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diff --git a/19073.txt b/19073.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..141be00 --- /dev/null +++ b/19073.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6474 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cocoa and Chocolate, by Arthur W. Knapp + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Cocoa and Chocolate + Their History from Plantation to Consumer + +Author: Arthur W. Knapp + +Release Date: August 18, 2006 [EBook #19073] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COCOA AND CHOCOLATE *** + + + + +Produced by Michael Ciesielski, Annika Feilbach and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + +COCOA AND CHOCOLATE + +_Their History from Plantation to Consumer_ + + + +By + +ARTHUR W. KNAPP +B. Sc. (B'ham.), F.I.C., B. Sc. (Lond.) Member of the Society of +Public Analysts; Member of the Society of Chemical Industry; Fellow +of the Institute of Hygiene. Research Chemist to Messrs. Cadbury +Bros., Ltd. + + +LONDON +CHAPMAN AND HALL, LTD. +1920 + + + + + +PREFACE + + +Although there are several excellent scientific works dealing in a +detailed manner with the cacao bean and its products from the various +view points of the technician, there is no comprehensive modern work +written for the general reader. Until that appears, I offer this little +book, which attempts to cover lightly but accurately the whole ground, +including the history of cacao, its cultivation and manufacture. This is +a small book in which to treat of so large a subject, and to avoid +prolixity I have had to generalise. This is a dangerous practice, for +what is gained in brevity is too often lost in accuracy: brevity may be +always the soul of wit, it is rarely the body of truth. The expert will +find that I have considered him in that I have given attention to recent +developments, and if I have talked of the methods peculiar to one place +as though they applied to the whole world, I ask him to consider me by +supplying the inevitable variations and exceptions himself. + +The book, though short, has taken me a long time to write, having been +written in the brief breathing spaces of a busy life, and it would never +have been completed but for the encouragement I received from Messrs. +Cadbury Bros., Ltd., who aided me in every possible way. I am +particularly indebted to the present Lord Mayor of Birmingham, Mr. W.A. +Cadbury, for advice and criticism, and to Mr. Walter Barrow for reading +the proofs. The members of the staff to whom I am indebted are Mr. W. +Pickard, Mr. E.J. Organ, Mr. T.B. Rogers; also Mr. A. Hackett, for whom +the diagrams in the manufacturing section were originally made by Mr. +J.W. Richards. I am grateful to Messrs. J.S. Fry and Sons, Limited, for +information and photographs. In one or two cases I do not know whom to +thank for the photographs, which have been culled from many sources. I +have much pleasure in thanking the following: Mr. R. Whymper for a large +number of Trinidad photos; the Director of the Imperial Institute and +Mr. John Murray for permission to use three illustrations from the +Imperial Institute series of handbooks to the Commercial Resources of +the Tropics; M. Ed. Leplae, Director-General of Agriculture, Belgium, +for several photos, the blocks of which were kindly supplied by Mr. H. +Hamel Smith, of _Tropical Life_; Messrs. Macmillan and Co. for five +reproductions from C.J.J. van Hall's book on _Cocoa_; and _West Africa_ +for four illustrations of the Gold Coast. + +The photographs reproduced on pages 2, 23, 39, 47, 49 and 71 are by +Jacobson of Trinidad, on pages 85 and 86 by Underwood & Underwood of +London, and on page 41 by Mrs. Stanhope Lovell of Trinidad. + +The industry with which this book deals is changing slowly from an art +to a science. It is in a transition period (it is one of the humours of +any live industry that it is always in a transition period). There are +many indications of scientific progress in cacao cultivation; and now +that, in addition to the experimental and research departments attached +to the principal firms, a Research Association has been formed for the +cocoa and chocolate industry, the increased amount of diffused +scientific knowledge of cocoa and chocolate manufacture should give rise +to interesting developments. + +A.W. KNAPP. + +Birmingham, _February, 1920._ + + + + +CONTENTS + + PAGE +PREFACE v + +INTRODUCTION 1 + +CHAPTER I +COCOA AND CHOCOLATE--A SKETCH OF THEIR HISTORY 5 + +CHAPTER II +CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION 17 + +CHAPTER III +HARVESTING AND PREPARATION FOR THE MARKET 45 +With a dialogue on "The Kind of Cacao the Manufacturers Like." + +CHAPTER IV +CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 81 +With notes on the chief producing areas, cacao markets, and the +planter's life + +CHAPTER V +THE MANUFACTURE OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE 119 + +CHAPTER VI +THE MANUFACTURE OF CHOCOLATE 139 + +CHAPTER VII +BY-PRODUCTS OF THE COCOA AND CHOCOLATE INDUSTRY 157 +(_a_) Cacao Butter, (_b_) Cacao Shell + +CHAPTER VIII +THE COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE 165 +(including Milk Chocolate) + +CHAPTER IX +ADULTERATION, AND THE NEED FOR DEFINITIONS 179 + +CHAPTER X +THE CONSUMPTION OF CACAO 183 + +BIBLIOGRAPHY 191 +A List of the Important Books on Cocoa and Chocolate +from the earliest times to the present day. + +INDEX 207 + + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + +Cacao Pods +Old Drawing of an American Indian, with Chocolate Whisk, etc. +Native American Indians Roasting the Beans, etc. +Ancient Mexican Drinking Cups +Cacao Tree, with Pods and Leaves +Cacao Tree, shewing Pods Growing from Trunk +Flowers and Fruits on main branches of a Cacao Tree +Cacao Pods +Cut Pod, revealing the White Pulp round the Beans +Cacao Pods, shewing Beans inside +Drawing of Typical Pods illustrating varieties +Tropical Forest, Trinidad +Characteristic Root System of the Cacao Tree +Nursery with the Young Cacao Plants in Baskets, Java +Planting Cacao from Young Seedlings in Bamboo Pots, Trinidad +Cacao in its Fourth Year +Copy of an Old Engraving shewing the Cacao Tree, and a tree shading it +Cacao Trees shaded by Kapok, Java +Cacao Trees shaded by Bois Immortel, Trinidad +Cacao Tree with Suckers +Cutlassing +Common Types of Cacao Pickers +Gathering Cacao Pods, Trinidad +Collecting Cacao Pods into a Heap +Men Breaking Pods, etc. +Sweating Boxes, Trinidad +Fermenting Boxes, Java +Charging Cacao on to Trucks in the Plantation, San Thome +Cacao in the Fermenting Trucks, San Thome +Tray-barrow for Drying Small Quantities +Spreading the Cacao Beans on mats to dry, Ceylon +Drying Trays, Grenada +"Hamel Smith" Rotary Dryer +Drying Platforms with Sliding Roofs, Trinidad +Cacao Drying Platforms, San Thome +Washing the Beans, Ceylon +Claying Cacao Beans, Trinidad +Sorting Cacao Beans, Java +Diagram: World's Cacao Production +MAP of the World, with only Cacao-Producing Areas marked +Raking Cacao Beans on the Driers, Ecuador +Gathering Cacao Pods, Ecuador +Sorting Cacao for Shipment, Ecuador +MAP of South America and the West Indies +Workers on a Cacao Plantation +MAP of Africa, with only Cacao-Producing Areas marked +Foreshore at Accra, with Stacks of Cacao ready for Shipment +Carriers conveying Bags of Cacao to Surf Boats, Accra +Crossing the River, Gold Coast +Drying Cacao Beans, Gold Coast +Shooting Cacao from the Road to the Beach, Accra +Rolling Cacao, Gold Coast +Rolling Cacao, Gold Coast +Carrying Cacao to the Railway Station, Gold Coast +Wagon Loads of Cacao being taken from Depot to the Beach, Accra +The Buildings of the Boa Entrada Cacao Estate, San Thome +Drying Cacao, San Thome +Barrel Rolling, Gold Coast +Bagging Cacao, Gold Coast +Surf Boats by the Side of the Ocean Liner, Accra +Bagging Cacao Beans for Shipment, Trinidad +Transferring Bags of Cacao to Lighters, Trinidad +Diagram showing Variation in Price of Cacao Beans, 1913-1919 +Group of Workers on Cacao Estate +Carting Cacao to Railway Station, Ceylon +The Carenage, Grenada +Early Factory Methods +Women Grinding Chocolate +Cacao Bean Warehouse +Cacao Bean Sorting and Cleaning Machine +Diagram of Cacao Bean Cleaning Machine +Section through Gas Heated Cacao Roaster +Roasting Cacao Beans +Cacao Bean, Shell and Germ +Section through Kibbling Cones and Germ Screens +Section through Winnowing Machine +Cacao Grinding +Section through Grinding Stones +A Cacao Press +Section through Cacao Press-pot and Ram-plate +Chocolate Melangeur +Plan of Chocolate Melangeur +Chocolate Refining Machine +Grinding Cacao Nib and Sugar +Section through Chocolate Grinding Rolls +"Conche" Machines +Section through "Conche" Machine +Machines for Mixing or "Conching" Chocolate +Chocolate Shaking Table +Girls Covering or Dipping Cremes, etc. +The Enrober +A Confectionery Room +Factory at which Milk is Evaporated for Milk Chocolate Manufacture +Cocoa and Chocolate Despatch Deck +Boxing Chocolates +Packing Chocolates +Factory at which Milk is Evaporated for Milk Chocolate Manufacture +Cacao Pods, Leaves and Flowers + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +In a few short chapters I propose to give a plain account of the +production of cocoa and chocolate. I assume that the reader is not a +specialist and knows little or nothing of the subject, and hence both +the style of writing and the treatment of the subject will be simple. At +the same time, I assume that the reader desires a full and accurate +account, and not a vague story in which the difficulties are ignored. I +hope that, as a result of this method of dealing with my subject, even +experts will find much in the book that is of interest and value. After +a brief survey of the history of cocoa and chocolate, I shall begin with +the growing of the cacao bean, and follow the _cacao_ in its career +until it becomes the finished product ready for consumption. + + + +_Cacao or Cocoa?_ + +The reader will have noted above the spelling "cacao," and to those who +think it curious, I would say that I do not use this spelling from +pedantry. It is an imitation of the word which the Mexicans used for +this commodity as early as 1500, and when spoken by Europeans is apt to +sound like the howl of a dog. The Mexicans called the tree from which +cacao is obtained _cacauatl_. When the great Swedish scientist Linnaeus, +the father of botany, was naming and classifying (about 1735) the trees +and plants known in his time, he christened it _Theobroma Cacao_, by +which name it is called by botanists to this day. Theo-broma is Greek +for "Food of the Gods." Why Linnaeus paid this extraordinary compliment +to cacao is obscure, but it has been suggested that he was inordinately +fond of the beverage prepared from it--the cup which both cheers and +satisfies. It will be seen from the above that the species-name is +cacao, and one can understand that Englishmen, finding it difficult to +get their insular lips round this outlandish word, lazily called it +cocoa. + +[Illustration: CACAO PODS (Amelonado type) in various states of growth +and ripeness.] + +In this book I shall use the words cacao, cocoa, and chocolate as +follows: + +_Cacao_, when I refer to the cacao tree, the cacao pod, or the cacao +bean or seed. By the single word, cacao, I imply the raw product, cacao +beans, in bulk. + +_Cocoa_, when I refer to the powder manufactured from the roasted bean +by pressing out part of the butter. The word is too well established to +be changed, even if one wished it. As we shall see later (in the +chapter on adulteration) it has come legally to have a very definite +significance. If this method of distinguishing between cacao and cocoa +were the accepted practice, the perturbation which occurred in the +public mind during the war (in 1916), as to whether manufacturers were +exporting "cocoa" to neutral countries, would not have arisen. It should +have been spelled "cacao," for the statements referred to the raw beans +and not to the manufactured beverage. Had this been done, it would have +been unnecessary for the manufacturers to point out that cocoa powder +was not being so exported, and that they naturally did not sell the raw +cacao bean. + +_Chocolate._--This word is given a somewhat wider meaning. It signifies +any preparation of roasted cacao beans without abstraction of butter. It +practically always contains sugar and added cacao butter, and is +generally prepared in moulded form. It is used either for eating or +drinking. + + + +_Cacao Beans and Coconuts._ + +In old manuscripts the word cacao is spelled in all manner of ways, but +_cocoa_ survived them all. This curious inversion, _cocoa_, is to be +regretted, for it has led to a confusion which could not otherwise have +arisen. But for this spelling no one would have dreamed of confusing the +totally unrelated bodies, cacao and the milky coconut. (You note that I +spell it "coconut," not "cocoanut," for the name is derived from the +Spanish "coco," "grinning face," or bugbear for frightening children, +and was given to the nut because the three scars at the broad end of the +nut resemble a grotesque face). To make confusion worse confounded the +old writers referred to cacao _seeds_ as cocoa _nuts_ (as for example, +in _The Humble Memorial of Joseph Fry_, quoted in the chapter on +history), but, as in appearance cacao seeds resemble _beans_, they are +now usually spoken of as beans. The distinction between cacao and the +coconut may be summarised thus: + + Cacao. Coconut. + +Botanical Name Theobroma Cacao Cocos nucifera Palm + Tree Palm + +Fruit Cacao pod, containing Coconut, which with outer + many seeds (cacao beans) fibre is as large as a + man's head + +Products Cocoa Broken coconut (copra) + Chocolate Coconut matting + +Fatty Constituent Cacao butter Coconut oil + + + + +CHAPTER I + +COCOA AND CHOCOLATE--A SKETCH OF THEIR HISTORY + + Did time and space allow, there is much to be told on the + romantic side of chocolate, of its divine origin, of the + bloody wars and brave exploits of the Spaniards who conquered + Mexico and were the first to introduce cacao into Europe, + tales almost too thrilling to be believed, of the intrigues + of the Spanish Court, and of celebrities who met and sipped + their chocolate in the parlours of the coffee and chocolate + houses so fashionable in the seventeenth and eighteenth + centuries. + + _Cocoa and Chocolate_ (Whymper). + + +On opening a cacao pod, it is seen to be full of beans surrounded by a +fruity pulp, and whilst the pulp is very pleasant to taste, the beans +themselves are uninviting, so that doubtless the beans were always +thrown away until ... someone tried roasting them. One pictures this +"someone," a pre-historic Aztec with swart skin, sniffing the aromatic +fume coming from the roasting beans, and thinking that beans which +smelled so appetising must be good to consume. The name of the man who +discovered the use of cacao must be written in some early chapter of the +history of man, but it is blurred and unreadable: all we know is that he +was an inhabitant of the New World and probably of Central America. + + + +_Original Home of Cacao._ + +The corner of the earth where the cacao tree originally grew, and still +grows wild to-day, is the country watered by the mighty Amazon and the +Orinoco. This is the very region in which Orellano, the Spanish +adventurer, said that he had truly seen El Dorado, which he described as +a City of Gold, roofed with gold, and standing by a lake with golden +sands. In reality, El Dorado was nothing but a vision, a vision that for +a hundred years fascinated all manner of dreamers and adventurers from +Sir Walter Raleigh downwards, so that many braved great hardships in +search of it, groped through the forests where the cacao tree grew, and +returned to Europe feeling they had failed. To our eyes they were not +entirely unsuccessful, for whilst they failed to find a city of gold, +they discovered the home of the golden pod. + +[Illustration: OLD DRAWING OF AN AMERICAN INDIAN; AT HIS FEET A +CHOCOLATE-CUP, CHOCOLATE-POT, AND CHOCOLATE WHISK OR "MOLINET." +(From _Traitez Nouveaux et Curieux du Cafe, du The, et du Chocolate_. +Dufour, 1693).] + + + +_Montezuma--the First Great Patron of Chocolate._ + +When Columbus discovered the New World he brought back with him to +Europe many new and curious things, one of which was cacao. Some years +later, in 1519, the Spanish conquistador, Cortes, landed in Mexico, +marched into the interior and discovered to his surprise, not the huts +of savages, but a beautiful city, with palaces and museums. This city +was the capital of the Aztecs, a remarkable people, notable alike for +their ancient civilisation and their wealth. Their national drink was +chocolate, and Montezuma, their Emperor, who lived in a state of +luxurious magnificence, "took no other beverage than the chocolatl, a +potation of chocolate, flavoured with vanilla and other spices, and so +prepared as to be reduced to a froth of the consistency of honey, which +gradually dissolved in the mouth and was taken cold. This beverage if so +it could be called, was served in golden goblets, with spoons of the +same metal or tortoise-shell finely wrought. The Emperor was exceedingly +fond of it, to judge from the quantity--no less than fifty jars or +pitchers being prepared for his own daily consumption: two thousand more +were allowed for that of his household."[1] It is curious that Montezuma +took no other beverage than chocolate, especially if it be true that the +Aztecs also invented that fascinating drink, the cocktail (xoc-tl). How +long this ancient people, students of the mysteries of culinary science, +had known the art of preparing a drink from cacao, is not known, but it +is evident that the cultivation of cacao received great attention in +these parts, for if we read down the list of the tributes paid by +different cities to the Lords of Mexico, we find "20 chests of ground +chocolate, 20 bags of gold dust," again "80 loads of red chocolate, 20 +lip-jewels of clear amber," and yet again "200 loads of chocolate." + + [1] Prescott's _Conquest of Mexico_. + +Another people that share with the Aztecs the honour of being the first +great cultivators of cacao are the Incas of Peru, that wonderful nation +that knew not poverty. + + + +_The Fascination of Chocolate._ + +That chocolate charmed the ladies of Mexico in the seventeenth century +(even as it charms the ladies of England to-day) is shown by a story +which Gage relates in his _New Survey of the West Indias_ (1648). He +tells us that at Chiapa, southward from Mexico, the women used to +interrupt both sermon and mass by having their maids bring them a cup of +hot chocolate; and when the Bishop, after fair warning, excommunicated +them for this presumption, they changed their church. The Bishop, he +adds, was poisoned for his pains. + + + +_Cacao Beans as Money._ + +Cacao was used by the Aztecs not only for the preparation of a beverage, +but also as a circulating medium of exchange. For example, one could +purchase a "tolerably good slave" for 100 beans. We read that: "Their +currency consisted of transparent quills of gold dust, of bits of tin +cut in the form of a T, and of bags of cacao containing a specified +number of grains." "Blessed money," exclaims Peter Martyr, "which +exempts its possessor from avarice, since it cannot be long hoarded, nor +hidden underground!" + + + +_Derivation of Chocolate._ + +The word was derived from the Mexican _chocolatl_. The Mexicans used to +froth their chocolatl with curious whisks made specially for the purpose +(see page 6). Thomas Gage suggests that _choco, choco, choco_ is a +vocal representation of the sound made by stirring chocolate. The suffix +_atl_ means water. According to Mr. W.J. Gordon, we owe the name of +chocolate to a misprint. He states that Joseph Acosta, who wrote as +early as 1604 of chocolatl, was made by the printer to write +_chocolate_, from which the English eliminated the accent, and the +French the final letter. + +[Illustration: NATIVE AMERICAN INDIANS ROASTING AND GRINDING THE BEANS, +AND MIXING THE CHOCOLATE IN A JUG WITH A WHISK. (From Ogilvy's +_America_, 1671)] + + + +_First Cacao in Europe._ + +The Spanish discoverers of the New World brought home to Spain +quantities of cacao, which the curious tasted. We may conclude that they +drank the preparation cold, as Montezuma did, _hot_ chocolate being a +later invention. The new drink, eagerly sought by some, did not meet +with universal approval, and, as was natural, the most diverse opinions +existed as to the pleasantness and wholesomeness of the beverage when it +was first known. Thus Joseph Acosta (1604) wrote: "The chief use of this +cocoa is in a drincke which they call Chocholate, whereof they make +great account, foolishly and without reason; for it is loathsome to such +as are not acquainted with it, having a skumme or frothe that is very +unpleasant to taste, if they be not well conceited thereof. Yet it is a +drincke very much esteemed among the Indians, whereof they feast noble +men as they passe through their country. The Spaniards, both men and +women, that are accustomed to the country are very greedy of this +chocholate." It is not impossible that the English, with the defeat of +the Armada fresh in memory, were at first contemptuous of this "Spanish" +drink. Certain it is, that when British sea-rovers like Drake and +Frobisher, captured Spanish galleons on the high seas, and on searching +their holds for treasure, found bags of cacao, they flung them overboard +in scorn. In considering this scorn of cacao, shown alike by British +buccaneers and Dutch corsairs, together with the critical air of Joseph +Acosta, we should remember that the original chocolatl of the Mexicans +consisted of a mixture of maize and cacao with hot spices like chillies, +and contained no sugar. In this condition few inhabitants of the +temperate zone could relish it. It however only needed one thing, the +addition of sugar, and the introduction of this marked the beginning of +its European popularity. The Spaniards were the first to manufacture and +drink chocolate in any quantity. To this day they serve it in the old +style--thick as porridge and pungent with spices. They endeavoured to +keep secret the method of preparation, and, without success, to retain +the manufacture as a monopoly. Chocolate was introduced into Italy by +Carletti, who praised it and spread the method of its manufacture +abroad. The new drink was introduced by monks from Spain into Germany +and France, and when in 1660 Maria Theresa, Infanta of Spain, married +Louis XIV, she made chocolate well known at the Court of France. She it +was of whom a French historian wrote that Maria Theresa had only two +passions--the king and chocolate. + +Chocolate was advocated by the learned physicians of those times as a +cure for many diseases, and it was stated that Cardinal Richelieu had +been cured of general atrophy by its use. + +From France the use of chocolate spread into England, where it began to +be drunk as a luxury by the aristocracy about the time of the +Commonwealth. It must have made some progress in public favour by 1673, +for in that year "a Lover of his Country" wrote in the _Harleian +Miscellany_ demanding its prohibition (along with brandy, rum, and tea) +on the ground that this imported article did no good and hindered the +consumption of English-grown barley and wheat. New things appeal to the +imaginative, and the absence of authentic knowledge concerning them +allows free play to the imagination--so it happened that in the early +days, whilst many writers vied with one another in writing glowing +panegyrics on cacao, a few thought it an evil thing. Thus, whilst it was +praised by many for its "wonderful faculty of quenching thirst, +allaying hectic heats, of nourishing and fattening the body," it was +seriously condemned by others as an inflamer of the passions! + + + +_Chocolate Houses and Clubs._ + + "The drinking here of chocolate + Can make a fool a sophie." + +In the spacious days of Queen Elizabeth, tea, coffee, and chocolate were +unknown save to travellers and savants, and the handmaidens of the good +queen drank beer with their breakfast. When Shakespeare and Ben Jonson +forgathered at the Mermaid Tavern, their winged words passed over +tankards of ale, but later other drinks became the usual accompaniment +of news, story, and discussion. In the sixteen-sixties there were no +strident newspapers to destroy one's equanimity, and the gossip of the +day began to be circulated and discussed over cups of tea, coffee, or +chocolate. The humorists, ever stirred by novelty, tilted, pen in hand, +at these new drinks: thus one rhymster described coffee as + + "Syrrop of soot or essence of old shoes." + +The first coffee-house in London was started in St. Michael's Alley, +Cornhill, in 1652 (when coffee was seven shillings a pound); the first +tea-house was opened in Exchange Alley in 1657 (when tea was five +sovereigns a pound), and in the same year (with chocolate about ten to +fifteen shillings per pound) a Frenchman opened the first +chocolate-house in Queen's Head Alley, Bishopsgate Street. The rising +popularity of chocolate led to the starting of more of these chocolate +houses, at which one could sit and sip chocolate, or purchase the +commodity for preparation at home. Pepys' entry in his diary for 24th +November, 1664, contains: "To a coffee house to drink jocolatte, very +good." It is an artless entry, and yet one can almost hear him smacking +his lips. Silbermann says that "After the Restoration there were shops +in London for the sale of chocolate at ten shillings or fifteen +shillings per pound. Ozinda's chocolate house was full of aristocratic +consumers. Comedies, satirical essays, memoirs and private letters of +that age frequently mention it. The habit of using chocolate was deemed +a token of elegant and fashionable taste, and while the charms of this +beverage in the reigns of Queen Anne and George I. were so highly +esteemed by courtiers, by lords and ladies and fine gentlemen in the +polite world, the learned physicians extolled its medicinal virtues." +From the coffee house and its more aristocratic relative the chocolate +house, there developed a new feature in English social life--the Club. +As the years passed the Chocolate House remained a rendezvous, but the +character of its habitues changed from time to time. Thus one, famous in +the days of Queen Anne, and well known by its sign of the "Cocoa Tree," +was at first the headquarters of the Jacobite party, and the resort of +Tories of the strictest school. It became later a noted gambling house +("The gamesters shook their elbows in White's and the chocolate houses +round Covent Garden," _National Review_, 1878), and ultimately developed +into a literary club, including amongst its members Gibbon, the +historian, and Byron, the poet. + + + +_Tax on Cacao._ + +The growing consumption of chocolate did not escape the all-seeing eye +of the Chancellors of England. As early as 1660 we find amongst various +custom and excise duties granted to Charles II: + + "For every gallon of chocolate, sherbet, and tea made and + sold, to be paid by the maker thereof ..... 8d." + +Later the raw material was also made a source of revenue. In _The Humble +Memorial of Joseph Fry_, of Bristol, Maker of Chocolate, which was +addressed to the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury in 1776 (Messrs. +Fry and Sons are the oldest English firm of chocolate makers, having +been founded in 1728), we read that "Chocolate ... pays two shillings +and threepence per pound excise, besides about ten shillings per +hundredweight on the Cocoa Nuts from which it is made." + +In 1784 a preferential customs rate was proposed in favour of our +Colonies. This they enjoyed for many years before 1853, when the uniform +rate, until recently in force, was introduced. This restrictive tariff +on foreign growths rose in 1803 to 5s. 10d. per pound, against 1s. 10d. +on cacao grown in British possessions. From this date it gradually +diminished. High duties hampered for many years the sale of cocoa, tea +and coffee, but in recent times these duties have been brought down to +more reasonable figures. For many years before 1915 the import duty was +1d. per pound on the raw cacao beans, 1d. per pound on cacao butter, and +2s. a hundredweight (less than a farthing a pound) on cacao shells or +husks. In the Budget of September, 1915, the above duties were increased +by fifty per cent. A further and greater increase was made in the Budget +of April, 1916, when cacao was made to pay a higher tax in Britain than +in any other country in the world. In 1919 Imperial preference was +introduced after a break of over sixty years, the duty on cocoa from +foreign countries being 3/4d. a pound more than that from British +Possessions. + +_Duty on Cacao._ + + 1855-1915. 1915. 1916. 1919. +Cacao beans per lb. 1d. 1-1/2d. 6d. 4-1/2d. foreign, 3-3/4d. British +Cacao butter per lb. 1d. 1-1/2d. 6d. 4-1/2d. foreign, 3-3/4d. British +Cacao shells per cwt. 2s. 3s. 12s. 6s. foreign, 5s. British + +In considering this duty and its effect on the price of the finished +article, it should be remembered that there are substantial losses in +manufacture. Thus the beans are cleaned, which removes up to 0.5 per +cent.; roasted, which causes a loss by volatilisation of 7 per cent.; +and shelled, the husks being about 12 per cent. Therefore, the actual +yield of usable nib, which has to bear the whole duty, is about 80 per +cent. It may be well to add that the yield of cocoa powder is 48 per +cent. of the raw beans, or roughly, one pound of the raw product yields +half a pound of the finished article. + + + +_Introduction of Cocoa Powder._ + +The drink "cocoa" as we know it to-day was not introduced until 1828. +Before this time the ground bean, mixed with sugar, was sold in cakes. +The beverage prepared from these chocolate cakes was very rich in +butter, and whilst the British Navy has always consumed it in this +condition (the sailors generally remove with a spoon the excess of +butter which floats to the top) it is a little heavy for less hardy +digestions. Van Houten (of the well-known Dutch house of that name) in +1828 invented a method of pressing out part of the butter, and thus +obtained a lighter, more appetising, and more easily assimilated +preparation. As the butter is useful in chocolate manufacture, this +process enabled the manufacturer to produce a less costly cocoa powder, +and thus the circle of consumers was widened. Messrs. Cadbury Bros., of +Birmingham, first sold their "cocoa essence" in 1866, and Messrs. Fry +and Sons, of Bristol, introduced a pure cocoa by pressing out part of +the butter in 1868. + + + +_Growing Popularity of Cacao Preparations._ + +The incidence of import duties did not prevent the continuous increase +in the amount of cacao consumed in the British Isles. When Queen +Victoria came to the throne the cacao cleared for home consumption was +about four or five thousand tons, more than half of which was consumed +by the Navy. At the time of Queen Victoria's death it had increased to +four times this amount, and by 1915 it had reached nearly fifty +thousand tons. (For statistics of consumption, see p. 183). + + + * * * * * + + +This brief sketch of the history of cacao owes much to "Cocoa--all about +it," by Historicus (the pseudonym of the late Richard Cadbury). This +work is out of print, but those who are fortunate enough to be able to +consult it will find therein much that is curious and discursive. + +[Illustration: ANCIENT MEXICAN DRINKING CUPS (British Museum)] + + + + +CHAPTER II + +CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION + + O tree, upraised in far-off Mexico! + + "_Ode to the Chocolate Tree_," 1664. + + +How seldom do we think, when we drink a cup of cocoa or eat some morsels +of chocolate, that our liking for these delicacies has set minds and +bodies at work all the world over! Many types of humanity have +contributed to their production. Picture in the mind's eye the graceful +coolie in the sun-saturated tropics, moving in the shade, cutting the +pods from the cacao tree; the deep-chested sailor helping to load from +lighters or surf-boats the precious bags of cacao into the hold of the +ocean liner; the skilful workman roasting the beans until they fill the +room with a fine aroma; and the girl with dexterous fingers packing the +cocoa or fashioning the chocolate in curious, and delicate forms. To the +black and brown races, the negroes and the East Indians, we owe a debt +for their work on tropical plantations, for the harder manual work would +be too arduous for Europeans unused to the heat of those regions. + + + +_Climate Necessary._ + +Cacao can only grow at tropical temperatures, and when shielded from the +wind and unimpaired by drought. Enthusiasts, as a hobby, have grown the +tree under glass in England; it requires a warmer temperature than +either tea or coffee, and only after infinite care can one succeed in +getting the tree to flower and bear fruit. The mean temperature in the +countries in which it thrives is about 80 degrees F. in the shade, and +the average of the maximum temperatures is seldom more than 90 degrees +F., or the average of the minimum temperatures less than 70 degrees F. +The rainfall can be as low as 45 inches per annum, as in the Gold Coast, +or as high as 150 inches, as in Java, provided the fall is uniformly +distributed. The ideal spot is the secluded vale, and whilst in +Venezuela there are plantations up to 2000 feet above sea level, cacao +cannot generally be profitably cultivated above 1000 feet. + + + +_Factors of Geographical Distribution._ + +Climate, soil, and manures determine the possible region of +cultivation--the extent to which the area is utilised depends on the +enterprise of man. The original home of cacao was the rich tropical +region, far-famed in Elizabethan days, that lies between the Amazon and +the Orinoco, and but for the enterprise of man it is doubtful if it +would have ever spread from this region. Monkeys often carry the beans +many miles--man, the master-monkey, has carried them round the world. +First the Indians spread cacao over the tropical belt of the American +continent and cultivated it as far North as Mexico. Then came the +Spanish explorers of the New World, who carried it from the mainland to +the adjacent West Indian islands. Cacao was planted by them in Trinidad +as early as 1525. Since that date it has been successfully introduced +into many a tropical island. It was an important day in the history of +Ceylon when Sir R. Horton, in 1834, had cacao plants brought to that +island from Trinidad. The carefully packed plants survived the ordeal of +a voyage of ten thousand miles. The most recent introduction is, +however, the most striking. About 1880 a native of the Gold Coast +obtained some beans, probably from Fernando Po. In 1891, the first bag +of cacao was exported; it weighed 80 pounds. In 1915, 24 years later, +the export from the Gold Coast was 120 million pounds. + +[Illustration: CACAO TREE, WITH PODS AND LEAVES] + + + +_The Cacao Tree._ + +Tropical vegetation appears so bizarre to the visitor from temperate +climes that in such surroundings the cacao tree seems almost +commonplace. It is in appearance as moderate and unpretentious as an +apple tree, though somewhat taller, being, when full grown, about +twenty feet high. It begins to bear in its fourth or fifth year. Smooth +in its early youth, as it gets older it becomes covered with little +bosses (cushions) from which many flowers spring. I saw one fellow, very +tall and gnarled, and with many pods on it; turning to the planter I +enquired "How old is that tree?" He replied, almost reverentially: "It's +a good deal older than I am; must be at least fifty years old." "It's +one of the tallest cacao trees I've seen. I wonder--." The planter +perceived my thought, and said: "I'll have it measured for you." It was +forty feet high. That was a tall one; usually they are not more than +half that height. The bark is reddish-grey, and may be partly hidden by +brown, grey and green patches of lichen. The bark is both beautiful and +quaint, but in the main the tree owes its beauty to its luxuriance of +prosperous leaves, and its quaintness to its pods. + +[Illustration: CACAO TREE, SHOWING PODS GROWING FROM TRUNK.] + +[Illustration: FLOWERS AND FRUITS ON MAIN BRANCHES OF A CACAO TREE. +(Reproduced from van Hall's _Cocoa_, by permission of Messrs. Macmillan +& Co.).] + + + +_The Flowers, Leaves and Fruit._ + +Although cacao trees are not unlike the fruit trees of England, there +are differences which, when first one sees them, cause expressions of +surprise and pleasure to leap to the lips. One sees what one never saw +before, the fruit springing from the main trunk, quite close to the +ground. An old writer has explained that this is due to a wise +providence, because the pod is so heavy that if it hung from the end of +the branches it would fall off before it reached maturity. The old +writer talks of providence; a modern writer would see in the same facts +a simple example of evolution. On the same cacao tree every day of the +year may be found flowers, young podkins and mature pods side by side. I +say "found" advisedly--at the first glance one does not see the flowers +because they are so dainty and so small. The buds are the size of rice +grains, and the flowers are not more than half an inch across when the +petals are fully out. The flowers are pink or yellow, of wax-like +appearance, and have no odour. They were commonly stated to be +pollinated by thrips and other insects. Dr. von Faber of Java has +recently shown that whilst self-pollination is the rule, cross +fertilisation occurs between the flowers on adjacent or interlocking +trees. These graceful flowers are so small that one can walk through a +plantation without observing them, although an average tree will produce +six thousand blossoms in a year. Not more than one per cent. of these +will become fruit. Usually it takes six months for the bud to develop +into the mature fruit. The lovely mosses that grow on the stems and +branches are sometimes so thick that they have to be destroyed, or the +fragile cacao flower could not push its way through. Whilst the flowers +are small, the leaves are large, being as an average about a foot in +length and four inches in breadth. The cacao tree never appears naked, +save on the rare occasions when it is stripped by the wind, and the +leaves are green all the year round, save when they are red, if the +reader will pardon an Hibernianism. And indeed there is something +contrary in the crimson tint, for whilst we usually associate this with +old leaves about to fall, with the cacao, as with some rose trees, it is +the tint of the young leaves. + +[Illustration: CACAO PODS.] + + + +_The Cacao Pod._ + +The fruit, which hangs on a short thick stalk, may be anything in shape +from a melon to a stumpy, irregular cucumber, according to the botanic +variety. The intermediate shape is like a lemon, with furrows from end +to end. There are pods, called Calabacillo, smooth and ovate like a +calabash, and there are others, more rare, so "nobbly" that they are +well-named "Alligator." The pods vary in length from five to eleven +inches, "with here and there the great pod of all, the blood-red +_sangre-tora_." The colours of the pods are as brilliant as they are +various. They are rich and strong, and resemble those of the rind of the +pomegranate. One pod shows many shades of dull crimson, another grades +from gold to the yellow of leather, and yet another is all lack-lustre +pea-green. They may be likened to Chinese lanterns hanging in the woods. +One does not conclude from the appearance of the pod that the contents +are edible, any more than one would surmise that tea-leaves could be +used to produce a refreshing drink. I say as much to the planter, who +smiles. With one deft cut with his machete or cutlass, which hangs in a +leather scabbard by his side, the planter severs the pod from the tree, +and with another slash cuts the thick, almost woody rind and breaks open +the pod. There is disclosed a mass of some thirty or forty beans, +covered with juicy pulp. The inside of the rind and the mass of beans +are gleaming white, like melting snow. Sometimes the mass is pale +amethyst in colour. I perceive a pleasant odour resembling melon. Like +little Jack Horner, I put in my thumb and pull out a snow-white bean. It +is slippery to hold, so I put it in my mouth. The taste is sweet, +something between grape and melon. Inside this fruity coating is the +bean proper. From different pods we take beans and cut them in two, and +find that the colour of the bean varies from purple almost to white. + +[Illustration: CUT POD, REVEALING THE WHITE PULP ROUND THE BEANS +(CEYLON.)] + +[Illustration: CACAO PODS, SHEWING BEANS INSIDE.] + + + +_Botanical Description._ + +Theobroma Cacao belongs to the family of the _Sterculiaceae_, and to the +same order as the Limes and Mallows. It is described in Strasburger's +admirable _Text-Book of Botany_ as follows: + + "Family. _Sterculiaceae._ + + IMPORTANT GENERA. The most important plant is the Cocoa Tree + (_Theobroma Cacao_). It is a low tree with short-stalked, + firm, brittle, simple leaves of large size, oval shape, and + dark green colour. The young leaves are of a bright red + colour, and, as in many tropical trees, hang limply + downwards. The flowers are borne on the main stem or the + older branches, and arise from dormant axillary buds + (Cauliflory). Each petal is bulged up at the base, narrows + considerably above this, and ends in an expanded tip. The + form of the reddish flowers is thus somewhat urn-shaped with + five radiating points. The pentalocular ovary has numerous + ovules in each loculus. As the fruit develops, the soft + tissue of the septa extends between the single seeds; the + ripe fruit is thus unilocular and many-seeded. The seed-coat + is filled by the embryo, which has two large, folded, brittle + cotyledons." + +The last sentence conveys an erroneous impression. The two cotyledons, +which form the seed, are not brittle when found in nature in the pod. +They are juicy and fleshy. And it is only after the seed has received +special treatment (fermentation and drying) to obtain the bean of +commerce, that it becomes brittle. + + + +_Varieties of Theobroma Cacao._ + +As mentioned above, the pods and seeds of Theobroma Cacao trees show a +marked variation, and in every country the botanist has studied these +variations and classified the trees according to the shape and colour of +the pods and seeds. The existence of so many classifications has led to +a good deal of confusion, and we are indebted to Van Hall for the +simplest way of clearing up these difficulties. He accepts the +classification first given by Morris, dividing the trees into two +varieties--Criollo and Forastero: + +[Illustration: DRAWINGS OF TYPICAL PODS, illustrating varieties. +CRIOLLO +FORASTERO +FORASTERO (CALABACILLO VARIETY)] + + + +_Extremes of Characteristics._ + + _Criollo._ _Forastero._ + +(Old Red, Caracas, etc.) Grading from Cundeamor + (bottle-necked) to Calabacillo + (smooth). + +_Pod walls._ Thin and warty. Thick and woody. + +_Beans._ Large and plump. Small and flat. + White. Heliotrope to purple. + Sweet. Astringent. + +The cacao of the criollo variety has pods the walls of which are thin +and warty, with ten distinct furrows. The seeds or beans are white as +ivory throughout, round and plump, and sweet to taste. The forastero +variety includes many sub-varieties, the kind most distinct from the +criollo having pods, the walls of which are thick and woody, the surface +smooth, the furrows indistinct, and the shape globular. The seeds in +these pods are purple in colour, flat in appearance, and bitter to +taste. This is a very convenient classification. Personally I believe it +would be possible to find pods varying by almost imperceptible +gradations from the finest, purest, criollo to the lowest form of +forastero (namely, calabacillo). The criollo yields the finest and +rarest kind of cacao, but as sometimes happens with refined types in +nature, it is a rather delicate tree, especially liable to canker and +bark diseases, and this accounts for the predominance of the forastero +in the cacao plantations of the world. + + + +_The Cacao Plantation._ + +One can spend happy days on a cacao estate. "Are you going into the +cocoa?" they ask, just as in England we might enquire, "Are you going +into the corn?" + +[Illustration: TROPICAL FOREST, TRINIDAD. +This has to be cleared before planting begins.] + +Coconut plantations and sugar estates make a strong appeal to the +imagination, but for peaceful beauty they cannot compare with the cacao +plantation. True, coconut plantations are very lovely--the palms are so +graceful, the leaves against the sky so like a fine etching--but "the +slender coco's drooping crown of plumes" is altogether foreign to +English eyes. Sugar estates are generally marred by the prosaic factory +in the background. They are dead level plains, and the giant grass +affords no shade from the relentless sun. Whereas the leaves of the +cacao tree are large and numerous, so that even in the heat of the day, +it is comparatively cool and pleasant under the cacao. + +Cacao plantations present in different countries every variety of +appearance--from that of a wild forest in which the greater portion of +the trees are cacao, to the tidy and orderly plantation. In some of the +Trinidad plantations the trees are planted in parallel lines twelve feet +apart, with a tree every twelve feet along the line; and as you push +your way through the plantation the apparently irregularly scattered +trees are seen to flash momentarily into long lines. In other parts of +the world, for example, in Grenada and Surinam, the ground may be kept +so tidy and free from weeds that they have the appearance of gardens. + + + +_Clearing the Land._ + +When the planter has chosen a suitable site, an exercise requiring +skill, the forest has to be cleared. The felling of great trees and the +clearing of the wild tangle of undergrowth is arduous work. It is well +to leave the trees on the ridges for about sixty feet on either side, +and thus form a belt of trees to act as wind screen. Cacao trees are as +sensitive to a draught as some human beings, and these "_wind breaks_" +are often deliberately grown--Balata, Poui, Mango (Trinidad), Galba +(Grenada), Wild Pois Doux (Martinique), and other leafy trees being +suitable for this purpose. + + + +_Suitable Soil._ + +It was for many years believed that if a tree were analysed the best +soil for its growth could at once be inferred and described, as it was +assumed that the best soil would be one containing the same elements in +similar proportions. This simple theory ignored the characteristic +powers of assimilation of the tree in question and the "digestibility" +of the soil constituents. However, it is agreed that soils rich in +potash and lime (e.g., those obtained by the decomposition of certain +volcanic rocks) are good for cacao. An open sandy or loamy alluvial soil +is considered ideal. The physical condition of the soil is equally +important: heavy clays or water-logged soils are bad. The depth of soil +required depends on its nature. A stiff soil discourages the growth of +the "tap" root, which in good porous soils is generally seven or eight +feet long. + +[Illustration: CHARACTERISTIC ROOT SYSTEM OF THE CACAO TREE. +Note the long tap root. +(Reproduced from the Imperial Institute series of Handbooks to the +Commercial Resources of the Tropics, by permission.)] + + + +_Manure._ + +The greater part of the world's cacao is produced without the use of +artificial manures. The soil, which is continually washed down by the +rains into the rivers, is continually renewed by decomposition of the +bed rock, and in the tropics this decomposition is more rapid than in +temperate climes. In Guayaquil, "notwithstanding the fact that the same +soil has been cropped consecutively for over a hundred years, there is +as yet no sign of decadence, nor does a necessity yet arise for +artificial manure."[1] However, manures are useful with all soils, and +necessary with many. Happy is the planter who is so placed that he can +obtain a plentiful supply of farmyard or pen manure, as this gives +excellent results. "Mulching" is also recommended. This consists of +covering the ground with decaying leaves, grasses, etc., which keep the +soil in a moist and open condition during the dry season. If artificial +manures are used they should vary according to the soil, and, although +he can obtain considerable help from the analyst, the planter's most +reliable guide will be experiment on the spot. + + [1] _Bulletin_, Botanic Dept., Jamaica, February, 1900. + + + +_Planting._ + +In the past insufficient care has been taken in _the selection of seed_. +The planter should choose the large plump beans with a pale interior, or +he should choose the nearest kind to this that is sufficiently hardy to +thrive in the particular environment. He can plant (1) direct from +seeds, or (2) from seedlings--plants raised in nurseries in bamboo pots, +or (3) by grafting or budding. It is usual to plant two or three seeds +in each hole, and destroy the weaker plants when about a foot high. The +seeds are planted from twelve to fifteen feet apart. The distance chosen +depends chiefly on the richness of the soil; the richer the soil, the +more ample room is allowed for the trees to spread without choking each +other. Interesting results have been obtained by Hart and others by +grafting the fine but tender criollo on to the hardy forastero, but +until yesterday the practice had not been tried on a large scale. +Experiments were begun in 1913 by Mr. W.G. Freeman in Trinidad which +promise interesting results. By 1919 the Department of Agriculture had +seven acres in grafted and budded cacao. In a few years it should be +possible to say whether it pays to form an estate of budded cacao in +preference to using seedlings. + +[Illustration: NURSERY, WITH THE YOUNG CACAO PLANTS IN BASKETS, JAVA. +(Reproduced from van Hall's _Cocoa_, by permission of Messrs. Macmillan +& Co.).] + +[Illustration: PLANTING CACAO, TRINIDAD, FROM YOUNG SEEDLINGS IN BAMBOO +POTS.] + +[Illustration: CACAO IN ITS FOURTH YEAR (SAMOA).] + +There are no longer any mystic rites performed before planting. In the +old days it was the custom to solemnize the planting, for example, by +sacrificing a cacao-coloured dog (see Bancroft's _Native Races of the +Pacific States_.) + + + +_Shade: Temporary and Permanent._ + +[Illustration: COPY OF AN OLD ENGRAVING SHOWING THE CACAO TREE, AND A +TREE SHADING IT. +(From _Bontekoe's Works_.)] + +When the seeds are planted, such small plants as cassava, chillies, +pigeon peas and the like are planted with them. The object of planting +these is to afford the young cacao plant shelter from the sun, and to +keep the ground in good condition. Incidentally the planter obtains +cassava (which gives tapioca), red peppers, etc., as a "catch crop" +whilst he is waiting for the cacao tree to begin to yield. Bananas and +plantains are planted with the same object, and these are allowed to +remain for a longer period. Such is the rapidity of plant growth in the +tropics that in three or four years the cacao tree is taller than a man, +and begins to bear fruit in its fourth or fifth year. Now it is agreed +that, as with men, the cacao tree needs protection in its youth, but +whether it needs shade trees when it is fully grown is one of the +controverted questions. When the planter is sitting after his day's work +is done, and no fresh topic comes to his mind, he often re-opens the +discussion on the question of shade. The idea that cacao trees need +shade is a very ancient one, as is shown in a very old drawing (possibly +the oldest drawing of cacao extant) beneath which it is written: "Of the +tree which bears cacao, which is money, and how the Indians obtained +fire with two pieces of wood." In this drawing you will observe how +lovingly the shade tree shelters the cacao. The intention in using shade +is to imitate the natural forest conditions in which the wild cacao +grew. Sometimes when clearing the forest certain large trees are left +standing, but more frequently and with better judgment, chosen kinds are +planted. Many trees have been used: the saman, bread fruit, mango, +mammet, sand box, pois doux, rubber, etc. In the illustration showing +kapok acting as a parasol for cacao in Java, we see that the proportion +of shade trees to cacao is high. Leguminous trees are preferred because +they conserve the nitrogen in the soil. Hence in Trinidad the favourite +shade tree is _Erythrina_ or Bois Immortel (so called, a humourist +suggests, because it is short-lived). It is also rather prettily named, +"Mother of Cacao." Usually the shade trees are planted about 40 feet +apart, but there are cacao plantations which might cause a stranger to +enquire, "Is this an Immortel plantation?" so closely are these +conspicuous trees planted. When looking down a Trinidad valley, richly +planted with cacao, one sees in every direction the silver-grey trunks +of the Immortel. In the early months of the year these trees have no +leaves, they are a mass of flame-coloured flowers, each "shafted like a +scimitar." It well repays the labour of climbing a hill to look down on +this vermilion glory. Some Trinidad planters believe that their trees +would die without shade, yet in Grenada, only a hundred miles North as +the steamer sails, there are whole plantations without a single shade +tree. The Grenadians say: "You cannot have pods without flowers, and you +cannot have good flowering without light and air." Shade trees are not +used on some estates in San Thome, and in Brazil there are cocoa kings +with 200,000 trees without one shade tree. It should be mentioned, +however, that in these countries the cacao trees are planted more +closely (about eight feet apart) and themselves shade the soil. +Professor Carmody, in reporting[2] recently on the result of a four +years' experiment with (1) shade, (2) no shade, (3) partial shade, +says that so far partial shade has given the best results. No general +solution has yet been found to the question of the advantage of shade, +and, as Shaw states for morality, so in agriculture, "the golden rule is +that there is no golden rule." Not only is there the personal factor, +but nature provides an infinite variety of environments, and the best +results are obtained by the use of methods appropriate to the local +conditions. + + [2] _Bulletin_ Dept. of Agriculture, Trinidad, 1916. + +[Illustration: CACAO TREES, SHADED BY KAPOK (_Eriodendron Anfractuosum_) +IN JAVA. +(reproduced from van Hall's _Cocoa_, by permission of Messrs. Macmillan +& Co.)] + +[Illustration: CACAO TREES, SHADED BY BOIS IMMORTEL, TRINIDAD.] + + + +_Form of Tree-growth Desired: Suckers._ + +Viscount Mountmorres, in a delightfully clear exposition of cacao +cultivation which he gave to the native farmers and chiefs of the Gold +Coast in 1906, said: "In pruning, it is necessary always to bear in mind +that the best shape for cacao trees is that of an enlarged open +umbrella," with a height under the umbrella not exceeding seven feet. +With this ideal in his mind, the planter should train up the tree in the +way it should go. Viscount Mountmorres also said that everything that +grows upwards, except the main stem, must be cut off. + +This opens a question which is of great interest to planters as to +whether it is wise to allow shoots to grow out from the main trunk near +the ground. Some hold that the high yield on their plantation is due to +letting these upright shoots grow. "Mi Amigo Corsicano said: 'Diavolo, +let the cacao-trees grow, let them branch off like any other fruit-tree, +say the tamarind, the 'chupon' or sucker will in time bear more than its +mother.'"[3] There seems to be some evidence that _old_ trees profit +from the "chupons" because they continue to bear when the old trunk is +weary, but this is compensated for by the fact that the "chupons" +(Portuguese for suckers) were grown at the expense of the tree in its +youth. Hence other planters call them "thieves," and "gormandizers," +saying that they suck the sap from the tree, turning all to wood. They +follow the advice given as early as 1730 by the author of _The Natural +History of Chocolate_, when he says: "Cut or lop off the suckers." In +Trinidad, experiments have been started, and after a five years' test, +Professor Carmody says that the indications are that it is a matter of +indifference whether "chupons" are allowed to grow or not. + + [3] "_How Jose formed his Cocoa Estate._" + +[Illustration: CACAO TREE, WITH SUCKERS, TRINIDAD.] + +After hunting, agriculture is man's oldest industry, and improvements +come but slowly, for the proving of a theory often requires work on a +huge scale carried out for several decades. The husbandry of the earth +goes on from century to century with little change, and the methods +followed are the winnowings of experience, tempered with indolence. And +even with the bewildering progress of science in other directions, sound +improvements in this field are rare discoveries. There is great scope +for the application of physical and chemical knowledge to the production +of the raw materials of the tropics. In one or two instances notable +advances have been made, thus the direct production of a white sugar (as +now practised at Java) at the tropical factory will have far-reaching +effects, but with many tropical products the methods practised are as +ancient as they are haphazard. Like all methods founded on long +experience, they suit the environment and the temperament of the people +who use them, so that the work of the scientist in introducing +improvements requires intimate knowledge of the conditions if his +suggestions are to be adopted. The various Departments of Agriculture +are doing splendid pioneer work, but the full harvest of their sowing +will not be reaped until the number of tropically-educated +agriculturists has been increased by the founding of three or four +agricultural colleges and research laboratories in equatorial regions. + +There is much research to be done. As yet, however, many planters are +ignorant of all that is already established, the facilities for +education in tropical agriculture being few and far between. There are +signs, however, of development in this direction. It is pleasant to note +that a start was made in Ceylon at the end of 1917 by opening an +agricultural school at Peradenija. Trinidad has for a number of years +had an agricultural school, and is eager to have a college devoted to +agriculture. In 1919, Messrs. Cadbury Bros. gave L5000 to form the +nucleus of a special educational fund for the Gold Coast. The scientists +attached to the several government agricultural departments in Java, +Ceylon, Trinidad, the Philippines, Africa, etc., have done splendid +work, but it is desirable that the number of workers should be +increased. When the world wakes up to the importance of tropical +produce, agricultural colleges will be scattered about the tropics, so +that every would-be planter can learn his subject on the spot. + +[Illustration: CUTLASSING.] + + + +_Diseases of the Cacao Tree._ + +Take, for example, the case of the diseases of plants. Everyone who +takes an interest in the garden knows how destructive the insect pests +and vegetable parasites can be. In the tropics their power for +destruction is very great, and they are a constant menace to economic +products like cacao. The importance of understanding their habits, and +of studying methods of keeping them in check, is readily appreciated; +the planter may be ruined by lacking this knowledge. + +The cacao tree has been improved and "domesticated" to satisfy human +requirements, a process which has rendered it weaker to resist attacks +from pests and parasites. It is usual to classify man amongst the pests, +as either from ignorance or by careless handling he can do the tree much +harm. Other animal pests are the wanton thieves: monkeys, squirrels and +rats, who destroy more fruit than they consume. The insect pests include +varieties of beetles, thrips, aphides, scale insects and ants, whilst +fungi are the cause of the "Canker" in the stem and branches, the +"Witch-broom" disease in twigs and leaves, and the "Black Rot" of pods. + +The subject is too immense to be summarised in a few lines, and I +recommend readers who wish to know more of this or other division of the +science of cacao cultivation, to consult one or more of the four +classics in English on this subject: + +_Cocoa_, by Herbert Wright (Ceylon), 1907. +_Cacao_, by J. Hinchley Hart (Trinidad), 1911. +_Cocoa_, by W.H. Johnson (Nigeria), 1912. +_Cocoa_, by C.J.J. van Hall (Java), 1914. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +HARVESTING AND PREPARATION FOR THE MARKET + + The picking, gathering, and breaking of the cacao are the + easiest jobs on the plantation. + + "_How Jose formed his Cocoa Estate._" + + + +_Gathering and Heaping._ + +[Illustration] + +In the last chapter I gave a brief account of the cultivation of cacao. +I did not deal with forking, spraying, cutlassing, weeding, and so +forth, as it would lead us too far into purely technical discussions. I +propose we assume that the planter has managed his estate well, and that +the plantation is before us looking very healthy and full of fruit +waiting to be picked. The question arises: How shall we gather it? Shall +we shake the tree? Cacao pods do not fall off the tree even when +over-ripe. Shall we knock off or pluck the pods? To do so would make a +scar on the trunk of the tree, and these wounds are dangerous in +tropical climates, as they are often attacked by canker. A sharp machete +or cutlass is used to cut off the pods which grow on the lower part of +the trunk. As the tree is not often strong enough to bear a man, +climbing is out of the question, and a knife on a pole is used for +cutting off the pods on the upper branches. Various shaped knives are +used by different planters, a common and efficient kind (see drawing), +resembles a hand of steel, with the thumb as a hook, so that the +pod-stalk can be cut either by a push or a pull. A good deal of +ingenuity has been expended in devising a "foolproof" picker which shall +render easy the cutting of the pod-stalk and yet not cut or damage the +bark of the tree. A good example is the Agostini picker, which was +approved by Hart. + +[Illustration: +(1) COMMON TYPE OF CACAO PICKER. +(2) AGOSTINI CACAO PICKER.] + +The gathering of the fruits of one's labour is a pleasant task, which +occurs generally only at rare intervals. Cacao is gathered the whole +year round. There is, however, in most districts one principal harvest +period, and a subsidiary harvest. + +[Illustration: GATHERING CACAO PODS, TRINIDAD.] + +With cacao in the tropics, as with corn in England, the gathering of the +harvest is a delight to lovers of the beautiful. It is a great charm of +the cacao plantation that the trees are so closely planted that nowhere +does the sunlight find between the foliage a space larger than a man's +hand. After the universal glare outside, it seems dark under the cacao, +although the ground is bright with dappled sunshine. You hear a noise of +talking, of rustling leaves, and falling pods. You come upon a band of +coolies or negroes. One near you carries a long bamboo--as long as a +fishing rod--with a knife at the end. With a lithe movement he inserts +it between the boughs, and, by giving it a sharp jerk, neatly cuts the +stalk of a pod, which falls from the tree to the ground. Only the ripe +pods must be picked. To do this, not only must the picker's aim be true, +but he must also have a good eye for colour. Whether the pods be red or +green, as soon as the colour begins to be tinted with yellow it is ripe +for picking. This change occurs first along the furrows in the pod. +Fewer unripe pods would be gathered if only one kind of pod were grown +on one plantation. The confusion of kinds and colours which is often +found makes sound judgment very difficult. That the men generally judge +correctly the ripeness of pods high in the trees is something to wonder +at. The pickers pass on, strewing the earth with ripe pods. They are +followed by the graceful, dark-skinned girls, who gather one by one the +fallen pods from the greenery, until their baskets are full. Sometimes a +basketful is too heavy and the girl cannot comfortably lift it on to her +head, but when one of the men has helped her to place it there, she +carries it lightly enough. She trips through the trees, her bracelets +jingling, and tumbles the pods on to the heap. Once one has seen a great +heap of cacao pods it glows in one's memory: anything more rich, more +daring in the way of colour one's eye is unlikely to light on. The +artist, seeking only an aesthetic effect would be content with this for +the consummation and would wish the pods to remain unbroken. + +[Illustration: COLLECTING CACAO PODS INTO A HEAP PRIOR TO BREAKING.] + + + +_Breaking and Extracting._ + +There are planters who believe that the product is improved by leaving +the gathered pods several days before breaking; and they would follow +the practice, but for the risk of losses by theft. Hence the pods are +generally broken on the same day as they are gathered. The primitive +methods of breaking with a club or by banging on a hard surface are +happily little used. Masson of New York made pod-breaking machines, and +Sir George Watt has recently invented an ingenious machine for squeezing +the beans out of the pod, but at present the extraction is done almost +universally by hand, either by men or women. A knife which would cut the +husk of the pod and was so constructed that it could not injure the +beans within, would be a useful invention. The human extractor has the +advantage that he or she can distinguish the diseased, unripe or +germinated beans and separate them from the good ones. Picture the men +sitting round the heap of pods and, farther out, in a larger circle, +twice as many girls with baskets. The man breaks the pod and the girls +extract the beans. The man takes the pod in his left hand and gives it a +sharp slash with a small cutlass, just cutting through the tough shell +of the pod, but not into the beans inside; and then gives the blade, +which he has embedded in the shell, a twisting jerk, so that the pod +breaks in two with a crisp crack. The girls take the broken pods and +scoop out the snow-like beans with a flat wooden spoon or a piece of +rib-bone, the beans being pulled off the stringy core (or placenta) +which holds them together. The beans are put preferably into baskets or, +failing these, on to broad banana leaves, which are used as trays. + +Practice renders these processes cheerful and easy work, often performed +to an accompaniment of laughing and chattering. + +[Illustration: MEN BREAKING PODS, GIRLS SCOOPING OUT BEANS, AND MULES +WAITING WITH BASKETS TO CONVEY THE CACAO TO THE FERMENTARY.] + + + +_Fermenting._ + +I allow myself the pleasure of thinking that I am causing some of my +readers a little surprise when I tell them that cacao is fermented, and +that the fermentation produces alcohol. As I mentioned above, the cacao +bean is covered with a fruity pulp. The bean as it comes from the pod is +moist, whilst the pulp is full of juice. It would be impossible to +convey it to Europe in this condition; it would decompose, and, when it +reached its destination, would be worthless. In order that a product can +be handled commercially it is desirable to have it in such a condition +that it does not change, and thus with cacao it becomes necessary to get +rid of the pulp, and, whilst this may be done by washing or simply by +drying, experience has shown that the finest and driest product is +obtained when the drying is preceded by fermentation. Just as broken +grapes will ferment, so will the fruity pulp of the cacao bean. Present +day fermentaries are simply convenient places for storing the cacao +whilst the process goes on. In the process of fermentation, Dr. +Chittenden says the beans are "stewed in their own juice." This may be +expressed less picturesquely but more accurately by saying the beans are +warmed by the heat of their own fermenting pulp, from which they absorb +liquid. + +In Trinidad the cacao which the girls have scooped out into the baskets +is emptied into larger baskets, two of which are "crooked" on a mule's +back, and carried thus to the fermentary. In Surinam it is conveyed by +boat, and in San Thome by trucks, which run on Decauville railways. + +The period of fermentation and the receptacle to hold the cacao vary +from country to country. With cacao of the criollo type only one or two +days fermentation is required, and as a result, in Ecuador and Ceylon, +the cacao is simply put in heaps on a suitable floor. In Trinidad and +the majority of other cacao-producing areas, where the forastero +variety predominates, from five to nine days are required. The cacao is +put into the "sweat" boxes and covered with banana or plantain leaves to +keep in the heat. The boxes may measure four feet each way and be made +of sweet-smelling cedar wood. As is usual with fermentation, the +temperature begins to rise, and if you thrust your hands into the +fermenting beans you find they are as hot and mucilaginous as a +poultice. + +[Illustration: "SWEATING" BOXES, TRINIDAD. +The man is holding the wooden spade used for turning the beans.] + + _Time._ _Temperature._ +When put in 25 deg. C. or 77 deg. F. +After 1 day 30 deg. C. or 89 deg. F. +After 2 days 37 deg. C. or 98 deg. F. +After 3 days 47 deg. C. or 115 deg. F. + +(After the third day the heat is maintained, but the temperature rises +very little.) + + +The temperature is the simplest guide to the amount of fermentation +taking place, and the uniformity of the temperature in all parts of the +mass is desirable, as showing that all parts are fermenting evenly. The +cacao is usually shovelled from one box to another every one or two +days. The chief object of this operation is to mix the cacao and prevent +merely local fermentation. To make mixing easy one ingenious planter +uses a cylindrical vessel which can be turned about on its axis. + +[Illustration: FERMENTING BOXES, JAVA. +From the last box the beans are shovelled into the washing basin. +(Reproduced from van Hall's _Cocoa_, by permission of Messrs. Macmillan +& Co.)] + +In other places, for example in Java, the boxes are arranged as a series +of steps, so that the cacao is transferred with little labour from the +higher to the lower. In San Thome the cacao is placed on the plantation +direct into trucks, which are covered with plaintain leaves, and run on +rails through the plantation right into the fermentary. Some day some +enterprising firm will build a fermentary in portable sections easily +erected, and with some simple mechanical mixer to replace the present +laborious method of turning the beans by manual labour. + +The general conditions[1] for a good fermentation are: + +(1) The mass of beans must be kept warm. + +(2) The mass of beans must be moist, but not sodden. + +(3) In the later stages there must be sufficient air. + +(4) The boxes must be kept clean. + + [1] For full details see the pamphlet by the author on _The + Practice of Fermentation in Trinidad_. + + + +_Changes during Fermentation._ + +No entirely satisfactory theory of the changes in cacao due to +fermentation has yet been established. It is known that the sugary pulp +outside the beans ferments in a similar way to other fruit pulp, save +that for a yeast fermentation the temperature rises unusually high (in +three days to 47 degrees C.), and also that there are parallel and more +important changes in the interior of the bean. The difficulty of +establishing a complete theory of fermentation of cacao has not daunted +the scientists, for they know that the roses of philosophy are gathered +by just those who can grasp the thorniest problems. Success, however, is +so far only partial, as can be seen by consulting the best introduction +on the subject, the admirable collection of essays on _The Fermentation +of Cacao_, edited by H. Hamel Smith. Here the reader will find the +valuable contributions of Fickendey, Loew, Nicholls, Preyer, Schulte im +Hofe, and Sack. + +The obvious changes which occur in the breaking down of the fruity +exterior of the bean should be carefully distinguished from the subtle +changes in the bean itself. Let us consider them separately:-- + +(_a_) _Changes in the Pulp._--Just as grape-pulp ferments and changes to +wine, and just as weak wine if left exposed becomes sour; so the fruity +sugary pulp outside the cacao bean on exposure gives off bubbles of +carbon dioxide, becomes alcoholic, and later becomes acid. The acid +produced is generally the pleasant vinegar acid (acetic acid), but under +some circumstances it may be lactic acid, or the rancid-smelling butyric +acid. Kismet! The planter trusts to nature to provide the right kind of +fermentation. This fermentation is set up and carried on by the minute +organisms (yeasts, bacteria, etc.), which chance to fall on the beans +from the air or come from the sides of the receptacle. One yeast-cell +does not make a fermentation, and as no yeast is added a day is wasted +whilst any yeasts which happen to be present are multiplying to an army +large enough to produce a visible effect on the pulp. _Any_ organism +which happens to be on the pod, in the air, or on the inside of the +fermentary will multiply in the pulp, if the pulp contains suitable +nourishment. Each kind of organism produces its own characteristic +changes. It would thus appear a miracle if the same substances were +always produced. Yet, just as grape-juice left exposed to every +micro-organism of the air, generally changes in the direction of wine +more or less good, so the pulp of cacao tends, broadly speaking, to +ferment in one way. It would, however, be a serious error to assume that +exactly the same kind of fermentation takes place in any two +fermentaries in the world, and the maximum variation must be +considerable. As the pulp ferments, it is destroyed; it gradually +changes from white to brown, and a liquid ("sweatings") flows away from +it. The "_sweatings_" taste like sweet cider. At present this is allowed +to run away through holes in the bottom of the box, and no care is taken +to preserve what may yet become a valuable by-product. I found by +experiment that in the preparation of one cwt. of dry beans about 1-1/2 +gallons of this unstable liquid are produced. In other words, some seven +or eight million gallons of "sweatings" run to waste every year. In most +cases only small quantities are produced in one place at one time. This, +and the lack of knowledge of scientifically controlled fermentation, +and the difficulty of bottling, prevent the starting of an industry +producing either a new drink or a vinegar. The cacao juice or +"sweatings" contains about fifteen per cent. of solids, about half of +which consists of sugars. If the fermentation of the cacao were +centralised in the various districts, and conducted on a large scale +under a chemist's control, the sugars could be obtained, or an alcoholic +liquid or a vinegar could easily be prepared. + +[Illustration: CHARGING THE CACAO ON TO TRUCKS IN THE PLANTATION, SAN +THOME.] + +[Illustration: CACAO IN THE FERMENTING TRUCKS, SAN THOME. +The covering of banana leaves keeps the beans warm.] + +The planter decides when the beans are fermented by simply looking at +them; he judges their condition by the colour of the pulp. When they are +ready to be removed from the fermentary they are plump, and brown +without, and juicy within. + +(_b_) _Changes in the Interior of the Bean._--What is the relation +between the comparatively simple fermentation of the pulp and the +changes in the interior of the bean? This important question has not yet +been answered, although a number of attempts have been made. + +As far as is known, the living ferments (micro-organisms) do not +penetrate the skin of the bean, so that any fermentation which takes +place must be promoted by unorganised ferments (or enzymes). Mr. H.C. +Brill[2] found raffinase, invertase, casease and protease in the pulp; +oxidase, raffinase, casease and emulsinlike enzymes in the fresh bean; +and all these six, together with diastase, in the fermented bean. Dr. +Fickendey says: "The object of fermentation is, in the main, to kill the +germ of the bean in such a manner that the efficiency of the unorganised +ferment is in no way impaired." + + [2] _Philippine Journal of Science_, 1917. + +From my own observations I believe that forastero beans are killed at 47 +degrees C. (which is commonly reached when they have been fermenting 60 +hours), for a remarkable change takes place at this temperature and +time. Whilst the micro-organisms remain outside, the juice of the pulp +appears to penetrate not only the skin, but the flesh of the bean, and +the brilliant violet in the isolated pigment cells becomes diffused more +or less evenly throughout the entire bean, including the "germ." It is +certain that the bean absorbs liquid from the outside, for it becomes so +plump that its skin is stretched to the utmost. The following changes +occur: + + (1) _Taste._ An astringent colourless substance (a tannin or + a body possessing many properties of a tannin) changes to a + tasteless brown substance. The bean begins to taste less + astringent as the "tannin" is destroyed. With white (criollo) + beans this change is sufficiently advanced in two days, but + with purple (forastero) beans it may take seven days. + + (2) _Colour._ The change in the tannin results in the white + (criollo) beans becoming brown and the purple (forastero) + beans becoming tinged with brown. The action resembles the + browning of a freshly-cut apple, and has been shown to be due + to oxygen (activated by an oxidase, a ferment encouraging + combination with oxygen) acting on the astringent + colourless substance, which, like the photographic developer, + pyrogallic acid, becomes brown on oxidation. + + (3) _Aroma._ A notable change is that substances are created + within the bean, which _on roasting_ produce the fine + aromatic odour characteristic of cocoa and chocolate, and + which Messrs. Bainbridge and Davies have shown is due to a + trace (0.001 per cent.) of an essential oil over half of + which consists of linalool.[3] + + (4) _Stimulating Effect._ It is commonly stated that during + fermentation there is generated theobromine, the alkaloid + which gives cacao its stimulating properties, but the + estimation of theobromine in fermented and unfermented beans + does not support this. + + (5) _Consistency._ Fermented beans become crisp on drying. + This development may be due to the "tannins" encountering, in + their dispersion through the bean, proteins, which are thus + converted into bodies which are brittle solids on drying + (compare tanning of hides). The "hide" of the bean may be + similarly "tanned"--the shell certainly becomes leathery + (unless washed)--but a far more probable explanation, in both + cases, is that the gummy bodies in bean and shell set hard on + drying. + + [3] _Journal of the Chemical Society_, 1912. + +We see, then, that although fermentation was probably originally +followed as the best method of getting rid of the pulp, it has other +effects which are entirely good. It enables the planter to produce a +drier bean, and one which has, when roasted, a finer flavour, colour, +and aroma, than the unfermented. Fermentation is generally considered to +produce so many desirable results that M. Perrot's suggestion[4] of +removing the pulp by treatment with alkali, and thus avoiding +fermentation, has not been enthusiastically received. + + [4] _Comptes Rendus_, 1913. + +Beans which have been dried direct and those which have been fermented +may be distinguished as follows: + + +CACAO BEANS + + DRIED DIRECT. FERMENTED AND DRIED. + +_Shape of bean_ Flat Plumper +_Shell_ Soft and close fitting Crisp and more or + less free. +_Interior: colour_ Slate-blue or mud-brown Bright browns and + purples + " _consistence_ Leather to cheese Crisp + " _appearance_ Solid Open-grained + " _taste_ More or less bitter Less astringent + or astringent + +Whilst several effects of fermentation have not been satisfactorily +accounted for, I think all are agreed that to obtain one of the chief +effects of fermentation, namely the brown colour, oxidation is +necessary. All recognise that for this oxidation the presence of three +substances is essential: + + (1) The tannin to be oxidised. + + (2) Oxygen. + + (3) An enzyme which encourages the oxidation. + +All these occur in the cacao bean as it comes from the pod, but why +oxidation occurs so much better in a fermented bean than in a bean which +is simply dried is not very clear. If you cut an apple it goes brown +owing to the action of oxygen absorbed from the air, but as long as the +apple is uncut and unbruised it remains white. If you take a cacao bean +from the pod and cut it, the exposed surface goes brown, but if you +ferment the bean the whole of it gradually goes brown without being cut. +My observations lead me to believe that the bean does not become +oxidised until it is killed, that is, until it is no longer capable of +germination. It can be killed by raising the temperature, by +fermentation or otherwise, or as Dr. Fickendey has shown, by cooling to +almost freezing temperatures. It may be that killing the bean makes its +skin and cell walls more permeable to oxygen, but my theory is that when +the bean is killed disintegration or weakening of the cell walls, etc., +occurs, and, as a result, the enzyme and tannin, _hitherto separate_, +become mixed, and hence able actively to absorb oxygen. The action of +oxygen on the tannin also accounts for the loss of astringency on +fermentation, and it may be well to point out that fermentation +increases the internal surface of the bean exposed to air and oxygen. +The bean, during fermentation, actually sucks in liquid from the +surrounding pulp and becomes plumper and fuller. On drying, however, the +skin, which has been expanded to its utmost, wrinkles up as the interior +contracts and no longer fits tightly to the bean, and the cotyledons +having been thrust apart by the liquid, no longer hold together so +closely. This accounts for the open appearance of a fermented bean. As +on drying large interspaces are produced, these allow the air to +circulate more freely and expose a greater surface of the bean to the +action of oxygen. Since the liquids in all living matter presumably +contain some dissolved oxygen, the problem is to account for the fact +that the tannin in the unfermented bean remains unoxidised, whilst that +in the fermented bean is easily oxidised. The above affords a partial +explanation, and seems fairly satisfactory when taken with my previous +suggestion, namely, that during fermentation the bean is rendered +pervious to water, which, on distributing itself throughout the bean, +dissolves the isolated masses of tannin and diffuses it evenly, so that +it encounters and becomes mixed with the enzymes. From this it will be +evident that the major part of the oxidation of the tannin occurs during +drying, and hence the importance of this, both from the point of view of +the keeping properties of the cacao, and its colour, taste and aroma. + +It will be realised from the above that there is still a vast amount of +work to be done before the chemist will be in a position to obtain the +more desirable aromas and flavours. Having found the necessary +conditions, scientifically trained overseers will be required to produce +them, and for this they will need to have under their direction +arrangements for fermentation designed on correct principles and +allowing some degree of control. Whilst improvements are always possible +in the approach to perfection, it must be admitted that, considering the +means at their disposal, the planters produce a remarkably fine product. + +[Illustration: FOR DRYING SMALL QUANTITIES. +A simple tray-barrow, which can be run under the house when rain comes +on.] + + + +_Loss on Fermenting and Drying._ + +The fermented cacao is conveyed from the fermentary to the drying trays +or floors. The planter often has some rough check-weighing system. Thus, +for example, he notes the number of standard baskets of wet cacao put +into the fermentary, and he measures the fermented cacao produced with +the help of a bottomless barrel. By this means he finds that on +fermentation the beans lose weight by the draining away of the +"sweatings," according to the amount and juiciness of the pulp round +them. The beans are still very wet, and on drying lose a high percentage +of their moisture by evaporation before the cacao bean of commerce is +obtained. + +The average losses may be tabulated thus: + +Weight of wet cacao from pod 100 +Loss on fermentation 20 to 25 +Loss on drying 40 + -------- +Cacao beans of commerce obtained 35 to 40 + +[Illustration: SPREADING THE CACAO BEANS ON MATS TO DRY IN THE SUN, +CEYLON.] + +The drying of cacao is an art. On the one hand it is necessary to get +the beans quite dry (that is, in a condition in which they hold only +their normal amount of water--5 to 7 per cent.) or they will be liable +to go mouldy. On the other hand, the husk or shell of the bean must not +be allowed to become burned or brittle. Brittle shells produce waste in +packing and handling, and broken shells allow grubs and mould to enter +the beans when the cacao is stored. The method of drying varies in +different countries according to the climate. Jose says: "In the wet +season when 'Father Sol' chooses to lie low behind the clouds for days +and your cocoa house is full, your curing house full, your trees +loaded, then is the time to put on his mettle the energetic and +practical planter. In such tight corners, _amigo_, I have known a friend +to set a fire under his cocoa house to keep the cocoa on the top +somewhat warm. Another friend's plan (and he recommended it) was to +address his patron saint on such occasions. He never addressed that +saint at other times." + +[Illustration: DRYING TRAYS, GRENADA. +The trays slide on rails. The corrugated iron roofs will slide over the +whole to protect from rain.] + +In most producing areas sun-drying is preferred, but in countries where +much rain falls, artificial dryers are slowly but surely coming into +vogue. These vary in pattern from simple heated rooms, with shelves, to +vacuum stoves and revolving drums. The sellers of these machines will +agree with me when I say that every progressive planter ought to have +one of these artificial aids to use during those depressing periods when +the rain continually streams from the sky. On fine days it is difficult +to prevent mildew appearing on the cacao, but at such times it is +impossible. However, whenever available, the sun's heat is preferable, +for it encourages a slow and even drying, which lasts over a period of +about three days. As Dr. Paul Preuss says: "II faut eviter une +dessiccation trop rapide. Le cacao ne peut etre seche en moins de trois +jours."[5] Further, most observers agree with Dr. Sack that the valuable +changes, which occur during fermentation, continue during drying, +especially those in which oxygen assists. The full advantage of these is +lost if the temperature used is high enough to kill the enzymes, or if +the drying is too rapid, both of which may occur with artificial drying. + + [5] Dr. Paul Preuss, _Le cacao. Culture et Preparation_. + +Sun-drying is done on cement or brick floors, on coir mats or trays, or +on wooden platforms. In order to dry the cacao uniformly it is raked +over and over in the sun. It must be tenderly treated, carefully +"watched and caressed," until the interior becomes quite crisp and in +colour a beautiful brown. + +Sometimes the platforms are built on the top of the fermentaries, the +cacao being conveyed through a hole in the roof of the fermentary to the +drying platform. + +[Illustration: "HAMEL-SMITH" ROTARY DRYER. +(Made by Messrs. David Bridge and Co., Manchester). + +The receiving cylinders, six in number, are filled approximately +three-quarters full with the cacao to be dried. These are then placed in +position on the revolving framework, which is enclosed in the casing and +slowly revolved. The cylinders are fitted with baffle plates, which +gently turn over the cacao beans at each revolution so that even drying +throughout is the result. The casing is heated to the requisite +temperature by means of a special stove, the arrangement of which is +such as to allow the air drawn from the outside to circulate around the +stove and to pass into the interior of the casing containing the drying +cylinders. The fumes from the fuel do not in any way come in contact +with the material during drying.] + +[Illustration: DRYING PLATFORMS, TRINIDAD, WITH SLIDING ROOFS.] + +In Trinidad the platform always has a sliding roof, which can be pulled +over the cacao in the blaze of noon or when a rainstorm comes on. In +other places, sliding platforms are used which can be pushed under cover +in wet weather. + + + +_The Washing of Cacao._ + +In Java, Ceylon and Madagascar before the cacao is dried, it is first +washed to remove all traces of pulp. This removal of pulp enables the +beans to be more rapidly dried, and is considered almost a necessity in +Ceylon, where sun-drying is difficult. The practice appears at first +sight wholly good and sanitary, but although beans so treated have a +very clean and bright appearance, looking not unlike almonds, the +practice cannot be recommended. There is a loss of from 2 to 10 per +cent. in weight, which is a disadvantage to the planter, whilst from the +manufacturer's point of view, washing is objectionable because, +according to Dr. Paul Preuss, the aroma suffers. Whilst this may be +questioned, there is no doubt that washing renders the shells more +brittle and friable, and less able to bear carriage and handling; and +when the shell is broken, the cacao is more liable to attack by grubs +and mould. Therein lies the chief danger of washing. + +[Illustration: CACAO DRYING PLATFORMS, SAN THOME. Three tiers of trays +on rails. +(Reproduced by permission from the Imperial Institute series of +Handbooks to the Commercial Resources of the Tropics).] + +[Illustration: WASHING THE BEANS IN A VAT TO CLEAN OFF THE PULP, +CEYLON.] + + + +_Claying, Colouring, and Polishing Cacao._ + +[Illustration: CLAYING CACAO BEANS IN TRINIDAD.] + +Just as in Java and Ceylon, to assist drying, they wash off the pulp, so +in Venezuela and often in Trinidad, with the same object, they put earth +or clay on the beans. In Venezuela it is a heavy, rough coat, and in +Trinidad a film so thin that usually it is not visible. In Venezuela, +where fermentation is often only allowed to proceed for one day, the use +of fine red earth may possibly be of value. It certainly gives the beans +a very pretty appearance; they look as though they have been moistened +and rolled in cocoa powder. But in Trinidad, where the fermentation is a +lengthy one, the use of clay, though hallowed by custom, is quite +unnecessary. In the report of the Commission of Enquiry (Trinidad, 1915) +we read concerning claying that "It is said to prevent the bean from +becoming mouldy in wet weather, to improve its marketable value by +giving it a bright and uniform appearance, and to help to preserve its +aroma." In the appendix to this report the following recommendation +occurs: "The claying of cacao ought to be avoided as much as possible, +and when necessary only sufficient to give a uniform colour ought to be +used." In my opinion manufacturers would do well to discourage entirely +the claying of cacao either in Trinidad or Venezuela, for from their +point of view it has nothing to recommend it. One per cent. of clay is +sufficient to give a uniform colour, but occasionally considerably more +than this is used. If we are to believe reports, deliberate adulteration +is sometimes practised. Thus in _How Jose formed his Cocoa Estate_ we +read: "A cocoa dealer of our day to give a uniform colour to the +miscellaneous brands he has purchased from Pedro, Dick, or Sammy will +wash the beans in a heap, with a mixture of starch, sour oranges, gum +arabic and red ochre. This mixture is always boiled. I can recommend the +'Chinos' in this dodge, who are all adepts in all sorts of +'adulteration' schemes. They even add some grease to this mixture so as +to give the beans that brilliant gloss which you see sometimes." In +Trinidad the usual way of obtaining a gloss is by the curious operation +known as "dancing," which is performed on the moistened beans after the +clay has been sprinkled on them. It is a quaint sight to see a circle of +seven or eight coloured folk slowly treading a heap of beans. The +dancing may proceed for any period up to an hour, and as they tread they +sing some weird native chant. Somewhat impressed, I remarked to the +planter that it had all the appearance of an incantation. He replied +that the process cost 2d. per cwt. Dancing makes the beans look smooth, +shiny, and even, and it separates any beans that may be stuck together +in clusters. It may make the beans rounder, and it is said to improve +their keeping properties, but this remains to be proved. On the whole, +if it is considered desirable to produce a glossy appearance, it is +better to use a polishing machine. + + + +_The Weight of the Cured Cacao Bean._ + +[Illustration: SORTING CACAO BEANS IN JAVA. +(Reproduced from van Hall's _Cocoa_, by permission of Messrs. Macmillan +& Co.).] + +Planters and others may be interested to know the comparative sizes of +the beans from the various producing areas of the world. Some idea of +these can be gained by considering the relative weights of the beans +as purchased in England. + + Average weight Number of Beans + Kind. of one Bean. to the lb. + +Grenada 1.0 grammes 450 +Para 1.0 " 450 +Bahia 1.1 " 410 +Accra 1.2 " 380 +Trinidad 1.2 " 380 +Cameroons 1.2 " 380 +Ceylon 1.2 " 380 +Caracas 1.3 " 350 +Machala 1.4 " 330 +Arriba 1.5 " 300 +Carupano 1.6 " 280 + + + +_The Yield of the Cacao Tree._ + +The average yield of cacao has in the past generally been over-stated. +Whether this is because the planter is an optimist or because he wishes +others to think his efforts are crowned with exceptional success, or +because he takes a simple pride in his district, is hard to tell. +Probably the tendency has been to take the finer estates and put their +results down as the average. + +Of the thousands of flowers that bloom on one tree during the year, on +an average only about twenty develop into mature pods, and each pod +yields about 1-1/3 ounces of dry cured cacao. Taking the healthy trees +with the neglected, the average yield is from 1-1/2 to 2 pounds of +commercial cacao per tree. This seems very small, and those who hear it +for the first time often make a rapid mental calculation of the amazing +number of trees that must be needed to produce the world's supply, at +least 250 million trees. Or again, taking the average yield per acre as +400 lbs., we find that there must be well over a million acres under +cacao cultivation. At the Government station at Aburi (Gold Coast) three +plots of cacao gave in 1914 an average yield of over 8 pounds of cacao +per tree, and in 1918 some 468 trees (_Amelonado_) gave as an average +7.8 pounds per tree. This suggests what might be done by thorough +cultivation. It suggests a great opportunity for the planters--that, +without planting one more tree, they might quadruple the world's +production. + +The work which has been started by the Agricultural Department in +Trinidad of recording the yield of individual trees has shown that great +differences occur. Further, it has generally been observed that the +heavy bearing trees of the first year have continued to be heavy +bearers, and the poor-yielding trees have remained poor during +subsequent years. The report rightly concludes that: "The question of +detecting the poor-bearing trees on an estate and having them replaced +by trees raised from selected stock, or budded or grafted trees, of +known prolific and other good qualities is deserving of the most serious +consideration by planters." + + + +_The Kind of Cacao that Manufacturers Like._[6] + + [6] For further information read _The Qualities in Cacao + Desired by Manufacturers_, by N.P. Booth and A.W. + Knapp, International Congress of Tropical Agriculture, + 1914. + +Planters have suggested to me that if the users and producers of cacao +could be brought together it would be to their mutual advantage. Permit +me to conceive a meeting and report an imaginary conversation: + + PLANTER: You know we planters work a little in the dark. We + don't know quite what to strive after. Tell me exactly what + kind of cacao the manufacturers want? + + MANUFACTURER: Every buyer and manufacturer has his tastes and + preferences and----. + + PLANTER: Don't hedge! + + MANUFACTURER: The cacao of each producing area has its + special characters, even as the wine from a country, and part + of the good manufacturer's art is the art of blending. + + PLANTER: What--good with bad? + + MANUFACTURER: No! Good of one type with good of another type. + + PLANTER: What do you mean exactly by good? + + MANUFACTURER: By good I mean large, ripe, well-cured beans. + By indifferent I mean unripe and unfermented. By abominable I + mean germinated, mouldy, and grubby beans. Happily, the last + class is quite a small one. + + PLANTER: You don't mean to tell me that only the good cacao + sells? + + MANUFACTURER: Unfortunately, no! There are users of inferior + beans. Practically all the cacao produced--good and + indifferent--is bought by someone. Most manufacturers prefer + the fine, healthy, well fermented kinds. + + PLANTER: Well fermented! They have a strange way of showing + their preference. Why, they often pay more for Guayaquil than + they do for Grenada cacao. Yet Guayaquil is never properly + fermented, whilst that from the Grenada estates is perfectly + fermented. + + MANUFACTURER: Agreed. Just as you would pay more for a + badly-trained thoroughbred than for a well-trained mongrel. + It's breed they pay for. The Guayaquil breed is peculiar; + there is nothing else like it in the world. You might think + the tree had been grafted on to a spice tree. It has a fine + characteristic aroma, which is so powerful that it masks the + presence of a high percentage of unfermented beans. However, + if Guayaquil cacao was well-fermented it would (subject to + the iron laws of Supply and Demand) fetch a still higher + price, and there would not be the loss there is in a wet + season when the Guayaquil cacao, being unfermented, goes + mouldy. I think in Grenada they plant for high yield, and not + for quality, for the bean is small and approaches the + inferior Calabacillo breed. Its value is maintained by an + amazing evenness and an uniform excellence in curing. The way + in which it is prepared for the market does great credit to + the planters. + + PLANTER: They don't clay there, do they? + + MANUFACTURER: No! and yet it is practically impossible to + find a mouldy bean in Grenada estates cacao. Evidently + claying is not a necessity--in Grenada. + + PLANTER: Ha! ha! By that I suppose you insinuate that it is + not a necessity in Trinidad, where the curing is also + excellent. Or in Venezuela? What's the buyer's objection to + claying? + + MANUFACTURER: Simply that claying is camouflage. Actually the + buyer doesn't mind so long as the clay is not too generously + used. He objects to paying for beans and getting clay. + However, it's really too bad to colour up with clay the black + cacao from diseased pods; it might deceive even experienced + brokers. + + PLANTER: Ha! ha! Then it's a very sinful practice. I don't + think that ever gets beyond the local tropical market. I know + the merchants judge largely by "the skin," but I thought the + London broker----. + + MANUFACTURER: You see it's like this. Just as you associate a + certain label with a particularly good brand of cigar so the + planter's mark on the bag and the external appearance of the + beans influence the broker by long association. But just as + you cannot truly judge a cigar by the picture on the box, so + the broker has to consider what is under the shell of the + bean. One or two manufacturers go further, but don't trust + merely to "tasting with their eyes"--they only come to a + conclusion when they have roasted a sample. + + PLANTER: But a buyer can get a shrewd idea without roasting, + surely? You agree. Well, what exactly does he look for? + + MANUFACTURER: Depends what nationality the bean is--I mean + whether it was grown in Venezuela, Brazil, Trinidad, or the + Gold Coast. In general he likes beans with a good "break," + that is beans which, under the firm pressure of thumb and + forefinger, break into small crisp nibs. Closeness or + cheesiness are danger signals, warnings of lack of + fermentation,--so is a slate-coloured interior. He prefers a + pale, even-coloured interior,--cinnamon, chocolate, or + cafe-au-lait colour and----. + + PLANTER: One moment! I've heard before of planters being told + to ferment and cure until the bean is cinnamon colour. Why, + man, you couldn't get a pale brown interior with beans of the + Forastero or Calabacillo type if you fermented them to + rottenness. + + MANUFACTURER: True! Well, if the breed on your plantation is + purple Forastero, and more than half of the cacao in the + world is, you must develop as much brown in the beans as + possible. They should have the characteristic refreshing + odour of raw cacao, together with a faint vinegary odour. The + buyers much dislike any foreign smell, any mouldy, hammy, or + cheesy odour. + + PLANTER: And where do the foreign odours come from? + + MANUFACTURER: That's debatable. Some come from bad + fermentations, due to dirty fermentaries, abnormal + temperatures, or unripe cacao.[7] Some come from smoky or + imperfect artificial drying. Some come from mould. + Unfermented cacao is liable to go mouldy, so is germinated or + over-ripe cacao with broken shells. Some cacao unfortunately + gets wet with sea water. There always seems to me something + pathetic in the thought of finely-cured cacao being drowned + in sea water as it goes out in open boats to the steamer. + + PLANTER: You see, we haven't piers and jetties everywhere, + and often it's a long journey to them. Well, you've told me + the buyers note break, colour and aroma. Anything else? + + MANUFACTURER: They like large beans, partly because largeness + suggests fineness, and partly because with large beans the + percentage of shell is less. Small flat beans are very + wasteful and unsatisfactory; they are nearly all shell and + very difficult to separate from the shell. + + PLANTER: When there's a drought we can't help ourselves; we + produce quantities of small flat beans. + + MANUFACTURER: It must be trying to be at the mercy of the + weather. However, the weather doesn't prevent the dirt being + picked out of the beans. Buyers don't like more than half a + per cent. of rubbish; I mean stones, dried twig-like pieces + of pulp, dust, etc., left in the cacao, neither do they like + to see "cobs," that is, two or more beans stuck together, + nor----. + + PLANTER: How about gloss? + + MANUFACTURER: The beauty of a polished bean attracts, + although they know the beauty is less than skin deep. + + PLANTER: And washing? + + MANUFACTURER: In my opinion washing is bad, leaves the shell + too fragile. I believe in Hamburg they used to pay more for + washed beans; although very little, I suppose less than five + per cent., of the world's cacao is washed, but in London many + buyers prefer "the great unwashed." However, brokers are + conservative, and would probably look on unwashed Ceylon with + suspicion. + + PLANTER: Well, I have been very interested in everything that + you have said, and I think every planter should strive to + produce the very best he can, but he does not get much + encouragement. + + MANUFACTURER: How is that? + + PLANTER: There is insufficient difference between the price + of the best and the common. + + MANUFACTURER: Unfortunately that is beyond any individual + manufacturer's control. The price is controlled by the + European and New York markets. I am afraid that as long as + there is so large a demand by the public for cheap cocoas so + long will there be keen competition amongst buyers for the + commoner kinds of beans. + + PLANTER: The manufacturer should keep some of his own men on + the spot to do his buying. They would discriminate carefully, + and the differences in price offered would soon educate the + planters! + + MANUFACTURER: True, but as each manufacturer requires cacao + from many countries and districts, this would be a very + costly enterprise. Several manufacturers have had their own + buyers in certain places in the Tropics for some years, and + it is generally agreed that this has acted as an incentive to + the growers to improve the quality.[8] But in the main we + have to look to the various Government Agricultural + Departments to instruct and encourage the planters in the use + of the best methods. + + [7] Cameroon cacao sometimes has an objectionable odour and + flavour, which may be due to its being fermented in an + unripe condition, for, as Dr. Fickendey says: "Cameroon + cacao has to be harvested unripe to save the pods from + brown rot." + + [8] The Director of Agriculture, in a paper on _The Gold + Coast Cocoa Industry_, says: "We are indebted to Messrs. + Cadbury Bros., of Bournville, for a lead in this + direction. They have several agents in the colony who + purchase on their behalf only the best qualities at an + enhanced price, and reject all that falls below the + standard of their requirements." + +[Illustration: THE WORLD'S CACAO PRODUCTION. +(Mean of 5 years, 1914-1918. Average world production 295,600 tons per +annum.) Diagram showing relative amounts produced by various countries. +The shaded parts show production of British Possessions.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE + + When the English Commander, Thomas Candish, coming into the + Haven Guatulco, burnt two hundred thousand tun of cacao, it + proved no small loss to all New Spain, the provinces + Guatimala and Nicaragua not producing so much in a whole + year. + + John Ogilvy's _America_, 1671. + + +When one starts to discuss, however briefly, the producing areas, one +ought first to take off one's hat to Ecuador, for so long the principal +producer, and then to Venezuela the land of the original cacao, and +producer of the finest criollo type. Having done this, one ought to say +words of praise to Trinidad, Grenada and Ceylon for their scientific +methods of culture and preparation; and, last but not least, the newest +and greatest producer, the Gold Coast, should receive honourable +mention. It is interesting to note that in 1918 British Possessions +produced nearly half (44 per cent.) of the world's supply. + +Whilst the war has not very materially hindered the increase of cacao +production in the tropics, the shortage of shipping has prevented the +amount exported from maintaining a steady rise. The table below, taken +mainly from the "Gordian," illustrates this: + +WORLD PRODUCTION OF CACAO. +Total in tons (1 ton = 1000 kilogrammes) + +1908 194,000 1914 277,000 +1909 206,000 1915 298,000 +1910 220,000 1916 297,000 +1911 241,000 1917 343,000 +1912 234,000 1918 273,000 +1913 258,000 1919 431,000 + +The following table is compiled chiefly from Messrs. Theo. Vasmer & +Co.'s reports in the _Confectioners' Union_. + +CACAO PRODUCTION OF THE CHIEF PRODUCING AREAS OF THE WORLD. +(1 ton = 1000 kilogrammes). + +Country. 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 + Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. +Gold Coast[1] 53,000 77,300 72,200 91,000 66,300 +Brazil 40,800 45,000 43,700 55,600 41,900 +Ecuador 47,200 37,000 42,700 47,200 38,000 +San Thome 31,400 29,900 33,200 31,900 26,600 +Trinidad[1] 28,400 24,100 24,000 31,800 26,200 +San Domingo 20,700 20,200 21,000 23,700 18,800 +Venezuela 16,900 18,300 15,200 13,100 13,000 +Lagos[1] 4,900 9,100 9,000 15,400 10,200 +Grenada[1] 6,100 6,500 5,500 5,500 6,700 +Fernando Po 3,100 3,900 3,800 3,700 4,200 +Ceylon[1] 2,900 3,900 3,500 3,700 4,000 +Jamaica[1] 3,800 3,600 3,400 2,800 3,000 +Surinam 1,900 1,700 2,000 1,900 2,500 +Cameroons 1,200 2,400 3,000 2,800 1,300 +Haiti 2,100 1,800 1,900 1,500 2,300 +French Cols. 1,800 1,900 1,600 2,200 1,700 +Cuba 1,800 1,700 1,500 1,500 1,000 +Java 1,600 1,500 1,500 1,600 800 +Samoa 1,100 900 900 1,200 800 +Togo 200 300 400 1,600 1,000 +St. Lucia[1] 700 800 700 600 500 +Belgian Congo 500 600 800 800 900 +Dominica[1] 450 550 300 300 300 +St. Vincent[1] 100 100 75 50 75 +Other countries 3,200 3,000 3,500 3,500 3,500 + ------------------------------------------- +Total 275,900 296,100 295,400 344,000 275,600 + ------------------------------------------- +Total British +Empire 102,000 128,000 120,000 153,000 119,000 + + [1] British Possessions. + +[Illustration: MAP OF THE WORLD, WITH ONLY CACAO-PRODUCING AREAS +MARKED.] + + + +_SOUTH AMERICAN CACAO._ + +In the map of South America given on p. 89 the principal cacao producing +areas are marked. Their production in 1918 was as follows: + +CACAO BEANS EXPORTED. + + Percentage of +Country. Metric Tons.[2] World's production. + +Brazil 41,865 15.4 +Ecuador 38,000 14.0 + (Guayaquil alone 34,973 tons) +Venezuela 13,000 5.0 +Surinam 2,468 0.9 +British Guiana 20 0.01 + ------------------------------------------ +South American Total 95,353 tons 35.31 per cent. + ------------------------------------------ + + [2] These figures, and others quoted later in this chapter, + are estimates given by Messrs. Theo. Vasmer & Co. in + their reports. + + +ECUADOR. + +_Arriba and Machala Cacaos._--In Ecuador, for many years the chief +producing area of the world, dwell the cacao kings, men who possess very +large and wild cacao forests, each containing several million cacao +trees. The method of culture is primitive, and no artificial manures are +used, yet for several generations the trees have given good crops and +the soil remains as fertile as ever. The two principal cacaos are known +as _Arriba_ and _Machala_, or classed together as Guayaquil after the +city of that name. Guayaquil, the commercial metropolis of the Republic +of Ecuador, is an ancient and picturesque city built almost astride the +Equator. Despite the unscientific cultural methods, and the imperfect +fermentation, which results in the cacao containing a high percentage of +unfermented beans and not infrequently mouldy beans also, this cacao is +much appreciated in Europe and America, for the beans are large and +possess a fine strong flavour and characteristic scented aroma. The +amount of Guayaquil cacao exported in 1919 was 33,209 tons. + +[Illustration: RAKING CACAO BEANS ON THE DRIERS.] + +[Illustration: GATHERING CACAO PODS IN ECUADOR. +(La Clementina Plantation, Ecuador.)] + +[Illustration: SORTING CACAO FOR SHIPMENT, GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR.] + +An interesting experiment was made in 1912, when a protective +association known as the _Asociacion de Agricultores del Ecuador_ was +legalised. This collects half a golden dollar on every hundred pounds of +cacao, and by purchasing and storing cacao on its own account whenever +prices fall below a reasonable minimum, attempts in the planter's +interest to regulate the selling price of cacao. Unfortunately, as cacao +tends to go mouldy when stored in a damp tropical climate, the +_Asociacion_ is not an unmixed blessing to the manufacturer and +consumer. + + +BRAZIL. + +_Para and Bahia Cacaos._--Brazil has made marked progress in recent +years, and has now overtaken Ecuador in quantity of produce; the cacao, +however, is quite different from, and not as fine as, that from +Guayaquil. The principal cacao comes from the State of Bahia, where the +climate is ideal for its cultivation. Indeed so perfect are the natural +conditions that formerly no care was taken in cacao production, and much +of that gathered was wild and uncured. During the last decade there has +been an improvement, and this would, doubtless, be more noteworthy if +the means of transport were better, for at present the roads are bad and +the railways inadequate; hence most of the cacao is brought down to the +city of Bahia in canoes. Nevertheless, Bahia cacao is better fermented +than the peculiar cacao of Para, another important cacao from Brazil, +which is appreciated by manufacturers on account of its mild flavour. +Bahia exported in 1919 about 51,000 tons of cacao. + + +VENEZUELA. + +_Caracas, Carupano and Maracaibo Cacaos._--Venezuela has been called +"the classic home of cacao," and had not the chief occupation of its +inhabitants been revolution, it would have retained till now the +important position it held a hundred years ago. It is in this enchanted +country (it was at La Guayra in Caracas, as readers of _Westward Ho!_ +will remember, that Amyas found his long-sought Rose) that the finest +cacao in the world is produced: the criollo, the bean with the +golden-brown break. The tree which produces this is as delicate as the +cacao is fine, and there is some danger that this superb cacao may die +out--a tragedy which every connoisseur would wish to avert. + +The _Gordian_ estimates that Venezuela sent out from her three principal +ports in 1919 some 16,226 tons of cacao. + + + +_THE WEST INDIES._ + +In the map of South America the principal West Indian islands producing +cacao are marked. Their production in 1918 was as follows: + + CACAO BEANS EXPORTED. Percentage of + Metric Tons. World's production. +Trinidad (British) 26,177 9.7 +San Domingo 18,839 7.0 +Grenada (British) 6,704 2.5 +Jamaica (British) 3,000 1.1 +Haiti 2,272 0.8 +St. Lucia (British) 500 0.2 +Dominica (British) 300 0.1 +St. Vincent (British) 70 0.02 + ----------- --------------- +West Indies Total 57,862 tons 21.42 per cent. + ----------- --------------- +Br. West Indies 36,751 tons 13.6 per cent. + + +TRINIDAD AND GRENADA.[3] + + [3] Cacao production in 1919: Trinidad 27,185 tons; Grenada + 4,020 tons. + +Cacao was grown in the West Indies in the seventeenth century, and the +inhabitants, after the destructive "blast," which utterly destroyed the +plantations in 1727, bravely replanted cacao, which has flourished there +ever since. The cacaos of Trinidad and Grenada have long been known for +their excellence, and it is mainly from Trinidad that the knowledge of +methods of scientific cultivation and preparation has been spread to +planters all round the equator. The cacao from Trinidad (famous alike +for its cacao and its pitch lake) has always held a high place in the +markets of the world, although a year or two ago the inclusion of +inferior cacao and the practice of claying was abused by a few growers +and merchants. With the object of stopping these abuses and of producing +a uniform cacao, there was formed a Cacao Planters' Association, whose +business it is to grade and bulk, and sell on a co-operative basis, the +cacao produced by its members. This experiment has proved successful, +and in 1918 the Association handled the cacao from over 100 estates. +We may expect to see more of these cacao planters' associations formed +in various parts of the world, for they are in line with the trend of +the times towards large, and ever larger, unions and combinations. +Trinidad is also progressive in its system of agricultural education and +in its formation of agricultural credit societies. The neighbouring +island of Grenada is mountainous, smaller than the Isle of Wight and (if +the Irish will forgive me) greener than Erin's Isle. The methods of +cacao cultivation in vogue there might seem natural to the British +farmer, but they are considered remarkable by cacao planters, for in +Grenada the soil on which the trees grow is forked or tilled. Possibly +from this follows the equally remarkable corollary that the cacao trees +flourish without a single shade tree. The preparation of the bean +receives as much care as the cultivation of the tree, and the cacao +which comes from the estates has an unvaried constancy of quality, not +infrequently giving 100 per cent. of perfectly prepared beans. It is +largely due to this that the cacao from this small island occupies such +an important position on the London market. + +[Illustration: MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES. +Only cacao-producing areas are marked.] + +[Illustration: WORKERS ON A CACAO PLANTATION. +(Messrs. Cadbury's estate in Trinidad.)] + +The cacao from San Domingo is known commercially as _Samana_ or +_Sanchez_. A fair proportion is of inferior quality, and is little +appreciated on the European markets. The bulk of it goes to America. The +production in 1919 was about 23,000 tons. + + + +_AFRICAN CACAO._ + +In the map of Africa the principal producing areas are marked. Their +production in 1918 was as follows: + + CACAO BEANS EXPORTED. + Metric Tons. Percentage of + World's production. +Gold Coast (British) 66,343 24.5 +San Thome 19,185 7.1 +Lagos (British) 10,223 3.8 +Fernando Po 4,220 1.6 +Cameroons 1,250 0.4 +Togo 1,000 0.4 +Belgian Congo 875 0.3 + ------------ -------------- +African Total 103,096 tons 38.1 per cent. + ------------ -------------- +British Africa 76,566 tons 28.3 per cent. + + + +THE GOLD COAST (_Industria floremus_). + + +_Accra Cacao._ + +The name recalls stories of a romantic and awful past, in which gold and +the slave trade played their terrible part. Happily these are things of +the past; so is the "deadly climate." We are told that it is now no +worse than that of other tropical countries. According to Sir Hugh +Clifford, until recently Governor of the Gold Coast, the "West African +Climatic Bogie" is a myth, and the "monumental reputation for +unhealthiness" undeserved. When De Candolle wrote concerning cacao, "I +imagine it would succeed on the Guinea Coast,"[4] as the West African +coast is sometimes called, he achieved prophecy, but he little dreamed +how wonderful this success would be. The rise and growth of the +cacao-growing industry in the Gold Coast is one of the most +extraordinary developments of the last few decades. In thirty years it +has increased its export of cacao from nothing to 40 per cent. of the +total of the world's production. + + [4] De Candolle, _Origin of Cultivated Plants_, quoted by R. + Whymper. + +[Illustration: MAP OF AFRICA--WITH ONLY CACAO-PRODUCING AREAS MARKED.] + +[Illustration: FORESHORE AT ACCRA, WITH STACKS OF CACAO READY FOR +SHIPMENT. +Reproduced by permission of the Editor of "West Africa".] + +PRODUCTION OF CACAO ON THE GOLD COAST. + +Year. Quantity. Value. L +1891 0 tons (80 lbs.) 4 +1896 34 tons 2,276 +1901 980 tons 42,837 +1906 8,975 tons 336,269 +1911 30,798 tons 1,613,468 +1916 72,161 tons 3,847,720 + +1917 90,964 tons 3,146,851 +1918 66,343 tons 1,796,985 +1919 177,000 tons 8,000,000 + +The conditions of production in the Gold Coast present a number of +features entirely novel. We hear from time to time of concessions being +granted in tropical regions to this or that company of enterprising +European capitalists, who employ a few Europeans and send them to the +area to manage the industry. The inhabitants of the area become the +manual wage earners of the company, and too often in the lust for +profits, or as an offering to the god of commercial efficiency, the once +easy and free life of the native is lost for ever and a form of +wage-slavery takes its place with doubtful effects on the life and +health of the workers. In defence it is pointed out that yet another +portion of the earth has been made productive, which, without the +initiative of the European capitalist, must have lain fallow. But in +the Gold Coast the "indolent" native has created a new industry entirely +native owned, and in thirty years the Gold Coast has outstripped all the +areas of the world in quantity of produce. Forty years ago the natives +had never seen a cacao tree, now at least fifty million trees flourish +in the colony. This could not have happened without the strenuous +efforts of the Department of Agriculture. The Gold Coast now stands head +and shoulders above any other producing area for quantity. The problem +of the future lies in the improvement of quality, and difficult though +this problem be, we cannot doubt, given a fair chance, that the +far-sighted and energetic Agricultural Department will solve it. Indeed, +it must in justice be pointed out that already a very marked improvement +has been made, and now fifty to one hundred times as much good fermented +cacao is produced as there was ten years ago.[5] However, if a high +standard is to be maintained, the work of the Department of Agriculture +must be supplemented by the willingness of the cacao buyers to pay a +higher price for the better qualities. + + [5] "Towards this latter result Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd., + rendered great assistance. This firm sent representatives + into the country, who proved to the natives that they + were willing to pay an enhanced price for cocoa prepared + in a manner suitable for their requirements. A fair + amount of cocoa was purchased by them, and demonstrations + were made in some places with regard to the proper mode + of fermentation." + (The Agricultural and Forest Products of British West + Africa. _Imperial Institute Handbook_, by G.C. Dudgeon). + +[Illustration: CARRIERS CONVEYING BAGS OF CACAO TO SURF BOATS, ACCRA. +Reproduced by permission of the Editor of "West Africa."] + +The phenomenal growth of this industry is the more remarkable when we +consider the lack of roads and beasts of burden. The usual pack animals, +horses and oxen, cannot live on the Gold Coast because of the tsetse +fly, which spreads amongst them the sleeping sickness. And so the +native, used as he is to heavy head-loads, naturally adopted this as his +first method of transport, and hundreds of the less affluent natives +arrive at the collecting centres with great weights of cacao on their +heads. "Women and children, light-hearted, chattering and cheerful, bear +their 60 lbs. head-loads with infinite patience. Heavier loads, +approaching sometimes two hundredweight, are borne by grave, silent +Hausa-men, often a distance of thirty or forty miles." + +[Illustration: CROSSING THE RIVER AT NSAWAM, GOLD COAST.] + +[Illustration: DRYING CACAO BEANS AT MRAMRA. +Reproduced by permission from the Imperial Institute series of Handbooks +to the Commercial Resources of the Tropics.] + +One day, not so many years ago, some more ingenious native in the hills +at the back of the Coast, filled an old palm-oil barrel with cacao and +rolled it down the ways to Accra. And now to-day it is a familiar sight +to see a man trundling a huge barrel of cacao, weighing half a ton, down +to the coast. The sound of a motor horn is heard, and he wildly turns +the barrel aside to avoid a disastrous collision with the new, weird +transport animal from Europe. Motor lorries have been used with great +effect on the coast for some seven years; they have the advantage over +pack animals that they do not succumb to the bite of the dreaded tsetse +fly, but nevertheless not a few derelicts lie, or stand on their heads, +in the ditches, the victims of over-work or accident. + +[Illustration: SHOOTING CACAO FROM THE ROAD TO THE BEACH, ACCRA.] + +Having brought the cacao to the coast, there yet remains the +lighterage to the ocean liner, which lies anchored some two miles from +the shore, rising and falling to the great rollers from the broad +Atlantic. A long boat is used, manned by some twenty swarthy natives, +who glory--vocally--in their passage through the dangerous surf which +roars along the sloping beach. The cacao is piled high on wood racks and +covered with tarpaulins and seldom shares the fate of passengers and +crew, who are often drenched in the surf before they swing by a crane in +the primitive mammy chair, high but not dry, on board the hospitable +Elder Dempster liner. + +[Illustration: ROLLING CACAO, GOLD COAST.] + + +SAN THOME (AND PRINCIPE). + +We now turn from the Gold Coast and the success of native ownership to +another part of West Africa, a scene of singular beauty, where the +Portuguese planters have triumphed over savage nature. + +Two lovely islands, San Thome and its little sister isle of Principe, +lie right on the Equator in the Gulf of Guinea, about two hundred miles +from the African mainland. A warm, lazy sea, the sea of the doldrums, +sapphire or turquoise, or, in deep shaded pools, a radiant green, +joyfully foams itself away against these fairy lands of tossing palm, +dense vegetation, rushing cascades, and purple, precipitous peaks. A +soil of volcanic origin is covered with a rich humus of decaying +vegetation, and this, with a soft humid atmosphere, makes an ideal home +for cacao. + +The bean, introduced in 1822, was not cultivated with diligence till +fifty years ago. To-day the two islands, which together have not half +the area of Surrey, grow 32,000 metric tons of cacao a year, or about +one-tenth of the world's production.[6] The income of a single planter, +once a poor peasant, has amounted to hundreds of thousands sterling. + + [6] The _Gordian's_ estimate for the amount exported in 1919 + is 40,766 tons. + +[Illustration: ROLLING CACAO, GOLD COAST. +Reproduced by permission of the Editor of "West Africa."] + +Dotted over the islands, here nestling on a mountain side, there +overlooking some blue inlet of the sea, are more than two hundred +plantations, or _rocas_, whose buildings look like islands in a green +sea of cacao shrubs, above which rise the grey stems of such forest +trees as have been left to afford shade. + +[Illustration: CARRYING CACAO TO THE RAILWAY STATION, NSAWAM, GOLD +COAST.] + +Here, not only have the cultivation, fermentation and drying of cacao +been brought to the highest state of perfection, but the details of +organisation--planters' homes, hospitals, cottages, drying sheds and the +Decauville railways--are often models of their kind. + +Intelligent and courteous, the planters make delightful hosts. At their +homes, five thousand miles away from Europe, the visitor, who knows what +it means to struggle with steaming, virgin forests, rank encroaching +vegetation, deadly fevers, and the physical and mental inertia +engendered by the tropics, will marvel at the courage and energy that +have triumphed over such obstacles. Calculating from various estimates, +each labourer in the islands appears to produce about 1,640 pounds of +cacao yearly, and the average yield per cultivated acre is 480 pounds, +or about 30 pounds more than that of Trinidad in 1898. + +[Illustration: WAGON LOADS OF CACAO BEING TAKEN FROM MESSRS. CADBURY'S +DEPOT TO THE BEACH, ACCRA.] + +As there is no available labour in San Thome, the planters get their +workers from the mainland of Africa. Prior to the year 1908, the labour +system of the islands was responsible for grave abuses. This has now +been changed. Natives from the Portuguese colonies of Angola and +Mozambique now enter freely into contracts ranging from one to five +years, two years being the time generally chosen. At the end of their +term of work they either re-contract or return to their native land with +their savings, with which they generally buy a wife. The readiness with +which the natives volunteer for the work on the islands is proof both of +the soundness of the system of contract and of the good treatment they +receive at the hands of the planters. + +[Illustration: THE BUILDINGS OF THE BOA ENTRADA CACAO ESTATE, SAN +THOME.] + +Unfortunately, the mortality of the plantation labourers has generally +been very heavy, one large and well-managed estate recording on an +average of seven years an annual death rate of 148 per thousand, and +many _rocas_ have still more appalling records. Against this, other +plantations only a few miles away may show a mortality approximating to +that of an average European city. In February, 1918, the workers in San +Thome numbered 39,605, and the deaths during the previous year, 1917, +were 1,808, thus showing on official figures an annual mortality of 45 +per thousand. Comparing this with the 26 per thousand of Trinidad, and +remembering that most of the San Thome labourers are in the prime of +life, it will be seen that this death rate represents a heavy loss of +life and justifies the continued demand from the British cocoa +manufacturers for the appointment and report of a special medical +commission. + +The Portuguese Government is prepared to meet this demand, for it has +recently sent a Commissioner, Dr. Joaquim Gouveia, to San Thome to make +a thorough examination of labour conditions, including work, food, +housing, hospitals and medical attendance, and to report fully and +confidentially to the Portuguese Colonial Secretary. + +[Illustration: DRYING CACAO AT AGUA IZE, SAN THOME. +The trays are on wheels, which run on rails.] + +If this important step is followed by adequate measures of reform there +is every reason to hope that the result will be a material reduction in +the death rate, as the good health enjoyed on some of the _rocas_ shows +San Thome to be not more unhealthy than other tropical islands. + + +CAMEROONS. + +The Cameroons, which we took from the Germans in 1916, is also on the +West Coast of Africa. It lags far behind the Gold Coast in output, +although both commenced to grow cacao about the same time. The Germans +spent great sums in the Cameroons in giving the industry a scientific +basis, they adopted the "estate plan," and possibly the fact that they +employ contract labour explains why they have not had the same +phenomenal success that the natives working for themselves have achieved +on the Gold Coast. + +[Illustration: BARREL ROLLING, GOLD COAST.] + +Various countries and districts which are responsible for about 97 per +cent. of the world's cacao crop have now been named and briefly +commented upon. Of other producing areas, the islands, Ceylon and Java, +are worthy of mention. In both of these (as also in Venezuela, Samoa[7] +and Madagascar) is grown the criollo cacao, which produces the plump, +sweet beans with the cinnamon "break." Cacao beans from Ceylon or Java +are easily recognised by their appearance, because, being washed, they +have beautiful clean shells, but there is a serious objection to washed +shells, namely, that they are brittle and as thin as paper, so that many +are broken before they reach the manufacturer. Ceylon is justly famous +for its fine "old red"; along with this a fair quantity of inferior +cacao is produced, which by being called Ceylon (such is the power of a +good name), tends to claim a higher price than its quality warrants. + + [7] Robert Louis Stevenson was one of the pioneers in cacao + planting in Samoa, as readers of his _Vailima Letters_ + will remember. + +[Illustration: BAGGING CACAO, GOLD COAST. +Reproduced by permission of the Editor of "West Africa."] + + + +CACAO MARKETS. + +_From the Plantation to the European Market._ + +It is mentioned above that on the Gold Coast cacao is brought down to +Accra as head-loads, or in barrels, or in motor-lorries. These methods +are exceptional; in other countries it is usually put in sacks at the +estate. Every estate has its own characteristic mark, which is stamped +on the bags, and this is recognised by the buyers in Europe, and gives a +clue to the quality of the contents. There is not as yet a uniform +weight for a bag of cacao, although they all vary between one and two +cwt., thus the bags from Africa contain 1-1/4 cwts., whilst those from +Guayaquil contain 1-3/4 cwts. In these bags the cacao is taken to the +port on the backs of mules, in horse or ox carts, in canoes down a +stream, or more rarely, by rail. It is then conveyed by lighters or surf +boats to the great ocean liners which lie anchored off the shore. In the +hold of the liner it is rocked thousands of miles over the azure seas of +the tropics to the grey-green seas of the temperate zone. In pre-war +days a million bags used to go to Hamburg, three-quarters of a million +to New York, half a million to Havre, and only a trifling quarter of a +million to London. Now London is the leading cacao market of the world. +During the war the supplies were cut off from Hamburg, whilst Liverpool, +becoming a chief port for African cacao, in 1916 imported a million +bags. Then New York began to gorge cacao, and in 1917 created a record, +importing some two and a half million bags, or about 150,000 tons. +Whilst everything is in so fluid a condition it is unwise to prophesy; +it may, however, be said that there are many who think, now that the +consumption of cocoa and chocolate in America has reached such a +prodigious figure, that New York may yet oust London and become the +central dominating market of the world. + +[Illustration: SURF BOATS BY THE SIDE OF THE OCEAN LINER, ACCRA.] + + + +_Difficulties of Buying._ + +Every country produces a different kind of cacao, and the cacao from any +two plantations in the same country often shows wide variation. It may +be said that there are as many kinds of cacao as there are of apples, +cacao showing as marked differences as exhibited by crabs and Blenheims, +not to mention James Grieves, Russets, Worcester Pearmains, Newton +Wonders, Lord Derbys, Belle de Boskoops, and so forth. Further, whilst +the bulk of the cacao is good and sound, a little of the cacao grown in +any district is liable to have suffered from drought or from attacks by +moulds or insect pests. It will be realised from these fragmentary +remarks that the buyer must exercise perpetual vigilance. + +[Illustration: BAGGING CACAO BEANS FOR SHIPMENT, TRINIDAD.] + +[Illustration: TRANSFERRING BAGS OF CACAO BEANS TO LIGHTERS, TRINIDAD.] + + + +_Cacao Sales._ + +Before the Cocoa Prices Orders were published (March, 1918) the manner +of conducting the sale of cacao in London was as follows. Brokers' lists +giving the kinds of cacao for sale, and the number of bags of each, were +sent, together with samples, to the buyers some days beforehand, so that +they were able to decide what they wished to purchase and the price they +were willing to pay. The sales always took place at 11 o'clock on +Tuesdays in the Commercial Sale Room in Mincing Lane, that narrow street +off Fenchurch Street, where the air is so highly charged with expert +knowledge of the world's produce, that it would illuminate the prosaic +surroundings with brilliant flashes if it could become visible. On the +morning of the sale samples of the cacaos are on exhibit at the +principal brokers. The man in the street brought into the broker's +office would ask what these strange beans might be. "A new kind of +almond?" he might ask. And then, on being told they were cacao, he would +see nothing to choose between all the various lots and wonder why so +much fuss was made over discriminating amongst the similar and +distinguishing the identical. He might even marvel a little at the +expert knowledge of the buyers; yet, frankly, the pertinent facts +concerning quality, known by the buyer, are fewer and no more difficult +to learn than the thousand and one facts a lad must have at his finger +ends to pass the London Matriculation; they are valued because they are +inaccessible to the multitude; only a few people have the opportunity of +learning them, and their use may make or mar fortunes. The judgment of +quality is, however, only one side of the art of buying. We have to add +to these a knowledge of the conditions prevailing in the various markets +of the world, a knowledge of stocks and probable supplies, and given +this knowledge, an ability to estimate their effect, together with other +conditions, agricultural, political and social, on the price of the +commodity. The room in which the sales are conducted is not a large one, +and usually not more than a hundred people, buyers, pressmen, etc., are +present. Not a single cacao bean is visible, and it might be an auction +sale of property for all the uninitiated could tell. The cacao is put up +in lots. Usually the sales proceed quietly, and it is difficult to +realize that many thousands of bags of cacao are changing hands. The +buyers have perfect trust in the broker's descriptions; they know the +invariable fair-play of the British broker, which is a by-word the world +over. The machinery of the proceedings is lubricated by an easy flow of +humour. Sometimes a few bags of sea-damaged cacao or of cacao sweepings +are put up, and a good deal of keenness is shown by the individuals who +buy this stuff. It is curious that a whole crowd of busy people will +allow their time to be taken up whilst there is a spirited fight between +two or three buyers for a single bag. + +Whilst the London Auction Sales are of importance as fixing the prices +for the various markets, and reflecting to a certain extent the position +of supply and demand, only a fraction of the world's cacao changes hands +at the Auction Sales, the greater part of it being bought privately for +forward delivery. + + + +_Prices and Quotations._ + +[Illustration: DIAGRAM SHOWING VARIATION IN PRICE OF CACAO BEANS FROM +1913 TO 1919.] + +The price of cacao is liable to fluctuations like every other product, +thus in 1907 Trinidad cacao rose to one shilling a pound, whilst there +have been periods when it has only fetched sixpence per pound. On April +2nd, 1918, the Food Controller fixed the prices of the finest +qualities of the different varieties of raw cacao as follows: + +British West Africa (Accra) 65s. per cwt. + +Bahia } +Cameroons } +San Thome } 85s. " " +Congo } +Grenada } + +Trinidad } +Demerara } 90s. " " +Guayaquil } +Surinam } + +Ceylon } +Java } 100s. " " +Samoa } + +The diagram on p. 113 shows the average market price in the United +Kingdom of some of the more important cacaos before, during, and after +the war. The most striking change is the sudden rise when the Government +control was removed. All cacaos showed a substantial advance varying +from 80 to 150 per cent. on pre-war values. Further large advances have +taken place in the early months of 1920. + + + +_The Call of the Tropics._ + +Many a young man, reading in some delightful book of travel, has longed +to go to the tropics and see the wonders for himself. There can be no +doubt that a sojourn in equatorial regions is one of the most educative +of experiences. In support of this I cannot do better than quote Grant +Allen, who regarded the tropics as the best of all universities. "But +above all in educational importance I rank the advantage of seeing human +nature in its primitive surroundings, far from the squalid and chilly +influences of the tail-end of the Glacial epoch." ... "We must forget +all this formal modern life; we must break away from this cramped, cold, +northern world; we must find ourselves face to face at last, in Pacific +isles or African forests, with the underlying truths of simple naked +nature." + +[Illustration: GROUP OF WORKERS ON CACAO ESTATE. + +Some are standing on the Drying Platform, which is the roof of the +Fermentary.] + +Many will recall how Charles Kingsley's longing to see the tropics was +ultimately satisfied. In his book, in which he describes how he "At +Last" visited the West Indies, we read that he encountered a happy +Scotchman living a quiet life in the dear little island of Monos. "I +looked at the natural beauty and repose; at the human vigour and +happiness; and I said to myself, and said it often afterwards in the +West Indies: 'Why do not other people copy this wise Scot? Why should +not many a young couple, who have education, refinement, resources in +themselves, but are, happily or unhappily for them, unable to keep a +brougham and go to London balls, retreat to some such paradise as this +(and there are hundreds like it to be found in the West Indies), +leaving behind them false civilisation, and vain desires, and useless +show; and there live in simplicity and content 'The Gentle Life'?" + + + +_The Planter's Life._ + +Few who go to the tropics escape their fascination, and of those that +are young, few return to colder climes. Some become overseers, others, +more fortunate, own the estates they manage. It is inadvisable for the +inexperienced to start on the enterprise of buying and planting an +estate with less capital than two or three thousand pounds; but, once +established, a cacao plantation may be looked upon as a permanent +investment, which will continue to bear and give a good yield as long as +it receives proper attention. + +In the recently published _Letters of Anthony Farley_ the writer tells +how Farley encounters in South America an old college friend of his, who +in his early days was on the high road to a brilliant political career. +Here he is, a planter. He explains: + + "My mother was Spanish; her brother owned this place. When he + died it came to me." + + "How did your uncle hold it through the various revolutions?" + + "Nothing simpler. He became an American citizen. When trouble + threatened he made a bee-line for the United States + Consulate. I'm British, of course. Well, just when I had + decided upon a political life, I found it necessary to come + here to straighten things out. One month lengthened itself + into a year. I grew fascinated. Here I felt a sense of + immense usefulness. On the mountain side my coffee-trees + flourished; down in the valley grew cacao." + + "I grow mine on undulations." + + "You needn't, you know, so long as you drain." + + "Yes, but draining on the flat is the devil." + + "Anyhow, I always liked animals--you haven't seen my pigs + yet--and horses and mules need careful tending. A cable + arrived one morning announcing an impending dissolution. I + felt like an unwilling bridegroom called to marry an ugly + bride. I invited my soul. Here, thought I to myself, are + animals and foodstuffs--good, honest food at that. If I go + back it is only to fill people's bellies with political east + wind. + + "To come to the point, I decided to grow coffee and cacao. I + cabled infinite regrets. The decision once made, I was happy + as a sandboy. _J'y suis, j'y reste_, said I to myself, said + I. Nor have I ever cast one longing look behind."[8] + + [8] Quoted from the _New Age_, where the _Letters of Anthony + Farley_ first appeared. + +This is fiction, but I think it is true that very few, if any, who +become planters in the tropics ever return permanently to England. The +hospitality of the planters is proverbial: there must be something good +and free about the planter's life to produce men so genial and generous. +There is a picture that I often recall, and never without pleasure. A +young planter and I had, with the help of more or less willing mules, +climbed over the hills from one valley to the next. The valley we had +left is noted for its beauty, but to me it had become familiar; the +other valley I saw now for the first time. The sides were steep and +covered with trees, and I could only see one dwelling in the valley. We +reached this by a circuitous path through cacao trees. Approaching it as +we did, the bungalow seemed completely cut off from the rest of the +world. We were welcomed by the planter and his wife, and by those of the +children who were not shy. I have never seen more chubby or jolly +kiddies, and I know from the sweetness of the children that their mother +must have given them unremitting attention. I wondered indeed if she +ever left them for a moment. I knew, too, from the situation of the +bungalow in the heart of the hills that visitors were not likely to be +frequent. The planter's life is splendid for a man who likes open air +and nature, but I had sometimes thought that their wives would not find +the life so good. I was mistaken. When we came away, after riding some +distance, through a gap in the cacao we saw across the valley a group of +happy children. They saw us, and all of them, even the shy ones, waved +us adieux. + +[Illustration: CARTING CACAO TO RAILWAY STATION, CEYLON.] + +[Illustration: THE CARENAGE, GRENADA.] + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE MANUFACTURE OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE + + The Indians, from whom we borrow it, are not very nice in + doing it; they roast the kernels in earthen pots, then free + them from their skins, and afterwards crush and grind them + between two stones, and so form cakes of it with their hands. + + _Natural History of Chocolate_, R. Brookes, 1730. + + + +_Early Methods in the Tropics._ + +As the cacao bean is grown in tropical countries, it is there that we +must look for the first attempts at manufacturing from it a drink or a +foodstuff. The primitive method of preparation was very simple, +consisting in roasting the beans in a pot or on a shovel to develop +their flavour, winnowing in the wind, and then rubbing the broken +shelled beans between stones until quite fine. The curious thing is that +on grinding the cacao bean in the heat of a tropical day we do not +produce a powder but a paste. This is because half the cacao bean +consists of a fat which is liquid at 90 deg. F., a temperature which is +reached in the shade in tropical countries. This paste was then made +into small rolls and put in a cool place to set. Thus was produced the +primitive unsweetened drinking chocolate. This is the method, which +Elizabethans, who ventured into the tangled forests of equatorial +America, found in use; and this is the method they brought home to +Europe. In the tropics these simple processes are followed to this day, +but in Europe they have undergone many elaborations and refinements. + +If the reader will look at the illustration entitled "Women grinding +chocolate," he will see how the brittle roasted bean is reduced to a +paste in primitive manufacture. A stone, shaped like a rolling-pin, is +being pushed to and fro over a concave slab, on which the smashed beans +have already been reduced to a paste of a doughy consistency. + +[Illustration: EARLY FACTORY METHODS. +Fig. 1 is a workman roasting the cacao in an iron kettle over a furnace. +He has to stir the beans to keep them from burning. Fig. 2 is a person +sifting and freeing the roasted kernels (which when broken into +fragments are called "_nibs_") from their husks or shell. Fig. 3 shows a +workman pounding the shell-free nibs in an iron mortar. Fig. 4 +represents a workman grinding the nibs on a hard smooth stone with an +iron roller. The grinding is performed over a chafing-dish of burning +charcoal, as it is necessary, for ease of grinding, to keep the paste in +a liquid condition.] + + + +_Early European Manufacture._ + +The conversion of these small scale operations into the early factory +process is well shown in the plate which I reproduce above from _Arts +and Sciences_, published in 1768. + +[Illustration: WOMEN GRINDING CHOCOLATE. +From Squier "Nicaragua"] + +A certain atmosphere of dreamy intellectuality is associated with +coffee, so that the roasting of it is felt to be a romantic occupation. +The same poetic atmosphere surrounded the manufacture of drinking +chocolate in the early days: the writers who revealed the secrets of its +preparation were conscious that they were giving man a new aesthetic +delight and the subject is treated lovingly and lingeringly. One, Pietro +Metastasio, went so far as to write a "cantata" describing its +manufacture. He describes the grinding as being done by a vigorous man, +and truly, to grind by hand is a very laborious operation, which happily +in more recent times has been performed by the use of power-driven +mills. + +Operations on a large scale followed the founding of Fry and Sons at +Bristol in 1728, and of Lombart, "la plus ancienne chocolaterie de +France," in Paris in 1760. In Germany the first chocolate factory was +erected at Steinhunde in 1756, under the patronage of Prince Wilhelm, +whilst in America the well-known firm of Walter Baker and Co. began in a +small way in 1765. From the methods adopted in these factories have +gradually developed the modern processes which I am about to describe. + + + +MODERN PRACTICE. + +As the early stages in the manufacture of cocoa and of chocolate are +often identical, the processes which are common to both are first +described, and then some individual consideration is given to each. + + +(_a_) _Arrival at the Factory._ + +The cacao is largely stored in warehouses, from which it is removed as +required. It has remarkable keeping properties, and can be kept in a +good store for several years without loss of quality. Samples of cacao +beans in glass bottles have been found to be in perfect condition after +thirty years. Some factories have stores in which stand thousands of +bags of cacao drawn from many ports round the equator. There is +something very pleasing about huge stacks of bags of cacao seen against +the luminous white walls of a well-lighted store. The symmetry of their +construction, and the continued repetition of the same form, are never +better shown than when the men, climbing up the sides of a stack against +which they look small, unbuild the mighty heap, the bags falling on to a +continuous band which carries them jauntily out of the store. + +[Illustration: PART OF A CACAO BEAN WAREHOUSE, SHOWING ENDLESS BAND +CONVEYOR. +(Messrs. Cadbury Bros'. Works, Bournville).] + + +(_b_) _Sorting the Beans._ + +As all cacao is liable to contain a little free shell, dried pulp (often +taken for twigs), threads of sacking and other foreign matter, it is +very carefully sieved and sorted before passing on to the roasting +shop. In this process curios are occasionally separated, such as palm +kernels, cowrie shells, shea butter nuts, good luck seeds and "crab's +eyes." The essential part of one type of machine (_see illustration_) +which accomplishes this sorting is an inclined revolving cylinder of +wire gauze along which the beans pass. The cylinder forms a continuous +set of sieves of different sized mesh, one sieve allowing only sand to +pass, another only very small beans or fragments of beans, and finally +one holding back anything larger than single beans (_e.g._, "cobs," that +is, a collection of two or more beans stuck together). + +[Illustration: CACAO BEAN SORTING AND CLEANING MACHINE. +Reproduced by permission of Messrs. J. Baker & Sons, Ltd., Willesden.] + +Another type of cleaning machine is illustrated by the diagram on the +opposite page. + +This machine with its shaking sieves and blast of air makes a great +clatter and fuss. It produces, however, what the manufacturers desire--a +clean bean sorted to size. + +[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF CACAO BEAN CLEANING MACHINE. +This is a box fitted with shaking sieves down which the cacao beans pass +in a current of air. Having come over some large and very powerful +magnets, which take out any nails or fragments of iron, they fall on to +a sieve (1/4-inch holes) which the engineer describes as "rapidly +reciprocating and arranged on a slight incline and mounted on spring +bars." This allows grit to pass through. The beans then roll down a +plane on to a sieve (3/8-inch holes) which separates the broken beans, +and finally on to a sieve with oblong holes which allows the beans to +fall through whilst retaining the clusters. The beans encounter a strong +blast of air which brushes from them any shell or dust clinging to +them.] + + +(_c_) _Roasting the Beans._ + +As with coffee so with cacao, the characteristic flavour and aroma are +only developed on roasting. Messrs. Bainbridge and Davies (chemists to +Messrs. Rowntree) have shown that the aroma of cacao is chiefly due to +an amazingly minute quantity (0.0006 per cent.) of linalool, a +colourless liquid with a powerful fragrant odour, a modification of +which occurs in bergamot, coriander and lavender. Everyone notices the +aromatic odour which permeates the atmosphere round a chocolate +factory. This odour is a bye-product of the roasting shop; possibly some +day an enterprising chemist will prevent its escape or capture it, and +sell it in bottles for flavouring confectionery, but for the present it +serves only to announce in an appetising way the presence of a cocoa or +chocolate works. + +[Illustration: SECTION THROUGH GAS HEATED CACAO ROASTER.] + +Roasting is a delicate operation requiring experience and discretion. +Even in these days of scientific management it remains as much an art as +a science. It is conducted in revolving drums to ensure constant +agitation, the drums being heated either over coke fires or by gas. Less +frequently the heating is effected by a hot blast of air or by having +inside the drum a number of pipes containing super-heated steam. + +[Illustration: ROASTING CACAO BEANS. +(Messrs. Cadbury Bros'. Works, Bournville).] + +The diagram and photo show one of the types of roasting machines used +at Bournville. It resembles an ordinary coffee roaster, the beans being +fed in through a hopper and heated by gas in the slowly revolving +cylinder. The beans can be heard lightly tumbling one over the other, +and the aroma round the roaster increases in fullness as they get hotter +and hotter. The temperature which the beans reach in ordinary roasting +is not very high, varying round 135 deg. C. (275 deg. F), and the average period +of roasting is about one hour. The amount of loss of weight on roasting +is considerable (some seven or eight per cent.), and varies with the +amount of moisture present in the raw beans. + +There have been attempts to replace the aesthetic judgment of man, as to +the point at which to stop roasting, by scientific machinery. One rather +interesting machine was so devised that the cacao roasting drum was +fitted with a sort of steelyard, and this, when the loss of weight due +to roasting had reached a certain amount, swung over and rang a bell, +indicating dramatically that the roasting was finished. As beans vary +amongst other things in the percentage of moisture which they contain, +the machine has not replaced the experienced operator. He takes samples +from the drum from time to time, and when the aroma has the character +desired, the beans are rapidly discharged into a trolley with a +perforated bottom, which is brought over a cold current of air. The +object of this refinement is to stop the roasting instantly and prevent +even a suspicion of burning. + +After roasting, the shell is brittle and quite free from the cotyledons +or kernel. The kernel has become glossy and friable and chocolate brown +in colour, and it crushes readily between the fingers into small angular +fragments (the "nibs" of commerce), giving off during the breaking down +a rich warm odour of chocolate. + + +(_d_) _Removing the Shells._ + +It has been stated (see _Fatty Foods_, by Revis and Bolton) that it was +formerly the practice not to remove the shell. This is incorrect, the +more usual practice from the earliest times has been to remove the +shells, though not so completely as they are removed by the efficient +machinery of to-day. + +[Illustration: CACAO BEAN, SHELL AND GERM.] + +In _A Curious Treatise on the Nature and Quality of Chocolate_, by +Antonio Colmenero de Ledesma (1685), we read: "And if you peel the +cacao, and take it out of its little shell, the drink thereof will be +more dainty and delicious." Willoughby, in his _Travels in Spain_, +(1664), writes: "They first toast the berries to get off the husk," and +R. Brookes, in the _Natural History of Chocolate_ (1730), says: "The +Indians ... roast the kernels in earthen pots, then free them from their +skins, and afterwards crush and grind them between two stones." + +He further definitely recommends that the beans "be roasted enough to +have their skins come off easily, which should be done one by one, +laying them apart ... for these skins being left among the chocolate, +will not dissolve in any liquor, nor even in the stomach, and fall to +the bottom of the chocolate-cups as if the kernels had not been +cleaned." + +That the "Indian" practice of removing the shells was followed from the +commencement of the industry in England, is shown by the old plate which +we have reproduced on p. 120 from _Arts and Sciences_. + +The removal of the shell, which in the raw condition is tough and +adheres to the kernel, is greatly facilitated by roasting. If we place a +roasted bean in the palm of the hand and press it with the thumb, the +whole cracks up into crisp pieces. It is now quite easy to blow away the +thin pieces of shell because they offer a greater surface to the air and +are lighter than the compact little lumps or "nibs" which are left +behind. This illustrates the principle of all shelling or husking +machines. + + +(_e_) _Breaking the Bean into Fragments._ + +The problem is to break down the bean to just the right size. The pieces +must be sufficiently small to allow the nib and shell readily to part +company, but it is important to remember that the smaller the pieces of +shell and nib, the less efficient will the winnowing be, and it is usual +to break the beans whilst they are still warm to avoid producing +particles of extreme fineness. The breaking down may be accomplished by +passing the beans through a pair of rollers at such a distance apart +that the bean is cracked without being crushed. Or it may be effected in +other ways, _e.g._, by the use of an adjustable serrated cone revolving +in a serrated conical case. In the diagram they are called kibbling +cones. + +[Illustration: SECTION THROUGH KIBBLING CONES AND GERM SCREENS.] + + +(_f_) _Separating the Germs._ + +About one per cent. of the cacao bean fragments consists of "germs." The +"germ" is the radicle of the cacao seed, or that part of the cacao seed +which on germination forms the root. The germs are small and rod-shaped, +and being very hard are generally assumed to be less digestible than the +nib. They are separated by being passed through revolving gauze drums, +the holes in which are the same size and shape as the germs, so that the +germs pass through whilst the nib is retained. If a freakish carpenter +were to try separating shop-floor sweepings, consisting of a jumble of +chunks of wood (nib), shavings (shell) and nails (germ) by sieving +through a grid-iron, he would find that not only the nails passed +through but also some sawdust and fine shavings. So in the above machine +the finer nib and shell pass through with the germ. This germ mixture, +known as "smalls" is dealt with in a special machine, whilst the larger +nib and shell are conveyed to the chief winnowing machine. In this +machine the mixture is first sorted according to size and then the nib +and shell separated from one another. The mixture is passed down long +revolving cylindrical sieves and encounters a larger and larger mesh as +it proceeds, and thus becomes sieved into various sizes. The separation +of the shell from the nib is now effected by a powerful current of air, +the large nib falling against the current, whilst the shell is carried +with it and drops into another compartment. It is amusing to stand and +watch the continuous stream of nibs rushing down, like hail in a storm, +into the screw conveyor. + +[Illustration: SECTION THROUGH WINNOWING MACHINE.] + +This is the process in essence--to follow the various partially +separated mixtures of shell and nib through the several further +separating machines would be tedious; it is sufficient for the reader +to know that after the most elaborate precautions have been taken the +nib still contains about one per cent. of shell, and that the nib +obtained is only 78.5 per cent. of the weight of raw beans originally +taken. Most of the larger makers of cocoa produce nib containing less +than two per cent. of shell, a standard which can only be maintained by +continuous vigilance. + +[Illustration: CACAO GRINDING. +A battery of horizontal grinding mills, by which the cacao nibs are +ground to paste (Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Bournville.)] + +The shell, the only waste material of any importance produced in a +chocolate factory, goes straight into sacks ready for sale. The pure +cacao nibs (once an important article of commerce) proceed to the +blenders and thence to the grinding mill. + + +(_g_) _Blending._ + +We have seen that the beans are roasted separately according to their +kind and country so as to develop in each its characteristic flavour. +The pure nib is now blended in proportions which are carefully chosen to +attain the result desired. + + +(_h_) _Grinding the Cacao Nibs to Produce Mass._ + +In this process, by the mere act of grinding, the miracle is performed +of converting the brittle fragments of the cacao bean into a +chocolate-coloured fluid. Half of the cacao bean is fat, and the +grinding breaks up the cells and liberates the fat, which at blood heat +melts to an oil. Any of the various machines used in the industries for +grinding might be used, but a special type of mill has been devised for +the purpose. + +In the grinding room of a cocoa factory one becomes almost hypnotised by +a hundred of these circular mill-stones that rotate incessantly day and +night. In Messrs. Fry's factory the "giddy motion of the whirling mill" +is very much increased by a number of magnificent horizontal driving +wheels, each some 20 feet in diameter, which form, as it were, a +revolving ceiling to the room. Your fascinated gaze beholds "two or +three vast circles, that have their revolving satellites like moons, +each on its own axis, and each governed by master wheels. Watch them for +any length of time and you might find yourself presently going round and +round with them until you whirled yourself out of existence, like the +gyrating maiden in the fairy tale." + +In this type of grinding machine one mill stone rotates on a fixed +stone. The cacao nib falls from a hopper through a hole in the centre of +the upper stone and, owing to the manner in which grooves are cut in the +two surfaces in contact, is gradually dragged between the stones. The +grooves are so cut in the two stones that they point in opposite +directions, and as the one stone revolves on the other, a slicing or +shearing action is produced. The friction, due to the slicing and +shearing of the nib, keeps the stones hot, and they become sufficiently +warm to melt the fat in the ground nib, so that there oozes from the +outer edge of the bottom or fixed stone a more or less viscous liquid or +paste. This finely ground nib is known as "mass." It is simply liquified +cacao bean, and solidifies on cooling to a chocolate coloured block. + +[Illustration: SECTION THROUGH GRINDING STONES.] + +This "mass" may be used for the production of either cocoa or chocolate. +When part of the fat (cacao butter) is _taken away_ the residue may be +made to yield cocoa. When sugar and cacao butter are _added_ it yields +eating chocolate. Thus the two industries are seen to be +inter-dependent, the cacao butter which is pressed out of the mass in +the manufacture of cocoa being used up in the production of chocolate. +The manufacture of cocoa will first be considered. + + +(_i_) _Pressing out the excess of Butter._ + +The liquified cacao bean or "mass," simply mixed with sugar and cooled +until it becomes a hard cake, has been used by the British Navy for a +hundred years or more for the preparation of Jack's cup of cocoa. It +produces a fine rich drink much appreciated by our hardy seamen, but it +is somewhat too fatty to mix evenly with water, and too rich to be +suitable for those with delicate digestions. Hence for the ordinary +cocoa of commerce it is usual to remove a portion of this fat. + +[Illustration: A CACAO PRESS. +Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Lake, Orr & Co., Ltd.] + +If "mass" be put into a cloth and pressed, a golden oil (melted cacao +butter) oozes through the cloth. In practice this extraction of the +butter is done in various types of presses. In one of the most +frequently used types, the mass is poured into circular steel pots, the +top and bottom of which are loose perforated plates lined with felt +pads. A number of such pots are placed one above another, and then +rammed together by a powerful hydraulic ram. They look like the parts of +a slowly collapsing telescope. The "mass" is only gently pressed at +first, but as the butter flows away and the material in the pot becomes +stiffer, it is subjected to a gradually increasing pressure. The ram, +being under pressure supplied by pumps, pushes up with enormous force. +The steel pots have to be sufficiently strong to bear a great strain, as +the ram often exerts a pressure of 6,000 pounds per square inch. When +the required amount of butter has been pressed out, the pot is found to +contain not a paste, but a hard dry cake of compressed cocoa. The +liquified cacao bean put into the pots contains 54 to 55 per cent. of +butter, whilst the cocoa press-cake taken out usually contains only 25 +to 30 per cent. The expressed butter flows away and is filtered and +solidified (see page 158). All that it is necessary to do to obtain +cocoa from the press cake is to powder it. + +[Illustration: SECTION THROUGH CACAO PRESS-POT AND RAM-PLATE.] + + +(_j_) _Breaking Down the Press Cake to Cocoa Powder._ + +The slabs of press-cake are so hard and tough that if one were banged on +a man's head it would probably stun him. They are broken down in a +crushing mill, the inside of which is as full of terrible teeth as a +giant's mouth, until the fragments are small enough to grind on steel +rollers. + + +(_k_) _Sieving._ + +As fineness is a very important quality of cocoa, the powder so obtained +is very carefully sieved. This is effected by shaking the powder into an +inclined rotating drum which is covered with silk gauze. In the cocoa +which passes through this fine silk sieve, the average length of the +individual particles is about 0.001 inch, whilst in first-class +productions the size of the larger particles in the cocoa does not +average more than 0.002 inch. Indeed, the cocoa powder is so fine that +in spite of all precautions a certain amount always floats about in the +air of sieving rooms, and covers everything with a brown film. + + +(_l_) _Packing._ + +The cocoa powder is taken to the packing rooms. Here the tedious +weighing by hand has been replaced by ingenious machines, which deliver +with remarkable accuracy a definite weight of cocoa into the paper bag +which lines the tin. The tins are then labelled and packed in cases +ready for the grocer. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE MANUFACTURE OF CHOCOLATE + + Since the great improvements of the steam engine, it is + astonishing to what a variety of manufactures this useful + machine has been applied: yet it does not a little excite our + surprise that one is used for the trifling object of grinding + chocolate. + + It is, however, a fact, or at least, we are credibly + informed, that Mr. Fry, of Bristol, has in his new + manufactory one of these engines for the sole purpose of + manufacturing chocolate and cocoa. + + _Berrow's Worcester Journal,_ June 7th, 1798. + + +What I am about to write under this heading will only be of a general +character. Those who require a more detailed exposition are referred to +the standard works given at the end of the chapter. In these, full and +accurate information will be found. The information published in modern +Encyclopaedias, etc., concerning the manufacture of chocolate is not +always as reliable as one might expect. Thus it states in Jack's +excellent _Reference Book_ (1914) that "Chocolate is made by the +addition of water and sugar." The use of water in the manufacture of +chocolate is contrary to all usual practice, so much so that great +interest was aroused in the trade some years ago by the statement that +water was being used by a firm in Germany. + + + +SPECIMEN OUTLINE RECIPE. + +Ingredients required for _plain eating-chocolate_. + +Cacao nib or mass 33 parts. +Cacao butter 13 " +Sugar 53-3/4 " +Flavouring 1/4 " + ------------- + 100 parts + +Since eating-chocolate is produced by mixing sugar and cacao nib, with +or without flavouring materials, and reducing to a fine homogeneous +mass, the principles underlying its manufacture are obviously simple, +yet when we come to consider the production of a modern high-class +chocolate we find the processes involved are somewhat elaborate. + + +(_a_) _Preparing the Nib or "Mass."_ + +The nib is obtained in exactly the same way as in the manufacture of +cocoa, the beans being cleaned, roasted and shelled. The roasting, +however, is generally somewhat lighter for chocolate than for cocoa. The +nibs produced may be used as they are, or they may be first ground to +"mass" by means of mill-stones as described above. + + +(_b_) _Mixing in the Sugar._ + +Some makers use clear crystalline granulated sugar, others disintegrate +loaf sugar to a beautiful snow-white flour. The nib, coarse or finely +ground, is mixed with the sugar in a kind of edge-runner or +grinding-mixer, called a _melangeur_. As is seen in the photo, the +_melangeur_ consists of two heavy mill-stones which are supported on a +granite floor. This floor revolves and causes the stationary mill-stones +to rotate on their axes, so that although they run rapidly, like a man +on a "joy wheel," they make no headway. The material is prevented from +accumulating at the sides by curved scrapers, which gracefully deflect +the stream of material to the part of the revolving floor which runs +under the mill-stones. Thus the sugar and nib are mixed and crushed. As +the mixture usually becomes like dough in consistency, it can be neatly +removed from the _melangeur_ with a shovel. The operator rests a shovel +lightly on the revolving floor, and the material mounts into a heap upon +it. + +[Illustration: CHOCOLATE MELANGEUR. +Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Lake. Orr & Coy. Ltd.] + +[Illustration: PLAN OF CHOCOLATE MELANGEUR.] + +[Illustration: CHOCOLATE REFINING MACHINE. +Reproduced by permission of Messrs. J. Baker & Sons, Willesden.] + + +(_c_) _Grinding the Mixture._ + +The mixture is now passed through a mill, which has been described as +looking like a multiple mangle. The object of this is to break down the +sugar and cacao to smaller particles. The rolls may be made either of +granite (more strictly speaking, of quartz diorite) or of polished +chilled cast iron. Chilled cast iron rolls have the advantage that they +can be kept cool by having water flowing through them. A skilled +operator is required to set the rolls in order that they may give a +large and satisfactory output. The cylinders in contact run at different +speeds, and, as will be seen in the diagram, the chocolate always clings +to the roll which is revolving with the greater velocity, and is +delivered from the rolls either as a curtain of chocolate or as a spray +of chocolate powder. It is very striking to see the soft +chocolate-coloured dough become, after merely passing between the rolls, +a dry powder--the explanation is that the sugar having been more finely +crushed now requires a greater quantity of cacao butter to lubricate it +before the mixture can again become plastic. The chocolate in its +various stages of manufacture, should be kept warm or it will solidify +and much time and heat (and possibly temper) will be absorbed in +remelting it; for this and other reasons most chocolate factories have a +number of hot rooms, in which the chocolate is stored whilst waiting to +pass on to the next operation. The dry powder coming from the rolls is +either taken to a hot room, or at once mixed in a warm _melangeur_, +where curiously enough the whole becomes once again of the consistency +of dough. The grinding between the rolls and the mixing in the +_melangeur_ are repeated any number of times until the chocolate is of +the desired fineness. Whilst there are a few people who like the clean, +hard feel of sugar crystals between the teeth, the present-day taste is +all for very smooth and highly refined chocolate; hence the grinding +operation is one of the most important in the factory, and is checked at +the works at Bournville by measuring with a microscope the size of the +particles. The cost of fine grinding is considerable, for whilst the +first breaking down of the cacao nibs and sugar crystals is +comparatively easy, it is found that as the particles of chocolate get +finer the cost of further reduction increases by leaps and bounds. The +chocolate may now proceed direct to the moulding rooms or it may first +be conched. + +[Illustration: GRINDING CACAO NIB AND SUGAR. +(Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Bournville).] + +[Illustration: SECTION THROUGH CHOCOLATE GRINDING ROLLS.] + + +(_d_) _Conching._ + +We now come to an extraordinary process which is said to have been +originally introduced to satisfy a fastidious taste that demanded a +chocolate which readily melted in the mouth and yet had not the cloying +effect which is produced by excess of cacao butter. In this process the +chocolate is put in a vessel shaped something like a shell (hence called +a _conche_), and a heavy roller is pushed to and fro in the chocolate. +Although the conche is considered to have revolutionized the chocolate +industry, it will remain to the uninitiated a curious sight to see a +room full of machines engaged in pummelling chocolate day and night. +There is no general agreement as to exactly how the conche produces its +effects--from the scientific point of view the changes are complex and +elusive, and too technical to explain here--but it is well known that if +this process is continued for periods varying according to the result +desired from a few hours to a week, characteristic changes occur which +make the chocolate a more mellow and finished confection, having more or +less the velvet feel of _chocolat fondant_. + + +(_e_) _Flavouring._ + +Art is shown not only in the choice of the cacao beans but also in the +selection of spices and essences, for, whilst the fundamental flavour of +a chocolate is determined by the blend of beans and the method of +manufacture, the piquancy and special character are often obtained by +the addition of minute quantities of flavourings. The point in the +manufacture at which the flavour is added is as late as possible so as +to avoid the possible loss of aroma in handling. The flavours used +include cardamom, cassia, cinnamon, cloves, coriander, lemon, mace, and +last but most popular of all, the vanilla pod or vanillin. Some makers +use the choice spices themselves, others prefer their essential oils. +Many other nutty, fragrant and aromatic substances have been used; of +these we may mention almonds, coffee, musk, ambergris, gum benzoin and +balsam of Peru. The English like delicately flavoured confections, +whilst the Spanish follow the old custom of heavily spicing the +chocolate. In ancient recipes we read of the use of white and red +peppers, and the addition of hot spices was defended and even +recommended on purely philosophical grounds. It was given, in the +strange jargon of the Peripatetics, as a dictum that chocolate is by +nature cold and dry and therefore ought to be mixed with things which +are hot. + +[Illustration: "CONCHE" MACHINES. +Reproduced by permission of Messrs. J. Baker & Sons, Willesden.] + +[Illustration: SECTION THROUGH "CONCHE" MACHINE.] + +[Illustration: MACHINES FOR MIXING OR "CONCHING" CHOCOLATE.] + + +(_f_) _Moulding._ + +Small quantities of cacao butter will have been added to the chocolate +at various stages, and hence the finished product is quite plastic. It +is now brought from the hot room (or the _melangeur_ or the conche) to +the moulding rooms. Before moulding, the chocolate is passed through a +machine, known as a compressor, which removes air-bubbles. This is a +necessary process, as people would not care to purchase chocolate full +of holes. As in the previous operations, every effort has been made to +produce a chocolate of smooth texture and fine flavour, so in the +moulding rooms skill is exercised in converting the plastic mass into +hard bars and cakes, which snap when broken and which have a pleasant +appearance. Well-moulded chocolate has a good gloss, a rich colour and a +correct shape. + +[Illustration: CHOCOLATE SHAKING TABLE.] + +The most important factor in obtaining a good appearance is the +temperature, and chocolate is frequently passed through a machine +(called a tempering machine) merely to give it the desired temperature. +A suitable temperature for moulding, according to Zipperer, varies from +28 deg. C. on a hot summer's day to 32 deg. C. on a winter's day. As the melting +point of cacao butter is about 32 deg. C, it will be realized that the +butter is super-cooled and is ready to crystallize on the slightest +provocation. Each mould has to contain the same quantity of chocolate. +Weighing by hand has been abandoned in favour of a machine which +automatically deposits a definite weight, such as a quarter or half a +pound, of the chocolate paste on each mould. The chocolate stands up +like a lump of dough and has to be persuaded to lie down and fill the +mould. This can be most effectively accomplished by banging the mould up +and down on a table. In the factory the method used is to place the +moulds on rocking tables which rise gradually and fall with a bump. The +diagram will make clear how these vibrating tables are worked by means +of ratchet wheels. Rocking tables are made which are silent in action, +but the moulds jerkily dancing about on the table make a very lively +clatter, such a noise as might be produced by a regiment of mad cavalry +crossing a courtyard. During the shaking-up the chocolate fills every +crevice of the mould, and any bubbles, which if left in would spoil the +appearance of the chocolate, rise to the top. The chocolate then passes +on to an endless band which conducts the mould through a chamber in +which cold air is moving. As the chocolate cools, it solidifies and +contracts so that it comes out of the mould clean and bright. In this +way are produced the familiar sticks and cakes of chocolate. A similar +method is used in producing "Croquettes" and the small tablets known as +"Neapolitans." Other forms require more elaborate moulds; thus the +chocolate eggs, which fill the confectioners' windows just before +Easter, are generally hollow, unless they are very small, and are made +in two halves by pressing chocolate in egg-shaped moulds and then +uniting the two halves. Chocolate cremes, caramels, almonds and, in +fact, fancy "chocolates" generally, are produced in quite a different +manner. For these _chocolats de fantaisie_ a rather liquid chocolate is +required known as covering chocolate. + + + +SPECIMEN OUTLINE RECIPE. + +Ingredients required for _chocolate for covering cremes_, etc.: + +Cacao nib or mass 30 parts +Cacao butter 20 " +Sugar 49-3/4 " +Flavouring 1/4 " + ------------- + 100 parts + +It is prepared in exactly the same way as ordinary eating chocolate, +save that more butter is added to make it flow readily, so that in the +melted condition it has about the same consistency as cream. The +operations so far described are conducted by men, but the covering of +cremes and the packing of the finished chocolates into boxes are +performed by girls. Covering is light work requiring a delicate touch, +and if, as is usual, it is done in bright airy rooms, is a pleasant +occupation. + +[Illustration: GIRLS COVERING, OR DIPPING, CREMES, ETC. +(Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Bournville.)] + +The girl sits with a small bowl of warm liquid chocolate in front of +her, and on one side the "centres" (cremes, caramels, ginger, nuts, +etc.) ready for covering with chocolate. The chocolate must be at just +the right temperature, which is 88 deg.F., or 31 deg. C. She takes one of the +"centres," say a vanilla creme, on her fork and dips it beneath the +chocolate. When she draws it out, the white creme is completely covered +in brown chocolate and, without touching it with her finger, she deftly +places it on a piece of smooth paper. A little twirl of the fork or +drawing a prong across the chocolate will give the characteristic +marking on the top of the chocolate creme. The chocolate rapidly sets to +a crisp film enveloping the soft creme. There are in use in many +chocolate factories some very ingenious covering machines, invented in +1903, which, as they clothe cremes in a robe of chocolate, are known as +"enrobers"; it is doubtful, however, if the chocolates so produced have +even quite so good an appearance as when the covering is done by hand. + +[Illustration: THE ENROBER. +A machine for covering cremes, etc., with chocolate. +Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Savy Jeanjean & Co., Paris.] + +It would be agreeable at this point to describe the making of cremes +(which, by the way, contrary to the opinion of most writers, contain no +cream or butter), and other products of the confectioner's art, but it +would take us beyond the scope of the present book. We will only remind +our readers of the great variety of comestibles and confections which +are covered in chocolate--pistachio nut, roasted almonds, pralines, +biscuits, walnuts, nougat, montelimar, fruits, fruit cremes, jellies, +Turkish delight, marshmallows, caramels, pine-apple, noisette, and other +delicacies. + +[Illustration: A CONFECTIONERY ROOM AT MESSRS. CADBURY'S WORKS AT +BOURNVILLE. +Cutting almond paste by hand moulds.] + + + +_Milk Chocolate._ + +We owe the introduction of this excellent food and confection to the +researches of M.D. Peter of Vevey, in Switzerland, who produced milk +chocolate as early as 1876. Many of our older readers will remember +their delight when in the eighteen nineties they first tasted Peter's +milk chocolate. Later the then little firm of Cailler, realising the +importance of having the factory on the very spot where rich milk was +produced in abundance, established a works near Gruyeres. This grew +rapidly and soon became the largest factory in Switzerland. The sound +principle of having your factory in the heart of a milk producing area +was adopted by Cadbury's, who built milk condensing factories at the +ancient village of Frampton-on-Severn, in Gloucestershire, and at +Knighton, near Newport, Salop. Before the war these two factories +together condensed from two to three million gallons of milk a year. +Whilst the amount of milk used in England for making milk chocolate +appears very great when expressed in gallons, it is seen to be very +small (being only about one-half of one per cent.) when expressed as a +fraction of the total milk production. Milk chocolate is not made from +milk produced in the winter, when milk is scarce, but from milk produced +in the spring and summer when there is milk in excess of the usual +household requirements, and when it is rich and creamy. The importance +of not interfering with the normal milk supply to local customers is +appreciated by the chocolate makers, who take steps to prevent this. It +will interest public analysts and others to know that Cadbury's have had +no difficulty in making it a stipulation in their contracts with the +vendors that the milk supplied to them shall contain at least 3.5 per +cent. of butter fat, a 17 per cent. increase on the minimum fixed by +the Government. + +[Illustration: FACTORY AT FRAMPTON, GLOUCESTERSHIRE, AT WHICH MILK IS +EVAPORATED FOR MILK CHOCOLATE MANUFACTURE. +(Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd.).] + + + +SPECIMEN OUTLINE RECIPE. + +Ingredients required for _milk chocolate_: + +Cacao nib or mass (from 10 to 20 per cent.), say 10 +Cacao Butter 20 +Sugar 44-3/4 +Milk solids (from 15 to 25 per cent.), say 25=(200 parts + of milk.) +Flavouring 1/4 + -------- + 100 + +Milk chocolate consists of an intimate mixture of cacao nib, sugar and +milk, condensed by evaporation. The manner in which the milk is mixed +with the cacao nib is a matter of taste, and the art of combining milk +with chocolate, so as to retain the full flavour of each, has engaged +the attention of many experts. At present there is no general method of +manufacture--each maker has his own secret processes, which generally +include the use of grinding mills, _melangeurs_, conches, moulding +machines, etc., as with plain chocolate. We cannot do better than refer +those who wish to know more of this, or other branch of the chocolate +industry, to the following English, French and German standard works on +Chocolate Manufacture: + + _Cocoa and Chocolate, Their Chemistry and Manufacture_, by R. + Whymper (Churchill). + + _Fabrication du Chocolat_, by Fritsch (Scientifique et + Industrielle). + + _The Manufacture of Chocolate_, by Dr. Paul Zipperer (Spon). + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +BY-PRODUCTS OF THE COCOA AND CHOCOLATE INDUSTRY + +Of Cacao Butter.-- + + It is the best and most natural _Pomatum_ for Ladies to + _clear_ and _plump_ the Skin when it is _dry, rough_, or + _shrivel'd_, without making it appear either _fat_ or + _shining_. The _Spanish Women_ at _Mexico_ use it very much, + and it is highly esteem'd by them. + + _The Natural History of Chocolate_, R. Brookes, 1730. + +Of Cacao Shell.-- + + In Russia and Belgium many families take Caravello at + breakfast. This is nothing but cocoa husk, washed and then + boiled in milk. + + _Chocolate and Confectionery Manufacture_, A. Jacoutot. + + + +_Cacao Butter._ + +In that very able compilation, _Allen's Organic Analysis_, Mr. Leonard +Archbutt states (Vol. II, p. 176) that cacao butter "is obtained in +large quantities as a by-product in the manufacture of chocolate." This +is repeated in the excellent book on _Oils_, by C.A. Mitchell (Common +Commodities of Commerce series). These statements are, of course, +incorrect. We have seen that cacao butter is obtained as a by-product in +the manufacture of cocoa, and is _consumed_ in large quantities in the +manufacture of chocolate. When, during the war, the use of sugar for +chocolate-making was restricted and little chocolate was produced, the +cacao butter formerly used in this industry was freed for other +purposes. Thus there was plenty of cacao butter available at a time when +other fats were scarce. Cacao butter has a pleasant, bland taste +resembling cocoa. The cocoa flavour is very persistent, as many +experimenters found to their regret in their efforts to produce a +tasteless cacao butter which could be used as margarine or for general +purposes in cooking. The scarcity of edible fats during the war forced +the confectioners to try cacao butter, which in normal times is too +expensive for them to use, and as a result a very large amount was +employed in making biscuits and confectionery. + +Cacao butter runs hot from the presses as an amber-coloured oil, and +after nitration, sets to a pale golden yellow wax-like fat. The butter, +which the pharmacist sells, is sometimes white and odourless, having +been bleached and deodorized. The butter as produced is always pale +yellow in colour, with a semi-crystalline or granular fracture and an +agreeable taste and odour resembling cocoa or chocolate. + +Cacao butter has such remarkable keeping properties (which would appear +to depend on the aromatic substances which it contains), that a myth has +arisen that it will keep for ever. The fable finds many believers even +in scientific circles; thus W.H. Johnson, in the _Imperial Institute +Handbook_ on _Cocoa_, states that: "When pure, it has the peculiar +property of not becoming rancid, however long it may be kept." Whilst +this overstates the case, we find that under suitable conditions cacao +butter will remain fresh and good for several years. Cacao butter has +rather a low melting point (90 deg. F.), so that whilst it is a hard, almost +brittle, solid at ordinary temperatures, it melts readily when in +contact with the human body (blood heat 98 deg. F). This property, together +with its remarkable stability, makes it useful for ointments, pomades, +suppositories, pessaries and other pharmaceutical preparations; it also +explains why actors have found it convenient for the removal of grease +paint. The recognition of the value of cacao butter for cosmetic +purposes dates from very early days; thus in Colmenero de Ledesma's +_Curious Treatise on the Nature and Quality of Chocolate_ (printed at +the Green Dragon, 1685), we read: "That they draw from the cacao a great +quantity of butter, which they use to make their faces shine, which I +have seen practised in the Indies by the Spanish women born there." +This, evidently, was one way of shining in society. + +Cacao butter has been put to many other uses, thus it has been employed +in the preparation of perfumes, but the great bulk of the cacao butter +produced is used up by the chocolate maker. For making chocolate it is +ideal, and the demand for it for this purpose is so great that +substitutes have been found and offered for sale. Until recently these +fats, coconut stearine and others, could be ignored by the reputable +chocolate makers as the confection produced by their use was inferior to +true chocolate both in taste and in keeping properties. In recent times +the oils and fats of tropical nuts and fruits have been thoroughly +investigated in the eager search for new fats, and new substitutes, such +as illipe butter, have been introduced, the properties of which closely +resemble those of cacao butter. + +For the information of chemists we may state that the analytical figures +for genuine cacao butter, as obtained in the cocoa factory, are as +follow: + + +ANALYTICAL FIGURES FOR CACAO BUTTER. + +Specific Gravity (at 99 deg. C. to water at 15.5 deg. C.) .858 to .865 +Melting Point 32 deg.C. to 34 deg.C. +Titer (fatty acids) 49 deg.C. to 50 deg.C. +Iodine Absorbed 34% to 38% +Refraction (Butyro-Refractometer) at 40 deg.C. 45.6 deg. to 46.5 deg. +Saponification Value 192 to 198 +Valenta 94 deg.C. to 96 deg.C. +Reichert Meissel Value 1.0 +Polenske Value 0.5 +Kirschner " 0.5 +Shrewsbury and Knapp Value 14 to 15 +Unsaponifiable matter 0.3% to 0.8% +Mineral matter 0.02% to 0.05% +Acidity (as oleic acid) 0.6% to 2.0% + +Although the trade in cacao butter is considerable, there were, before +the war, only two countries that could really be considered as exporters +of cacao butter; in other words, there were only two countries, namely, +Holland and Germany, pressing out more cacao butter in the production of +cocoa than they absorbed in making chocolate: + + +EXPORT OF CACAO BUTTER. + + Tons (of 1000 kilogrammes) + 1911 1912 1913 +Holland 4,657 5,472 7,160 +Germany 3,611 3,581 1,960 + ----- ----- ----- + 8,268 9,053 9,120 + ----- ----- ----- + +During the war America appeared for the first time in her history as an +exporter of cacao butter. Hitherto she was one of the principal +importers, as will be seen in the following table: + + +IMPORTS OF CACAO BUTTER. + + Tons (of 1000 kilogrammes) + 1912 1913 +United States 1,842 1,634 +Switzerland 1,821 1,634 +Belgium 1,127 1,197 +Austria-Hungary 1,062 1,190 +Russia 955 1,197 +England 495 934 + +The next table shows the imports (expressed in English tons) into the +United Kingdom in more recent years: + + +IMPORTS OF CACAO BUTTER. + +Year 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 +Tons 477 912 1512 599 962 675 + +The wholesale price of cacao butter has varied in the last six years +from 1/3 per pound to 2/11 per pound, and was fixed in 1918 by the Food +Controller at 1/6 per pound (retail price 2/- per pound). The control +was removed in 1919, and immediately the wholesale price rose to 2/8 per +pound. + + + +_Cacao Shell._ + +Although I have described cacao butter as a by-product, the only true +by-product of the combined cocoa and chocolate industry is cacao shell. +I explained in the previous chapter how it is separated from the roasted +bean. As they come from the husking or winnowing machine, the larger +fragments of shell resemble the shell of monkey-nuts (ground nuts or pea +nuts), except that the cacao shells are thinner, more brittle and of a +richer brown colour. The shell has a pleasant odour in which a little +true cocoa aroma can be detected. The small pieces of shell look like +bran, and, if the shell be powdered, the product is wonderfully like +cocoa in appearance, though not in taste or smell. As the raw cacao bean +contains on the average about twelve and a half per cent. of shell, it +is evident that the world production must be considerable (about 36,000 +tons a year), and since it is not legitimately employed in cocoa, the +brains of inventors have been busy trying to find a use for it. In some +industries the by-product has proved on investigation to be of greater +value than the principal product--a good instance of this is glycerine +as a by-product in soap manufacture--but no use for the husk or shell of +cacao, which gives it any considerable commercial value, has yet been +discovered. There are signs, however, that its possible uses are being +considered and appreciated. + +For years small quantities of cacao shell, under the name of +"miserables," have been used in Ireland and other countries for +producing a dilute infusion for drinking. Although this "cocoa tea" is +not unpleasant, and has mild stimulating properties, it has never been +popular, and even during the war, when it was widely advertised and sold +in England under fancy names at fancy prices, it never had a large or +enthusiastic body of consumers. + +In normal times the cocoa manufacturer has no difficulty in disposing of +his shell to cattle-food makers and others, but during 1915 when the +train service was so defective, and transport by any other means almost +impossible, the manufacturers of cocoa and chocolate were unable to get +the shell away from their factories, and had large accumulations of it +filling up valuable store space. In these circumstances they attempted +to find a use near at hand. It was tried with moderate success as a fuel +and a considerable quantity was burned in a special type of gas-producer +intended for wood. + +Cacao shell has a high nitrogenous content, and if burned yields about +67 lbs. of potassium carbonate per ton. In the Annual Report of the +Experimental Farms in Canada, (1898, p. 151 and 1899, p. 851,) accounts +are given of the use of cacao shell as a manure. The results given are +encouraging, and experiments were made at Bournville. At first these +were only moderately successful, because the shell is extremely stable +and decomposes in the ground very slowly indeed. Then the head gardener +tried hastening the decomposition by placing the shell in a heap, +soaking with water and turning several times before use. In this way the +shell was converted into a decomposing mass before being applied to the +ground, and gave excellent results both as a manure and as a lightener +of heavy soils. + +On the Continent the small amount of cacao butter which the shell +contains is extracted from it by volatile solvents. The "shell butter" +so obtained is very inferior to ordinary cacao butter, and as usually +put on the market, has an unpleasant taste, and an odour which reminds +one faintly of an old tobacco-pipe. In this unrefined condition it is +obviously unsuitable for edible purposes. + +Shell contains about one per cent. of _theobromine_ (dimethylxanthine). +This is a very valuable chemical substance (see remarks in chapter on +Food Value of Cocoa and Chocolate), and the extraction of theobromine +from shell is already practised on a large scale, and promises to be a +profitable industry. Ordinary commercial samples of shell contain from +1.2 to 1.4 per cent. of theobromine. Those interested should study the +very ingenious process of Messrs. Grousseau and Vicongne (Patent No. +120,178). Many other uses of cacao shell have been made and suggested; +thus it has been used for the production of a good coffee substitute, +and also, during the shortage of sawdust, as a packing material, but its +most important use at the present time is as cattle food, and its most +important abuse as an adulterant of cocoa. + +The value of cacao shell as cattle food has been known for a long time, +and is indicated in the following analysis by Smetham (in the Journal of +the Lancashire Agricultural Society, 1914). + + +ANALYSIS OF CACAO SHELL. + +Water 9.30 +Fat 3.83 +Mineral Matter 8.20 +Albuminoids 18.81 +Fibre 13.85 +Digestible Carbohydrates 46.01 + ------ + 100.00 + ------ + +From these figures Smetham calculates the food units as 102, so that it +is evident that cacao shell occupies a good position when compared with +other fodders: + + +FOOD UNITS. + +Linseed cake 133 +Oatmeal 117 +Bran 109 +English wheat 106 +_Cacao shells_ 102 +Maize (new crop) 99 +Meadow hay 68 +Rice husks 43 +Wheat straw 41 +Mangels 12 + +These analytical results have been supported by practical feeding +experiments in America and Germany (see full account in Zipperer's book, +_The Manufacture of Chocolate_). Prof. Faelli, in Turin, obtained, by +giving cacao shell to cows, an increase in both the quantity and quality +of the milk. More recent experience seems to indicate that it is unwise +to put a very high percentage of cacao shell in a cattle food; in small +quantities in compound feeding cakes, etc., as an appetiser it has been +used for years with good results. (Further particulars will be found in +_Cacao Shells as Fodder_, by A.W. Knapp, _Tropical Life_, 1916, p. 154, +and in _The Separation and Uses of Cacao Shell_, Society of Chemical +Industry's Journal, 1918, 240). The price of shell has shown great +variation. The following figures are for the grade of shell which is +almost entirely free from cocoa: + + +CACAO SHELL. + + +AVERAGE PRICE PER TON. + +Year 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 +Price 65/- 70/- 70/- 70/- 90/- 128/- 284/- 161/- + + +PRICE PER FOOD UNIT. + + _July_, 1915. _Jan._, 1919. + _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._ +English Oats 3 1-1/2 3 8 +Cotton Seed Cake 2 5 3 11 +Linseed Cake 1 7 3 5 +Brewers Grains (dried) 1 6-1/2 3 8-1/2 +Decorticated Cotton Cake 1 6 3 3-1/2 +Cacao Shell 8-1/4 1 4-1/2 + +The above table speaks for itself; the figures are from the Journal of +the Board of Agriculture; I have added cacao shell for comparison. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE + + Before the Spaniards made themselves Masters of Mexico, no + other drink was esteem'd but that of cocoa; none caring for + wine, notwithstanding the soil produces vines everywhere in + great abundance of itself. + + John Ogilvy's _America_, 1671. + + +The early writers on chocolate generally became lyrical when they wrote +of its value as a food. Thus in the _Natural History of Chocolate_, by +R. Brookes (1730), we read that an ounce of chocolate contains as much +nourishment as a pound of beef, that a woman and a child, and even a +councillor, lived on chocolate alone for a long period, and further: +"Before chocolate was known in Europe, good old wine was called the milk +of old men; but this title is now applied with greater reason to +chocolate, since its use has become so common, that it has been +perceived that chocolate is, with respect to them, what milk is to +infants." + +A more temperate tone is shown in the following, from _A Curious +Treatise of the Nature and Quality of Chocolate_, by Antonio Colmenero +de Ledesma, a Spaniard, Physician and Chyrurgion of the city of Ecija, +in Andaluzia (printed at the Green Dragon, 1685): + + So great is the number of those persons, who at present do + drink of Chocolate, that not only in the West Indies, whence + this drink has its original and beginning, but also in + Spain, Italy, Flanders, &c., it is very much used, and + especially in the Court of the King of Spain; where the great + ladies drink it in a morning before they rise out of their + beds, and lately much used in England, as Diet and Phisick + with the Gentry. Yet there are several persons that stand in + doubt both of the hurt and of the benefit, which proceeds + from the use thereof; some saying, that it obstructs and + causes opilations, others and those the most part, that it + fattens, several assure us that it fortifies the stomach: + some again that it heats and inflames the body. But very many + steadfastly affirm, that tho' they shou'd drink it at all + hours, and that even in the Dog-days, they find themselves + very well after it. + +So much for the old valuations; let us now attempt by modern methods to +estimate the food value of cacao and its preparations. + + + +_Food Value of Cacao Beans._ + +In estimating the worth of a food, it is usual to compare the fuel +values. This peculiar method is adopted because the most important +requirement in nutrition is that of giving energy for the work of the +body, and a food may be thought of as being burnt up (oxidised) in the +human machine in the production of heat and energy. The various food +constituents serve in varying degrees as fuel to produce energy, and +hence to judge of the food value it is necessary to know the chemical +composition. Below we give the average composition of cacao beans and +the fuel value calculated from these figures: + + +AVERAGE COMPOSITION AND FUEL VALUE OF FRESHLY ROASTED CACAO BEANS +(NIBS). + + _Composition._ _Energy-giving power_ + _Calories per lb._ + +Cacao Butter 54.0 = 2,282 +Protein (total nitrogen 2.3%) 11.9 = 221 +Cacao Starch 6.7 } = 472 +Other Digestible Carbohydrates, etc. 18.7 } +Stimulants { Theobromine 1.0 + { Caffein 0.4 +Mineral Matter 3.2 +Crude Fibre 2.6 +Moisture 1.5 + ------ ----- + 100.0 2,975 + ------ ----- + +[Illustration: COCOA AND CHOCOLATE DESPATCH DECK AT BOURNVILLE.] + +It will be seen from the above analysis that the cacao bean is rich in +fats, carbohydrates and protein, and that it contains small quantities +of the two stimulants, theobromine and caffein. In the whole range of +animal and vegetable foodstuffs there are only one or two which exceed +it in energy-giving power. If expressed in quite another way, namely, as +"food units," the value of the cacao bean stands equally high, as is +shown by the following figures taken from Smetham's result published in +the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1914: + + +"FOOD UNITS." + +Turnips 8 +Carrots 12 +Potatoes 26 +Rice 102 +Corn Flour 104 +Wheat 106 +Peas 113 +Oatmeal 117 +Coconut 159 +Cacao Bean 183 + +These figures indicate the high food value of the raw material; we will +now proceed to consider the various products which are obtained from +it. + + + +_Food Value of Cocoa._ + + +AVERAGE COMPOSITION AND FUEL VALUE OF UNTREATED COCOA. + + _Composition._ _Energy-giving power_ + _Calories per lb._ + +Cacao Butter 28.0 = 1,183 +Protein 18.3 = 340 +Cacao Starch 10.2 } = 718 +Other Digestible Carbohydrates, etc. 28.4 } +Stimulants {Theobromine 1.5 + {Caffein 0.6 +Mineral Matter 5.0 +Crude Fibre 4.0 +Moisture 4.0 + ----- ----- + 100.0 2,241 + ----- ----- + +("Soluble" Cocoa, _i.e._, cocoa which has been treated with alkaline +salts, is almost identical in composition, save that the mineral matter +is about 7.5 per cent.). + +As cocoa consists of the cacao bean with some of the butter extracted--a +process which increases the percentage of the nitrogenous and +carbohydrate constituents--it will be evident that the food value of +cocoa powder is high, and that it is a concentrated foodstuff. In this +respect it differs from tea and coffee, which have practically no food +value; each of them, however, have special qualities of their own. Some +of the claims made for these beverages are a little remarkable. The +Embassy of the United Provinces in their address to the Emperor of China +(Leyden, 1655), in mentioning the good properties of tea, wrote: "More +especially it disintoxicates those that are fuddl'd, giving them new +forces, and enabling them to go to it again." The Embassy do not state +whether they speak from personal experience, but their admiration for +tea is undoubted. Tea, coffee, and cocoa are amongst our blessings, each +has its devotees, each has its peculiar delight: tea makes for +cheerfulness, coffee makes for wit and wakefulness, and cocoa relieves +the fatigued, and gives a comfortable feeling of satisfaction and +stability. Of these three drinks cocoa alone can be considered as a +food, and just as there are people whose digestion is deranged by tea, +and some who sleep not a wink after drinking coffee, so there are some +who find cocoa too feeding, especially in the summer-time. These +sufferers from biliousness will think it curious that cocoa is +habitually drunk in many hot climates, thus, in Spanish-speaking +countries, it is the custom for the priest, after saying mass, to take a +cup of chocolate. The pure cocoa powder is, as we saw above, a very rich +foodstuff, but it must always be remembered that in a pint of cocoa only +a small quantity, about half an ounce, is usually taken. In this +connection the following comparison between tea, coffee and cocoa is not +without interest. It is taken from the _Farmer's Bulletin_ 249, an +official publication of the United States Department of Agriculture: + + +COMPARISON OF ENERGY-GIVING POWER OF A PINT OF TEA, COFFEE AND COCOA. + + Fuel value + Kind of Beverage Water Protein Fat Carbohydrates per lb. +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- + % % % % Calories +_Tea_ + (0.5 oz. to 1 pt. water) 99.5 0.2 0 0.6 15 +_Coffee_ + (1 oz. to 1 pt. water) 98.9 0.2 0 0.7 16 +_Cocoa_ + (0.5 oz. to 1 pt. water) 97.1 0.6 0.9 1.1 65 + +These figures place cocoa, as a food, head and shoulders above tea and +coffee. The figures are for the beverages made without the addition of +milk and sugar, both of which are almost invariably present. A pint of +cocoa made with one-third milk, half an ounce of cocoa, and one ounce of +sugar would have a fuel value of 320 calories, and is therefore +equivalent in energy-giving power to a quarter of a pound of beef or +four eggs. + +Cocoa is stimulating, but its action is not so marked as that of tea or +coffee, and hence it is more suitable for young children. Dr. Hutchison, +an authority on dietetics, writes: "Tea and coffee are also harmful to +the susceptible nervous system of the child, but cocoa, made with plenty +of milk, may be allowed, though it should be regarded, like milk, as a +food rather than a beverage properly so called." + + + +_How to Make a Cup of Cocoa._ + +Tea, coffee and cocoa are all so easy to make that it is remarkable +anyone should fail to prepare them perfectly. Whilst in France everyone +can prepare coffee to perfection, and many fail in making a cup of tea, +in England all are adepts in the art of tea-making, and many do not +distinguish themselves in the preparation of coffee. Cocoa in either +country is not always the delightful beverage it should be. The +directions below, if carefully followed, will be found to give the +character of cocoa its full expression. The principal conditions to +observe are to avoid iron saucepans, to use boiling water or milk, to +froth the cocoa before serving, and to serve steaming hot in thick cups. + +[Illustration] + +The amount of cocoa required for two large breakfast cups, that is one +pint, is as much as will go, when piled up, in a dessert spoon. Take +then a heaped dessert-spoonful of pure cocoa and mix dry with one and a +half times its bulk of fine sugar. Set this on one side whilst the +boiling liquid is prepared. Mix one breakfast cup of water with one +breakfast cup of milk, and raise to the boil in an enamelled saucepan. +Whilst this is proceeding, warm the jug which is to hold the cocoa, and +transfer the dry sugar-cocoa mixture to it. Now pour in the boiling +milk and water. Transfer back to saucepan and _boil_ for one minute. +Whisk vigorously for a quarter of a minute. Serve without delay. + + + +_Digestibility of Cocoa._ + +We have noted above the high percentage of nutrients which cocoa +contains, and the research conducted by J. Forster[1] shows that these +nutrients are easily assimilated. Forster found that the fatty and +mineral constituents of cocoa are both _completely_ digested, and the +nitrogenous constituents are digested in the same proportion as in +finest bread, and more completely than in bread of average quality. One +very striking fact was revealed by his researches, namely, that the +consumption of cocoa increases the digestive power for other foods which +are taken at the same time, and that this increase is particularly +evident with milk. Dr. R.O. Neumann[2] (who fed himself with cocoa +preparations for over twelve weeks), whilst not agreeing with this +conclusion, states that: "The consumption of cocoa from the point of +view of health leaves nothing to be desired. The taking of large or +small quantities of cocoa, either rich or poor in fat, with or without +other food, gave rise to no digestive troubles during the 86 days which +formed the duration of the experiments." He considers that cocoas +containing a high percentage of cacao butter are preferable to those +which contain low percentages, and that a 30 per cent. butter content +meets all requirements. It is worthy of note that 28 to 30 per cent. is +the quantity of butter found in ordinary high-class cocoas. + + [1] _Hygienische Rundschau_, 1900, p. 305. + + [2] _Die Bewertung des Kakaos als Nahrungs- und Genussmittel_, + 1906. + +As experts are liable to disagree, and it is almost possible to prove +anything by a judicious selection from their writings, it may be well to +give an extract from some modern text book as more nearly expressing the +standard opinion of the times. In _Second Stage Hygiene_, by Mr. Ikin +and Dr. Lyster, a text book written for the Board of Education Syllabus, +we read, p. 96: "... in the better cocoas the greater part of the fat is +removed by heat and pressure. In this form cocoa may be looked upon as +almost an ideal food, as it contains proteids, fats, and carbohydrates +in roughly the right proportions. Prepared with milk and sugar it forms +a highly nutritious and valuable stimulating beverage." + + + +_Stimulating Property of Cocoa._ + +The mild stimulating property which cocoa possesses is due to the +presence of the two substances, theobromine and caffein. The presence of +theobromine is peculiar to cocoa, but caffein is a stimulating principle +which also occurs in tea and coffee. Whilst in the quantities in which +they are present in cocoa (about 1.5 per cent. of theobromine and 0.6 +per cent. of caffein) they act only as agreeable stimulants, in the pure +condition, as white crystalline powders, they are powerful curative +agents. Caffein is well known as a specific for nervous headaches, and +as a heart stimulant and diuretic. Theobromine is similar in action, but +has the advantage for certain cases, that it has much less effect on the +central nervous system, and for this reason it is a very valuable +medicine for sufferers from heart dropsy, and as a tonic for senile +heart. That its medicinal properties are appreciated is shown by its +price: during 1918 the retail price was about 8 shillings an ounce, from +which we can calculate that every pound of cocoa contained nearly two +shillingsworth of theobromine. + + + +_"Soluble" Cocoa._ + +Whilst Forster states that treated cocoa is the most digestible, experts +are not in agreement as to which is the more valuable foodstuff, the +pure untouched cocoa, or that which is treated during its manufacture +with alkaline salts. The cocoa so treated is generally described as +"soluble," although its only claim to this name is that the mineral +salts in the cocoa are rendered more soluble by the treatment. It is +also sometimes incorrectly described as containing alkali, but actually +no alkali is present in the cocoa either in a free state or as +carbonate; the potassium exists "in the form of phosphates or +combinations of organic acids, that is to say, in the ideal form in +which these bodies occur in foods of animal and vegetable origin" +(Fritsch, _Fabrication du Chocolat_, p. 216). + +[Illustration: BOXING CHOCOLATES.] + + + +_Food Value of Chocolate._ + + I ate a little chocolate from my supply, well knowing the + miraculous sustaining powers of the simple little block (from + _Mr. Isaacs_, by F. Marion Crawford). + +Whilst the food value of cocoa powder is very high the drink prepared +from it can only be regarded as an accessory food, because it is usual +to take the powder in small quantities--just as with beef-tea it is +usual to take only a small portion of an ox in a tea-cup--but chocolate +is often eaten in considerable quantities at a time, and must therefore +be regarded as an important foodstuff, and not considered, as it +frequently is considered, simply as a luxury. + +The eating of cacao mixed with sugar dates from very early days, but it +is only in recent times that it has become the principal sweetmeat. What +would a "sweetshop" be to-day without chocolate, that summit of the +confectioner's art, when the rich brown of chocolate is the predominant +note in every confectioner's window? What would the lovers in England do +without chocolates, which enable them to indulge their delight in giving +that which is sure to be well received? + +As a luxury it is universally appreciated, and because of this +appreciation its value as a food is sometimes overlooked. + +During the war chocolate was valued as a compact foodstuff, which is +easily preserved. Dr. Gastineau Earle, lecturing for the Institute of +Hygiene in 1915 on "Food Factor in War," said: "Chocolate is a most +valuable concentrated food, especially when other foods are not +available; it is the chief constituent of the emergency ration." Its +importance as a concentrated foodstuff was appreciated in the United +States, for every "comfort kit" made up for the American soldiers +fighting in the war contained a cake of sweet chocolate. + +There are a number of records of people whose lives have been preserved +by means of chocolate. One of the most recent was the case of Commander +Stewart, who was torpedoed in H.M.S. "Cornwallis" in the Mediterranean +in 1917. He happened to have in his cabin one of the boxes of chocolate +presented to the Army and Navy in 1915 by the colonies of Trinidad, +Grenada, and St. Lucia, who gave the cacao and paid English +manufacturers to make it into chocolate. He had been treasuring the box +as a souvenir, but being the only article of food available, he filled +his pockets with the chocolate, which sustained him through many trying +hours.[3] + + [3] See _West India Committee Journal_, p. 55, 1917. + +We have already seen the high food value of the cacao bean: what of the +sugar which chocolate contains? Sugar is consumed in large quantities in +England, the consumption per head amounting to 80-90 lbs. per year. It +is well known as a giver of heat and energy, and Sir Ernest Shackleton +reports that it proved a great life preserver and sustainer in Arctic +regions. Our practical acquaintance with sugar commences at birth--milk +containing about 5 per cent. of milk sugar--and when one considers the +amazing activity of young children one understands their continuous +demand for sugar. Dr. Hutchison, in his well-known _Food and the +Principles of Dietetics_, says: "The craving for sweets which children +show is, no doubt, the natural expression of a physiological need, but +they should be taken with, and not between, meals. Chocolate is one of +the most wholesome and nutritious forms of such sweets." + +Both the constituents of chocolate being nourishing, it follows that +chocolate itself has a high food value. This is proved by the figures +given below. + +As with cocoa, we have first to know the composition before we can +calculate the food value. The relative proportions of nib, butter and +sugar, vary considerably in ordinary chocolate, so that it is difficult +to give an average composition: there are sticks of eating chocolate +which contain as little as 24 per cent. of cacao butter, whilst +chocolate used for covering contains about 36 per cent. of butter. + +As modern high-class eating chocolate contains about 31 per cent. of +butter, we will take this for purposes of calculation: + + +AVERAGE COMPOSITION AND FUEL VALUE OF ENGLISH EATING CHOCOLATE. + + _Composition_ _Energy-giving power_ + + _Calories per lb._ +Cacao Butter 31.4 = 1,327 +Protein (total nitrogen 0.78%) 4.1 = 76 +Cacao Starch 2.3 } = 162 +Other Digestible Carbohydrates, etc. 6.4 } +Stimulants { Theobromine 0.3 + { Caffein 0.1 +Mineral Matter 1.2 +Crude Fibre 0.9 +Moisture 1.0 +Sugar 52.3 = 973 + ----- ----- + 100.0 2,538 + +In Snyder's _Human Foods_ (1916) the official analyses of 163 common +foods are given. They include practically everything that human beings +eat, and only three are greater than chocolate in energy-giving power. + +The result (2,538 calories per lb.) which we obtain by calculation is +lower than the figure (2,768 calories per lb.) for chocolate given by +Sherman in his book on _Food and Nutrition_ (1918). Probably his figure +is for unsweetened chocolate. The table below shows the energy-giving +value of cocoa and chocolate compared with well-known foodstuffs. The +figures (save for "eating" chocolate) are taken from Sherman's book, and +are calculated from the analyses given in Bulletin 28 of the United +States Department of Agriculture: + + +FUEL VALUE OF FOODSTUFFS. + +_Foodstuff as _Calories + Purchased._ per lb._ +Cabbage 121 +Cod Fish 209 +Apples 214 +Potatoes 302 +Milk 314 +Eggs 594 +Beef Steak 960 +Bread (average white) 1,180 +Oatmeal 1,811 +Sugar 1,815 +Cocoa 2,258 +Eating Chocolate 2,538 + +[Illustration: PACKING CHOCOLATES AT BOURNVILLE.] + + + +_Food Value of Milk Chocolate._ + +The value of milk as a food is so generally recognised as to need no +commendation here. When milk is evaporated to a dry solid, about 87.5 +per cent. of water is driven off, so that the dry milk left has about +eight times the food value of the original milk. Milk chocolate of good +quality contains from 15 to 25 per cent. of milk solids. Milk chocolate +varies greatly in composition, but for the purpose of calculating the +food value, we may assume that about a quarter of a high-class milk +chocolate consists of solid milk, and this is combined with about 40 per +cent. of cane sugar and 35 per cent. of cacao butter and cacao mass. + + +ANALYSIS AND FUEL VALUE OF MILK CHOCOLATE. + + _Energy-giving + power._ + _Calories per lb._ + +Milk Fat and Cacao Butter 35.0 = 1,480 +Milk and Cocoa Proteins 8.0 = 149 +Cacao Starch and Digestible Carbohydrates 3.0 = 56 +Stimulants (Theobromine and Caffein) 0.2 +Mineral Matter 2.0 +Crude Fibre 0.3 +Moisture 1.5 +Milk Sugar and Cane Sugar 50.0 = 930 + ----- ----- + 100.0 = 2,615 + ----- ----- + +It will be noted that the food value of milk chocolate is even greater +than that of plain chocolate. It is highly probable that milk chocolate +is the most nutritious of all sweetmeats. It is not generally recognised +that when we purchase one pound of high-class milk chocolate we obtain +three-quarters of a pound of chocolate and two pounds of milk! + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +ADULTERATION AND THE NEED FOR DEFINITIONS + + Those that mix maize in the Chocolate do very ill, for they + beget bilious and melancholy humours. + + _A Curious Treatise on the Nature and Quality of Chocolate_, + Antonio Colmenero de Ledesma, 1685. + + +COCOA. + +Cocoa might conveniently be defined as consisting exclusively of +shelled, roasted, finely-ground cacao beans, partially de-fatted, with +or without a minute quantity of flavouring material. + +The gross adulteration of cocoa is now a thing of the past, and most of +the cocoa sold conforms with this definition. Statements, however, get +copied from book to book, and hence we continue to read that cocoa +usually contains arrowroot or other starch. In the old days this was +frequently so, but now, owing to many legal actions by Public Health +Authorities, this abuse has been stamped out. Nowadays if a Public +Analyst finds flour or arrowroot in a sample bought as cocoa, he +describes it as adulterated, and the seller is prosecuted and fined. +Hence, save for the presence of cacao shell, the cocoa of the present +day is a pure article consisting simply of roasted, finely-ground cacao +beans partially de-fatted. The principal factors affecting the quality +of the finished cocoa are the difference in the kind of cacao bean used, +the amount of cacao butter extracted, the care in preparation, and the +amount of cacao shell left in. + +The presence of more than a small percentage of shell in cocoa is a +disadvantage both on the ground of taste and of food value. This has +been recognised from the earliest times (see quotations on p. 128). In +the Cocoa Powder Order of 1918, the amount of shell which a cocoa powder +might contain was defined--_grade A_ not to contain more than two per +cent. of shell, and _grade B_ not more than five per cent. of shell. The +manufacturers of high-class cocoa welcomed these standards, but +unfortunately the known analytical methods are not delicate enough to +estimate accurately such small quantities, so that any external check is +difficult, and the purchaser has to trust to the honesty of the +manufacturer. Hence it is wise to purchase cocoa only from makers of +good repute. + + +CHOCOLATE. + +We have so far no legal definition of chocolate in England. As Mr. N.P. +Booth pointed out at the Seventh International Congress of Applied +Chemistry: "At the present time a mixture of cocoa with sugar and starch +cannot be sold as pure cocoa, but only as 'chocolate powder,' and with a +definite declaration that the article is a mixture of cocoa and other +ingredients. Prosecutions are constantly occurring where mixtures of +foreign starch and sugar with cocoa have been sold as 'cocoa,' and it +seems, therefore, a proper step to take to require that a similar +declaration shall be made in the case of 'chocolate' which contains +other constituents than the products of cocoa nib and sugar." We cannot +do better than quote in full the definitions suggested in Mr. Booth's +paper. + +The author refers to the absence of any legal standard for chocolate in +England, although in some of the European countries standards are in +force, and points out, as a result of this, that articles of which the +sale would be prohibited in some other countries, are permitted to come +without restriction on to the English market. + +[Illustration: WHARF AT FACTORY AT KNIGHTON, AT WHICH MILK IS EVAPORATED +FOR MILK CHOCOLATE MANUFACTURE. +(Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd.)] + +He suggests that the following definitions for chocolate goods are +reasonable, and could be conformed to by makers of the genuine article. +These standards are not more stringent than those already enforced in +some of the Colonies and European countries: + + (1) Unsweetened chocolate or _cacao mass_ must be prepared + exclusively from roasted, shelled, finely-ground cacao beans, + with or without the addition of a small quantity of + flavouring matter, and should not contain less than 45 per + cent. of cacao butter. + + (2) Sweetened chocolate or _chocolate_.--A preparation + consisting exclusively of the products of roasted, shelled, + finely-ground cacao beans, and not more than 65 per cent. of + sugar, with or without a small quantity of harmless + flavouring matter. + + (3) _Granulated_, or _Ground Chocolate for Drinking_ + purposes.--The same definition as for sweetened chocolate + should apply here, except that the proportion of sugar may be + raised to not more than 75 per cent. + + (4) _Chocolate-covered Goods._--Various forms of + confectionery covered with chocolate, the composition of the + latter agreeing with the definition of sweetened chocolate. + + (5) _Milk Chocolate._--A preparation composed exclusively of + roasted, shelled cacao beans, sugar, and not less than 15 per + cent. of the dry solids of full-cream milk, with or without a + small quantity of harmless flavouring matter. + +Mr. Booth further states that starch other than that naturally present +in the cacao bean, and cacao shell in powder form, should be absolutely +excluded from any article which is to be sold under the name of +"chocolate." + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE CONSUMPTION OF CACAO + + The Kernels that come to us from the Coast of _Caraqua_, are + more oily, and less bitter, than those that come from the + _French_ Islands, and in _France_ and _Spain_ they prefer + them to these latter. But in _Germany_ and in the _North_ + (_Fides sit penes autorem_) they have a quite opposite Taste. + Several People mix that of _Caraqua_ with that of the + Islands, half in half, and pretend by this Mixture to make + the Chocolate better. I believe in the bottom, the difference + of Chocolates is not considerable, since they are only + obliged to increase or diminish the Proportion of Sugar, + according as the Bitterness of the Kernels require it. + + _The Natural History of Chocolate_, R. Brookes, 1730. + + +The war has caused such a disturbance that the statistics for the years +of the war are difficult to obtain. For many years the German +publication, the _Gordian_, was the most reliable source of cacao +statistics, and so far we have nothing in England sufficiently +comprehensive to replace it, although useful figures can be obtained +from the Board of Trade returns of imports into Great Britain, from Mr. +Theo. Vasmer's reports which appear from time to time in _The +Confectioners' Union_ and elsewhere, from Mr. Hamel Smith's collated +material in _Tropical Life_, and from the reports of important brokers +like Messrs. Woodhouse. In 1919 the _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_ +gave a very complete _resume_ of cacao production as far as the British +Empire is concerned. + + + +_Great Britain._ + +Since 1830 the consumption of cacao in the British Isles has shown a +great and continuous increase, and there is every reason to believe that +the consumption will easily keep pace with the rapidly growing +production. One effect of the war has been to increase the consumption +of cocoa and chocolate. Many thousands of men who took no interest in +"sweets" learned from the use of their emergency ration that chocolate +was a very convenient and concentrated foodstuff. + + +CACAO BEANS CLEARED FOR HOME CONSUMPTION. + +Year. English Tons. +1830 450 +1840 900 +1850 1,400 +1860 1,450 +1870 3,100 +1880 4,700 +1890 9,000 +1900 16,900 +1910 24,550 + + +CACAO BEANS IMPORTED INTO UNITED KINGDOM. + + _Total _Retained in _Home +Year. Imported_ the country_ Consumption_ + tons. tons. tons. + 1912 33,600 27,450 24,600 + 1913 35,000 28,200 23,200 + 1914 41,750 29,600 24,900 + 1915 81,800 54,400 40,300 + 1916 88,800 64,750 29,300 + 1917 57,900 53,100 41,300 + +The above figures are compiled from the _Bulletin of the Imperial +Institute_ (No. 1, 1919). The total imports for 1918 were 42,390 tons. +This sudden and marked drop in the amount imported was due to shortage +of shipping. There were, however, large quantities of cacao in stock, +and the amount consumed showed a marked advance on previous years, being +61,252 tons. + +The Board of Trade Returns for 1919 are as follow: + + +CACAO BEANS IMPORTED INTO UNITED KINGDOM. + +_From_ +British West Africa 72,886 tons +British West Indies 13,219 tons +Ecuador 9,153 tons +Brazil 3,665 tons +Ceylon 903 tons +Other Countries 13,820 tons + ------------ + Total 113,646 tons + ------------ +Home Consumption 64,613 tons + +It will be noted that the import of British cacao is over 75 per cent. +of the total. + +Before the war about half the cacao imported into the United Kingdom was +grown in British possessions. During the war more and more British cacao +was imported, and now that a preferential duty of seven shillings per +hundredweight has been given to British Colonial growths we shall +probably see a still higher percentage of British cacao consumed in the +United Kingdom. + + +VALUE OF CACAO BEANS IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM (TO NEAREST +L1,000). + + Total value of Cacao From British Possessions. +Year. Beans Imported. _Value._ _Per cent._ +1913 L2,199,000 L1,158,000 52.7 +1914 L2,439,000 L1,204,000 49.4 +1915 L5,747,000 L3,546,000 61.7 +1916 L6,498,000 L4,417,000 68.0 +1917 L3,498,000 L3,010,000 86.0 +1918 L3,040,000 L2,549,000 83.8 +1919 L9,207,000 L6,639,000 72.1 + +That the consumption of cacao is expected to grow greater yet in the +immediate future is reflected in the prices of raw cacao, which, as soon +as they were no longer fixed by the Government, rose rapidly, thus Accra +cacao rose from 65s. per hundredweight to over 90s. per hundredweight in +a few weeks, and now (January, 1920) stands at 104s. (See diagram p. +113). + + + +_World Consumption._ + +The world's consumption of cacao is steadily rising. Before the war the +United States, Germany, Holland, Great Britain, France, and Switzerland +were the principal consumers. Whilst we have increased our consumption, +so that Great Britain now occupies second place, the United States has +outstripped all the other countries, having doubled its consumption in a +few years, and is now taking almost as much as all the rest of the world +put together. It is thought that since America has "gone dry" this +remarkably large consumption is likely to be maintained. + + +WORLD'S CONSUMPTION OF CACAO BEANS. +(to the nearest thousand tons) +1 ton = 1000 kilograms. + + + _Pre-war_ _War Period_ _Post-war_ + + Average of + 1913. 1914, 5, 6,& 7. 1918. 1919. +Country. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. + +U.S.A. 68,000 103,000 145,000 145,000 +Germany 51,000 28,000 ? 13,000 +Holland 30,000 25,000 2,000 39,000 +Great Britain 28,000 41,000 62,000 66,000 +France 28,000 35,000 39,000 46,000 +Switzerland 10,000 14,000 18,000 21,000 +Austria 7,000 2,000 ? 2,000 +Belgium 6,000 1,000 1,000 8,000 +Spain 6,000 7,000 6,000 8,000 +Russia 5,000 4,000 ? ? +Canada 3,000 4,000 9,000 ? +Italy 2,000 5,000 6,000 6,000 +Denmark 2,000 2,000 2,000 ? +Sweden 1,000 2,000 2,000 ? +Norway 1,000 2,000 2,000 ? +Other countries + (estimated) 5,000 8,000 11,000 26,000 + -------------------------------------------- +Total 252,000 283,000 305,000 380,000 + +The above figures are compiled chiefly from Mr. Theo. Vasmer's reports. +The _Gordian_ estimates that the world's consumption in 1918 was +314,882 tons. In several of our larger colonies and in at least one +European country there is obviously ample room for increase in the +consumption. When one considers the great population of Russia, four to +five thousand tons per annum is a very small amount to consume. It is +pleasant to think of cocoa being drunk in the icebound North of +Russia--it brings to mind so picturesque a contrast: cacao, grown +amongst the richly-coloured flora of the tropics, consumed in a land +that is white with cold. When Russia has reached a more stable condition +we shall doubtless see a rapid expansion in the cacao consumption. + +[Illustration: CACAO PODS, LEAVES AND FLOWERS. +Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Fry & Sons, Ltd., Bristol.] + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + +BOOKS ON COCOA AND CHOCOLATE ARRANGED IN ORDER OF DATE OF PUBLICATION. + + + +1600-1700 + + +RAUCH, Joan. Franc. + +DISPUTATIO MEDICO DIOETETICA DE AERE ET ESCULENTIS, DE +NECNON POTU. Vienna 1624 + +[Condemns cocoa as a violent inflamer of the passions.] + + +COLMENERO, Antonio de Ledesma. + +[Treatise on Chocolate in Spanish entitled:] +CURIOSO TRATADO DE LA NATURALEZA Y CALIDAD DEL CHOCOLATE, +DIVIDIDO EN QUATRO PUNTOS. Madrid 1631 + +Translated into English by Don Diego de Vades-forte 1640 +Translated into French by Rene Moreau 1643 +Translated into Latin by J.G. Volckamer 1644 +Translated into English by J. Wadsworth 1652 +Translated into Italian by A. Vitrioli 1667 +Moreau's translation edited by Sylvestre Dufour 1671 and 1685 +and translated into English by J. Chamberlaine 1685 + +[for titles, etc., see under translators] + + +DE VADES-FORTE, Don Diego. +[The magnificent pseudonym of J. Wadsworth.] +(Translated by.) + +A CURIOUS TREATISE OF THE NATURE AND QUALITY OF CHOCOLATE +by Antonio de Ledesma Colmenero. London 1640 + + +MOREAU, Rene. (Translated by.) + +DU CHOCOLAT DISCOURS CURIEUX +by Antonio de Ledesma Colmenero. pp. 59. Paris 1643 + + +[VOLCKAMER, J.G. Translated by.] + +CHOCOLATA INDA, OPUSCULUM DE QUALITATE ET NATURA CHOCOLATAE +by Antonio de Ledesma Colmenero. pp. 73. Norimbergae 1644 + +(In same volume with this is "Opobalsamum Orientalae" and +"Pisonis Observationes Medicae." Total pp. 224.) + + +WADSWORTH, J. (Translated by.) + +CHOCOLATE: OR AN INDIAN DRINKE ETC. +by Antonio Ledesma Colmenero. London 1652 + + +STUBBE(S), Henry. + +THE INDIAN NECTAR OR A DISCOURSE CONCERNING CHOCOLATA. +pp. 184. London 1662 + + +BRANCATIUS, Franciscus Maria. + +DE CHOCALATIS POTU DIATRIBE. pp. 36. Rome 1664 + + +PAULLI, Simon. + +COMMENTARIUS DE ABUSU TABACI THEE. Argentorati (see 1746) 1665 + + +VITRIOLI, A. (Translated by.) + +DELLA CIOCCOLATA DISCORSO. +[From Moreau's translation of Colmenero's book.] Rome 1667 + + +SEBASTUS MELISSENUS, F. Nicephorus. + +DE CHOCOLATIS POTIONE RESOLUTIO MORALIS. pp. 36. Naples 1671 + + +SYLVESTRE DUFOUR, P. [Edited by.] + +DE L'USAGE DU CAPHE, DU THE, ET DU CHOCOLAT. pp. 188. Lyon 1671 + +[The part on chocolate, pp. 59, is a revision of Moreau's +translation of Colmenero's book, plus B. Marradon's dialogue +on chocolate.] + +Translated into English by J. Chamberlaine (which see). 1685 + + +HUGHES, William. + +THE AMERICAN PHYSITIAN ... WHEREUNTO IS ADDED A DISCOURSE ON +THE CACAO-NUT-TREE, AND THE USE OF ITS FRUIT, WITH ALL THE +WAYS OF MAKING CHOCOLATE. London 1672 + + +AUTHOR NOT GIVEN. + +DESCRIPTION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE COCOA TREE. +Phil. Trans. Abr. II. pp. 59. 1673 + + +BONTEKOE, Willem. + +Sundry short treatises in Dutch on Cocoa and Chocolate. about 1679 + + +AUTHOR NOT GIVEN. + +THE NATURAL HISTORY OF COFFEE, TEA, CHOCOLATE, TOBACCO AND +ALSO THE WAY OF MAKING MUM. +pp. 39. Printed for Christopher Wilkinson. London 1682 + +[Condemns chocolate on account of its containing "such a +corrosive salt" as sugar. Mum is a peculiar kind of beer +made from wheat malt.] + + +MUNDY, Henry. + +OPERA OMNIA MEDICO-PHYSICA DE AERE VITALI, ESCULENTIS ET +POTULENTIS CUM APPENDICE DE PARERGIS IN VICTU ET CHOCOLATU, +THEA, CAFFEA, TOBACCO. Oxford 1680. Leyden 1685 + + +SYLVESTRE DUFOUR, P. + +TRAITEZ NOUVEAUX ET CURIEUX DU CAFE, DU THE ET DU CHOCOLAT. + +[The treatise on chocolate is compiled from the Spanish of +Colmenero and B. Marradon.] pp. 403. a la Haye 1685 +(With additions by St. Disdier) pp. 404. a la Haye 1693 +Published by Deville. pp. 404. Lyon 1688 + +The above in Latin (by J. Spon), +"TRACTATUS NOVI DE POTU CAPHE, DE CHIENSIUM, THE, ET DE +CHOCOLATA." pp. 202. Paris 1685 + +A further Latin translation of the above, +"NOVI TRACTATUS DE POTU CAPHE, DE CHIENSIUM, THE, ET DE +CHOCOLATA." pp. 188. Geneva 1699 + + +CHAMBERLAINE, J. (Translated by.) + +THE MANNER OF MAKING COFFEE, TEA AND CHOCOLATE. pp. 116. London 1685 + +[A translation of Sylvestre Dufour's compilation, the part +on Chocolate entitled "A Curious Treatise of the Nature and +Quality of Chocolate," being a translation of Colmenero's book.] + + +BLEGNY, Nicholas de. + +LE BON USAGE DE THE, DU CAFFE, ET DU CHOCOLAT POUR LA +PRESERVATION ET POUR LA GUERISON DES MALADES. +pp. 358. Paris 1687 +pp. 358. Lyon 1687 + + +MAPPUS, Marcus. + +DISSERTATIONES MEDICAE TRES DE RECEPTIS HODIE ETIAM IN +EUROPA, POTUS CALIDI GENERIBUS THEE, CAFE, CHOCOLATA. +pp. 66. Argentorati 1695 + + + +1701-1800 + + +DUNCAN, Dr. + +WHOLESOME ADVICE AGAINST THE ABUSE OF HOT LIQUORS, +PARTICULARLY OF COFFEE, TEA, CHOCOLATE, ETC. pp. 280. London 1706 + + +AUTHOR NOT GIVEN [by De Chelus.] + +HISTOIRE NATURELLE DU CACAO ET DU SUCRE. +pp. 227. Paris 1719 +pp. 228. Amsterdam 1720 +pp. 404. Amsterdam 1720 +pp. 95. London 1724 + + +BROOKES, R. [the above by De Chelus.] (Translated by.) + +NATURAL HISTORY OF CHOCOLATE. +pp. 95. Printed for J. Roberts, London 1724 +pp. 95. Printed for Browne, London 1725 +pp. 95. Printed for J. Roberts, London 1730 + + +ACT OF PARLIAMENT, George II, 1723. + +Relating to +"LAYING INLAND DUTIES ON COFFEE, TEA AND CHOCOLATE." London 1724 + + +BRUCKMAN, F.E. + +RELATIO DE CACAO. Brunswick 1738 + + +BARON, H.T. + +AN SENIBUS CHOCOLATAE PUTUS? Paris 1739 + + +PAULI, S. [PAULLI.] + +A TREATISE ON TOBACCO, TEA, COFFEE AND CHOCOLATE. +Translated by Dr. James. pp. 171. London (see 1665) 1746 + + +N.N. [pseudonym of D. CONGINA.] + +MEMORIE STORICHE SOPRA L'USO DELLA CIOCCOLATA IN TEMPO DI +DIGIUNO ETC. +Historical memoir on the use of chocolate upon fast days. +pp. 196. Venice 1748 + + +STAYLEY, G. + +THE CHOCOLATE MAKERS OR MIMICKRY EXPOSED. +An Interlude. Dublin. 1759 + + +AUTHOR NOT GIVEN. + +OBSERVATIONS SUR LE CACAO ET SUR LE CHOCOLAT. pp. 144. Paris 1772 + + +SMITH, Hugh. + +AN ESSAY ON FOREIGN TEAS, WITH OBSERVATIONS ON MINERAL +WATERS, COFFEE, CHOCOLATE, ETC. London 1794 + + + +1801-1900 + + +PARMENTIER + +ON THE COMPOSITION AND USE OF CHOCOLATE. +Nicholson's Journal. London 1803 + + +GALLAIS, A. + +MONOGRAPHIE DU CACAO. pp. 216. Paris 1827 + + +MITSCHERLICH, A. + +DER KAKAO UND DIE SCHOKOLADE. Berlin 1859 + + +GOSSELIN, A. + +MANUEL DES CHOCOLATIERS. pp. 53. Paris 1860 + + +MANGIN, A. + +LE CACAO ET LA CHOCOLAT. Paris 1862 + + +HEWETT, C. (of Messrs. Dunn and Hewett.) + +CHOCOLATE AND COCOA, GROWTH AND PREPARATION. pp. 88. London 1862 + + +COMPAGNIE COLONIALE. + +CHOCOLATE: ITS CHARACTER AND HISTORY. pp. 37. Paris 1868 + + +HOLM, J. + +COCOA AND ITS MANUFACTURE. Rivers, London. + + +SINCLAIR, W.J. + +BEVERAGES, TEA, COCOA, ETC. +(Health Lectures, Vol. 4). Manchester 1881 + + +SALDAU, E. + +DIE CHOCOLADE-FABRIKATION. pp. 232. Vienna (see 1907) 1881 + + +MORRIS, D. + +CACAO: HOW TO GROW IT. pp. 45. Jamaica (see 1887) 1882 + + +TRINIDAD Agricultural Association. + +CURING OF COCOA DISCUSSED. pp. 6. 1885 + + +BARTELINK, E.J. + +HANDLEIDING VOOR KAKAO-PLANTERS. pp. 68. Amsterdam 1885 + +English Translation, +"THE CACAO PLANTERS' MANUAL." pp. 57. London 1885 + + +BAKER, W., & Co. + +COCOA AND CHOCOLATE. +pp. 152. Dorchester, Mass., U.S.A. (see 1891 and 1899) 1886 + + +MORRIS, D. + +CACAO: HOW TO GROW IT. pp. 42. Jamaica (see 1882) 1886 + + +ZIPPERER, P. + +DIE CHOCOLADE FABRIKATION. pp. 181. Berlin (see 1902 and 1913) 1889 + + +BANNISTER, R. + +CANTOR LECTURES ON SUGAR, COFFEE, TEA AND COCOA. pp. 77. London 1890 + + +BAKER, W., & Co. + +THE CHOCOLATE PLANT AND ITS PRODUCTS. +pp. 40. Dorchester, Mass., U.S.A. (see 1886 and 1899) 1891 + + +HART, J.H. + +CACAO. pp. 77. Port of Spain, Trinidad (see 1900 and 1911) 1892 + + +HATTON, J. + +COCOA. pp. 22. London 1892 + + +HISTORICUS. + +COCOA: ALL ABOUT IT. pp. 114. London (see 1896) 1892 + + +GORDIAN, A. + +DIE DEUTSCHE SCHOKOLADEN UND ZUCKERWAREN INDUSTRIE. +Hartleben's Verlag. Hamburg 1895 + + +ROQUE, L. De Belfort de la. + +GUIDE PRATIQUE DE LA FABRICATION DU CHOCOLAT. Paris 1895 + + +HISTORICUS. + +COCOA: ALL ABOUT IT. pp. 99. London (see 1892) 1896 + + +VILLON. + +MANUEL DU CONFISEUR ET DU CHOCOLAT. Paris 1896 + + +GOLDOS, L. + +MANNUAL DE FABRICACION INDUSTRIAL DE CHOCOLATE. pp. 261. Madrid 1897 + + +OLIVIERI, F.E. + +CACAO PLANTING AND ITS CULTIVATION. pp. 34. +Port of Spain, Trinidad (see 1903) 1897 + + +EPPS, James. + +THE CACAO PLANT. pp. 11. +(Transactions Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club) 1898 + + +BAKER, W., & Co. + +COCOA AND CHOCOLATE. +pp. 71. Dorchester, Mass., U.S.A. (see 1886 and 1891) 1899 + + +HART, J.H. + +CACAO. pp. 117. Port of Spain, Trinidad (see 1892 and 1911) 1900 + + +JUMELLE, H. + +LE CACOYER: SA CULTURE ET SON EXPLOITATION. pp. 211. Paris 1900 + + +MENIER. + +HISTORIQUE DES ETABLISSEMENTS MENIER. +(Printed for Exposition Universelle.) pp. 44. Paris 1900 + + + +MODERN WORKS, 1901-1920. + + +(_a_) _Cacao Cultivation._ + + +SMITH, H. Hamel. + +SOME NOTES ON COCOA PLANTING IN THE WEST INDIES. pp. 70 1901 + + +WILDEMAN, E. de. + +LES PLANTES TROPICALES DE GRANDE CULTURE--CAFE, CACAO, ETC. +pp. 304. Bruxelles 1902 + + +PREUSS, Paul. + +EXPEDITION NACH CENTRAL UND SUeD-AMERIKA. Berlin. + +French translation of part of the above, +"LE CACAO, CULTURE ET PREPARATION" +(from Bulletin Societe d'Etudes Coloniales). pp. 249. 1902 + + +EITLING, C. + +DER KAKAO, SEINE KULTUR UND BEREITUNG. pp. 39. 1903 + + +OLIVIERI, F.E. + +TREATISE ON CACAO. pp. 101. Trinidad (see 1897) 1903 + + +KINDT, L. + +DIE KULTUR DES KAKAOBAUMES UND SEINE SCHAeDLINGE. +pp. 157. Hamburg 1904 + + +STEUART, M.E. + +EVERYDAY LIFE ON A CEYLON COCOA ESTATE. pp. 256. London 1905 + + +CHALOT, C. and LUC, M. + +LE CACOYER AU CONGO FRANCAIS. pp. 58 1906 + + +FAUCHERE, A. + +CULTURE PRATIQUE DU CACAOYER ET PREPARATION DU CACAO. +pp. 175. Paris 1906 + + +PRUD'HOMME, E. + +LE COCOTIER. CULTURE, INDUSTRIE ET COMMERCE. pp. 491. 1906 + + +DE MENDONCA, Monteiro. + +BOA ENTRADA PLANTATIONS, SAN THOME. pp. 63. London 1907 + + +MOUNTMORRES, Viscount. + +MAIZE, COCOA, RUBBER. pp. 44. Liverpool 1907 + + +SALDAU, E. + +DIE SCHOKOLADEN FABRIKATION. Vienna (see 1881) 1907 + + +WRIGHT, H. + +THEOBROMA CACAO OR COCOA. pp. 249. Colombo 1907 + + +RAFAELI, V., and MAXIMILIANO, E. + +HOW JOSE FORMED HIS CACAO ESTATE. pp. 18. Trinidad 1907 + + +TORAILLE, C.F. + +STOLEN FROM THE FIELDS. A TREATISE ON CACAO AND ITS +CULTIVATION. Trinidad 1907 + + +HUGGINS, J.D. + +HINTS TO THOSE ENGAGING IN THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA. pp. 24. +Port of Spain, Trinidad 1908 + + +SMITH, H. Hamel. + +THE FUTURE OF CACAO PLANTING. pp. 95. London 1908 + + +ATBE. + +EL CULTIVO LAS DISERSAS INDUSTRIAS DES COCO. pp. 42. Quito 1909 + + +HART, J.H. + +CACAO. pp. 307. Duckworth, London (see 1892 and 1900) 1911 + + +SMITH, H. Hamel. + +NOTES ON SOIL AND PLANT SANITATION ON CACAO AND RUBBER +ESTATES. pp. 603. Bale, London 1911 + + +CARVATHO, d'Almeida. + +A ILHA DE S. THOME E A AGRICULTURA PROGRESSIVA. +(Includes Culturas de Cacoeiro.) pp. 228. Lisbon 1912 + + +JOHNSON, W.H. + +COCOA: ITS CULTIVATION AND PREPARATION. pp. 186. +(Imperial Institute.) London 1912 + + +AUTHOR NOT GIVEN. + +CACAO CULTURE IN THE WEST INDIES. +pp. 75. Havana. (Published by German Alkali Works, Cuba.) 1912 + + +HENRY, Yves. + +LE CACAO. pp. 103. Paris 1913 + + +SMITH, H. Hamel. + +THE FERMENTATION OF CACAO. pp. 318. Bale, London 1913 + + +MALINS-SMITH, W.M. + +PRACTICAL CACAO PLANTING IN GRENADA. +(_West India Committee Circular_, April to December.) 1913 + + +HALL, C.J.J. van. + +COCOA. pp. 512. Macmillan, London 1914 + + +KNAPP, A.W. + +THE PRACTICE OF CACAO FERMENTATION. pp. 24. Bale, London 1914 + + +(_b_) _Chocolate Manufacture._ + + +BESSELICH, N. + +DIE SCHOKOLADE. pp. 74. Trier. + + +ZIPPERER, P. + +MANUFACTURE OF CHOCOLATE. pp. 277. +Berlin, London and New York (see 1889 and 1913) 1902 + + +DUVAL, E. + +CONFISERIE MODERNE. 1908 + + +BOOTH, N.P., CRIBB, C.H., and ELLIS-RICHARDS, P.A. + +THE COMPOSITION AND ANALYSIS OF CHOCOLATE. +Reprinted from the _Analyst_. pp. 15. London 1909 + + +FRITSCH, F. + +FABRICATION DU CHOCOLAT. pp. 349. Paris 1910 + + +FRANCOIS, L. + +LES ALIMENTS SUCRES INDUSTRIELS +(Chocolats, Bonbons, etc.) pp. 143. Paris 1912 + + +WHYMPER, R. + +COCOA AND CHOCOLATE: THEIR CHEMISTRY AND MANUFACTURE. +pp. 327. Churchill, London 1912 + + +ZIPPERER, P. + +DIE SCHOKOLADEN-FABRIKATION. +pp. 349. Berlin (see also 1889 and 1902) 1913 + + +JACOUTOT, Auguste. + +CHOCOLATE AND CONFECTIONERY MANUFACTURE. +pp. xv, 211. J. Baker & Sons. London + + +(_c_) _General._ + + +WINTON, A.L., SILVERMAN, M., and BAILEY, E.M. + +[ANALYSES OF CACAO AND COCOA.] +Report Connecticut Agri. Expt. Station, U.S.A. pp. 40. 1902 + + +HEAD, Brandon. + +THE FOOD OF THE GODS. pp. 109. London 1903 + + +STOLLWERCK, W. + +DER KAKAO UND DIE SCHOKOLADEN INDUSTRIE. pp. 102. Jena 1907 + + +U.S. CONSULAR REPORT NO. 50 +(Dept. of Commerce and Labour.) + +COCOA PRODUCTION AND TRADE. pp. 51. Washington 1912 + + +CASTILLO, Ledon. + +EL CHOCOLATE. pp. vi, 30. Mexico 1917 + + +BULLETIN IMPERIAL INSTITUTE. + +COCOA PRODUCTION IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE. pp. 40-95. London 1919 + + +KNAPP, A.W., and McLELLAN, B.G. + +THE ESTIMATION OF CACAO SHELL +(reprint from _Analyst_). pp. 21. London 1919 + + * * * * * + +The bibliography above is made as complete as possible as far as bound +books in English are concerned. It also gives the more important +continental publications. Should any errors or omissions have been made +here or elsewhere, the author will be grateful if readers will point +them out. + + + + +PERIODICALS. + +Only one or two of the important papers in current literature are +mentioned. Much valuable material is to be found in the following: + + + +CACAO PRODUCTION + +The papers published by the various departments of agriculture +(especially those of Trinidad, Grenada, Philippines, Java, Ceylon, Gold +Coast, Kew, etc.), the _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, _The West +India Committee Circular_, _Tropical Life_, _West Africa_, _Der +Tropenpflanzer_, etc. + + + +STATISTICS + +_The Gordian_, _Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_. + + + +MANUFACTURE + +_The Confectioners' Union_. + + + +CHEMISTRY + +_The Analyst_, the _Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry_, and +the _Journal of the Chemical Society_. + + + + +INDEX + + +_Asterisks denote illustrations._ + +ACCRA, 74, 91, 114, 185 (_see also_ Gold Coast) +Acids produced by fermentation, 57 +Adulterants, 163 +Adulteration, cocoa, 179 chocolate, 180 +Agostini cacao picker, 46, *46 +Agricultural colleges, 42 education, 90 +Alcohol produced by fermentation, 52, 57 +Alkaline treating of cocoa, 173 +Allen, Grant, 114 +Altitude, cacao cultivation, 18 +Alligator cacao, 24 +Analytical composition--cacao bean, 166 + cacao butter, 159 + cacao shell, 163 + chocolate, 176 + cocoa, 168 + milk chocolate, 178 +ARRIBA, 74, 84 (_see also_ Guayaquil) +Aztec, 5, 7, 8 + + + +Bacteria--fermentation, 57 +Bagging cacao beans, *107, *110 +BAHIA, 74, 87, 114 +Bainbridge and Davies, 125 +Baker & Co., Walter, 121 +Beans, 3, 167, *129 + breaking machine, 130 + breaking of, into fragments, 130 + changes--fermentation, 57 + characteristics of, 75 + size and weight of, 74 + use as money, 8 +Bibliography, 191 +Blending, 133 +Booth, N.P., 75, 180 +Botanical description, 25 +Bournville, 128, 144, 162 +Boxing chocolates, *173 +BRAZIL, 38, 82, 84, 87, 185 +Breaking cacao pods, 50, *51 +Brill, H.C., 59 +BRITISH GUIANA, 84 +BRITISH WEST AFRICA, 185 (_see also_ Gold Coast) +Buying cacao, 109 +By-products, 157, 161 + + + +Cacao beans, (_see_ beans) +Cacao butter, 135, 157, 159, 166, 168, 171, 176, 178 + keeping properties, 158 + melting point, 149, 158 + pressing out of, 135 +Cacao, cultivation, 17, 38, 116 + definition, 2 + explanation name, 1 + introduction into Europe, 10 + keeping properties, 122 + manufacturers' requirements, 75 + picker, 46, *46 + preparations, popularity of, 15 + shell, (_see_ shell) +_Cacauatl_, 1 +Cadbury Bros., 15, 154 +Cadbury, Richard, 16 +Caffein, 166, 168, 172, 176, 178 +Cailler & Co., 154 +_Calabacillo_, 23, *27, 76 +CAMEROON'S, 74, 82, 91, 105, 114 +CARACAS, 74, 87 +Carmody, Professor, 38, 41 +CARUPANO, 74, 87 +Catch crop, 36 +CEYLON, 18, 42, 52, 68, 70, 74, 81, 82, 106, 114, 185 +Chittenden, Dr., 52 +Claying, 70, *71, 76, 88 +Clearing the land, *29, 30 +Clifford, Sir Hugh, 91 +Climate, cacao cultivation, 17 +_Criollo_, *27, 34, 52, 59, 87, 107 +Chocolate, 176, 180 +Chocolate, ancient usage, 10 + covering recipe, 150 + covering, suggested legal definition, 182 + definition, 3 + derivation of word, 8 + fascination of, 8 + houses and clubs, 12 + powder, 180 + recipe, 140 + suggested legal definitions, 181 + sustaining value, 174 +_Chocolatl_, 7, 8 +Chupons, (_see_ suckers) +Cocoa, 168, 169 + definition, 2 + digestibility of, 171 + how to make, 170 + origin of word, 3 + powder, introduction of, 15 +Coconuts, distinction between and cacao, 3 +Colouring beans, 72 +Colour, cacao bean, 25, 77 + cacao butter, 158 + cacao flowers, 22 + cacao leaves, 22 + cacao pods, 24, 48 + changes during fermentation, 57, 59, 61 +Columbus, 7 +Composition, (_see_ analyses) +Compressor, chocolate, 148 +Conching, 145 +Conche machine, *147, *148 +CONGO, 82, 91, 114 +Consumption, 15, 184 + British Isles, 184 + World, 186 +Contract labour, Cameroons, 106 + San Thome, 103 +Cortes, 7 +Covering cremes, *151 +CUBA, 82 + + + +Dancing, cacao beans, 72 +De Candolle, 94 +Decauville railways, 52 +DEMERARA, 114 +Diseases, cacao tree, 43 +DOMINICA, 82, 88 +Drying, 62, *63, 64, *64, *65, *68, *69, *85, *98, *105 +Dryers, artificial, 66, *67 +Duty, 13, 185 +Duty, cacao beans, 14, 185 + cacao butter, 14 + cacao shell, 14 + + + +Earle, Dr. Gastineau, 174 +ECUADOR, 52, 81, 82, 84, 185 +Enrobing machine, 152, *152 +Enzymes, 59, 61, 66 +Exports, cacao butter, 160 + beans, 84 +Extracting beans from pod, 50 + + + +Faber, Dr. von, 22 +Faelli, Professor, 164 +Fat (_see_ cacao butter) +Fermentation, 52, 56 + changes during, 55 + control of, 63 + good effects of, 60 + loss of weight, during, 64 + period of, 52 + temperature of, 53, 55, 59, 61 +Fermenting boxes, *54, *58 +FERNANDO PO, 82, 91 +Fickendey, Dr., 55, 59, 61 +Flavouring chocolate, 146 +Flowers, *21, 22, 74 +Flowers, percentage fruiting, 74 +Food value, cacao bean, 166 + chocolate, 173, 176 + cocoa, 168 + milk chocolate, 178 + old opinions, 165 +_Forastero_, *27, 34, 53, 59, 77 +Forster, J., 171, 172 +Freeman, W.G., 34 +FRENCH COLONIES, 82 +Fritsch, J., 173 +Fruit, cacao, 21 +Fry, J.S., & Sons, 14, 15, 122, 134 +Fry, Joseph, 3, 13 +Fungi, 44 + + + +Gage, Thomas, 8, 10 +Gathering, 45, *47, *49, *85 +Geographical distribution, 18 +Germ, cacao, 59, *129, 131 + screens, *131 + separation of, 131 +Germination, prevention of, 61 +GOLD COAST, 18, 42, 74, 81, 82, 91, 94, 107 (_see also_ Accra) native +industry, 94 +Gordon, W.J., 10 +Gouveia, Dr., 105 +Grafting and budding, 34, 75 +GRENADA, 30, 38, 74, 76, 81, 82, 88, 90, 114 +Grinding, 120, 134, *143 + mill, cocoa, *133, 134, *135 + machine, chocolate, 140, *142, *145 +Grousseau & Viconge, 163 +GUAYAQUIL, 32, 76, 84, 109, 114 (_see also_ Arriba and Machala) + + + +HAITI, 82, 88 +Hart, J.H., 34 +Height, cacao tree, 20, 36 +Historicus, 16 +History, cocoa and chocolate, 1 +Home of cacao, 5 +Husk, (_see_ shell) +Hutchison, Dr., 170, 175 + + +Illipe butter, 159 +_Immortel, Bois_, 37 +Imports, cacao butter, 160 + cacao bean, 185 +Incas, 8 +Insect Pests, 44 + + + +JAMAICA, 82, 88 +JAVA, 18, 37, 42, 54, 68, 70, 82, 106, 114 + + + +Knapp, A.W., 75, 164 + + + +LAGOS, 82, 91 +Leaves, cacao, 22, *187 +Linnaeus, 1 +Linalool, 60, 125 +Loew, Dr. O., 55 + + + +MACHALA, 74, 84 (_see also_ Guayaquil) +MADAGASCAR, 68, 106 +Manufacture, chocolate, 140 + cocoa, 134 + early methods of, *9, 119, *120, *121, 129 + loss on, 14 + milk chocolate, *155, *181 +Manufacturers' requirements, 75 +Manure, 32 + cacao shell as, 162 +Map, Africa, *92 + South America, *89 + World, *83 +MARACAIBO, 87 +Markets, cacao, 107 +Mass, 134, 136 +Melangeur, 140, *141, 144 +MEXICO, 1, 7, 18 +Milk chocolate, 154, 178, 182 + suggested legal definition, 182 + recipe, 155 +Montezuma, 7 +Mosses, cacao tree, 22 +Moulding chocolate, 146 +Mountmorres, Viscount, 40 +Mulching, 32 + + + +Neumann, Dr. R.O., 171 +Nib, 15, 120, 128, *129, 130, 134 +Nib, percentage shell, 133 + yield of, 15 +Nicholls, Dr. L., 55 +Nursery, cacao, *33 + + + +Odour, cocoa, 77, 146, 161 + fermentation, 60 +Orellano, 6 + + + +Packing chocolates, *177 + cocoa, 138 +PARA, 74, 87 +Perrot, Professor, 60 +PERU, 8 +Pests (_see_ diseases) +Peter, M.D., 154 +Picker, cacao, 46, *46 +PHILIPPINES, 42 +Plantation, cacao, 27, *104 +Planting, 32, *34, 37 +Pod, *2, 5, 23, *23, *25, *28, *187 + picking of, 46 + yield of cacao, 74 +Polishing beans, 72, 78 +Pollination, cacao flowers, 22 +Press cake, 138 + cocoa, *136, *137 +Pressing cocoa, 136 +Preuss, Dr. Paul, 66, 70 +Preyer, Dr. Axel, 55 +Price, cacao, 86, 96, 112, *113, 185 + cacao butter, 160 + cacao shell, 164 + chocolate, 13 + theobromine, 172 +PRINCIPE, 100 +Production of cacao, Africa, 91 + British Possessions, 81, 82, 183 + British West Africa, 91 + British West Indies, 88 + Gold Coast, 94 + increasing of, 75 + San Thome and Principe, 100 + shell, 161 + South America, 84 + West Indies, 88 + World, *80, 81, 82 +Pruning, 40 +Pulp, cacao, *24, 25, 52, 55, 60 + + + +Rainfall, cacao cultivation, 18 +Raleigh, Sir Walter, 6 +Refining machine, *142 +Research Association, _vi_ +Revis and Bolton, 128 +Richelieu, Cardinal, 11 +Roaster, *126, 128 +Roasting, 119, 125 + loss on, 127 +Rocking tables, 149, *149 +Root system, *31 + + + +Sack, Dr., 55, 66 +Sales of cacao, 111 +SAMANA, 91 +SAMOA, 82, 106, 114 +SANCHEZ, 91 +SAN DOMINGO, 82, 88, 91 +_Sangre-tora_, 24 +SAN THOME, 38, 52, 54, 82, 91, 100, 114 +Schulte im Hofe, Dr. A., 55 +Seed, selection of, 32 +Shade, 36, *37, *38, *39, 90, 102 +Shaking table, chocolate, 149, *149 +Shell, cacao, *129, 161, 163 + butter, 162 + coffee substitute, 163 + as feeding stuff, 162, 163 + in finished cocoa, 180 + food units, 163 + fuel, 162 + manure, 162 + removal of, 120, 128 + separating machine, 132, *132 + tea from, 161 +Sherman, H.C., 176 +Sieving cocoa, 138 +Size, bean, 78 + cocoa particles, 138 + sugar particles, 144 +Smalls, 132 +Smetham, A., 163, 167 +Smith, H. Hamel, 55 +Snyder, Harry, 176 +Soil, 30 +Soluble cocoa, 168, 172 +Sorting beans, *73, *86, 123 +Sorting-cleaning machine, 124, *124, *125 +Stimulating properties, 60, 172 +ST. LUCIA, 82, 88 +Storing cacao, 122, *123 +ST. VINCENT, 82, 88 +Suckers, 40, *41 +Surf boats, *108 +SURINAM, 30, 52, 82, 84, 114 +Sweat boxes, 53, *53 +Sweatings, 57, 63 + + + +Tannin, 59 +Tap root, *31, 32 +Taste, fermentation, 59 +Temperature, cacao cultivation, 18 + covering chocolate, 151 + fermentation, 53, 55, 59, 61 + germination, 61 + chocolate moulding, 149 + bean roasting, 128 +Tempering machine, 149 +_Theobroma cacao_, 1, 26 +Theobromine, in bean, 166 + chocolate, 176 + cocoa, 168, 172 + fermentation, 60 + milk chocolate, 178 + shell, 162 +TOGO, 82, 91 +Transport of cacao, *56, *93, *95, 96, *97, *99, *100, *101, *102, *103, + *106, 107, *108, *110 +Tree, cacao, 19, *19, *20 + growth, 40 + yield of, 74 +TRINIDAD, 18, 30, 34, 37, 41, 42, 52, 68, 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, 81, 82, + 88, 103, 114 + + + +Van Houten, C.J., 15 +Varieties of cacao, 26 +Vasmer, Theo., 183, 186 +VENEZUELA, 18, 70, 76, 81, 82, 84, 106 + + + +Washing cacao beans, 68, *70, 78, 107 +Watt, Sir George, 50 +Weight, bag of cacao, 109 + loss on drying, 64 + loss on fermentation, 64 + loss on roasting, 128 +WEST INDIES, 88 +WEST INDIES, BRITISH, 88, 185 +Wind-screen trees, 30 +Winnowing machine (_see_ shell separating machine) +Whisk, chocolate, *6, *170 + + + +Yeasts, fermenting, 57 +Yield, cacao pod, 74 + cacao tree, 74 + per acre, 74, 103 + + + +Zipperer, P., 149, 164 + + + + +THE WESTMINSTER PRESS +HARROW ROAD LONDON + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Cocoa and Chocolate, by Arthur W. 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