.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr">3.40</td>
+  <td class="tdr">158.06</td>
+  <td class="tdr">324.31</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1906</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">14.85</td>
+  <td class="tdr">112.35</td>
+  <td class="tdr">33.06</td>
+  <td class="tdr">25.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr">4.78</td>
+  <td class="tdr">211.76</td>
+  <td class="tdr">401.80</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1907</td>
+  <td class="tdr">10.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr">16.85</td>
+  <td class="tdr">79.80</td>
+  <td class="tdr">35.56</td>
+  <td class="tdr">25.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr">4.89</td>
+  <td class="tdr">192.30</td>
+  <td class="tdr">364.40</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1908</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">9.75</td>
+  <td class="tdr">205.45</td>
+  <td class="tdr">37.76</td>
+  <td class="tdr">30.09</td>
+  <td class="tdr">5.09</td>
+  <td class="tdr">293.50</td>
+  <td class="tdr">583.55</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1909</td>
+  <td class="tdr">8.68</td>
+  <td class="tdr">19.26</td>
+  <td class="tdr">196.35</td>
+  <td class="tdr">41.97</td>
+  <td class="tdr">38.98</td>
+  <td class="tdr">5.91</td>
+  <td class="tdr">280.78</td>
+  <td class="tdr">591.93</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1910</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">23.89</td>
+  <td class="tdr">116.90</td>
+  <td class="tdr">45.75</td>
+  <td class="tdr">32.39</td>
+  <td class="tdr">5.58</td>
+  <td class="tdr">175.26</td>
+  <td class="tdr">399.77</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">1911</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">10.50</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">27.08</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">206.38</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">45.75</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 0em; border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">32.39*</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 0em; border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">5.53*</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 0em; border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">275.00*</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">602.63</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="2" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">10 yr. av.</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$15.25</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$139.87</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$35.73</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$28.37</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$4.78</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$235.62</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">$463.07</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Av. per acre</td>
+  <td class="tdr">2.50</td>
+  <td class="tdr">22.93</td>
+  <td class="tdr">5.86</td>
+  <td class="tdr">4.65</td>
+  <td class="tdr">.78</td>
+  <td class="tdr">38.63</td>
+  <td class="tdr">75.92</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Av. per bbl</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 0em;">.036</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 0em;">.327</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 0em;">.084</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 0em;">.066</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 0em;">.011</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 0em;">.552</td>
+  <td class="tdr">-1.08</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="9" style="padding-left: 2em;">* Partly estimated, records not yet complete.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p>The cost of the package has varied from 28 to 38 cents and has
+averaged about 32&frac12; cents, or $22.93 per acre. Of course the latter
+amount varies greatly with the crop.</p>
+
+<p>Interest has in all cases been figured at five per cent., but as the
+price of the land has varied from $90 an acre at the beginning of the
+period to its present valuation of $160,00 an acre, due both to its
+improvement and to a general <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>increase in the price of land, the
+amount of interest has also varied. The same is true of the equipment
+charge which has steadily increased each year. The average valuation
+of the land for the ten-year period was $117.15 an acre. This means an
+annual interest charge of $5.86 per acre, or 8&frac12; cents a barrel. The
+equipment charge, which is interest, repairs, and depreciation on the
+machinery used in the orchard, amounts to more than 6&frac12; cents a barrel,
+or $4.65 per acre. Taxes and insurance on the buildings distributed
+per acre for the farm average $.78 per acre, or a trifle over one cent
+per barrel. These costs have also increased in the last few years.</p>
+
+<p>Labor is the largest single item. For the first four years this was
+estimated on the basis of the cost for the last six years, for which
+more careful records were kept. It is computed at its actual cost to
+us on the farm, which was 15&frac12; cents an hour for men and 13&frac12; cents an
+hour for horses. This amounts to $4.25 per day for man and team. The
+cost of the labor to grow, pick, pack, and market a barrel of apples
+was 55 cents, or $38.63 per acre with an average yield of 70 barrels
+per acre.</p>
+
+<p>To sum up these items of cost we find that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>taking the average of ten
+years with an annual crop of 427 barrels, or 70 per acre, on 6.1 acres
+of old apple orchard that the costs per barrel have been as follows:
+spray material, $.036; packages, $.327; interest on the land, $.084;
+use of equipment, $.066; taxes, $.011; labor, $.552; and a total of
+$1.08 per barrel. If the estimated cost of manure, six cents a barrel
+be added, the total will be $1.14. As we have said, these costs per
+barrel vary with the crop. When our yield was 100 barrels per acre the
+cost per barrel was only $.99, but when it was 34 barrels per acre
+this cost rose to $1.73 per barrel. In 1910 we grew a crop of 55
+barrels per acre for $1.20 per barrel.</p>
+
+<p>It may be of interest to some to know what the income and profit were
+on this orchard. For this purpose we give the following table showing
+the yield, income, cost, and net profit for each of the ten years, and
+the average:</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="income and profit, 10 years">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="10%" style="vertical-align: bottom;">Year</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="15%">Yield in bbls. per A.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="15%">Income bbls. only</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="15%">Income inc. culls and drops</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="15%">Cost per bbl.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="15%">Net bbls. alone</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="15%">Profit inc. culls and drops</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1902</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">103</td>
+  <td class="tdr3">$1.96*</td>
+  <td class="tdr3">$1.46*</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">$.83</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">$1.13</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">$.63</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1903</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">71</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.90</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">2.23</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.11</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">.79</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.12</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1904</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">51</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.66</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.78</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.15</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">.51</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">.63</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1905</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">49</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">2.30</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">2.68</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.10</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.20</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.58</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1906</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">53</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.96</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">2.25</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.25</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">.71</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.30</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1907</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">34</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">3.49</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">4.10</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.73</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.76</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">2.37</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1908</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">96</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">2.03</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">2.32</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">.99</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.04</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.33</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1909</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">92</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">3.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">3.38</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.06</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.94</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">2.32</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1910</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">55</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">2.69</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">3.03</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.20</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.49</td>
+  <td class="tdr4">1.83<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">1911</td>
+  <td class="tdr4" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">100</td>
+  <td class="tdr4" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">2.06</td>
+  <td class="tdr4" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">2.32</td>
+  <td class="tdr3" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">.99&dagger;</td>
+  <td class="tdr3" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">1.07&dagger;</td>
+  <td class="tdr3" style="border-bottom: 1pt black solid;">1.33&dagger;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">10 yr. av.</td>
+  <td class="tdr4" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">70</td>
+  <td class="tdr4" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">2.15</td>
+  <td class="tdr4" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">2.47</td>
+  <td class="tdr4" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">1.08</td>
+  <td class="tdr4" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">1.07</td>
+  <td class="tdr4" style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">1.39</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="7" style="padding-left: 1em;"><p>* In arriving at these incomes different divisors were used. Two
+  hundred barrels of the crop were sold in bulk and these were not
+  used in getting the average income from barrels only, but were used
+  in getting the average income including culls and drops.</p>
+  <p>&dagger; Partly estimated, records not yet being complete for the season.</p></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h4>THE END</h4>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+
+<h2>OUTING<br />
+HANDBOOKS</h2>
+<br />
+
+<div class="block3">
+<p>&para; Each book deals with a separate subject and deals with it
+thoroughly. If you want to know anything about Airedales an <b>OUTING
+HANDBOOK</b> gives you all you want. If it's Apple Growing, another <b>OUTING
+HANDBOOK</b> meets your need. The Fisherman, the Camper, the
+Poultry-raiser, the Automobilist, the Horseman, all varieties of
+outdoor enthusiasts, will find separate volumes for their separate
+interests. There is no waste space.</p>
+
+<p>&para; The series is based on the plan of one subject to a book and each
+book complete. The authors are experts. Each book has been specially
+prepared for this series and all are published in uniform style,
+flexible cloth binding, selling at the fixed price of seventy cents
+per copy.</p>
+
+<p>&para; Two hundred titles are projected. The series covers all phases of
+outdoor life, from bee-keeping to big game shooting. Among the books
+now ready are those described on the following pages.</p>
+
+<h4 style="margin-bottom: -1px;">OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY</h4>
+<h5 style="margin-top: -1px;">OUTING MAGAZINE&nbsp; Yachting&nbsp; OUTING HANDBOOKS<br />
+141-145 WEST 36th ST. NEW YORK&nbsp; 122 S. MICHIGAN AVE. CHICAGO</h5>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<div class="block3">
+<p><b>THE AIREDALE. By Williams Haynes.</b> The book opens with a short
+chapter on the origin and development of the Airedale, as a
+distinctive breed. The author then takes up the problems of type as
+bearing on the selection of the dog, breeding, training and use. The
+book is designed for the non-professional dog fancier, who wishes
+common sense advice which does not involve elaborate preparation or
+expenditure. Chapters are included on the care of the dog in the
+kennel and simple remedies for ordinary diseases.</p>
+
+<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>A splendid book on the breed and should be in the hands of
+every owner of an Airedale whether novice or breeder.</i>"&mdash;<i>The
+Kennel Review.</i></p>
+
+<p class="noin">"<i>It ought to be read and studied by every Airedale owner and
+admirer.</i>"&mdash;<i>Howard Keeler, Airedale Farm Kennels.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>APPLE GROWING. By M.C. Burritt.</b> Mr. Burritt takes up the question of
+the profit in apple growing, the various kinds best suited to
+different parts of the country and different conditions of soil,
+topography, and so on. He discusses also the most approved methods of
+planning a new orchard and takes up in detail the problems connected
+with the cultivation, fertilization, and pruning. The book contains
+chapters on the restoration of old orchards, the care of the trees,
+their protection against various insect-enemies and blight, and the
+most approved method of harvesting, handling and storing the fruit.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>THE AUTOMOBILE&mdash;Its Selection, Care and Use. By Robert Sloss.</b> This
+is a plain, practical discussion of the things that every man needs to
+know if he is to buy the right car and get the most out of it. The
+various details of operation and care are given in simple, intelligent
+terms. From it the car owner can easily learn the mechanism of his
+motor and the art of locating motor trouble, as well as how to use his
+car for the greatest pleasure. A chapter is included on building
+garages.</p>
+
+<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>It is the one book dealing with autos, that gives reliable
+information.</i>"&mdash;<i>The Grand Rapids (Mich.) Herald.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>BACKWOODS SURGERY AND MEDICINE. By Charles S. Moody, M.D.</b> A handy
+book for the prudent lover of the woods who doesn't expect to be ill
+but believes in being on the safe side. Common-sense methods for the
+treatment of the ordinary wounds and accidents are described&mdash;setting
+a broken limb, reducing a dislocation, caring for burns, cuts, etc.
+Practical remedies for camp diseases are recommended, as well as the
+ordinary indications of the most probable ailments. Includes a list of
+the necessary medical and surgical supplies.</p>
+
+<div class="block2"><p class="noin"><i>The manager of a mine in Nome, Alaska, writes as follows: "I
+have been on the trail for years (twelve in the Klondike and
+Alaska) and have always wanted just such a book as Dr. Moody's
+Backwoods Surgery and Medicine."</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>CAMP COOKERY. By Horace Kephart.</b> "The less a man carries in his
+pack, the more he must carry in his head," says Mr. Kephart. This book
+tells what a man should carry in both pack and head. Every step is
+traced&mdash;the selection of provisions and utensils, with the kind and
+quantity of each, the preparation of game, the building of fires the
+cooking of every conceivable kind of food that the camp outfit or
+woods, fields, or streams may provide&mdash;even to the making of desserts.
+Every receipt is the result of hard practice and long experience.
+Every recipe has been carefully tested. It is the book for the man who
+wants to dine well and wholesomely, but in true wilderness fashion
+without reliance on grocery stores or elaborate camp outfits. It is
+adapted equally well to the trips of every length and to all
+conditions of climate, season or country; the best possible companion
+for one who wants to travel light and live well. The chapter headings
+tell their own story. Provisions&mdash;Utensils&mdash;Fires&mdash;Dressing and
+Keeping Game and Fish&mdash;Meat&mdash;Game&mdash;Fish and Shell Fish&mdash;Cured Meats,
+etc.&mdash;Eggs&mdash;Bread-stuffs and Cereals&mdash;Vegetables&mdash;Soups&mdash;Beverages and
+Desserts.</p>
+
+<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>Scores of new hints may be obtained by the housekeeper as well
+as the camper from Camp Cookery.</i>"&mdash;<i>Portland Oregonian.</i></p>
+
+<p class="noin">"<i>I am inclined to think that the advice contained in Mr.
+Kephart's book is to be relied on. I had to stop reading his
+receipts for cooking wild fowl&mdash;they made me hungry.</i>"&mdash;<i>New York
+Herald.</i></p>
+
+<p class="noin">"<i>The most useful and valuable book to the camper yet
+published.</i>"&mdash;<i>Grand Rapids Herald.</i></p>
+
+<p class="noin">"<i>Camp Cookery is destined to be in the kit of every tent dweller
+in the country.</i>"&mdash;<i>Edwin Markham in the San Francisco Examiner.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>CAMPS AND CABINS. By Oliver Kemp.</b> A working guide for the man who
+wants to know how to make a temporary shelter in the woods against the
+storm or cold. This describes the making of lean-tos, brush shelters,
+snow shelters, the utilization of the canoe, and so forth. Practically
+the only tools required are a stout knife or a pocket axe, and Mr.
+Kemp shows how one may make shift even without these implements. More
+elaborate camps and log cabins, also, are described and detailed plans
+reproduced. Illustrated with drawings by the author.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>EXERCISE AND HEALTH. By Dr. Woods Hutchinson.</b> Dr. Hutchinson takes
+the common-sense view that the greatest problem in exercise for most
+of us is to get enough of the right kind. The greatest error in
+exercise is not to take enough, and the greatest danger in athletics
+is in giving them up. The Chapter heads are illuminating. Errors in
+Exercise&mdash;Exercise and the Heart&mdash;Muscle Maketh Man&mdash;The Danger of
+Stopping Athletics&mdash;Exercise that Rests. It is written in a direct
+matter-of-fact manner with an avoidance of medical terms, and a strong
+emphasis on the rational, all-round manner of living that is best
+calculated to bring a man to a ripe old age with little illness or
+consciousness of body weakness.</p>
+
+<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>It contains good physiology as well as good common sense,
+written by an acute observer and a logical reasoner, who has the
+courage of his convictions and is a master of English
+style.</i>"&mdash;<i>D.A. Sargent, M.D., Sargent School for Physical
+Education.</i></p>
+
+<p class="noin">"<i>One of the most readable books ever written on physical
+exercise.</i>"&mdash;<i>Luther H. Gulick, M.D., Department of Child
+Hygiene, Russell Sage Foundation.</i></p>
+
+<p class="noin">"<i>A little book for the busy man written in brilliant
+style.</i>"&mdash;<i>Kansas City Star.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>THE FINE ART OF FISHING. By Samuel G. Camp.</b> Combines the pleasure of
+catching fish with the gratification of following the sport in the
+most approved manner. The suggestions offered are helpful to beginner
+and expert anglers. The range of fish and fishing conditions covered
+is wide and includes such subjects as "Casting Fine and Far Off,"
+"Strip-Casting for Bass," "Fishing For Mountain Trout" and "Autumn
+Fishing for Lake Trout." The book is pervaded with a spirit of love
+for the streamside and the out-doors generally which the genuine
+angler will appreciate. A companion book to "Fishing Kits and
+Equipment." The advice on outfitting so capably given in that book is
+supplemented in this later work by equally valuable information on how
+to use the equipment.</p>
+
+<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>Will encourage the beginner and give pleasure to the expert
+fisherman.</i>"&mdash;<i>N.Y. Sun.</i></p>
+
+<p class="noin">"<i>A vein of catching enthusiasm runs through every
+chapter.</i>"&mdash;<i>Scientific American.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>FISHING KITS AND EQUIPMENT. By Samuel G. Camp.</b> A complete guide to
+the angler buying a new outfit. Every detail of fishing kit of the
+freshwater angler is described, from rodtip to creel and clothing.
+Special emphasis is laid on outfitting for fly fishing, but full
+instruction is also given to the man who wants to catch pickerel,
+pike, muskellunge, lake-trout, bass and other fresh-water game fishes.
+Prices are quoted for all articles recommended and the approved method
+of selecting and testing the various rods, lines, leaders, etc., is
+described.</p>
+
+<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>A complete guide to the angler buying a new outfit.</i>"&mdash;<i>Peoria
+Herald.</i></p>
+
+<p class="noin">"<i>The man advised by Mr. Camp will catch his fish.</i>"&mdash;<i>Seattle
+P.I.</i></p>
+
+<p class="noin">"<i>Even the seasoned angler will read this hook with
+profit.</i>"&mdash;<i>Chicago Tribune.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>THE HORSE&mdash;Its Breeding, Care and Use. By David Buffum.</b> Mr. Buffum
+takes up the common, every-day problems of the ordinary horse-user,
+such as feeding, shoeing, simple home remedies, breaking and the cure
+for various equine vices. An important chapter is that tracing the
+influx of Arabian blood into the English and American horses and its
+value and limitations. Chapters are included on draft-horses, carriage
+horses, and the development of the two-minute trotter. It is
+distinctly a sensible book for the sensible man who wishes to know how
+he can improve his horses and his horsemanship at the same time.</p>
+
+<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>I am recommending it to our students as a useful reference book
+for both the practical farmer and the student.</i>"&mdash;<i>T. R. Arkell,
+Animal Husbandman, N.H. Agricultural Experiment Station.</i></p>
+
+<p class="noin">"<i>Has a great deal of merit from a practical standpoint and is
+valuable for reference work.</i>"&mdash;<i>Prof. E.L. Jordon, Professor of
+Animal Industry, Louisiana State University.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>MAKING AND KEEPING SOIL. By David Buffum.</b> This deals with the
+various kinds of soil and their adaptibility to different crops,
+common sense tests as to the use of soils, and also the common sense
+methods of cultivation and fertilization in order to restore worn-out
+soil and keep it at its highest productivity under constant use.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>THE MOTOR BOAT&mdash;Its Selection, Care and Use. By H.W. Slauson.</b> The
+intending purchaser of a motor boat is advised as to the type of boat
+best suited to his particular needs, the power required for the
+desired speeds, and the equipment necessary for the varying uses. The
+care of the engine receives special attention and chapters are
+included on the use of the boat in camping and cruising expeditions,
+its care through the winter, and its efficiency in the summer.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>NAVIGATION FOR THE AMATEUR. By Capt. E.T. Morton.</b> A short treatise
+on the simpler methods of finding position at sea by the observation
+of the sun's altitude and the use of the sextant and chronometer. It
+is arranged especially for yachtsmen and amateurs who wish to know the
+simpler formulae for the necessary navigation involved in taking a
+boat anywhere off shore. Illustrated with drawings.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>OUTDOOR SIGNALLING. By Elbert Wells.</b> Mr. Wells has perfected a
+method of signalling by means of wig-wag, light, smoke, or whistle
+which is as simple as it is effective. The fundamental principle can
+be learnt in ten minutes and its application is far easier than that
+of any other code now in use. It permits also the use of cipher and
+can be adapted to almost any imaginable conditions of weather, light,
+or topography.</p>
+
+<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>I find it to be the simplest and most practical book on
+signalling published.</i>"&mdash;<i>Frank H. Schrenk, Director of Camp
+Belgrade.</i></p>
+
+<p class="noin">"<i>One of the finest things of the kind I have ever seen. I
+believe my seven year old boy can learn to use this system, and I
+know that we will find it very useful here in our Boy Scout
+work.</i>"&mdash;<i>Lyman G. Haskell, Physical Director, Y.M.C.A.,
+Jacksonville, Fla.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>PRACTICAL POULTRY KEEPING. By R.B. Sando.</b> The chapters outlined in
+this book are poultry keeping and keepers, housing and yarding,
+fixtures and equipment, choosing and buying stock, foods and feeding,
+hatching and raising chicks. Inbreeding, caponizing, etc., What to do
+at different seasons. The merits of "secrets and systems", The truth
+about common poultry fallacies and get-rich-quick schemes. Poultry
+parasites and diseases. A complete list of the breeds and subjects is
+attached. It is in effect a comprehensive manual for the instruction
+of the man who desires to begin poultry raising on a large or small
+scale and to avoid the ordinary mistakes to which the beginner is
+prone. All the statements are based on the authors own experience and
+special care has been taken to avoid sensationalism or exaggeration.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>PROFITABLE BREEDS OF POULTRY. By Arthur S. Wheeler.</b> Mr. Wheeler has
+chapters on some of the best known general purpose birds such as Rhode
+Island Reds, Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Mediterraneans, Orpingtons,
+and Cornish, describing the peculiarities and possibilities of each.
+There are additional chapters on the method of handling a poultry farm
+on a small scale with some instructions as to housing the birds, and
+so forth, and also a chapter on the market side of poultry growing.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>RIFLES AND RIFLE SHOOTING. By Charles Askins.</b> Part I describes the
+various makes and mechanisms taking up such points as range and
+adaptibility of the various calibers, the relative merits of lever,
+bolt and pump action, the claims of the automatic, and so forth. Part
+II deals with rifle shooting, giving full instruction for target
+practice, snap shooting, and wing shooting.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>SCOTTISH AND IRISH TERRIERS. By Williams Haynes.</b> This is a companion
+book to The Airedale and deals with the origin of the breeds, the
+standard types, approved methods of breeding, kenneling, training,
+care and so forth, with chapters on showing and also on the ordinary
+diseases and simple remedies.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>SPORTING FIREARMS. By Horace Kephart.</b> This book is devided into two
+parts, Part I dealing with the Rifle and Part II with the Shotgun. Mr.
+Kephart goes at some length into the questions of range, trajectory
+and killing power of the different types of rifles and charges and
+also has chapters on rifle mechanisms, sights, barrels, and so forth.
+In the part dealing with shotguns he takes up the question of range,
+the effectiveness of various loads, suitability of the different types
+of boring, the testing of the shotguns by pattern, and so forth.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>TRACKS AND TRACKING. By Josef Brunner.</b> After twenty years of patient
+study and practical experience, Mr. Brunner can, from his intimate
+knowledge, speak with authority on this subject. "Tracks and Tracking"
+shows how to follow intelligently even the most intricate animal or
+bird tracks. It teaches how to interpret tracks of wild game and
+decipher the many tell-tale signs of the chase that would otherwise
+pass unnoticed. It proves how it is possible to tell from the
+footprints the name, sex, speed, direction, whether and how wounded,
+and many other things about wild animals and birds. All material has
+been gathered first hand; the drawings and half-tones from photographs
+form an important part of the work, as the author has made faithful
+pictures of the tracks and signs of the game followed. The list is: The
+White-Tailed or Virginia Deer&mdash;The Fan-Tailed Deer&mdash;The Mule-Deer&mdash;The
+Wapiti or Elk&mdash;The Moose&mdash;The Mountain Sheep&mdash;The Antelope&mdash;The
+Bear&mdash;The Cougar&mdash;The Lynx&mdash;The Domestic Cat&mdash;The Wolf&mdash;The Coyote&mdash;The
+Fox&mdash;The Jack Rabbit&mdash;The Varying Hare&mdash;The Cottontail Rabbit&mdash;The
+Squirrel&mdash;The Marten and the Black-Footed Ferret&mdash;The Otter&mdash;The
+Mink&mdash;The Ermine&mdash;The Beaver&mdash;The Badger&mdash;The Porcupine&mdash;The
+Skunk&mdash;Feathered Game&mdash;Upland Birds&mdash;Waterfowl&mdash;Predatory Birds&mdash;This
+book is invaluable to the novice as well as the experienced hunter.</p>
+
+<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>This book studied carefully, will enable the reader to become
+as well versed in tracking lore as he could by years of actual
+experience.</i>"&mdash;<i>Lewiston Journal.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>WING AND TRAP-SHOOTING. By Charles Askins.</b> The only practical manual
+in existance dealing with the modern gun. It contains a full
+discussion of the various methods, such as snap-shooting, swing and
+half-swing, discusses the flight of birds with reference to the
+gunner's problem of lead and range and makes special application of
+the various points to the different birds commonly shot in this
+country. A chapter is included on trap shooting and the book closes
+with a forceful and common-sense presentation of the etiquette of the
+field.</p>
+
+<div class="block2"><p class="noin">"<i>It is difficult to understand how anyone who takes a delight in
+hunting can afford to be without this valuable book.</i>"&mdash;<i>Chamber
+of Commerce Bulletin, Portland, Ore.</i></p>
+
+<p class="noin">"<i>This book will prove an invaluable manual to the true
+sportsman, whether he be a tyro or expert.</i>"&mdash;<i>Book News
+Monthly.</i></p>
+
+<p class="noin">"<i>Its closing chapter on field etiquette deserves careful
+reading.</i>"&mdash;<i>N.Y. Times.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p><b>THE YACHTSMAN'S HANDBOOK. By Commander C.S. Stanworth, U.S.N. and
+Others.</b> Deals with the practical handling of sail boats, with some
+light on the operation of the gasoline motor. It includes such
+subjects as handling ground tackle, handling lines and taking
+soundings, and use of the lead line; handling sails, engine troubles
+that may be avoided, care of the gasoline motor and yachting
+etiquette.</p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+
+<div class="tr">
+<p class="cen"><a name="TN" id="TN"></a>Typographical errors corrected in text:</p>
+<br />
+Page &nbsp;&nbsp;12: &nbsp;'together with is long season' replaced with 'together with its long season'<br />
+Page &nbsp;&nbsp;32: &nbsp;prunned replaced with pruned<br />
+Page &nbsp;&nbsp;36: &nbsp;profiable replaced with profitable<br />
+Page &nbsp;&nbsp;65: &nbsp;humous replaced with humus<br />
+Page &nbsp;&nbsp;82: &nbsp;'it must be sour' corrected to 'it must not be sour'. In sentence referring to lime which is used to reduce acidity (sourness).<br />
+Page &nbsp;&nbsp;88: &nbsp;prsent replaced with present<br />
+Page 105: &nbsp;tisses replaced with tissues<br />
+Page 107: &nbsp;'carried over the winter cankers' corrected to 'carried over the winter in cankers'<br />
+Page 126: &nbsp;Jose replaced with Jos&eacute;<br />
+Page 163: &nbsp;(table) Syraying replaced with Spraying<br />
+Page 163: &nbsp;(table) Syraping replaced with Spraying<br />
+Page 164: &nbsp;'The factors have always operated to deter'  corrected to 'Two factors have always operated to deter'<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Apple Growing, by M. C. Burritt
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLE GROWING ***
+
+***** This file should be named 20770-h.htm or 20770-h.zip *****
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+</pre>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Apple Growing, by M. C. Burritt
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Apple Growing
+
+Author: M. C. Burritt
+
+Release Date: March 9, 2007 [EBook #20770]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLE GROWING ***
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+
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+Produced by Jeannie Howse, Steven Giacomelli and the Online
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+    +-----------------------------------------------------------+
+    | Transcriber's Note:                                       |
+    |                                                           |
+    | Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original     |
+    | document have been preserved.                             |
+    |                                                           |
+    | Obvious typographical errors have been corrected in this  |
+    | text. For a complete list, please see the end of this     |
+    | document.                                                 |
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+    +-----------------------------------------------------------+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+APPLE GROWING
+
+
+
+
+APPLE
+GROWING
+
+
+
+BY
+M.C. BURRITT
+
+
+
+NEW YORK
+OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY
+MCMXII
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY
+OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY.
+
+
+All rights reserved.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In the preparation of this book I have tried to keep constantly before
+me the conditions of the average farm in the Northeastern States with
+its small apple orchard. It has been my aim to set down only such
+facts as would be of practical value to an owner of such a farm and to
+state these facts in the plain language of experience. This book is in
+no sense intended as a final scientific treatment of the subject, and
+if it is of any value in helping to make the fruit department of the
+general farm more profitable the author will be entirely satisfied.
+
+The facts herein set down were first learned in the school of
+practical experience on the writer's own farm in Western New York.
+They were afterwards supplemented by some theoretical training and by
+a rather wide observation of farm orchard conditions and methods in
+New York, Pennsylvania, the New England States and other contiguous
+territory. These facts were first put together in something like
+their present form in the winter of 1909-10, when the writer gave a
+series of lectures on Commercial Fruit Growing to the Short Courses in
+Horticulture at Cornell University. These lectures were revised and
+repeated in 1910-11 and are now put in their present form.
+
+The author's sincere thanks are due to Professor C.S. Wilson, of the
+Department of Pomology at Cornell University, for many valuable facts
+and suggestions used in this book, and for a careful reading of the
+manuscript. He is also under obligations to Mr. Roy D. Anthony of the
+same Department for corrections and suggestions on the chapters on
+Insects and Diseases and on Spraying.
+
+                                                  M.C. BURRITT.
+
+Hilton, N.Y.
+February, 1912.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER                                                      PAGE
+
+I. THE OUTLOOK FOR THE GROWING OF APPLES                       11
+
+II. PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD                                   18
+
+III. PLANTING AND GROWING THE ORCHARD                          30
+
+IV. PRUNING THE TREES                                          48
+
+V. CULTIVATION AND COVER CROPPING                              62
+
+VI. MANURING AND FERTILIZING                                   78
+
+VII. INSECTS AND DISEASES AFFECTING THE APPLE                  92
+
+VIII. THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF SPRAYING                 108
+
+IX. HARVESTING AND STORING                                    127
+
+X. MARKETS AND MARKETING                                      142
+
+XI. SOME HINTS ON RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS                     153
+
+XII. THE COST OF GROWING APPLES                               164
+
+
+
+
+APPLE GROWING
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE OUTLOOK FOR THE GROWING OF APPLES
+
+
+The apple has long been the most popular of our tree fruits, but the
+last few years have seen a steady growth in its appreciation and use.
+This is probably due in a large measure to a better knowledge of its
+value and to the development of new methods of preparation for
+consumption. Few fruits can be utilized in as many ways as can the
+apple. In addition to the common use of the fresh fruit out of hand
+and of the fresh, sweet juice as cider, this "King of Fruits" can be
+cooked, baked, dried, canned, and made into jellies and other
+appetizing dishes, to enumerate all of which would be to prepare a
+list pages long. Few who have tasted once want to be without their
+apple sauce and apple pies in season, not to mention the crisp, juicy
+specimens to eat out of hand by the open fireplace in the long winter
+evenings. Apples thus served call up pleasant memories to most of us,
+but only recently have the culinary possibilities of the apple,
+especially as a dessert fruit, been fully realized.
+
+It is doubtless this realization of its great adaptability, together
+with its long season, which have brought the apple into so great
+demand of late. It is possible to have apples on the table in some
+form the year round. The first summer apples are almost always with us
+before the bottom of the Russet barrel is reached. Or, should the
+fresh fruit be too expensive or for some reason fail altogether, the
+housewife can fall back on the canned and dried fruit which are almost
+as good.
+
+The tendency in the price of this staple fruit has been constantly
+upward during the last decade. Many people are greatly surprised when
+the fact that apples cost more than oranges is called to their
+attention. The increase in consumption, due to the greater variety of
+ways of preparing the apple for use, has undoubtedly been an important
+factor in this higher price. But at least an equally important factor
+is the marked decrease in the supply of this fruit. To those who are
+not familiar with the facts, the great falling off in production which
+the figures show will be no less than startling.
+
+
+PRODUCTION OF APPLES IN BARRELS IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 1896 TO 1910
+
+ 1896                                   69,070,000
+ 1897                                   41,530,000
+ 1898                                   28,570,000
+ 1899                                   37,460,000
+ 1900                                   56,820,000
+                                       -----------
+ Total crop for five years             233,450,000
+ Average crop for five years                       46,690,000
+ 1901                                   26,970,000
+ 1902                                   46,625,000
+ 1903                                   42,626,000
+ 1904                                   45,360,000
+ 1905                                   24,310,000
+                                       ------------
+ Total crop for five years             185,891,000
+ Average crop for five years                       37,178,200
+ 1906                                   38,280,000
+ 1907                                   29,540,000
+ 1908                                   25,850,000
+ 1909                                   25,415,000
+ 1910                                   23,825,000
+ Total crop for five years             142,910,000
+                                      ------------
+ Average crop for five years                       28,582,000
+
+ Estimates of 1896, 1897, and 1898 from "Better Fruit," Vol. 5,
+ No. 5. All other years from the estimates of the "American
+ Agriculturist."
+
+It will thus be seen that the apple crop of 1910 was 45,245,000
+barrels less than that of 1896, and that during the whole period of
+fifteen years the decline has been regular. The average annual crop of
+the five year period ending with 1905 was 9,511,800 barrels less than
+the average annual crop of the preceding five years ending with 1900,
+and correspondingly the annual average crop of the last five years,
+ending with 1910, was 8,596,200 barrels less than that of the second
+five year period. Comparing the first and the last five year periods,
+we find that the crop of the last was 18,108,000 barrels less than
+that of the first. These facts alone are enough to explain the higher
+price of this fruit during the last ten years.
+
+HEAVY PLANTINGS.--Moreover, it should be further noted that this
+falling off in the apple crop has been in the face of the heaviest
+plantings ever known in this country. During the last ten years old
+fruit growing regions like western New York have practically doubled
+their orchard plantings. Careful figures gathered by the New York
+State Agricultural College in an orchard survey of Monroe County show
+that 4,972 more trees (21,289 in all) were planted in one
+representative township during the five year period from 1904 to 1908
+inclusive than were ever planted in any other equal period in its
+history. New fruit regions like the Northwestern States and a large
+part of the Shenandoah valley of Virginia have been developed by heavy
+plantings. These three are all great commercial sections. To them we
+might add thousands of orchards which are scattered all over the
+Northern and Eastern States, from Michigan to Maine and from Maine to
+north Georgia.
+
+It is doubtful, however, if these scattered plantings have made good
+the older trees which have died out. Scarcely a season passes that
+hundreds of these old veteran trees are not blown down or badly
+broken. Every wind takes its toll. After one of these windstorms in
+Southern New York the writer estimated that at least twenty per cent
+of all the standing old apple trees had been destroyed or badly
+broken. In the commercial regions only a small part of the new
+plantings have yet come to bearing and even here these probably do not
+much more than make good the losses of old trees. So that on the
+whole, heavy as our plantings have been, it is extremely doubtful if
+they have very much more than made good the losses of the older trees
+throughout the country. It is a fact worthy of note that this talk of
+over-planting the apple has been going on for over thirty years, and
+while the timid ones talked those who had faith in the business and
+the courage of their convictions planted apples and reaped golden
+harvests while their neighbors still talked of over-planting.
+
+Whether or not it is true that we have over-planted the apple, it must
+be admitted that at the present time the demand is so much greater
+than the supply that the poorer of our people cannot afford to use
+apples commonly, and that no class of farmer in the Northeastern
+States is more prosperous than the fruit growers. The new plantings
+must of necessity begin to bear and become factors in the market very
+slowly. Meanwhile the great opportunity of the present lies in making
+the most possible out of the older orchards which are already in
+bearing. Practically all of these old farm orchards which can present
+a fairly clean bill of health, and in which the varieties are
+desirable, can with a small amount of well directed effort be put to
+work at once and during the next ten years or more of their life time,
+they may be made to add a substantial income to that of the general
+farm. Now is a time of opportunity for the owner of the small farm
+apple orchard.
+
+FUTURE OF APPLE GROWING.--In the writer's opinion the future of apple
+growing in the United States is likely to shape itself largely in the
+great commercial regions. As these become more and more developed and
+as the industry becomes more specialized the farmer who is merely
+growing apples as a side line, except where he is delivering directly
+to a special or a local market, will be crowded out. Here as elsewhere
+it will be a case of the survival of the fittest. In the production of
+apples commercially those growers who can produce the best article the
+most cheaply are bound to win out in the end.
+
+It would, therefore, seem to be advisable for the general farmer to
+plant apples only under two conditions; first, when he has a very
+favorable location and site and plants heavily enough to make it worth
+while to have the equipment and skilled labor necessary to make the
+enterprise a success, and second, when he can market his fruit
+directly in a local market. It would appear that the immediate future
+of apple growing in the United States lies in the small farm orchard
+as well as in the commercial orchards, but that the more distant
+future lies in the commercial orchard except where special conditions
+surround the farm.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD
+
+
+LOCATION.--Having decided that under certain conditions the planting
+of an apple orchard will prove a profitable venture, and having
+ascertained that those conditions prevail on your farm, the next step
+will be to determine the best location on the farm for the orchard. In
+choosing this location it will be well to keep in mind the relative
+importance of the orchard in the scheme of farm management. If the
+orchard is merely a source of home supply, naturally it will not
+require as important a position on the farm as will be the case if it
+is expected to yield a larger share of the farm income. If the
+relatively large net income per acre which it is possible to obtain
+from an apple orchard is to be secured, the best possible location is
+demanded.
+
+Contrary to the common ideas and practice of the past, the orchard
+should not be put upon the poorest soil on the farm. The best
+orchards occupy the best soils, although fairly good results are often
+obtained on poor or medium soils. The relative importance which is
+attached to the orchard enterprise must also govern the choice of
+soil. If apples are to be a prominent crop they should be given the
+preference as to soil; if not, they may be given a place in accordance
+with what is expected of them.
+
+SOILS.--In general, the apple prefers a rather strong soil, neither
+very heavy nor very light. Subsoil is rather more important than
+surface soil, although the latter should be friable and easily worked.
+The apple follows good timber successfully. Heavy clay soils are apt
+to be too cold, compact, and wet; light sandy soils too loose and dry.
+A medium clay loam or a gravelly clay loam, underlaid by a somewhat
+heavier but fairly open clay subsoil is thought to be the best soil
+for apples. Broadly considered, medium loams are best. The lighter the
+soil the better will be the color of the fruit as a rule, and so,
+also, the heavier the soil and the more nitrogen and moisture it holds
+the greater the tendency to poorly colored fruit. In the same way
+light soils give poorer wood and foliage growth as compared with the
+large rank leaves and wood of trees on heavy, rich soils.
+
+VARIETAL SOIL PREFERENCES are beginning to be recognized. We cannot go
+into these in detail in this brief discussion. A few suggestions
+regarding standard varieties must suffice. Medium to light loams or
+heavy sandy loams, underlaid by slightly heavier loams or clay loams,
+are preferred by the Baldwin, which has a wider soil adaptation than
+practically any other variety. Baldwin soils should dry quickly after
+a rain. Rhode Island Greening requires a rather rich, moist, but well
+drained soil, containing an abundance of organic matter. A light to
+heavy silty loam, underlaid by a silty clay loam, is considered best.
+
+Northern Spy is very exacting in its soil requirements. A medium loam,
+underlaid by a heavy loam or a light clay loam, is excellent. Heavy
+soils give the Spy a greasy skin. Light soils cause the tree to grow
+upright and to bear fruit of poor flavor. The King likes a soil
+slightly lighter than the best Greening soils, but retentive of
+moisture. Hubbardson will utilize the sandiest soil of any northern
+variety, preferring rich, fine, sandy loams.
+
+The particular location of the apple orchard is largely a matter of
+convenience. It should be remembered, however, that the apple requires
+much and constant attention, therefore the orchard should be
+convenient of access. The product is rather bulky, so that the haul to
+the highway should be as short as possible. Other conditions being
+equally good there, the common location near the buildings and highway
+is best.
+
+THE SITE OF THE ORCHARD is a more important matter. Two essentials
+should be kept in mind, good air drainage and a considerable
+elevation. Although it is not so apparent and therefore less thought
+about, cold air runs down hill the same as water. Being heavier, it
+falls to the surface of the land, flowing out through the water
+channels and settling in pockets and depressions. Warm air, being
+lighter, rises. It is desirable to avoid conditions of stagnant air or
+cold air pockets where frost and fogs are liable to occur. A free
+movement of air, especially a draining away of cold air, is best
+secured by an elevation. Fifty to one hundred feet, or sometimes less,
+is usually sufficient, especially where there is good outlet below.
+Frosts occur in still, clear air and these conditions occur most
+frequently in the lower areas.
+
+Aspect or slope requires less attention. Southern exposures are warm
+and hasten bud development and opening in spring. Northern exposures
+are cold and retard the blossoming period. It is usually advisable to
+plant the apple on the colder slopes which hold it back in spring
+until all danger of late frosts is past. Northeast exposures are best
+as a general rule. Choose a slope away from the prevailing wind if
+possible. If this is impracticable it is often advisable to plant a
+wind break of pine, spruce, or a quick, thick growing native tree to
+protect the orchard from heavy winds.
+
+A large body of water is an important modifier of climate. Warming up
+more slowly in the spring, it retards vegetation by slowly giving up
+its cold. Vice versa, cooling more slowly in the fall giving up its
+heat wards off the early frosts. It is therefore desirable to locate
+near such bodies of water if possible. Their influence varies
+according to their size and depth, and the distance of the orchard
+from them. Good examples of this influence are the Chautauqua Grape
+Belt on the eastern shore of Lake Erie and the Western New York Apple
+Belt on the south shore of Lake Ontario.
+
+Professor Brackett has well summed up the whole question: "The
+selection of the soil and site for the apple orchard is not governed
+by any arbitrary rule," he says. "All farms do not afford the best
+soils or exposures for orchards. The owners of such as do not are
+unfortunate, yet they should not feel discouraged to the extent of not
+planting trees and caring for them afterward." There are a number of
+factors which influence not only a person who wishes to locate, but
+one already located, either favorably or unfavorably. About these even
+the most intelligent orchardists often differ. We have only laid down
+general principles and given opinions. Here as elsewhere application
+is a matter of judgment.
+
+VARIETIES.--A proper soil and a good location and site having been
+selected, the next important question to be decided is the varieties
+to be planted. So much and so variable advice is given on this
+question that many persons are at a loss as to what to plant and too
+often decide the matter by planting the wrong varieties. Rightly
+viewed, the question of varieties is a comparatively simple one.
+Personal preference, tempered by careful study of certain factors and
+good judgment, are all that are required. Beginners, especially, are
+too apt to rely entirely on another's opinion. The only safe way is to
+learn the facts and then decide for yourself.
+
+We have already indicated that soil is a determinant in the choice of
+varieties. This should be absolute. It is very unwise to try to grow
+any variety on a soil where experience has shown that it does not do
+well. The experience of your neighbors is the best guide in this
+respect.
+
+The limitations of climate should also be carefully heeded. An apple
+may be at its best in one latitude or one situation and at its worst
+in another. Find out from experienced growers in your region, or from
+your State Experiment Station what varieties are best adapted
+climatically to the place where you live. It is an excellent rule
+never to plant a variety that you cannot grow at least as well as any
+one else, or still better, to plant a variety that you can grow better
+than anyone else. Grow something that not everyone can grow. Do not
+try to produce more of a variety of which there is already an over
+supply.
+
+A few examples may make this more clear. Western New York is the home
+of the Baldwin, the Twenty Ounce and the King. Albemarle Pippins grown
+on the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge are famous. The Spitzenburg
+appears at its best in the Northwest. The Northern Spy, the McIntosh,
+and the Fameuse are not to be excelled as they are grown in the
+Champlain Valley, in Vermont, or in Maine. To attempt to compete with
+these sections in the growing of these varieties, except under equally
+favorable conditions, would be foolish. Your section probably grows
+some varieties to perfection. Find out what these varieties are and
+plant them.
+
+All these are general factors to be observed which cannot be
+specifically settled without knowing the soil and particular locality.
+Certain other factors governing the choice of varieties can be more
+definitely outlined. If the prospective orchardist will get these
+factors thoroughly in mind and apply them with judgment mistakes in
+planting should be much more rare. The more important ones are: The
+purpose for which the fruit is intended to be used, whether for the
+general market, a dessert or fancy trade, or for culinary and general
+table use; whether the trees are to be permanent and long lived, or
+temporary and used as fillers; whether the earliest possible income is
+desired or whether this is to be secondary to the future development
+of the orchard; whether the stock of the particular variety is strong
+or weak growing; whether the variety is high, medium, or low as to
+quality; and whether the market is to be local, distant, or export.
+
+The following tables were originally compiled by Professor C.S. Wilson
+of Cornell University. They have been slightly revised and modified
+for our purpose. We believe that they are essentially correct and that
+they will be a safe guide for the reader to follow in his selection of
+varieties:
+
+GENERAL MARKET APPLES                  DESSERT OR FANCY TRADE
+COMMERCIAL                             BOX WELL
+
+ Baldwin                               McIntosh
+ Ben Davis                             Northern Spy
+ Hubbardson                            Fameuse
+ Northern Spy                          Wagener
+ King                                  Grimes Golden
+ Rome Beauty                           Yellow Newton
+ Oldenburg                             Red Canada
+ Alexander                             King
+ Twenty Ounce                          Sutton
+ Winesap                               Hubbardson
+ York Imperial                         Esopus Spitzenburg
+
+              CULINARY AND GENERAL TABLE USE
+
+ Rhode Island Greening                 Grimes Golden
+ Gravenstein                           Twenty Ounce
+ Newtown                               Yellow Bellflower
+ Alexander                             Oldenburg
+ Tolman Sweet                          Sweet Winesap
+
+GOOD PERMANENT                         GOOD TEMPORARY
+TREES                                  TREES--FILLERS
+
+ Baldwin                               McIntosh
+ Rhode Island Greening                 Wealthy
+ Northern Spy                          Wagener
+ McIntosh                              Rome Beauty
+ *King                                 Oldenburg
+ *Twenty Ounce                         Jonathan
+ *Hubbardson                           Alexander
+ Alexander                             Twenty Ounce
+ Rome Beauty                           Hubbardson
+
+
+  * When this variety is set as a permanent tree it should be top
+    worked on a hardier stock, such as Northern Spy.
+
+Age at which variety may be expected to begin to fruit. (Add two years
+for a paying crop).
+
+FIVE YEARS OR UNDER                    EIGHT YEARS AND UP
+
+ Rome Beauty                           Esopus Spitzenburg
+ Oldenburg                             Fall Pippin
+ Maiden Blush                          Golden Russet
+ Wagener                               Northern Spy
+ Yellow Newton                         Baldwin
+ McIntosh                              Gravenstein
+ Fameuse                               Tolman Sweet
+ King
+ Rhode Island Gr.
+ Twenty Ounce
+ Winesap
+
+ESPECIALLY HARDY STOCKS                POOR RATHER WEAK GROWERS*
+
+ Northern Spy                          King
+ Tolman Sweet                          Twenty Ounce
+ Ben Davis                             Esopus Spitzenburg
+ Baldwin                               Hubbardson
+ Fameuse                               Grimes Golden
+ Winter Banana                         Sutton
+                                       Canada Red
+
+* Other varieties are medium.
+
+HIGH IN QUALITY                        LOCAL OR PEDDLER'S VARIETIES
+
+ McIntosh                              Rhode Island Greening
+ Esopus Spitzenburg                    Wealthy
+ Northern Spy                          McIntosh
+ Newtown                               Fameuse
+ Gravenstein                           Tolman Sweet
+ Red Canada                            Grimes Golden
+ Fameuse                               Jonathan
+ Grimes Golden
+ Hubbardson                             GOOD GENERAL MARKET VARIETIES
+ Rhode Island Greening
+                                       Baldwin
+MEDIUM TO POOR QUALITY                 Rhode Island
+                                       King
+ Ben Davis                             Twenty Ounce
+ Oldenburg                             McIntosh
+ Rome Beauty                           Hubbardson
+ Roxbury Russet                        Northern Spy
+
+                GOOD EXPORT VARIETIES
+
+ Baldwin                               Newtown
+ Ben Davis                             Esopus Spitzenburg
+ Northern Spy                          Jonathan
+
+Only the best and most common varieties for the more northern
+latitudes have been included in this list as it would make it too
+cumbersome to classify all our known varieties. It must be remembered
+that this is not an arbitrary classification and that it is made as a
+guide to indicate to the reader the general characteristics of the
+variety. It should be used as such and not taken literally. The
+characters of the different varieties grade into each other. For
+example, the McIntosh is very high and the Ben Davis is very low in
+quality but the King and the Twenty Ounce are neither very good nor
+very poor, but midway between.
+
+We must again remind the reader that the choice of varieties is a
+matter of judgment, tempered by the facts regarding them. One who is
+not capable of rendering such judgment after studying his conditions
+and the characteristics and requirements of leading varieties had
+better stay out of the apple business entirely, as he will often be
+called on for the exercise of good judgment in caring for the orchard.
+The facts here given are intended as suggestive. The reader who
+desires to know more of a particular variety will do well to consult
+Beach's "Apples of New York," published by the Geneva Experiment
+Station.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+PLANTING AND GROWING THE ORCHARD
+
+
+The proper soil, site, and location having been selected, the solution
+of the problems of orchard management is only just begun, although a
+good start has certainly been made. Farm management brings constantly
+to one's attention new problems and new phases of old problems,
+whatever the type of farming. The skill with which these problems are
+met and a solution found for them determines the success or failure of
+the farm manager. To some men the details of the orchard business
+offer the greatest obstacles, while to others it is the general
+relationship of one detail to another which is difficult. Both are
+essentials of good management. If we are able in this chapter to
+remove some of these minor difficulties and at the same time indicate
+the correct relationships we will have accomplished our purpose.
+
+As we come now to the actual plans for planting our orchard many
+questions come up for answer. When shall I plant? Where and of whom
+shall I purchase my trees? How old should they be? Is it wise to use
+fillers or temporary trees, and if so, what kind? How far apart should
+the trees be planted and how many are required for an acre? What
+arrangement of the trees is most advisable? How should the ground be
+prepared? What is the best method of setting? When the trees are
+planted should they be inter-cropped, and if so, with what? How should
+the young trees be handled and cared for? He who would be a successful
+orchardist must endeavor to answer these questions.
+
+WHEN TO PLANT.--The question of fall or spring planting is a less
+important one with a comparatively hardy fruit like the apple than it
+is with a more tender fruit like the peach. Apples may safely be
+planted in the fall when soils are well drained and when the young
+trees are well matured, both of which are very important if winter
+injury is to be avoided. Fall planting has several distinct
+advantages. During the winter fall planted trees become well
+established in the soil which enables them to start root growth
+earlier in the spring. Consequently the young trees are better able to
+endure droughts. In the fall the weather is usually more settled and
+there is better opportunity to plant under favorable conditions than
+in the unsettled weather of spring. It is usually possible, too, to
+get a better selection of trees at the nursery in the fall because
+most of the trees are not sold until midwinter.
+
+Still the fact remains that the common practice of spring planting is
+the more conservative course. There is always danger of getting
+immature trees in the fall, and of winter injury to fall planted
+trees. Trees may be set in the fall any time after the buds are mature
+which is usually after October 1st to 18th in the latitude of New
+York. They should not be pruned back in the fall, as this invites
+winter killing of the uppermost buds. The question of available time
+must also be considered. On some farms fall offers more time; on
+others, spring. To sum up the matter, plant at the most convenient
+time, providing the conditions are favorable.
+
+WHERE TO BUY.--But one rule as to where to buy trees can be laid down.
+Buy where you can secure the best trees and where you can be sure of
+the most reliable and honest dealers. Beware of the tree agent, who
+has been guilty of more dishonesty and misrepresentation than almost
+any other traveling agent. Buy of a salesman under one condition only,
+that he prove to you that he is the bona fide representative of a
+well-known and reputable nursery firm, and then make your order
+subject to investigation of the firm's standing and finding it as
+represented.
+
+The safest course is usually to purchase of your home nurseryman with
+whose standing and honesty you are familiar, and whose trees you can
+personally inspect. Such a man has a reputation at stake and will have
+an object in keeping your trade. Moreover, you will save freight,
+secure fresher stock with less liability of injury in handling, and
+get trees grown under your own conditions. If stock is purchased away
+from home it is better to get it at a nursery in a more southern
+latitude in order to secure trees of better growth.
+
+All trees should be purchased in the late summer or early fall when
+the nurseryman has a full list of varieties and you can get the pick
+of his stock. Select a well grown mature tree two years old from the
+bud. One year old trees are preferred by many and if well grown and at
+least five feet high they are probably best. But a one year old tree
+is rather more delicate, requiring careful handling and intelligent
+training. Unless a person buys from a southern nursery and is an
+expert in handling trees, the two year old tree is to be preferred,
+but a skilful grower can make a more satisfactory tree from a one year
+old seedling.
+
+The average buyer must depend largely on his nurseryman for getting
+trees true to name, which is the reason for laying so much emphasis on
+purchasing from an honest dealer. Some nurserymen guarantee their
+varieties to be true to name, and all ought to do so. Buyers should
+demand it. The seeds of the apple rarely come true to the variety
+planted. They are therefore usually budded on one year old seedlings
+imported from France. Sometimes they are whole or piece root grafted
+which is equally as good a method of propagation.
+
+It is possible for a man to grow and bud or graft his own seedlings,
+but hardly advisable for the average small grower or general farmer,
+as it is usually expensive when done on a small scale and requires
+considerable skill. Always buy a high grade tree. Seconds are often
+equally as good as firsts when they are simply smaller as a result of
+crowding in the nursery row. A tree which is second grade because of
+being stunted, crooked, or poorly grown should never be set. Thirds
+are seldom worth considering at any price.
+
+FILLERS.--Whether or not the planter of an apple orchard should use
+fillers is a question which he alone must decide. In the writer's
+opinion there are more advantages than disadvantages in so doing, but
+we must state both sides of the question and let the reader judge for
+himself. The term "filler" is one used to designate a tree planted in
+the orchard for the temporary purpose of profitably occupying the
+space between the permanent trees while these are growing and not yet
+in bearing. Fillers make a more complete use of the land, bringing in
+larger as well as quicker returns from it, three distinct advantages.
+(See Chapter XII, The Cost of Growing Apples.) On the other hand,
+objections to their use are that they are often left in so long that
+they crowd and seriously injure the permanent trees, and that their
+care often requires different operations and at different times from
+the other trees, such as spraying, which may result in injury to the
+permanent trees in the orchard.
+
+Trees used as fillers for apples should have two important
+characteristics; they should be rapid, vigorous growers and should
+come into bearing at a very early age. Two kinds of fillers are
+available, those of the same species, which may be either dwarf or
+standard trees, and those of a different species, of which peaches and
+plums, and possibly pears, are the best adapted. Dwarf trees may be
+dismissed from our plans with the statement that they have rarely
+proved profitable under ordinary conditions, as they are much more
+difficult to grow than standards and when grown they have but few
+advantages over them. The varieties of standard apples which are
+advisable as fillers have been indicated in Chapter II.
+
+The use of peaches and the Japanese plums, both of which make
+excellent fillers because they grow rapidly and come to heavy bearing
+quickly, is limited to their soil and climatic adaptation. They are
+adapted to the lighter phases of soil and the more moderate climates
+and under other conditions are impracticable. On heavier soils and in
+more rigorous climates the European plums and the more rapid and early
+bearing pears, such as the Keiffer, make fairly good fillers.
+
+On the whole, the writer is inclined to advise the use of fillers in
+the general farm orchard. Quicker returns from an investment of this
+nature, which is usually heavy and which at best must be put off
+several years, are very important. Under careful and intelligent
+management the objections to their use are easily overcome.
+
+SPACING AND ARRANGEMENT OF TREES.--The distance apart of planting
+depends on the variety planted. Close headed, upright growing trees
+may be planted closer together than spreading varieties. Some
+varieties grow larger than others, and the same variety may vary in
+size on different soils. It is seldom advisable to plant standard
+apple trees in the latitude of New York closer than thirty feet, or
+farther apart than fifty feet. Trees of the nature of Twenty Ounce and
+Oldenburg (Dutchess) should be planted from thirty-two to thirty-six
+feet apart, while Baldwins, Rhode Island Greenings, and Northern Spies
+represent the other extreme and will require forty, and sometimes
+fifty feet of space. The method and thoroughness of pruning influences
+the size of trees greatly, and hence the distance at which It is
+necessary to set them.
+
+Varieties top worked on other stocks have a tendency to grow more
+upright and may be set closer together. It should be remembered in
+this connection that the roots of a tree extend considerably beyond
+the spread of the branches. From thirty-five to forty feet is a good
+average distance and trees should be trained so as to occupy this
+space and no more. Where fillers are used the latter distance is best,
+as the twenty feet apart at which the trees will then stand is close
+enough for any standard variety.
+
+RECTANGULAR.--The method of setting or the arrangement of the trees
+will greatly influence the number of trees which may be put upon an
+acre and the distance apart of the trees in the row. The most common
+method in the past has been the regular square or rectangular method,
+e.g., trees forty by forty feet, or forty by fifty feet, and rows at
+right angles, and this is still preferred by many. It is easy to lay
+out an orchard on this plan and there is less liability of making
+mistakes. It is best adapted to regular fields with right angle
+corners, especially where the orchard is to be cropped with a regular
+rotation. All tillage operations are most easily performed in orchards
+set on this plan.
+
+A slight modification of this arrangement which is often advisable,
+especially where fillers are used, is to set a tree in the center of
+the square. The trees then stand like the five spots of a domino, and
+the shortest distance between trees will be about twenty-seven feet
+when the trees in the regular rows are forty by forty feet apart. This
+plan practically doubles the number of trees which can be set on an
+acre.
+
+HEXAGONAL OR TRIANGULAR.--Another method of arrangement of the trees
+which is becoming more and more popular is the hexagonal or triangular
+system. More trees can be planted on an acre by this plan than by any
+other, it being very economical of space. It makes all adjacent trees
+equally distant from each other and is really a system of equilateral
+triangles. This plan is better adapted to small areas and especially
+to irregular ones, and should be employed where land is expensive and
+culture very intensive. It is more difficult to set an orchard after
+this method without error, and it is open to the objection of
+inconvenience in cultural operations. Most people forget that while
+the rows running cornerwise in a rectangular or square field set after
+this plan may be a standard distance apart, yet the right angle rows
+(not trees) in which it may be more convenient to work are actually
+much closer together.
+
+The best plan to follow to get the rows of trees straight on a level
+field is what is known as the outside stake method. This plan requires
+the placing of a row of stakes on each of the four sides of the field
+where the trees are to be set and usually about two rows each way
+through the middle. For this purpose ordinary building laths are best,
+about one hundred and fifty laths, or three bundles, being required
+for five acres, which is as large a unit as can be set at once by this
+plan.
+
+_First_, determine the distance from the road or fence to the first
+tree row, which would be at least eighteen feet to allow for turning
+the teams, and establish base lines on each side of the field at right
+angles to each other.
+
+_Second_, beginning at the given distance from the side of the field,
+set up a row of stakes along these base lines at the exact distance
+apart at which the trees are to be set and about half way between the
+fence and the first right angle row. Do the same on all sides of the
+field.
+
+_Third_, by sighting across the field from one end stake to the other
+the cross rows of stakes can be set through the middle of the field.
+These should be about six or eight rods apart, and care should be used
+to avoid setting them where they will interfere with the sighting of
+the right angle rows. This plan has the great merit of enabling the
+entire orchard to be set without moving a stake, as no stake stands
+where a tree is to be set. If the trees are set exactly where the
+sight lines cross at right angles and if all rows are an equal
+distance apart, the rows will be perfectly straight.
+
+On rough or rolling land this plan does not work well. Here more
+simple methods, though requiring more time, must be used. Lines drawn
+with a cord or marked across the field with a corn planter answer well
+for small areas. Poles of the right length are often used to good
+advantage. In setting trees after the hexagonal plan an equilateral
+triangle made of light poles or wire is probably best, especially on
+small rough areas, as it is very accurate, simple, and quite rapid.
+Some men prefer to make measurements and set a stake at every point
+where a tree is to be placed. In these cases a simple device locates
+the original stakes after the hole has been dug. A light board about
+six feet long with a notch in the center and holes with pegs in them
+at each end is placed with the notch at the stake. One end is then
+swung round and the hole dug. When the end is replaced on its peg the
+tree set in the hole should rest in the notch where the original stake
+did.
+
+The following table shows the number of trees required per acre at
+different distances for the square or rectangular method and for the
+hexagonal method.
+
+             Sq.  Hex.                     Sq.  Hex.
+
+ 12 x 12     302   344         24 x 24      75    80
+ 12 x 15     242   ...         24 x 30      60    ..
+ 15 x 15     193   224         30 x 30      48    56
+ 15 x 18     161   ...         30 x 36      40    ..
+ 15 x 20     145   ...         33 x 33      40    46
+ 15 x 30     96    ...         30 x 48      30    ..
+ 18 x 18     134   156         30 x 60      24    ..
+ 18 x 20     121   ...         36 x 36      33    39
+ 20 x 20     108   124         40 x 40      27    31
+ 20 x 30     72    ...         40 x 50      21    ..
+
+It will be noted that the hexagonal plan allows the setting of from
+four to forty trees more per acre than the square plan, even when the
+trees are set the same distance apart. This is the great advantage of
+this plan over the square. Filling an orchard one way, i.e., between
+the permanent row, in one direction only, practically doubles the
+trees which can be set on an acre; filling both ways quadruples the
+number.
+
+PREPARATION OF SOIL.--The previous condition and treatment of a soil
+for an orchard are important. If the soil has been in a good rotation
+of field crops, including some cultivated crops, it should be in prime
+condition for the trees. Old pastures and meadows should be plowed up,
+cropped, and cultivated for a year or two before setting to obtain the
+best and quickest results. If one is in a hurry, however, this may be
+done after setting the trees. Good results are sometimes obtained by
+setting trees right among the stumps on recently cleared timberland.
+Where no stiff sod has formed the trees start quickly in the rich
+soil.
+
+The best immediate treatment of land preparatory to setting the trees
+should be such as to place the soil in good tilth. Deep plowing,
+thorough cultivation, and the application of liberal amounts of
+manure--twelve to fifteen loads per acre--are the most effective means
+of doing this. The best crop immediately to precede trees is clover.
+Sometimes an application of one thousand five hundred to two thousand
+pounds of lime will help to insure a stand of clover and at the same
+time improve the physical condition of the soil. Fall plowing is a
+good practice on the medium loams and more open soils, but on the
+heavy clays spring plowing is to be preferred, as when plowed in the
+fall these soils puddle and become hard to handle. Care should always
+be taken to keep the orchard well furrowed out as standing water is
+decidedly inimical to satisfactory tree-growth. Tile draining is
+frequently advisable.
+
+INTERCROPPING.--The question of intercropping a young orchard is one
+to be carefully considered. As it is often practiced it is very
+injurious to the orchard, but it is possible to manage crops so as to
+be of very little harm to the trees. While the practice may be
+inadvisable in many commercial orchards, yet on a general farm we
+should by all means think that it was the right thing to do. Certain
+facts must be remembered, however, which have a bearing on the
+subject.
+
+Trees are a crop, as much as corn or grass. If we grow a crop between
+the tree rows we must remember that we are double cropping the land
+and that it must be fed and cared for accordingly. There is absolutely
+no use in setting an apple orchard, expecting it to take care of
+itself, "just growing," like Topsy, as numerous dilapidated and broken
+down orchards bear ample testimony. If orchards are to be cropped
+this must be judiciously done with the trees primarily in mind.
+
+The best crops to grow in a young apple orchard are those requiring
+cultivation, or which permit the cultivation of the land early in the
+season. Field beans, potatoes, and garden truck of all kinds, as small
+vegetables, melons, etc., are among the very best crops to grow in the
+young orchard. Corn will do if it does not shade the trees too much.
+Small grain and grass should not be used, especially where they come
+up close to the trees. These crops form too stiff a sod and use up too
+much moisture. A mulch of straw, cut grass, or coarse manure will help
+to correct this condition somewhat when these crops must be used.
+After cultivation until midsummer buckwheat makes a satisfactory
+orchard crop in some cases.
+
+A regular rotation may be used in the young orchard to advantage when
+a space is left next the trees to receive cultivation. This space
+should be at least two feet on each side of the tree the first year
+and should be widened each year as the tree grows older and larger, to
+four, six, and eight feet. This method has been used by the author
+very successfully for a number of years. Some good rotations to use
+in a growing orchard are: (1) Wheat or rye one year, clover one year,
+beans or potatoes one year; (2) oats one year, clover one year,
+potatoes one year; (3) beans one year, rye plowed under in spring,
+followed by any cultivated crop one or two years. The essentials of a
+good rotation for an orchard are: A humus and fertility supplying
+crop, preferably clover, in the north, and cow peas in the south, and
+at least two crops in four requiring cultivation up to the middle of
+the summer.
+
+Most of the points regarding the management of young trees have
+already been mentioned, but a few others should have attention
+directed to them. Fall planted trees should not be cut back until
+spring. In the spring all newly planted trees should have their tops
+cut back rather severely to correspond with the injury to the roots in
+transplanting, thus preserving the balance between root and top. This
+will usually be about half to two-thirds the previous season's growth.
+From three to five well distributed branches should be left with which
+to form the top. During the first few years of their lives the young
+apple trees will need little or no pruning, except to shape them and
+remove crossing or interfering branches.
+
+Constant cultivation at frequent intervals until midsummer should be
+the rule with young growing trees, with which this is even more
+important than with older trees. It is a good plan to plow the orchard
+in fall where possible, always turning the furrows toward the trees,
+leaving the dead furrows as drainage ditches between the rows. At
+Beechwood Farm we have always banked the trees with earth in the fall,
+using a shovel. This not only firms the soil about the tree, holding
+it straight and strong through the winter, but it affords good
+protection against rodents, especially mice. Where rabbits are
+prevalent it is well to place a fine mesh wire netting around the
+trees in addition to this.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+PRUNING THE TREES
+
+
+Pruning is not an entirely artificial operation as one might at first
+thought suppose. It is one of nature's most common processes. Nature
+accomplishes this result through the principle of competition, by
+starting many more trees on a given area than can possibly survive. In
+the same way there is a surplus of buds and branches on each
+individual tree. It is only by the crowding out and the perishing of
+many buds, branches, and trees that others are enabled to reach
+maturity and fulfill their purpose. This being too slow and too
+expensive a process for him, man accomplishes in a day with the knife
+and saw what nature is years in doing by crowding, shading, and
+competition. Proper pruning is really an improvement on nature's
+method.
+
+Neither is it true, as some claim, that pruning is a devitalizing
+process. On the contrary it is often stimulating and may actually
+increase the vigor of a weak or declining tree. All practical
+experience teaches us that pruning is a reasonable, necessary, and
+advantageous process. True, it is often overdone, and improperly done.
+As in many other things, certain fundamental principles underlie and
+should govern practice. When these are known and observed, pruning
+becomes a more simple matter.
+
+Heavy pruning during the dormant or winter season stimulates the
+growth and tends to increase the production of wood. In the same way
+pruning during the summer or growing season stimulates the growth and
+tends to induce fruitfulness, if the tree remains healthy. But this
+fruitfulness is apt to be at the expense of the vigor of the tree. On
+the other hand, the pruning of the roots of a tree tends to check the
+growth of wood, the same as poor feeding. As above noted heading back
+a tree when dormant tends to stimulate it to a more vigorous growth.
+
+The habit of growth of a variety has much to do with its pruning. Some
+varieties of apples are upright, others are spreading growers. Climate
+and locality greatly affect these habits of growth. So also the habit
+of a young tree often differs from the habit of the same tree in old
+age. The tendency is for a tree to continue its growth from its
+uppermost or terminal buds. Although the heading in of new growth
+checks this upward tendency and throws the energy of the tree into the
+development of lateral and dormant buds, nevertheless the pruned tree
+soon resumes its natural upward growing habit.
+
+Plant food is taken up by the minute tree rootlets in solution and
+carried to the leaves where it is elaborated and then returned for use
+to the growing tissues of the tree. Whenever there is any obstruction
+above a bud the tendency is to throw the energy of the branch into a
+lateral bud, but if the obstruction is below the bud the branch merely
+thickens and growth is checked. When too heavy pruning is practiced
+the balance between the roots and top is disturbed. This usually
+results in what are commonly known as "suckers." These are caused by
+an abnormal condition and while they may be the result of disease or
+injury to the tree, they are often of great value in restoring or
+readjusting the proper balance between the roots and top.
+
+Pruning a tree is a way of thinning the fruit and a good one. It may
+sometimes be used to influence the bearing year of trees like the
+Baldwin, which have an alternate bearing habit, but this is a more
+theoretical than practical method. Fruit bearing is determined more by
+the habitual performance of the tree than by any method of pruning,
+and this is especially true of old trees. It is easier to influence
+young trees. Conditions which tend to produce heavy wood growth are
+unfavorable for the formation and development of fruit buds. A
+quiescent state is a better condition for this.
+
+REASONS FOR PRUNING.--With these fundamental principles in mind we may
+safely outline a method of pruning an apple tree. As the desired end
+is different so will the method of pruning a young tree differ from
+that of an old one. There are five important things for which to prune
+a young tree, namely:
+
+1. To preserve a proper balance between the top and root at the time
+of setting out. This usually means cutting off the broken and the very
+long roots to a reasonable length and cutting back from one-half to
+two-thirds of the growth of the previous season.
+
+2. To make the top open in order to admit the sunlight freely. In the
+humid climate of the Northeastern States, it is usually advisable to
+prune a tree so as to have a rather open top. This is necessary in
+order properly to color and mature the fruit.
+
+3. To regulate the number of limbs composing the top. Probably three
+branches well distributed on the trunk would make most nearly the
+ideal head, but as these cannot always be obtained the best practice
+is to leave from three to five branches from which to form the top.
+
+4. To fix the branches at the proper height from the ground. This is
+more or less a matter of opinion, some growers preferring a low and
+others a high head. The character of the tree growth, the method of
+culture, and the purpose of the tree whether temporary or permanent
+greatly influence the height of the head. An upright growing variety
+should be headed lower than a spreading one. Trees kept in sod or
+under extensive methods can well be headed lower than those under more
+intensive culture where it is desirable to carry on cultural
+operations close around them. Permanent trees should be headed higher
+than temporary trees. Apple trees should seldom be headed lower than a
+foot from the ground, nor more than four feet above it. For upright
+growing varieties intended as permanents, the writer prefers three to
+three and one-half feet and for more spreading varieties four feet;
+while for temporary trees eighteen inches should be a good height.
+
+5. To do away with weak crotches and to remove crossing or interfering
+branches. A crotch formed by two branches of equal size, especially
+when the split is deep, is a weak crotch and should be avoided. Strong
+crotches are formed by forcing the development of lateral buds and
+making almost a right angle branch from the parent one. All branches
+which rub each other, which tend to occupy the same space with
+another, or which generally seem out of place, are better removed as
+soon as any of these tendencies are found to exist.
+
+IDEALS IN PRUNING.--The general method of pruning the old trees and
+the ideal in mind for it will also influence the pruning of the young
+tree, especially the shaping of it. Once determined upon, the ideal
+should be consistently followed out in the pruning of the tree as it
+becomes older. As the tree comes to bearing age it will be necessary
+to prune somewhat differently and for other purposes. These we can
+conveniently consider under six heads:
+
+1. Every tree should be pruned with a definite ideal as to size,
+shape, and degree of openness in mind. To have such an ideal is very
+important. It is only by industriously and consistently carrying it
+out that the ideal tree in these respects can be ever obtained.
+Haphazard cutting and sawing without a definite purpose in mind are
+really worse than no pruning at all.
+
+2. It almost goes without saying that to remove all dead, diseased, or
+injured wood is a prime purpose of pruning. Dead and injured branches
+open the way for rot and decay of contiguous branches, and disease
+spreads through the tree. The removal of all such branches is as
+essential to the health of the tree as it is to its good appearance.
+In removing them the cut should be made well behind the diseased or
+injured part to insure the checking of rot and disease.
+
+3. All mature apple trees should be so pruned as to keep them in the
+most easily manageable shape and to facilitate in every possible way
+the operations of tillage, spraying, and harvesting. It is most
+important to have the tree low enough down so that spraying and
+picking can be easily done. It is difficult to spray properly a tree
+which is more than twenty-five feet in height. Even this height
+necessitates a tower on the spray rig and the use of an extension
+pole. An apple tree should be so pruned that all the fruit can be
+readily picked from ladders not longer than eighteen to twenty-two
+feet.
+
+Of course, if the tree has been allowed to get higher than this under
+previous management, sometimes we have to make the best of a bad
+situation. If the trees are too high head them back by cutting off the
+leaders, but it is not always wise to lower all trees to twenty-two
+feet. Heading back of old trees will be more fully discussed in the
+chapter on "Renovating Old Orchards." Ladders longer than twenty-two
+feet are heavy and clumsy to handle.
+
+If cultivation is to be carried on close up under the tree the lower
+limbs must be pruned so as to allow this. It is not necessary,
+however, to drive a team closer than twelve or fifteen feet from a
+mature tree, contrary to the common belief and practice. Cultivation
+is least important in the first few feet of space around a mature
+tree. By the use of set-over tools, all that is necessary can be well
+cultivated without crowding the team under or against the branches.
+
+4. As has been pointed out in the discussion of the pruning of young
+trees, in humid regions where the sunlight is none too abundant
+through the growing season, the open head is most desirable. Sunlight
+on the leaves as well as on the fruit is essential to good color of
+the fruit, and good color is a very important factor in the flavor and
+attractive appearance of the fruit. An open center with upright
+growing leaders removed gives the greatest opportunity for sunlight to
+penetrate through the tree.
+
+5. As we have seen, pruning in the dormant season tends to increase
+the vigor of the tree. Thus winter pruning serves to secure a normal
+and vigorous wood growth, which is most essential to a healthy
+fruit-bearing tree. On the other hand, such pruning may be excessive
+and produce wood growth at the expense of fruit buds, throwing the
+tree out of bearing.
+
+6. The sixth and last reason for pruning is to regulate the number and
+distribution of the wood and the fruit bearing buds. The proper
+balance between these is greatly affected by pruning and can be best
+regulated by experience with the particular tree or variety. A perfect
+balance is hard to get, but with study and skill it can be closely
+approximated. Pruning, too, may thin the fruit, as removing branches
+removes fruit buds. This is best done by removing small branches near
+the ends of larger ones. It is a much cheaper method of thinning than
+picking off individual fruits, but not as effective.
+
+TIME OF PRUNING.--The particular time of the year for pruning is not
+vital. As between summer and winter pruning, winter is to be preferred
+because of the physical effect on the tree. Summer pruning is an
+unnatural process and should only be practiced as a last resort to
+check growth or induce fruitfulness, as it may result in injury to the
+tree. It is essential that a tree mature its foliage, which it
+frequently does not do after summer pruning. Diseased, dead, or
+injured wood should be removed when first observed, summer or winter.
+
+Spring is the logical and usually the most convenient time to prune on
+the general farm. While dormant season pruning may be done at any
+time between November 1st and June 1st, the cuts heal more rapidly in
+the spring when the sap begins to flow. In regions subject to severe
+and drying winds in the winter, pruning should be deferred at least to
+late winter. Considered from every standpoint, March and April are
+quite the best months in which to prune. After the removal of useless
+branches, the normal amount of food material is delivered to fewer
+buds under greater sap pressure and the remaining buds are made more
+strong and vigorous.
+
+In removing small branches with a knife or other cutting tool, the cut
+should be made upward from below and opposite a bud. On upright
+growing varieties the last bud left should be an outside one to induce
+the tree to spread as much as possible, while on spreading trees
+leaving as the last bud an inside one has a tendency to make the tree
+grow more upright. Always cut close to the parent branch, never
+leaving a stub no matter how young or old the tree.
+
+Cuts of lateral branches should be made just at the shoulder of the
+branch where it joins the parent. A cut behind the shoulder will not
+heal, neither will one too far ahead of it. A stub left on a trunk or
+large branch does not heal, but soon begins to rot at the end where
+the heartwood is exposed. This gradually works back into the main
+branch and the tree finally becomes "rotten at the heart." All that is
+needed to complete the destruction is a heavy wind, an ice or a snow
+storm, or a heavy load of fruit.
+
+All wounds more than two inches in diameter should be painted either
+with a heavy lead paint, which is preferable, or with some gas tar
+preparation. These things do not in themselves heal a cut, but they
+keep out the decaying elements, air and moisture, thus helping to
+preserve the branch and by protecting it to promote healing in
+nature's way. A little lamp black will serve to deaden the color of
+the paint.
+
+PRUNING TOOLS.--The best tool to use in pruning is one which brings
+you nearest to your work and over which you have the greatest control
+to make all kinds of cuts. In the writer's experience no tool does
+this so smoothly and conveniently as a properly shaped saw. A good saw
+should be quite rigid, rather heavy at the butt, where its depth
+should be about six inches, tapering down to about two inches at the
+point. It should have a full, firm grip, be not more than thirty
+inches long, and should always be kept sharp. Two-edged saws should
+not be used because of the injury done to the tree when sawing in
+crotches.
+
+Cutting shears are often very useful, especially the smaller,
+one-handed type which is almost indispensable in pruning young trees.
+The larger, two-handled shears are useful in thinning out the ends of
+branches or in heading back new growth. They should not be too heavy,
+as they are tiresome to use. The extension handled types are too
+cumbersome, too slow to work with, and the operator is of necessity
+too far away from his work for the best results.
+
+FRUIT THINNING.--A matter which is quite nearly related to pruning is
+thinning the fruit, and may properly be treated here. That this is not
+as common a practice with most fruit-growers as it should be, the
+great lack of uniformity in our ordinary market apples is ample
+evidence. Many persons will at once raise the question as to whether
+or not it is practicable to thin the fruit on large apple trees. The
+answer is that many growers find it not only practicable, but most
+profitable to do so. Wherever fruit of a uniform size and color is
+desired, thinning is a practical necessity, especially when the crop
+of fruit is heavy.
+
+The proper time to thin the fruit is just after what is commonly known
+as the "June drop," i.e., the falling off of those fruits not well
+enough pollinated or set to hold on to maturity. In thinning the fruit
+should be taken off until they are not closer than from four to six
+inches apart on the same branch, although the distance apart on any
+branch will depend somewhat on the amount of the crop on other parts
+of the tree. Never leave clusters of fruit on any branches, as some of
+them are sure to be small and out of shape. Furthermore two apples
+lying together afford a fine place for worms to get from one apple to
+another and they seldom fail to improve the opportunity. Step ladders
+and ordinary rung ladders are used to get at the fruit for thinning.
+The cost of the operation is not nearly as large as might appear at
+first thought and in practically all cases is a paying investment.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CULTIVATION AND COVER CROPPING
+
+
+In its broad sense cultivation is the treatment of the soil. Thus
+understood orchard cultivation includes the sod mulch system as well
+as the stirring of the soil with various implements. In its more
+common and restricted meaning, however, cultivation is the stirring of
+the soil about plants to encourage growth and productivity. To have
+the apple tree in sod was once the commonly accepted method of orchard
+treatment--a method of neglect and of "letting well enough alone."
+With the advent of more scientific apple culture the stirring of the
+soil has come to be the more popular method. But within the last few
+years an improved modification of the old sod method, known as the sod
+"mulch" system, has attracted much attention because of the success
+with which a few men have practiced it. For a correct understanding of
+these practices and of the relative desirability of these systems we
+must again turn to underlying principles and purposes.
+
+It may be said on first thought that tillage is a practice contrary to
+nature. But it accomplishes what nature does in another way. Tillage
+has been practiced on other crops than trees for so long that we think
+of it almost as a custom. There are, however, scientific and practical
+reasons for tillage.
+
+THE EFFECTS OF TILLAGE on the soil are three fold, physical, chemical,
+and increasing of water holding capacity. Tillage affects the soil
+physically by fining and deepening it, thus increasing the feeding
+area of roots, and by bringing about the more free admission of air
+warms and dries the soil, thus reducing extremes of temperature and
+moisture. Chemical activities are augmented by tillage in setting free
+plant food, promoting nutrification, hastening the decomposition of
+organic matter, and the extending of these agencies to greater depth.
+Tillage conserves moisture by increasing the water holding capacity of
+the soil and by checking evaporation.
+
+Of all these things which tillage accomplishes in a soil, two should
+be especially emphasized for the apple orchard, namely, soil moisture
+and soil texture. That moisture is a very important consideration in
+the apple orchard the effects of our frequent droughts are ample
+evidence. The amount of rainfall in the Eastern States when it is
+properly distributed is fully sufficient for the needs of an apple
+tree. By enlarging the reservoir or water holding capacity of the soil
+and by preventing the loss of water by evaporation, an excess of
+rainfall in the spring may be held for later distribution and use.
+
+As a rule, the improvement of a poor soil texture is as effective as
+the supplying of plant food and much cheaper. The latter is of no
+consequence unless the plant can use it. Scientists tell us that there
+is an abundance of plant food in most soils. The problem is to make it
+available. Plant food must be in solution and in the form of a film
+moisture surrounding the smallest soil particles in order to be
+available to the fine plant rootlets which seek it. Good tillage
+supplies these conditions. Can they be obtained equally well in
+another way?
+
+It is claimed by the advocates of the sod mulch system of orchard
+culture that it also supplies these conditions. Humus or decayed
+vegetable matter holds moisture. Grass or other mulch decaying in the
+soil increases its humus content and hence its water holding capacity.
+By forming a mulch over the soil evaporation may be checked to some
+extent, although probably not as effectively in a practical way, as by
+cultivation. If there is a good grass sod in the orchard, moisture and
+plant food made available by that moisture are utilized, and if the
+grass is allowed to go back into the soil it continues to furnish
+these elements to the tree. But there is a rapid evaporation of
+moisture from the surface of the leaves of grass. In fact, grass may
+well serve to remove an excess of moisture in wet seasons, or from wet
+lands.
+
+Laying aside theoretical considerations, let us see what practical
+experience teaches on this subject. We have the accurate data on a
+large number of western New York orchards showing the results of
+cultivation and other methods of soil management. These data are
+overwhelmingly in the favor of cultivation. In Wayne County the
+average yield of orchards tilled for five years or more was 271
+bushels per acre, as compared with 200 bushels per acre for those in
+sod five years or more but otherwise well cared for,--an increase of
+thirty-five per cent. in favor of good tillage. In Orleans County,
+under the same conditions, the increase in yield due to cultivation
+was forty-five per cent. and in Niagara County it was twenty-two per
+cent. Records were made on hundreds of orchards and the results should
+be given great weight in determining the system to be practiced, as
+intelligent consideration of trustworthy records is to be encouraged.
+
+These results were obtained in one region under its conditions and it
+is quite possible, although not probable, that other conditions might
+give different results. There are, however, special conditions as will
+be pointed out later, under which the sod mulch method might be more
+advisable than tillage. It is cheaper, makes a cleaner cover for the
+drop fruit, avoids the damage from tillage implements to which tilled
+trees are liable, and can be practiced on lands too steep to till. It
+often happens, too, that it fits into the scheme of management on a
+general farm better than the more intensive and specialized system of
+cultivation. And it must be remembered that we are dealing with this
+question from the point of view of the home farm rather than of the
+commercial orchardist. So that where the sod mulch gives equally good
+results it would be preferred under these conditions.
+
+LATE FALL AND EARLY SPRING PLOWING.--The common tillage practice in
+the sections where it is most followed is to plow either in late fall
+or as early as possible in the spring. Whether fall or spring plowing
+is best depends on two things: the character of the soil and
+convenience. On heavy clay soils where drainage is poor it is not
+advisable to plow in the fall as the soil is apt to puddle and then to
+bake when it dries, making it hard to handle. On gravel loams, medium
+loams, and all well drained soils which are fairly open in texture
+either fall or spring plowing is practiced depending on which period
+affords the most time.
+
+On the general farm where there are several crops for which the land
+must be prepared in spring, it would seem best to get as much of the
+plowing as possible done in the fall. But a large crop of apples or a
+large and late corn husking or potato digging may interfere with this
+on some farms and make spring plowing more desirable. Always plan this
+work in connection with the other farm work so as to give the best
+distribution of labor.
+
+After fall plowing either the spring-tooth harrow or the disk harrow
+is best to use to work up the soil and no time should be lost in
+getting at this as soon as the land is dry enough in the spring.
+Sometimes the disk harrow can be used to work up the soil in the
+orchard in the spring without any plowing at all, especially on loose
+loams where there are few stones. But on newly plowed land a disk cuts
+too deep and there is too great danger of injuring the roots. On
+spring plowed land the spring-tooth harrow usually gives the best
+results. After the soil is thoroughly fined and worked into a mellow
+bed and as soon as the period of excessive moisture in spring is
+passed, a lighter implement like the smoothing harrow or a light
+shallow digging cultivator should be used to stir the surface of the
+soil only.
+
+The growing period for an apple tree begins as early as growth starts
+in the spring and continues up to about midsummer. If cultivation is
+to stimulate growth as much as possible, it should be done during this
+period. The first object of cultivation in the early spring is to
+loosen up, aerate, and dry out the soil, which is usually too wet at
+that time. As cultivation is continued the soil will become fined and
+firmed again by the time drier weather comes on. A fairly deep
+digging and lump crushing tool is the best implement to use up to this
+time, and a disk or spring-tooth harrow meets these requirements.
+
+After this period is passed and during drier weather, cultivation is
+carried on for a different purpose, namely, to conserve moisture by
+making a thin dust mulch of soil over the surface. This is best
+accomplished by shallow-going implements of which the spike-tooth
+harrow, the acme harrow, or a light wheel cultivator are best. As the
+season and the amount of rainfall vary, so must tillage operations be
+varied. In an early dry season begin with the lighter implements
+earlier. In a late wet season keep the digging tools at work later. As
+soon as the soil is in good physical condition the principal object of
+tillage is to modify moisture conditions.
+
+As a matter of practice three to four harrowings at intervals of a
+week to ten days are necessary. Sometimes more, sometimes less are
+required, according to the character and condition of the soil and the
+season. The later moisture-conserving tillage should also be carried
+on every week or ten days, according to weather conditions. It is good
+practice to stir the soil after every heavy or moderately heavy rain.
+Use the smoothing tools after light to medium rains and the heavier
+tools after packing or beating rains. In practice from five to eight
+or ten of these cultivations are necessary. The drier the season the
+more necessary does frequent cultivation become.
+
+A COVER CROP is so closely associated with tillage that it is usually
+considered a part of the system. It should be sown in midsummer as soon
+as tillage ceases. This time will vary from July first to August
+fifteenth, depending on the locality, the rainfall, the crop of fruit
+on the trees, and on how favorable the conditions for securing a good
+stand of the cover crop are. The farther south the locality, or the
+earlier the fruit, the sooner the crop should be sown. Absence of
+sufficient rainfall necessitates a continuation of the cultivation,
+both because it is necessary to conserve all the moisture possible and
+because it is difficult to get a good stand of a cover crop--especially
+of one having small seeds--at a dry time in midsummer.
+
+In a year when there is a full crop of fruit on the trees cultivation
+should be continued as late as possible as all the stimulus that can
+thus be secured will be necessary to help the fruit attain good size
+and maturity, and at the same time enable the tree properly to mature
+its fruit and leaf buds for the following year. On the other hand, in
+a year when there is not a full crop of fruit cultivation should be
+stopped early so as to avoid forcing a too rank growth of wood and
+foliage and continuing the growth of the next season's buds so late
+that they may not mature and therefore may be in danger of winter
+killing.
+
+The different kinds of cover crops which may be used in the apple
+orchard will be considered in the next chapter as they are so closely
+associated with fertilization. Strictly speaking, however, a cover
+crop is used principally to secure its mulching and physical effects
+on the soil in the intervals between the seasons of tillage. In
+addition to its physical and feeding effects the cover crop serves to
+check the growth of trees in the latter part of the season by taking
+up the nitrates and a part of the moisture, thus helping to ripen the
+wood.
+
+SOD MULCH.--The ordinary sod culture which is practiced in so many
+orchards should not be confused with the sod mulch system. The one is
+a system of neglect, the other of intention. In the sod mulch system
+the grass sod is stimulated and encouraged and when the grass dies or
+is cut, it is left on the ground to decay, forming a soil mulch
+meanwhile. The removal of grass from the orchard as hay is poor
+practice and should be discouraged. The grass mulch may well be
+supplemented by the addition of other grass, straw, leaves, coarse
+manure, or other similar materials. Sometimes this mulch is put on to
+the depth of six inches or even a foot around the tree. Thus practiced
+it is very effective in conserving moisture and in adding the humus
+which is so necessary to the soil.
+
+Sod and tillage have somewhat different effects on the tree and on the
+fruit. Let us see what these effects are. It is common knowledge that
+fruit is more highly colored when grown in sod than when grown under a
+tillage system. This is probably largely due to the fact that tillage
+keeps the fruit growing so late that it does not mature so well or so
+early. Fruit is usually two or three weeks later in tilled than in sod
+orchards. It has been shown that fruit grown under tillage keeps from
+two to four weeks longer than that grown in sod. It is claimed
+also--but this is a disputed point--that tilled fruit has a better
+quality and flavor. Certain it is that fruit grown in sod is drier
+and less crisp and juicy.
+
+The effect of tillage on the trees is more marked and better known.
+Tilled trees have a darker, richer green foliage, indicating a better
+and more vigorous health. The leaves are also larger and more
+numerous. They come out three or four days earlier in the spring and
+stay on the trees two weeks later in the fall than the leaves on trees
+kept in sod. Tilled trees make nearly twice the growth in a season
+that those in sod do, in fact there is danger of their making wood
+growth at the expense of fruit buds. Tillage also gives a deeper,
+better distributed root system.
+
+Despite the advantages and the disadvantages of each system, there are
+times, places, and circumstances under which one is more advisable
+than the other. On lands rich in humus and in plant food and level so
+as to be easily tillable, cultivation is without doubt the best
+system. But it should be practiced in connection with cover crops, and
+the orchard should be given occasional periods of rest in sod--say one
+year in from three to five.
+
+The sod mulch system of orchard culture is probably better adapted to
+rather wet good grass land and where mulching material is cheap and
+readily available. It is undoubtedly at its best on lands too steep or
+rough to till, or otherwise unsuitable to cultivation. Tillage is the
+more intensive method and where labor is scarce and high sod culture
+might be more advisable for this reason, other conditions being not
+too unfavorable.
+
+In order to illustrate a method of management under the tillage system
+we may suggest the following as a good one for level to gently rolling
+land:
+
+   1912. Early plowing in spring, cultivation to July first to
+         fifteenth. Then sow red clover as a cover crop.
+
+   1913. Repeat previous year's treatment, varying the time of
+         sowing cover crop according to conditions.
+
+   1914. Let the clover grow, mowing and leaving on the ground as a
+         mulch, June fifteenth to twentieth, and again in August.
+
+   1915. Plow early in spring, cultivate to midsummer, and then sow
+         rye or buckwheat as a cover crop July fifteenth to August
+         fifteenth.
+
+   1916. Repeat 1915 treatment and if trees are not growing too
+         fast, sow clover or hairy vetch as a cover crop.
+
+   1917. Same as 1912, etc.
+
+PASTURING THE ORCHARD.--The sod mulch system explains itself and does
+not need illustration. Sod orchards are often managed as pasture for
+animals, however, and this practice should be discussed. An orchard is
+considered as pastured when a considerable number of animals are
+turned into it for a greater or less portion of the year. Results in
+orchards where pasturage has been thoroughly tried out show that it is
+never advisable to pasture an orchard with horses or cattle, but that
+fairly good results may be expected where sheep or hogs are used.
+
+The evidence of yield of fruit and appearance of trees both indicate,
+that pasturing an orchard with horses or cattle is about the worst
+possible practice. These animals rub against the trees, break the
+branches, browse the limbs and leaves, and destroy the fruit as high
+as they can reach. All experience is against this practice which
+cannot be too strongly deprecated.
+
+Pasturing an orchard with sheep, although a somewhat doubtful
+practice, often gives good results. Sheep crop the grass close to the
+ground and to some extent prevent the extensive evaporation which
+usually takes place from the leaves of grass. Their well distributed
+manure is worth considerable. They also browse the branches to some
+extent and should not be allowed to run in the orchard late in the
+season as they will destroy considerable fruit.
+
+Pasturing an orchard with swine gives better results than any other
+pasture treatment of the orchard. Hogs do considerable rooting which
+prevents the formation of a stiff sod and itself may often amount
+almost to cultivation in well stocked orchards. A good deal of manure
+is added to the soil, especially when the hogs are fed outside the
+orchard. Hogs also destroy many insects by eating the wormy fruit.
+
+Pasturage of orchards has its advantages. It gives a double
+utilization of the land. It is a cheap method of management. When the
+animals are fed outside the orchard, as should always be the case, it
+adds considerable plant food to the soil. When plenty of outside food
+can be given and when the orchard is not overstocked--the animals
+should never be hungry--hogs and sheep may be used to advantage in
+pasturing orchards. In very rough fields incapable of tillage, this is
+undoubtedly the very best system of orchard management.
+
+Pasturage has the disadvantage of exposing young trees to injury from
+the animals, but this may be at least partly avoided by protecting
+them with stakes or a heavy wire meshed screen. Hogs especially soil
+the fruit and make the land rough and difficult to drive over. Under
+the proper conditions pasturage may be practiced to advantage,
+especially on small areas and on the general farm where it is more
+advantageous than it would be commercially.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+MANURING AND FERTILIZING
+
+
+Cover crops may be said to be supplementary to tillage. In the
+previous chapter this function has been discussed. It now remains to
+point out another important function--that of a green manure crop
+adding humus and plant food to the soil. Not only do some cover crops
+add plant food and all humus to the soil, but they tend to conserve
+these by preventing leaching, especially of nitrates, and they help to
+render plant food more available by reworking it and leaving it in a
+form more available for the tree. They sometimes act as a protection
+against winter injury by holding snow and by their own bulk. They also
+help to dry out the soil in spring, thus making the land tillable
+earlier.
+
+There are two great classes of cover or green manure crops, leguminous
+and non-leguminous. A non-leguminous crop merely adds humus and
+improves the physical condition of the soil. In itself it adds no
+plant food, although it may take up, utilize, and leave behind plant
+food in a more available form for the tree's use. But in addition to
+these benefits, leguminous crops actually add to the soil plant food
+in the form of nitrogen which they have the ability to assimilate from
+the air by means of bacterial organisms on their roots.
+
+NON-LEGUMINOUS CROPS.--The most important of the non-leguminous crops
+are rye, buckwheat, turnips or rape, barley, oats, and millet. The
+first mentioned are the most commonly used. Also in order of
+importance the following are the usual leguminous cover and green
+manure crops to be used: clovers, winter vetch, soy beans, alfalfa,
+cow peas (first in the South). In order to determine the relative
+advisability of the use of these various crops let us now look at some
+of their characteristics and requirements.
+
+Rye is one of the best non-leguminous cover crops, especially in the
+young orchard, as it does not grow as well in shade as in the open. A
+particularly strong point about rye is that it grows rapidly quite
+late in the fall and starts early in the spring. Starting earlier than
+most crops in the spring, it makes a considerable amount of growth
+before the land is fit to plow. Especially in warmer climates rye
+should not be sown too early in the fall--not usually before September
+1st--because of this too heavy growth. Rye is also adapted to a great
+variety of soils and hence will often grow where other crops will not
+do well. About two bushels of seed are required per acre.
+
+Buckwheat is probably about equally as good as rye for an orchard
+cover crop, although it does not produce quite as much organic matter.
+It will germinate at almost any season of the year even if it is very
+dry. It is a great soil improver because of its ability to feed and
+thrive on soils too poor for other crops, due to its numerous shallow
+feeding rootlets. It grows rapidly and covers the ground well, but
+like rye does not thrive as well in shade. Buckwheat should not be
+used to excess on the heavier types of soil as it is rather hard on
+the land. One bushel of seed to an acre makes a good seeding.
+
+Turnips or rape often make good pioneer cover or green manure crops.
+They are great soil improvement crops and it is comparatively easy to
+secure a good stand of them even in dry weather. Sown in late July in
+the North they will produce a great bulk of humus and add much
+moisture to the soil, especially if they cover the ground well. Their
+broad, abundant leaves and high tops also hold the snow well in
+winter. Cow Horn is the best variety of turnips to use, as it is a
+large, rank grower. Use one to two pounds of seed to the acre. Rape
+makes an excellent pasture crop in an orchard both for sheep and hogs,
+but especially for the former. Eight or nine pounds of seed are
+necessary to the acre.
+
+Barley, oats, and millet are not as good crops as the foregoing,
+because, with the possible exception of millet, they make their best
+growth early in the season. Moreover they take up too much moisture
+from the soil at a time when the tree most needs this moisture. In
+fact they are sometimes used for this specific purpose on wet land in
+too wet seasons. Two to two and one half bushels of oats or barley and
+one to one and one half bushels of millet to the acre are necessary
+for a good seeding.
+
+Although weeds can hardly be classified as cover crops, they are often
+valuable ones. They grow rapidly and rank, making a large bulk of
+humus, without the expense of seeding. If they are not allowed to go
+to seed so as to scatter the seed about the farm, they often make the
+best of cover crops. This necessitates a mowing in September. Weeds
+are plants out of place, and when these plants are in place they are
+not necessarily weeds, as they have then become serviceable.
+
+LEGUMES.--In general, legumes are more valuable as cover and green
+manure crops than non-leguminous plants, because as a rule they are
+more rank growers and more deeply rooted, as well as because they add
+nitrogen to the soil. But it is rather more difficult to secure a good
+stand of most legumes than it is of the crops previously mentioned for
+several reasons. As a rule the seeds are smaller and a large seed
+usually has greater germinating power than a small one. This often
+means much at the time of the year when the cover crop is sown. Then
+legumes are more difficult to grow, requiring better soil conditions.
+Still these should be present in good orchard soils. Drainage must be
+good, the soil must be at least average in fertility and physical
+condition, it must not be sour--hence it is often necessary to use
+lime--and soils frequently require inoculation before they will grow
+legumes satisfactorily.
+
+Where the clovers grow well they make excellent cover crops as well as
+green manure crops. The chief difficulty with them is that of
+obtaining a good stand in a dry midsummer. The mammoth red and the
+medium red clovers are probably the best of their genus on the heavier
+soils, while crimson clover is best on sandy soils and where it will
+grow, on the lighter gravel loams. The latter is especially well
+adapted to building up run down sandy soils. Although it is somewhat
+easier to secure a stand of this clover, alsike does not grow rank
+enough to make a good cover or green manure crop. Most clovers are
+deep rooted plants and therefore great soil improvers physically as
+well as being great nitrogen gatherers. The amounts of seed required
+per acre for the different kinds are about as follows: mammoth fifteen
+to twenty pounds; red (medium) twelve to fifteen pounds; crimson
+twelve to fifteen pounds; and alsike ten to twelve pounds.
+
+Where it can be readily and successfully grown alfalfa is really a
+better cover and green manure crop than the clovers. It is deeper
+rooted, makes a better top growth, and therefore adds more nitrogen
+and more humus to the soil than the clovers. It cannot be recommended
+for common use, however, as it is so difficult to grow except under
+favorable conditions. It requires a more fertile soil than clover, a
+soil with little or no acidity, good drainage, and usually the soil
+must be inoculated. Only where these conditions prevail can alfalfa be
+generally recommended.
+
+Vetch is an excellent cover and green manure crop, forming a thick,
+close mat of herbage which makes a good cover for the soil. It is very
+quick to start growing and a rapid grower in the spring. It also adds
+larger quantities of nitrogen. The hairy or winter vetch lives through
+the hard freezing winters. Summer vetch, although an equally good
+grower, is killed by freezing. One bushel of seed is required per acre
+and the seed is expensive, which is the greatest objection to the use
+of this excellent crop.
+
+Two other less well known and used leguminous crops are well worth
+trial as cover crops--soy beans in the North and cow peas in the
+South. Both are great nitrogen gatherers and as they are rank and
+rapid growers add large quantities of humus to the soil. Under
+favorable conditions they will cover the ground with a perfect mat of
+vegetation in a very short time. Being larger seeded, it is
+considerably easier to obtain a stand on dry soils and in dry seasons
+than it is of the smaller seeded clovers. It is usually best to sow in
+drills the ordinary width, seven inches, apart.
+
+Cow peas are universally used as a cover and green manure crop in the
+South, but they do not thrive so well in the North. One and one half
+to two bushels of seed are required per acre. In the North the earlier
+maturing varieties of soy beans are almost equally good. One to one
+and one half bushels of seed are sown per acre.
+
+Leguminous cover crops are also the best and the cheapest source of
+nitrogen for the apple orchard, after they are well established. Their
+use may be overdone, however. Too much nitrogen results in a growth of
+wood at the expense of fruit buds. To avoid this it is often advisable
+to use non-leguminous and leguminous crops alternately, when the
+orchard is making a satisfactory growth. Sometimes also these two
+kinds of crops, as buckwheat and clover for example, may be combined
+with good results. When this is done one half the usual amount of seed
+of each should be used.
+
+EARLY PLOWING.--Many people make the common mistake of thinking that
+a green manure crop must be allowed to grow until late in June in
+order to secure the maximum amount of growth. There are several
+reasons why this is not good practice. In the first place cultivation
+is most essential in the early spring as has been pointed out. Then
+moisture is better conserved by plowing under the crop early and a
+better physical condition of the soil secured. Plowing early in the
+spring warms up the soil and sets plants to work more quickly. Lastly,
+material rots much more quickly in the early spring when moisture is
+more abundant, which is very important.
+
+An apple tree is as much a crop as anything grown on the farm and must
+be so regarded by those who would become successful orchardists. When
+it is not properly fed and cared for, good yields of fruit may not
+justly be expected. Especially is this true of an orchard which is
+being intercropped. But because of the fact that an apple tree is not
+an annual crop but the product of many years' growth, because its root
+system is deeper and more widely spread out than those of other crops,
+and because the amount of plant food removed in a crop of fruit is
+comparatively small, fertilization is less important than many
+persons would have us think. It is a fact that where orchards receive
+good cultivation and a liberal supply of humus commercial fertilizers
+give but medium results.
+
+ELEMENTS OF FERTILITY.--Three elements are necessary for the growth of
+apple trees, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. To these lime may
+be added, although its benefit is indirect rather than direct as a
+plant food. How badly any of these elements may be needed depends on
+the soil, its previous treatment, and on the system of management. By
+learning what are the effects of these elements on the tree and fruit
+we may determine under what conditions, if any, their use is
+advisable.
+
+Nitrogen promotes the growth of new wood and leaves, giving the latter
+a dark green color. In fact the color of the leaves and the amount of
+the wood growth are usually good indicators of the need of nitrogen.
+Nitrogen in excess develops over vigorous growth and prevents the
+maturity of wood and buds. It always has a tendency to delay the
+maturity of the fruit by keeping it growing late. On many varieties it
+tends to produce poorly colored fruits.
+
+When trees are making a normal amount of growth in a year--say a foot
+to three feet or more--and when the leaves are of good size and a
+dark green in color, there is little need of nitrogen. But when trees
+are not growing satisfactorily and the leaves have a sickly yellow
+color, then the need of nitrogen is evident. On early soils and in
+long growing seasons nitrogen may be more freely and safely used than
+under other conditions.
+
+The effect of phosphoric acid and potash on the tree and fruit is much
+more uncertain. They are supposed to influence the quality and the
+flavor of the fruit, giving better color and flavor, and this they
+undoubtedly do to some extent. Potash probably gives the leaves a
+darker green color. The precise effect of these two elements is at
+present a subject of much discussion, one set of investigators
+maintaining after a long and careful investigation that these effects
+are too small to be worth while, and the other claiming that they have
+a marked effect in the ways above indicated. The only safe guide is
+the actual local result. If the fruit is satisfactory in every way it
+will be of little use to try fertilizers. On the other hand, if it is
+not, then it will pay to experiment with them. The needs of and the
+results on different soils are so variable that it is always wise to
+experiment on a small scale before using fertilizers extensively.
+
+STABLE MANURE.--The necessary plant food is best supplied by stable
+manure applied at the rate of ten loads per acre for a light
+application to twenty loads per acre for a heavy application. This
+amounts to a load for from two to five mature trees. Such an
+application will not only go far toward supplying the necessary
+nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, but especially if coarse will
+add considerable humus and improve the physical condition of the soil.
+
+Except on land which washes badly, manure should be applied in the
+fall and winter. It should not be piled near the trunk of the tree but
+spread uniformly over the entire surface of the ground. It is
+particularly important to spread the manure under and beyond the
+farthest extent of the branches as this is the most important feeding
+root area of the tree.
+
+COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.--Where manure is not available or where it
+cannot be applied in sufficient amounts, commercial fertilizers may be
+resorted to, after they have been experimentally tested out.
+Leguminous cover crops are the best source of nitrogen, as has been
+indicated, but where these do not grow well, or in seasons when they
+have for some reason failed, nitrate of soda or dried blood are good
+substitutes. From two hundred to three hundred pounds of one or the
+other of these may be applied broadcast in the spring soon after
+growth is well started and all danger of its being checked by frost or
+cold weather is past. It is well to apply the nitrate of soda in two
+applications a few weeks apart, especially on soils which are leachy
+and in wet seasons, as part of the nitrogen may leach away if all is
+applied at once. These should be thoroughly worked into the soil with
+a spring-tooth harrow.
+
+To supply the other two elements, from two hundred to four hundred
+pounds of treated rock phosphate or basic slag for the phosphoric
+acid, and the same amount of sulphate of potash for the potash, should
+be applied at any time in the early part of the season, preferably
+just before a light rain, and worked into the soil as before.
+Home-made wood ashes are a good source of both these elements, and
+especially of the potash. They cannot be purchased economically in any
+quantity, but on the general farm there could be no better way to
+utilize the wood ashes made around the place than by applying them two
+or three bushels to a full grown tree every year or two. Wood ashes
+are also a good source of lime, being about one-third calcium oxide.
+Thus a large amount of available plant food will be supplied to the
+tree, and where it is needed should result not only in better wood
+growth but in the formation of vigorous leaf and fruit buds for the
+following year.
+
+Lime is not usually considered as a fertilizer except on soils
+actually deficient in it. But it will usually be advisable to apply
+from one thousand five hundred to two thousand pounds of fresh burned
+lime or its equivalent, in order to correct any natural soil acidity,
+to hasten the decay of organic material, to increase the activity of
+the soil bacteria, and to improve the physical condition of the soil
+by floculating the soil particles and helping to break up lumpy soils.
+Lime also helps to liberate plant food by recombining it with certain
+other elements in the soil. All these effects make a more congenial
+medium for the leguminous crops to grow in, and it is frequently
+advisable to use lime for this purpose alone. After this first heavy
+application about 800 pounds of lime should be applied per acre every
+four or five years.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+INSECTS AND DISEASES AFFECTING THE APPLE
+
+
+It is a common saying among farmers who have grown apples on their
+farms for many years that there are many more pests to fight than
+there used to be. How often we have heard a farmer tell of the perfect
+apples that grew on a certain tree "when he was a boy," before people
+had generally heard of codling moth, San Jose scale, apple scab, or
+other troubles now only too common. "We never sprayed, but the apples
+were fine," he says. Is this the usual glorification of the mythical
+past or is it true? In all probability it is a little of both, but it
+is undoubtedly true that insects and fungous diseases have increased
+rapidly of late years.
+
+REASONS FOR PEST INCREASE.--When there is an abundance of food and
+conditions are otherwise favorable, any animal or plant will thrive
+better than when the food supply is scarce and conditions unfavorable.
+As long as apple trees were scattered and few in number there was not
+the opportunity for the development of apple pests, but as soon as
+they became numerous the prosperity of bugs and minute plant parasites
+was wonderful to see. Another factor which has been at least partly
+responsible for the great increase in our insect life is that man has
+upset nature's balance by destroying so many birds, and, by
+interfering with their natural surroundings, driven them away. Birds
+are great destroyers of insects, and their presence in the orchard
+should be encouraged in every possible way. Add to these facts the
+marvelous fecundity of the insect tribe, and the increase is less
+remarkable. Loss from these orchard pests has now run up into the
+millions. It has been estimated that the loss in the United States
+from wormy apples alone is over $11,000,000 annually. Thus has the
+necessity for fighting these enemies of good fruit arisen.
+
+In order successfully to combat an insect or a disease it is very
+necessary to have a somewhat detailed knowledge of its life history
+and to know its most vulnerable point of attack. It is impossible to
+work most intelligently and effectively without this knowledge, which
+should include the several stages of the insect or disease, the point
+of attack, the time of making it, and when and with what it can be
+most easily destroyed. The number of insects and diseases which affect
+the apple is so great that it is simply out of the question to treat
+them all in detail here. We have therefore selected nine insects and
+three diseases as those pests of the apple which are most common and
+whose effects are usually most serious. The essential facts in their
+life histories and their vulnerable points will now be pointed out.
+The method of study may be taken as applicable to any other pests
+which it may be necessary to combat.
+
+INSECT PESTS.--Of the many insects which affect either the tree or the
+fruit of the apple, the nine selected probably inflict the most damage
+and are the most difficult to control of all those in the Northeastern
+States. According to their method of attack all insects may be divided
+into two classes: biting and sucking. Biting insects are those which
+actually eat parts of the tree, as the leaves or fruit. These are
+combated by the use of stomach poisons as we shall see in the
+following chapter. Sucking insects are those which do not eat the tree
+or fruit directly, but by means of a tubelike proboscis suck the
+juices or sap from the limbs, leaves or fruit. Of the biting insects
+the five which we shall discuss are: (1) codling moth, (2) apple
+maggot, (3) bud moth, (4) cigar case bearer, (5) curculio. The four
+sucking insects discussed are: (6) San Jose scale, (7) oyster shell
+scale, (8) blister mite, and (9) aphis or plant louse.
+
+1. THE CODLING MOTH, the most insidious of all apple pests, is mainly
+responsible for wormy apples. The adult is a night flying moth with a
+wing expanse of from one-half to three-quarters of an inch. The moths
+appear about the time the apple trees are in bloom. Each female is
+supposed to lay about fifty eggs which are deposited on both the
+leaves and fruit, but mostly on the calyx end of the young apples. The
+eggs hatch in about a week and the young larvae or caterpillars begin
+at once to gnaw their way into the core of the fruit. Three-fourths of
+them enter the apple through its blow end.
+
+After twenty to thirty days of eating in the apple, during which time
+they become full grown and about three-quarters of an inch long, they
+leave the apple, usually through its side. The full grown caterpillar
+now secretes itself in the crevices in the bark of the tree or in
+rubbish beneath the tree and spins a tough but slight silken cocoon in
+which the pupal period is passed. This lasts about a fortnight, when
+the process is sometimes repeated, so that in the Eastern States there
+are often two broods each season.
+
+The most vulnerable point in the career of this little animal is when
+it is entering the fruit. If a fine poison spray covers the surface of
+the fruit, and especially if it covers the calyx end of the apple
+inside and out, when the young larvae begin to eat they will surely be
+killed. It is estimated that birds destroy eighty-five per cent. of
+the cocoons on the bark of trees.
+
+2. APPLE MAGGOT.--It is fortunate that the apple maggot, often called
+the railroad worm because of its winding tunnels all through the
+fruit, is not as serious a pest as the codling moth for it is much
+more difficult to control with a poison. A two-winged fly appears in
+early summer and deposits her eggs in a puncture of the skin of the
+apple. In a few days the eggs hatch and the maggots begin to burrow
+indiscriminately through the fruit. The full grown larvae are a
+greenish white in color and about a quarter of an inch long. From the
+fruit this insect goes to the ground where the pupal stage is passed
+in the soil. The next summer the fly again emerges and lays its eggs.
+
+Spraying is not effective against this insect as the poison cannot be
+placed where it will be eaten by the maggots. The best known remedy is
+to destroy the fruit which drops to the ground and for this purpose
+hogs in the orchard are very effective. The distribution of this
+insect in the orchard is limited and it has shown a marked preference
+for summer and autumn varieties.
+
+3. THE BUD MOTH closely resembles the codling moth in form and size,
+but differs from it in color and life history. The larvae, after
+hibernating through the winter, appear as little brown caterpillars
+about May first or as soon as the buds begin to open, and a week or
+two later begin their work of destruction. They inflict great damage
+on the young leaf and fruit buds by feeding on them. When full grown
+the larvae, cinnamon brown in color with a shining black head, are
+about one-half inch long. They then roll themselves up in a tube made
+from a leaf or parts of leaves securely fastened together with silken
+threads. In this cocoon pupation, which lasts about ten days, takes
+place. Early in June the moths appear. There is but one brood in the
+North. These insects can be successfully combated with a poison spray
+applied early before the buds open.
+
+4. THE CIGAR CASE BEARER winters in its case attached to a twig. When
+the buds begin to open in the spring it moves to them, carrying its
+case with it, and begins to feed on the young and tender buds. By the
+time the leaves are well open, it has fed a good deal on the tender
+buds and young leaves and is ready to make a new and larger case. This
+it does by cutting a leaf to suit and then rolling it up in the form
+of a cigar, whence its name. In this case the larvae continue feeding
+about a month, causing much injury to the leaves, although this is not
+as serious as the mutilation of the young buds in the spring, before
+the tree is fully leafed out.
+
+About the last of June pupation takes place and in about ten days the
+moth emerges. The eggs are then layed along the midribs of the leaves
+and hatch in about fifteen days. The newly hatched larvae become leaf
+miners during August, and migrate to the branches again in the fall
+where they pass the winter. These leaf and bud eating insects can be
+destroyed by applying a poison to the buds before they open and again
+later to the opening leaf and flower buds.
+
+5. CURCULIO BEETLES pass the winter under leaves and grass. In the
+spring they feed on the blossoms and the tender leaves. As soon as the
+young fruits are formed the female deposits her eggs in a puncture
+made just inside a short, crescent-shaped cut in the little apple. The
+eggs soon hatch and the young grubs burrow into the fruit to the core
+where they remain two or three weeks, or until full grown. The larvae
+then bore their way out of the fruit and drop to the soil where they
+pupate. The earliest of the beetles to emerge again feed on the fruit.
+The principal damage from this pest comes from the feeding of the
+beetles and the work of the larvae, although the latter is not as bad
+in the apple as in the stone fruits. A poison on the young foliage as
+soon as the beetles begin to feed is the best method of combating
+curculio. Jarring the tree is not as practicable with the apple as it
+is with the plum.
+
+6. THE SAN JOSE SCALE, one of our worst apple tree pests, is a sucking
+insect extracting the juices of the tree from the trunk, limbs or
+branches, or even from the leaves and fruit when it is very abundant.
+At first the growth is checked only, but as the insects develop their
+work finally results in the death of the part, unless they are
+destroyed. The insect winters in an immature condition on the bark
+under a grayish, circular, somewhat convex scale about the size of a
+pinhead. The young, of which a great many broods are produced, are
+soft bodied but soon form a scale. In the early spring small
+two-winged insects issue from these scales.
+
+After mating the males die, but the females continue to grow and in
+about a month begin the production of living young--minute, yellow,
+oval creatures. These young settle on the bark and push their slender
+beaks into the plant from which they begin to suck out the sap. In
+about twelve days the insects molt and in eight to ten more they
+change to pupae, and in from thirty-three to forty days are themselves
+bearing young. A single female may give birth to four hundred young in
+one season and there are several generations in a season. This great
+prolificacy is what makes the scale so serious a pest.
+
+In fighting it every scale must be destroyed or thousands more are
+soon born. In order to be able to use a strong enough mixture of lime
+and sulphur to destroy them by smothering or choking the spray must be
+applied on the dormant wood in the spring or fall or both.
+Thoroughness is most essential.
+
+7. THE OYSTER SHELL SCALE, although it is essentially the same in its
+habits and in its methods of sucking the sap from the tree is not as
+bad a pest as the San Jose scale because it is less prolific, there
+being but one brood a year. Still this scale often destroys a branch
+and sometimes a whole tree. The "lice" winter as eggs under the scale
+and hatch in late May or early June. After crawling about the bark for
+two or three days, the young fix their beaks into it and remain
+fastened there for life, sucking out the sap. By the end of the season
+they have matured and secreted a scaly covering under which their eggs
+for the next season's crop winter. A smothering spray like lime and
+sulphur applied strong when the trees are dormant will practically
+control this scale. But the young may be destroyed in summer by a
+contact spray such as tobacco leaf extract or whale oil soap.
+
+8. THE LEAF BLISTER MITE is a small, four-legged animal, so small as
+hardly to be visible to the naked eye. It passes the winter in the
+bud scales and as soon as these begin to open in the spring it passes
+to the tender leaves which it punctures, producing light green or
+reddish pimples according to the variety of apple. These later develop
+into galls or blisters of a blackish or reddish brown color and
+finally result in the destruction of the leaf. Trees are sometimes
+practically defoliated by this pest, and this at a time when a good
+foliage is most needed. Inside of the galls eggs are deposited and
+when the young hatch they burrow in all directions. In October the
+mites abandon the leaves to hibernate in the bud scales again. A
+strong contact spray of lime sulphur when the trees are dormant
+destroys the young mites while they are yet on the bud scales, which
+is practically the only time when they are vulnerable.
+
+9. APHIDES, or plant lice, are of seasonal importance. Although nearly
+always present, it is only occasionally that they become so numerous
+as seriously to damage mature apple trees. But they are more often
+serious pests on young trees where they should be carefully watched.
+Their presence is determined by the curled and distorted condition of
+the terminal leaves on the under side of which the green or pinkish
+lice will be found. Eggs deposited in autumn pass the winter in this
+condition, hatching in the spring about the time of the beginning of
+the growth of vegetation. From these winter eggs females are hatched
+which bear living young, which may also bear living young and so on
+for several generations until autumn, when eggs are again deposited
+for the winter stage.
+
+Fortunately weather conditions together with parasitic and predaceous
+insects hold them more or less in check. Because of the difficulty of
+getting at the underside of the curled leaves where these lice mostly
+work they are extremely hard to control. Lime and sulphur when the
+trees are dormant destroy as many of the eggs as it comes in contact
+with. A tobacco extract is quite effective as a contact spray in the
+growing season. The trees must be closely watched and if the lice
+appear in any considerable number they must be promptly attended to or
+serious damage is likely to result.
+
+These are by no means all the insect pests which the fruit grower has
+to combat, but they are usually the most important. Canker worm and
+tent caterpillars often do great damage in unsprayed orchards, but
+they are easily controlled by an application of a poison as soon as
+they appear. The same is true of other caterpillars and leaf eating
+worms. Apple tree borers are frequently serious, especially in young
+orchards, where the trees should be regularly "grubbed" and the borers
+dug out or killed with a piece of wire. They may be prevented to some
+extent by painting the tree trunks with a heavy lime and sulphur or
+some gas tar preparation.
+
+DISEASES.--Although not as numerous as insects, the diseases which
+attack the apple inflict great damage and are fully as difficult to
+control. They are caused by bacteria and by fungi which may be
+compared to weeds growing on or in the tree instead of the soil. If
+either of these works within the plant, as is sometimes the case, it
+must be attacked before it enters. It is very necessary to be thorough
+in order to control these diseases. Weather conditions influence
+nearly all of them materially. Of those which attack the apple tree or
+fruit we have selected three as the most serious and the most
+necessary for the grower to combat, namely, (1) apple scab, (2) New
+York apple tree canker, and (3) fire blight. To these should be added
+in the South and middle latitudes, sooty blotch and bitter rot.
+Baldwin spot is also frequently serious in some seasons and
+localities.
+
+(1) THE APPLE SCAB, commonly known among growers as "the fungus," is
+the most important of our common apple diseases and is most evident on
+the fruit, although it attacks the leaves as well. In some seasons the
+fruit is made almost unsalable. This disease lives through the winter
+on old leaves. In the spring about blossoming time the spores are
+scattered by the wind and other agencies, and reaching the tender
+shoots germinate and enter the tissues of the plant. Their development
+is greatly dependent on the weather. In a season in which there is
+little fog or continued damp or humid weather, they may not develop at
+all, but where these conditions are present they frequently become
+very virulent.
+
+Spraying will be governed by the weather conditions, but the mixture
+must be applied very promptly as soon as it is evident that it is
+likely to be necessary and must cover every part of the tree to be
+effective. The object is to prevent the spores from germinating, the
+spray being entirely a preventive and in no sense a cure. The disease
+most frequently first manifests itself on the tender new growth and on
+the blossoms. Two mixtures have been found to control it, namely,
+Bordeaux and a weak solution of lime and sulphur. One or other of
+these should be applied just before the blossoms open, just before
+they fall, and when necessary two and nine weeks later.
+
+(2) NEW YORK APPLE TREE CANKER is usually found mainly on the trunks
+of old trees, but it also affects the smaller branches. Practically
+every old or uncared for orchard has more or less of this canker, and
+where it is not checked it eventually destroys the tree. This fungus
+is the cause of most of the dead wood found in old orchards. The
+surface of the canker is black and rough and covered with minute black
+pimples. It lives over winter and spreads from one branch or tree to
+another. As it most frequently enters a branch through wounds made in
+pruning, these should be promptly painted over with a heavy lead and
+oil paint. All diseased parts should be cut out and removed as soon as
+observed. The value of spraying for this disease is not definitely
+known, but it is seldom very troublesome in well sprayed and well
+cared for orchards.
+
+(3) BLIGHT appears on apple trees in three forms, as blossom blight,
+as twig blight, and as blight cankers. It is a bacterial disease
+which is distributed by flies, bees, birds, etc., and cannot be
+controlled by spraying. The bacteria are carried over the winter in
+cankers on the main limbs and bodies of the trees, oozing out in a
+sticky mass in the spring. These cankers should be cut out with a
+sharp knife cutting well into the healthy bark and then washing the
+wound with corrosive sublimate, one part to one thousand of water.
+Cutting out and destroying are also the chief remedies to be used when
+the blight appears in the twigs and blossoms. It is not usually as
+serious on apples as on pears. Some varieties, like Alexander, are
+more subject to it than others.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF SPRAYING
+
+
+The spraying of fruit trees in the United States is of comparatively
+recent origin, having been a general commercial practice for less than
+two decades. It involves the principle of applying with force and in
+the form of a fine rain or mist, water in which a poison or a
+substance which kills by contact is suspended. The first application
+of the principle was against chewing insects with hellebore. Pure
+arsenic was early used and soon led to the use of other arsenicals.
+
+Our greatest fungicide, Bordeaux mixture, was discovered by accident
+in 1882 when it was found to control mildew in France. Up until about
+five years ago Bordeaux mixture as the fungicide and paris green as
+the poison were almost universally used. Within the last few years,
+however, there have been developed two substitutes which, although
+known and used to some extent for twenty years, have only recently
+come into such general use as practically to replace the old sprays.
+These are lime and sulphur as the fungicide and partial insecticide
+and arsenate of lead as a partial insecticide.
+
+The necessity for and the advisability of spraying have already been
+pointed out. There is an increasing demand for fine fruit the
+supplying of which is possible only with thorough spraying. In the
+humid East especially the competition of more progressive sections in
+the West is demanding more and better spraying. There is no cure-all
+in this process. It does not make a tree more fruitful except as it
+improves its general health, but it does bring a larger percentage of
+the fruit to perfection. Certain knowledge is fundamental; the grower
+must know what he is spraying for, when and with what to combat it and
+how to accomplish the desired result most effectively.
+
+Spraying is an insurance against anticipated troubles with the fruit,
+and the best and most successful growers are those most completely
+insured. It has many general advantages also. It stimulates the grower
+to a greater interest in his business because of the extra knowledge
+and skill required. It compels thoroughness. It necessitates spending
+money, therefore a return is looked for. To be sure, it is only one
+of the operations necessary to success, but it enables us to grow a
+quality of fruit which we could not obtain without it.
+
+SPRAY MATERIALS are conveniently divided into two classes,
+insecticides and fungicides. An insecticide is a poison by which the
+insect is killed either directly by eating it, or indirectly by the
+caustic, smothering, or stifling effects resulting from closing its
+breathing pores. Direct poisons are used for insects which eat some
+part of the tree or fruit and are called stomach poisons. Sprays which
+kill indirectly are used for insects which suck the sap or juice from
+the tree or fruit and are called contact sprays. Arsenical compounds
+have supplanted practically all other substances used to combat
+external biting insects. Two stomach poisons are commonly used,
+namely, arsenate of lead and paris green, but the former is rapidly
+replacing the latter.
+
+ARSENATE OF LEAD is prepared by mixing three parts of crystallized
+arsenate of soda with seven parts of crystallized white sugar
+(acetate) of lead in water, but it will not as a rule pay the grower
+to mix his own material, as arsenate of lead can be purchased in
+convenient commercial form at a reasonable price. The preparation on
+the market is a finely pulverized precipitate in two forms, one a
+powder and the other a paste. These are probably about equally good
+and are readily kept suspended in water. Less free arsenic is
+contained in this form than in any other compound of arsenic, making
+it safer to use, especially in heavy applications. Arsenate of lead
+may be used without danger of burning the foliage as strong as five or
+six pounds to fifty gallons of water, but three pounds is the usual
+and a sufficient amount for the control of any apple insect for which
+it is efficacious.
+
+PARIS GREEN is being rapidly displaced by arsenate of lead for several
+reasons. It is a compound of white arsenic, copper oxide, and acetic
+acid. The commercial form is a crystal which in suspension settles
+rapidly, a serious fault. It is more soluble than arsenate of lead and
+hence there is greater danger of burning the foliage with it.
+Moreover, it costs from twenty to twenty-five cents a pound, and the
+arsenate of lead can be purchased for from eight to ten cents a pound.
+
+The amount which it is safe to use in fifty gallons of water is from
+one-half to three-quarters of a pound. When paris green is used alone
+as a poison lime should be added. Both these arsenicals should be
+thoroughly wet up by stirring in a smaller receptacle before they are
+put into the spray tank, in order to get them in as complete
+suspension as possible. They may be used in the same mixture with
+Bordeaux or lime sulphur.
+
+CONTACT SPRAYS.--Four compounds are used as contact sprays in
+combating sucking insects, namely, lime sulphur, soaps such as whale
+oil soap, kerosene emulsion, and tobacco extract. Of these lime
+sulphur is the most used and for winter spraying is probably the best.
+This preparation is made by boiling together for one hour or until
+they unite, twenty pounds of quick lime, fifteen pounds of flower of
+sulphur, and fifty gallons of water. Although the home made mixture is
+much cheaper than the commercial form which may be purchased on the
+market, many people prefer the latter because of the inconvenience and
+trouble of preparing the mixture, although there is nothing difficult
+about it.
+
+This contact spray is used chiefly for the San Jose scale and the
+blister mite, and in order to control these must be applied strong on
+the dormant wood. The strength necessary will vary from one part of
+the mixture above mentioned or of the commercial preparation, to from
+seven to ten parts of water, according to the density test of the
+material, which should be around twenty-eight per cent. Beaume (a
+scale for measuring the density of a liquid) for home made, and
+thirty-two per cent. for the commercial mixture.
+
+Any good soap is effective in destroying soft bodied insects such as
+plant lice. The fish oil soaps, although variable in composition, are
+often valuable, especially the one known in the trade as whale oil
+soap. This soap dissolved in water by boiling at the rate of two
+pounds of soap to one gallon of water, makes a good winter spray for
+scale but should be applied before it gets cold as it is then apt to
+become gelatinous. For a summer contact spray against lice, one pound
+of soap to seven gallons of water is strong enough to be effective. It
+is objectionable because of its odor and because it is disagreeable to
+make and handle. Lime sulphur is to be preferred as a winter spray,
+but the soap spray is often necessary and valuable for summer sucking
+insects.
+
+Kerosene emulsion was formerly more commonly used than now against the
+scale and plant lice. It is a mixture of one-half pound of soap and
+two gallons of kerosene in one gallon of water--preferably in hot
+water. For dormant trees one gallon of this mixture should be diluted
+with six gallons of water. While this spray is effective it is no more
+so than lime-sulphur and is quite difficult and disagreeable to
+handle. As a summer spray, however, it is often necessary. Several
+preparations of petroleum known as the miscible oils are sometimes
+used. Their use is the same as that of lime-sulphur and they are not
+as good.
+
+Within the last few years a tobacco concoction known as black leaf
+tobacco extract (nicotine sulphate) has come into quite common use. It
+can be purchased commercially under various brand names, and should be
+diluted according to its strength, but usually about one part to fifty
+of water. It may be made by boiling one pound of good tobacco stems in
+two gallons of water for one-half-hour. Objections to it are that it
+evaporates very quickly, although it is supposed to be non-volatile,
+and that it is expensive, but it is very convenient to use, can be
+readily mixed with other summer sprays, and is very effective against
+plant lice and mites.
+
+BORDEAUX MIXTURE. Fungicides are mixtures of chemical compounds made
+up for the purpose of controlling plant diseases caused by a class of
+plant weeds known as fungi. There are three commonly well known and
+used fungicides, Bordeaux mixture, commercial lime sulphur, and the
+self-boiled lime-sulphur. The Bordeaux mixture is the best all-around
+fungicide known. It is a mixture of three pounds of copper sulphate
+(blue vitriol or bluestone) with three or more pounds of fresh burned
+stone lime in fifty gallons of water. The two compounds should be put
+together as fruit growers say "with water between," that is each
+should be diluted with the water separately before the two are mixed.
+
+The best plan is to have stock mixtures of each in barrels, fifty
+gallon cider or vinegar barrels making good receptacles for the
+purpose. Place the bluestone in an old fertilizer or meal sack and
+suspend it about midway in the barrel of water. In a few hours it will
+all be dissolved and will remain in suspension for some length of time
+very well. If say fifty pounds of the copper sulphate are dissolved in
+fifty gallons of water, each gallon of water will contain one pound of
+the bluestone, which makes a very convenient way to measure it. So
+also fifty pounds of fresh burned stone lime should be placed in a
+barrel--in this case in the bottom of the barrel rather than in a
+sack--just covered with water and allowed to slake, more water being
+added as required up to fifty gallons. If too much water is added to
+the lime at the first it will be "drowned" and its slaking checked.
+These two stock mixtures, each gallon containing one pound of the
+copper sulphate or one pound of the lime, are then mixed together.
+
+It is well to fill the tank about half full of water, then put in the
+required amount of the copper sulphate, and after stirring well add
+the lime milk. It is a good plan to add an excess of lime as it
+minimizes the danger of burning and aids the mixture in sticking to
+the leaves well. If one is sure that he has at least as much lime, or
+an excess of lime, it will not be necessary to test the mixture, but
+if he is not, a simple test may be made with ferro-cyanide of
+potassium, obtained at a drug store. A few drops of this mixture will
+disappear if the lime is equal or in excess of the copper sulphate,
+that is, it will be neutralized, but if it is not, they will remain a
+bright purplish red. Bordeaux mixture is used in strengths varying
+from three to five pounds each of bluestone and lime in fifty gallons
+of water, but the former is usually sufficient.
+
+LIME-SULPHUR.--The more important fungicides, the commercial lime
+sulphur and the self-boiled lime-sulphur, are practically superseding
+Bordeaux as a fungicide, not because they are necessarily better, but
+because there is frequently much burning of the foliage and russeting
+of the fruit from the use of the Bordeaux. This is unfortunate as the
+latter is a rather more effective fungicide as well as more convenient
+and pleasant to use. The self-boiled lime sulphur is a combination of
+lime and sulphur which is boiled by the heat of the slaking lime
+alone, and makes a pretty good substitute for the Bordeaux when it
+injures foliage or fruit. This preparation of lime and sulphur differs
+from the commercial form used as a winter wash in that it is wholly a
+mechanical mixture and not partly chemical like the latter. It may
+therefore be used on the foliage in summer at a greater strength,
+there being only a very small percentage of sulphur in solution when
+the mixture is properly made.
+
+Equal amounts of lime and sulphur are used, these being from eight to
+ten pounds each to fifty gallons of water. The mixture is best
+prepared in larger quantities so as to get heat enough from the
+slaking lime to produce a violent boiling for a few minutes. First,
+place say forty pounds of lime in a barrel and pour on just water
+enough to start it slaking nicely--about a gallon to each three or
+four pounds of lime is usually sufficient. Then add the sulphur and
+enough more water to slake the paste, keeping it well stirred
+meanwhile. The violent boiling of the lime in slaking will cook the
+mixture in from five to fifteen minutes, depending on the quality of
+the lime and how fast it is slaked. Just as soon as the violent
+boiling is over add enough cold water to stop all action. If this is
+not done, some sulphur will unite with the lime and burning may be the
+result.
+
+This self-boiled mixture is entirely harmless to apple foliage and
+even appears to have a stimulating effect upon it. Against the apple
+scab, however, it is not as effective as the boiled wash, or the
+commercial preparations. For this disease a strength of from one to
+thirty to one to forty (that is about one and one-half gallons of the
+prepared mixture testing 31 to 33 Beaume to fifty gallons of water) of
+the commercial lime-sulphur is most effective.
+
+SPRAY PUMPS.--The application of the foregoing spray mixtures is fully
+as important as the sprays themselves, for on the right application at
+the right time depends the efficacy of the spray. For this purpose a
+considerable amount of special machinery has been devised. Lack of
+space prevents us from going into much detail on this question, so we
+must be content with merely outlining the different types of machines
+and mentioning their accessories. Sprays are forced through single,
+double or triple acting pumps, either by hand or power. The three
+types of power available are traction, compressed air, and gasoline,
+the last being the most used. Steam power is practically obsolete.
+
+The knapsack is the simplest type of hand pump, but it is of no
+practical use in the mature apple orchard. For small orchards and
+small trees several types of hand pumps are quite effective. The lever
+type of pump, where the handle is pushed from and pulled toward the
+operator, probably gives the most power with the least tiring effect,
+because it enables one to use the weight of the body to some extent.
+It is best not to have the pump attached to the spray barrel or tank,
+but set on a movable base of its own, as then it can be used for any
+one of a number of barrels. Such an outfit may be obtained for from
+twenty-five to forty dollars.
+
+It is well to buy a standard make of pump, preferably from a nearby
+dealer, so that repairs may be readily secured. For all orchards up to
+three or four acres in size, and for larger orchards where the trees
+are not over twelve or fifteen feet in height, this kind of spray rig
+is the most practicable and advisable, when the expense is taken into
+consideration. This applies especially to the general farm.
+
+The power of a traction sprayer is developed from the wheels. There is
+much discussion as to whether sufficient power to throw an effective
+spray can be supplied by this method. By accumulating considerable
+pressure by extra driving at the ends of the rows and then skipping
+every other tree in order to keep up the pressure, going over the rows
+twice, a very satisfactory pressure can be obtained for trees which
+are not too large. The argument for this type of machine, and it is
+especially applicable on the general farm, is that it can be used for
+other spraying on the farm as well as for the apple orchard,
+especially for potatoes and small fruits. It is a comparatively cheap
+type of power, particularly when it can be used for several purposes.
+
+The compressed air gas sprayer comes next in point of simplicity and
+cost for a power sprayer. Its most economic use is found where
+orcharding is carried on extensively enough to pay to compress the air
+or gas right in the orchard. This is of course impracticable on the
+general farm. Therefore the air or gas must be purchased and shipped
+to the farm in steel tubes. This often causes delay at critical times
+and is rather expensive. Moreover, the gas is open to the objection of
+interfering with the lime-sulphur compound by precipitating some of
+the sulphur.
+
+The gasoline engine is the most useful and popular type of power for
+the orchard sprayer, as well as for general use on the farm. Many
+makes are now so perfected that they give little or no trouble. One
+and a half or two horsepower are fully sufficient for spraying, but
+most farmers prefer from three to five horsepower in order to be able
+to use the engine more for other purposes. The latter power is open to
+objection for spraying purposes on account of its weight, as
+especially in early spring it is very difficult to haul so heavy a rig
+over the soft ground. Such an outfit is also rather expensive.
+Standard makes of gasoline engines of sufficient power for spraying
+cost from $75.00 to $150.00 according to horsepower and efficiency.
+For very large trees, for mature orchards, and for all orchards larger
+than four or five acres, the gasoline engine is the best source of
+power for spraying, particularly where it can be used for other
+purposes on the farm.
+
+A double acting or two cylinder pump is most desirable. If there is
+plenty of power a triplex or three cylinder pump is still better. The
+requirements of a good pump are: sufficient power for the work desired
+of it; strong but not too heavy; fewest possible number of parts
+consistent with efficiency; brass parts and valves; and a good sized
+air chamber. A number of standard makes of pumps answer these
+conditions very well. Pumps should always be washed out with clean
+water when the operator is through with them and the metal parts
+coated with vaseline. Never leave water in a pump chamber or in the
+engine jacket in cold weather.
+
+The ordinary hand pump and barrel give satisfactory use when placed on
+a wagon, unless the trees are very high. But for large orchards, high
+trees, and where larger tanks and power pumps are used it is
+desirable to have a special truck for the outfit. The front wheel
+should be made low so as to turn under the tank to enable the driver
+to make short turns around the trees. A tower is desirable where high
+old trees are to be sprayed. This should be substantial but as small
+as is consistent with the purpose so as not to catch on the limbs and
+make it difficult to get close up around the trees. The height of the
+platform must be regulated by the need and by the roughness of the
+ground. On steep side hills the wagon body on which the tank rests
+should be underslung.
+
+In order to get as near to the work as possible get a long hose--from
+twenty to thirty feet according to circumstances. The best quality,
+three to five ply, is none too good. Hose should be three-eighths to
+one-half inch in diameter, one inch being too heavy. Extension rods
+are a practical necessity. They should be ten to twelve feet long and
+made of bamboo lined with brass, that is, as light as possible.
+Nozzles are very important in thorough and effective spraying. There
+is no best nozzle, nor one with which all the work can be done.
+
+Several things should be considered in selecting a nozzle. First of
+all, it must be of convenient form so as not to catch in trees and so
+constructed that it will not clog easily. Second, for apple trees it
+should have good capacity and deliver as spreading a spray as
+possible. Third, the nature of the spray is very important.
+Insecticides should usually be applied with force in a comparatively
+coarse driving spray, but fungicides should be applied in a fine mist
+or fog so that they will settle on every part of the tree. Therein
+lies the difficulty of applying insecticides and fungicides together.
+
+TIME OF SPRAYING.--Fortunately it is not necessary to make a separate
+application for each insect and disease, but they may be treated
+together to some extent. In most cases expediency demands that the
+arsenicals be used with the fungicides. Many growers are finding the
+most satisfactory results, however, from applying the arsenical spray
+separately, just after the blossoms fall, because of the physical
+impossibility of properly applying the two sprays--the driving and the
+mist spray--together. For most practical purposes on the general farm,
+three sprayings are necessary in order to secure clean fruit and four,
+sometimes five, are often advisable. These may be summarized as
+follows:
+
+    1. With lime-sulphur, winter strength, on the dormant wood in
+    early spring.
+
+    2. With lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead just before the
+    blossoms open (may sometimes be omitted).
+
+    3. With the same (or Bordeaux for scab) just after the blossoms
+    fall.
+
+    4. With the same two or three weeks later.
+
+    5. With arsenate of lead eight or nine weeks later (may
+    sometimes be omitted).
+
+      (In the south and middle latitudes where bitter rot and apple
+      blotch occur two other sprayings may be necessary.)
+
+    6. With Bordeaux about eight or ten weeks after the blossoms fall.
+
+    7. Again with the same about two weeks later.
+
+
+A Calendar for Spraying Apples
+
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+INSECTS | Nature | Before | Before | After  | In 2  |  In 8   | Materials
+        | of     | Leaf   | Flower | Petals | to 3  |  to 9   | to
+        | Injury | Buds   | Buds   | Fall   | Weeks |  Weeks  | Use
+        |        | Open   | Open   |        |       |         |
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Codling | Eating |        |        |    x   |    x  |    x    | Lead
+Moth    | Worm   |        |        |        |       |         | Arsenate
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | or
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | Par. Gr.
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+San Jose|Sucking |   x    |        |        |       |         | Lime
+Scale   | Insect |        |        |        |       |         | Sulphur
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Oyster  | Sucking|   x    |        |        |       |         | Lime
+Shell   | Insect |        |        |        |       |         | Sulphur
+Scale   |        |        |        |        |       |         |
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Blister | Leaf   |   x    |        |        |       |         | Lime
+Mite    | Miner  |        |        |        |       |         | Sulphur
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Plant   | Sucking|        |   when seen     |       |         | Whale Oil
+Louse   | Insect |        |        |        |       |         | Soap or
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | Tobacco
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Cigar   | Eating |        |   x    |    x   |     x |         | Lead
+Case    | Insect |        |        |        |       |         | Arsenate
+Bearer  |        |        |        |        |       |         | or
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | Par. Gr.
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Apple   | Eating |  x     |   x    |        | destroy fruit   | Lead
+Maggot  | Worm   |        |        |        |       |         | Arsenate
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | or
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | Par. Gr.
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Bud     | Eating |  x     |   x    |    x   |       |         | Lead
+Moth    | Worm   |        |        |        |       |         | Arsenate
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | or
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | Par. Gr.
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Curculio| Eating |        |   x    |    x   |       |         | Lead
+        | Worm & |        |        |        |       |         | Arsenate
+        | Beetle |        |        |        |       |         | or Par. Gr.
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+=Diseases=|        |        |        |        |       |         |
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Apple   | Fungus |  x     |   x    |    x   |     x | if      | Lime
+Scab    |        |        |        |        |       |necessary| Sulphur
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | or
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | Bordeaux
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | 3-3.50
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         |
+New York| Fungus |   x?   |    cut out      |       |         | Lime
+Apple   |        |        |    infections   |       |         | Sulphur
+Tree    |        |        |        |        |       |         |
+Canker  |        |        |        |        |       |         |
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Leaf    | Fungus |  x     |   x    |    x   |       |         | Lime
+Spot    |        |        |        |        |       |         | Sulphur
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+Sooty   |        |        |        |    x   |   x   |    x    | Bordeaux
+Blotch  |        |        |        |        |       |         | Mixture
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | and Lime
+        |        |        |        |        |       |         | Sulphur
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+----------
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+HARVESTING AND STORING
+
+
+Apples are practically never allowed to ripen on the trees but are
+picked and shipped green. By "green" we mean not fully ripe, not ripe
+enough to eat out of hand. This is necessary for all fruit which is to
+be shipped any considerable distance or which is to be stored. Used in
+this sense green has no reference to color, but as a matter of fact,
+much of our fruit is picked too green, before it has even reached its
+full size and is well colored. There is no exact time at which apples
+must be picked, but this depends on many factors such as the variety,
+the distance to be shipped, the soil, the climate, and various other
+conditions, to say nothing of seasonal differences.
+
+The time at which any variety should be picked in a particular section
+will be learned by experience. In general, apples should be left on
+the tree as long as possible in order to get the best size and color.
+When the apples begin to drop badly it is a pretty sure indication
+that it is time to pick. If the fruit is to be sold in the local
+market or for immediate consumption, it may be allowed to get riper
+than would otherwise be the case. With most varieties one picking is
+sufficient, but in the case of varieties like the Wealthy which does
+not ripen uniformly, or like the Twenty Ounce, which does not always
+color evenly, two or three pickings should be made. Two or three
+pickings are practically always necessary where fancy fruit is
+desired, in order to get the ideal size, color, and uniformity.
+
+LADDERS.--There are two general types of picking ladders, the rung and
+the step ladders. For large trees the rung ladders are the best. They
+may be obtained in lengths to suit the height of the tree. Lengths of
+more than twenty-two or twenty-four feet become too heavy and clumsy
+to handle, even when made of pine, which is the best material as it is
+light and strong for its weight. In very old, high trees extension
+rung ladders are sometimes used. They are also useful for interior
+work but are heavy to handle. Rung ladders cost from ten to twenty
+cents a running foot. Step ladders are useful only on young and small
+trees. The two styles, the three (Japanese) and four legged, are both
+quite satisfactory where one can reach the fruit from them.
+
+Receptacles for picking usually hold about half a bushel. Both baskets
+and bags are used, some preferring one and some the other, and a
+choice between them is merely a matter of personal preference. There
+is a little less liability of bruising the apples in bags than in
+baskets, but the latter are more convenient in some ways. Fruit should
+never be thrown or dropped into a basket but always handled carefully.
+Some varieties, as McIntosh, show almost every finger mark and
+literally require handling with gloves.
+
+HANDLING.--The old custom of picking and laying on the ground in the
+orchard is a poor one and should not be followed, as it causes
+unnecessary handling and bruising. Moreover, fruit should be packed
+and hauled to storage as soon after picking as possible. Picking and
+placing directly on the packing table from which the apples are
+immediately packed is the best plan where it is practicable, but as
+the weather at picking time in the Eastern States is frequently quite
+uncertain, it is not always possible to follow this plan as closely as
+can be done in the West, where dry air and sunshine prevail. Still,
+wherever there is a considerable quantity of fruit and several
+pickers, the plan of packing directly from the table is best. Many
+growers pick in boxes and barrels and haul the apples to a packing
+shed to be packed later. Convenience and expediency must govern the
+general farmer who is not always at liberty to choose the best plan,
+often having to do as he can.
+
+PACKING TABLES enable the grower to pack his fruit better because he
+can see better what he is doing, and to handle the fruit more cheaply
+and quickly and with less injury. They should be portable so that they
+can be moved about the orchard. A convenient type has one end mounted
+on wheels so that it can be pushed from one place to another. The top
+of the table should be made of two strong layers of canvas, one tacked
+firmly to the framework of the table with about three or four inches
+of dip and the other laid loosely over it. This plan provides a soft
+resting place for the fruit and the table can be easily cleaned off by
+simply throwing back the upper layer of canvas.
+
+Three feet six inches is about the right width for the table, and the
+same sloping to three feet four inches at one end, is the correct
+height from the ground. Most packers like to have this gradual slope
+to one end so that the apples will naturally feed toward that end. The
+length may be anything up to eight or ten feet, beyond which the table
+becomes heavy and unmanageable.
+
+BARRELS.--The standard apple barrel adopted by the National Apple
+Shippers' Association and made law in New York State has a length of
+stave of twenty-eight and one-half inches and a diameter of head of
+seventeen and one-eighth inches. The outside circumference of the
+bilge is sixty-four inches and the distance between the heads is
+twenty-six inches. It contains one hundred quarts dry measure. The
+staves are mostly made of elm, pine, and red gum, and the heads
+principally of pine with some beech and maple. In most apple growing
+sections barrels are made in regular cooper shops where their
+manufacture is a business by itself. Only the largest growers set up
+their own barrels. Practically all barrels are purchased "knocked
+down" and it costs from four to six cents each to set them up. Barrels
+can ordinarily be purchased for about thirty-five cents each, but the
+cost varies somewhat with the season and the region.
+
+Apple packages should always present a neat, clean, and attractive
+appearance. Never use flour barrels, soiled or ununiform barrels of
+any kind. If a head cushion is used a good deal of waste from the
+crushing and bruising of the fruit will be saved. A head lining of
+plain or fringed paper also adds much to the attractiveness of the
+package. The wrapping of apples for barrel packing is hardly
+advisable. The fruit is pressed into the barrel tightly with one of
+two types of presses, both of which are good.
+
+The lever press is more responsive and the pressure is more easily
+changed, but it is harder to operate. The screw press distributes the
+pressure more evenly with less injury to the fruit and is more
+powerful.
+
+The steps in properly packing a barrel of apples are: First, see that
+the middle and closed end hoops are tight, if necessary, nailing them
+and clinching the nails; second, mark the head plainly with the grade
+and variety and the name of the packer or owner; then place the barrel
+on a solid floor or plank and lay in the facing papers (the face end
+being packed first); select the "facers," which should be the best
+representatives of the grade being packed, and _no others_, and place
+them in two courses in regular order stems down; with a drop handle
+basket fill the barrel, using care not to bruise the fruit, and
+jarring the barrel back and forth on the plank as each basket is put
+into it in order to settle the fruit firmly in place; lastly, arrange
+a layer of apples stems up and apply the press, using a hatchet to get
+the head in place and to drive on and tighten the hoops.
+
+THE BOX PACKAGE is rapidly growing in favor, especially as a carrier
+of fancy fruit. There is no standard box the size of which is fixed by
+law unless it be a box labeled a bushel. But two sizes of boxes are in
+common use, both probably being necessary on account of the variation
+in the size of different varieties. The "Standard" box is 101/2 by 111/2
+by 18 inches inside measurement and contains 2,173.5 cubic inches (the
+lawful stricken bushel is 2,150.4 cubic inches). The "Special" box is
+10 by 11 by 20 inches inside measurement and contains 2,200 cubic
+inches. The bulge when properly made will add about 150 cubic inches
+more, making the two boxes hold 2,323.5 cubic inches and 2,350 cubic
+inches respectively.
+
+Spruce is the most reliable and in general the best material. Fir is
+sometimes used, but is likely to split. Pine is good if strong enough.
+The ends should be of three-quarter-inch material; the sides of
+three-eighth-inch, and the tops and bottoms--two pieces each--of
+one-quarter-inch material. There should also be two cleats each for
+top and bottom. The sides of the box should be nailed with four,
+preferably five-penny cement-coated nails, at each end. The cleats
+should be put neatly on each end and four nails put into them, going
+through into the top and bottom. Boxes commonly come "knocked down" or
+in the flat and are usually put together by the grower. They cost from
+ten to thirteen cents each in the flat.
+
+There are several kinds of packs, depending on the size of the apples
+and the choice of the grower. The diagonal pack with each apple
+resting over the spaces between others is preferable, but on account
+of the size of the apples one is often forced to use the straight pack
+with the apples in regular right angle rows for some sizes. The offset
+pack, first three (or four) on one side and then on the other, is
+very much like the diagonal, but not much used on account of its
+accommodating too few apples in a box. The following table gives the
+packs, number of rows, number of apples in the row, box to use, and
+number of apples used to the box, as used at Hood River, Oregon:
+
+                                        No.
+  Size expressed                       apples      No.
+  in No. apples                         in      layers in   Box
+  per box          Tier       Pack      row       depth     used
+--------------------------------------------------------------------
+     45            3       3 St.        5-5         3       Standard
+     54            3       3 St.        6-6         3       Special
+     63            3       3 St.        7-7         3       Special
+     64            31/2      2-2 Diag.    4-4         4       Standard
+     72            31/2      2-2 Diag.    4-5         4       Standard
+     80            31/2      2-2 Diag.    5-5         4       Standard
+     88            31/2      2-2 Diag.    5-6         4       Standard
+     96            31/2      2-2 Diag.    6-6         4       Special
+     104           31/2      2-2 Diag.    6-7         4       Special
+     112           31/2      2-2 Diag.    7-7         4       Special
+     120           31/2      2-2 Diag.    7-8         4       Special
+     128           4       4 St.        8-8         4       Special
+     144           4       4 St.        9-9         4       Special
+     150           41/2      3-2 Diag.    6-6         5       Standard
+     163           41/2      3-2 Diag.    6-7         5       Standard
+     175           41/2      3-2 Diag.    7-7         5       Standard
+     185           41/4      3-2 Diag.    7-8         5       Special
+     200           41/2      3-2 Diag.    8-8         5       Special
+
+It is good practice to wrap apples packed in boxes. For this purpose a
+heavy-weight tissue paper in two sizes, 8 by 10 and 10 by 10,
+according to the size of the apple, is used. A lining paper 18 by 24
+in size and "white news" in grade is first placed in the box. Between
+the layers of apples a colored "tagboard" paper, size 171/4 by 11 or 20
+by 93/4, according to the box used, is laid so as to make the layers
+come out right at the top. In packing the box is inclined toward the
+packer for convenience in placing the fruit. After laying in the
+lining paper each apple is wrapped and put in place. As an aid to
+picking up the thin wrapping paper a rubber "finger" is used on the
+forefinger. When the box is packed the layers should stand a quarter
+to a half inch higher in the middle than at the ends, in order to give
+a bulge or spring to the top and bottom which holds the fruit firmly
+in place without bruising.
+
+There has been much discussion as to whether the box or the barrel is
+the better package for apples. This is needless, for as a matter of
+fact each is best for its own particular purpose. The barrel is best
+adapted as a package for large commercial quantities of fruit and
+where labor could not be had to pack apples in boxes even if the trade
+wanted them. The barrel permits the packing of a greater variety in
+size and shape than does the box, and these can be more easily and
+cheaply handled in packing.
+
+On the other hand, the box is the ideal package for small amounts of
+fancy fruit, to be used for a family-or fruit-stand trade. It presents
+a neater and more fancy appearance and is a more convenient package to
+handle, as well as one which is more open to inspection. It already
+has a better reputation as a quality container than the barrel. As a
+fancy package for a limited private trade from the small general farm
+orchard with high-class varieties like the Northern Spy, McIntosh, and
+others there is no comparison of the box with the barrel.
+
+STORAGE.--Car refrigeration and cold storage of fruit are
+comparatively modern developments. Few persons who have not been
+affected directly realize what a tremendous influence they have had
+upon the fruit, and particularly the apple industry. Apples could not
+be shipped any very great distance. Crops had to be marketed
+immediately and when they were large the markets were soon glutted and
+the fruit became almost valueless. The first hot spell would
+demoralize the trade altogether. Then later in the season the supply
+would become exhausted and famine would ensue where but a few weeks
+before there had been a feast. Under such conditions it is not
+surprising that the apple industry did not develop very rapidly and
+that apple growing was mostly confined to areas near the larger
+markets.
+
+The coming of the refrigerator car extended fruit-growing over a much
+wider area. Refrigeration on shipboard opened up and enlarged the
+export trade. Cold storage warehouses lengthened the season by holding
+over the surplus of fruit, thus relieving fall gluts in the market and
+providing a winter supply of apples. These conditions created a more
+stable market with more uniform prices, extending the business from a
+side issue to one of chief importance. Marketing has become almost a
+business by itself, inducing the formation of growers' associations
+and creating a profitable occupation for large dealers and commission
+men. These conditions, too, have led to speculation.
+
+Two kinds of storage are used, common or cellar storage and cold
+storage. Both are about equally available, but the latter is too
+expensive for the small grower. There is always a question as to the
+advisability of the small grower storing his fruit. Storage means a
+degree of speculation. "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush,"
+especially when the bird is a good one. So far as rules can be laid
+down, the following are pretty safe ones to keep in mind: It is safest
+to store apples when they are of the highest quality; in a season most
+unfavorable to common storage; when the fewest are being stored; when
+the price in the fall is medium to low, never when high; and when one
+can afford to lose the whole crop.
+
+Successful storage requires several things: good fruit, stored
+immediately after picking, careful sorting and handling, subsequent
+rest, and a reasonable control of the temperature. The functions of
+storage are to arrest ripening, retard the development of disease, and
+furnish a uniform, cold temperature. Storage of apples does not remedy
+over-ripeness nor prevent deterioration of already diseased, bruised,
+or partly rotted fruit. There are three general methods of storage:
+(1) by ventilation, (2) by the use of ice and (3) by mechanical means.
+
+Cooling by ventilation offers the most practical system for a farm
+storage. It requires that there be perfect insulation against outside
+temperature changes, adequate ventilation, and careful watching of
+temperatures. To provide for good insulation a dead air space is
+necessary. This can be secured by a course of good two-inch boards
+with one or two layers of building paper inside and out, over a
+framework of two-by-fours. Over the building paper tight, well matched
+siding should be laid also inside and out. Two of the dead air spaces
+will make insulation doubly sure.
+
+To provide for proper ventilation construct an intake for cold air at
+the bottom, and an outlet for warm air at the top of the room. These
+should serve all parts of the room, one being necessary for this
+purpose every twelve to sixteen feet. Do not depend too much on
+windows. Warm-air flues should be twelve inches square and six to
+twelve feet long.
+
+The attention to such a house is most important. Keep it closed
+tightly early in the fall with blinded windows. When nights get cool
+open the doors and windows to let in cold air, closing them again
+during the day. On hot days close the ventilators also. In this way a
+temperature of 36 to 40 degrees Fahr. can be secured in early fall and
+one of 32 to 33 degrees Fahr. later. This is probably the cheapest as
+well as the most practical method of farm storage.
+
+Ice storage is quite practical in the North, but more expensive. The
+principle of such a storage is to keep ice above the fruit, allowing
+the cold air to flow down the sides of the room. A shaft in the middle
+of the room will serve to remove the warm air. This method is open to
+the objection of difficulty in storing the ice above the fruit.
+Moreover the uniformity of its cold air supply is questionable.
+Mechanical storage in which cold temperatures are secured by the
+compression or absorption of gases is altogether impracticable for
+individual growers, as it costs from $1.50 to $2.00 a barrel of
+capacity to construct such a storage. Rents of this kind of storage
+range from 10 to 25 cents a barrel per month, or 25 to 50 cents a
+barrel for the season of from four to six months.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MARKETS AND MARKETING
+
+
+Having produced a good product, there remains the problem of making a
+profitable and satisfactory disposition of it. In many ways marketing
+is the measure of successful fruit growing. Of what use is it to prune
+well, cultivate well, spray thoroughly, or even pack well the finest
+kind of product, if after the expense of these operations is paid and
+the railroad and commission agents have had their share, no profit
+remains to the producer? Many growers find it easier to produce good
+fruit than to market it at a good price, and this is especially true
+of the general farmer. Failure to market well spells failure in the
+business of fruit growing. Successful marketing presupposes a
+knowledge of the requirements of different markets as to quality,
+varieties, and supply demanded in those markets. Methods of
+distribution are also one of the great factors in this problem of
+marketing.
+
+TYPES OF MARKETS.--There are two general types of markets, the local,
+which is a special market and the general or wholesale market, both of
+which have different but definite requirements. The local market
+handles fruit in small quantities, but usually with a larger margin of
+profit per unit to the producer. As a rule delivery is direct in a
+local market, and thus commissions are saved. Competition is also more
+or less limited to one's neighbors. More varieties, including less
+well known ones, are called for. Appearance does not count for as much
+as quality, which is of first importance. Fruit may be riper as it is
+consumed more quickly and meets with less rough handling. Packages are
+usually returned to the grower. Special markets are often willing to
+pay extra for fruit out of season, and they always require special
+study and adaptation to meet their needs.
+
+The general or wholesale market handles fruit in larger quantities,
+usually with a smaller margin of profit. A selling agent or commission
+man is the means of disposing of fruit in such a market, where
+competition is open to the whole country and sometimes to the world.
+Only standard well-known varieties find a ready and profitable sale.
+Great attention is paid to appearance and comparatively little to
+quality. Fruit shipped to a wholesale market must be packed in a
+standard package, which is not returned, but goes with the fruit, and
+must be packed so as to endure rough treatment. Out of season fruit is
+not in demand, but even the general market sometimes has special
+preferences.
+
+Almost every market has favorite varieties for which it is willing to
+pay a larger price than other markets. Just as Boston wants a brown
+egg and New York a white one, so these and other cities have their
+favorite varieties of apples. Some markets prefer a red apple, others
+a green one, although the former is most generally popular. In the
+mining and manufacturing towns working people want smaller green
+apples, or "seconds," because they are cheaper. Many second-class
+hotels prefer small apples, if they are well colored, as they go
+farther. The fashionable restaurant and the fruit stand are the
+markets for large, perfect, and highly colored specimens. Housewives
+demand cooking apples like Greenings, hotels want a good out-of-hand
+apple like the McIntosh, while private families have their own
+special favorites. As will readily be seen, the producer's problem is
+to find the special market for what he grows.
+
+It has been said that different markets have special varietal
+preferences, paying a better price for these than do other markets for
+the same quality. We can only take the space here to point out a few
+of these preferences. The Baldwin is by all odds our best general
+market and export variety. It is the workingman's apple and finds its
+best sale in our largest cities, particularly in New York and Chicago.
+The Rhode Island Greening is a better seller in the northern markets
+than it is in the southern, finding its best sale in Boston and in New
+York. The Northern Spy is highly regarded by all our large northern
+and eastern markets, is fairly well liked by the middle latitude
+markets, but not popular south of Baltimore and Pittsburgh or west of
+Milwaukee.
+
+Central western markets appear to prefer the Hubbardson, but this
+apple is fairly good in all markets. King is well thought of nearly
+everywhere. Ben Davis is a favorite in the South, New Orleans
+especially preferring it on account of its keeping quality. Jonathan
+has a good reputation everywhere. Dutchess of Oldenburg is regarded
+as excellent in Buffalo and Chicago. Wealthy, although generally a
+local market apple, is well known and liked in all markets. Twenty
+Ounce is spoken well of nearly everywhere. The Fameuse is not well
+liked in the South, but popular in the North, etc. These particular
+facts as to varieties are best learned by experience and by
+observation of the market quotations.
+
+THE COMMISSION MAN.--The present system of marketing fruit products
+makes the commission man almost a necessity in the general market.
+Neither the grower nor the local dealer can ship directly to the
+consumer or even to the retailer, except in a very limited way. It may
+be impracticable to devise any other workable system, but it must be
+remembered that every man who touches a barrel of apples on its
+journey from producer to consumer must be paid for doing so, and this
+pay must come either out of the seller's price or be added to the
+buyer's price. But so long as present conditions of marketing and
+distribution prevail, so long will a selling agent in the general
+market be necessary, and the evil cannot be ameliorated by ranting
+against it.
+
+An unfortunate impression prevails that all commission men are
+dishonest. This is not true, although undoubtedly there are many
+scoundrels among them, as they have shippers almost completely at
+their mercy. The best method under our present system is to choose an
+honest commission man in the city where you sell, to get acquainted
+with him, to let him know that your trade will be in his hands only so
+long as he treats you fairly, and then supply him with as good quality
+of stuff as you can produce. This plan has worked out well with many
+successful growers and marketers.
+
+Perhaps the greatest difficulty to be overcome in successfully finding
+good markets is that of proper distribution. As has been pointed out
+in the previous chapter, there has been a great increase in the
+production of apples and hence in competition, accompanied by
+speculation and more intensive methods in all phases of the business.
+A necessity has arisen for the production of the best at a minimum
+cost, as well as for finding the best market for that product. In the
+rush for the best market every seller is apt to be guided only by his
+own immediate interest without due regard for the fact that others are
+acting in the same way or that there is a future. The result is the
+piling up of fruit in a market of high quotations, and a subsequent
+drop in the price. Then all turn from such a market to a better one
+with the result that a famine often results where but a few weeks or
+even days before there had been a feast.
+
+Thus it often happens that one market may have more fruit than it can
+possibly dispose of at the time, while another, perhaps equally good,
+goes begging. Such conditions are ruinous to trade. Growers are
+disappointed and ascribe the cause to the commission man. Consumers
+are unable many times to profit by a glut in the market but promptly
+blame the middleman or the grower when the supply is small and the
+price high.
+
+Other difficulties with our system of marketing are non-uniformity of
+the grades, the packages, or the fruit itself. There should be a clear
+definition of just what "firsts" and "seconds" are and this definition
+rigidly adhered to. Transportation is too frequently insufficient, not
+rapid enough, especially when perishable fruit is shipped in small
+lots, and usually at a too high rate. There are undoubtedly too many
+middlemen between producer and consumer. Growers sell to local dealers
+who sell to wholesalers at the receiving end. These sell to
+wholesalers at the consuming end, who may sell to jobbers, who sell to
+retailers. Each man must have his profits, all of which greatly
+increases costs.
+
+CO-OPERATION.--Individuals have practically no power to remedy such a
+state of affairs. So long as producers act independently they will
+have little power either to bring about favorable legislation or to
+better such market conditions. Acting together as a unit growers have
+accomplished great things which can be repeated. The co-operative
+principle has been well tried out in California, where it was first
+put into operation with citrous fruits, in several other Western
+States with apples, and in Michigan and the Province of Ontario.
+
+Co-operative associations study carefully the law of supply and demand
+and take steps to adapt their shipments to it. They standardize the
+grade, the package, and the fruit, and govern their shipments to given
+markets by the needs and the demands of those markets. Their unity of
+effort enables them to make great savings in the purchase of supplies,
+such as packages, spraying material, fertilizers, etc., and in
+obtaining and distributing frequently knowledge of markets and market
+conditions. They also advertise their products, making them better
+known, creating a demand for them, and by means of correspondence or
+traveling agents seek out the best markets.
+
+There are now several large fruit exchanges operating over wide
+sections of country. But the local associations are the vital units in
+any co-operative movement. Such associations should be incorporated
+under State laws so that they can do all sorts of business when
+necessary. Six simple objects should be kept in mind, namely, (1) to
+prevent unnecessary competition, and to supervise and control
+distribution of products; (2) to provide for uniformity in the grade,
+package, and fruit; (3) to build up a high standard of excellence and
+to create a demand for it; (4) to economize in buying supplies and
+selling products; (5) to promote education regarding all phases of the
+fruit business; and (6) when necessary to act as a buying and selling
+agent for the community.
+
+Such an association requires a board of directors, a treasurer, and an
+active and well-paid manager. The latter is most important, as upon
+his honesty, ability, and energy will largely depend the success or
+failure of the organization. Sometimes where fruit is packed in a
+central packing house or under an association brand or guarantee, a
+foreman packer is also necessary. The capitalization required for such
+an enterprise is not necessarily large, unless warehouses or packing
+houses are built. These are usually better rented until the
+organization becomes well established.
+
+The shares should be small so that every member may be financially
+well represented, and members should be prohibited from holding more
+than a small percentage of the total shares, in order to prevent
+possible monopoly. Dividends on stock held should only be expected
+from business done outside the association membership, interest on
+money invested being obtained in the handling of members' products at
+cost. Receipts should be given growers for just what they bring in,
+and they should then be paid according to the grade of fruit which
+they contribute, prices for the same grade being pooled. The charge to
+growers for handling should be actual cost, but outsiders' products
+should be handled at a small profit in order to induce them to come
+into the association. The same method should be followed in purchasing
+supplies.
+
+The general result of such co-operation is that the consumer gets a
+better product for his money and the grower receives a better price
+for his product. It is very essential to the success of the
+organization that growers stick together, even through low prices and
+discouragement which so often come, until they are firmly established.
+Substantial reduction in the cost of the product to consumers can only
+come by similar co-operation among them at the buying end and by the
+co-operation of both consumers and producers for distribution and
+handling in market.
+
+If a neighborhood does not feel yet ready to attack this problem in
+this thorough and businesslike way, it will be advantageous and a step
+in the right direction if they simply agree on certain standards of
+quality and packing and then pool their product for marketing. This
+method has also been followed with success.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+SOME HINTS ON RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS
+
+
+Nearly every general farm in the humid part of the United States has
+its small, old apple orchard. For the most part these orchards were
+planted in order to have a home source of supply of this popular
+fruit. In fact, but few orchards have been planted on a commercial
+scale with a view of selling the fruit, until recently and outside of
+a few sections. Therefore, as a rule we find these old farm orchards
+to consist of a few acres containing from twenty-five to two hundred
+trees. These trees are usually good standard varieties which have been
+the source of much apple "sass," many an apple pie, and many a barrel
+of cider-vinegar.
+
+Not having been set for profit, these trees received little care.
+Orchards were cropped in the regular rotation, or with hay, or
+pastured. Farmers then knew little of modern methods of orchard
+management. The orchard was regarded as an incumbrance to the land,
+which had to be farmed to as good advantage as possible under the
+circumstances, and if the apple trees by any chance yielded a crop,
+the owner regarded himself as fortunate indeed.
+
+But conditions have now changed. Both local and foreign markets have
+been opened up and developed so that the demand for good fruit is
+great. It will be some time before the thousands of acres of orchards
+which have been and are being planted to meet this demand will be able
+to do so in any adequate way. It has been shown in Chapter I how heavy
+has been the falling off in the supply, even in the face of these
+heavy plantings. Meanwhile we must turn to the old neglected farm
+orchards for our supply of apples. Just at this particular time the
+renovation of these old orchards offers a splendid opportunity to
+increase the farm income.
+
+The question is a live one on nearly every general farm in the East.
+Will it pay to try to renovate my old apple trees? If so, what should
+I do to make them profitable? What will it cost and what returns may
+be expected? The latter question will be taken up in the following
+chapter, but here we must try to indicate under what conditions it
+may pay to renovate an old orchard, as well as those under which it
+may not pay, and also how to go about the problem.
+
+NECESSARY QUALITIES.--An apple orchard must have certain
+qualifications in order to make it worth while to spend the time and
+money necessary to accomplish the desired results. These we may take
+up briefly under five heads: (1) varieties, (2) age, (3) number or
+"stand" of trees, (4) vigor and health of the trees, and (5) soil,
+site, and location. The discussion of these subjects in Chapters II
+and III has equal application here, but we may perhaps point out their
+specific application more definitely in the case of the old neglected
+farm orchard.
+
+(1) Varieties should be desirable sorts. If they are the best standard
+market varieties, as is often the case, so much the better. Otherwise
+little is gained by improving the tree and fruit. Poor or unknown
+varieties have little or no market value, except perhaps a very local
+one. If the trees are not too old and are fairly vigorous, poor
+varieties may sometimes be worked over by top grafting to better
+varieties. Characteristics which may make, a variety undesirable are:
+inferior quality; unattractiveness in color, shape, or size; lack of
+hardiness in the tree or keeping quality in the fruit; low yield; or
+being unknown in the market with its consequent small demand. Summer
+varieties are worth renovating only when they are in good demand in a
+nearby local market.
+
+(2) Vigor is more important than age in the tree, but is closely
+correlated with it. Ordinarily one should hesitate to try to renovate
+a tree more than forty or fifty years old, but this must always depend
+almost wholly on its condition and other characteristics.
+
+(3) In order to make a business of renovation and to do thorough work
+which means expense, there must be enough of the orchard to justify
+the expenditure of the time and money. This affects the results not
+only in expense, but in economy in management, equipment, and
+marketing. There should be at least an acre of say thirty trees, and
+better, more than that number to justify the expense of time and money
+necessary for renovation. One hundred trees would certainly justify
+it, other conditions being favorable. Then, too, the trees should be
+in such shape that they can be properly treated without too great
+trouble and expense, i.e., not too scattered or isolated or in the
+midst of regular fields better adapted for other crops.
+
+(4) Vigor and good general health are of great importance. Many old
+trees are too far gone with neglect, having been too long starved or
+having their vitality too much weakened by disease to make an effort
+for their rehabilitation worth while. Good vigor, even though it be
+dormant, is absolutely essential. Disease weakens the tree, making the
+expense of renovation greater. Moreover, all diseased branches must be
+removed, requiring severe cutting and often seriously injuring the
+tree. Disease too often stunts the tree to such an extent as to make
+stimulation practically impossible. Such matters should be carefully
+looked into before attempting renovation.
+
+(5) If the soil, site, and location are all unfavorable or even if two
+of these are not good, time and money are likely to be wasted on
+renovation. What constitutes unfavorable conditions in these respects
+has already been pointed out in Chapter III.
+
+Practically the same principles of pruning, cultivation, fertilization
+and spraying apply in the management of the old orchard as in any
+other orchard. It may be well, however, to restate these, briefly
+pointing out their special value and application to the old neglected
+orchard together with the few modifications of practice necessary. The
+steps to be taken are four: (1) pruning, (2) fertilizing, (3)
+cultivating, and (4) spraying.
+
+(1) PRUNING.--Old and long-neglected apple orchards usually have a
+large amount of dead wood in them. This may be removed at any time of
+the year, but fall and winter are good times to begin the work. If the
+trees are high and the limbs scattered and sprawling so that the
+middle of the trees is not well filled out, the trees should be headed
+back rather severely. Such trees may safely have their highest limbs
+cut back from five to ten feet. It is best not to remove too many
+branches in one year, but to spread severe cutting back over at least
+two years, as so much pruning at one time weakens the tree and causes
+an excessive growth of "suckers." Each limb should be cut back to a
+rather strong and vigorous lateral branch which may then take up the
+growth of the upright one. The effect of such heading back will be to
+stimulate the branches lower down and probably to bring in more or
+less "suckers." The following year the best of these suckers should
+be selected at proper points about the tree, headed in so as to
+develop their lateral buds, and encouraged by the removal of all other
+suckers to fill in the top and center of the tree in the way desired.
+All such severe heading in should best be done in the early spring.
+
+(2) FERTILIZING.--At some time during the late fall or winter twelve
+to fifteen loads of stable manure should be applied broadcast on each
+acre, scattering it well out under the ends of the branches. This will
+amount to a load to from three to five trees. In case manure is not
+available, or sometimes even supplementary to it in cases where quick
+results are wanted 100 to 200 pounds of nitrate of soda, 300 to 500
+pounds of acid phosphate, and 150 to 200 pounds of sulphate or muriate
+of potash should be applied in two applications as a top dressing in
+spring, as soon as growth starts, and thoroughly worked into the soil.
+This will give the trees an abundance of available plant food, which
+is usually badly needed, and help to stimulate them to a vigorous
+growth. Such heavy feeding may easily be overdone and should be
+adjusted according to conditions and the needs of the orchard.
+
+(3) CULTIVATING.--If the orchard has been in sod for a number of
+years, as is often the case, it is usually best to plow it in the fall
+about four inches deep, just deep enough to turn under the sod. By so
+doing a large number of roots will probably be broken, but such injury
+will be much more than offset by the stimulus to the trees the next
+season. It is a good plan to apply the stable manure on the top of
+this plowed ground early in the winter. Fall plowing gives a better
+opportunity for rotting the sod and exposes to the winter action of
+the elements the soil, which is usually stale and inactive after lying
+so long unturned. In the spring the regular treatment with springtooth
+and spiketooth harrows should be followed as outlined in Chapter V.
+
+(4) SPRAYING in the old orchard is essentially the same as elsewhere.
+It is necessary, however, to emphasize the first spray, the dormant
+one, winter strength on the wood. This is the most important spray for
+a neglected orchard and it should be very thoroughly applied. It is a
+sort of cleaning-up spray for scale, fungus, and insects which winter
+on the bark. In orchards where the San Jose scale is bad a strong
+lime-sulphur spray should also be used in the late fall in order to
+make doubly sure a thorough cleaning up. It is usually a pretty good
+plan to scrape old trees as high up as the rough, shaggy bark extends,
+destroying the scrapings. For this purpose an old and dull hoe does
+very well. This treatment will get rid of many insects by destroying
+them and their winter quarters.
+
+PATCHING OLD TREES.--A few suggestions on patching up the weak places
+in an old tree may not be entirely out of place. The question is often
+asked, will it pay to fill up the decayed centers or sides of old
+trees? If the tree is otherwise desirable to save, it usually will.
+Scrape out all the dead and rotten material, cleaning down to the
+sound heart wood. Then fill up the cavity with a rough cement, being
+careful to exclude all air and finishing with a smooth, sloping
+surface so as to drain away all moisture. This treatment will probably
+prevent further decay and often acts as a substantial mechanical
+support.
+
+Trees which are badly split or which have so grown that a heavy crop
+is likely to break them over should be braced with wires or bolts.
+Where the limbs are close together a bolt driven right through them
+with wide, strong washers at the ends is very effective in
+strengthening the tree. Where limbs must be braced from one side of
+the tree across to the other wires are the best to use. They may be
+fastened to bolts through the limbs with wide washers on the outside
+hooks on the inside, or by passing the wire around the branches. In
+the latter case some wide, fairly rigid material such as tin, pieces
+of wood, or heavy leather should be used to protect the tree from the
+wire which would otherwise cut into the bark and perhaps girdle the
+limb.
+
+COST.--For the benefit of those who would like to get some idea of the
+probable cost of renovating old apple orchards, the following estimate
+made by the writer in a recent government publication on this subject
+is given. This estimate has been carefully made up from actual records
+kept on several New York farms. Because these costs are very variable
+according to the condition of the orchard, both maximum and minimum
+amounts are given per acre for the first year only.
+
+                                             Minimum      Maximum
+                                              cost         cost
+
+ Plowing                                      $2.00        $3.00
+ Manure, 10 to 20 loads at $1, or their
+   equivalent in commercial fertilizer        10.00        20.00
+ Hauling manure                                5.00        10.00
+ Pruning and hauling brush                     5.00        10.00
+ Disking or harrowing twice                    1.00         1.50
+ Disking or harrowing 3d or 4th time            .50         1.00
+ Cultivating two to four times                  .50         1.00
+ Spraying once with L.S. dilution 1 to
+   9--material                                 2.00         4.00
+ Spraying once, L.S., labor                    1.00         1.50
+ Spraying second time with L.S. dilution
+   1 to 40, labor and material                 1.50         2.50
+ Spraying third time with same                 1.50         2.50
+                                             ------       ------
+     Total cost                              $30.00       $57.00
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE COST OF GROWING APPLES
+
+
+Two factors have always operated to deter many persons from taking up
+fruit growing as a business or even as a side issue on the farm, and
+they will probably continue to be an obstacle for more time to come.
+These are the comparatively large investment required and the
+necessarily long period of waiting before paying returns can be
+obtained. Farmers who have not gone into the business of fruit growing
+because they could not afford this heavy investment or to wait so long
+for returns have been wise. Others who, though lacking the necessary
+capital, still have planted heavily have learned to their sorrow the
+importance of capital in the business both for the original investment
+and to carry the enterprise. And yet with sufficient capital and the
+proper conditions there is no more attractive or profitable line of
+agriculture than fruit growing.
+
+Who knows what it costs to grow an orchard to bearing age? Or what it
+costs to produce a barrel of apples? We venture to say that very few
+persons do. Because of the large investment both in fixed and in
+working capital it is most important to know these costs. Moreover an
+accurate knowledge of the financial conditions and facts in any
+business is of first importance to intelligent management. For these
+reasons every grower ought to keep careful records of the cost and
+income from each field or orchard every year in order to determine as
+accurately as possible what his crops have cost him per unit and per
+acre and what rate of interest he has realized on his investment. As
+farming becomes more intensive competition increases, costs multiply,
+and the margin of profit on any given unit becomes smaller. It
+therefore becomes increasingly necessary to have accurate records on
+the cost of production.
+
+FACTORS IN THE COST OF PRODUCTION.--The value of records depends on
+their accuracy and on their completeness. There are a great many
+factors which enter into the cost of production. For convenience these
+may be classified as cash costs and labor costs. Labor charges should
+include the work of both men and teams at a rate determined by their
+actual cost or by a careful estimate. Man labor costs are easily
+reckoned, as they are either simple cash or cash plus board and
+certain privileges, the value of which should be estimated in cash.
+
+The value of horse labor is more difficult to determine. It is made up
+of interest on valuation, depreciation, stable rental, feed, care,
+etc. A fair estimate of this cost is $10 a month or $120 a year for a
+horse. Cash costs are interest on the investment and on the equipment
+in machinery, etc., or rental of the same, taxes, a proper share of
+the general farm expenses such as insurance and repairs of buildings,
+telephone, etc., the cost of spraying material, packages, fertilizers,
+etc.
+
+There are many ways of keeping such a record. Any method which
+accomplishes the result in a convenient and accurate manner is a good
+one. It will usually be found necessary to keep a cash account or day
+book, entering all items in enough detail to make possible their later
+distribution to the proper field or crop, and also to keep a diary of
+all labor. Any form of diary will answer the purpose, but one which
+has ruled columns at the right side of the page in which to indicate
+the crop or field worked upon, and the number of hours worked is more
+convenient and therefore more desirable.
+
+AN EXAMPLE.--For a number of years the author has kept such records on
+his farm in western New York. As an illustration of the method and in
+order to give the reader a general idea as to what the costs above
+referred to are likely to be we venture to give the following tables.
+It must be remembered, however, that practically everyone of the above
+mentioned factors varies with the conditions under which the orchard
+is managed and that these figures are not _an_ average but _one_
+average and on one farm. True averages are arrived at only by bringing
+together a large number of figures. In any case, the question of cost
+is essentially an individual problem on every farm. These figures are
+of value only as an example of the method and the cost on one farm
+under its own special conditions.
+
+The orchard for which the following figures were given was set in the
+spring of 1903, and the records begin with that year and end with
+1910, covering a period of eight years in all. Throughout this period
+other crops have been grown between the tree rows, thereby offsetting
+to a large extent the cost of growing the orchard. Forty trees at the
+north end of the orchard are pears, but they have received
+substantially the same treatment as the apples and have not affected
+the cost. In 1904, 211 plum trees were set as fillers one way. The
+apple trees were set 36 by 36 feet apart, so that, filled one way, the
+trees stand 18 by 36 feet apart. The orchard is ten rows wide and
+forty-seven long, containing in all 467 trees.
+
+BRINGING TO BEARING AGE.--The first of the following tables is given
+as a sample of one year's records, that of 1907, on this orchard in
+order to show both the manner in which the costs were made up and what
+the items amounted to in one year:
+
+FIELD A--1907. FIFTH YEAR
+
+                         Total                Hours       Cost      Cost
+                         hours    Total     per acre      per       per
+Operation             Man  Horse   cost    Man   Horse    acre      100
+Mulching               3     6    $1.05     .455    .91   $0.16    $0.22
+Pruning               11   ...     1.65    1.67    ...      .25      .35
+Cultivating 1          7     7     1.75    1.06    1.06     .26      .38
+Cultivating 2         10    10     2.50    1.51    1.51     .38      .54
+Cultivating 3          6     6     1.50    .91      .91     .23      .32
+Plowing in fall       47    94    16.45    7.12   14.25    2.50     3.52
+Banking trees         12   ...     1.80    1.82    ...      .27      .39
+Harrowing             21    42     7.35    3.18    6.36    1.11     1.58
+                     ---   ---   ------   -----   -----   -----    -----
+Total lab. cost.     117   165   $34.05   17.73   25.00   $5.16    $7.30
+
+4 loads manure at $1.50            6.00                     .91     1.29
+Equipment charge                   1.15                     .174     .25
+Taxes                              5.29                     .801    1.13
+Interest                          38.48                    5.83     8.23
+                                 ------                  -------  ------
+Total cost                       $84.97                  $12.875  $18.20
+
+INCOME, COST AND PROFIT ON BEANS--FIELD A--1907
+
+ Income                                        Cost   Profit
+ 75 bushels at $1.50        $112.50
+ 31/2 tons pods at $6           21.00  $133.65  $94.50  $38.85
+
+LOSS ON FIELD A--1907
+
+                                    Total  Per acre
+ Net income from beans             $38.85   $5.89
+ Cost of orchard                    84.97   12.87
+                                   ------  ------
+   Loss                            $46.12   $6.98
+
+A summary of the cost of the orchard, the net income from the crop,
+the income from the orchard and the profit and loss by years for the
+eight years follows:
+
+SUMMARY OF COSTS FOR EIGHT YEARS, FIELD A
+
+                       Net      Income
+        Crop         income      from      Cost of       6.6 acres
+ Year   grown       from crop   orchard    orchard     Profit   Loss
+ 1903   Corn        $ 15.17      ...       $109.87      ...    $ 94.70
+ 1904   Beans         42.57      ...        216.16      ...     173.59
+ 1905   Beans         43.13      ...         83.78      ...      40.65
+ 1906   Beans        120.90      ...         80.14    $40.76      ...
+ 1907   Beans         38.85      ...         84.97      ...      46.12
+ 1908   Corn          37.68      ...         64.22      ...      26.54
+ 1909   Oats and
+        strawberries 100.61     $27.88       84.73     43.76      ...
+ 1910   Wheat         60.70      38.65       96.35      3.00      ...
+                    -------     ------     -------    ------   -------
+  Totals            $459.61     $66.53     $620.22    $87.52   $381.60
+
+Net loss on field for eight years                              $294.08
+Average annual loss                                              38.76
+Total cost an acre, exclusive of income                         124.27
+Total cost an acre, including income                             44.55
+Total net cost a hundred trees                                   62.97
+Total net cost an apple tree                                      1.37
+Total net cost an apple tree, exclusive of income                 3.80
+Total labor cost an acre                                         35.09
+Total cash cost an acre                                          89.19
+
+We find that this orchard has cost $124.27 an acre during the eight
+years of its life, but that the $79.72 an acre of crops grown in the
+orchard has brought this cost down to $44.55 an acre. It is safe to
+say that the orchard would have cost even more than it did had it not
+been for the crops, for many operations charged directly to the crops
+would of necessity have been charged to the trees. The cost a hundred
+trees does not mean much, as it often happens that not all the trees
+are covered by an operation and as the number of trees an acre greatly
+affects these costs.
+
+We have another and younger orchard upon which a record has been kept.
+This orchard of five acres contains 126 standard apple trees,
+"filled" both ways with 375 peach trees. It was set in the spring of
+1908, so that the trees have grown four seasons. The permanents
+(apples) are set 36 by 40 feet apart, so that, with the peaches
+between, the trees stand 18 by 20 feet apart. A crop of beans has been
+grown between the tree rows each season. The first season a full seven
+rows, twenty-eight inches apart, were planted in the wider space; the
+second and third season six rows, and the last season only four rows.
+The crop has been very good each year until the last. One application
+of manure, one crop of clover and one seeding of rye have been plowed
+under, and in addition a liberal amount of commercial fertilizer has
+been used with each crop. This year the peach trees bore their first
+crop. The record of the four years is as follows:
+
+SUMMARY OF THE COST OF A FOUR-YEAR-OLD APPLE AND PEACH ORCHARD
+
+                       Net      Income
+       Crop          income      from      Cost of
+Year   grown        from crop   orchard    orchard    Profit     Loss
+
+1908   Beans        $63.37        ...      $130.12     ...     $62.75
+1909   Beans         66.70        ...       $85.03     ...      18.33
+1910   Beans         79.81        ...        83.39     ...       3.58
+1911   Beans         53.20      $46.05       61.95   $37.30      ...
+                   -------      ------     -------   ------    ------
+  Totals           $267.08      $46.05     $360.49   $37.30    $84.66
+
+Total cost an acre, exclusive of income                        $72.10
+Total cost an acre, including income                             9.47
+Total net cost a hundred trees                                   4.73
+Total net cost an apple tree                                      .376
+Total net cost an apple tree, exclusive of income                2.86
+
+These figures show a still lower cost of growing trees to bearing age.
+After paying all expenses connected with the growing of the trees,
+including the interest on the land at $150 an acre, and deducting the
+net profit from the crops of beans and the sales from the first crop
+of peaches we find that the growing of the trees has cost us $9.47 an
+acre, or 371/2 cents an apple tree at four years old. Had no crop been
+grown in the orchard it would have cost us at least $62.89 an acre
+after deducting the income from the first peach crop. The peach trees
+are now at full bearing age, and should show a good profit from this
+time on. Possibly at five and certainly at six years of age this
+orchard will entirely have paid for itself. The only possible further
+charge which could be made against this orchard is the crop income
+which might have been obtained from the land had the trees not been
+there. We estimated that the presence of the trees cut down the crop
+of beans from the land 30 per cent. As the average net income from
+beans was $13.35 an acre this would amount to $4 an acre a year--an
+insignificant sum.
+
+IN BEARING.--Having given the reader an idea of the probable cost of
+bringing an orchard to bearing age, it may be well also to give the
+cost of producing apples in a mature apple orchard. Our bearing apple
+orchard consists of 6.1 acres containing 234 trees. About one-half of
+the trees, or 110, are 36 years old. The remainder are nearly 50 years
+of age. As they are all in one block and handled together, the charges
+cannot well be separated. One hundred and thirty-four of the trees are
+Baldwins, 44 Twenty Ounce, 40 Tompkins County Kings, and the remainder
+odd varieties. For the whole period of ten years the orchard has had
+very good care and attention.
+
+A cover crop was not sown every year, but when it was used the charge
+was made against the orchard. The manure charge, omitted because of
+uncertainty as to the exact amount applied and as to its real value,
+is the only thing lacking in this table.
+
+Two or three sprayings have been made every year. Until 1909, Bordeaux
+mixture and Paris green were used, but since then the commercial
+brands of lime sulphur and arsenate of lead have taken their place,
+nearly doubling the cost of the spray material. The average cost of
+the material for spraying has been $2.50 per acre, or nearly three and
+one-half cents per barrel of apples harvested. In 1910 this cost was
+$3.92 per acre and seven cents a barrel.
+
+TABLE SHOWING THE ITEMS OF EXPENSE IN PRODUCING APPLES IN A SIX ACRE
+ORCHARD
+
+-------+------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------
+       |      |        |       |  5%   |       |       |        |
+       | Cover|Spraying|       | int.  | Equip.| O'vh'd|  Labor | Total
+Year   | crop |mat.    | Bar.  |on inv.|charge |charge | cost   | cost
+-------+------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------
+1902   |      |$6.64   |$117.88|$27.45 |$25.00 |$2.97  |$339.45 |$519.39
+1903   |      |11.22   | 164.92| 28.88 | 25.00 | 2.88  | 249.55 | 482.56
+1904   |      |10.50   | 109.90| 30.50 | 25.00 | 3.93  | 180.55 | 360.38
+1905   |$6.10 |12.45   |  88.80| 30.50 | 25.00 | 3.40  | 158.06 | 324.31
+1906   |      |14.85   | 112.35| 33.06 | 25.00 | 4.78  | 211.76 | 401.80
+1907   |10.00 |16.85   |  79.80| 35.56 | 25.00 | 4.89  | 192.30 | 364.40
+1908   |      | 9.75   | 205.45| 37.76 | 30.09 | 5.09  | 293.50 | 583.55
+1909   | 8.68 |19.26   | 196.35| 41.97 | 38.98 | 5.91  | 280.78 | 591.93
+1910   |      |23.89   | 116.90| 45.75 | 32.39 | 5.58  | 175.26 | 399.77
+1911   |10.50 |27.08   | 206.38| 45.75 | 32.39*| 5.53* | 275.00*| 602.63
+-------+------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------
+10 yr. av.    $15.25    $139.87  $35.73 $28.37  $4.78   $235.62  $463.07
+Av. per acre    2.50      22.93    5.86   4.65    .78     38.63    75.92
+Av. per bbl      .036       .327    .084   .066   .011      .552   -1.08
+
+* Partly estimated, records not yet complete.
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+The cost of the package has varied from 28 to 38 cents and has
+averaged about 321/2 cents, or $22.93 per acre. Of course the latter
+amount varies greatly with the crop.
+
+Interest has in all cases been figured at five per cent., but as the
+price of the land has varied from $90 an acre at the beginning of the
+period to its present valuation of $160,00 an acre, due both to its
+improvement and to a general increase in the price of land, the
+amount of interest has also varied. The same is true of the equipment
+charge which has steadily increased each year. The average valuation
+of the land for the ten-year period was $117.15 an acre. This means an
+annual interest charge of $5.86 per acre, or 81/2 cents a barrel. The
+equipment charge, which is interest, repairs, and depreciation on the
+machinery used in the orchard, amounts to more than 61/2 cents a barrel,
+or $4.65 per acre. Taxes and insurance on the buildings distributed
+per acre for the farm average $.78 per acre, or a trifle over one cent
+per barrel. These costs have also increased in the last few years.
+
+Labor is the largest single item. For the first four years this was
+estimated on the basis of the cost for the last six years, for which
+more careful records were kept. It is computed at its actual cost to
+us on the farm, which was 151/2 cents an hour for men and 131/2 cents an
+hour for horses. This amounts to $4.25 per day for man and team. The
+cost of the labor to grow, pick, pack, and market a barrel of apples
+was 55 cents, or $38.63 per acre with an average yield of 70 barrels
+per acre.
+
+To sum up these items of cost we find that taking the average of ten
+years with an annual crop of 427 barrels, or 70 per acre, on 6.1 acres
+of old apple orchard that the costs per barrel have been as follows:
+spray material, $.036; packages, $.327; interest on the land, $.084;
+use of equipment, $.066; taxes, $.011; labor, $.552; and a total of
+$1.08 per barrel. If the estimated cost of manure, six cents a barrel
+be added, the total will be $1.14. As we have said, these costs per
+barrel vary with the crop. When our yield was 100 barrels per acre the
+cost per barrel was only $.99, but when it was 34 barrels per acre
+this cost rose to $1.73 per barrel. In 1910 we grew a crop of 55
+barrels per acre for $1.20 per barrel.
+
+It may be of interest to some to know what the income and profit were
+on this orchard. For this purpose we give the following table showing
+the yield, income, cost, and net profit for each of the ten years, and
+the average:
+
+        Yield in    Income   Income         Cost     Net     Profit
+        bbls.       bbls.    inc. culls     per      bbls.   inc. culls
+ Year   per A.      only     and drops      bbl.     alone   and drops
+ 1902   103         $1.96*   $1.46*         $.83     $1.13     $.63
+ 1903    71          1.90     2.23          1.11       .79     1.12
+ 1904    51          1.66     1.78          1.15       .51      .63
+ 1905    49          2.30     2.68          1.10      1.20     1.58
+ 1906    53          1.96     2.25          1.25       .71     1.30
+ 1907    34          3.49     4.10          1.73      1.76     2.37
+ 1908    96          2.03     2.32           .99      1.04     1.33
+ 1909    92          3.00     3.38          1.06      1.94     2.32
+ 1910    55          2.69     3.03          1.20      1.49     1.83
+ 1911   100          2.06     2.32           .99¤     1.07¤    1.33¤
+----------------------------------------------------------------------
+10 yr.
+ av.     70          2.15     2.47          1.08      1.07     1.39
+
+  * In arriving at these incomes different divisors were used. Two
+  hundred barrels of the crop were sold in bulk and these were not
+  used in getting the average income from barrels only, but were used
+  in getting the average income including culls and drops.
+
+  ¤ Partly estimated, records not yet being complete for the season.
+
+
+THE END
+
+
+
+
+OUTING
+
+HANDBOOKS
+
+¶ Each book deals with a separate subject and deals with it
+thoroughly. If you want to know anything about Airedales an OUTING
+HANDBOOK gives you all you want. If it's Apple Growing, another OUTING
+HANDBOOK meets your need. The Fisherman, the Camper, the
+Poultry-raiser, the Automobilist, the Horseman, all varieties of
+outdoor enthusiasts, will find separate volumes for their separate
+interests. There is no waste space.
+
+¶ The series is based on the plan of one subject to a book and each
+book complete. The authors are experts. Each book has been specially
+prepared for this series and all are published in uniform style,
+flexible cloth binding, selling at the fixed price of seventy cents
+per copy.
+
+¶ Two hundred titles are projected. The series covers all phases of
+outdoor life, from bee-keeping to big game shooting. Among the books
+now ready are those described on the following pages.
+
+    OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY
+    OUTING MAGAZINE  Yachting  OUTING HANDBOOKS
+    141-145 WEST 36th ST. NEW YORK  122 S. MICHIGAN AVE. CHICAGO
+
+=THE AIREDALE. By Williams Haynes.= The book opens with a short
+chapter on the origin and development of the Airedale, as a
+distinctive breed. The author then takes up the problems of type as
+bearing on the selection of the dog, breeding, training and use. The
+book is designed for the non-professional dog fancier, who wishes
+common sense advice which does not involve elaborate preparation or
+expenditure. Chapters are included on the care of the dog in the
+kennel and simple remedies for ordinary diseases.
+
+    "_A splendid book on the breed and should be in the hands of
+    every owner of an Airedale whether novice or breeder._"--_The
+    Kennel Review._
+
+    "_It ought to be read and studied by every Airedale owner and
+    admirer._"--_Howard Keeler, Airedale Farm Kennels._
+
+=APPLE GROWING. By M.C. Burritt.= Mr. Burritt takes up the question of
+the profit in apple growing, the various kinds best suited to
+different parts of the country and different conditions of soil,
+topography, and so on. He discusses also the most approved methods of
+planning a new orchard and takes up in detail the problems connected
+with the cultivation, fertilization, and pruning. The book contains
+chapters on the restoration of old orchards, the care of the trees,
+their protection against various insect-enemies and blight, and the
+most approved method of harvesting, handling and storing the fruit.
+
+=THE AUTOMOBILE--Its Selection, Care and Use. By Robert Sloss.= This
+is a plain, practical discussion of the things that every man needs to
+know if he is to buy the right car and get the most out of it. The
+various details of operation and care are given in simple, intelligent
+terms. From it the car owner can easily learn the mechanism of his
+motor and the art of locating motor trouble, as well as how to use his
+car for the greatest pleasure. A chapter is included on building
+garages.
+
+    "_It is the one book dealing with autos, that gives reliable
+    information._"--_The Grand Rapids (Mich.) Herald._
+
+=BACKWOODS SURGERY AND MEDICINE. By Charles S. Moody, M.D.= A handy
+book for the prudent lover of the woods who doesn't expect to be ill
+but believes in being on the safe side. Common-sense methods for the
+treatment of the ordinary wounds and accidents are described--setting
+a broken limb, reducing a dislocation, caring for burns, cuts, etc.
+Practical remedies for camp diseases are recommended, as well as the
+ordinary indications of the most probable ailments. Includes a list of
+the necessary medical and surgical supplies.
+
+    _The manager of a mine in Nome, Alaska, writes as follows: "I
+    have been on the trail for years (twelve in the Klondike and
+    Alaska) and have always wanted just such a book as Dr. Moody's
+    Backwoods Surgery and Medicine."_
+
+=CAMP COOKERY. By Horace Kephart.= "The less a man carries in his
+pack, the more he must carry in his head," says Mr. Kephart. This book
+tells what a man should carry in both pack and head. Every step is
+traced--the selection of provisions and utensils, with the kind and
+quantity of each, the preparation of game, the building of fires the
+cooking of every conceivable kind of food that the camp outfit or
+woods, fields, or streams may provide--even to the making of desserts.
+Every receipt is the result of hard practice and long experience.
+Every recipe has been carefully tested. It is the book for the man who
+wants to dine well and wholesomely, but in true wilderness fashion
+without reliance on grocery stores or elaborate camp outfits. It is
+adapted equally well to the trips of every length and to all
+conditions of climate, season or country; the best possible companion
+for one who wants to travel light and live well. The chapter headings
+tell their own story. Provisions--Utensils--Fires--Dressing and
+Keeping Game and Fish--Meat--Game--Fish and Shell Fish--Cured Meats,
+etc.--Eggs--Bread-stuffs and Cereals--Vegetables--Soups--Beverages and
+Desserts.
+
+    "_Scores of new hints may be obtained by the housekeeper as well
+    as the camper from Camp Cookery._"--_Portland Oregonian._
+
+    "_I am inclined to think that the advice contained in Mr.
+    Kephart's book is to be relied on. I had to stop reading his
+    receipts for cooking wild fowl--they made me hungry._"--_New
+    York Herald._
+
+    "_The most useful and valuable book to the camper yet
+    published._"--_Grand Rapids Herald._
+
+    "_Camp Cookery is destined to be in the kit of every tent
+    dweller in the country._"--_Edwin Markham in the San Francisco
+    Examiner._
+
+=CAMPS AND CABINS. By Oliver Kemp.= A working guide for the man who
+wants to know how to make a temporary shelter in the woods against the
+storm or cold. This describes the making of lean-tos, brush shelters,
+snow shelters, the utilization of the canoe, and so forth. Practically
+the only tools required are a stout knife or a pocket axe, and Mr.
+Kemp shows how one may make shift even without these implements. More
+elaborate camps and log cabins, also, are described and detailed plans
+reproduced. Illustrated with drawings by the author.
+
+=EXERCISE AND HEALTH. By Dr. Woods Hutchinson.= Dr. Hutchinson takes
+the common-sense view that the greatest problem in exercise for most
+of us is to get enough of the right kind. The greatest error in
+exercise is not to take enough, and the greatest danger in athletics
+is in giving them up. The Chapter heads are illuminating. Errors in
+Exercise--Exercise and the Heart--Muscle Maketh Man--The Danger of
+Stopping Athletics--Exercise that Rests. It is written in a direct
+matter-of-fact manner with an avoidance of medical terms, and a strong
+emphasis on the rational, all-round manner of living that is best
+calculated to bring a man to a ripe old age with little illness or
+consciousness of body weakness.
+
+    "_It contains good physiology as well as good common sense,
+    written by an acute observer and a logical reasoner, who has the
+    courage of his convictions and is a master of English
+    style._"--_D.A. Sargent, M.D., Sargent School for Physical
+    Education._
+
+    "_One of the most readable books ever written on physical
+    exercise._"--_Luther H. Gulick, M.D., Department of Child
+    Hygiene, Russell Sage Foundation._
+
+    "_A little book for the busy man written in brilliant
+    style._"--_Kansas City Star._
+
+=THE FINE ART OF FISHING. By Samuel G. Camp.= Combines the pleasure of
+catching fish with the gratification of following the sport in the
+most approved manner. The suggestions offered are helpful to beginner
+and expert anglers. The range of fish and fishing conditions covered
+is wide and includes such subjects as "Casting Fine and Far Off,"
+"Strip-Casting for Bass," "Fishing For Mountain Trout" and "Autumn
+Fishing for Lake Trout." The book is pervaded with a spirit of love
+for the streamside and the out-doors generally which the genuine
+angler will appreciate. A companion book to "Fishing Kits and
+Equipment." The advice on outfitting so capably given in that book is
+supplemented in this later work by equally valuable information on how
+to use the equipment.
+
+    "_Will encourage the beginner and give pleasure to the expert
+    fisherman._"--_N.Y. Sun._
+
+    "_A vein of catching enthusiasm runs through every
+    chapter._"--_Scientific American._
+
+=FISHING KITS AND EQUIPMENT. By Samuel G. Camp.= A complete guide to
+the angler buying a new outfit. Every detail of fishing kit of the
+freshwater angler is described, from rodtip to creel and clothing.
+Special emphasis is laid on outfitting for fly fishing, but full
+instruction is also given to the man who wants to catch pickerel,
+pike, muskellunge, lake-trout, bass and other fresh-water game fishes.
+Prices are quoted for all articles recommended and the approved method
+of selecting and testing the various rods, lines, leaders, etc., is
+described.
+
+    "_A complete guide to the angler buying a new outfit._"--_Peoria
+    Herald._
+
+    "_The man advised by Mr. Camp will catch his fish._"--_Seattle
+    P.I._
+
+    "_Even the seasoned angler will read this hook with
+    profit._"--_Chicago Tribune._
+
+
+=THE HORSE--Its Breeding, Care and Use. By David Buffum.= Mr. Buffum
+takes up the common, every-day problems of the ordinary horse-user,
+such as feeding, shoeing, simple home remedies, breaking and the cure
+for various equine vices. An important chapter is that tracing the
+influx of Arabian blood into the English and American horses and its
+value and limitations. Chapters are included on draft-horses, carriage
+horses, and the development of the two-minute trotter. It is
+distinctly a sensible book for the sensible man who wishes to know how
+he can improve his horses and his horsemanship at the same time.
+
+    "_I am recommending it to our students as a useful reference
+    book for both the practical farmer and the student._"--_T. R.
+    Arkell, Animal Husbandman, N.H. Agricultural Experiment
+    Station._
+
+    "_Has a great deal of merit from a practical standpoint and is
+    valuable for reference work._"--_Prof. E.L. Jordon, Professor of
+    Animal Industry, Louisiana State University._
+
+=MAKING AND KEEPING SOIL. By David Buffum.= This deals with the
+various kinds of soil and their adaptibility to different crops,
+common sense tests as to the use of soils, and also the common sense
+methods of cultivation and fertilization in order to restore worn-out
+soil and keep it at its highest productivity under constant use.
+
+=THE MOTOR BOAT--Its Selection, Care and Use. By H.W. Slauson.= The
+intending purchaser of a motor boat is advised as to the type of boat
+best suited to his particular needs, the power required for the
+desired speeds, and the equipment necessary for the varying uses. The
+care of the engine receives special attention and chapters are
+included on the use of the boat in camping and cruising expeditions,
+its care through the winter, and its efficiency in the summer.
+
+=NAVIGATION FOR THE AMATEUR. By Capt. E.T. Morton.= A short treatise
+on the simpler methods of finding position at sea by the observation
+of the sun's altitude and the use of the sextant and chronometer. It
+is arranged especially for yachtsmen and amateurs who wish to know the
+simpler formulae for the necessary navigation involved in taking a
+boat anywhere off shore. Illustrated with drawings.
+
+=OUTDOOR SIGNALLING. By Elbert Wells.= Mr. Wells has perfected a
+method of signalling by means of wig-wag, light, smoke, or whistle
+which is as simple as it is effective. The fundamental principle can
+be learnt in ten minutes and its application is far easier than that
+of any other code now in use. It permits also the use of cipher and
+can be adapted to almost any imaginable conditions of weather, light,
+or topography.
+
+    "_I find it to be the simplest and most practical book on
+    signalling published._"--_Frank H. Schrenk, Director of Camp
+    Belgrade._
+
+    "_One of the finest things of the kind I have ever seen. I
+    believe my seven year old boy can learn to use this system, and
+    I know that we will find it very useful here in our Boy Scout
+    work._"--_Lyman G. Haskell, Physical Director, Y.M.C.A.,
+    Jacksonville, Fla._
+
+=PRACTICAL POULTRY KEEPING. By R.B. Sando.= The chapters outlined in
+this book are poultry keeping and keepers, housing and yarding,
+fixtures and equipment, choosing and buying stock, foods and feeding,
+hatching and raising chicks. Inbreeding, caponizing, etc., What to do
+at different seasons. The merits of "secrets and systems", The truth
+about common poultry fallacies and get-rich-quick schemes. Poultry
+parasites and diseases. A complete list of the breeds and subjects is
+attached. It is in effect a comprehensive manual for the instruction
+of the man who desires to begin poultry raising on a large or small
+scale and to avoid the ordinary mistakes to which the beginner is
+prone. All the statements are based on the authors own experience and
+special care has been taken to avoid sensationalism or exaggeration.
+
+=PROFITABLE BREEDS OF POULTRY. By Arthur S. Wheeler.= Mr. Wheeler has
+chapters on some of the best known general purpose birds such as Rhode
+Island Reds, Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Mediterraneans, Orpingtons,
+and Cornish, describing the peculiarities and possibilities of each.
+There are additional chapters on the method of handling a poultry farm
+on a small scale with some instructions as to housing the birds, and
+so forth, and also a chapter on the market side of poultry growing.
+
+=RIFLES AND RIFLE SHOOTING. By Charles Askins.= Part I describes the
+various makes and mechanisms taking up such points as range and
+adaptibility of the various calibers, the relative merits of lever,
+bolt and pump action, the claims of the automatic, and so forth. Part
+II deals with rifle shooting, giving full instruction for target
+practice, snap shooting, and wing shooting.
+
+=SCOTTISH AND IRISH TERRIERS. By Williams Haynes.= This is a companion
+book to The Airedale and deals with the origin of the breeds, the
+standard types, approved methods of breeding, kenneling, training,
+care and so forth, with chapters on showing and also on the ordinary
+diseases and simple remedies.
+
+=SPORTING FIREARMS. By Horace Kephart.= This book is devided into two
+parts, Part I dealing with the Rifle and Part II with the Shotgun. Mr.
+Kephart goes at some length into the questions of range, trajectory
+and killing power of the different types of rifles and charges and
+also has chapters on rifle mechanisms, sights, barrels, and so forth.
+In the part dealing with shotguns he takes up the question of range,
+the effectiveness of various loads, suitability of the different types
+of boring, the testing of the shotguns by pattern, and so forth.
+
+=TRACKS AND TRACKING. By Josef Brunner.= After twenty years of patient
+study and practical experience, Mr. Brunner can, from his intimate
+knowledge, speak with authority on this subject. "Tracks and Tracking"
+shows how to follow intelligently even the most intricate animal or
+bird tracks. It teaches how to interpret tracks of wild game and
+decipher the many tell-tale signs of the chase that would otherwise
+pass unnoticed. It proves how it is possible to tell from the
+footprints the name, sex, speed, direction, whether and how wounded,
+and many other things about wild animals and birds. All material has
+been gathered first hand; the drawings and half-tones from photographs
+form an important part of the work, as the author has made faithful
+pictures of the tracks and signs of the game followed. The list is: The
+White-Tailed or Virginia Deer--The Fan-Tailed Deer--The Mule-Deer--The
+Wapiti or Elk--The Moose--The Mountain Sheep--The Antelope--The
+Bear--The Cougar--The Lynx--The Domestic Cat--The Wolf--The Coyote--The
+Fox--The Jack Rabbit--The Varying Hare--The Cottontail Rabbit--The
+Squirrel--The Marten and the Black-Footed Ferret--The Otter--The
+Mink--The Ermine--The Beaver--The Badger--The Porcupine--The
+Skunk--Feathered Game--Upland Birds--Waterfowl--Predatory Birds--This
+book is invaluable to the novice as well as the experienced hunter.
+
+    "_This book studied carefully, will enable the reader to become
+    as well versed in tracking lore as he could by years of actual
+    experience._"--_Lewiston Journal._
+
+=WING AND TRAP-SHOOTING. By Charles Askins.= The only practical manual
+in existance dealing with the modern gun. It contains a full
+discussion of the various methods, such as snap-shooting, swing and
+half-swing, discusses the flight of birds with reference to the
+gunner's problem of lead and range and makes special application of
+the various points to the different birds commonly shot in this
+country. A chapter is included on trap shooting and the book closes
+with a forceful and common-sense presentation of the etiquette of the
+field.
+
+    "_It is difficult to understand how anyone who takes a delight
+    in hunting can afford to be without this valuable
+    book._"--_Chamber of Commerce Bulletin, Portland, Ore._
+
+    "_This book will prove an invaluable manual to the true
+    sportsman, whether he be a tyro or expert._"--_Book News
+    Monthly._
+
+    "_Its closing chapter on field etiquette deserves careful
+    reading._"--_N.Y. Times._
+
+=THE YACHTSMAN'S HANDBOOK. By Commander C.S. Stanworth, U.S.N. and
+Others.= Deals with the practical handling of sail boats, with some
+light on the operation of the gasoline motor. It includes such
+subjects as handling ground tackle, handling lines and taking
+soundings, and use of the lead line; handling sails, engine troubles
+that may be avoided, care of the gasoline motor and yachting
+etiquette.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    +-----------------------------------------------------------+
+    | Typographical errors corrected in text:                   |
+    |                                                           |
+    | Page  12: 'together with is long season' replaced with    |
+    |           'together with its long season'                 |
+    | Page  32: prunned replaced with pruned                    |
+    | Page  36: profiable replaced with profitable              |
+    | Page  65: humous replaced with humus                      |
+    | Page  82: 'it must be sour' corrected to                  |
+    |           'it must not be sour' In sentence referring     |
+    |           to lime which is used to reduce acidity         |
+    |           (sourness).                                     |
+    | Page  88: prsent replaced with present                    |
+    | Page 105: tisses replaced with tissues                    |
+    | Page 107: 'carried over the winter cankers' corrected to  |
+    |           'carried over the winter in cankers'            |
+    | Page 126: Jose replaced with Jose                         |
+    | Page 163: (table) Syraying replaced with Spraying         |
+    | Page 163: (table) Syraping replaced with Spraying         |
+    | Page 164: 'The factors have always operated to deter'     |
+    |           corrected to 'Two factors have always operated  |
+    |           to deter'                                       |
+    |                                                           |
+    +-----------------------------------------------------------+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Apple Growing, by M. C. Burritt
+
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