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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cocoa and Chocolate, by Arthur W. Knapp
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Cocoa and Chocolate
+       Their History from Plantation to Consumer
+
+Author: Arthur W. Knapp
+
+Release Date: August 18, 2006 [EBook #19073]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COCOA AND CHOCOLATE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Michael Ciesielski, Annika Feilbach and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
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+
+
+
+
+
+
+COCOA AND CHOCOLATE
+
+_Their History from Plantation to Consumer_
+
+
+
+By
+
+ARTHUR W. KNAPP
+B. Sc. (B'ham.), F.I.C., B. Sc. (Lond.) Member of the Society of
+Public Analysts; Member of the Society of Chemical Industry; Fellow
+of the Institute of Hygiene. Research Chemist to Messrs. Cadbury
+Bros., Ltd.
+
+
+LONDON
+CHAPMAN AND HALL, LTD.
+1920
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Although there are several excellent scientific works dealing in a
+detailed manner with the cacao bean and its products from the various
+view points of the technician, there is no comprehensive modern work
+written for the general reader. Until that appears, I offer this little
+book, which attempts to cover lightly but accurately the whole ground,
+including the history of cacao, its cultivation and manufacture. This is
+a small book in which to treat of so large a subject, and to avoid
+prolixity I have had to generalise. This is a dangerous practice, for
+what is gained in brevity is too often lost in accuracy: brevity may be
+always the soul of wit, it is rarely the body of truth. The expert will
+find that I have considered him in that I have given attention to recent
+developments, and if I have talked of the methods peculiar to one place
+as though they applied to the whole world, I ask him to consider me by
+supplying the inevitable variations and exceptions himself.
+
+The book, though short, has taken me a long time to write, having been
+written in the brief breathing spaces of a busy life, and it would never
+have been completed but for the encouragement I received from Messrs.
+Cadbury Bros., Ltd., who aided me in every possible way. I am
+particularly indebted to the present Lord Mayor of Birmingham, Mr. W.A.
+Cadbury, for advice and criticism, and to Mr. Walter Barrow for reading
+the proofs. The members of the staff to whom I am indebted are Mr. W.
+Pickard, Mr. E.J. Organ, Mr. T.B. Rogers; also Mr. A. Hackett, for whom
+the diagrams in the manufacturing section were originally made by Mr.
+J.W. Richards. I am grateful to Messrs. J.S. Fry and Sons, Limited, for
+information and photographs. In one or two cases I do not know whom to
+thank for the photographs, which have been culled from many sources. I
+have much pleasure in thanking the following: Mr. R. Whymper for a large
+number of Trinidad photos; the Director of the Imperial Institute and
+Mr. John Murray for permission to use three illustrations from the
+Imperial Institute series of handbooks to the Commercial Resources of
+the Tropics; M. Ed. Leplae, Director-General of Agriculture, Belgium,
+for several photos, the blocks of which were kindly supplied by Mr. H.
+Hamel Smith, of _Tropical Life_; Messrs. Macmillan and Co. for five
+reproductions from C.J.J. van Hall's book on _Cocoa_; and _West Africa_
+for four illustrations of the Gold Coast.
+
+The photographs reproduced on pages 2, 23, 39, 47, 49 and 71 are by
+Jacobson of Trinidad, on pages 85 and 86 by Underwood & Underwood of
+London, and on page 41 by Mrs. Stanhope Lovell of Trinidad.
+
+The industry with which this book deals is changing slowly from an art
+to a science. It is in a transition period (it is one of the humours of
+any live industry that it is always in a transition period). There are
+many indications of scientific progress in cacao cultivation; and now
+that, in addition to the experimental and research departments attached
+to the principal firms, a Research Association has been formed for the
+cocoa and chocolate industry, the increased amount of diffused
+scientific knowledge of cocoa and chocolate manufacture should give rise
+to interesting developments.
+
+A.W. KNAPP.
+
+Birmingham, _February, 1920._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+PREFACE                                                                v
+
+INTRODUCTION                                                           1
+
+CHAPTER I
+COCOA AND CHOCOLATE--A SKETCH OF THEIR HISTORY                         5
+
+CHAPTER II
+CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION                                             17
+
+CHAPTER III
+HARVESTING AND PREPARATION FOR THE MARKET                             45
+With a dialogue on "The Kind of Cacao the Manufacturers Like."
+
+CHAPTER IV
+CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE                                             81
+With notes on the chief producing areas, cacao markets, and the
+planter's life
+
+CHAPTER V
+THE MANUFACTURE OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE                               119
+
+CHAPTER VI
+THE MANUFACTURE OF CHOCOLATE                                         139
+
+CHAPTER VII
+BY-PRODUCTS OF THE COCOA AND CHOCOLATE INDUSTRY                      157
+(_a_) Cacao Butter, (_b_) Cacao Shell
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+THE COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE                165
+(including Milk Chocolate)
+
+CHAPTER IX
+ADULTERATION, AND THE NEED FOR DEFINITIONS                           179
+
+CHAPTER X
+THE CONSUMPTION OF CACAO                                             183
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                         191
+A List of the Important Books on Cocoa and Chocolate
+from the earliest times to the present day.
+
+INDEX                                                                207
+
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+Cacao Pods
+Old Drawing of an American Indian, with Chocolate Whisk, etc.
+Native American Indians Roasting the Beans, etc.
+Ancient Mexican Drinking Cups
+Cacao Tree, with Pods and Leaves
+Cacao Tree, shewing Pods Growing from Trunk
+Flowers and Fruits on main branches of a Cacao Tree
+Cacao Pods
+Cut Pod, revealing the White Pulp round the Beans
+Cacao Pods, shewing Beans inside
+Drawing of Typical Pods illustrating varieties
+Tropical Forest, Trinidad
+Characteristic Root System of the Cacao Tree
+Nursery with the Young Cacao Plants in Baskets, Java
+Planting Cacao from Young Seedlings in Bamboo Pots, Trinidad
+Cacao in its Fourth Year
+Copy of an Old Engraving shewing the Cacao Tree, and a tree shading it
+Cacao Trees shaded by Kapok, Java
+Cacao Trees shaded by Bois Immortel, Trinidad
+Cacao Tree with Suckers
+Cutlassing
+Common Types of Cacao Pickers
+Gathering Cacao Pods, Trinidad
+Collecting Cacao Pods into a Heap
+Men Breaking Pods, etc.
+Sweating Boxes, Trinidad
+Fermenting Boxes, Java
+Charging Cacao on to Trucks in the Plantation, San Thome
+Cacao in the Fermenting Trucks, San Thome
+Tray-barrow for Drying Small Quantities
+Spreading the Cacao Beans on mats to dry, Ceylon
+Drying Trays, Grenada
+"Hamel Smith" Rotary Dryer
+Drying Platforms with Sliding Roofs, Trinidad
+Cacao Drying Platforms, San Thome
+Washing the Beans, Ceylon
+Claying Cacao Beans, Trinidad
+Sorting Cacao Beans, Java
+Diagram: World's Cacao Production
+MAP of the World, with only Cacao-Producing Areas marked
+Raking Cacao Beans on the Driers, Ecuador
+Gathering Cacao Pods, Ecuador
+Sorting Cacao for Shipment, Ecuador
+MAP of South America and the West Indies
+Workers on a Cacao Plantation
+MAP of Africa, with only Cacao-Producing Areas marked
+Foreshore at Accra, with Stacks of Cacao ready for Shipment
+Carriers conveying Bags of Cacao to Surf Boats, Accra
+Crossing the River, Gold Coast
+Drying Cacao Beans, Gold Coast
+Shooting Cacao from the Road to the Beach, Accra
+Rolling Cacao, Gold Coast
+Rolling Cacao, Gold Coast
+Carrying Cacao to the Railway Station, Gold Coast
+Wagon Loads of Cacao being taken from Depot to the Beach, Accra
+The Buildings of the Boa Entrada Cacao Estate, San Thome
+Drying Cacao, San Thome
+Barrel Rolling, Gold Coast
+Bagging Cacao, Gold Coast
+Surf Boats by the Side of the Ocean Liner, Accra
+Bagging Cacao Beans for Shipment, Trinidad
+Transferring Bags of Cacao to Lighters, Trinidad
+Diagram showing Variation in Price of Cacao Beans, 1913-1919
+Group of Workers on Cacao Estate
+Carting Cacao to Railway Station, Ceylon
+The Carenage, Grenada
+Early Factory Methods
+Women Grinding Chocolate
+Cacao Bean Warehouse
+Cacao Bean Sorting and Cleaning Machine
+Diagram of Cacao Bean Cleaning Machine
+Section through Gas Heated Cacao Roaster
+Roasting Cacao Beans
+Cacao Bean, Shell and Germ
+Section through Kibbling Cones and Germ Screens
+Section through Winnowing Machine
+Cacao Grinding
+Section through Grinding Stones
+A Cacao Press
+Section through Cacao Press-pot and Ram-plate
+Chocolate Melangeur
+Plan of Chocolate Melangeur
+Chocolate Refining Machine
+Grinding Cacao Nib and Sugar
+Section through Chocolate Grinding Rolls
+"Conche" Machines
+Section through "Conche" Machine
+Machines for Mixing or "Conching" Chocolate
+Chocolate Shaking Table
+Girls Covering or Dipping Cremes, etc.
+The Enrober
+A Confectionery Room
+Factory at which Milk is Evaporated for Milk Chocolate Manufacture
+Cocoa and Chocolate Despatch Deck
+Boxing Chocolates
+Packing Chocolates
+Factory at which Milk is Evaporated for Milk Chocolate Manufacture
+Cacao Pods, Leaves and Flowers
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+In a few short chapters I propose to give a plain account of the
+production of cocoa and chocolate. I assume that the reader is not a
+specialist and knows little or nothing of the subject, and hence both
+the style of writing and the treatment of the subject will be simple. At
+the same time, I assume that the reader desires a full and accurate
+account, and not a vague story in which the difficulties are ignored. I
+hope that, as a result of this method of dealing with my subject, even
+experts will find much in the book that is of interest and value. After
+a brief survey of the history of cocoa and chocolate, I shall begin with
+the growing of the cacao bean, and follow the _cacao_ in its career
+until it becomes the finished product ready for consumption.
+
+
+
+_Cacao or Cocoa?_
+
+The reader will have noted above the spelling "cacao," and to those who
+think it curious, I would say that I do not use this spelling from
+pedantry. It is an imitation of the word which the Mexicans used for
+this commodity as early as 1500, and when spoken by Europeans is apt to
+sound like the howl of a dog. The Mexicans called the tree from which
+cacao is obtained _cacauatl_. When the great Swedish scientist Linnaeus,
+the father of botany, was naming and classifying (about 1735) the trees
+and plants known in his time, he christened it _Theobroma Cacao_, by
+which name it is called by botanists to this day. Theo-broma is Greek
+for "Food of the Gods." Why Linnaeus paid this extraordinary compliment
+to cacao is obscure, but it has been suggested that he was inordinately
+fond of the beverage prepared from it--the cup which both cheers and
+satisfies. It will be seen from the above that the species-name is
+cacao, and one can understand that Englishmen, finding it difficult to
+get their insular lips round this outlandish word, lazily called it
+cocoa.
+
+[Illustration: CACAO PODS (Amelonado type) in various states of growth
+and ripeness.]
+
+In this book I shall use the words cacao, cocoa, and chocolate as
+follows:
+
+_Cacao_, when I refer to the cacao tree, the cacao pod, or the cacao
+bean or seed. By the single word, cacao, I imply the raw product, cacao
+beans, in bulk.
+
+_Cocoa_, when I refer to the powder manufactured from the roasted bean
+by pressing out part of the butter. The word is too well established to
+be changed, even if one wished it. As we shall see later (in the
+chapter on adulteration) it has come legally to have a very definite
+significance. If this method of distinguishing between cacao and cocoa
+were the accepted practice, the perturbation which occurred in the
+public mind during the war (in 1916), as to whether manufacturers were
+exporting "cocoa" to neutral countries, would not have arisen. It should
+have been spelled "cacao," for the statements referred to the raw beans
+and not to the manufactured beverage. Had this been done, it would have
+been unnecessary for the manufacturers to point out that cocoa powder
+was not being so exported, and that they naturally did not sell the raw
+cacao bean.
+
+_Chocolate._--This word is given a somewhat wider meaning. It signifies
+any preparation of roasted cacao beans without abstraction of butter. It
+practically always contains sugar and added cacao butter, and is
+generally prepared in moulded form. It is used either for eating or
+drinking.
+
+
+
+_Cacao Beans and Coconuts._
+
+In old manuscripts the word cacao is spelled in all manner of ways, but
+_cocoa_ survived them all. This curious inversion, _cocoa_, is to be
+regretted, for it has led to a confusion which could not otherwise have
+arisen. But for this spelling no one would have dreamed of confusing the
+totally unrelated bodies, cacao and the milky coconut. (You note that I
+spell it "coconut," not "cocoanut," for the name is derived from the
+Spanish "coco," "grinning face," or bugbear for frightening children,
+and was given to the nut because the three scars at the broad end of the
+nut resemble a grotesque face). To make confusion worse confounded the
+old writers referred to cacao _seeds_ as cocoa _nuts_ (as for example,
+in _The Humble Memorial of Joseph Fry_, quoted in the chapter on
+history), but, as in appearance cacao seeds resemble _beans_, they are
+now usually spoken of as beans. The distinction between cacao and the
+coconut may be summarised thus:
+
+                      Cacao.                     Coconut.
+
+Botanical Name     Theobroma Cacao             Cocos nucifera Palm
+                   Tree                        Palm
+
+Fruit              Cacao pod, containing       Coconut, which with outer
+                     many seeds (cacao beans)    fibre is as large as a
+                                                 man's head
+
+Products           Cocoa                       Broken coconut (copra)
+                   Chocolate                   Coconut matting
+
+Fatty Constituent  Cacao butter                Coconut oil
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+COCOA AND CHOCOLATE--A SKETCH OF THEIR HISTORY
+
+    Did time and space allow, there is much to be told on the
+    romantic side of chocolate, of its divine origin, of the
+    bloody wars and brave exploits of the Spaniards who conquered
+    Mexico and were the first to introduce cacao into Europe,
+    tales almost too thrilling to be believed, of the intrigues
+    of the Spanish Court, and of celebrities who met and sipped
+    their chocolate in the parlours of the coffee and chocolate
+    houses so fashionable in the seventeenth and eighteenth
+    centuries.
+
+    _Cocoa and Chocolate_ (Whymper).
+
+
+On opening a cacao pod, it is seen to be full of beans surrounded by a
+fruity pulp, and whilst the pulp is very pleasant to taste, the beans
+themselves are uninviting, so that doubtless the beans were always
+thrown away until ... someone tried roasting them. One pictures this
+"someone," a pre-historic Aztec with swart skin, sniffing the aromatic
+fume coming from the roasting beans, and thinking that beans which
+smelled so appetising must be good to consume. The name of the man who
+discovered the use of cacao must be written in some early chapter of the
+history of man, but it is blurred and unreadable: all we know is that he
+was an inhabitant of the New World and probably of Central America.
+
+
+
+_Original Home of Cacao._
+
+The corner of the earth where the cacao tree originally grew, and still
+grows wild to-day, is the country watered by the mighty Amazon and the
+Orinoco. This is the very region in which Orellano, the Spanish
+adventurer, said that he had truly seen El Dorado, which he described as
+a City of Gold, roofed with gold, and standing by a lake with golden
+sands. In reality, El Dorado was nothing but a vision, a vision that for
+a hundred years fascinated all manner of dreamers and adventurers from
+Sir Walter Raleigh downwards, so that many braved great hardships in
+search of it, groped through the forests where the cacao tree grew, and
+returned to Europe feeling they had failed. To our eyes they were not
+entirely unsuccessful, for whilst they failed to find a city of gold,
+they discovered the home of the golden pod.
+
+[Illustration: OLD DRAWING OF AN AMERICAN INDIAN; AT HIS FEET A
+CHOCOLATE-CUP, CHOCOLATE-POT, AND CHOCOLATE WHISK OR "MOLINET."
+(From _Traitez Nouveaux et Curieux du Cafe, du The, et du Chocolate_.
+Dufour, 1693).]
+
+
+
+_Montezuma--the First Great Patron of Chocolate._
+
+When Columbus discovered the New World he brought back with him to
+Europe many new and curious things, one of which was cacao. Some years
+later, in 1519, the Spanish conquistador, Cortes, landed in Mexico,
+marched into the interior and discovered to his surprise, not the huts
+of savages, but a beautiful city, with palaces and museums. This city
+was the capital of the Aztecs, a remarkable people, notable alike for
+their ancient civilisation and their wealth. Their national drink was
+chocolate, and Montezuma, their Emperor, who lived in a state of
+luxurious magnificence, "took no other beverage than the chocolatl, a
+potation of chocolate, flavoured with vanilla and other spices, and so
+prepared as to be reduced to a froth of the consistency of honey, which
+gradually dissolved in the mouth and was taken cold. This beverage if so
+it could be called, was served in golden goblets, with spoons of the
+same metal or tortoise-shell finely wrought. The Emperor was exceedingly
+fond of it, to judge from the quantity--no less than fifty jars or
+pitchers being prepared for his own daily consumption: two thousand more
+were allowed for that of his household."[1] It is curious that Montezuma
+took no other beverage than chocolate, especially if it be true that the
+Aztecs also invented that fascinating drink, the cocktail (xoc-tl). How
+long this ancient people, students of the mysteries of culinary science,
+had known the art of preparing a drink from cacao, is not known, but it
+is evident that the cultivation of cacao received great attention in
+these parts, for if we read down the list of the tributes paid by
+different cities to the Lords of Mexico, we find "20 chests of ground
+chocolate, 20 bags of gold dust," again "80 loads of red chocolate, 20
+lip-jewels of clear amber," and yet again "200 loads of chocolate."
+
+    [1] Prescott's _Conquest of Mexico_.
+
+Another people that share with the Aztecs the honour of being the first
+great cultivators of cacao are the Incas of Peru, that wonderful nation
+that knew not poverty.
+
+
+
+_The Fascination of Chocolate._
+
+That chocolate charmed the ladies of Mexico in the seventeenth century
+(even as it charms the ladies of England to-day) is shown by a story
+which Gage relates in his _New Survey of the West Indias_ (1648). He
+tells us that at Chiapa, southward from Mexico, the women used to
+interrupt both sermon and mass by having their maids bring them a cup of
+hot chocolate; and when the Bishop, after fair warning, excommunicated
+them for this presumption, they changed their church. The Bishop, he
+adds, was poisoned for his pains.
+
+
+
+_Cacao Beans as Money._
+
+Cacao was used by the Aztecs not only for the preparation of a beverage,
+but also as a circulating medium of exchange. For example, one could
+purchase a "tolerably good slave" for 100 beans. We read that: "Their
+currency consisted of transparent quills of gold dust, of bits of tin
+cut in the form of a T, and of bags of cacao containing a specified
+number of grains." "Blessed money," exclaims Peter Martyr, "which
+exempts its possessor from avarice, since it cannot be long hoarded, nor
+hidden underground!"
+
+
+
+_Derivation of Chocolate._
+
+The word was derived from the Mexican _chocolatl_. The Mexicans used to
+froth their chocolatl with curious whisks made specially for the purpose
+(see page 6). Thomas Gage suggests that _choco, choco, choco_ is a
+vocal representation of the sound made by stirring chocolate. The suffix
+_atl_ means water. According to Mr. W.J. Gordon, we owe the name of
+chocolate to a misprint. He states that Joseph Acosta, who wrote as
+early as 1604 of chocolatl, was made by the printer to write
+_chocolate_, from which the English eliminated the accent, and the
+French the final letter.
+
+[Illustration: NATIVE AMERICAN INDIANS ROASTING AND GRINDING THE BEANS,
+AND MIXING THE CHOCOLATE IN A JUG WITH A WHISK. (From Ogilvy's
+_America_, 1671)]
+
+
+
+_First Cacao in Europe._
+
+The Spanish discoverers of the New World brought home to Spain
+quantities of cacao, which the curious tasted. We may conclude that they
+drank the preparation cold, as Montezuma did, _hot_ chocolate being a
+later invention. The new drink, eagerly sought by some, did not meet
+with universal approval, and, as was natural, the most diverse opinions
+existed as to the pleasantness and wholesomeness of the beverage when it
+was first known. Thus Joseph Acosta (1604) wrote: "The chief use of this
+cocoa is in a drincke which they call Chocholate, whereof they make
+great account, foolishly and without reason; for it is loathsome to such
+as are not acquainted with it, having a skumme or frothe that is very
+unpleasant to taste, if they be not well conceited thereof. Yet it is a
+drincke very much esteemed among the Indians, whereof they feast noble
+men as they passe through their country. The Spaniards, both men and
+women, that are accustomed to the country are very greedy of this
+chocholate." It is not impossible that the English, with the defeat of
+the Armada fresh in memory, were at first contemptuous of this "Spanish"
+drink. Certain it is, that when British sea-rovers like Drake and
+Frobisher, captured Spanish galleons on the high seas, and on searching
+their holds for treasure, found bags of cacao, they flung them overboard
+in scorn. In considering this scorn of cacao, shown alike by British
+buccaneers and Dutch corsairs, together with the critical air of Joseph
+Acosta, we should remember that the original chocolatl of the Mexicans
+consisted of a mixture of maize and cacao with hot spices like chillies,
+and contained no sugar. In this condition few inhabitants of the
+temperate zone could relish it. It however only needed one thing, the
+addition of sugar, and the introduction of this marked the beginning of
+its European popularity. The Spaniards were the first to manufacture and
+drink chocolate in any quantity. To this day they serve it in the old
+style--thick as porridge and pungent with spices. They endeavoured to
+keep secret the method of preparation, and, without success, to retain
+the manufacture as a monopoly. Chocolate was introduced into Italy by
+Carletti, who praised it and spread the method of its manufacture
+abroad. The new drink was introduced by monks from Spain into Germany
+and France, and when in 1660 Maria Theresa, Infanta of Spain, married
+Louis XIV, she made chocolate well known at the Court of France. She it
+was of whom a French historian wrote that Maria Theresa had only two
+passions--the king and chocolate.
+
+Chocolate was advocated by the learned physicians of those times as a
+cure for many diseases, and it was stated that Cardinal Richelieu had
+been cured of general atrophy by its use.
+
+From France the use of chocolate spread into England, where it began to
+be drunk as a luxury by the aristocracy about the time of the
+Commonwealth. It must have made some progress in public favour by 1673,
+for in that year "a Lover of his Country" wrote in the _Harleian
+Miscellany_ demanding its prohibition (along with brandy, rum, and tea)
+on the ground that this imported article did no good and hindered the
+consumption of English-grown barley and wheat. New things appeal to the
+imaginative, and the absence of authentic knowledge concerning them
+allows free play to the imagination--so it happened that in the early
+days, whilst many writers vied with one another in writing glowing
+panegyrics on cacao, a few thought it an evil thing. Thus, whilst it was
+praised by many for its "wonderful faculty of quenching thirst,
+allaying hectic heats, of nourishing and fattening the body," it was
+seriously condemned by others as an inflamer of the passions!
+
+
+
+_Chocolate Houses and Clubs._
+
+    "The drinking here of chocolate
+    Can make a fool a sophie."
+
+In the spacious days of Queen Elizabeth, tea, coffee, and chocolate were
+unknown save to travellers and savants, and the handmaidens of the good
+queen drank beer with their breakfast. When Shakespeare and Ben Jonson
+forgathered at the Mermaid Tavern, their winged words passed over
+tankards of ale, but later other drinks became the usual accompaniment
+of news, story, and discussion. In the sixteen-sixties there were no
+strident newspapers to destroy one's equanimity, and the gossip of the
+day began to be circulated and discussed over cups of tea, coffee, or
+chocolate. The humorists, ever stirred by novelty, tilted, pen in hand,
+at these new drinks: thus one rhymster described coffee as
+
+     "Syrrop of soot or essence of old shoes."
+
+The first coffee-house in London was started in St. Michael's Alley,
+Cornhill, in 1652 (when coffee was seven shillings a pound); the first
+tea-house was opened in Exchange Alley in 1657 (when tea was five
+sovereigns a pound), and in the same year (with chocolate about ten to
+fifteen shillings per pound) a Frenchman opened the first
+chocolate-house in Queen's Head Alley, Bishopsgate Street. The rising
+popularity of chocolate led to the starting of more of these chocolate
+houses, at which one could sit and sip chocolate, or purchase the
+commodity for preparation at home. Pepys' entry in his diary for 24th
+November, 1664, contains: "To a coffee house to drink jocolatte, very
+good." It is an artless entry, and yet one can almost hear him smacking
+his lips. Silbermann says that "After the Restoration there were shops
+in London for the sale of chocolate at ten shillings or fifteen
+shillings per pound. Ozinda's chocolate house was full of aristocratic
+consumers. Comedies, satirical essays, memoirs and private letters of
+that age frequently mention it. The habit of using chocolate was deemed
+a token of elegant and fashionable taste, and while the charms of this
+beverage in the reigns of Queen Anne and George I. were so highly
+esteemed by courtiers, by lords and ladies and fine gentlemen in the
+polite world, the learned physicians extolled its medicinal virtues."
+From the coffee house and its more aristocratic relative the chocolate
+house, there developed a new feature in English social life--the Club.
+As the years passed the Chocolate House remained a rendezvous, but the
+character of its habitues changed from time to time. Thus one, famous in
+the days of Queen Anne, and well known by its sign of the "Cocoa Tree,"
+was at first the headquarters of the Jacobite party, and the resort of
+Tories of the strictest school. It became later a noted gambling house
+("The gamesters shook their elbows in White's and the chocolate houses
+round Covent Garden," _National Review_, 1878), and ultimately developed
+into a literary club, including amongst its members Gibbon, the
+historian, and Byron, the poet.
+
+
+
+_Tax on Cacao._
+
+The growing consumption of chocolate did not escape the all-seeing eye
+of the Chancellors of England. As early as 1660 we find amongst various
+custom and excise duties granted to Charles II:
+
+    "For every gallon of chocolate, sherbet, and tea made and
+    sold, to be paid by the maker thereof ..... 8d."
+
+Later the raw material was also made a source of revenue. In _The Humble
+Memorial of Joseph Fry_, of Bristol, Maker of Chocolate, which was
+addressed to the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury in 1776 (Messrs.
+Fry and Sons are the oldest English firm of chocolate makers, having
+been founded in 1728), we read that "Chocolate ... pays two shillings
+and threepence per pound excise, besides about ten shillings per
+hundredweight on the Cocoa Nuts from which it is made."
+
+In 1784 a preferential customs rate was proposed in favour of our
+Colonies. This they enjoyed for many years before 1853, when the uniform
+rate, until recently in force, was introduced. This restrictive tariff
+on foreign growths rose in 1803 to 5s. 10d. per pound, against 1s. 10d.
+on cacao grown in British possessions. From this date it gradually
+diminished. High duties hampered for many years the sale of cocoa, tea
+and coffee, but in recent times these duties have been brought down to
+more reasonable figures. For many years before 1915 the import duty was
+1d. per pound on the raw cacao beans, 1d. per pound on cacao butter, and
+2s. a hundredweight (less than a farthing a pound) on cacao shells or
+husks. In the Budget of September, 1915, the above duties were increased
+by fifty per cent. A further and greater increase was made in the Budget
+of April, 1916, when cacao was made to pay a higher tax in Britain than
+in any other country in the world. In 1919 Imperial preference was
+introduced after a break of over sixty years, the duty on cocoa from
+foreign countries being 3/4d. a pound more than that from British
+Possessions.
+
+_Duty on Cacao._
+
+                    1855-1915.  1915.   1916.         1919.
+Cacao beans per lb.    1d.     1-1/2d.   6d.  4-1/2d. foreign, 3-3/4d. British
+Cacao butter per lb.   1d.     1-1/2d.   6d.  4-1/2d. foreign, 3-3/4d. British
+Cacao shells per cwt.  2s.         3s.  12s.      6s. foreign,     5s. British
+
+In considering this duty and its effect on the price of the finished
+article, it should be remembered that there are substantial losses in
+manufacture. Thus the beans are cleaned, which removes up to 0.5 per
+cent.; roasted, which causes a loss by volatilisation of 7 per cent.;
+and shelled, the husks being about 12 per cent. Therefore, the actual
+yield of usable nib, which has to bear the whole duty, is about 80 per
+cent. It may be well to add that the yield of cocoa powder is 48 per
+cent. of the raw beans, or roughly, one pound of the raw product yields
+half a pound of the finished article.
+
+
+
+_Introduction of Cocoa Powder._
+
+The drink "cocoa" as we know it to-day was not introduced until 1828.
+Before this time the ground bean, mixed with sugar, was sold in cakes.
+The beverage prepared from these chocolate cakes was very rich in
+butter, and whilst the British Navy has always consumed it in this
+condition (the sailors generally remove with a spoon the excess of
+butter which floats to the top) it is a little heavy for less hardy
+digestions. Van Houten (of the well-known Dutch house of that name) in
+1828 invented a method of pressing out part of the butter, and thus
+obtained a lighter, more appetising, and more easily assimilated
+preparation. As the butter is useful in chocolate manufacture, this
+process enabled the manufacturer to produce a less costly cocoa powder,
+and thus the circle of consumers was widened. Messrs. Cadbury Bros., of
+Birmingham, first sold their "cocoa essence" in 1866, and Messrs. Fry
+and Sons, of Bristol, introduced a pure cocoa by pressing out part of
+the butter in 1868.
+
+
+
+_Growing Popularity of Cacao Preparations._
+
+The incidence of import duties did not prevent the continuous increase
+in the amount of cacao consumed in the British Isles. When Queen
+Victoria came to the throne the cacao cleared for home consumption was
+about four or five thousand tons, more than half of which was consumed
+by the Navy. At the time of Queen Victoria's death it had increased to
+four times this amount, and by 1915 it had reached nearly fifty
+thousand tons. (For statistics of consumption, see p. 183).
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+This brief sketch of the history of cacao owes much to "Cocoa--all about
+it," by Historicus (the pseudonym of the late Richard Cadbury). This
+work is out of print, but those who are fortunate enough to be able to
+consult it will find therein much that is curious and discursive.
+
+[Illustration: ANCIENT MEXICAN DRINKING CUPS (British Museum)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION
+
+    O tree, upraised in far-off Mexico!
+
+    "_Ode to the Chocolate Tree_," 1664.
+
+
+How seldom do we think, when we drink a cup of cocoa or eat some morsels
+of chocolate, that our liking for these delicacies has set minds and
+bodies at work all the world over! Many types of humanity have
+contributed to their production. Picture in the mind's eye the graceful
+coolie in the sun-saturated tropics, moving in the shade, cutting the
+pods from the cacao tree; the deep-chested sailor helping to load from
+lighters or surf-boats the precious bags of cacao into the hold of the
+ocean liner; the skilful workman roasting the beans until they fill the
+room with a fine aroma; and the girl with dexterous fingers packing the
+cocoa or fashioning the chocolate in curious, and delicate forms. To the
+black and brown races, the negroes and the East Indians, we owe a debt
+for their work on tropical plantations, for the harder manual work would
+be too arduous for Europeans unused to the heat of those regions.
+
+
+
+_Climate Necessary._
+
+Cacao can only grow at tropical temperatures, and when shielded from the
+wind and unimpaired by drought. Enthusiasts, as a hobby, have grown the
+tree under glass in England; it requires a warmer temperature than
+either tea or coffee, and only after infinite care can one succeed in
+getting the tree to flower and bear fruit. The mean temperature in the
+countries in which it thrives is about 80 degrees F. in the shade, and
+the average of the maximum temperatures is seldom more than 90 degrees
+F., or the average of the minimum temperatures less than 70 degrees F.
+The rainfall can be as low as 45 inches per annum, as in the Gold Coast,
+or as high as 150 inches, as in Java, provided the fall is uniformly
+distributed. The ideal spot is the secluded vale, and whilst in
+Venezuela there are plantations up to 2000 feet above sea level, cacao
+cannot generally be profitably cultivated above 1000 feet.
+
+
+
+_Factors of Geographical Distribution._
+
+Climate, soil, and manures determine the possible region of
+cultivation--the extent to which the area is utilised depends on the
+enterprise of man. The original home of cacao was the rich tropical
+region, far-famed in Elizabethan days, that lies between the Amazon and
+the Orinoco, and but for the enterprise of man it is doubtful if it
+would have ever spread from this region. Monkeys often carry the beans
+many miles--man, the master-monkey, has carried them round the world.
+First the Indians spread cacao over the tropical belt of the American
+continent and cultivated it as far North as Mexico. Then came the
+Spanish explorers of the New World, who carried it from the mainland to
+the adjacent West Indian islands. Cacao was planted by them in Trinidad
+as early as 1525. Since that date it has been successfully introduced
+into many a tropical island. It was an important day in the history of
+Ceylon when Sir R. Horton, in 1834, had cacao plants brought to that
+island from Trinidad. The carefully packed plants survived the ordeal of
+a voyage of ten thousand miles. The most recent introduction is,
+however, the most striking. About 1880 a native of the Gold Coast
+obtained some beans, probably from Fernando Po. In 1891, the first bag
+of cacao was exported; it weighed 80 pounds. In 1915, 24 years later,
+the export from the Gold Coast was 120 million pounds.
+
+[Illustration: CACAO TREE, WITH PODS AND LEAVES]
+
+
+
+_The Cacao Tree._
+
+Tropical vegetation appears so bizarre to the visitor from temperate
+climes that in such surroundings the cacao tree seems almost
+commonplace. It is in appearance as moderate and unpretentious as an
+apple tree, though somewhat taller, being, when full grown, about
+twenty feet high. It begins to bear in its fourth or fifth year. Smooth
+in its early youth, as it gets older it becomes covered with little
+bosses (cushions) from which many flowers spring. I saw one fellow, very
+tall and gnarled, and with many pods on it; turning to the planter I
+enquired "How old is that tree?" He replied, almost reverentially: "It's
+a good deal older than I am; must be at least fifty years old." "It's
+one of the tallest cacao trees I've seen. I wonder--." The planter
+perceived my thought, and said: "I'll have it measured for you." It was
+forty feet high. That was a tall one; usually they are not more than
+half that height. The bark is reddish-grey, and may be partly hidden by
+brown, grey and green patches of lichen. The bark is both beautiful and
+quaint, but in the main the tree owes its beauty to its luxuriance of
+prosperous leaves, and its quaintness to its pods.
+
+[Illustration: CACAO TREE, SHOWING PODS GROWING FROM TRUNK.]
+
+[Illustration: FLOWERS AND FRUITS ON MAIN BRANCHES OF A CACAO TREE.
+(Reproduced from van Hall's _Cocoa_, by permission of Messrs. Macmillan
+& Co.).]
+
+
+
+_The Flowers, Leaves and Fruit._
+
+Although cacao trees are not unlike the fruit trees of England, there
+are differences which, when first one sees them, cause expressions of
+surprise and pleasure to leap to the lips. One sees what one never saw
+before, the fruit springing from the main trunk, quite close to the
+ground. An old writer has explained that this is due to a wise
+providence, because the pod is so heavy that if it hung from the end of
+the branches it would fall off before it reached maturity. The old
+writer talks of providence; a modern writer would see in the same facts
+a simple example of evolution. On the same cacao tree every day of the
+year may be found flowers, young podkins and mature pods side by side. I
+say "found" advisedly--at the first glance one does not see the flowers
+because they are so dainty and so small. The buds are the size of rice
+grains, and the flowers are not more than half an inch across when the
+petals are fully out. The flowers are pink or yellow, of wax-like
+appearance, and have no odour. They were commonly stated to be
+pollinated by thrips and other insects. Dr. von Faber of Java has
+recently shown that whilst self-pollination is the rule, cross
+fertilisation occurs between the flowers on adjacent or interlocking
+trees. These graceful flowers are so small that one can walk through a
+plantation without observing them, although an average tree will produce
+six thousand blossoms in a year. Not more than one per cent. of these
+will become fruit. Usually it takes six months for the bud to develop
+into the mature fruit. The lovely mosses that grow on the stems and
+branches are sometimes so thick that they have to be destroyed, or the
+fragile cacao flower could not push its way through. Whilst the flowers
+are small, the leaves are large, being as an average about a foot in
+length and four inches in breadth. The cacao tree never appears naked,
+save on the rare occasions when it is stripped by the wind, and the
+leaves are green all the year round, save when they are red, if the
+reader will pardon an Hibernianism. And indeed there is something
+contrary in the crimson tint, for whilst we usually associate this with
+old leaves about to fall, with the cacao, as with some rose trees, it is
+the tint of the young leaves.
+
+[Illustration: CACAO PODS.]
+
+
+
+_The Cacao Pod._
+
+The fruit, which hangs on a short thick stalk, may be anything in shape
+from a melon to a stumpy, irregular cucumber, according to the botanic
+variety. The intermediate shape is like a lemon, with furrows from end
+to end. There are pods, called Calabacillo, smooth and ovate like a
+calabash, and there are others, more rare, so "nobbly" that they are
+well-named "Alligator." The pods vary in length from five to eleven
+inches, "with here and there the great pod of all, the blood-red
+_sangre-tora_." The colours of the pods are as brilliant as they are
+various. They are rich and strong, and resemble those of the rind of the
+pomegranate. One pod shows many shades of dull crimson, another grades
+from gold to the yellow of leather, and yet another is all lack-lustre
+pea-green. They may be likened to Chinese lanterns hanging in the woods.
+One does not conclude from the appearance of the pod that the contents
+are edible, any more than one would surmise that tea-leaves could be
+used to produce a refreshing drink. I say as much to the planter, who
+smiles. With one deft cut with his machete or cutlass, which hangs in a
+leather scabbard by his side, the planter severs the pod from the tree,
+and with another slash cuts the thick, almost woody rind and breaks open
+the pod. There is disclosed a mass of some thirty or forty beans,
+covered with juicy pulp. The inside of the rind and the mass of beans
+are gleaming white, like melting snow. Sometimes the mass is pale
+amethyst in colour. I perceive a pleasant odour resembling melon. Like
+little Jack Horner, I put in my thumb and pull out a snow-white bean. It
+is slippery to hold, so I put it in my mouth. The taste is sweet,
+something between grape and melon. Inside this fruity coating is the
+bean proper. From different pods we take beans and cut them in two, and
+find that the colour of the bean varies from purple almost to white.
+
+[Illustration: CUT POD, REVEALING THE WHITE PULP ROUND THE BEANS
+(CEYLON.)]
+
+[Illustration: CACAO PODS, SHEWING BEANS INSIDE.]
+
+
+
+_Botanical Description._
+
+Theobroma Cacao belongs to the family of the _Sterculiaceae_, and to the
+same order as the Limes and Mallows. It is described in Strasburger's
+admirable _Text-Book of Botany_ as follows:
+
+     "Family. _Sterculiaceae._
+
+    IMPORTANT GENERA. The most important plant is the Cocoa Tree
+    (_Theobroma Cacao_). It is a low tree with short-stalked,
+    firm, brittle, simple leaves of large size, oval shape, and
+    dark green colour. The young leaves are of a bright red
+    colour, and, as in many tropical trees, hang limply
+    downwards. The flowers are borne on the main stem or the
+    older branches, and arise from dormant axillary buds
+    (Cauliflory). Each petal is bulged up at the base, narrows
+    considerably above this, and ends in an expanded tip. The
+    form of the reddish flowers is thus somewhat urn-shaped with
+    five radiating points. The pentalocular ovary has numerous
+    ovules in each loculus. As the fruit develops, the soft
+    tissue of the septa extends between the single seeds; the
+    ripe fruit is thus unilocular and many-seeded. The seed-coat
+    is filled by the embryo, which has two large, folded, brittle
+    cotyledons."
+
+The last sentence conveys an erroneous impression. The two cotyledons,
+which form the seed, are not brittle when found in nature in the pod.
+They are juicy and fleshy. And it is only after the seed has received
+special treatment (fermentation and drying) to obtain the bean of
+commerce, that it becomes brittle.
+
+
+
+_Varieties of Theobroma Cacao._
+
+As mentioned above, the pods and seeds of Theobroma Cacao trees show a
+marked variation, and in every country the botanist has studied these
+variations and classified the trees according to the shape and colour of
+the pods and seeds. The existence of so many classifications has led to
+a good deal of confusion, and we are indebted to Van Hall for the
+simplest way of clearing up these difficulties. He accepts the
+classification first given by Morris, dividing the trees into two
+varieties--Criollo and Forastero:
+
+[Illustration: DRAWINGS OF TYPICAL PODS, illustrating varieties.
+CRIOLLO
+FORASTERO
+FORASTERO (CALABACILLO VARIETY)]
+
+
+
+_Extremes of Characteristics._
+
+                _Criollo._         _Forastero._
+
+(Old Red, Caracas, etc.)        Grading from Cundeamor
+                                  (bottle-necked) to Calabacillo
+                                  (smooth).
+
+_Pod walls._  Thin and warty.   Thick and woody.
+
+_Beans._      Large and plump.  Small and flat.
+              White.            Heliotrope to purple.
+              Sweet.            Astringent.
+
+The cacao of the criollo variety has pods the walls of which are thin
+and warty, with ten distinct furrows. The seeds or beans are white as
+ivory throughout, round and plump, and sweet to taste. The forastero
+variety includes many sub-varieties, the kind most distinct from the
+criollo having pods, the walls of which are thick and woody, the surface
+smooth, the furrows indistinct, and the shape globular. The seeds in
+these pods are purple in colour, flat in appearance, and bitter to
+taste. This is a very convenient classification. Personally I believe it
+would be possible to find pods varying by almost imperceptible
+gradations from the finest, purest, criollo to the lowest form of
+forastero (namely, calabacillo). The criollo yields the finest and
+rarest kind of cacao, but as sometimes happens with refined types in
+nature, it is a rather delicate tree, especially liable to canker and
+bark diseases, and this accounts for the predominance of the forastero
+in the cacao plantations of the world.
+
+
+
+_The Cacao Plantation._
+
+One can spend happy days on a cacao estate. "Are you going into the
+cocoa?" they ask, just as in England we might enquire, "Are you going
+into the corn?"
+
+[Illustration: TROPICAL FOREST, TRINIDAD.
+This has to be cleared before planting begins.]
+
+Coconut plantations and sugar estates make a strong appeal to the
+imagination, but for peaceful beauty they cannot compare with the cacao
+plantation. True, coconut plantations are very lovely--the palms are so
+graceful, the leaves against the sky so like a fine etching--but "the
+slender coco's drooping crown of plumes" is altogether foreign to
+English eyes. Sugar estates are generally marred by the prosaic factory
+in the background. They are dead level plains, and the giant grass
+affords no shade from the relentless sun. Whereas the leaves of the
+cacao tree are large and numerous, so that even in the heat of the day,
+it is comparatively cool and pleasant under the cacao.
+
+Cacao plantations present in different countries every variety of
+appearance--from that of a wild forest in which the greater portion of
+the trees are cacao, to the tidy and orderly plantation. In some of the
+Trinidad plantations the trees are planted in parallel lines twelve feet
+apart, with a tree every twelve feet along the line; and as you push
+your way through the plantation the apparently irregularly scattered
+trees are seen to flash momentarily into long lines. In other parts of
+the world, for example, in Grenada and Surinam, the ground may be kept
+so tidy and free from weeds that they have the appearance of gardens.
+
+
+
+_Clearing the Land._
+
+When the planter has chosen a suitable site, an exercise requiring
+skill, the forest has to be cleared. The felling of great trees and the
+clearing of the wild tangle of undergrowth is arduous work. It is well
+to leave the trees on the ridges for about sixty feet on either side,
+and thus form a belt of trees to act as wind screen. Cacao trees are as
+sensitive to a draught as some human beings, and these "_wind breaks_"
+are often deliberately grown--Balata, Poui, Mango (Trinidad), Galba
+(Grenada), Wild Pois Doux (Martinique), and other leafy trees being
+suitable for this purpose.
+
+
+
+_Suitable Soil._
+
+It was for many years believed that if a tree were analysed the best
+soil for its growth could at once be inferred and described, as it was
+assumed that the best soil would be one containing the same elements in
+similar proportions. This simple theory ignored the characteristic
+powers of assimilation of the tree in question and the "digestibility"
+of the soil constituents. However, it is agreed that soils rich in
+potash and lime (e.g., those obtained by the decomposition of certain
+volcanic rocks) are good for cacao. An open sandy or loamy alluvial soil
+is considered ideal. The physical condition of the soil is equally
+important: heavy clays or water-logged soils are bad. The depth of soil
+required depends on its nature. A stiff soil discourages the growth of
+the "tap" root, which in good porous soils is generally seven or eight
+feet long.
+
+[Illustration: CHARACTERISTIC ROOT SYSTEM OF THE CACAO TREE.
+Note the long tap root.
+(Reproduced from the Imperial Institute series of Handbooks to the
+Commercial Resources of the Tropics, by permission.)]
+
+
+
+_Manure._
+
+The greater part of the world's cacao is produced without the use of
+artificial manures. The soil, which is continually washed down by the
+rains into the rivers, is continually renewed by decomposition of the
+bed rock, and in the tropics this decomposition is more rapid than in
+temperate climes. In Guayaquil, "notwithstanding the fact that the same
+soil has been cropped consecutively for over a hundred years, there is
+as yet no sign of decadence, nor does a necessity yet arise for
+artificial manure."[1] However, manures are useful with all soils, and
+necessary with many. Happy is the planter who is so placed that he can
+obtain a plentiful supply of farmyard or pen manure, as this gives
+excellent results. "Mulching" is also recommended. This consists of
+covering the ground with decaying leaves, grasses, etc., which keep the
+soil in a moist and open condition during the dry season. If artificial
+manures are used they should vary according to the soil, and, although
+he can obtain considerable help from the analyst, the planter's most
+reliable guide will be experiment on the spot.
+
+    [1] _Bulletin_, Botanic Dept., Jamaica, February, 1900.
+
+
+
+_Planting._
+
+In the past insufficient care has been taken in _the selection of seed_.
+The planter should choose the large plump beans with a pale interior, or
+he should choose the nearest kind to this that is sufficiently hardy to
+thrive in the particular environment. He can plant (1) direct from
+seeds, or (2) from seedlings--plants raised in nurseries in bamboo pots,
+or (3) by grafting or budding. It is usual to plant two or three seeds
+in each hole, and destroy the weaker plants when about a foot high. The
+seeds are planted from twelve to fifteen feet apart. The distance chosen
+depends chiefly on the richness of the soil; the richer the soil, the
+more ample room is allowed for the trees to spread without choking each
+other. Interesting results have been obtained by Hart and others by
+grafting the fine but tender criollo on to the hardy forastero, but
+until yesterday the practice had not been tried on a large scale.
+Experiments were begun in 1913 by Mr. W.G. Freeman in Trinidad which
+promise interesting results. By 1919 the Department of Agriculture had
+seven acres in grafted and budded cacao. In a few years it should be
+possible to say whether it pays to form an estate of budded cacao in
+preference to using seedlings.
+
+[Illustration: NURSERY, WITH THE YOUNG CACAO PLANTS IN BASKETS, JAVA.
+(Reproduced from van Hall's _Cocoa_, by permission of Messrs. Macmillan
+& Co.).]
+
+[Illustration: PLANTING CACAO, TRINIDAD, FROM YOUNG SEEDLINGS IN BAMBOO
+POTS.]
+
+[Illustration: CACAO IN ITS FOURTH YEAR (SAMOA).]
+
+There are no longer any mystic rites performed before planting. In the
+old days it was the custom to solemnize the planting, for example, by
+sacrificing a cacao-coloured dog (see Bancroft's _Native Races of the
+Pacific States_.)
+
+
+
+_Shade: Temporary and Permanent._
+
+[Illustration: COPY OF AN OLD ENGRAVING SHOWING THE CACAO TREE, AND A
+TREE SHADING IT.
+(From _Bontekoe's Works_.)]
+
+When the seeds are planted, such small plants as cassava, chillies,
+pigeon peas and the like are planted with them. The object of planting
+these is to afford the young cacao plant shelter from the sun, and to
+keep the ground in good condition. Incidentally the planter obtains
+cassava (which gives tapioca), red peppers, etc., as a "catch crop"
+whilst he is waiting for the cacao tree to begin to yield. Bananas and
+plantains are planted with the same object, and these are allowed to
+remain for a longer period. Such is the rapidity of plant growth in the
+tropics that in three or four years the cacao tree is taller than a man,
+and begins to bear fruit in its fourth or fifth year. Now it is agreed
+that, as with men, the cacao tree needs protection in its youth, but
+whether it needs shade trees when it is fully grown is one of the
+controverted questions. When the planter is sitting after his day's work
+is done, and no fresh topic comes to his mind, he often re-opens the
+discussion on the question of shade. The idea that cacao trees need
+shade is a very ancient one, as is shown in a very old drawing (possibly
+the oldest drawing of cacao extant) beneath which it is written: "Of the
+tree which bears cacao, which is money, and how the Indians obtained
+fire with two pieces of wood." In this drawing you will observe how
+lovingly the shade tree shelters the cacao. The intention in using shade
+is to imitate the natural forest conditions in which the wild cacao
+grew. Sometimes when clearing the forest certain large trees are left
+standing, but more frequently and with better judgment, chosen kinds are
+planted. Many trees have been used: the saman, bread fruit, mango,
+mammet, sand box, pois doux, rubber, etc. In the illustration showing
+kapok acting as a parasol for cacao in Java, we see that the proportion
+of shade trees to cacao is high. Leguminous trees are preferred because
+they conserve the nitrogen in the soil. Hence in Trinidad the favourite
+shade tree is _Erythrina_ or Bois Immortel (so called, a humourist
+suggests, because it is short-lived). It is also rather prettily named,
+"Mother of Cacao." Usually the shade trees are planted about 40 feet
+apart, but there are cacao plantations which might cause a stranger to
+enquire, "Is this an Immortel plantation?" so closely are these
+conspicuous trees planted. When looking down a Trinidad valley, richly
+planted with cacao, one sees in every direction the silver-grey trunks
+of the Immortel. In the early months of the year these trees have no
+leaves, they are a mass of flame-coloured flowers, each "shafted like a
+scimitar." It well repays the labour of climbing a hill to look down on
+this vermilion glory. Some Trinidad planters believe that their trees
+would die without shade, yet in Grenada, only a hundred miles North as
+the steamer sails, there are whole plantations without a single shade
+tree. The Grenadians say: "You cannot have pods without flowers, and you
+cannot have good flowering without light and air." Shade trees are not
+used on some estates in San Thome, and in Brazil there are cocoa kings
+with 200,000 trees without one shade tree. It should be mentioned,
+however, that in these countries the cacao trees are planted more
+closely (about eight feet apart) and themselves shade the soil.
+Professor Carmody, in reporting[2] recently on the result of a four
+years' experiment with (1) shade, (2) no shade, (3) partial shade,
+says that so far partial shade has given the best results. No general
+solution has yet been found to the question of the advantage of shade,
+and, as Shaw states for morality, so in agriculture, "the golden rule is
+that there is no golden rule." Not only is there the personal factor,
+but nature provides an infinite variety of environments, and the best
+results are obtained by the use of methods appropriate to the local
+conditions.
+
+    [2] _Bulletin_ Dept. of Agriculture, Trinidad, 1916.
+
+[Illustration: CACAO TREES, SHADED BY KAPOK (_Eriodendron Anfractuosum_)
+IN JAVA.
+(reproduced from van Hall's _Cocoa_, by permission of Messrs. Macmillan
+& Co.)]
+
+[Illustration: CACAO TREES, SHADED BY BOIS IMMORTEL, TRINIDAD.]
+
+
+
+_Form of Tree-growth Desired: Suckers._
+
+Viscount Mountmorres, in a delightfully clear exposition of cacao
+cultivation which he gave to the native farmers and chiefs of the Gold
+Coast in 1906, said: "In pruning, it is necessary always to bear in mind
+that the best shape for cacao trees is that of an enlarged open
+umbrella," with a height under the umbrella not exceeding seven feet.
+With this ideal in his mind, the planter should train up the tree in the
+way it should go. Viscount Mountmorres also said that everything that
+grows upwards, except the main stem, must be cut off.
+
+This opens a question which is of great interest to planters as to
+whether it is wise to allow shoots to grow out from the main trunk near
+the ground. Some hold that the high yield on their plantation is due to
+letting these upright shoots grow. "Mi Amigo Corsicano said: 'Diavolo,
+let the cacao-trees grow, let them branch off like any other fruit-tree,
+say the tamarind, the 'chupon' or sucker will in time bear more than its
+mother.'"[3] There seems to be some evidence that _old_ trees profit
+from the "chupons" because they continue to bear when the old trunk is
+weary, but this is compensated for by the fact that the "chupons"
+(Portuguese for suckers) were grown at the expense of the tree in its
+youth. Hence other planters call them "thieves," and "gormandizers,"
+saying that they suck the sap from the tree, turning all to wood. They
+follow the advice given as early as 1730 by the author of _The Natural
+History of Chocolate_, when he says: "Cut or lop off the suckers." In
+Trinidad, experiments have been started, and after a five years' test,
+Professor Carmody says that the indications are that it is a matter of
+indifference whether "chupons" are allowed to grow or not.
+
+    [3] "_How Jose formed his Cocoa Estate._"
+
+[Illustration: CACAO TREE, WITH SUCKERS, TRINIDAD.]
+
+After hunting, agriculture is man's oldest industry, and improvements
+come but slowly, for the proving of a theory often requires work on a
+huge scale carried out for several decades. The husbandry of the earth
+goes on from century to century with little change, and the methods
+followed are the winnowings of experience, tempered with indolence. And
+even with the bewildering progress of science in other directions, sound
+improvements in this field are rare discoveries. There is great scope
+for the application of physical and chemical knowledge to the production
+of the raw materials of the tropics. In one or two instances notable
+advances have been made, thus the direct production of a white sugar (as
+now practised at Java) at the tropical factory will have far-reaching
+effects, but with many tropical products the methods practised are as
+ancient as they are haphazard. Like all methods founded on long
+experience, they suit the environment and the temperament of the people
+who use them, so that the work of the scientist in introducing
+improvements requires intimate knowledge of the conditions if his
+suggestions are to be adopted. The various Departments of Agriculture
+are doing splendid pioneer work, but the full harvest of their sowing
+will not be reaped until the number of tropically-educated
+agriculturists has been increased by the founding of three or four
+agricultural colleges and research laboratories in equatorial regions.
+
+There is much research to be done. As yet, however, many planters are
+ignorant of all that is already established, the facilities for
+education in tropical agriculture being few and far between. There are
+signs, however, of development in this direction. It is pleasant to note
+that a start was made in Ceylon at the end of 1917 by opening an
+agricultural school at Peradenija. Trinidad has for a number of years
+had an agricultural school, and is eager to have a college devoted to
+agriculture. In 1919, Messrs. Cadbury Bros. gave L5000 to form the
+nucleus of a special educational fund for the Gold Coast. The scientists
+attached to the several government agricultural departments in Java,
+Ceylon, Trinidad, the Philippines, Africa, etc., have done splendid
+work, but it is desirable that the number of workers should be
+increased. When the world wakes up to the importance of tropical
+produce, agricultural colleges will be scattered about the tropics, so
+that every would-be planter can learn his subject on the spot.
+
+[Illustration: CUTLASSING.]
+
+
+
+_Diseases of the Cacao Tree._
+
+Take, for example, the case of the diseases of plants. Everyone who
+takes an interest in the garden knows how destructive the insect pests
+and vegetable parasites can be. In the tropics their power for
+destruction is very great, and they are a constant menace to economic
+products like cacao. The importance of understanding their habits, and
+of studying methods of keeping them in check, is readily appreciated;
+the planter may be ruined by lacking this knowledge.
+
+The cacao tree has been improved and "domesticated" to satisfy human
+requirements, a process which has rendered it weaker to resist attacks
+from pests and parasites. It is usual to classify man amongst the pests,
+as either from ignorance or by careless handling he can do the tree much
+harm. Other animal pests are the wanton thieves: monkeys, squirrels and
+rats, who destroy more fruit than they consume. The insect pests include
+varieties of beetles, thrips, aphides, scale insects and ants, whilst
+fungi are the cause of the "Canker" in the stem and branches, the
+"Witch-broom" disease in twigs and leaves, and the "Black Rot" of pods.
+
+The subject is too immense to be summarised in a few lines, and I
+recommend readers who wish to know more of this or other division of the
+science of cacao cultivation, to consult one or more of the four
+classics in English on this subject:
+
+_Cocoa_, by Herbert Wright (Ceylon), 1907.
+_Cacao_, by J. Hinchley Hart (Trinidad), 1911.
+_Cocoa_, by W.H. Johnson (Nigeria), 1912.
+_Cocoa_, by C.J.J. van Hall (Java), 1914.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+HARVESTING AND PREPARATION FOR THE MARKET
+
+    The picking, gathering, and breaking of the cacao are the
+    easiest jobs on the plantation.
+
+     "_How Jose formed his Cocoa Estate._"
+
+
+
+_Gathering and Heaping._
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In the last chapter I gave a brief account of the cultivation of cacao.
+I did not deal with forking, spraying, cutlassing, weeding, and so
+forth, as it would lead us too far into purely technical discussions. I
+propose we assume that the planter has managed his estate well, and that
+the plantation is before us looking very healthy and full of fruit
+waiting to be picked. The question arises: How shall we gather it? Shall
+we shake the tree? Cacao pods do not fall off the tree even when
+over-ripe. Shall we knock off or pluck the pods? To do so would make a
+scar on the trunk of the tree, and these wounds are dangerous in
+tropical climates, as they are often attacked by canker. A sharp machete
+or cutlass is used to cut off the pods which grow on the lower part of
+the trunk. As the tree is not often strong enough to bear a man,
+climbing is out of the question, and a knife on a pole is used for
+cutting off the pods on the upper branches. Various shaped knives are
+used by different planters, a common and efficient kind (see drawing),
+resembles a hand of steel, with the thumb as a hook, so that the
+pod-stalk can be cut either by a push or a pull. A good deal of
+ingenuity has been expended in devising a "foolproof" picker which shall
+render easy the cutting of the pod-stalk and yet not cut or damage the
+bark of the tree. A good example is the Agostini picker, which was
+approved by Hart.
+
+[Illustration:
+(1) COMMON TYPE OF CACAO PICKER.
+(2) AGOSTINI CACAO PICKER.]
+
+The gathering of the fruits of one's labour is a pleasant task, which
+occurs generally only at rare intervals. Cacao is gathered the whole
+year round. There is, however, in most districts one principal harvest
+period, and a subsidiary harvest.
+
+[Illustration: GATHERING CACAO PODS, TRINIDAD.]
+
+With cacao in the tropics, as with corn in England, the gathering of the
+harvest is a delight to lovers of the beautiful. It is a great charm of
+the cacao plantation that the trees are so closely planted that nowhere
+does the sunlight find between the foliage a space larger than a man's
+hand. After the universal glare outside, it seems dark under the cacao,
+although the ground is bright with dappled sunshine. You hear a noise of
+talking, of rustling leaves, and falling pods. You come upon a band of
+coolies or negroes. One near you carries a long bamboo--as long as a
+fishing rod--with a knife at the end. With a lithe movement he inserts
+it between the boughs, and, by giving it a sharp jerk, neatly cuts the
+stalk of a pod, which falls from the tree to the ground. Only the ripe
+pods must be picked. To do this, not only must the picker's aim be true,
+but he must also have a good eye for colour. Whether the pods be red or
+green, as soon as the colour begins to be tinted with yellow it is ripe
+for picking. This change occurs first along the furrows in the pod.
+Fewer unripe pods would be gathered if only one kind of pod were grown
+on one plantation. The confusion of kinds and colours which is often
+found makes sound judgment very difficult. That the men generally judge
+correctly the ripeness of pods high in the trees is something to wonder
+at. The pickers pass on, strewing the earth with ripe pods. They are
+followed by the graceful, dark-skinned girls, who gather one by one the
+fallen pods from the greenery, until their baskets are full. Sometimes a
+basketful is too heavy and the girl cannot comfortably lift it on to her
+head, but when one of the men has helped her to place it there, she
+carries it lightly enough. She trips through the trees, her bracelets
+jingling, and tumbles the pods on to the heap. Once one has seen a great
+heap of cacao pods it glows in one's memory: anything more rich, more
+daring in the way of colour one's eye is unlikely to light on. The
+artist, seeking only an aesthetic effect would be content with this for
+the consummation and would wish the pods to remain unbroken.
+
+[Illustration: COLLECTING CACAO PODS INTO A HEAP PRIOR TO BREAKING.]
+
+
+
+_Breaking and Extracting._
+
+There are planters who believe that the product is improved by leaving
+the gathered pods several days before breaking; and they would follow
+the practice, but for the risk of losses by theft. Hence the pods are
+generally broken on the same day as they are gathered. The primitive
+methods of breaking with a club or by banging on a hard surface are
+happily little used. Masson of New York made pod-breaking machines, and
+Sir George Watt has recently invented an ingenious machine for squeezing
+the beans out of the pod, but at present the extraction is done almost
+universally by hand, either by men or women. A knife which would cut the
+husk of the pod and was so constructed that it could not injure the
+beans within, would be a useful invention. The human extractor has the
+advantage that he or she can distinguish the diseased, unripe or
+germinated beans and separate them from the good ones. Picture the men
+sitting round the heap of pods and, farther out, in a larger circle,
+twice as many girls with baskets. The man breaks the pod and the girls
+extract the beans. The man takes the pod in his left hand and gives it a
+sharp slash with a small cutlass, just cutting through the tough shell
+of the pod, but not into the beans inside; and then gives the blade,
+which he has embedded in the shell, a twisting jerk, so that the pod
+breaks in two with a crisp crack. The girls take the broken pods and
+scoop out the snow-like beans with a flat wooden spoon or a piece of
+rib-bone, the beans being pulled off the stringy core (or placenta)
+which holds them together. The beans are put preferably into baskets or,
+failing these, on to broad banana leaves, which are used as trays.
+
+Practice renders these processes cheerful and easy work, often performed
+to an accompaniment of laughing and chattering.
+
+[Illustration: MEN BREAKING PODS, GIRLS SCOOPING OUT BEANS, AND MULES
+WAITING WITH BASKETS TO CONVEY THE CACAO TO THE FERMENTARY.]
+
+
+
+_Fermenting._
+
+I allow myself the pleasure of thinking that I am causing some of my
+readers a little surprise when I tell them that cacao is fermented, and
+that the fermentation produces alcohol. As I mentioned above, the cacao
+bean is covered with a fruity pulp. The bean as it comes from the pod is
+moist, whilst the pulp is full of juice. It would be impossible to
+convey it to Europe in this condition; it would decompose, and, when it
+reached its destination, would be worthless. In order that a product can
+be handled commercially it is desirable to have it in such a condition
+that it does not change, and thus with cacao it becomes necessary to get
+rid of the pulp, and, whilst this may be done by washing or simply by
+drying, experience has shown that the finest and driest product is
+obtained when the drying is preceded by fermentation. Just as broken
+grapes will ferment, so will the fruity pulp of the cacao bean. Present
+day fermentaries are simply convenient places for storing the cacao
+whilst the process goes on. In the process of fermentation, Dr.
+Chittenden says the beans are "stewed in their own juice." This may be
+expressed less picturesquely but more accurately by saying the beans are
+warmed by the heat of their own fermenting pulp, from which they absorb
+liquid.
+
+In Trinidad the cacao which the girls have scooped out into the baskets
+is emptied into larger baskets, two of which are "crooked" on a mule's
+back, and carried thus to the fermentary. In Surinam it is conveyed by
+boat, and in San Thome by trucks, which run on Decauville railways.
+
+The period of fermentation and the receptacle to hold the cacao vary
+from country to country. With cacao of the criollo type only one or two
+days fermentation is required, and as a result, in Ecuador and Ceylon,
+the cacao is simply put in heaps on a suitable floor. In Trinidad and
+the majority of other cacao-producing areas, where the forastero
+variety predominates, from five to nine days are required. The cacao is
+put into the "sweat" boxes and covered with banana or plantain leaves to
+keep in the heat. The boxes may measure four feet each way and be made
+of sweet-smelling cedar wood. As is usual with fermentation, the
+temperature begins to rise, and if you thrust your hands into the
+fermenting beans you find they are as hot and mucilaginous as a
+poultice.
+
+[Illustration: "SWEATING" BOXES, TRINIDAD.
+The man is holding the wooden spade used for turning the beans.]
+
+   _Time._      _Temperature._
+When put in   25 deg. C. or  77 deg. F.
+After 1 day   30 deg. C. or  89 deg. F.
+After 2 days  37 deg. C. or  98 deg. F.
+After 3 days  47 deg. C. or 115 deg. F.
+
+(After the third day the heat is maintained, but the temperature rises
+very little.)
+
+
+The temperature is the simplest guide to the amount of fermentation
+taking place, and the uniformity of the temperature in all parts of the
+mass is desirable, as showing that all parts are fermenting evenly. The
+cacao is usually shovelled from one box to another every one or two
+days. The chief object of this operation is to mix the cacao and prevent
+merely local fermentation. To make mixing easy one ingenious planter
+uses a cylindrical vessel which can be turned about on its axis.
+
+[Illustration: FERMENTING BOXES, JAVA.
+From the last box the beans are shovelled into the washing basin.
+(Reproduced from van Hall's _Cocoa_, by permission of Messrs. Macmillan
+& Co.)]
+
+In other places, for example in Java, the boxes are arranged as a series
+of steps, so that the cacao is transferred with little labour from the
+higher to the lower. In San Thome the cacao is placed on the plantation
+direct into trucks, which are covered with plaintain leaves, and run on
+rails through the plantation right into the fermentary. Some day some
+enterprising firm will build a fermentary in portable sections easily
+erected, and with some simple mechanical mixer to replace the present
+laborious method of turning the beans by manual labour.
+
+The general conditions[1] for a good fermentation are:
+
+(1) The mass of beans must be kept warm.
+
+(2) The mass of beans must be moist, but not sodden.
+
+(3) In the later stages there must be sufficient air.
+
+(4) The boxes must be kept clean.
+
+    [1] For full details see the pamphlet by the author on _The
+        Practice of Fermentation in Trinidad_.
+
+
+
+_Changes during Fermentation._
+
+No entirely satisfactory theory of the changes in cacao due to
+fermentation has yet been established. It is known that the sugary pulp
+outside the beans ferments in a similar way to other fruit pulp, save
+that for a yeast fermentation the temperature rises unusually high (in
+three days to 47 degrees C.), and also that there are parallel and more
+important changes in the interior of the bean. The difficulty of
+establishing a complete theory of fermentation of cacao has not daunted
+the scientists, for they know that the roses of philosophy are gathered
+by just those who can grasp the thorniest problems. Success, however, is
+so far only partial, as can be seen by consulting the best introduction
+on the subject, the admirable collection of essays on _The Fermentation
+of Cacao_, edited by H. Hamel Smith. Here the reader will find the
+valuable contributions of Fickendey, Loew, Nicholls, Preyer, Schulte im
+Hofe, and Sack.
+
+The obvious changes which occur in the breaking down of the fruity
+exterior of the bean should be carefully distinguished from the subtle
+changes in the bean itself. Let us consider them separately:--
+
+(_a_) _Changes in the Pulp._--Just as grape-pulp ferments and changes to
+wine, and just as weak wine if left exposed becomes sour; so the fruity
+sugary pulp outside the cacao bean on exposure gives off bubbles of
+carbon dioxide, becomes alcoholic, and later becomes acid. The acid
+produced is generally the pleasant vinegar acid (acetic acid), but under
+some circumstances it may be lactic acid, or the rancid-smelling butyric
+acid. Kismet! The planter trusts to nature to provide the right kind of
+fermentation. This fermentation is set up and carried on by the minute
+organisms (yeasts, bacteria, etc.), which chance to fall on the beans
+from the air or come from the sides of the receptacle. One yeast-cell
+does not make a fermentation, and as no yeast is added a day is wasted
+whilst any yeasts which happen to be present are multiplying to an army
+large enough to produce a visible effect on the pulp. _Any_ organism
+which happens to be on the pod, in the air, or on the inside of the
+fermentary will multiply in the pulp, if the pulp contains suitable
+nourishment. Each kind of organism produces its own characteristic
+changes. It would thus appear a miracle if the same substances were
+always produced. Yet, just as grape-juice left exposed to every
+micro-organism of the air, generally changes in the direction of wine
+more or less good, so the pulp of cacao tends, broadly speaking, to
+ferment in one way. It would, however, be a serious error to assume that
+exactly the same kind of fermentation takes place in any two
+fermentaries in the world, and the maximum variation must be
+considerable. As the pulp ferments, it is destroyed; it gradually
+changes from white to brown, and a liquid ("sweatings") flows away from
+it. The "_sweatings_" taste like sweet cider. At present this is allowed
+to run away through holes in the bottom of the box, and no care is taken
+to preserve what may yet become a valuable by-product. I found by
+experiment that in the preparation of one cwt. of dry beans about 1-1/2
+gallons of this unstable liquid are produced. In other words, some seven
+or eight million gallons of "sweatings" run to waste every year. In most
+cases only small quantities are produced in one place at one time. This,
+and the lack of knowledge of scientifically controlled fermentation,
+and the difficulty of bottling, prevent the starting of an industry
+producing either a new drink or a vinegar. The cacao juice or
+"sweatings" contains about fifteen per cent. of solids, about half of
+which consists of sugars. If the fermentation of the cacao were
+centralised in the various districts, and conducted on a large scale
+under a chemist's control, the sugars could be obtained, or an alcoholic
+liquid or a vinegar could easily be prepared.
+
+[Illustration: CHARGING THE CACAO ON TO TRUCKS IN THE PLANTATION, SAN
+THOME.]
+
+[Illustration: CACAO IN THE FERMENTING TRUCKS, SAN THOME.
+The covering of banana leaves keeps the beans warm.]
+
+The planter decides when the beans are fermented by simply looking at
+them; he judges their condition by the colour of the pulp. When they are
+ready to be removed from the fermentary they are plump, and brown
+without, and juicy within.
+
+(_b_) _Changes in the Interior of the Bean._--What is the relation
+between the comparatively simple fermentation of the pulp and the
+changes in the interior of the bean? This important question has not yet
+been answered, although a number of attempts have been made.
+
+As far as is known, the living ferments (micro-organisms) do not
+penetrate the skin of the bean, so that any fermentation which takes
+place must be promoted by unorganised ferments (or enzymes). Mr. H.C.
+Brill[2] found raffinase, invertase, casease and protease in the pulp;
+oxidase, raffinase, casease and emulsinlike enzymes in the fresh bean;
+and all these six, together with diastase, in the fermented bean. Dr.
+Fickendey says: "The object of fermentation is, in the main, to kill the
+germ of the bean in such a manner that the efficiency of the unorganised
+ferment is in no way impaired."
+
+    [2] _Philippine Journal of Science_, 1917.
+
+From my own observations I believe that forastero beans are killed at 47
+degrees C. (which is commonly reached when they have been fermenting 60
+hours), for a remarkable change takes place at this temperature and
+time. Whilst the micro-organisms remain outside, the juice of the pulp
+appears to penetrate not only the skin, but the flesh of the bean, and
+the brilliant violet in the isolated pigment cells becomes diffused more
+or less evenly throughout the entire bean, including the "germ." It is
+certain that the bean absorbs liquid from the outside, for it becomes so
+plump that its skin is stretched to the utmost. The following changes
+occur:
+
+    (1) _Taste._ An astringent colourless substance (a tannin or
+    a body possessing many properties of a tannin) changes to a
+    tasteless brown substance. The bean begins to taste less
+    astringent as the "tannin" is destroyed. With white (criollo)
+    beans this change is sufficiently advanced in two days, but
+    with purple (forastero) beans it may take seven days.
+
+    (2) _Colour._ The change in the tannin results in the white
+    (criollo) beans becoming brown and the purple (forastero)
+    beans becoming tinged with brown. The action resembles the
+    browning of a freshly-cut apple, and has been shown to be due
+    to oxygen (activated by an oxidase, a ferment encouraging
+    combination with oxygen) acting on the astringent
+    colourless substance, which, like the photographic developer,
+    pyrogallic acid, becomes brown on oxidation.
+
+    (3) _Aroma._ A notable change is that substances are created
+    within the bean, which _on roasting_ produce the fine
+    aromatic odour characteristic of cocoa and chocolate, and
+    which Messrs. Bainbridge and Davies have shown is due to a
+    trace (0.001 per cent.) of an essential oil over half of
+    which consists of linalool.[3]
+
+    (4) _Stimulating Effect._ It is commonly stated that during
+    fermentation there is generated theobromine, the alkaloid
+    which gives cacao its stimulating properties, but the
+    estimation of theobromine in fermented and unfermented beans
+    does not support this.
+
+    (5) _Consistency._ Fermented beans become crisp on drying.
+    This development may be due to the "tannins" encountering, in
+    their dispersion through the bean, proteins, which are thus
+    converted into bodies which are brittle solids on drying
+    (compare tanning of hides). The "hide" of the bean may be
+    similarly "tanned"--the shell certainly becomes leathery
+    (unless washed)--but a far more probable explanation, in both
+    cases, is that the gummy bodies in bean and shell set hard on
+    drying.
+
+    [3] _Journal of the Chemical Society_, 1912.
+
+We see, then, that although fermentation was probably originally
+followed as the best method of getting rid of the pulp, it has other
+effects which are entirely good. It enables the planter to produce a
+drier bean, and one which has, when roasted, a finer flavour, colour,
+and aroma, than the unfermented. Fermentation is generally considered to
+produce so many desirable results that M. Perrot's suggestion[4] of
+removing the pulp by treatment with alkali, and thus avoiding
+fermentation, has not been enthusiastically received.
+
+    [4] _Comptes Rendus_, 1913.
+
+Beans which have been dried direct and those which have been fermented
+may be distinguished as follows:
+
+
+CACAO BEANS
+
+                       DRIED DIRECT.         FERMENTED AND DRIED.
+
+_Shape of bean_     Flat                     Plumper
+_Shell_             Soft and close fitting   Crisp and more or
+                                                    less free.
+_Interior: colour_  Slate-blue or mud-brown  Bright browns and
+                                                    purples
+   " _consistence_  Leather to cheese        Crisp
+   " _appearance_   Solid                    Open-grained
+   " _taste_        More or less bitter      Less astringent
+                           or astringent
+
+Whilst several effects of fermentation have not been satisfactorily
+accounted for, I think all are agreed that to obtain one of the chief
+effects of fermentation, namely the brown colour, oxidation is
+necessary. All recognise that for this oxidation the presence of three
+substances is essential:
+
+     (1) The tannin to be oxidised.
+
+     (2) Oxygen.
+
+     (3) An enzyme which encourages the oxidation.
+
+All these occur in the cacao bean as it comes from the pod, but why
+oxidation occurs so much better in a fermented bean than in a bean which
+is simply dried is not very clear. If you cut an apple it goes brown
+owing to the action of oxygen absorbed from the air, but as long as the
+apple is uncut and unbruised it remains white. If you take a cacao bean
+from the pod and cut it, the exposed surface goes brown, but if you
+ferment the bean the whole of it gradually goes brown without being cut.
+My observations lead me to believe that the bean does not become
+oxidised until it is killed, that is, until it is no longer capable of
+germination. It can be killed by raising the temperature, by
+fermentation or otherwise, or as Dr. Fickendey has shown, by cooling to
+almost freezing temperatures. It may be that killing the bean makes its
+skin and cell walls more permeable to oxygen, but my theory is that when
+the bean is killed disintegration or weakening of the cell walls, etc.,
+occurs, and, as a result, the enzyme and tannin, _hitherto separate_,
+become mixed, and hence able actively to absorb oxygen. The action of
+oxygen on the tannin also accounts for the loss of astringency on
+fermentation, and it may be well to point out that fermentation
+increases the internal surface of the bean exposed to air and oxygen.
+The bean, during fermentation, actually sucks in liquid from the
+surrounding pulp and becomes plumper and fuller. On drying, however, the
+skin, which has been expanded to its utmost, wrinkles up as the interior
+contracts and no longer fits tightly to the bean, and the cotyledons
+having been thrust apart by the liquid, no longer hold together so
+closely. This accounts for the open appearance of a fermented bean. As
+on drying large interspaces are produced, these allow the air to
+circulate more freely and expose a greater surface of the bean to the
+action of oxygen. Since the liquids in all living matter presumably
+contain some dissolved oxygen, the problem is to account for the fact
+that the tannin in the unfermented bean remains unoxidised, whilst that
+in the fermented bean is easily oxidised. The above affords a partial
+explanation, and seems fairly satisfactory when taken with my previous
+suggestion, namely, that during fermentation the bean is rendered
+pervious to water, which, on distributing itself throughout the bean,
+dissolves the isolated masses of tannin and diffuses it evenly, so that
+it encounters and becomes mixed with the enzymes. From this it will be
+evident that the major part of the oxidation of the tannin occurs during
+drying, and hence the importance of this, both from the point of view of
+the keeping properties of the cacao, and its colour, taste and aroma.
+
+It will be realised from the above that there is still a vast amount of
+work to be done before the chemist will be in a position to obtain the
+more desirable aromas and flavours. Having found the necessary
+conditions, scientifically trained overseers will be required to produce
+them, and for this they will need to have under their direction
+arrangements for fermentation designed on correct principles and
+allowing some degree of control. Whilst improvements are always possible
+in the approach to perfection, it must be admitted that, considering the
+means at their disposal, the planters produce a remarkably fine product.
+
+[Illustration: FOR DRYING SMALL QUANTITIES.
+A simple tray-barrow, which can be run under the house when rain comes
+on.]
+
+
+
+_Loss on Fermenting and Drying._
+
+The fermented cacao is conveyed from the fermentary to the drying trays
+or floors. The planter often has some rough check-weighing system. Thus,
+for example, he notes the number of standard baskets of wet cacao put
+into the fermentary, and he measures the fermented cacao produced with
+the help of a bottomless barrel. By this means he finds that on
+fermentation the beans lose weight by the draining away of the
+"sweatings," according to the amount and juiciness of the pulp round
+them. The beans are still very wet, and on drying lose a high percentage
+of their moisture by evaporation before the cacao bean of commerce is
+obtained.
+
+The average losses may be tabulated thus:
+
+Weight of wet cacao from pod           100
+Loss on fermentation              20 to 25
+Loss on drying                          40
+                                  --------
+Cacao beans of commerce obtained  35 to 40
+
+[Illustration: SPREADING THE CACAO BEANS ON MATS TO DRY IN THE SUN,
+CEYLON.]
+
+The drying of cacao is an art. On the one hand it is necessary to get
+the beans quite dry (that is, in a condition in which they hold only
+their normal amount of water--5 to 7 per cent.) or they will be liable
+to go mouldy. On the other hand, the husk or shell of the bean must not
+be allowed to become burned or brittle. Brittle shells produce waste in
+packing and handling, and broken shells allow grubs and mould to enter
+the beans when the cacao is stored. The method of drying varies in
+different countries according to the climate. Jose says: "In the wet
+season when 'Father Sol' chooses to lie low behind the clouds for days
+and your cocoa house is full, your curing house full, your trees
+loaded, then is the time to put on his mettle the energetic and
+practical planter. In such tight corners, _amigo_, I have known a friend
+to set a fire under his cocoa house to keep the cocoa on the top
+somewhat warm. Another friend's plan (and he recommended it) was to
+address his patron saint on such occasions. He never addressed that
+saint at other times."
+
+[Illustration: DRYING TRAYS, GRENADA.
+The trays slide on rails. The corrugated iron roofs will slide over the
+whole to protect from rain.]
+
+In most producing areas sun-drying is preferred, but in countries where
+much rain falls, artificial dryers are slowly but surely coming into
+vogue. These vary in pattern from simple heated rooms, with shelves, to
+vacuum stoves and revolving drums. The sellers of these machines will
+agree with me when I say that every progressive planter ought to have
+one of these artificial aids to use during those depressing periods when
+the rain continually streams from the sky. On fine days it is difficult
+to prevent mildew appearing on the cacao, but at such times it is
+impossible. However, whenever available, the sun's heat is preferable,
+for it encourages a slow and even drying, which lasts over a period of
+about three days. As Dr. Paul Preuss says: "II faut eviter une
+dessiccation trop rapide. Le cacao ne peut etre seche en moins de trois
+jours."[5] Further, most observers agree with Dr. Sack that the valuable
+changes, which occur during fermentation, continue during drying,
+especially those in which oxygen assists. The full advantage of these is
+lost if the temperature used is high enough to kill the enzymes, or if
+the drying is too rapid, both of which may occur with artificial drying.
+
+    [5] Dr. Paul Preuss, _Le cacao. Culture et Preparation_.
+
+Sun-drying is done on cement or brick floors, on coir mats or trays, or
+on wooden platforms. In order to dry the cacao uniformly it is raked
+over and over in the sun. It must be tenderly treated, carefully
+"watched and caressed," until the interior becomes quite crisp and in
+colour a beautiful brown.
+
+Sometimes the platforms are built on the top of the fermentaries, the
+cacao being conveyed through a hole in the roof of the fermentary to the
+drying platform.
+
+[Illustration: "HAMEL-SMITH" ROTARY DRYER.
+(Made by Messrs. David Bridge and Co., Manchester).
+
+The receiving cylinders, six in number, are filled approximately
+three-quarters full with the cacao to be dried. These are then placed in
+position on the revolving framework, which is enclosed in the casing and
+slowly revolved. The cylinders are fitted with baffle plates, which
+gently turn over the cacao beans at each revolution so that even drying
+throughout is the result. The casing is heated to the requisite
+temperature by means of a special stove, the arrangement of which is
+such as to allow the air drawn from the outside to circulate around the
+stove and to pass into the interior of the casing containing the drying
+cylinders. The fumes from the fuel do not in any way come in contact
+with the material during drying.]
+
+[Illustration: DRYING PLATFORMS, TRINIDAD, WITH SLIDING ROOFS.]
+
+In Trinidad the platform always has a sliding roof, which can be pulled
+over the cacao in the blaze of noon or when a rainstorm comes on. In
+other places, sliding platforms are used which can be pushed under cover
+in wet weather.
+
+
+
+_The Washing of Cacao._
+
+In Java, Ceylon and Madagascar before the cacao is dried, it is first
+washed to remove all traces of pulp. This removal of pulp enables the
+beans to be more rapidly dried, and is considered almost a necessity in
+Ceylon, where sun-drying is difficult. The practice appears at first
+sight wholly good and sanitary, but although beans so treated have a
+very clean and bright appearance, looking not unlike almonds, the
+practice cannot be recommended. There is a loss of from 2 to 10 per
+cent. in weight, which is a disadvantage to the planter, whilst from the
+manufacturer's point of view, washing is objectionable because,
+according to Dr. Paul Preuss, the aroma suffers. Whilst this may be
+questioned, there is no doubt that washing renders the shells more
+brittle and friable, and less able to bear carriage and handling; and
+when the shell is broken, the cacao is more liable to attack by grubs
+and mould. Therein lies the chief danger of washing.
+
+[Illustration: CACAO DRYING PLATFORMS, SAN THOME. Three tiers of trays
+on rails.
+(Reproduced by permission from the Imperial Institute series of
+Handbooks to the Commercial Resources of the Tropics).]
+
+[Illustration: WASHING THE BEANS IN A VAT TO CLEAN OFF THE PULP,
+CEYLON.]
+
+
+
+_Claying, Colouring, and Polishing Cacao._
+
+[Illustration: CLAYING CACAO BEANS IN TRINIDAD.]
+
+Just as in Java and Ceylon, to assist drying, they wash off the pulp, so
+in Venezuela and often in Trinidad, with the same object, they put earth
+or clay on the beans. In Venezuela it is a heavy, rough coat, and in
+Trinidad a film so thin that usually it is not visible. In Venezuela,
+where fermentation is often only allowed to proceed for one day, the use
+of fine red earth may possibly be of value. It certainly gives the beans
+a very pretty appearance; they look as though they have been moistened
+and rolled in cocoa powder. But in Trinidad, where the fermentation is a
+lengthy one, the use of clay, though hallowed by custom, is quite
+unnecessary. In the report of the Commission of Enquiry (Trinidad, 1915)
+we read concerning claying that "It is said to prevent the bean from
+becoming mouldy in wet weather, to improve its marketable value by
+giving it a bright and uniform appearance, and to help to preserve its
+aroma." In the appendix to this report the following recommendation
+occurs: "The claying of cacao ought to be avoided as much as possible,
+and when necessary only sufficient to give a uniform colour ought to be
+used." In my opinion manufacturers would do well to discourage entirely
+the claying of cacao either in Trinidad or Venezuela, for from their
+point of view it has nothing to recommend it. One per cent. of clay is
+sufficient to give a uniform colour, but occasionally considerably more
+than this is used. If we are to believe reports, deliberate adulteration
+is sometimes practised. Thus in _How Jose formed his Cocoa Estate_ we
+read: "A cocoa dealer of our day to give a uniform colour to the
+miscellaneous brands he has purchased from Pedro, Dick, or Sammy will
+wash the beans in a heap, with a mixture of starch, sour oranges, gum
+arabic and red ochre. This mixture is always boiled. I can recommend the
+'Chinos' in this dodge, who are all adepts in all sorts of
+'adulteration' schemes. They even add some grease to this mixture so as
+to give the beans that brilliant gloss which you see sometimes." In
+Trinidad the usual way of obtaining a gloss is by the curious operation
+known as "dancing," which is performed on the moistened beans after the
+clay has been sprinkled on them. It is a quaint sight to see a circle of
+seven or eight coloured folk slowly treading a heap of beans. The
+dancing may proceed for any period up to an hour, and as they tread they
+sing some weird native chant. Somewhat impressed, I remarked to the
+planter that it had all the appearance of an incantation. He replied
+that the process cost 2d. per cwt. Dancing makes the beans look smooth,
+shiny, and even, and it separates any beans that may be stuck together
+in clusters. It may make the beans rounder, and it is said to improve
+their keeping properties, but this remains to be proved. On the whole,
+if it is considered desirable to produce a glossy appearance, it is
+better to use a polishing machine.
+
+
+
+_The Weight of the Cured Cacao Bean._
+
+[Illustration: SORTING CACAO BEANS IN JAVA.
+(Reproduced from van Hall's _Cocoa_, by permission of Messrs. Macmillan
+& Co.).]
+
+Planters and others may be interested to know the comparative sizes of
+the beans from the various producing areas of the world. Some idea of
+these can be gained by considering the relative weights of the beans
+as purchased in England.
+
+          Average weight  Number of Beans
+   Kind.    of one Bean.    to the lb.
+
+Grenada    1.0 grammes       450
+Para       1.0    "          450
+Bahia      1.1    "          410
+Accra      1.2    "          380
+Trinidad   1.2    "          380
+Cameroons  1.2    "          380
+Ceylon     1.2    "          380
+Caracas    1.3    "          350
+Machala    1.4    "          330
+Arriba     1.5    "          300
+Carupano   1.6    "          280
+
+
+
+_The Yield of the Cacao Tree._
+
+The average yield of cacao has in the past generally been over-stated.
+Whether this is because the planter is an optimist or because he wishes
+others to think his efforts are crowned with exceptional success, or
+because he takes a simple pride in his district, is hard to tell.
+Probably the tendency has been to take the finer estates and put their
+results down as the average.
+
+Of the thousands of flowers that bloom on one tree during the year, on
+an average only about twenty develop into mature pods, and each pod
+yields about 1-1/3 ounces of dry cured cacao. Taking the healthy trees
+with the neglected, the average yield is from 1-1/2 to 2 pounds of
+commercial cacao per tree. This seems very small, and those who hear it
+for the first time often make a rapid mental calculation of the amazing
+number of trees that must be needed to produce the world's supply, at
+least 250 million trees. Or again, taking the average yield per acre as
+400 lbs., we find that there must be well over a million acres under
+cacao cultivation. At the Government station at Aburi (Gold Coast) three
+plots of cacao gave in 1914 an average yield of over 8 pounds of cacao
+per tree, and in 1918 some 468 trees (_Amelonado_) gave as an average
+7.8 pounds per tree. This suggests what might be done by thorough
+cultivation. It suggests a great opportunity for the planters--that,
+without planting one more tree, they might quadruple the world's
+production.
+
+The work which has been started by the Agricultural Department in
+Trinidad of recording the yield of individual trees has shown that great
+differences occur. Further, it has generally been observed that the
+heavy bearing trees of the first year have continued to be heavy
+bearers, and the poor-yielding trees have remained poor during
+subsequent years. The report rightly concludes that: "The question of
+detecting the poor-bearing trees on an estate and having them replaced
+by trees raised from selected stock, or budded or grafted trees, of
+known prolific and other good qualities is deserving of the most serious
+consideration by planters."
+
+
+
+_The Kind of Cacao that Manufacturers Like._[6]
+
+    [6] For further information read _The Qualities in Cacao
+        Desired by Manufacturers_, by N.P. Booth and A.W.
+        Knapp, International Congress of Tropical Agriculture,
+        1914.
+
+Planters have suggested to me that if the users and producers of cacao
+could be brought together it would be to their mutual advantage. Permit
+me to conceive a meeting and report an imaginary conversation:
+
+    PLANTER: You know we planters work a little in the dark. We
+    don't know quite what to strive after. Tell me exactly what
+    kind of cacao the manufacturers want?
+
+    MANUFACTURER: Every buyer and manufacturer has his tastes and
+    preferences and----.
+
+    PLANTER: Don't hedge!
+
+    MANUFACTURER: The cacao of each producing area has its
+    special characters, even as the wine from a country, and part
+    of the good manufacturer's art is the art of blending.
+
+    PLANTER: What--good with bad?
+
+    MANUFACTURER: No! Good of one type with good of another type.
+
+    PLANTER: What do you mean exactly by good?
+
+    MANUFACTURER: By good I mean large, ripe, well-cured beans.
+    By indifferent I mean unripe and unfermented. By abominable I
+    mean germinated, mouldy, and grubby beans. Happily, the last
+    class is quite a small one.
+
+    PLANTER: You don't mean to tell me that only the good cacao
+    sells?
+
+    MANUFACTURER: Unfortunately, no! There are users of inferior
+    beans. Practically all the cacao produced--good and
+    indifferent--is bought by someone. Most manufacturers prefer
+    the fine, healthy, well fermented kinds.
+
+    PLANTER: Well fermented! They have a strange way of showing
+    their preference. Why, they often pay more for Guayaquil than
+    they do for Grenada cacao. Yet Guayaquil is never properly
+    fermented, whilst that from the Grenada estates is perfectly
+    fermented.
+
+    MANUFACTURER: Agreed. Just as you would pay more for a
+    badly-trained thoroughbred than for a well-trained mongrel.
+    It's breed they pay for. The Guayaquil breed is peculiar;
+    there is nothing else like it in the world. You might think
+    the tree had been grafted on to a spice tree. It has a fine
+    characteristic aroma, which is so powerful that it masks the
+    presence of a high percentage of unfermented beans. However,
+    if Guayaquil cacao was well-fermented it would (subject to
+    the iron laws of Supply and Demand) fetch a still higher
+    price, and there would not be the loss there is in a wet
+    season when the Guayaquil cacao, being unfermented, goes
+    mouldy. I think in Grenada they plant for high yield, and not
+    for quality, for the bean is small and approaches the
+    inferior Calabacillo breed. Its value is maintained by an
+    amazing evenness and an uniform excellence in curing. The way
+    in which it is prepared for the market does great credit to
+    the planters.
+
+    PLANTER: They don't clay there, do they?
+
+    MANUFACTURER: No! and yet it is practically impossible to
+    find a mouldy bean in Grenada estates cacao. Evidently
+    claying is not a necessity--in Grenada.
+
+    PLANTER: Ha! ha! By that I suppose you insinuate that it is
+    not a necessity in Trinidad, where the curing is also
+    excellent. Or in Venezuela? What's the buyer's objection to
+    claying?
+
+    MANUFACTURER: Simply that claying is camouflage. Actually the
+    buyer doesn't mind so long as the clay is not too generously
+    used. He objects to paying for beans and getting clay.
+    However, it's really too bad to colour up with clay the black
+    cacao from diseased pods; it might deceive even experienced
+    brokers.
+
+    PLANTER: Ha! ha! Then it's a very sinful practice. I don't
+    think that ever gets beyond the local tropical market. I know
+    the merchants judge largely by "the skin," but I thought the
+    London broker----.
+
+    MANUFACTURER: You see it's like this. Just as you associate a
+    certain label with a particularly good brand of cigar so the
+    planter's mark on the bag and the external appearance of the
+    beans influence the broker by long association. But just as
+    you cannot truly judge a cigar by the picture on the box, so
+    the broker has to consider what is under the shell of the
+    bean. One or two manufacturers go further, but don't trust
+    merely to "tasting with their eyes"--they only come to a
+    conclusion when they have roasted a sample.
+
+    PLANTER: But a buyer can get a shrewd idea without roasting,
+    surely? You agree. Well, what exactly does he look for?
+
+    MANUFACTURER: Depends what nationality the bean is--I mean
+    whether it was grown in Venezuela, Brazil, Trinidad, or the
+    Gold Coast. In general he likes beans with a good "break,"
+    that is beans which, under the firm pressure of thumb and
+    forefinger, break into small crisp nibs. Closeness or
+    cheesiness are danger signals, warnings of lack of
+    fermentation,--so is a slate-coloured interior. He prefers a
+    pale, even-coloured interior,--cinnamon, chocolate, or
+    cafe-au-lait colour and----.
+
+    PLANTER: One moment! I've heard before of planters being told
+    to ferment and cure until the bean is cinnamon colour. Why,
+    man, you couldn't get a pale brown interior with beans of the
+    Forastero or Calabacillo type if you fermented them to
+    rottenness.
+
+    MANUFACTURER: True! Well, if the breed on your plantation is
+    purple Forastero, and more than half of the cacao in the
+    world is, you must develop as much brown in the beans as
+    possible. They should have the characteristic refreshing
+    odour of raw cacao, together with a faint vinegary odour. The
+    buyers much dislike any foreign smell, any mouldy, hammy, or
+    cheesy odour.
+
+    PLANTER: And where do the foreign odours come from?
+
+    MANUFACTURER: That's debatable. Some come from bad
+    fermentations, due to dirty fermentaries, abnormal
+    temperatures, or unripe cacao.[7] Some come from smoky or
+    imperfect artificial drying. Some come from mould.
+    Unfermented cacao is liable to go mouldy, so is germinated or
+    over-ripe cacao with broken shells. Some cacao unfortunately
+    gets wet with sea water. There always seems to me something
+    pathetic in the thought of finely-cured cacao being drowned
+    in sea water as it goes out in open boats to the steamer.
+
+    PLANTER: You see, we haven't piers and jetties everywhere,
+    and often it's a long journey to them. Well, you've told me
+    the buyers note break, colour and aroma. Anything else?
+
+    MANUFACTURER: They like large beans, partly because largeness
+    suggests fineness, and partly because with large beans the
+    percentage of shell is less. Small flat beans are very
+    wasteful and unsatisfactory; they are nearly all shell and
+    very difficult to separate from the shell.
+
+    PLANTER: When there's a drought we can't help ourselves; we
+    produce quantities of small flat beans.
+
+    MANUFACTURER: It must be trying to be at the mercy of the
+    weather. However, the weather doesn't prevent the dirt being
+    picked out of the beans. Buyers don't like more than half a
+    per cent. of rubbish; I mean stones, dried twig-like pieces
+    of pulp, dust, etc., left in the cacao, neither do they like
+    to see "cobs," that is, two or more beans stuck together,
+    nor----.
+
+    PLANTER: How about gloss?
+
+    MANUFACTURER: The beauty of a polished bean attracts,
+    although they know the beauty is less than skin deep.
+
+    PLANTER: And washing?
+
+    MANUFACTURER: In my opinion washing is bad, leaves the shell
+    too fragile. I believe in Hamburg they used to pay more for
+    washed beans; although very little, I suppose less than five
+    per cent., of the world's cacao is washed, but in London many
+    buyers prefer "the great unwashed." However, brokers are
+    conservative, and would probably look on unwashed Ceylon with
+    suspicion.
+
+    PLANTER: Well, I have been very interested in everything that
+    you have said, and I think every planter should strive to
+    produce the very best he can, but he does not get much
+    encouragement.
+
+    MANUFACTURER: How is that?
+
+    PLANTER: There is insufficient difference between the price
+    of the best and the common.
+
+    MANUFACTURER: Unfortunately that is beyond any individual
+    manufacturer's control. The price is controlled by the
+    European and New York markets. I am afraid that as long as
+    there is so large a demand by the public for cheap cocoas so
+    long will there be keen competition amongst buyers for the
+    commoner kinds of beans.
+
+    PLANTER: The manufacturer should keep some of his own men on
+    the spot to do his buying. They would discriminate carefully,
+    and the differences in price offered would soon educate the
+    planters!
+
+    MANUFACTURER: True, but as each manufacturer requires cacao
+    from many countries and districts, this would be a very
+    costly enterprise. Several manufacturers have had their own
+    buyers in certain places in the Tropics for some years, and
+    it is generally agreed that this has acted as an incentive to
+    the growers to improve the quality.[8] But in the main we
+    have to look to the various Government Agricultural
+    Departments to instruct and encourage the planters in the use
+    of the best methods.
+
+    [7] Cameroon cacao sometimes has an objectionable odour and
+        flavour, which may be due to its being fermented in an
+        unripe condition, for, as Dr. Fickendey says: "Cameroon
+        cacao has to be harvested unripe to save the pods from
+        brown rot."
+
+    [8] The Director of Agriculture, in a paper on _The Gold
+        Coast Cocoa Industry_, says: "We are indebted to Messrs.
+        Cadbury Bros., of Bournville, for a lead in this
+        direction. They have several agents in the colony who
+        purchase on their behalf only the best qualities at an
+        enhanced price, and reject all that falls below the
+        standard of their requirements."
+
+[Illustration: THE WORLD'S CACAO PRODUCTION.
+(Mean of 5 years, 1914-1918. Average world production 295,600 tons per
+annum.) Diagram showing relative amounts produced by various countries.
+The shaded parts show production of British Possessions.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE
+
+    When the English Commander, Thomas Candish, coming into the
+    Haven Guatulco, burnt two hundred thousand tun of cacao, it
+    proved no small loss to all New Spain, the provinces
+    Guatimala and Nicaragua not producing so much in a whole
+    year.
+
+    John Ogilvy's _America_, 1671.
+
+
+When one starts to discuss, however briefly, the producing areas, one
+ought first to take off one's hat to Ecuador, for so long the principal
+producer, and then to Venezuela the land of the original cacao, and
+producer of the finest criollo type. Having done this, one ought to say
+words of praise to Trinidad, Grenada and Ceylon for their scientific
+methods of culture and preparation; and, last but not least, the newest
+and greatest producer, the Gold Coast, should receive honourable
+mention. It is interesting to note that in 1918 British Possessions
+produced nearly half (44 per cent.) of the world's supply.
+
+Whilst the war has not very materially hindered the increase of cacao
+production in the tropics, the shortage of shipping has prevented the
+amount exported from maintaining a steady rise. The table below, taken
+mainly from the "Gordian," illustrates this:
+
+WORLD PRODUCTION OF CACAO.
+Total in tons (1 ton = 1000 kilogrammes)
+
+1908  194,000    1914  277,000
+1909  206,000    1915  298,000
+1910  220,000    1916  297,000
+1911  241,000    1917  343,000
+1912  234,000    1918  273,000
+1913  258,000    1919  431,000
+
+The following table is compiled chiefly from Messrs. Theo. Vasmer &
+Co.'s reports in the _Confectioners' Union_.
+
+CACAO PRODUCTION OF THE CHIEF PRODUCING AREAS OF THE WORLD.
+(1 ton = 1000 kilogrammes).
+
+Country.          1914     1915     1916     1917     1918
+                 Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.    Tons.
+Gold Coast[1]   53,000   77,300   72,200   91,000   66,300
+Brazil          40,800   45,000   43,700   55,600   41,900
+Ecuador         47,200   37,000   42,700   47,200   38,000
+San Thome       31,400   29,900   33,200   31,900   26,600
+Trinidad[1]     28,400   24,100   24,000   31,800   26,200
+San Domingo     20,700   20,200   21,000   23,700   18,800
+Venezuela       16,900   18,300   15,200   13,100   13,000
+Lagos[1]         4,900    9,100    9,000   15,400   10,200
+Grenada[1]       6,100    6,500    5,500    5,500    6,700
+Fernando Po      3,100    3,900    3,800    3,700    4,200
+Ceylon[1]        2,900    3,900    3,500    3,700    4,000
+Jamaica[1]       3,800    3,600    3,400    2,800    3,000
+Surinam          1,900    1,700    2,000    1,900    2,500
+Cameroons        1,200    2,400    3,000    2,800    1,300
+Haiti            2,100    1,800    1,900    1,500    2,300
+French Cols.     1,800    1,900    1,600    2,200    1,700
+Cuba             1,800    1,700    1,500    1,500    1,000
+Java             1,600    1,500    1,500    1,600      800
+Samoa            1,100      900      900    1,200      800
+Togo               200      300      400    1,600    1,000
+St. Lucia[1]       700      800      700      600      500
+Belgian Congo      500      600      800      800      900
+Dominica[1]        450      550      300      300      300
+St. Vincent[1]     100      100       75       50       75
+Other countries  3,200    3,000    3,500    3,500    3,500
+               -------------------------------------------
+Total          275,900  296,100  295,400  344,000  275,600
+               -------------------------------------------
+Total British
+Empire         102,000  128,000  120,000  153,000  119,000
+
+    [1] British Possessions.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF THE WORLD, WITH ONLY CACAO-PRODUCING AREAS
+MARKED.]
+
+
+
+_SOUTH AMERICAN CACAO._
+
+In the map of South America given on p. 89 the principal cacao producing
+areas are marked. Their production in 1918 was as follows:
+
+CACAO BEANS EXPORTED.
+
+                                      Percentage of
+Country.          Metric Tons.[2]  World's production.
+
+Brazil                41,865                     15.4
+Ecuador               38,000                     14.0
+  (Guayaquil alone 34,973 tons)
+Venezuela             13,000                      5.0
+Surinam                2,468                      0.9
+British Guiana            20                      0.01
+                      ------------------------------------------
+South American Total  95,353 tons                35.31 per cent.
+                      ------------------------------------------
+
+    [2] These figures, and others quoted later in this chapter,
+        are estimates given by Messrs. Theo. Vasmer & Co. in
+        their reports.
+
+
+ECUADOR.
+
+_Arriba and Machala Cacaos._--In Ecuador, for many years the chief
+producing area of the world, dwell the cacao kings, men who possess very
+large and wild cacao forests, each containing several million cacao
+trees. The method of culture is primitive, and no artificial manures are
+used, yet for several generations the trees have given good crops and
+the soil remains as fertile as ever. The two principal cacaos are known
+as _Arriba_ and _Machala_, or classed together as Guayaquil after the
+city of that name. Guayaquil, the commercial metropolis of the Republic
+of Ecuador, is an ancient and picturesque city built almost astride the
+Equator. Despite the unscientific cultural methods, and the imperfect
+fermentation, which results in the cacao containing a high percentage of
+unfermented beans and not infrequently mouldy beans also, this cacao is
+much appreciated in Europe and America, for the beans are large and
+possess a fine strong flavour and characteristic scented aroma. The
+amount of Guayaquil cacao exported in 1919 was 33,209 tons.
+
+[Illustration: RAKING CACAO BEANS ON THE DRIERS.]
+
+[Illustration: GATHERING CACAO PODS IN ECUADOR.
+(La Clementina Plantation, Ecuador.)]
+
+[Illustration: SORTING CACAO FOR SHIPMENT, GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR.]
+
+An interesting experiment was made in 1912, when a protective
+association known as the _Asociacion de Agricultores del Ecuador_ was
+legalised. This collects half a golden dollar on every hundred pounds of
+cacao, and by purchasing and storing cacao on its own account whenever
+prices fall below a reasonable minimum, attempts in the planter's
+interest to regulate the selling price of cacao. Unfortunately, as cacao
+tends to go mouldy when stored in a damp tropical climate, the
+_Asociacion_ is not an unmixed blessing to the manufacturer and
+consumer.
+
+
+BRAZIL.
+
+_Para and Bahia Cacaos._--Brazil has made marked progress in recent
+years, and has now overtaken Ecuador in quantity of produce; the cacao,
+however, is quite different from, and not as fine as, that from
+Guayaquil. The principal cacao comes from the State of Bahia, where the
+climate is ideal for its cultivation. Indeed so perfect are the natural
+conditions that formerly no care was taken in cacao production, and much
+of that gathered was wild and uncured. During the last decade there has
+been an improvement, and this would, doubtless, be more noteworthy if
+the means of transport were better, for at present the roads are bad and
+the railways inadequate; hence most of the cacao is brought down to the
+city of Bahia in canoes. Nevertheless, Bahia cacao is better fermented
+than the peculiar cacao of Para, another important cacao from Brazil,
+which is appreciated by manufacturers on account of its mild flavour.
+Bahia exported in 1919 about 51,000 tons of cacao.
+
+
+VENEZUELA.
+
+_Caracas, Carupano and Maracaibo Cacaos._--Venezuela has been called
+"the classic home of cacao," and had not the chief occupation of its
+inhabitants been revolution, it would have retained till now the
+important position it held a hundred years ago. It is in this enchanted
+country (it was at La Guayra in Caracas, as readers of _Westward Ho!_
+will remember, that Amyas found his long-sought Rose) that the finest
+cacao in the world is produced: the criollo, the bean with the
+golden-brown break. The tree which produces this is as delicate as the
+cacao is fine, and there is some danger that this superb cacao may die
+out--a tragedy which every connoisseur would wish to avert.
+
+The _Gordian_ estimates that Venezuela sent out from her three principal
+ports in 1919 some 16,226 tons of cacao.
+
+
+
+_THE WEST INDIES._
+
+In the map of South America the principal West Indian islands producing
+cacao are marked. Their production in 1918 was as follows:
+
+                     CACAO BEANS EXPORTED.    Percentage of
+                         Metric Tons.       World's production.
+Trinidad (British)        26,177                 9.7
+San Domingo               18,839                 7.0
+Grenada (British)          6,704                 2.5
+Jamaica (British)          3,000                 1.1
+Haiti                      2,272                 0.8
+St. Lucia (British)          500                 0.2
+Dominica (British)           300                 0.1
+St. Vincent (British)         70                 0.02
+                          -----------           ---------------
+West Indies Total         57,862 tons           21.42 per cent.
+                          -----------           ---------------
+Br. West Indies           36,751 tons           13.6  per cent.
+
+
+TRINIDAD AND GRENADA.[3]
+
+    [3] Cacao production in 1919: Trinidad 27,185 tons; Grenada
+        4,020 tons.
+
+Cacao was grown in the West Indies in the seventeenth century, and the
+inhabitants, after the destructive "blast," which utterly destroyed the
+plantations in 1727, bravely replanted cacao, which has flourished there
+ever since. The cacaos of Trinidad and Grenada have long been known for
+their excellence, and it is mainly from Trinidad that the knowledge of
+methods of scientific cultivation and preparation has been spread to
+planters all round the equator. The cacao from Trinidad (famous alike
+for its cacao and its pitch lake) has always held a high place in the
+markets of the world, although a year or two ago the inclusion of
+inferior cacao and the practice of claying was abused by a few growers
+and merchants. With the object of stopping these abuses and of producing
+a uniform cacao, there was formed a Cacao Planters' Association, whose
+business it is to grade and bulk, and sell on a co-operative basis, the
+cacao produced by its members. This experiment has proved successful,
+and in 1918 the Association handled the cacao from over 100 estates.
+We may expect to see more of these cacao planters' associations formed
+in various parts of the world, for they are in line with the trend of
+the times towards large, and ever larger, unions and combinations.
+Trinidad is also progressive in its system of agricultural education and
+in its formation of agricultural credit societies. The neighbouring
+island of Grenada is mountainous, smaller than the Isle of Wight and (if
+the Irish will forgive me) greener than Erin's Isle. The methods of
+cacao cultivation in vogue there might seem natural to the British
+farmer, but they are considered remarkable by cacao planters, for in
+Grenada the soil on which the trees grow is forked or tilled. Possibly
+from this follows the equally remarkable corollary that the cacao trees
+flourish without a single shade tree. The preparation of the bean
+receives as much care as the cultivation of the tree, and the cacao
+which comes from the estates has an unvaried constancy of quality, not
+infrequently giving 100 per cent. of perfectly prepared beans. It is
+largely due to this that the cacao from this small island occupies such
+an important position on the London market.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES.
+Only cacao-producing areas are marked.]
+
+[Illustration: WORKERS ON A CACAO PLANTATION.
+(Messrs. Cadbury's estate in Trinidad.)]
+
+The cacao from San Domingo is known commercially as _Samana_ or
+_Sanchez_. A fair proportion is of inferior quality, and is little
+appreciated on the European markets. The bulk of it goes to America. The
+production in 1919 was about 23,000 tons.
+
+
+
+_AFRICAN CACAO._
+
+In the map of Africa the principal producing areas are marked. Their
+production in 1918 was as follows:
+
+                 CACAO BEANS EXPORTED.
+                     Metric Tons.       Percentage of
+                                      World's production.
+Gold Coast (British)  66,343             24.5
+San Thome             19,185              7.1
+Lagos (British)       10,223              3.8
+Fernando Po            4,220              1.6
+Cameroons              1,250              0.4
+Togo                   1,000              0.4
+Belgian Congo            875              0.3
+                     ------------        --------------
+African Total        103,096 tons        38.1 per cent.
+                     ------------        --------------
+British Africa        76,566 tons        28.3 per cent.
+
+
+
+THE GOLD COAST (_Industria floremus_).
+
+
+_Accra Cacao._
+
+The name recalls stories of a romantic and awful past, in which gold and
+the slave trade played their terrible part. Happily these are things of
+the past; so is the "deadly climate." We are told that it is now no
+worse than that of other tropical countries. According to Sir Hugh
+Clifford, until recently Governor of the Gold Coast, the "West African
+Climatic Bogie" is a myth, and the "monumental reputation for
+unhealthiness" undeserved. When De Candolle wrote concerning cacao, "I
+imagine it would succeed on the Guinea Coast,"[4] as the West African
+coast is sometimes called, he achieved prophecy, but he little dreamed
+how wonderful this success would be. The rise and growth of the
+cacao-growing industry in the Gold Coast is one of the most
+extraordinary developments of the last few decades. In thirty years it
+has increased its export of cacao from nothing to 40 per cent. of the
+total of the world's production.
+
+    [4] De Candolle, _Origin of Cultivated Plants_, quoted by R.
+        Whymper.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF AFRICA--WITH ONLY CACAO-PRODUCING AREAS MARKED.]
+
+[Illustration: FORESHORE AT ACCRA, WITH STACKS OF CACAO READY FOR
+SHIPMENT.
+Reproduced by permission of the Editor of "West Africa".]
+
+PRODUCTION OF CACAO ON THE GOLD COAST.
+
+Year.        Quantity.             Value. L
+1891            0 tons (80 lbs.)          4
+1896           34 tons                2,276
+1901          980 tons               42,837
+1906        8,975 tons              336,269
+1911       30,798 tons            1,613,468
+1916       72,161 tons            3,847,720
+
+1917       90,964 tons            3,146,851
+1918       66,343 tons            1,796,985
+1919      177,000 tons            8,000,000
+
+The conditions of production in the Gold Coast present a number of
+features entirely novel. We hear from time to time of concessions being
+granted in tropical regions to this or that company of enterprising
+European capitalists, who employ a few Europeans and send them to the
+area to manage the industry. The inhabitants of the area become the
+manual wage earners of the company, and too often in the lust for
+profits, or as an offering to the god of commercial efficiency, the once
+easy and free life of the native is lost for ever and a form of
+wage-slavery takes its place with doubtful effects on the life and
+health of the workers. In defence it is pointed out that yet another
+portion of the earth has been made productive, which, without the
+initiative of the European capitalist, must have lain fallow. But in
+the Gold Coast the "indolent" native has created a new industry entirely
+native owned, and in thirty years the Gold Coast has outstripped all the
+areas of the world in quantity of produce. Forty years ago the natives
+had never seen a cacao tree, now at least fifty million trees flourish
+in the colony. This could not have happened without the strenuous
+efforts of the Department of Agriculture. The Gold Coast now stands head
+and shoulders above any other producing area for quantity. The problem
+of the future lies in the improvement of quality, and difficult though
+this problem be, we cannot doubt, given a fair chance, that the
+far-sighted and energetic Agricultural Department will solve it. Indeed,
+it must in justice be pointed out that already a very marked improvement
+has been made, and now fifty to one hundred times as much good fermented
+cacao is produced as there was ten years ago.[5] However, if a high
+standard is to be maintained, the work of the Department of Agriculture
+must be supplemented by the willingness of the cacao buyers to pay a
+higher price for the better qualities.
+
+    [5] "Towards this latter result Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd.,
+         rendered great assistance. This firm sent representatives
+         into the country, who proved to the natives that they
+         were willing to pay an enhanced price for cocoa prepared
+         in a manner suitable for their requirements. A fair
+         amount of cocoa was purchased by them, and demonstrations
+         were made in some places with regard to the proper mode
+         of fermentation."
+         (The Agricultural and Forest Products of British West
+         Africa. _Imperial Institute Handbook_, by G.C. Dudgeon).
+
+[Illustration: CARRIERS CONVEYING BAGS OF CACAO TO SURF BOATS, ACCRA.
+Reproduced by permission of the Editor of "West Africa."]
+
+The phenomenal growth of this industry is the more remarkable when we
+consider the lack of roads and beasts of burden. The usual pack animals,
+horses and oxen, cannot live on the Gold Coast because of the tsetse
+fly, which spreads amongst them the sleeping sickness. And so the
+native, used as he is to heavy head-loads, naturally adopted this as his
+first method of transport, and hundreds of the less affluent natives
+arrive at the collecting centres with great weights of cacao on their
+heads. "Women and children, light-hearted, chattering and cheerful, bear
+their 60 lbs. head-loads with infinite patience. Heavier loads,
+approaching sometimes two hundredweight, are borne by grave, silent
+Hausa-men, often a distance of thirty or forty miles."
+
+[Illustration: CROSSING THE RIVER AT NSAWAM, GOLD COAST.]
+
+[Illustration: DRYING CACAO BEANS AT MRAMRA.
+Reproduced by permission from the Imperial Institute series of Handbooks
+to the Commercial Resources of the Tropics.]
+
+One day, not so many years ago, some more ingenious native in the hills
+at the back of the Coast, filled an old palm-oil barrel with cacao and
+rolled it down the ways to Accra. And now to-day it is a familiar sight
+to see a man trundling a huge barrel of cacao, weighing half a ton, down
+to the coast. The sound of a motor horn is heard, and he wildly turns
+the barrel aside to avoid a disastrous collision with the new, weird
+transport animal from Europe. Motor lorries have been used with great
+effect on the coast for some seven years; they have the advantage over
+pack animals that they do not succumb to the bite of the dreaded tsetse
+fly, but nevertheless not a few derelicts lie, or stand on their heads,
+in the ditches, the victims of over-work or accident.
+
+[Illustration: SHOOTING CACAO FROM THE ROAD TO THE BEACH, ACCRA.]
+
+Having brought the cacao to the coast, there yet remains the
+lighterage to the ocean liner, which lies anchored some two miles from
+the shore, rising and falling to the great rollers from the broad
+Atlantic. A long boat is used, manned by some twenty swarthy natives,
+who glory--vocally--in their passage through the dangerous surf which
+roars along the sloping beach. The cacao is piled high on wood racks and
+covered with tarpaulins and seldom shares the fate of passengers and
+crew, who are often drenched in the surf before they swing by a crane in
+the primitive mammy chair, high but not dry, on board the hospitable
+Elder Dempster liner.
+
+[Illustration: ROLLING CACAO, GOLD COAST.]
+
+
+SAN THOME (AND PRINCIPE).
+
+We now turn from the Gold Coast and the success of native ownership to
+another part of West Africa, a scene of singular beauty, where the
+Portuguese planters have triumphed over savage nature.
+
+Two lovely islands, San Thome and its little sister isle of Principe,
+lie right on the Equator in the Gulf of Guinea, about two hundred miles
+from the African mainland. A warm, lazy sea, the sea of the doldrums,
+sapphire or turquoise, or, in deep shaded pools, a radiant green,
+joyfully foams itself away against these fairy lands of tossing palm,
+dense vegetation, rushing cascades, and purple, precipitous peaks. A
+soil of volcanic origin is covered with a rich humus of decaying
+vegetation, and this, with a soft humid atmosphere, makes an ideal home
+for cacao.
+
+The bean, introduced in 1822, was not cultivated with diligence till
+fifty years ago. To-day the two islands, which together have not half
+the area of Surrey, grow 32,000 metric tons of cacao a year, or about
+one-tenth of the world's production.[6] The income of a single planter,
+once a poor peasant, has amounted to hundreds of thousands sterling.
+
+    [6] The _Gordian's_ estimate for the amount exported in 1919
+        is 40,766 tons.
+
+[Illustration: ROLLING CACAO, GOLD COAST.
+Reproduced by permission of the Editor of "West Africa."]
+
+Dotted over the islands, here nestling on a mountain side, there
+overlooking some blue inlet of the sea, are more than two hundred
+plantations, or _rocas_, whose buildings look like islands in a green
+sea of cacao shrubs, above which rise the grey stems of such forest
+trees as have been left to afford shade.
+
+[Illustration: CARRYING CACAO TO THE RAILWAY STATION, NSAWAM, GOLD
+COAST.]
+
+Here, not only have the cultivation, fermentation and drying of cacao
+been brought to the highest state of perfection, but the details of
+organisation--planters' homes, hospitals, cottages, drying sheds and the
+Decauville railways--are often models of their kind.
+
+Intelligent and courteous, the planters make delightful hosts. At their
+homes, five thousand miles away from Europe, the visitor, who knows what
+it means to struggle with steaming, virgin forests, rank encroaching
+vegetation, deadly fevers, and the physical and mental inertia
+engendered by the tropics, will marvel at the courage and energy that
+have triumphed over such obstacles. Calculating from various estimates,
+each labourer in the islands appears to produce about 1,640 pounds of
+cacao yearly, and the average yield per cultivated acre is 480 pounds,
+or about 30 pounds more than that of Trinidad in 1898.
+
+[Illustration: WAGON LOADS OF CACAO BEING TAKEN FROM MESSRS. CADBURY'S
+DEPOT TO THE BEACH, ACCRA.]
+
+As there is no available labour in San Thome, the planters get their
+workers from the mainland of Africa. Prior to the year 1908, the labour
+system of the islands was responsible for grave abuses. This has now
+been changed. Natives from the Portuguese colonies of Angola and
+Mozambique now enter freely into contracts ranging from one to five
+years, two years being the time generally chosen. At the end of their
+term of work they either re-contract or return to their native land with
+their savings, with which they generally buy a wife. The readiness with
+which the natives volunteer for the work on the islands is proof both of
+the soundness of the system of contract and of the good treatment they
+receive at the hands of the planters.
+
+[Illustration: THE BUILDINGS OF THE BOA ENTRADA CACAO ESTATE, SAN
+THOME.]
+
+Unfortunately, the mortality of the plantation labourers has generally
+been very heavy, one large and well-managed estate recording on an
+average of seven years an annual death rate of 148 per thousand, and
+many _rocas_ have still more appalling records. Against this, other
+plantations only a few miles away may show a mortality approximating to
+that of an average European city. In February, 1918, the workers in San
+Thome numbered 39,605, and the deaths during the previous year, 1917,
+were 1,808, thus showing on official figures an annual mortality of 45
+per thousand. Comparing this with the 26 per thousand of Trinidad, and
+remembering that most of the San Thome labourers are in the prime of
+life, it will be seen that this death rate represents a heavy loss of
+life and justifies the continued demand from the British cocoa
+manufacturers for the appointment and report of a special medical
+commission.
+
+The Portuguese Government is prepared to meet this demand, for it has
+recently sent a Commissioner, Dr. Joaquim Gouveia, to San Thome to make
+a thorough examination of labour conditions, including work, food,
+housing, hospitals and medical attendance, and to report fully and
+confidentially to the Portuguese Colonial Secretary.
+
+[Illustration: DRYING CACAO AT AGUA IZE, SAN THOME.
+The trays are on wheels, which run on rails.]
+
+If this important step is followed by adequate measures of reform there
+is every reason to hope that the result will be a material reduction in
+the death rate, as the good health enjoyed on some of the _rocas_ shows
+San Thome to be not more unhealthy than other tropical islands.
+
+
+CAMEROONS.
+
+The Cameroons, which we took from the Germans in 1916, is also on the
+West Coast of Africa. It lags far behind the Gold Coast in output,
+although both commenced to grow cacao about the same time. The Germans
+spent great sums in the Cameroons in giving the industry a scientific
+basis, they adopted the "estate plan," and possibly the fact that they
+employ contract labour explains why they have not had the same
+phenomenal success that the natives working for themselves have achieved
+on the Gold Coast.
+
+[Illustration: BARREL ROLLING, GOLD COAST.]
+
+Various countries and districts which are responsible for about 97 per
+cent. of the world's cacao crop have now been named and briefly
+commented upon. Of other producing areas, the islands, Ceylon and Java,
+are worthy of mention. In both of these (as also in Venezuela, Samoa[7]
+and Madagascar) is grown the criollo cacao, which produces the plump,
+sweet beans with the cinnamon "break." Cacao beans from Ceylon or Java
+are easily recognised by their appearance, because, being washed, they
+have beautiful clean shells, but there is a serious objection to washed
+shells, namely, that they are brittle and as thin as paper, so that many
+are broken before they reach the manufacturer. Ceylon is justly famous
+for its fine "old red"; along with this a fair quantity of inferior
+cacao is produced, which by being called Ceylon (such is the power of a
+good name), tends to claim a higher price than its quality warrants.
+
+    [7] Robert Louis Stevenson was one of the pioneers in cacao
+        planting in Samoa, as readers of his _Vailima Letters_
+        will remember.
+
+[Illustration: BAGGING CACAO, GOLD COAST.
+Reproduced by permission of the Editor of "West Africa."]
+
+
+
+CACAO MARKETS.
+
+_From the Plantation to the European Market._
+
+It is mentioned above that on the Gold Coast cacao is brought down to
+Accra as head-loads, or in barrels, or in motor-lorries. These methods
+are exceptional; in other countries it is usually put in sacks at the
+estate. Every estate has its own characteristic mark, which is stamped
+on the bags, and this is recognised by the buyers in Europe, and gives a
+clue to the quality of the contents. There is not as yet a uniform
+weight for a bag of cacao, although they all vary between one and two
+cwt., thus the bags from Africa contain 1-1/4 cwts., whilst those from
+Guayaquil contain 1-3/4 cwts. In these bags the cacao is taken to the
+port on the backs of mules, in horse or ox carts, in canoes down a
+stream, or more rarely, by rail. It is then conveyed by lighters or surf
+boats to the great ocean liners which lie anchored off the shore. In the
+hold of the liner it is rocked thousands of miles over the azure seas of
+the tropics to the grey-green seas of the temperate zone. In pre-war
+days a million bags used to go to Hamburg, three-quarters of a million
+to New York, half a million to Havre, and only a trifling quarter of a
+million to London. Now London is the leading cacao market of the world.
+During the war the supplies were cut off from Hamburg, whilst Liverpool,
+becoming a chief port for African cacao, in 1916 imported a million
+bags. Then New York began to gorge cacao, and in 1917 created a record,
+importing some two and a half million bags, or about 150,000 tons.
+Whilst everything is in so fluid a condition it is unwise to prophesy;
+it may, however, be said that there are many who think, now that the
+consumption of cocoa and chocolate in America has reached such a
+prodigious figure, that New York may yet oust London and become the
+central dominating market of the world.
+
+[Illustration: SURF BOATS BY THE SIDE OF THE OCEAN LINER, ACCRA.]
+
+
+
+_Difficulties of Buying._
+
+Every country produces a different kind of cacao, and the cacao from any
+two plantations in the same country often shows wide variation. It may
+be said that there are as many kinds of cacao as there are of apples,
+cacao showing as marked differences as exhibited by crabs and Blenheims,
+not to mention James Grieves, Russets, Worcester Pearmains, Newton
+Wonders, Lord Derbys, Belle de Boskoops, and so forth. Further, whilst
+the bulk of the cacao is good and sound, a little of the cacao grown in
+any district is liable to have suffered from drought or from attacks by
+moulds or insect pests. It will be realised from these fragmentary
+remarks that the buyer must exercise perpetual vigilance.
+
+[Illustration: BAGGING CACAO BEANS FOR SHIPMENT, TRINIDAD.]
+
+[Illustration: TRANSFERRING BAGS OF CACAO BEANS TO LIGHTERS, TRINIDAD.]
+
+
+
+_Cacao Sales._
+
+Before the Cocoa Prices Orders were published (March, 1918) the manner
+of conducting the sale of cacao in London was as follows. Brokers' lists
+giving the kinds of cacao for sale, and the number of bags of each, were
+sent, together with samples, to the buyers some days beforehand, so that
+they were able to decide what they wished to purchase and the price they
+were willing to pay. The sales always took place at 11 o'clock on
+Tuesdays in the Commercial Sale Room in Mincing Lane, that narrow street
+off Fenchurch Street, where the air is so highly charged with expert
+knowledge of the world's produce, that it would illuminate the prosaic
+surroundings with brilliant flashes if it could become visible. On the
+morning of the sale samples of the cacaos are on exhibit at the
+principal brokers. The man in the street brought into the broker's
+office would ask what these strange beans might be. "A new kind of
+almond?" he might ask. And then, on being told they were cacao, he would
+see nothing to choose between all the various lots and wonder why so
+much fuss was made over discriminating amongst the similar and
+distinguishing the identical. He might even marvel a little at the
+expert knowledge of the buyers; yet, frankly, the pertinent facts
+concerning quality, known by the buyer, are fewer and no more difficult
+to learn than the thousand and one facts a lad must have at his finger
+ends to pass the London Matriculation; they are valued because they are
+inaccessible to the multitude; only a few people have the opportunity of
+learning them, and their use may make or mar fortunes. The judgment of
+quality is, however, only one side of the art of buying. We have to add
+to these a knowledge of the conditions prevailing in the various markets
+of the world, a knowledge of stocks and probable supplies, and given
+this knowledge, an ability to estimate their effect, together with other
+conditions, agricultural, political and social, on the price of the
+commodity. The room in which the sales are conducted is not a large one,
+and usually not more than a hundred people, buyers, pressmen, etc., are
+present. Not a single cacao bean is visible, and it might be an auction
+sale of property for all the uninitiated could tell. The cacao is put up
+in lots. Usually the sales proceed quietly, and it is difficult to
+realize that many thousands of bags of cacao are changing hands. The
+buyers have perfect trust in the broker's descriptions; they know the
+invariable fair-play of the British broker, which is a by-word the world
+over. The machinery of the proceedings is lubricated by an easy flow of
+humour. Sometimes a few bags of sea-damaged cacao or of cacao sweepings
+are put up, and a good deal of keenness is shown by the individuals who
+buy this stuff. It is curious that a whole crowd of busy people will
+allow their time to be taken up whilst there is a spirited fight between
+two or three buyers for a single bag.
+
+Whilst the London Auction Sales are of importance as fixing the prices
+for the various markets, and reflecting to a certain extent the position
+of supply and demand, only a fraction of the world's cacao changes hands
+at the Auction Sales, the greater part of it being bought privately for
+forward delivery.
+
+
+
+_Prices and Quotations._
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAM SHOWING VARIATION IN PRICE OF CACAO BEANS FROM
+1913 TO 1919.]
+
+The price of cacao is liable to fluctuations like every other product,
+thus in 1907 Trinidad cacao rose to one shilling a pound, whilst there
+have been periods when it has only fetched sixpence per pound. On April
+2nd, 1918, the Food Controller fixed the prices of the finest
+qualities of the different varieties of raw cacao as follows:
+
+British West Africa (Accra)  65s. per cwt.
+
+Bahia      }
+Cameroons  }
+San Thome  }                 85s.  "   "
+Congo      }
+Grenada    }
+
+Trinidad   }
+Demerara   }                 90s.  "   "
+Guayaquil  }
+Surinam    }
+
+Ceylon     }
+Java       }                100s.  "   "
+Samoa      }
+
+The diagram on p. 113 shows the average market price in the United
+Kingdom of some of the more important cacaos before, during, and after
+the war. The most striking change is the sudden rise when the Government
+control was removed. All cacaos showed a substantial advance varying
+from 80 to 150 per cent. on pre-war values. Further large advances have
+taken place in the early months of 1920.
+
+
+
+_The Call of the Tropics._
+
+Many a young man, reading in some delightful book of travel, has longed
+to go to the tropics and see the wonders for himself. There can be no
+doubt that a sojourn in equatorial regions is one of the most educative
+of experiences. In support of this I cannot do better than quote Grant
+Allen, who regarded the tropics as the best of all universities. "But
+above all in educational importance I rank the advantage of seeing human
+nature in its primitive surroundings, far from the squalid and chilly
+influences of the tail-end of the Glacial epoch." ... "We must forget
+all this formal modern life; we must break away from this cramped, cold,
+northern world; we must find ourselves face to face at last, in Pacific
+isles or African forests, with the underlying truths of simple naked
+nature."
+
+[Illustration: GROUP OF WORKERS ON CACAO ESTATE.
+
+Some are standing on the Drying Platform, which is the roof of the
+Fermentary.]
+
+Many will recall how Charles Kingsley's longing to see the tropics was
+ultimately satisfied. In his book, in which he describes how he "At
+Last" visited the West Indies, we read that he encountered a happy
+Scotchman living a quiet life in the dear little island of Monos. "I
+looked at the natural beauty and repose; at the human vigour and
+happiness; and I said to myself, and said it often afterwards in the
+West Indies: 'Why do not other people copy this wise Scot? Why should
+not many a young couple, who have education, refinement, resources in
+themselves, but are, happily or unhappily for them, unable to keep a
+brougham and go to London balls, retreat to some such paradise as this
+(and there are hundreds like it to be found in the West Indies),
+leaving behind them false civilisation, and vain desires, and useless
+show; and there live in simplicity and content 'The Gentle Life'?"
+
+
+
+_The Planter's Life._
+
+Few who go to the tropics escape their fascination, and of those that
+are young, few return to colder climes. Some become overseers, others,
+more fortunate, own the estates they manage. It is inadvisable for the
+inexperienced to start on the enterprise of buying and planting an
+estate with less capital than two or three thousand pounds; but, once
+established, a cacao plantation may be looked upon as a permanent
+investment, which will continue to bear and give a good yield as long as
+it receives proper attention.
+
+In the recently published _Letters of Anthony Farley_ the writer tells
+how Farley encounters in South America an old college friend of his, who
+in his early days was on the high road to a brilliant political career.
+Here he is, a planter. He explains:
+
+    "My mother was Spanish; her brother owned this place. When he
+    died it came to me."
+
+    "How did your uncle hold it through the various revolutions?"
+
+    "Nothing simpler. He became an American citizen. When trouble
+    threatened he made a bee-line for the United States
+    Consulate. I'm British, of course. Well, just when I had
+    decided upon a political life, I found it necessary to come
+    here to straighten things out. One month lengthened itself
+    into a year. I grew fascinated. Here I felt a sense of
+    immense usefulness. On the mountain side my coffee-trees
+    flourished; down in the valley grew cacao."
+
+    "I grow mine on undulations."
+
+    "You needn't, you know, so long as you drain."
+
+    "Yes, but draining on the flat is the devil."
+
+    "Anyhow, I always liked animals--you haven't seen my pigs
+    yet--and horses and mules need careful tending. A cable
+    arrived one morning announcing an impending dissolution. I
+    felt like an unwilling bridegroom called to marry an ugly
+    bride. I invited my soul. Here, thought I to myself, are
+    animals and foodstuffs--good, honest food at that. If I go
+    back it is only to fill people's bellies with political east
+    wind.
+
+    "To come to the point, I decided to grow coffee and cacao. I
+    cabled infinite regrets. The decision once made, I was happy
+    as a sandboy. _J'y suis, j'y reste_, said I to myself, said
+    I. Nor have I ever cast one longing look behind."[8]
+
+    [8] Quoted from the _New Age_, where the _Letters of Anthony
+        Farley_ first appeared.
+
+This is fiction, but I think it is true that very few, if any, who
+become planters in the tropics ever return permanently to England. The
+hospitality of the planters is proverbial: there must be something good
+and free about the planter's life to produce men so genial and generous.
+There is a picture that I often recall, and never without pleasure. A
+young planter and I had, with the help of more or less willing mules,
+climbed over the hills from one valley to the next. The valley we had
+left is noted for its beauty, but to me it had become familiar; the
+other valley I saw now for the first time. The sides were steep and
+covered with trees, and I could only see one dwelling in the valley. We
+reached this by a circuitous path through cacao trees. Approaching it as
+we did, the bungalow seemed completely cut off from the rest of the
+world. We were welcomed by the planter and his wife, and by those of the
+children who were not shy. I have never seen more chubby or jolly
+kiddies, and I know from the sweetness of the children that their mother
+must have given them unremitting attention. I wondered indeed if she
+ever left them for a moment. I knew, too, from the situation of the
+bungalow in the heart of the hills that visitors were not likely to be
+frequent. The planter's life is splendid for a man who likes open air
+and nature, but I had sometimes thought that their wives would not find
+the life so good. I was mistaken. When we came away, after riding some
+distance, through a gap in the cacao we saw across the valley a group of
+happy children. They saw us, and all of them, even the shy ones, waved
+us adieux.
+
+[Illustration: CARTING CACAO TO RAILWAY STATION, CEYLON.]
+
+[Illustration: THE CARENAGE, GRENADA.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE MANUFACTURE OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE
+
+    The Indians, from whom we borrow it, are not very nice in
+    doing it; they roast the kernels in earthen pots, then free
+    them from their skins, and afterwards crush and grind them
+    between two stones, and so form cakes of it with their hands.
+
+    _Natural History of Chocolate_, R. Brookes, 1730.
+
+
+
+_Early Methods in the Tropics._
+
+As the cacao bean is grown in tropical countries, it is there that we
+must look for the first attempts at manufacturing from it a drink or a
+foodstuff. The primitive method of preparation was very simple,
+consisting in roasting the beans in a pot or on a shovel to develop
+their flavour, winnowing in the wind, and then rubbing the broken
+shelled beans between stones until quite fine. The curious thing is that
+on grinding the cacao bean in the heat of a tropical day we do not
+produce a powder but a paste. This is because half the cacao bean
+consists of a fat which is liquid at 90 deg. F., a temperature which is
+reached in the shade in tropical countries. This paste was then made
+into small rolls and put in a cool place to set. Thus was produced the
+primitive unsweetened drinking chocolate. This is the method, which
+Elizabethans, who ventured into the tangled forests of equatorial
+America, found in use; and this is the method they brought home to
+Europe. In the tropics these simple processes are followed to this day,
+but in Europe they have undergone many elaborations and refinements.
+
+If the reader will look at the illustration entitled "Women grinding
+chocolate," he will see how the brittle roasted bean is reduced to a
+paste in primitive manufacture. A stone, shaped like a rolling-pin, is
+being pushed to and fro over a concave slab, on which the smashed beans
+have already been reduced to a paste of a doughy consistency.
+
+[Illustration: EARLY FACTORY METHODS.
+Fig. 1 is a workman roasting the cacao in an iron kettle over a furnace.
+He has to stir the beans to keep them from burning. Fig. 2 is a person
+sifting and freeing the roasted kernels (which when broken into
+fragments are called "_nibs_") from their husks or shell. Fig. 3 shows a
+workman pounding the shell-free nibs in an iron mortar. Fig. 4
+represents a workman grinding the nibs on a hard smooth stone with an
+iron roller. The grinding is performed over a chafing-dish of burning
+charcoal, as it is necessary, for ease of grinding, to keep the paste in
+a liquid condition.]
+
+
+
+_Early European Manufacture._
+
+The conversion of these small scale operations into the early factory
+process is well shown in the plate which I reproduce above from _Arts
+and Sciences_, published in 1768.
+
+[Illustration: WOMEN GRINDING CHOCOLATE.
+From Squier "Nicaragua"]
+
+A certain atmosphere of dreamy intellectuality is associated with
+coffee, so that the roasting of it is felt to be a romantic occupation.
+The same poetic atmosphere surrounded the manufacture of drinking
+chocolate in the early days: the writers who revealed the secrets of its
+preparation were conscious that they were giving man a new aesthetic
+delight and the subject is treated lovingly and lingeringly. One, Pietro
+Metastasio, went so far as to write a "cantata" describing its
+manufacture. He describes the grinding as being done by a vigorous man,
+and truly, to grind by hand is a very laborious operation, which happily
+in more recent times has been performed by the use of power-driven
+mills.
+
+Operations on a large scale followed the founding of Fry and Sons at
+Bristol in 1728, and of Lombart, "la plus ancienne chocolaterie de
+France," in Paris in 1760. In Germany the first chocolate factory was
+erected at Steinhunde in 1756, under the patronage of Prince Wilhelm,
+whilst in America the well-known firm of Walter Baker and Co. began in a
+small way in 1765. From the methods adopted in these factories have
+gradually developed the modern processes which I am about to describe.
+
+
+
+MODERN PRACTICE.
+
+As the early stages in the manufacture of cocoa and of chocolate are
+often identical, the processes which are common to both are first
+described, and then some individual consideration is given to each.
+
+
+(_a_) _Arrival at the Factory._
+
+The cacao is largely stored in warehouses, from which it is removed as
+required. It has remarkable keeping properties, and can be kept in a
+good store for several years without loss of quality. Samples of cacao
+beans in glass bottles have been found to be in perfect condition after
+thirty years. Some factories have stores in which stand thousands of
+bags of cacao drawn from many ports round the equator. There is
+something very pleasing about huge stacks of bags of cacao seen against
+the luminous white walls of a well-lighted store. The symmetry of their
+construction, and the continued repetition of the same form, are never
+better shown than when the men, climbing up the sides of a stack against
+which they look small, unbuild the mighty heap, the bags falling on to a
+continuous band which carries them jauntily out of the store.
+
+[Illustration: PART OF A CACAO BEAN WAREHOUSE, SHOWING ENDLESS BAND
+CONVEYOR.
+(Messrs. Cadbury Bros'. Works, Bournville).]
+
+
+(_b_) _Sorting the Beans._
+
+As all cacao is liable to contain a little free shell, dried pulp (often
+taken for twigs), threads of sacking and other foreign matter, it is
+very carefully sieved and sorted before passing on to the roasting
+shop. In this process curios are occasionally separated, such as palm
+kernels, cowrie shells, shea butter nuts, good luck seeds and "crab's
+eyes." The essential part of one type of machine (_see illustration_)
+which accomplishes this sorting is an inclined revolving cylinder of
+wire gauze along which the beans pass. The cylinder forms a continuous
+set of sieves of different sized mesh, one sieve allowing only sand to
+pass, another only very small beans or fragments of beans, and finally
+one holding back anything larger than single beans (_e.g._, "cobs," that
+is, a collection of two or more beans stuck together).
+
+[Illustration: CACAO BEAN SORTING AND CLEANING MACHINE.
+Reproduced by permission of Messrs. J. Baker & Sons, Ltd., Willesden.]
+
+Another type of cleaning machine is illustrated by the diagram on the
+opposite page.
+
+This machine with its shaking sieves and blast of air makes a great
+clatter and fuss. It produces, however, what the manufacturers desire--a
+clean bean sorted to size.
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF CACAO BEAN CLEANING MACHINE.
+This is a box fitted with shaking sieves down which the cacao beans pass
+in a current of air. Having come over some large and very powerful
+magnets, which take out any nails or fragments of iron, they fall on to
+a sieve (1/4-inch holes) which the engineer describes as "rapidly
+reciprocating and arranged on a slight incline and mounted on spring
+bars." This allows grit to pass through. The beans then roll down a
+plane on to a sieve (3/8-inch holes) which separates the broken beans,
+and finally on to a sieve with oblong holes which allows the beans to
+fall through whilst retaining the clusters. The beans encounter a strong
+blast of air which brushes from them any shell or dust clinging to
+them.]
+
+
+(_c_) _Roasting the Beans._
+
+As with coffee so with cacao, the characteristic flavour and aroma are
+only developed on roasting. Messrs. Bainbridge and Davies (chemists to
+Messrs. Rowntree) have shown that the aroma of cacao is chiefly due to
+an amazingly minute quantity (0.0006 per cent.) of linalool, a
+colourless liquid with a powerful fragrant odour, a modification of
+which occurs in bergamot, coriander and lavender. Everyone notices the
+aromatic odour which permeates the atmosphere round a chocolate
+factory. This odour is a bye-product of the roasting shop; possibly some
+day an enterprising chemist will prevent its escape or capture it, and
+sell it in bottles for flavouring confectionery, but for the present it
+serves only to announce in an appetising way the presence of a cocoa or
+chocolate works.
+
+[Illustration: SECTION THROUGH GAS HEATED CACAO ROASTER.]
+
+Roasting is a delicate operation requiring experience and discretion.
+Even in these days of scientific management it remains as much an art as
+a science. It is conducted in revolving drums to ensure constant
+agitation, the drums being heated either over coke fires or by gas. Less
+frequently the heating is effected by a hot blast of air or by having
+inside the drum a number of pipes containing super-heated steam.
+
+[Illustration: ROASTING CACAO BEANS.
+(Messrs. Cadbury Bros'. Works, Bournville).]
+
+The diagram and photo show one of the types of roasting machines used
+at Bournville. It resembles an ordinary coffee roaster, the beans being
+fed in through a hopper and heated by gas in the slowly revolving
+cylinder. The beans can be heard lightly tumbling one over the other,
+and the aroma round the roaster increases in fullness as they get hotter
+and hotter. The temperature which the beans reach in ordinary roasting
+is not very high, varying round 135 deg. C. (275 deg. F), and the average period
+of roasting is about one hour. The amount of loss of weight on roasting
+is considerable (some seven or eight per cent.), and varies with the
+amount of moisture present in the raw beans.
+
+There have been attempts to replace the aesthetic judgment of man, as to
+the point at which to stop roasting, by scientific machinery. One rather
+interesting machine was so devised that the cacao roasting drum was
+fitted with a sort of steelyard, and this, when the loss of weight due
+to roasting had reached a certain amount, swung over and rang a bell,
+indicating dramatically that the roasting was finished. As beans vary
+amongst other things in the percentage of moisture which they contain,
+the machine has not replaced the experienced operator. He takes samples
+from the drum from time to time, and when the aroma has the character
+desired, the beans are rapidly discharged into a trolley with a
+perforated bottom, which is brought over a cold current of air. The
+object of this refinement is to stop the roasting instantly and prevent
+even a suspicion of burning.
+
+After roasting, the shell is brittle and quite free from the cotyledons
+or kernel. The kernel has become glossy and friable and chocolate brown
+in colour, and it crushes readily between the fingers into small angular
+fragments (the "nibs" of commerce), giving off during the breaking down
+a rich warm odour of chocolate.
+
+
+(_d_) _Removing the Shells._
+
+It has been stated (see _Fatty Foods_, by Revis and Bolton) that it was
+formerly the practice not to remove the shell. This is incorrect, the
+more usual practice from the earliest times has been to remove the
+shells, though not so completely as they are removed by the efficient
+machinery of to-day.
+
+[Illustration: CACAO BEAN, SHELL AND GERM.]
+
+In _A Curious Treatise on the Nature and Quality of Chocolate_, by
+Antonio Colmenero de Ledesma (1685), we read: "And if you peel the
+cacao, and take it out of its little shell, the drink thereof will be
+more dainty and delicious." Willoughby, in his _Travels in Spain_,
+(1664), writes: "They first toast the berries to get off the husk," and
+R. Brookes, in the _Natural History of Chocolate_ (1730), says: "The
+Indians ... roast the kernels in earthen pots, then free them from their
+skins, and afterwards crush and grind them between two stones."
+
+He further definitely recommends that the beans "be roasted enough to
+have their skins come off easily, which should be done one by one,
+laying them apart ... for these skins being left among the chocolate,
+will not dissolve in any liquor, nor even in the stomach, and fall to
+the bottom of the chocolate-cups as if the kernels had not been
+cleaned."
+
+That the "Indian" practice of removing the shells was followed from the
+commencement of the industry in England, is shown by the old plate which
+we have reproduced on p. 120 from _Arts and Sciences_.
+
+The removal of the shell, which in the raw condition is tough and
+adheres to the kernel, is greatly facilitated by roasting. If we place a
+roasted bean in the palm of the hand and press it with the thumb, the
+whole cracks up into crisp pieces. It is now quite easy to blow away the
+thin pieces of shell because they offer a greater surface to the air and
+are lighter than the compact little lumps or "nibs" which are left
+behind. This illustrates the principle of all shelling or husking
+machines.
+
+
+(_e_) _Breaking the Bean into Fragments._
+
+The problem is to break down the bean to just the right size. The pieces
+must be sufficiently small to allow the nib and shell readily to part
+company, but it is important to remember that the smaller the pieces of
+shell and nib, the less efficient will the winnowing be, and it is usual
+to break the beans whilst they are still warm to avoid producing
+particles of extreme fineness. The breaking down may be accomplished by
+passing the beans through a pair of rollers at such a distance apart
+that the bean is cracked without being crushed. Or it may be effected in
+other ways, _e.g._, by the use of an adjustable serrated cone revolving
+in a serrated conical case. In the diagram they are called kibbling
+cones.
+
+[Illustration: SECTION THROUGH KIBBLING CONES AND GERM SCREENS.]
+
+
+(_f_) _Separating the Germs._
+
+About one per cent. of the cacao bean fragments consists of "germs." The
+"germ" is the radicle of the cacao seed, or that part of the cacao seed
+which on germination forms the root. The germs are small and rod-shaped,
+and being very hard are generally assumed to be less digestible than the
+nib. They are separated by being passed through revolving gauze drums,
+the holes in which are the same size and shape as the germs, so that the
+germs pass through whilst the nib is retained. If a freakish carpenter
+were to try separating shop-floor sweepings, consisting of a jumble of
+chunks of wood (nib), shavings (shell) and nails (germ) by sieving
+through a grid-iron, he would find that not only the nails passed
+through but also some sawdust and fine shavings. So in the above machine
+the finer nib and shell pass through with the germ. This germ mixture,
+known as "smalls" is dealt with in a special machine, whilst the larger
+nib and shell are conveyed to the chief winnowing machine. In this
+machine the mixture is first sorted according to size and then the nib
+and shell separated from one another. The mixture is passed down long
+revolving cylindrical sieves and encounters a larger and larger mesh as
+it proceeds, and thus becomes sieved into various sizes. The separation
+of the shell from the nib is now effected by a powerful current of air,
+the large nib falling against the current, whilst the shell is carried
+with it and drops into another compartment. It is amusing to stand and
+watch the continuous stream of nibs rushing down, like hail in a storm,
+into the screw conveyor.
+
+[Illustration: SECTION THROUGH WINNOWING MACHINE.]
+
+This is the process in essence--to follow the various partially
+separated mixtures of shell and nib through the several further
+separating machines would be tedious; it is sufficient for the reader
+to know that after the most elaborate precautions have been taken the
+nib still contains about one per cent. of shell, and that the nib
+obtained is only 78.5 per cent. of the weight of raw beans originally
+taken. Most of the larger makers of cocoa produce nib containing less
+than two per cent. of shell, a standard which can only be maintained by
+continuous vigilance.
+
+[Illustration: CACAO GRINDING.
+A battery of horizontal grinding mills, by which the cacao nibs are
+ground to paste (Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Bournville.)]
+
+The shell, the only waste material of any importance produced in a
+chocolate factory, goes straight into sacks ready for sale. The pure
+cacao nibs (once an important article of commerce) proceed to the
+blenders and thence to the grinding mill.
+
+
+(_g_) _Blending._
+
+We have seen that the beans are roasted separately according to their
+kind and country so as to develop in each its characteristic flavour.
+The pure nib is now blended in proportions which are carefully chosen to
+attain the result desired.
+
+
+(_h_) _Grinding the Cacao Nibs to Produce Mass._
+
+In this process, by the mere act of grinding, the miracle is performed
+of converting the brittle fragments of the cacao bean into a
+chocolate-coloured fluid. Half of the cacao bean is fat, and the
+grinding breaks up the cells and liberates the fat, which at blood heat
+melts to an oil. Any of the various machines used in the industries for
+grinding might be used, but a special type of mill has been devised for
+the purpose.
+
+In the grinding room of a cocoa factory one becomes almost hypnotised by
+a hundred of these circular mill-stones that rotate incessantly day and
+night. In Messrs. Fry's factory the "giddy motion of the whirling mill"
+is very much increased by a number of magnificent horizontal driving
+wheels, each some 20 feet in diameter, which form, as it were, a
+revolving ceiling to the room. Your fascinated gaze beholds "two or
+three vast circles, that have their revolving satellites like moons,
+each on its own axis, and each governed by master wheels. Watch them for
+any length of time and you might find yourself presently going round and
+round with them until you whirled yourself out of existence, like the
+gyrating maiden in the fairy tale."
+
+In this type of grinding machine one mill stone rotates on a fixed
+stone. The cacao nib falls from a hopper through a hole in the centre of
+the upper stone and, owing to the manner in which grooves are cut in the
+two surfaces in contact, is gradually dragged between the stones. The
+grooves are so cut in the two stones that they point in opposite
+directions, and as the one stone revolves on the other, a slicing or
+shearing action is produced. The friction, due to the slicing and
+shearing of the nib, keeps the stones hot, and they become sufficiently
+warm to melt the fat in the ground nib, so that there oozes from the
+outer edge of the bottom or fixed stone a more or less viscous liquid or
+paste. This finely ground nib is known as "mass." It is simply liquified
+cacao bean, and solidifies on cooling to a chocolate coloured block.
+
+[Illustration: SECTION THROUGH GRINDING STONES.]
+
+This "mass" may be used for the production of either cocoa or chocolate.
+When part of the fat (cacao butter) is _taken away_ the residue may be
+made to yield cocoa. When sugar and cacao butter are _added_ it yields
+eating chocolate. Thus the two industries are seen to be
+inter-dependent, the cacao butter which is pressed out of the mass in
+the manufacture of cocoa being used up in the production of chocolate.
+The manufacture of cocoa will first be considered.
+
+
+(_i_) _Pressing out the excess of Butter._
+
+The liquified cacao bean or "mass," simply mixed with sugar and cooled
+until it becomes a hard cake, has been used by the British Navy for a
+hundred years or more for the preparation of Jack's cup of cocoa. It
+produces a fine rich drink much appreciated by our hardy seamen, but it
+is somewhat too fatty to mix evenly with water, and too rich to be
+suitable for those with delicate digestions. Hence for the ordinary
+cocoa of commerce it is usual to remove a portion of this fat.
+
+[Illustration: A CACAO PRESS.
+Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Lake, Orr & Co., Ltd.]
+
+If "mass" be put into a cloth and pressed, a golden oil (melted cacao
+butter) oozes through the cloth. In practice this extraction of the
+butter is done in various types of presses. In one of the most
+frequently used types, the mass is poured into circular steel pots, the
+top and bottom of which are loose perforated plates lined with felt
+pads. A number of such pots are placed one above another, and then
+rammed together by a powerful hydraulic ram. They look like the parts of
+a slowly collapsing telescope. The "mass" is only gently pressed at
+first, but as the butter flows away and the material in the pot becomes
+stiffer, it is subjected to a gradually increasing pressure. The ram,
+being under pressure supplied by pumps, pushes up with enormous force.
+The steel pots have to be sufficiently strong to bear a great strain, as
+the ram often exerts a pressure of 6,000 pounds per square inch. When
+the required amount of butter has been pressed out, the pot is found to
+contain not a paste, but a hard dry cake of compressed cocoa. The
+liquified cacao bean put into the pots contains 54 to 55 per cent. of
+butter, whilst the cocoa press-cake taken out usually contains only 25
+to 30 per cent. The expressed butter flows away and is filtered and
+solidified (see page 158). All that it is necessary to do to obtain
+cocoa from the press cake is to powder it.
+
+[Illustration: SECTION THROUGH CACAO PRESS-POT AND RAM-PLATE.]
+
+
+(_j_) _Breaking Down the Press Cake to Cocoa Powder._
+
+The slabs of press-cake are so hard and tough that if one were banged on
+a man's head it would probably stun him. They are broken down in a
+crushing mill, the inside of which is as full of terrible teeth as a
+giant's mouth, until the fragments are small enough to grind on steel
+rollers.
+
+
+(_k_) _Sieving._
+
+As fineness is a very important quality of cocoa, the powder so obtained
+is very carefully sieved. This is effected by shaking the powder into an
+inclined rotating drum which is covered with silk gauze. In the cocoa
+which passes through this fine silk sieve, the average length of the
+individual particles is about 0.001 inch, whilst in first-class
+productions the size of the larger particles in the cocoa does not
+average more than 0.002 inch. Indeed, the cocoa powder is so fine that
+in spite of all precautions a certain amount always floats about in the
+air of sieving rooms, and covers everything with a brown film.
+
+
+(_l_) _Packing._
+
+The cocoa powder is taken to the packing rooms. Here the tedious
+weighing by hand has been replaced by ingenious machines, which deliver
+with remarkable accuracy a definite weight of cocoa into the paper bag
+which lines the tin. The tins are then labelled and packed in cases
+ready for the grocer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE MANUFACTURE OF CHOCOLATE
+
+    Since the great improvements of the steam engine, it is
+    astonishing to what a variety of manufactures this useful
+    machine has been applied: yet it does not a little excite our
+    surprise that one is used for the trifling object of grinding
+    chocolate.
+
+    It is, however, a fact, or at least, we are credibly
+    informed, that Mr. Fry, of Bristol, has in his new
+    manufactory one of these engines for the sole purpose of
+    manufacturing chocolate and cocoa.
+
+    _Berrow's Worcester Journal,_ June 7th, 1798.
+
+
+What I am about to write under this heading will only be of a general
+character. Those who require a more detailed exposition are referred to
+the standard works given at the end of the chapter. In these, full and
+accurate information will be found. The information published in modern
+Encyclopaedias, etc., concerning the manufacture of chocolate is not
+always as reliable as one might expect. Thus it states in Jack's
+excellent _Reference Book_ (1914) that "Chocolate is made by the
+addition of water and sugar." The use of water in the manufacture of
+chocolate is contrary to all usual practice, so much so that great
+interest was aroused in the trade some years ago by the statement that
+water was being used by a firm in Germany.
+
+
+
+SPECIMEN OUTLINE RECIPE.
+
+Ingredients required for _plain eating-chocolate_.
+
+Cacao nib or mass  33     parts.
+Cacao butter       13       "
+Sugar              53-3/4   "
+Flavouring            1/4   "
+                  -------------
+                  100     parts
+
+Since eating-chocolate is produced by mixing sugar and cacao nib, with
+or without flavouring materials, and reducing to a fine homogeneous
+mass, the principles underlying its manufacture are obviously simple,
+yet when we come to consider the production of a modern high-class
+chocolate we find the processes involved are somewhat elaborate.
+
+
+(_a_) _Preparing the Nib or "Mass."_
+
+The nib is obtained in exactly the same way as in the manufacture of
+cocoa, the beans being cleaned, roasted and shelled. The roasting,
+however, is generally somewhat lighter for chocolate than for cocoa. The
+nibs produced may be used as they are, or they may be first ground to
+"mass" by means of mill-stones as described above.
+
+
+(_b_) _Mixing in the Sugar._
+
+Some makers use clear crystalline granulated sugar, others disintegrate
+loaf sugar to a beautiful snow-white flour. The nib, coarse or finely
+ground, is mixed with the sugar in a kind of edge-runner or
+grinding-mixer, called a _melangeur_. As is seen in the photo, the
+_melangeur_ consists of two heavy mill-stones which are supported on a
+granite floor. This floor revolves and causes the stationary mill-stones
+to rotate on their axes, so that although they run rapidly, like a man
+on a "joy wheel," they make no headway. The material is prevented from
+accumulating at the sides by curved scrapers, which gracefully deflect
+the stream of material to the part of the revolving floor which runs
+under the mill-stones. Thus the sugar and nib are mixed and crushed. As
+the mixture usually becomes like dough in consistency, it can be neatly
+removed from the _melangeur_ with a shovel. The operator rests a shovel
+lightly on the revolving floor, and the material mounts into a heap upon
+it.
+
+[Illustration: CHOCOLATE MELANGEUR.
+Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Lake. Orr & Coy. Ltd.]
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF CHOCOLATE MELANGEUR.]
+
+[Illustration: CHOCOLATE REFINING MACHINE.
+Reproduced by permission of Messrs. J. Baker & Sons, Willesden.]
+
+
+(_c_) _Grinding the Mixture._
+
+The mixture is now passed through a mill, which has been described as
+looking like a multiple mangle. The object of this is to break down the
+sugar and cacao to smaller particles. The rolls may be made either of
+granite (more strictly speaking, of quartz diorite) or of polished
+chilled cast iron. Chilled cast iron rolls have the advantage that they
+can be kept cool by having water flowing through them. A skilled
+operator is required to set the rolls in order that they may give a
+large and satisfactory output. The cylinders in contact run at different
+speeds, and, as will be seen in the diagram, the chocolate always clings
+to the roll which is revolving with the greater velocity, and is
+delivered from the rolls either as a curtain of chocolate or as a spray
+of chocolate powder. It is very striking to see the soft
+chocolate-coloured dough become, after merely passing between the rolls,
+a dry powder--the explanation is that the sugar having been more finely
+crushed now requires a greater quantity of cacao butter to lubricate it
+before the mixture can again become plastic. The chocolate in its
+various stages of manufacture, should be kept warm or it will solidify
+and much time and heat (and possibly temper) will be absorbed in
+remelting it; for this and other reasons most chocolate factories have a
+number of hot rooms, in which the chocolate is stored whilst waiting to
+pass on to the next operation. The dry powder coming from the rolls is
+either taken to a hot room, or at once mixed in a warm _melangeur_,
+where curiously enough the whole becomes once again of the consistency
+of dough. The grinding between the rolls and the mixing in the
+_melangeur_ are repeated any number of times until the chocolate is of
+the desired fineness. Whilst there are a few people who like the clean,
+hard feel of sugar crystals between the teeth, the present-day taste is
+all for very smooth and highly refined chocolate; hence the grinding
+operation is one of the most important in the factory, and is checked at
+the works at Bournville by measuring with a microscope the size of the
+particles. The cost of fine grinding is considerable, for whilst the
+first breaking down of the cacao nibs and sugar crystals is
+comparatively easy, it is found that as the particles of chocolate get
+finer the cost of further reduction increases by leaps and bounds. The
+chocolate may now proceed direct to the moulding rooms or it may first
+be conched.
+
+[Illustration: GRINDING CACAO NIB AND SUGAR.
+(Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Bournville).]
+
+[Illustration: SECTION THROUGH CHOCOLATE GRINDING ROLLS.]
+
+
+(_d_) _Conching._
+
+We now come to an extraordinary process which is said to have been
+originally introduced to satisfy a fastidious taste that demanded a
+chocolate which readily melted in the mouth and yet had not the cloying
+effect which is produced by excess of cacao butter. In this process the
+chocolate is put in a vessel shaped something like a shell (hence called
+a _conche_), and a heavy roller is pushed to and fro in the chocolate.
+Although the conche is considered to have revolutionized the chocolate
+industry, it will remain to the uninitiated a curious sight to see a
+room full of machines engaged in pummelling chocolate day and night.
+There is no general agreement as to exactly how the conche produces its
+effects--from the scientific point of view the changes are complex and
+elusive, and too technical to explain here--but it is well known that if
+this process is continued for periods varying according to the result
+desired from a few hours to a week, characteristic changes occur which
+make the chocolate a more mellow and finished confection, having more or
+less the velvet feel of _chocolat fondant_.
+
+
+(_e_) _Flavouring._
+
+Art is shown not only in the choice of the cacao beans but also in the
+selection of spices and essences, for, whilst the fundamental flavour of
+a chocolate is determined by the blend of beans and the method of
+manufacture, the piquancy and special character are often obtained by
+the addition of minute quantities of flavourings. The point in the
+manufacture at which the flavour is added is as late as possible so as
+to avoid the possible loss of aroma in handling. The flavours used
+include cardamom, cassia, cinnamon, cloves, coriander, lemon, mace, and
+last but most popular of all, the vanilla pod or vanillin. Some makers
+use the choice spices themselves, others prefer their essential oils.
+Many other nutty, fragrant and aromatic substances have been used; of
+these we may mention almonds, coffee, musk, ambergris, gum benzoin and
+balsam of Peru. The English like delicately flavoured confections,
+whilst the Spanish follow the old custom of heavily spicing the
+chocolate. In ancient recipes we read of the use of white and red
+peppers, and the addition of hot spices was defended and even
+recommended on purely philosophical grounds. It was given, in the
+strange jargon of the Peripatetics, as a dictum that chocolate is by
+nature cold and dry and therefore ought to be mixed with things which
+are hot.
+
+[Illustration: "CONCHE" MACHINES.
+Reproduced by permission of Messrs. J. Baker & Sons, Willesden.]
+
+[Illustration: SECTION THROUGH "CONCHE" MACHINE.]
+
+[Illustration: MACHINES FOR MIXING OR "CONCHING" CHOCOLATE.]
+
+
+(_f_) _Moulding._
+
+Small quantities of cacao butter will have been added to the chocolate
+at various stages, and hence the finished product is quite plastic. It
+is now brought from the hot room (or the _melangeur_ or the conche) to
+the moulding rooms. Before moulding, the chocolate is passed through a
+machine, known as a compressor, which removes air-bubbles. This is a
+necessary process, as people would not care to purchase chocolate full
+of holes. As in the previous operations, every effort has been made to
+produce a chocolate of smooth texture and fine flavour, so in the
+moulding rooms skill is exercised in converting the plastic mass into
+hard bars and cakes, which snap when broken and which have a pleasant
+appearance. Well-moulded chocolate has a good gloss, a rich colour and a
+correct shape.
+
+[Illustration: CHOCOLATE SHAKING TABLE.]
+
+The most important factor in obtaining a good appearance is the
+temperature, and chocolate is frequently passed through a machine
+(called a tempering machine) merely to give it the desired temperature.
+A suitable temperature for moulding, according to Zipperer, varies from
+28 deg. C. on a hot summer's day to 32 deg. C. on a winter's day. As the melting
+point of cacao butter is about 32 deg. C, it will be realized that the
+butter is super-cooled and is ready to crystallize on the slightest
+provocation. Each mould has to contain the same quantity of chocolate.
+Weighing by hand has been abandoned in favour of a machine which
+automatically deposits a definite weight, such as a quarter or half a
+pound, of the chocolate paste on each mould. The chocolate stands up
+like a lump of dough and has to be persuaded to lie down and fill the
+mould. This can be most effectively accomplished by banging the mould up
+and down on a table. In the factory the method used is to place the
+moulds on rocking tables which rise gradually and fall with a bump. The
+diagram will make clear how these vibrating tables are worked by means
+of ratchet wheels. Rocking tables are made which are silent in action,
+but the moulds jerkily dancing about on the table make a very lively
+clatter, such a noise as might be produced by a regiment of mad cavalry
+crossing a courtyard. During the shaking-up the chocolate fills every
+crevice of the mould, and any bubbles, which if left in would spoil the
+appearance of the chocolate, rise to the top. The chocolate then passes
+on to an endless band which conducts the mould through a chamber in
+which cold air is moving. As the chocolate cools, it solidifies and
+contracts so that it comes out of the mould clean and bright. In this
+way are produced the familiar sticks and cakes of chocolate. A similar
+method is used in producing "Croquettes" and the small tablets known as
+"Neapolitans." Other forms require more elaborate moulds; thus the
+chocolate eggs, which fill the confectioners' windows just before
+Easter, are generally hollow, unless they are very small, and are made
+in two halves by pressing chocolate in egg-shaped moulds and then
+uniting the two halves. Chocolate cremes, caramels, almonds and, in
+fact, fancy "chocolates" generally, are produced in quite a different
+manner. For these _chocolats de fantaisie_ a rather liquid chocolate is
+required known as covering chocolate.
+
+
+
+SPECIMEN OUTLINE RECIPE.
+
+Ingredients required for _chocolate for covering cremes_, etc.:
+
+Cacao nib or mass  30     parts
+Cacao butter       20       "
+Sugar              49-3/4   "
+Flavouring            1/4   "
+                  -------------
+                  100     parts
+
+It is prepared in exactly the same way as ordinary eating chocolate,
+save that more butter is added to make it flow readily, so that in the
+melted condition it has about the same consistency as cream. The
+operations so far described are conducted by men, but the covering of
+cremes and the packing of the finished chocolates into boxes are
+performed by girls. Covering is light work requiring a delicate touch,
+and if, as is usual, it is done in bright airy rooms, is a pleasant
+occupation.
+
+[Illustration: GIRLS COVERING, OR DIPPING, CREMES, ETC.
+(Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Bournville.)]
+
+The girl sits with a small bowl of warm liquid chocolate in front of
+her, and on one side the "centres" (cremes, caramels, ginger, nuts,
+etc.) ready for covering with chocolate. The chocolate must be at just
+the right temperature, which is 88  deg.F., or 31 deg. C. She takes one of the
+"centres," say a vanilla creme, on her fork and dips it beneath the
+chocolate. When she draws it out, the white creme is completely covered
+in brown chocolate and, without touching it with her finger, she deftly
+places it on a piece of smooth paper. A little twirl of the fork or
+drawing a prong across the chocolate will give the characteristic
+marking on the top of the chocolate creme. The chocolate rapidly sets to
+a crisp film enveloping the soft creme. There are in use in many
+chocolate factories some very ingenious covering machines, invented in
+1903, which, as they clothe cremes in a robe of chocolate, are known as
+"enrobers"; it is doubtful, however, if the chocolates so produced have
+even quite so good an appearance as when the covering is done by hand.
+
+[Illustration: THE ENROBER.
+A machine for covering cremes, etc., with chocolate.
+Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Savy Jeanjean & Co., Paris.]
+
+It would be agreeable at this point to describe the making of cremes
+(which, by the way, contrary to the opinion of most writers, contain no
+cream or butter), and other products of the confectioner's art, but it
+would take us beyond the scope of the present book. We will only remind
+our readers of the great variety of comestibles and confections which
+are covered in chocolate--pistachio nut, roasted almonds, pralines,
+biscuits, walnuts, nougat, montelimar, fruits, fruit cremes, jellies,
+Turkish delight, marshmallows, caramels, pine-apple, noisette, and other
+delicacies.
+
+[Illustration: A CONFECTIONERY ROOM AT MESSRS. CADBURY'S WORKS AT
+BOURNVILLE.
+Cutting almond paste by hand moulds.]
+
+
+
+_Milk Chocolate._
+
+We owe the introduction of this excellent food and confection to the
+researches of M.D. Peter of Vevey, in Switzerland, who produced milk
+chocolate as early as 1876. Many of our older readers will remember
+their delight when in the eighteen nineties they first tasted Peter's
+milk chocolate. Later the then little firm of Cailler, realising the
+importance of having the factory on the very spot where rich milk was
+produced in abundance, established a works near Gruyeres. This grew
+rapidly and soon became the largest factory in Switzerland. The sound
+principle of having your factory in the heart of a milk producing area
+was adopted by Cadbury's, who built milk condensing factories at the
+ancient village of Frampton-on-Severn, in Gloucestershire, and at
+Knighton, near Newport, Salop. Before the war these two factories
+together condensed from two to three million gallons of milk a year.
+Whilst the amount of milk used in England for making milk chocolate
+appears very great when expressed in gallons, it is seen to be very
+small (being only about one-half of one per cent.) when expressed as a
+fraction of the total milk production. Milk chocolate is not made from
+milk produced in the winter, when milk is scarce, but from milk produced
+in the spring and summer when there is milk in excess of the usual
+household requirements, and when it is rich and creamy. The importance
+of not interfering with the normal milk supply to local customers is
+appreciated by the chocolate makers, who take steps to prevent this. It
+will interest public analysts and others to know that Cadbury's have had
+no difficulty in making it a stipulation in their contracts with the
+vendors that the milk supplied to them shall contain at least 3.5 per
+cent. of butter fat, a 17 per cent. increase on the minimum fixed by
+the Government.
+
+[Illustration: FACTORY AT FRAMPTON, GLOUCESTERSHIRE, AT WHICH MILK IS
+EVAPORATED FOR MILK CHOCOLATE MANUFACTURE.
+(Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd.).]
+
+
+
+SPECIMEN OUTLINE RECIPE.
+
+Ingredients required for _milk chocolate_:
+
+Cacao nib or mass (from 10 to 20 per cent.), say  10
+Cacao Butter                                      20
+Sugar                                             44-3/4
+Milk solids (from 15 to 25 per cent.), say        25=(200 parts
+                                                      of milk.)
+Flavouring                                           1/4
+                                                 --------
+                                                 100
+
+Milk chocolate consists of an intimate mixture of cacao nib, sugar and
+milk, condensed by evaporation. The manner in which the milk is mixed
+with the cacao nib is a matter of taste, and the art of combining milk
+with chocolate, so as to retain the full flavour of each, has engaged
+the attention of many experts. At present there is no general method of
+manufacture--each maker has his own secret processes, which generally
+include the use of grinding mills, _melangeurs_, conches, moulding
+machines, etc., as with plain chocolate. We cannot do better than refer
+those who wish to know more of this, or other branch of the chocolate
+industry, to the following English, French and German standard works on
+Chocolate Manufacture:
+
+    _Cocoa and Chocolate, Their Chemistry and Manufacture_, by R.
+    Whymper (Churchill).
+
+    _Fabrication du Chocolat_, by Fritsch (Scientifique et
+    Industrielle).
+
+    _The Manufacture of Chocolate_, by Dr. Paul Zipperer (Spon).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+BY-PRODUCTS OF THE COCOA AND CHOCOLATE INDUSTRY
+
+Of Cacao Butter.--
+
+    It is the best and most natural _Pomatum_ for Ladies to
+    _clear_ and _plump_ the Skin when it is _dry, rough_, or
+    _shrivel'd_, without making it appear either _fat_ or
+    _shining_. The _Spanish Women_ at _Mexico_ use it very much,
+    and it is highly esteem'd by them.
+
+    _The Natural History of Chocolate_, R. Brookes, 1730.
+
+Of Cacao Shell.--
+
+    In Russia and Belgium many families take Caravello at
+    breakfast. This is nothing but cocoa husk, washed and then
+    boiled in milk.
+
+    _Chocolate and Confectionery Manufacture_, A. Jacoutot.
+
+
+
+_Cacao Butter._
+
+In that very able compilation, _Allen's Organic Analysis_, Mr. Leonard
+Archbutt states (Vol. II, p. 176) that cacao butter "is obtained in
+large quantities as a by-product in the manufacture of chocolate." This
+is repeated in the excellent book on _Oils_, by C.A. Mitchell (Common
+Commodities of Commerce series). These statements are, of course,
+incorrect. We have seen that cacao butter is obtained as a by-product in
+the manufacture of cocoa, and is _consumed_ in large quantities in the
+manufacture of chocolate. When, during the war, the use of sugar for
+chocolate-making was restricted and little chocolate was produced, the
+cacao butter formerly used in this industry was freed for other
+purposes. Thus there was plenty of cacao butter available at a time when
+other fats were scarce. Cacao butter has a pleasant, bland taste
+resembling cocoa. The cocoa flavour is very persistent, as many
+experimenters found to their regret in their efforts to produce a
+tasteless cacao butter which could be used as margarine or for general
+purposes in cooking. The scarcity of edible fats during the war forced
+the confectioners to try cacao butter, which in normal times is too
+expensive for them to use, and as a result a very large amount was
+employed in making biscuits and confectionery.
+
+Cacao butter runs hot from the presses as an amber-coloured oil, and
+after nitration, sets to a pale golden yellow wax-like fat. The butter,
+which the pharmacist sells, is sometimes white and odourless, having
+been bleached and deodorized. The butter as produced is always pale
+yellow in colour, with a semi-crystalline or granular fracture and an
+agreeable taste and odour resembling cocoa or chocolate.
+
+Cacao butter has such remarkable keeping properties (which would appear
+to depend on the aromatic substances which it contains), that a myth has
+arisen that it will keep for ever. The fable finds many believers even
+in scientific circles; thus W.H. Johnson, in the _Imperial Institute
+Handbook_ on _Cocoa_, states that: "When pure, it has the peculiar
+property of not becoming rancid, however long it may be kept." Whilst
+this overstates the case, we find that under suitable conditions cacao
+butter will remain fresh and good for several years. Cacao butter has
+rather a low melting point (90 deg. F.), so that whilst it is a hard, almost
+brittle, solid at ordinary temperatures, it melts readily when in
+contact with the human body (blood heat 98 deg. F). This property, together
+with its remarkable stability, makes it useful for ointments, pomades,
+suppositories, pessaries and other pharmaceutical preparations; it also
+explains why actors have found it convenient for the removal of grease
+paint. The recognition of the value of cacao butter for cosmetic
+purposes dates from very early days; thus in Colmenero de Ledesma's
+_Curious Treatise on the Nature and Quality of Chocolate_ (printed at
+the Green Dragon, 1685), we read: "That they draw from the cacao a great
+quantity of butter, which they use to make their faces shine, which I
+have seen practised in the Indies by the Spanish women born there."
+This, evidently, was one way of shining in society.
+
+Cacao butter has been put to many other uses, thus it has been employed
+in the preparation of perfumes, but the great bulk of the cacao butter
+produced is used up by the chocolate maker. For making chocolate it is
+ideal, and the demand for it for this purpose is so great that
+substitutes have been found and offered for sale. Until recently these
+fats, coconut stearine and others, could be ignored by the reputable
+chocolate makers as the confection produced by their use was inferior to
+true chocolate both in taste and in keeping properties. In recent times
+the oils and fats of tropical nuts and fruits have been thoroughly
+investigated in the eager search for new fats, and new substitutes, such
+as illipe butter, have been introduced, the properties of which closely
+resemble those of cacao butter.
+
+For the information of chemists we may state that the analytical figures
+for genuine cacao butter, as obtained in the cocoa factory, are as
+follow:
+
+
+ANALYTICAL FIGURES FOR CACAO BUTTER.
+
+Specific Gravity (at 99 deg. C. to water at 15.5 deg. C.)  .858  to .865
+Melting Point                                      32 deg.C. to 34 deg.C.
+Titer (fatty acids)                                49 deg.C. to 50 deg.C.
+Iodine Absorbed                                     34%  to  38%
+Refraction (Butyro-Refractometer) at 40 deg.C.         45.6 deg. to 46.5 deg.
+Saponification Value                               192   to 198
+Valenta                                            94 deg.C. to 96 deg.C.
+Reichert Meissel Value                                1.0
+Polenske Value                                        0.5
+Kirschner  "                                          0.5
+Shrewsbury and Knapp Value                         14   to  15
+Unsaponifiable matter                             0.3%  to 0.8%
+Mineral matter                                    0.02% to 0.05%
+Acidity (as oleic acid)                           0.6%  to 2.0%
+
+Although the trade in cacao butter is considerable, there were, before
+the war, only two countries that could really be considered as exporters
+of cacao butter; in other words, there were only two countries, namely,
+Holland and Germany, pressing out more cacao butter in the production of
+cocoa than they absorbed in making chocolate:
+
+
+EXPORT OF CACAO BUTTER.
+
+        Tons (of 1000 kilogrammes)
+          1911   1912   1913
+Holland  4,657  5,472  7,160
+Germany  3,611  3,581  1,960
+         -----  -----  -----
+         8,268  9,053  9,120
+         -----  -----  -----
+
+During the war America appeared for the first time in her history as an
+exporter of cacao butter. Hitherto she was one of the principal
+importers, as will be seen in the following table:
+
+
+IMPORTS OF CACAO BUTTER.
+
+            Tons (of 1000 kilogrammes)
+                  1912   1913
+United States    1,842  1,634
+Switzerland      1,821  1,634
+Belgium          1,127  1,197
+Austria-Hungary  1,062  1,190
+Russia             955  1,197
+England            495    934
+
+The next table shows the imports (expressed in English tons) into the
+United Kingdom in more recent years:
+
+
+IMPORTS OF CACAO BUTTER.
+
+Year  1912  1913  1914  1915  1916  1917
+Tons   477   912  1512   599   962   675
+
+The wholesale price of cacao butter has varied in the last six years
+from 1/3 per pound to 2/11 per pound, and was fixed in 1918 by the Food
+Controller at 1/6 per pound (retail price 2/- per pound). The control
+was removed in 1919, and immediately the wholesale price rose to 2/8 per
+pound.
+
+
+
+_Cacao Shell._
+
+Although I have described cacao butter as a by-product, the only true
+by-product of the combined cocoa and chocolate industry is cacao shell.
+I explained in the previous chapter how it is separated from the roasted
+bean. As they come from the husking or winnowing machine, the larger
+fragments of shell resemble the shell of monkey-nuts (ground nuts or pea
+nuts), except that the cacao shells are thinner, more brittle and of a
+richer brown colour. The shell has a pleasant odour in which a little
+true cocoa aroma can be detected. The small pieces of shell look like
+bran, and, if the shell be powdered, the product is wonderfully like
+cocoa in appearance, though not in taste or smell. As the raw cacao bean
+contains on the average about twelve and a half per cent. of shell, it
+is evident that the world production must be considerable (about 36,000
+tons a year), and since it is not legitimately employed in cocoa, the
+brains of inventors have been busy trying to find a use for it. In some
+industries the by-product has proved on investigation to be of greater
+value than the principal product--a good instance of this is glycerine
+as a by-product in soap manufacture--but no use for the husk or shell of
+cacao, which gives it any considerable commercial value, has yet been
+discovered. There are signs, however, that its possible uses are being
+considered and appreciated.
+
+For years small quantities of cacao shell, under the name of
+"miserables," have been used in Ireland and other countries for
+producing a dilute infusion for drinking. Although this "cocoa tea" is
+not unpleasant, and has mild stimulating properties, it has never been
+popular, and even during the war, when it was widely advertised and sold
+in England under fancy names at fancy prices, it never had a large or
+enthusiastic body of consumers.
+
+In normal times the cocoa manufacturer has no difficulty in disposing of
+his shell to cattle-food makers and others, but during 1915 when the
+train service was so defective, and transport by any other means almost
+impossible, the manufacturers of cocoa and chocolate were unable to get
+the shell away from their factories, and had large accumulations of it
+filling up valuable store space. In these circumstances they attempted
+to find a use near at hand. It was tried with moderate success as a fuel
+and a considerable quantity was burned in a special type of gas-producer
+intended for wood.
+
+Cacao shell has a high nitrogenous content, and if burned yields about
+67 lbs. of potassium carbonate per ton. In the Annual Report of the
+Experimental Farms in Canada, (1898, p. 151 and 1899, p. 851,) accounts
+are given of the use of cacao shell as a manure. The results given are
+encouraging, and experiments were made at Bournville. At first these
+were only moderately successful, because the shell is extremely stable
+and decomposes in the ground very slowly indeed. Then the head gardener
+tried hastening the decomposition by placing the shell in a heap,
+soaking with water and turning several times before use. In this way the
+shell was converted into a decomposing mass before being applied to the
+ground, and gave excellent results both as a manure and as a lightener
+of heavy soils.
+
+On the Continent the small amount of cacao butter which the shell
+contains is extracted from it by volatile solvents. The "shell butter"
+so obtained is very inferior to ordinary cacao butter, and as usually
+put on the market, has an unpleasant taste, and an odour which reminds
+one faintly of an old tobacco-pipe. In this unrefined condition it is
+obviously unsuitable for edible purposes.
+
+Shell contains about one per cent. of _theobromine_ (dimethylxanthine).
+This is a very valuable chemical substance (see remarks in chapter on
+Food Value of Cocoa and Chocolate), and the extraction of theobromine
+from shell is already practised on a large scale, and promises to be a
+profitable industry. Ordinary commercial samples of shell contain from
+1.2 to 1.4 per cent. of theobromine. Those interested should study the
+very ingenious process of Messrs. Grousseau and Vicongne (Patent No.
+120,178). Many other uses of cacao shell have been made and suggested;
+thus it has been used for the production of a good coffee substitute,
+and also, during the shortage of sawdust, as a packing material, but its
+most important use at the present time is as cattle food, and its most
+important abuse as an adulterant of cocoa.
+
+The value of cacao shell as cattle food has been known for a long time,
+and is indicated in the following analysis by Smetham (in the Journal of
+the Lancashire Agricultural Society, 1914).
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF CACAO SHELL.
+
+Water                       9.30
+Fat                         3.83
+Mineral Matter              8.20
+Albuminoids                18.81
+Fibre                      13.85
+Digestible Carbohydrates   46.01
+                          ------
+                          100.00
+                          ------
+
+From these figures Smetham calculates the food units as 102, so that it
+is evident that cacao shell occupies a good position when compared with
+other fodders:
+
+
+FOOD UNITS.
+
+Linseed cake     133
+Oatmeal          117
+Bran             109
+English wheat    106
+_Cacao shells_   102
+Maize (new crop)  99
+Meadow hay        68
+Rice husks        43
+Wheat straw       41
+Mangels           12
+
+These analytical results have been supported by practical feeding
+experiments in America and Germany (see full account in Zipperer's book,
+_The Manufacture of Chocolate_). Prof. Faelli, in Turin, obtained, by
+giving cacao shell to cows, an increase in both the quantity and quality
+of the milk. More recent experience seems to indicate that it is unwise
+to put a very high percentage of cacao shell in a cattle food; in small
+quantities in compound feeding cakes, etc., as an appetiser it has been
+used for years with good results. (Further particulars will be found in
+_Cacao Shells as Fodder_, by A.W. Knapp, _Tropical Life_, 1916, p. 154,
+and in _The Separation and Uses of Cacao Shell_, Society of Chemical
+Industry's Journal, 1918, 240). The price of shell has shown great
+variation. The following figures are for the grade of shell which is
+almost entirely free from cocoa:
+
+
+CACAO SHELL.
+
+
+AVERAGE PRICE PER TON.
+
+Year    1912   1913   1914   1915   1916   1917   1918   1919
+Price   65/-   70/-   70/-   70/-   90/-  128/-  284/-  161/-
+
+
+PRICE PER FOOD UNIT.
+
+                             _July_, 1915.     _Jan._, 1919.
+                            _s._      _d._    _s._      _d._
+English Oats                  3     1-1/2       3     8
+Cotton Seed Cake              2     5           3    11
+Linseed Cake                  1     7           3     5
+Brewers Grains (dried)        1     6-1/2       3     8-1/2
+Decorticated Cotton Cake      1     6           3     3-1/2
+Cacao Shell                         8-1/4       1     4-1/2
+
+The above table speaks for itself; the figures are from the Journal of
+the Board of Agriculture; I have added cacao shell for comparison.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE
+
+    Before the Spaniards made themselves Masters of Mexico, no
+    other drink was esteem'd but that of cocoa; none caring for
+    wine, notwithstanding the soil produces vines everywhere in
+    great abundance of itself.
+
+    John Ogilvy's _America_, 1671.
+
+
+The early writers on chocolate generally became lyrical when they wrote
+of its value as a food. Thus in the _Natural History of Chocolate_, by
+R. Brookes (1730), we read that an ounce of chocolate contains as much
+nourishment as a pound of beef, that a woman and a child, and even a
+councillor, lived on chocolate alone for a long period, and further:
+"Before chocolate was known in Europe, good old wine was called the milk
+of old men; but this title is now applied with greater reason to
+chocolate, since its use has become so common, that it has been
+perceived that chocolate is, with respect to them, what milk is to
+infants."
+
+A more temperate tone is shown in the following, from _A Curious
+Treatise of the Nature and Quality of Chocolate_, by Antonio Colmenero
+de Ledesma, a Spaniard, Physician and Chyrurgion of the city of Ecija,
+in Andaluzia (printed at the Green Dragon, 1685):
+
+    So great is the number of those persons, who at present do
+    drink of Chocolate, that not only in the West Indies, whence
+    this drink has its original and beginning, but also in
+    Spain, Italy, Flanders, &c., it is very much used, and
+    especially in the Court of the King of Spain; where the great
+    ladies drink it in a morning before they rise out of their
+    beds, and lately much used in England, as Diet and Phisick
+    with the Gentry. Yet there are several persons that stand in
+    doubt both of the hurt and of the benefit, which proceeds
+    from the use thereof; some saying, that it obstructs and
+    causes opilations, others and those the most part, that it
+    fattens, several assure us that it fortifies the stomach:
+    some again that it heats and inflames the body. But very many
+    steadfastly affirm, that tho' they shou'd drink it at all
+    hours, and that even in the Dog-days, they find themselves
+    very well after it.
+
+So much for the old valuations; let us now attempt by modern methods to
+estimate the food value of cacao and its preparations.
+
+
+
+_Food Value of Cacao Beans._
+
+In estimating the worth of a food, it is usual to compare the fuel
+values. This peculiar method is adopted because the most important
+requirement in nutrition is that of giving energy for the work of the
+body, and a food may be thought of as being burnt up (oxidised) in the
+human machine in the production of heat and energy. The various food
+constituents serve in varying degrees as fuel to produce energy, and
+hence to judge of the food value it is necessary to know the chemical
+composition. Below we give the average composition of cacao beans and
+the fuel value calculated from these figures:
+
+
+AVERAGE COMPOSITION AND FUEL VALUE OF FRESHLY ROASTED CACAO BEANS
+(NIBS).
+
+                                _Composition._  _Energy-giving power_
+                                                  _Calories per lb._
+
+Cacao Butter                          54.0    =       2,282
+Protein (total nitrogen 2.3%)         11.9    =         221
+Cacao Starch                           6.7 }  =         472
+Other Digestible Carbohydrates, etc.  18.7 }
+Stimulants   { Theobromine             1.0
+             { Caffein                 0.4
+Mineral Matter                         3.2
+Crude Fibre                            2.6
+Moisture                               1.5
+                                     ------           -----
+                                     100.0            2,975
+                                     ------           -----
+
+[Illustration: COCOA AND CHOCOLATE DESPATCH DECK AT BOURNVILLE.]
+
+It will be seen from the above analysis that the cacao bean is rich in
+fats, carbohydrates and protein, and that it contains small quantities
+of the two stimulants, theobromine and caffein. In the whole range of
+animal and vegetable foodstuffs there are only one or two which exceed
+it in energy-giving power. If expressed in quite another way, namely, as
+"food units," the value of the cacao bean stands equally high, as is
+shown by the following figures taken from Smetham's result published in
+the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1914:
+
+
+"FOOD UNITS."
+
+Turnips       8
+Carrots      12
+Potatoes     26
+Rice        102
+Corn Flour  104
+Wheat       106
+Peas        113
+Oatmeal     117
+Coconut     159
+Cacao Bean  183
+
+These figures indicate the high food value of the raw material; we will
+now proceed to consider the various products which are obtained from
+it.
+
+
+
+_Food Value of Cocoa._
+
+
+AVERAGE COMPOSITION AND FUEL VALUE OF UNTREATED COCOA.
+
+                                _Composition._  _Energy-giving power_
+                                                  _Calories per lb._
+
+Cacao Butter                          28.0    =       1,183
+Protein                               18.3    =         340
+Cacao Starch                          10.2 }  =         718
+Other Digestible Carbohydrates, etc.  28.4 }
+Stimulants {Theobromine               1.5
+           {Caffein                   0.6
+Mineral Matter                        5.0
+Crude Fibre                           4.0
+Moisture                              4.0
+                                    -----             -----
+                                    100.0             2,241
+                                    -----             -----
+
+("Soluble" Cocoa, _i.e._, cocoa which has been treated with alkaline
+salts, is almost identical in composition, save that the mineral matter
+is about 7.5 per cent.).
+
+As cocoa consists of the cacao bean with some of the butter extracted--a
+process which increases the percentage of the nitrogenous and
+carbohydrate constituents--it will be evident that the food value of
+cocoa powder is high, and that it is a concentrated foodstuff. In this
+respect it differs from tea and coffee, which have practically no food
+value; each of them, however, have special qualities of their own. Some
+of the claims made for these beverages are a little remarkable. The
+Embassy of the United Provinces in their address to the Emperor of China
+(Leyden, 1655), in mentioning the good properties of tea, wrote: "More
+especially it disintoxicates those that are fuddl'd, giving them new
+forces, and enabling them to go to it again." The Embassy do not state
+whether they speak from personal experience, but their admiration for
+tea is undoubted. Tea, coffee, and cocoa are amongst our blessings, each
+has its devotees, each has its peculiar delight: tea makes for
+cheerfulness, coffee makes for wit and wakefulness, and cocoa relieves
+the fatigued, and gives a comfortable feeling of satisfaction and
+stability. Of these three drinks cocoa alone can be considered as a
+food, and just as there are people whose digestion is deranged by tea,
+and some who sleep not a wink after drinking coffee, so there are some
+who find cocoa too feeding, especially in the summer-time. These
+sufferers from biliousness will think it curious that cocoa is
+habitually drunk in many hot climates, thus, in Spanish-speaking
+countries, it is the custom for the priest, after saying mass, to take a
+cup of chocolate. The pure cocoa powder is, as we saw above, a very rich
+foodstuff, but it must always be remembered that in a pint of cocoa only
+a small quantity, about half an ounce, is usually taken. In this
+connection the following comparison between tea, coffee and cocoa is not
+without interest. It is taken from the _Farmer's Bulletin_ 249, an
+official publication of the United States Department of Agriculture:
+
+
+COMPARISON OF ENERGY-GIVING POWER OF A PINT OF TEA, COFFEE AND COCOA.
+
+                                                                Fuel value
+   Kind of Beverage         Water  Protein  Fat  Carbohydrates    per lb.
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------
+                             %       %       %        %         Calories
+_Tea_
+  (0.5 oz. to 1 pt. water)  99.5     0.2     0        0.6          15
+_Coffee_
+  (1 oz. to 1 pt. water)    98.9     0.2     0        0.7          16
+_Cocoa_
+  (0.5 oz. to 1 pt. water)  97.1     0.6     0.9      1.1          65
+
+These figures place cocoa, as a food, head and shoulders above tea and
+coffee. The figures are for the beverages made without the addition of
+milk and sugar, both of which are almost invariably present. A pint of
+cocoa made with one-third milk, half an ounce of cocoa, and one ounce of
+sugar would have a fuel value of 320 calories, and is therefore
+equivalent in energy-giving power to a quarter of a pound of beef or
+four eggs.
+
+Cocoa is stimulating, but its action is not so marked as that of tea or
+coffee, and hence it is more suitable for young children. Dr. Hutchison,
+an authority on dietetics, writes: "Tea and coffee are also harmful to
+the susceptible nervous system of the child, but cocoa, made with plenty
+of milk, may be allowed, though it should be regarded, like milk, as a
+food rather than a beverage properly so called."
+
+
+
+_How to Make a Cup of Cocoa._
+
+Tea, coffee and cocoa are all so easy to make that it is remarkable
+anyone should fail to prepare them perfectly. Whilst in France everyone
+can prepare coffee to perfection, and many fail in making a cup of tea,
+in England all are adepts in the art of tea-making, and many do not
+distinguish themselves in the preparation of coffee. Cocoa in either
+country is not always the delightful beverage it should be. The
+directions below, if carefully followed, will be found to give the
+character of cocoa its full expression. The principal conditions to
+observe are to avoid iron saucepans, to use boiling water or milk, to
+froth the cocoa before serving, and to serve steaming hot in thick cups.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The amount of cocoa required for two large breakfast cups, that is one
+pint, is as much as will go, when piled up, in a dessert spoon. Take
+then a heaped dessert-spoonful of pure cocoa and mix dry with one and a
+half times its bulk of fine sugar. Set this on one side whilst the
+boiling liquid is prepared. Mix one breakfast cup of water with one
+breakfast cup of milk, and raise to the boil in an enamelled saucepan.
+Whilst this is proceeding, warm the jug which is to hold the cocoa, and
+transfer the dry sugar-cocoa mixture to it. Now pour in the boiling
+milk and water. Transfer back to saucepan and _boil_ for one minute.
+Whisk vigorously for a quarter of a minute. Serve without delay.
+
+
+
+_Digestibility of Cocoa._
+
+We have noted above the high percentage of nutrients which cocoa
+contains, and the research conducted by J. Forster[1] shows that these
+nutrients are easily assimilated. Forster found that the fatty and
+mineral constituents of cocoa are both _completely_ digested, and the
+nitrogenous constituents are digested in the same proportion as in
+finest bread, and more completely than in bread of average quality. One
+very striking fact was revealed by his researches, namely, that the
+consumption of cocoa increases the digestive power for other foods which
+are taken at the same time, and that this increase is particularly
+evident with milk. Dr. R.O. Neumann[2] (who fed himself with cocoa
+preparations for over twelve weeks), whilst not agreeing with this
+conclusion, states that: "The consumption of cocoa from the point of
+view of health leaves nothing to be desired. The taking of large or
+small quantities of cocoa, either rich or poor in fat, with or without
+other food, gave rise to no digestive troubles during the 86 days which
+formed the duration of the experiments." He considers that cocoas
+containing a high percentage of cacao butter are preferable to those
+which contain low percentages, and that a 30 per cent. butter content
+meets all requirements. It is worthy of note that 28 to 30 per cent. is
+the quantity of butter found in ordinary high-class cocoas.
+
+    [1] _Hygienische Rundschau_, 1900, p. 305.
+
+    [2] _Die Bewertung des Kakaos als Nahrungs- und Genussmittel_,
+        1906.
+
+As experts are liable to disagree, and it is almost possible to prove
+anything by a judicious selection from their writings, it may be well to
+give an extract from some modern text book as more nearly expressing the
+standard opinion of the times. In _Second Stage Hygiene_, by Mr. Ikin
+and Dr. Lyster, a text book written for the Board of Education Syllabus,
+we read, p. 96: "... in the better cocoas the greater part of the fat is
+removed by heat and pressure. In this form cocoa may be looked upon as
+almost an ideal food, as it contains proteids, fats, and carbohydrates
+in roughly the right proportions. Prepared with milk and sugar it forms
+a highly nutritious and valuable stimulating beverage."
+
+
+
+_Stimulating Property of Cocoa._
+
+The mild stimulating property which cocoa possesses is due to the
+presence of the two substances, theobromine and caffein. The presence of
+theobromine is peculiar to cocoa, but caffein is a stimulating principle
+which also occurs in tea and coffee. Whilst in the quantities in which
+they are present in cocoa (about 1.5 per cent. of theobromine and 0.6
+per cent. of caffein) they act only as agreeable stimulants, in the pure
+condition, as white crystalline powders, they are powerful curative
+agents. Caffein is well known as a specific for nervous headaches, and
+as a heart stimulant and diuretic. Theobromine is similar in action, but
+has the advantage for certain cases, that it has much less effect on the
+central nervous system, and for this reason it is a very valuable
+medicine for sufferers from heart dropsy, and as a tonic for senile
+heart. That its medicinal properties are appreciated is shown by its
+price: during 1918 the retail price was about 8 shillings an ounce, from
+which we can calculate that every pound of cocoa contained nearly two
+shillingsworth of theobromine.
+
+
+
+_"Soluble" Cocoa._
+
+Whilst Forster states that treated cocoa is the most digestible, experts
+are not in agreement as to which is the more valuable foodstuff, the
+pure untouched cocoa, or that which is treated during its manufacture
+with alkaline salts. The cocoa so treated is generally described as
+"soluble," although its only claim to this name is that the mineral
+salts in the cocoa are rendered more soluble by the treatment. It is
+also sometimes incorrectly described as containing alkali, but actually
+no alkali is present in the cocoa either in a free state or as
+carbonate; the potassium exists "in the form of phosphates or
+combinations of organic acids, that is to say, in the ideal form in
+which these bodies occur in foods of animal and vegetable origin"
+(Fritsch, _Fabrication du Chocolat_, p. 216).
+
+[Illustration: BOXING CHOCOLATES.]
+
+
+
+_Food Value of Chocolate._
+
+    I ate a little chocolate from my supply, well knowing the
+    miraculous sustaining powers of the simple little block (from
+    _Mr. Isaacs_, by F. Marion Crawford).
+
+Whilst the food value of cocoa powder is very high the drink prepared
+from it can only be regarded as an accessory food, because it is usual
+to take the powder in small quantities--just as with beef-tea it is
+usual to take only a small portion of an ox in a tea-cup--but chocolate
+is often eaten in considerable quantities at a time, and must therefore
+be regarded as an important foodstuff, and not considered, as it
+frequently is considered, simply as a luxury.
+
+The eating of cacao mixed with sugar dates from very early days, but it
+is only in recent times that it has become the principal sweetmeat. What
+would a "sweetshop" be to-day without chocolate, that summit of the
+confectioner's art, when the rich brown of chocolate is the predominant
+note in every confectioner's window? What would the lovers in England do
+without chocolates, which enable them to indulge their delight in giving
+that which is sure to be well received?
+
+As a luxury it is universally appreciated, and because of this
+appreciation its value as a food is sometimes overlooked.
+
+During the war chocolate was valued as a compact foodstuff, which is
+easily preserved. Dr. Gastineau Earle, lecturing for the Institute of
+Hygiene in 1915 on "Food Factor in War," said: "Chocolate is a most
+valuable concentrated food, especially when other foods are not
+available; it is the chief constituent of the emergency ration." Its
+importance as a concentrated foodstuff was appreciated in the United
+States, for every "comfort kit" made up for the American soldiers
+fighting in the war contained a cake of sweet chocolate.
+
+There are a number of records of people whose lives have been preserved
+by means of chocolate. One of the most recent was the case of Commander
+Stewart, who was torpedoed in H.M.S. "Cornwallis" in the Mediterranean
+in 1917. He happened to have in his cabin one of the boxes of chocolate
+presented to the Army and Navy in 1915 by the colonies of Trinidad,
+Grenada, and St. Lucia, who gave the cacao and paid English
+manufacturers to make it into chocolate. He had been treasuring the box
+as a souvenir, but being the only article of food available, he filled
+his pockets with the chocolate, which sustained him through many trying
+hours.[3]
+
+    [3] See _West India Committee Journal_, p. 55, 1917.
+
+We have already seen the high food value of the cacao bean: what of the
+sugar which chocolate contains? Sugar is consumed in large quantities in
+England, the consumption per head amounting to 80-90 lbs. per year. It
+is well known as a giver of heat and energy, and Sir Ernest Shackleton
+reports that it proved a great life preserver and sustainer in Arctic
+regions. Our practical acquaintance with sugar commences at birth--milk
+containing about 5 per cent. of milk sugar--and when one considers the
+amazing activity of young children one understands their continuous
+demand for sugar. Dr. Hutchison, in his well-known _Food and the
+Principles of Dietetics_, says: "The craving for sweets which children
+show is, no doubt, the natural expression of a physiological need, but
+they should be taken with, and not between, meals. Chocolate is one of
+the most wholesome and nutritious forms of such sweets."
+
+Both the constituents of chocolate being nourishing, it follows that
+chocolate itself has a high food value. This is proved by the figures
+given below.
+
+As with cocoa, we have first to know the composition before we can
+calculate the food value. The relative proportions of nib, butter and
+sugar, vary considerably in ordinary chocolate, so that it is difficult
+to give an average composition: there are sticks of eating chocolate
+which contain as little as 24 per cent. of cacao butter, whilst
+chocolate used for covering contains about 36 per cent. of butter.
+
+As modern high-class eating chocolate contains about 31 per cent. of
+butter, we will take this for purposes of calculation:
+
+
+AVERAGE COMPOSITION AND FUEL VALUE OF ENGLISH EATING CHOCOLATE.
+
+                                 _Composition_  _Energy-giving power_
+
+                                                  _Calories per lb._
+Cacao Butter                          31.4     =      1,327
+Protein (total nitrogen 0.78%)         4.1     =         76
+Cacao Starch                           2.3 }   =        162
+Other Digestible Carbohydrates, etc.   6.4 }
+Stimulants    { Theobromine            0.3
+              { Caffein                0.1
+Mineral Matter                         1.2
+Crude Fibre                            0.9
+Moisture                               1.0
+Sugar                                 52.3     =        973
+                                     -----            -----
+                                     100.0            2,538
+
+In Snyder's _Human Foods_ (1916) the official analyses of 163 common
+foods are given. They include practically everything that human beings
+eat, and only three are greater than chocolate in energy-giving power.
+
+The result (2,538 calories per lb.) which we obtain by calculation is
+lower than the figure (2,768 calories per lb.) for chocolate given by
+Sherman in his book on _Food and Nutrition_ (1918). Probably his figure
+is for unsweetened chocolate. The table below shows the energy-giving
+value of cocoa and chocolate compared with well-known foodstuffs. The
+figures (save for "eating" chocolate) are taken from Sherman's book, and
+are calculated from the analyses given in Bulletin 28 of the United
+States Department of Agriculture:
+
+
+FUEL VALUE OF FOODSTUFFS.
+
+_Foodstuff as        _Calories
+  Purchased._          per lb._
+Cabbage                  121
+Cod Fish                 209
+Apples                   214
+Potatoes                 302
+Milk                     314
+Eggs                     594
+Beef Steak               960
+Bread (average white)  1,180
+Oatmeal                1,811
+Sugar                  1,815
+Cocoa                  2,258
+Eating Chocolate       2,538
+
+[Illustration: PACKING CHOCOLATES AT BOURNVILLE.]
+
+
+
+_Food Value of Milk Chocolate._
+
+The value of milk as a food is so generally recognised as to need no
+commendation here. When milk is evaporated to a dry solid, about 87.5
+per cent. of water is driven off, so that the dry milk left has about
+eight times the food value of the original milk. Milk chocolate of good
+quality contains from 15 to 25 per cent. of milk solids. Milk chocolate
+varies greatly in composition, but for the purpose of calculating the
+food value, we may assume that about a quarter of a high-class milk
+chocolate consists of solid milk, and this is combined with about 40 per
+cent. of cane sugar and 35 per cent. of cacao butter and cacao mass.
+
+
+ANALYSIS AND FUEL VALUE OF MILK CHOCOLATE.
+
+                                                _Energy-giving
+                                                    power._
+                                               _Calories per lb._
+
+Milk Fat and Cacao Butter                 35.0   =   1,480
+Milk and Cocoa Proteins                    8.0   =     149
+Cacao Starch and Digestible Carbohydrates  3.0   =      56
+Stimulants (Theobromine and Caffein)       0.2
+Mineral Matter                             2.0
+Crude Fibre                                0.3
+Moisture                                   1.5
+Milk Sugar and Cane Sugar                 50.0   =     930
+                                         -----       -----
+                                         100.0   =   2,615
+                                         -----       -----
+
+It will be noted that the food value of milk chocolate is even greater
+than that of plain chocolate. It is highly probable that milk chocolate
+is the most nutritious of all sweetmeats. It is not generally recognised
+that when we purchase one pound of high-class milk chocolate we obtain
+three-quarters of a pound of chocolate and two pounds of milk!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+ADULTERATION AND THE NEED FOR DEFINITIONS
+
+    Those that mix maize in the Chocolate do very ill, for they
+    beget bilious and melancholy humours.
+
+    _A Curious Treatise on the Nature and Quality of Chocolate_,
+    Antonio Colmenero de Ledesma, 1685.
+
+
+COCOA.
+
+Cocoa might conveniently be defined as consisting exclusively of
+shelled, roasted, finely-ground cacao beans, partially de-fatted, with
+or without a minute quantity of flavouring material.
+
+The gross adulteration of cocoa is now a thing of the past, and most of
+the cocoa sold conforms with this definition. Statements, however, get
+copied from book to book, and hence we continue to read that cocoa
+usually contains arrowroot or other starch. In the old days this was
+frequently so, but now, owing to many legal actions by Public Health
+Authorities, this abuse has been stamped out. Nowadays if a Public
+Analyst finds flour or arrowroot in a sample bought as cocoa, he
+describes it as adulterated, and the seller is prosecuted and fined.
+Hence, save for the presence of cacao shell, the cocoa of the present
+day is a pure article consisting simply of roasted, finely-ground cacao
+beans partially de-fatted. The principal factors affecting the quality
+of the finished cocoa are the difference in the kind of cacao bean used,
+the amount of cacao butter extracted, the care in preparation, and the
+amount of cacao shell left in.
+
+The presence of more than a small percentage of shell in cocoa is a
+disadvantage both on the ground of taste and of food value. This has
+been recognised from the earliest times (see quotations on p. 128). In
+the Cocoa Powder Order of 1918, the amount of shell which a cocoa powder
+might contain was defined--_grade A_ not to contain more than two per
+cent. of shell, and _grade B_ not more than five per cent. of shell. The
+manufacturers of high-class cocoa welcomed these standards, but
+unfortunately the known analytical methods are not delicate enough to
+estimate accurately such small quantities, so that any external check is
+difficult, and the purchaser has to trust to the honesty of the
+manufacturer. Hence it is wise to purchase cocoa only from makers of
+good repute.
+
+
+CHOCOLATE.
+
+We have so far no legal definition of chocolate in England. As Mr. N.P.
+Booth pointed out at the Seventh International Congress of Applied
+Chemistry: "At the present time a mixture of cocoa with sugar and starch
+cannot be sold as pure cocoa, but only as 'chocolate powder,' and with a
+definite declaration that the article is a mixture of cocoa and other
+ingredients. Prosecutions are constantly occurring where mixtures of
+foreign starch and sugar with cocoa have been sold as 'cocoa,' and it
+seems, therefore, a proper step to take to require that a similar
+declaration shall be made in the case of 'chocolate' which contains
+other constituents than the products of cocoa nib and sugar." We cannot
+do better than quote in full the definitions suggested in Mr. Booth's
+paper.
+
+The author refers to the absence of any legal standard for chocolate in
+England, although in some of the European countries standards are in
+force, and points out, as a result of this, that articles of which the
+sale would be prohibited in some other countries, are permitted to come
+without restriction on to the English market.
+
+[Illustration: WHARF AT FACTORY AT KNIGHTON, AT WHICH MILK IS EVAPORATED
+FOR MILK CHOCOLATE MANUFACTURE.
+(Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd.)]
+
+He suggests that the following definitions for chocolate goods are
+reasonable, and could be conformed to by makers of the genuine article.
+These standards are not more stringent than those already enforced in
+some of the Colonies and European countries:
+
+    (1) Unsweetened chocolate or _cacao mass_ must be prepared
+    exclusively from roasted, shelled, finely-ground cacao beans,
+    with or without the addition of a small quantity of
+    flavouring matter, and should not contain less than 45 per
+    cent. of cacao butter.
+
+    (2) Sweetened chocolate or _chocolate_.--A preparation
+    consisting exclusively of the products of roasted, shelled,
+    finely-ground cacao beans, and not more than 65 per cent. of
+    sugar, with or without a small quantity of harmless
+    flavouring matter.
+
+    (3) _Granulated_, or _Ground Chocolate for Drinking_
+    purposes.--The same definition as for sweetened chocolate
+    should apply here, except that the proportion of sugar may be
+    raised to not more than 75 per cent.
+
+    (4) _Chocolate-covered Goods._--Various forms of
+    confectionery covered with chocolate, the composition of the
+    latter agreeing with the definition of sweetened chocolate.
+
+    (5) _Milk Chocolate._--A preparation composed exclusively of
+    roasted, shelled cacao beans, sugar, and not less than 15 per
+    cent. of the dry solids of full-cream milk, with or without a
+    small quantity of harmless flavouring matter.
+
+Mr. Booth further states that starch other than that naturally present
+in the cacao bean, and cacao shell in powder form, should be absolutely
+excluded from any article which is to be sold under the name of
+"chocolate."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE CONSUMPTION OF CACAO
+
+    The Kernels that come to us from the Coast of _Caraqua_, are
+    more oily, and less bitter, than those that come from the
+    _French_ Islands, and in _France_ and _Spain_ they prefer
+    them to these latter. But in _Germany_ and in the _North_
+    (_Fides sit penes autorem_) they have a quite opposite Taste.
+    Several People mix that of _Caraqua_ with that of the
+    Islands, half in half, and pretend by this Mixture to make
+    the Chocolate better. I believe in the bottom, the difference
+    of Chocolates is not considerable, since they are only
+    obliged to increase or diminish the Proportion of Sugar,
+    according as the Bitterness of the Kernels require it.
+
+    _The Natural History of Chocolate_, R. Brookes, 1730.
+
+
+The war has caused such a disturbance that the statistics for the years
+of the war are difficult to obtain. For many years the German
+publication, the _Gordian_, was the most reliable source of cacao
+statistics, and so far we have nothing in England sufficiently
+comprehensive to replace it, although useful figures can be obtained
+from the Board of Trade returns of imports into Great Britain, from Mr.
+Theo. Vasmer's reports which appear from time to time in _The
+Confectioners' Union_ and elsewhere, from Mr. Hamel Smith's collated
+material in _Tropical Life_, and from the reports of important brokers
+like Messrs. Woodhouse. In 1919 the _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_
+gave a very complete _resume_ of cacao production as far as the British
+Empire is concerned.
+
+
+
+_Great Britain._
+
+Since 1830 the consumption of cacao in the British Isles has shown a
+great and continuous increase, and there is every reason to believe that
+the consumption will easily keep pace with the rapidly growing
+production. One effect of the war has been to increase the consumption
+of cocoa and chocolate. Many thousands of men who took no interest in
+"sweets" learned from the use of their emergency ration that chocolate
+was a very convenient and concentrated foodstuff.
+
+
+CACAO BEANS CLEARED FOR HOME CONSUMPTION.
+
+Year.  English Tons.
+1830        450
+1840        900
+1850      1,400
+1860      1,450
+1870      3,100
+1880      4,700
+1890      9,000
+1900     16,900
+1910     24,550
+
+
+CACAO BEANS IMPORTED INTO UNITED KINGDOM.
+
+          _Total       _Retained in         _Home
+Year.    Imported_      the country_      Consumption_
+            tons.           tons.            tons.
+ 1912      33,600          27,450           24,600
+ 1913      35,000          28,200           23,200
+ 1914      41,750          29,600           24,900
+ 1915      81,800          54,400           40,300
+ 1916      88,800          64,750           29,300
+ 1917      57,900          53,100           41,300
+
+The above figures are compiled from the _Bulletin of the Imperial
+Institute_ (No. 1, 1919). The total imports for 1918 were 42,390 tons.
+This sudden and marked drop in the amount imported was due to shortage
+of shipping. There were, however, large quantities of cacao in stock,
+and the amount consumed showed a marked advance on previous years, being
+61,252 tons.
+
+The Board of Trade Returns for 1919 are as follow:
+
+
+CACAO BEANS IMPORTED INTO UNITED KINGDOM.
+
+_From_
+British West Africa  72,886 tons
+British West Indies  13,219 tons
+Ecuador               9,153 tons
+Brazil                3,665 tons
+Ceylon                  903 tons
+Other Countries      13,820 tons
+                    ------------
+             Total  113,646 tons
+                    ------------
+Home Consumption     64,613 tons
+
+It will be noted that the import of British cacao is over 75 per cent.
+of the total.
+
+Before the war about half the cacao imported into the United Kingdom was
+grown in British possessions. During the war more and more British cacao
+was imported, and now that a preferential duty of seven shillings per
+hundredweight has been given to British Colonial growths we shall
+probably see a still higher percentage of British cacao consumed in the
+United Kingdom.
+
+
+VALUE OF CACAO BEANS IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM (TO NEAREST
+L1,000).
+
+          Total value of Cacao    From British Possessions.
+Year.        Beans Imported.        _Value._    _Per cent._
+1913          L2,199,000           L1,158,000      52.7
+1914          L2,439,000           L1,204,000      49.4
+1915          L5,747,000           L3,546,000      61.7
+1916          L6,498,000           L4,417,000      68.0
+1917          L3,498,000           L3,010,000      86.0
+1918          L3,040,000           L2,549,000      83.8
+1919          L9,207,000           L6,639,000      72.1
+
+That the consumption of cacao is expected to grow greater yet in the
+immediate future is reflected in the prices of raw cacao, which, as soon
+as they were no longer fixed by the Government, rose rapidly, thus Accra
+cacao rose from 65s. per hundredweight to over 90s. per hundredweight in
+a few weeks, and now (January, 1920) stands at 104s. (See diagram p.
+113).
+
+
+
+_World Consumption._
+
+The world's consumption of cacao is steadily rising. Before the war the
+United States, Germany, Holland, Great Britain, France, and Switzerland
+were the principal consumers. Whilst we have increased our consumption,
+so that Great Britain now occupies second place, the United States has
+outstripped all the other countries, having doubled its consumption in a
+few years, and is now taking almost as much as all the rest of the world
+put together. It is thought that since America has "gone dry" this
+remarkably large consumption is likely to be maintained.
+
+
+WORLD'S CONSUMPTION OF CACAO BEANS.
+(to the nearest thousand tons)
+1 ton = 1000 kilograms.
+
+
+              _Pre-war_        _War Period_     _Post-war_
+
+                           Average of
+                1913.    1914, 5, 6,& 7.  1918.    1919.
+Country.        Tons.        Tons.        Tons.    Tons.
+
+U.S.A.         68,000      103,000      145,000  145,000
+Germany        51,000       28,000          ?     13,000
+Holland        30,000       25,000        2,000   39,000
+Great Britain  28,000       41,000       62,000   66,000
+France         28,000       35,000       39,000   46,000
+Switzerland    10,000       14,000       18,000   21,000
+Austria         7,000        2,000          ?      2,000
+Belgium         6,000        1,000        1,000    8,000
+Spain           6,000        7,000        6,000    8,000
+Russia          5,000        4,000          ?        ?
+Canada          3,000        4,000        9,000      ?
+Italy           2,000        5,000        6,000    6,000
+Denmark         2,000        2,000        2,000      ?
+Sweden          1,000        2,000        2,000      ?
+Norway          1,000        2,000        2,000      ?
+Other countries
+  (estimated)   5,000        8,000       11,000   26,000
+            --------------------------------------------
+Total         252,000      283,000      305,000  380,000
+
+The above figures are compiled chiefly from Mr. Theo. Vasmer's reports.
+The _Gordian_ estimates that the world's consumption in 1918 was
+314,882 tons. In several of our larger colonies and in at least one
+European country there is obviously ample room for increase in the
+consumption. When one considers the great population of Russia, four to
+five thousand tons per annum is a very small amount to consume. It is
+pleasant to think of cocoa being drunk in the icebound North of
+Russia--it brings to mind so picturesque a contrast: cacao, grown
+amongst the richly-coloured flora of the tropics, consumed in a land
+that is white with cold. When Russia has reached a more stable condition
+we shall doubtless see a rapid expansion in the cacao consumption.
+
+[Illustration: CACAO PODS, LEAVES AND FLOWERS.
+Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Fry & Sons, Ltd., Bristol.]
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+BOOKS ON COCOA AND CHOCOLATE ARRANGED IN ORDER OF DATE OF PUBLICATION.
+
+
+
+1600-1700
+
+
+RAUCH, Joan. Franc.
+
+DISPUTATIO MEDICO DIOETETICA DE AERE ET ESCULENTIS, DE
+NECNON POTU. Vienna                                                 1624
+
+[Condemns cocoa as a violent inflamer of the passions.]
+
+
+COLMENERO, Antonio de Ledesma.
+
+[Treatise on Chocolate in Spanish entitled:]
+CURIOSO TRATADO DE LA NATURALEZA Y CALIDAD DEL CHOCOLATE,
+DIVIDIDO EN QUATRO PUNTOS. Madrid                                   1631
+
+Translated into English by Don Diego de Vades-forte             1640
+Translated into French by Rene Moreau                           1643
+Translated into Latin by J.G. Volckamer                         1644
+Translated into English by J. Wadsworth                         1652
+Translated into Italian by A. Vitrioli                          1667
+Moreau's translation edited by Sylvestre Dufour        1671 and 1685
+and translated into English by J. Chamberlaine                  1685
+
+[for titles, etc., see under translators]
+
+
+DE VADES-FORTE, Don Diego.
+[The magnificent pseudonym of J. Wadsworth.]
+(Translated by.)
+
+A CURIOUS TREATISE OF THE NATURE AND QUALITY OF CHOCOLATE
+by Antonio de Ledesma Colmenero. London                             1640
+
+
+MOREAU, Rene. (Translated by.)
+
+DU CHOCOLAT DISCOURS CURIEUX
+by Antonio de Ledesma Colmenero. pp. 59. Paris                      1643
+
+
+[VOLCKAMER, J.G. Translated by.]
+
+CHOCOLATA INDA, OPUSCULUM DE QUALITATE ET NATURA CHOCOLATAE
+by Antonio de Ledesma Colmenero. pp. 73. Norimbergae                1644
+
+(In same volume with this is "Opobalsamum Orientalae" and
+"Pisonis Observationes Medicae." Total pp. 224.)
+
+
+WADSWORTH, J. (Translated by.)
+
+CHOCOLATE: OR AN INDIAN DRINKE ETC.
+by Antonio Ledesma Colmenero. London                                1652
+
+
+STUBBE(S), Henry.
+
+THE INDIAN NECTAR OR A DISCOURSE CONCERNING CHOCOLATA.
+pp. 184. London                                                     1662
+
+
+BRANCATIUS, Franciscus Maria.
+
+DE CHOCALATIS POTU DIATRIBE. pp. 36. Rome                           1664
+
+
+PAULLI, Simon.
+
+COMMENTARIUS DE ABUSU TABACI THEE. Argentorati (see 1746)           1665
+
+
+VITRIOLI, A. (Translated by.)
+
+DELLA CIOCCOLATA DISCORSO.
+[From Moreau's translation of Colmenero's book.] Rome               1667
+
+
+SEBASTUS MELISSENUS, F. Nicephorus.
+
+DE CHOCOLATIS POTIONE RESOLUTIO MORALIS. pp. 36. Naples             1671
+
+
+SYLVESTRE DUFOUR, P. [Edited by.]
+
+DE L'USAGE DU CAPHE, DU THE, ET DU CHOCOLAT. pp. 188. Lyon          1671
+
+[The part on chocolate, pp. 59, is a revision of Moreau's
+translation of Colmenero's book, plus B. Marradon's dialogue
+on chocolate.]
+
+Translated into English by J. Chamberlaine (which see).             1685
+
+
+HUGHES, William.
+
+THE AMERICAN PHYSITIAN ... WHEREUNTO IS ADDED A DISCOURSE ON
+THE CACAO-NUT-TREE, AND THE USE OF ITS FRUIT, WITH ALL THE
+WAYS OF MAKING CHOCOLATE. London                                    1672
+
+
+AUTHOR NOT GIVEN.
+
+DESCRIPTION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE COCOA TREE.
+Phil. Trans. Abr. II. pp. 59.                                       1673
+
+
+BONTEKOE, Willem.
+
+Sundry short treatises in Dutch on Cocoa and Chocolate.       about 1679
+
+
+AUTHOR NOT GIVEN.
+
+THE NATURAL HISTORY OF COFFEE, TEA, CHOCOLATE, TOBACCO AND
+ALSO THE WAY OF MAKING MUM.
+pp. 39. Printed for Christopher Wilkinson. London                   1682
+
+[Condemns chocolate on account of its containing "such a
+corrosive salt" as sugar. Mum is a peculiar kind of beer
+made from wheat malt.]
+
+
+MUNDY, Henry.
+
+OPERA OMNIA MEDICO-PHYSICA DE AERE VITALI, ESCULENTIS ET
+POTULENTIS CUM APPENDICE DE PARERGIS IN VICTU ET CHOCOLATU,
+THEA, CAFFEA, TOBACCO. Oxford 1680. Leyden                          1685
+
+
+SYLVESTRE DUFOUR, P.
+
+TRAITEZ NOUVEAUX ET CURIEUX DU CAFE, DU THE ET DU CHOCOLAT.
+
+[The treatise on chocolate is compiled from the Spanish of
+Colmenero and B. Marradon.]     pp. 403. a la Haye              1685
+(With additions by St. Disdier) pp. 404. a la Haye              1693
+Published by Deville.           pp. 404.      Lyon              1688
+
+The above in Latin (by J. Spon),
+"TRACTATUS NOVI DE POTU CAPHE, DE CHIENSIUM, THE, ET DE
+CHOCOLATA." pp. 202. Paris                                      1685
+
+A further Latin translation of the above,
+"NOVI TRACTATUS DE POTU CAPHE, DE CHIENSIUM, THE, ET DE
+CHOCOLATA." pp. 188. Geneva                                     1699
+
+
+CHAMBERLAINE, J. (Translated by.)
+
+THE MANNER OF MAKING COFFEE, TEA AND CHOCOLATE. pp. 116. London     1685
+
+[A translation of Sylvestre Dufour's compilation, the part
+on Chocolate entitled "A Curious Treatise of the Nature and
+Quality of Chocolate," being a translation of Colmenero's book.]
+
+
+BLEGNY, Nicholas de.
+
+LE BON USAGE DE THE, DU CAFFE, ET DU CHOCOLAT POUR LA
+PRESERVATION ET POUR LA GUERISON DES MALADES.
+pp. 358. Paris                                                      1687
+pp. 358. Lyon                                                       1687
+
+
+MAPPUS, Marcus.
+
+DISSERTATIONES MEDICAE TRES DE RECEPTIS HODIE ETIAM IN
+EUROPA, POTUS CALIDI GENERIBUS THEE, CAFE, CHOCOLATA.
+pp. 66. Argentorati                                                 1695
+
+
+
+1701-1800
+
+
+DUNCAN, Dr.
+
+WHOLESOME ADVICE AGAINST THE ABUSE OF HOT LIQUORS,
+PARTICULARLY OF COFFEE, TEA, CHOCOLATE, ETC. pp. 280. London        1706
+
+
+AUTHOR NOT GIVEN [by De Chelus.]
+
+HISTOIRE NATURELLE DU CACAO ET DU SUCRE.
+pp. 227. Paris                                                      1719
+pp. 228. Amsterdam                                                  1720
+pp. 404. Amsterdam                                                  1720
+pp.  95. London                                                     1724
+
+
+BROOKES, R. [the above by De Chelus.] (Translated by.)
+
+NATURAL HISTORY OF CHOCOLATE.
+pp. 95. Printed for J. Roberts, London                              1724
+pp. 95. Printed for Browne,     London                              1725
+pp. 95. Printed for J. Roberts, London                              1730
+
+
+ACT OF PARLIAMENT, George II, 1723.
+
+Relating to
+"LAYING INLAND DUTIES ON COFFEE, TEA AND CHOCOLATE." London         1724
+
+
+BRUCKMAN, F.E.
+
+RELATIO DE CACAO. Brunswick                                         1738
+
+
+BARON, H.T.
+
+AN SENIBUS CHOCOLATAE PUTUS? Paris                                  1739
+
+
+PAULI, S. [PAULLI.]
+
+A TREATISE ON TOBACCO, TEA, COFFEE AND CHOCOLATE.
+Translated by Dr. James. pp. 171. London (see 1665)                 1746
+
+
+N.N. [pseudonym of D. CONGINA.]
+
+MEMORIE STORICHE SOPRA L'USO DELLA CIOCCOLATA IN TEMPO DI
+DIGIUNO ETC.
+Historical memoir on the use of chocolate upon fast days.
+pp. 196. Venice                                                     1748
+
+
+STAYLEY, G.
+
+THE CHOCOLATE MAKERS OR MIMICKRY EXPOSED.
+An Interlude. Dublin.                                               1759
+
+
+AUTHOR NOT GIVEN.
+
+OBSERVATIONS SUR LE CACAO ET SUR LE CHOCOLAT. pp. 144. Paris        1772
+
+
+SMITH, Hugh.
+
+AN ESSAY ON FOREIGN TEAS, WITH OBSERVATIONS ON MINERAL
+WATERS, COFFEE, CHOCOLATE, ETC. London                              1794
+
+
+
+1801-1900
+
+
+PARMENTIER
+
+ON THE COMPOSITION AND USE OF CHOCOLATE.
+Nicholson's Journal. London                                         1803
+
+
+GALLAIS, A.
+
+MONOGRAPHIE DU CACAO. pp. 216. Paris                                1827
+
+
+MITSCHERLICH, A.
+
+DER KAKAO UND DIE SCHOKOLADE. Berlin                                1859
+
+
+GOSSELIN, A.
+
+MANUEL DES CHOCOLATIERS. pp. 53. Paris                              1860
+
+
+MANGIN, A.
+
+LE CACAO ET LA CHOCOLAT. Paris                                      1862
+
+
+HEWETT, C. (of Messrs. Dunn and Hewett.)
+
+CHOCOLATE AND COCOA, GROWTH AND PREPARATION. pp. 88. London         1862
+
+
+COMPAGNIE COLONIALE.
+
+CHOCOLATE: ITS CHARACTER AND HISTORY. pp. 37. Paris                 1868
+
+
+HOLM, J.
+
+COCOA AND ITS MANUFACTURE. Rivers, London.
+
+
+SINCLAIR, W.J.
+
+BEVERAGES, TEA, COCOA, ETC.
+(Health Lectures, Vol. 4). Manchester                               1881
+
+
+SALDAU, E.
+
+DIE CHOCOLADE-FABRIKATION. pp. 232. Vienna (see 1907)               1881
+
+
+MORRIS, D.
+
+CACAO: HOW TO GROW IT. pp. 45. Jamaica (see 1887)                   1882
+
+
+TRINIDAD Agricultural Association.
+
+CURING OF COCOA DISCUSSED. pp. 6.                                   1885
+
+
+BARTELINK, E.J.
+
+HANDLEIDING VOOR KAKAO-PLANTERS. pp. 68. Amsterdam                  1885
+
+English Translation,
+"THE CACAO PLANTERS' MANUAL." pp. 57. London                        1885
+
+
+BAKER, W., & Co.
+
+COCOA AND CHOCOLATE.
+pp. 152. Dorchester, Mass., U.S.A. (see 1891 and 1899)              1886
+
+
+MORRIS, D.
+
+CACAO: HOW TO GROW IT. pp. 42. Jamaica (see 1882)                   1886
+
+
+ZIPPERER, P.
+
+DIE CHOCOLADE FABRIKATION. pp. 181. Berlin (see 1902 and 1913)      1889
+
+
+BANNISTER, R.
+
+CANTOR LECTURES ON SUGAR, COFFEE, TEA AND COCOA. pp. 77. London     1890
+
+
+BAKER, W., & Co.
+
+THE CHOCOLATE PLANT AND ITS PRODUCTS.
+pp. 40. Dorchester, Mass., U.S.A. (see 1886 and 1899)                1891
+
+
+HART, J.H.
+
+CACAO. pp. 77. Port of Spain, Trinidad (see 1900 and 1911)          1892
+
+
+HATTON, J.
+
+COCOA. pp. 22. London                                               1892
+
+
+HISTORICUS.
+
+COCOA: ALL ABOUT IT. pp. 114. London (see 1896)                     1892
+
+
+GORDIAN, A.
+
+DIE DEUTSCHE SCHOKOLADEN UND ZUCKERWAREN INDUSTRIE.
+Hartleben's Verlag. Hamburg                                         1895
+
+
+ROQUE, L. De Belfort de la.
+
+GUIDE PRATIQUE DE LA FABRICATION DU CHOCOLAT. Paris                 1895
+
+
+HISTORICUS.
+
+COCOA: ALL ABOUT IT. pp. 99. London (see 1892)                      1896
+
+
+VILLON.
+
+MANUEL DU CONFISEUR ET DU CHOCOLAT. Paris                           1896
+
+
+GOLDOS, L.
+
+MANNUAL DE FABRICACION INDUSTRIAL DE CHOCOLATE. pp. 261. Madrid     1897
+
+
+OLIVIERI, F.E.
+
+CACAO PLANTING AND ITS CULTIVATION. pp. 34.
+Port of Spain, Trinidad (see 1903)                                  1897
+
+
+EPPS, James.
+
+THE CACAO PLANT. pp. 11.
+(Transactions Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club)       1898
+
+
+BAKER, W., & Co.
+
+COCOA AND CHOCOLATE.
+pp. 71. Dorchester, Mass., U.S.A. (see 1886 and 1891)               1899
+
+
+HART, J.H.
+
+CACAO. pp. 117. Port of Spain, Trinidad (see 1892 and 1911)         1900
+
+
+JUMELLE, H.
+
+LE CACOYER: SA CULTURE ET SON EXPLOITATION. pp. 211. Paris          1900
+
+
+MENIER.
+
+HISTORIQUE DES ETABLISSEMENTS MENIER.
+(Printed for Exposition Universelle.) pp. 44. Paris                 1900
+
+
+
+MODERN WORKS, 1901-1920.
+
+
+(_a_) _Cacao Cultivation._
+
+
+SMITH, H. Hamel.
+
+SOME NOTES ON COCOA PLANTING IN THE WEST INDIES. pp. 70             1901
+
+
+WILDEMAN, E. de.
+
+LES PLANTES TROPICALES DE GRANDE CULTURE--CAFE, CACAO, ETC.
+pp. 304. Bruxelles                                                  1902
+
+
+PREUSS, Paul.
+
+EXPEDITION NACH CENTRAL UND SUeD-AMERIKA. Berlin.
+
+French translation of part of the above,
+"LE CACAO, CULTURE ET PREPARATION"
+(from Bulletin Societe d'Etudes Coloniales). pp. 249.               1902
+
+
+EITLING, C.
+
+DER KAKAO, SEINE KULTUR UND BEREITUNG. pp. 39.                      1903
+
+
+OLIVIERI, F.E.
+
+TREATISE ON CACAO. pp. 101. Trinidad (see 1897)                     1903
+
+
+KINDT, L.
+
+DIE KULTUR DES KAKAOBAUMES UND SEINE SCHAeDLINGE.
+pp. 157. Hamburg                                                    1904
+
+
+STEUART, M.E.
+
+EVERYDAY LIFE ON A CEYLON COCOA ESTATE. pp. 256. London             1905
+
+
+CHALOT, C. and LUC, M.
+
+LE CACOYER AU CONGO FRANCAIS. pp. 58                                1906
+
+
+FAUCHERE, A.
+
+CULTURE PRATIQUE DU CACAOYER ET PREPARATION DU CACAO.
+pp. 175. Paris                                                      1906
+
+
+PRUD'HOMME, E.
+
+LE COCOTIER. CULTURE, INDUSTRIE ET COMMERCE. pp. 491.               1906
+
+
+DE MENDONCA, Monteiro.
+
+BOA ENTRADA PLANTATIONS, SAN THOME. pp. 63. London                  1907
+
+
+MOUNTMORRES, Viscount.
+
+MAIZE, COCOA, RUBBER. pp. 44. Liverpool                             1907
+
+
+SALDAU, E.
+
+DIE SCHOKOLADEN FABRIKATION. Vienna (see 1881)                      1907
+
+
+WRIGHT, H.
+
+THEOBROMA CACAO OR COCOA. pp. 249. Colombo                          1907
+
+
+RAFAELI, V., and MAXIMILIANO, E.
+
+HOW JOSE FORMED HIS CACAO ESTATE. pp. 18. Trinidad                  1907
+
+
+TORAILLE, C.F.
+
+STOLEN FROM THE FIELDS. A TREATISE ON CACAO AND ITS
+CULTIVATION. Trinidad                                               1907
+
+
+HUGGINS, J.D.
+
+HINTS TO THOSE ENGAGING IN THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA. pp. 24.
+Port of Spain, Trinidad                                             1908
+
+
+SMITH, H. Hamel.
+
+THE FUTURE OF CACAO PLANTING. pp. 95. London                        1908
+
+
+ATBE.
+
+EL CULTIVO LAS DISERSAS INDUSTRIAS DES COCO. pp. 42. Quito          1909
+
+
+HART, J.H.
+
+CACAO. pp. 307. Duckworth, London (see 1892 and 1900)               1911
+
+
+SMITH, H. Hamel.
+
+NOTES ON SOIL AND PLANT SANITATION ON CACAO AND RUBBER
+ESTATES. pp. 603. Bale, London                                      1911
+
+
+CARVATHO, d'Almeida.
+
+A ILHA DE S. THOME E A AGRICULTURA PROGRESSIVA.
+(Includes Culturas de Cacoeiro.) pp. 228. Lisbon                    1912
+
+
+JOHNSON, W.H.
+
+COCOA: ITS CULTIVATION AND PREPARATION. pp. 186.
+(Imperial Institute.) London                                        1912
+
+
+AUTHOR NOT GIVEN.
+
+CACAO CULTURE IN THE WEST INDIES.
+pp. 75. Havana. (Published by German Alkali Works, Cuba.)           1912
+
+
+HENRY, Yves.
+
+LE CACAO. pp. 103. Paris                                            1913
+
+
+SMITH, H. Hamel.
+
+THE FERMENTATION OF CACAO. pp. 318. Bale, London                    1913
+
+
+MALINS-SMITH, W.M.
+
+PRACTICAL CACAO PLANTING IN GRENADA.
+(_West India Committee Circular_, April to December.)               1913
+
+
+HALL, C.J.J. van.
+
+COCOA. pp. 512. Macmillan, London                                   1914
+
+
+KNAPP, A.W.
+
+THE PRACTICE OF CACAO FERMENTATION. pp. 24. Bale, London            1914
+
+
+(_b_) _Chocolate Manufacture._
+
+
+BESSELICH, N.
+
+DIE SCHOKOLADE. pp. 74. Trier.
+
+
+ZIPPERER, P.
+
+MANUFACTURE OF CHOCOLATE. pp. 277.
+Berlin, London and New York (see 1889 and 1913)                     1902
+
+
+DUVAL, E.
+
+CONFISERIE MODERNE.                                                 1908
+
+
+BOOTH, N.P., CRIBB, C.H., and ELLIS-RICHARDS, P.A.
+
+THE COMPOSITION AND ANALYSIS OF CHOCOLATE.
+Reprinted from the _Analyst_. pp. 15. London                        1909
+
+
+FRITSCH, F.
+
+FABRICATION DU CHOCOLAT. pp. 349. Paris                             1910
+
+
+FRANCOIS, L.
+
+LES ALIMENTS SUCRES INDUSTRIELS
+(Chocolats, Bonbons, etc.) pp. 143. Paris                           1912
+
+
+WHYMPER, R.
+
+COCOA AND CHOCOLATE: THEIR CHEMISTRY AND MANUFACTURE.
+pp. 327. Churchill, London                                          1912
+
+
+ZIPPERER, P.
+
+DIE SCHOKOLADEN-FABRIKATION.
+pp. 349. Berlin (see also 1889 and 1902)                            1913
+
+
+JACOUTOT, Auguste.
+
+CHOCOLATE AND CONFECTIONERY MANUFACTURE.
+pp. xv, 211. J. Baker & Sons. London
+
+
+(_c_) _General._
+
+
+WINTON, A.L., SILVERMAN, M., and BAILEY, E.M.
+
+[ANALYSES OF CACAO AND COCOA.]
+Report Connecticut Agri. Expt. Station, U.S.A. pp. 40.              1902
+
+
+HEAD, Brandon.
+
+THE FOOD OF THE GODS. pp. 109. London                               1903
+
+
+STOLLWERCK, W.
+
+DER KAKAO UND DIE SCHOKOLADEN INDUSTRIE. pp. 102. Jena              1907
+
+
+U.S. CONSULAR REPORT NO. 50
+(Dept. of Commerce and Labour.)
+
+COCOA PRODUCTION AND TRADE. pp. 51. Washington                      1912
+
+
+CASTILLO, Ledon.
+
+EL CHOCOLATE. pp. vi, 30. Mexico                                    1917
+
+
+BULLETIN IMPERIAL INSTITUTE.
+
+COCOA PRODUCTION IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE. pp. 40-95. London           1919
+
+
+KNAPP, A.W., and McLELLAN, B.G.
+
+THE ESTIMATION OF CACAO SHELL
+(reprint from _Analyst_). pp. 21. London                            1919
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The bibliography above is made as complete as possible as far as bound
+books in English are concerned. It also gives the more important
+continental publications. Should any errors or omissions have been made
+here or elsewhere, the author will be grateful if readers will point
+them out.
+
+
+
+
+PERIODICALS.
+
+Only one or two of the important papers in current literature are
+mentioned. Much valuable material is to be found in the following:
+
+
+
+CACAO PRODUCTION
+
+The papers published by the various departments of agriculture
+(especially those of Trinidad, Grenada, Philippines, Java, Ceylon, Gold
+Coast, Kew, etc.), the _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, _The West
+India Committee Circular_, _Tropical Life_, _West Africa_, _Der
+Tropenpflanzer_, etc.
+
+
+
+STATISTICS
+
+_The Gordian_, _Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_.
+
+
+
+MANUFACTURE
+
+_The Confectioners' Union_.
+
+
+
+CHEMISTRY
+
+_The Analyst_, the _Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry_, and
+the _Journal of the Chemical Society_.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+_Asterisks denote illustrations._
+
+ACCRA, 74, 91, 114, 185 (_see also_ Gold Coast)
+Acids produced by fermentation, 57
+Adulterants, 163
+Adulteration, cocoa, 179 chocolate, 180
+Agostini cacao picker, 46, *46
+Agricultural colleges, 42 education, 90
+Alcohol produced by fermentation, 52, 57
+Alkaline treating of cocoa, 173
+Allen, Grant, 114
+Altitude, cacao cultivation, 18
+Alligator cacao, 24
+Analytical composition--cacao bean, 166
+  cacao butter, 159
+  cacao shell, 163
+  chocolate, 176
+  cocoa, 168
+  milk chocolate, 178
+ARRIBA, 74, 84 (_see also_ Guayaquil)
+Aztec, 5, 7, 8
+
+
+
+Bacteria--fermentation, 57
+Bagging cacao beans, *107, *110
+BAHIA, 74, 87, 114
+Bainbridge and Davies, 125
+Baker & Co., Walter, 121
+Beans, 3, 167, *129
+  breaking machine, 130
+  breaking of, into fragments, 130
+  changes--fermentation, 57
+  characteristics of, 75
+  size and weight of, 74
+  use as money, 8
+Bibliography, 191
+Blending, 133
+Booth, N.P., 75, 180
+Botanical description, 25
+Bournville, 128, 144, 162
+Boxing chocolates, *173
+BRAZIL, 38, 82, 84, 87, 185
+Breaking cacao pods, 50, *51
+Brill, H.C., 59
+BRITISH GUIANA, 84
+BRITISH WEST AFRICA, 185 (_see also_ Gold Coast)
+Buying cacao, 109
+By-products, 157, 161
+
+
+
+Cacao beans, (_see_ beans)
+Cacao butter, 135, 157, 159, 166, 168, 171, 176, 178
+  keeping properties, 158
+  melting point, 149, 158
+  pressing out of, 135
+Cacao, cultivation, 17, 38, 116
+  definition, 2
+  explanation name, 1
+  introduction into Europe, 10
+  keeping properties, 122
+  manufacturers' requirements, 75
+  picker, 46, *46
+  preparations, popularity of, 15
+  shell, (_see_ shell)
+_Cacauatl_, 1
+Cadbury Bros., 15, 154
+Cadbury, Richard, 16
+Caffein, 166, 168, 172, 176, 178
+Cailler & Co., 154
+_Calabacillo_, 23, *27, 76
+CAMEROON'S, 74, 82, 91, 105, 114
+CARACAS, 74, 87
+Carmody, Professor, 38, 41
+CARUPANO, 74, 87
+Catch crop, 36
+CEYLON, 18, 42, 52, 68, 70, 74, 81, 82, 106, 114, 185
+Chittenden, Dr., 52
+Claying, 70, *71, 76, 88
+Clearing the land, *29, 30
+Clifford, Sir Hugh, 91
+Climate, cacao cultivation, 17
+_Criollo_, *27, 34, 52, 59, 87, 107
+Chocolate, 176, 180
+Chocolate, ancient usage, 10
+  covering recipe, 150
+  covering, suggested legal definition, 182
+  definition, 3
+  derivation of word, 8
+  fascination of, 8
+  houses and clubs, 12
+  powder, 180
+  recipe, 140
+  suggested legal definitions, 181
+  sustaining value, 174
+_Chocolatl_, 7, 8
+Chupons, (_see_ suckers)
+Cocoa, 168, 169
+  definition, 2
+  digestibility of, 171
+  how to make, 170
+  origin of word, 3
+  powder, introduction of, 15
+Coconuts, distinction between and cacao, 3
+Colouring beans, 72
+Colour, cacao bean, 25, 77
+  cacao butter, 158
+  cacao flowers, 22
+  cacao leaves, 22
+  cacao pods, 24, 48
+  changes during fermentation, 57, 59, 61
+Columbus, 7
+Composition, (_see_ analyses)
+Compressor, chocolate, 148
+Conching, 145
+Conche machine, *147, *148
+CONGO, 82, 91, 114
+Consumption, 15, 184
+  British Isles, 184
+  World, 186
+Contract labour, Cameroons, 106
+  San Thome, 103
+Cortes, 7
+Covering cremes, *151
+CUBA, 82
+
+
+
+Dancing, cacao beans, 72
+De Candolle, 94
+Decauville railways, 52
+DEMERARA, 114
+Diseases, cacao tree, 43
+DOMINICA, 82, 88
+Drying, 62, *63, 64, *64, *65, *68, *69, *85, *98, *105
+Dryers, artificial, 66, *67
+Duty, 13, 185
+Duty, cacao beans, 14, 185
+  cacao butter, 14
+  cacao shell, 14
+
+
+
+Earle, Dr. Gastineau, 174
+ECUADOR, 52, 81, 82, 84, 185
+Enrobing machine, 152, *152
+Enzymes, 59, 61, 66
+Exports, cacao butter, 160
+  beans, 84
+Extracting beans from pod, 50
+
+
+
+Faber, Dr. von, 22
+Faelli, Professor, 164
+Fat (_see_ cacao butter)
+Fermentation, 52, 56
+  changes during, 55
+  control of, 63
+  good effects of, 60
+  loss of weight, during, 64
+  period of, 52
+  temperature of, 53, 55, 59, 61
+Fermenting boxes, *54, *58
+FERNANDO PO, 82, 91
+Fickendey, Dr., 55, 59, 61
+Flavouring chocolate, 146
+Flowers, *21, 22, 74
+Flowers, percentage fruiting, 74
+Food value, cacao bean, 166
+  chocolate, 173, 176
+  cocoa, 168
+  milk chocolate, 178
+  old opinions, 165
+_Forastero_, *27, 34, 53, 59, 77
+Forster, J., 171, 172
+Freeman, W.G., 34
+FRENCH COLONIES, 82
+Fritsch, J., 173
+Fruit, cacao, 21
+Fry, J.S., & Sons, 14, 15, 122, 134
+Fry, Joseph, 3, 13
+Fungi, 44
+
+
+
+Gage, Thomas, 8, 10
+Gathering, 45, *47, *49, *85
+Geographical distribution, 18
+Germ, cacao, 59, *129, 131
+  screens, *131
+  separation of, 131
+Germination, prevention of, 61
+GOLD COAST, 18, 42, 74, 81, 82, 91, 94, 107 (_see also_ Accra) native
+industry, 94
+Gordon, W.J., 10
+Gouveia, Dr., 105
+Grafting and budding, 34, 75
+GRENADA, 30, 38, 74, 76, 81, 82, 88, 90, 114
+Grinding, 120, 134, *143
+  mill, cocoa, *133, 134, *135
+  machine, chocolate, 140, *142, *145
+Grousseau & Viconge, 163
+GUAYAQUIL, 32, 76, 84, 109, 114 (_see also_ Arriba and Machala)
+
+
+
+HAITI, 82, 88
+Hart, J.H., 34
+Height, cacao tree, 20, 36
+Historicus, 16
+History, cocoa and chocolate, 1
+Home of cacao, 5
+Husk, (_see_ shell)
+Hutchison, Dr., 170, 175
+
+
+Illipe butter, 159
+_Immortel, Bois_, 37
+Imports, cacao butter, 160
+  cacao bean, 185
+Incas, 8
+Insect Pests, 44
+
+
+
+JAMAICA, 82, 88
+JAVA, 18, 37, 42, 54, 68, 70, 82, 106, 114
+
+
+
+Knapp, A.W., 75, 164
+
+
+
+LAGOS, 82, 91
+Leaves, cacao, 22, *187
+Linnaeus, 1
+Linalool, 60, 125
+Loew, Dr. O., 55
+
+
+
+MACHALA, 74, 84 (_see also_ Guayaquil)
+MADAGASCAR, 68, 106
+Manufacture, chocolate, 140
+  cocoa, 134
+  early methods of, *9, 119, *120, *121, 129
+  loss on, 14
+  milk chocolate, *155, *181
+Manufacturers' requirements, 75
+Manure, 32
+  cacao shell as, 162
+Map, Africa, *92
+  South America, *89
+  World, *83
+MARACAIBO, 87
+Markets, cacao, 107
+Mass, 134, 136
+Melangeur, 140, *141, 144
+MEXICO, 1, 7, 18
+Milk chocolate, 154, 178, 182
+  suggested legal definition, 182
+  recipe, 155
+Montezuma, 7
+Mosses, cacao tree, 22
+Moulding chocolate, 146
+Mountmorres, Viscount, 40
+Mulching, 32
+
+
+
+Neumann, Dr. R.O., 171
+Nib, 15, 120, 128, *129, 130, 134
+Nib, percentage shell, 133
+  yield of, 15
+Nicholls, Dr. L., 55
+Nursery, cacao, *33
+
+
+
+Odour, cocoa, 77, 146, 161
+  fermentation, 60
+Orellano, 6
+
+
+
+Packing chocolates, *177
+  cocoa, 138
+PARA, 74, 87
+Perrot, Professor, 60
+PERU, 8
+Pests (_see_ diseases)
+Peter, M.D., 154
+Picker, cacao, 46, *46
+PHILIPPINES, 42
+Plantation, cacao, 27, *104
+Planting, 32, *34, 37
+Pod, *2, 5, 23, *23, *25, *28, *187
+  picking of, 46
+  yield of cacao, 74
+Polishing beans, 72, 78
+Pollination, cacao flowers, 22
+Press cake, 138
+  cocoa, *136, *137
+Pressing cocoa, 136
+Preuss, Dr. Paul, 66, 70
+Preyer, Dr. Axel, 55
+Price, cacao, 86, 96, 112, *113, 185
+  cacao butter, 160
+  cacao shell, 164
+  chocolate, 13
+  theobromine, 172
+PRINCIPE, 100
+Production of cacao, Africa, 91
+  British Possessions, 81, 82, 183
+  British West Africa, 91
+  British West Indies, 88
+  Gold Coast, 94
+  increasing of, 75
+  San Thome and Principe, 100
+  shell, 161
+  South America, 84
+  West Indies, 88
+  World, *80, 81, 82
+Pruning, 40
+Pulp, cacao, *24, 25, 52, 55, 60
+
+
+
+Rainfall, cacao cultivation, 18
+Raleigh, Sir Walter, 6
+Refining machine, *142
+Research Association, _vi_
+Revis and Bolton, 128
+Richelieu, Cardinal, 11
+Roaster, *126, 128
+Roasting, 119, 125
+  loss on, 127
+Rocking tables, 149, *149
+Root system, *31
+
+
+
+Sack, Dr., 55, 66
+Sales of cacao, 111
+SAMANA, 91
+SAMOA, 82, 106, 114
+SANCHEZ, 91
+SAN DOMINGO, 82, 88, 91
+_Sangre-tora_, 24
+SAN THOME, 38, 52, 54, 82, 91, 100, 114
+Schulte im Hofe, Dr. A., 55
+Seed, selection of, 32
+Shade, 36, *37, *38, *39, 90, 102
+Shaking table, chocolate, 149, *149
+Shell, cacao, *129, 161, 163
+  butter, 162
+  coffee substitute, 163
+  as feeding stuff, 162, 163
+  in finished cocoa, 180
+  food units, 163
+  fuel, 162
+  manure, 162
+  removal of, 120, 128
+  separating machine, 132, *132
+  tea from, 161
+Sherman, H.C., 176
+Sieving cocoa, 138
+Size, bean, 78
+  cocoa particles, 138
+  sugar particles, 144
+Smalls, 132
+Smetham, A., 163, 167
+Smith, H. Hamel, 55
+Snyder, Harry, 176
+Soil, 30
+Soluble cocoa, 168, 172
+Sorting beans, *73, *86, 123
+Sorting-cleaning machine, 124, *124, *125
+Stimulating properties, 60, 172
+ST. LUCIA, 82, 88
+Storing cacao, 122, *123
+ST. VINCENT, 82, 88
+Suckers, 40, *41
+Surf boats, *108
+SURINAM, 30, 52, 82, 84, 114
+Sweat boxes, 53, *53
+Sweatings, 57, 63
+
+
+
+Tannin, 59
+Tap root, *31, 32
+Taste, fermentation, 59
+Temperature, cacao cultivation, 18
+  covering chocolate, 151
+  fermentation, 53, 55, 59, 61
+  germination, 61
+  chocolate moulding, 149
+  bean roasting, 128
+Tempering machine, 149
+_Theobroma cacao_, 1, 26
+Theobromine, in bean, 166
+  chocolate, 176
+  cocoa, 168, 172
+  fermentation, 60
+  milk chocolate, 178
+  shell, 162
+TOGO, 82, 91
+Transport of cacao, *56, *93, *95, 96, *97, *99, *100, *101, *102, *103,
+  *106, 107, *108, *110
+Tree, cacao, 19, *19, *20
+  growth, 40
+  yield of, 74
+TRINIDAD, 18, 30, 34, 37, 41, 42, 52, 68, 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, 81, 82,
+  88, 103, 114
+
+
+
+Van Houten, C.J., 15
+Varieties of cacao, 26
+Vasmer, Theo., 183, 186
+VENEZUELA, 18, 70, 76, 81, 82, 84, 106
+
+
+
+Washing cacao beans, 68, *70, 78, 107
+Watt, Sir George, 50
+Weight, bag of cacao, 109
+  loss on drying, 64
+  loss on fermentation, 64
+  loss on roasting, 128
+WEST INDIES, 88
+WEST INDIES, BRITISH, 88, 185
+Wind-screen trees, 30
+Winnowing machine (_see_ shell separating machine)
+Whisk, chocolate, *6, *170
+
+
+
+Yeasts, fermenting, 57
+Yield, cacao pod, 74
+  cacao tree, 74
+  per acre, 74, 103
+
+
+
+Zipperer, P., 149, 164
+
+
+
+
+THE WESTMINSTER PRESS
+HARROW ROAD    LONDON
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Cocoa and Chocolate, by Arthur W. Knapp
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