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diff --git a/19042.txt b/19042.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..012977b --- /dev/null +++ b/19042.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4779 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Animal Figures in the Maya Codices, by +Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Animal Figures in the Maya Codices + +Author: Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen + +Release Date: August 14, 2006 [EBook #19042] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES *** + + + + +Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +Transcriber's Note + +A number of typographical errors and inconsistencies have been +maintained in this version of this book. They have been marked with a +[TN-#], which refers to a description in the complete list found at the +end of the text. + +The following codes are used for characters that are not able to be +represented in the text format used for this version of the book. + +[)a] a with breve +[c] open o +[[c].] open o with dot under +[=h] h with stroke +[p.] p with dot under +[^q] q with circumflex +[vs] s with caron +[vs.] s with caron and dot under +[t.] t with dot under +[ts.] ts with dot under +[+] Dagger +[++] Double dagger + + + + + + PAPERS + OF THE + PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND + ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY + + VOL. IV.--No. 3. + + + ANIMAL FIGURES + IN THE + MAYA CODICES + + BY + + ALFRED M. TOZZER, PH.D. + AND + GLOVER M. ALLEN, PH.D. + + + CAMBRIDGE, MASS. + PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM + FEBRUARY, 1910 + + + + +Salem Press: +THE SALEM PRESS CO., SALEM MASS. +1910. + + + + +NOTE + + +It has been thought desirable, for the advancement of the study of Maya +hieroglyphs, that the interpretation of the conventionalized animal +figures, which so frequently occur in the Maya codices, should be +undertaken. The Peabody Museum Committee on Central American Research +therefore requested Dr. A. M. Tozzer to prepare a paper on the subject, +and to secure the valuable cooperation of Dr. Glover M. Allen, a +zoologist familiar with the animals of Mexico and Central America, to +aid in the identification of the various species of animals which under +varying forms are used in connection with the glyphs. + +While it is possible that some of the determinations given in this paper +may require further confirmation, it is evident that the combined +studies of Dr. Tozzer and Dr. Allen cannot fail to be useful to students +of the Maya hieroglyphic writing. + +F. W. PUTNAM. +HARVARD UNIVERSITY, +August, 1909. + + + + +KEY TO THE PRONUNCIATION OF MAYA WORDS + + +The vowels and consonants have their continental sounds with the +following exceptions:-- + + =[)a]= like _u_ in hut + =ai= like _i_ in island + =k= (Beltran's _c_) ordinary palatal _k_ + =q= (Beltran's _k_) velar _k_ + =[[c].]= (Beltran's _[c]_) _ts_ explosive or fortis + =[c]= (Beltran's _tz_) _ts_ non-explosive + =[vs]= (Beltran's _x_) like _sh_ in hush + =t[vs]= (Beltran's _ch_) like _ch_ in church + =[ts.]= (Beltran's _c[=h]_) _ch_ explosive + =[p.]= (Beltran's _pp_) _p_ explosive + =t= (Beltran's _t[=h]_) _t_ explosive + + + + +LIST OF PLATES + + + Plate. + 1. Mollusca: _Fasciolaria gigantea, Oliva_. + 2. Insecta: Honey bee (_Melipona_). + 3. Insecta and Myriapoda. + 4. Arachnoidea, Arachnida, Crustacea. + 5. Myriapoda, Pisces. + 6. Pisces. + 7. Amphibia. + 8. Amphibia, Reptilia. + 9. Reptilia: Rattlesnake (_Crotalus_). + 10. Reptilia: Serpents. + 11. Reptilia: Serpents. + 12. Reptilia: Iguana, Lizards. + 13. Reptilia: Crocodile + 14. Reptilia: Turtles. + 15. Aves: Herons, Frigate-bird. + 16. Aves: Ocellated Turkey (_Agriocharis ocellata_). + 17. Aves: King Vulture (_Sarcorhamphus papa_). + 18. Aves: King Vulture (_S. papa_), Black Vulture (_Catharista urubu_). + 19. Aves: Vultures. + 20. Aves: Harpy Eagle (_Thrasaetos harpyia_). + 21. Aves: Yucatan Horned Owl (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_). + 22. Aves: Yucatan Horned Ow[TN-1] (_B. v. mayensis_). + 23. Aves: Yucatan Screech Owl (_Otus choliba thompsoni_). + 24. Aves: Quetzal (_Pharomacrus mocinno_). + 25. Aves: Blue Macaw (_Ara militaris_). + 26. Aves: Parrots, Turkeys. + 27. Aves: Miscellaneous. + 28. Various animals. + 29. Mammalia: Armadillo and miscellaneous. + 30. Mammalia: Deer, Hare. + 31. Mammalia: Yucatan Deer (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_). + 32. Mammalia: Yucatan Peccary (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_), + Yucatan Deer (_O. yucatanensis_). + 33. Mammalia: Yucatan Peccary (_T. a. yucatanense_). + 34. Mammalia: Jaguar, Puma. + 35. Mammalia: Jaguar, Coyote, Bear. + 36, 37. Mammalia: Dog (_Canis_). + 38. Mammalia: Leaf-nosed Bat (_Vampyrus_ or _Phyllostomus_). + 39. Mammalia: Monkey (_Cebus_) and miscellaneous. + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT + + + FIG. + 1. Top of Altar T, Copan (Mandslay,[TN-2] I. Pl. 95) 320 + + 2. Pottery whistle from Uloa Valley, Honduras, representing a + vulture. Peabody Museum Memoirs. I. No. 4, fig. 15 332 + + 3. } + 4. } Glyphs of Maya month _Moan_ showing moan-bird + 5. } characteristics 339 + 6. } + + 7. Quetzal from the bas-relief of the Temple of the Cross, + Palenque 341 + + 8. } + 9. } Glyphs for Maya month _Kankin_ (Ribs of dogs) 364 + 10. } + + 11. } + 12. } + 13. } Glyphs for Maya month _Zotz_ (Bats) 365 + 14. } + + 15. Pottery whistle from Uloa Valley, Honduras (Peabody Museum + Memoirs, I, No. 4, fig. 14), representing an ape 366 + + 16. } + 17. } + 18. } Glyphs for Maya day _Chuen_ 367 + 19. } + + 20. } + 21. } + 22. } Glyphs of God C. (Schellhas, Peabody Museum Papers, IV, 368 + 23. } No. 1) + 24. } + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +The various peoples inhabiting Mexico and Central America in early +pre-Columbian times were accustomed to record various events, especially +in regard to their calendar and the religious ceremonials in relation to +it, on long strips of skin or bark. These were usually painted on both +sides and folded together like a screen. Several of these codices are +still in existence from the Nahua and Zapotec areas in Mexico, but only +three have come down to us from the Maya region which is included in the +peninsula of Yucatan, the states of Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico, and +portions of Guatemala and Honduras. These three manuscripts are the +Dresden Codex in the Royal Public Library at Dresden, the +Tro-Cortesianus (formerly considered to have been two, the Troano and +the Cortesianus) in the National Archaeological Museum at Madrid, and +the Peresianus in the National Library at Paris. These pre-Columbian +manuscripts have all been published in facsimile. (See bibliography.) + +These remains of a once extensive literature show evidence not only of +considerable intellectual attainments on the part of their authors but +also of a high degree of artistic skill in the drawings and +hieroglyphics. The frequent occurrence in these manuscripts of +representations of animals showing various degrees of elaboration and +conventionalization has led us to undertake the task of identifying +these figures as far as possible and studying the uses and significance +of the several species, a field practically untouched.[284-*] +Foerstemann in his various commentaries on the Maya codices (1902, 1903, +1906), Brinton (1895), and deRosny[TN-3] (1876) have only commented briefly +upon this side of the study of the manuscripts. Seler (1904a) and some +others have written short papers on special animals. During the +preparation of this paper there has appeared a brief account by Stempell +(1908) of the animals in the Maya codices. The author has, however, +omitted a number of species and, as we believe, misidentified others. In +making our identifications we have given the reasons for our +determinations in some detail and have stated the characteristics +employed to denote the several species. + +We have not limited ourselves entirely to the Maya manuscripts as we +have drawn upon the vast amount of material available in the stone +carvings, the stucco figures, and the frescoes found throughout the Maya +area. This material has by no means been exhausted in the present paper. +In addition to the figures from the Maya codices and a comparatively few +from other sources in the Maya region, we have introduced for comparison +in a number of cases figures from a few of the ancient manuscripts of +the Nahuas and the Zapotecs to the north. The calendar of these two +peoples is fundamentally the same as that of the Mayas. The year is made +up in the same way being composed of eighteen months of twenty days each +with five days additional at the end of the year. There is therefore a +more or less close connection as regards subject matter in all the +pre-Columbian codices of Mexico and Central America but the manner of +presentation differs among the different peoples of this region. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[284-*] The first two parts of Dr. Seler's Treatise, "Die Tierbilder der +mexikanischen und der Maya-Handschriften" published in the _Zeitschrift +fuer Ethnologie_, Vol. 41, have appeared during the time when this paper +was passing through the press. The most excellent and exhaustive +treatment by Dr. Seler would seem to render the present paper +unnecessary. It has seemed best, however, to continue with its +publication inasmuch as its field is narrower and more space is devoted +to the Maya side of the question to the exclusion of the Mexican. Dr. +Seler, on the other hand, while by no means neglecting the Maya, has +spent more time in explaining the Mexican figures. + + + + +I + +SYNOPTIC CONSIDERATION OF THE MEANING AND OCCURRENCE OF ANIMAL FORMS + + +Before taking up the different animals in the codices it may be well to +consider some of the more common ways in which the figures occur and +their connection with the surrounding figures. + +MANNER OF REPRESENTATION. The entire body of the animal may be +represented realistically or the head alone may be shown. The animal +head is frequently attached to a human body. The animal may appear +conventionalized to a greater or less extent and the head in turn may +change in the same way until only a single characteristic of the animal +remains by which to identify it as, for example, the spots of the jaguar +or the feathering around the eye of the macaw. In the case of the +glyphs, a term employed to designate the regular and usually square +characters appearing in lines or columns throughout the codices and +inscriptions, we find both the realistic drawing and that where +conventionalism has come in. + +THE TONALAMATL. The Maya codices are made up, for the most part, of the +records of the sacred period of two hundred and sixty days, a period +called in Nahuatl, _tonalamatl_, and other numerical calculations. The +_tonalamatl_ was used for purposes of divination in order to find out +whether good or bad fortune was in store for an individual. It is not +necessary at this place to go into the different means taken to record +this period of time or its methods of use. It may be well, however, to +explain the usual distribution of the pictures in the codices, including +those of animals, in connection with the representation of the +_tonalamatl_. A normal period is shown in Dresden 6c-7c. A column of +five day signs occurs in the middle of 6c with a single red dot over it. +To the right of this column stretches a horizontal line of numbers +consisting of alternate groups of black and red lines and dots. Under +each pair of red and black numbers there is usually a human form and +over each pair a group of four glyphs belonging to the figure below. +Schellhas (1904) has classified the various figures of gods appearing in +these vignettes of the _tonalamatl_ and lettered them. References +throughout the paper will be made to the gods by letters and the reader +is referred to Schellhas' paper. Animal figures often take the place of +these gods as in the second picture in Dresden 7c where the screech owl +is shown with human body. The greater number of animal figures in the +codices occur in some connection with these _tonalamatls_. + +MYTHOLOGICAL ANIMALS. Where figures are shown with human body and animal +head standing alone in the place usually occupied by one of the various +deities in the _tonalamatl_, there can be little doubt that they have a +mythological meaning and are to be taken, either as gods themselves, or +as representing certain of the gods. All of the animals are by no means +shown in this position. The screech owl, or Moan bird (as in Dresden +10a) appears most frequently in this way. The king vulture (Dresden 8a), +the dog (Dresden 7a), and the parrot (Dresden 40b) come next in +descending importance. The animals represented as copulating (as in +Dresden 13c) might also be considered as mythological animals as well as +the full drawings of the jaguar (Dresden 8a) and the other animals when +they occur alone in the regular vignette of the _tonalamatl_. The four +priests in Dresden 25a-28a should also be regarded as representing, in +all probability, the dog as a mythological animal. The idea of +worshipping animals as gods in themselves is strengthened by noting the +ease with which the Maya people worshipped the horse which was left +behind by Cortes in his march from Mexico across to Honduras +(Villagutierre, 1701, pp. 100-101). + +ASTRONOMICAL IDEAS. Animals frequently have a part to play in relation +to the constellations. Throughout the codices and, to a less degree, in +the stone carvings, we find what have usually been considered to be +glyphs for several of the constellations. Numerous calculations in the +codices make it clear that the Mayas had a good knowledge of astronomy. +These glyphs are usually oblong in shape and three or more are arranged +together end to end. We have called these the constellation bands. +Various attempts have been made to identify these signs of the various +constellations. Animals frequently are pictured below these bands. The +dog with fire brands in his paws and often attached to his tail is shown +in several places coming head downward from one of these bands (as in +Dresden 36a). The peccary is also shown in the same position although +the fire brands do not appear (Dresden 68a). A figure with macaw head +occurs once standing beneath one of these bands with fire brands in his +hands (Dresden 40b). The serpent (as in Dresden 36a), the +lizard-crocodile-like animal in Dresden 74, the turtle (Tro-Cortesianus +71a), the vulture (Dresden 38b), the turkey (Tro-Cortesianus 10b), and +the deer (Tro-Cortesianus 47a) all appear in connection with these +constellation bands. It is impossible at this time to decide upon the +part these various animals play in relation to distinct constellations. +In addition to the animals named, several of the gods, especially god B, +are found below these bands. One of these signs, the one identified by +Foerstemann as standing for Saturn, is composed of the head of the +crocodile more or less conventionalized. + +Foerstemann (1902, p. 27) identifies the turtle with the summer solstice +and the snail as the animal associated with the winter solstice. There +does not seem to be any one animal used in connection with any one of +the cardinal points. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c the dog seems to be +associated with the north as shown by the glyph which is ordinarily +regarded as connected with that direction, the ape with the west, and an +unidentifiable bird sitting on a _Cimi_ (death) sign with the south. The +east is connected in this place with a human figure. It should be +stated, however, that it is not absolutely certain that the usual +assignment of the cardinal points, each to its special direction, is +correct. The signs for the east and west as well as those for the north +and south may be reversed. With the exception of the assignment of the +offering-glyphs to the various cardinal points which will be discussed +later (p. 290) this is almost the only case where a clear relation can +be made out between the various animals and the signs for the four +directions. There is no definite relation as is seen, for example, in +the Vaticanus 3773, 17, 18 where the quetzal is noted perched on the +tree of the east, the eagle on that of the north, the humming bird on +that of the west, and the jaguar on the tree of the south. + +COPULATION. The conception, the period of pregnancy, the infant baptism, +and possibly, the naming of children are shown in both the +Tro-Cortesianus (91-95) and the Dresden (13-23). Animals are frequently +shown copulating with various gods or with one another. In Dresden 13c, +the deer and god M and the vulture and the dog; in 19c, the vulture and +a woman; in Tro-Cortesianus 91d, a god and a woman; and in 92d, an +armadillo and a deer both with female figures. These animals probably +represent in some way the totems of the man or woman in question and are +shown in place of the human figure. The Lacandones, a Maya people, show +at the present time the remains of a totemic system (Tozzer, 1907, pp. +40-42). The deer (_Ke_) gens is found at the present time. In the +greater number of cases where copulation is shown a god and a female +figure are pictured. The presentation of the new-born children by women +with bird head-dresses, also occurring in this same section of both +manuscripts, is discussed later (p. 291). + +ANIMAL SACRIFICES. Various ceremonials occurring at intervals throughout +the Maya year which included sacrifices to the gods, evidently took up a +large part of the time of the people. Animals composed by far the major +part of the gifts made to the gods. This was especially true in regard +to the ceremonies occurring at the beginning of each year. According to +the Maya calendar there were four days only which could come at the +beginning of the year and these came in succession. Landa (1864, pp. +210-233), the first Bishop of Yucatan, gives a minute description of the +rites of the four years which were named according to the initial day. +He also relates the manner in which the various animals are employed as +offerings in these rites and also in others taking place at the +beginning of the various months.[289-*] + +The rites which took place at the beginning and the end of the year are +shown in Dresden 25-28 and in Tro-Cortesianus 34-37. The dog, the deer, +and the turkey are the most important of the animals shown as being +offered to the gods in this connection. It will not be necessary to +consider these animals in detail at this place as they are each taken up +later. + +OFFERINGS SHOWN BY GLYPHS. It is, however, in another connection than +that just considered that the animals are shown as offerings far more +frequently throughout the Maya manuscripts. In the ceremonies of the +four years, the animals and birds are, for the most part, represented +entire and purely as pictures. Offerings are also shown in the form of +glyphs. These may occur in connection with the figures of the gods or in +the lines of hieroglyphs above the pictures. When they are used in the +former relation they are usually shown as resting in a bowl or dish +(Dresden 35a). It frequently happens that when a god is making an +offering represented by the entire animal or a glyph of the animal in +the main picture, there is a corresponding glyph of the offering above +in the line of hieroglyphics (Dresden 23b). + +The fish, iguana, turkey, deer and possibly the lizard are the usual +animals shown as glyphs in this connection. The frigate bird occurs once +in the Dresden (35a) and once in the Tro-Cortesianus (34a) as an +offering. The dog, curiously enough, does not seem to be represented by +an offering-glyph although he has a glyph of his own when appearing in +other connections. The iguana and fish are shown entire although drawn +very small; the head is the only part usually shown of the turkey and +the haunch of venison of the deer. The head and feet of the lizard, as +has been noted, may also be shown by a glyph. The turkey and iguana +glyphs are very often found with a _Kan_ sign indicating an offering of +maize and bread as well as that of the animal. In connection with glyphs +showing various offerings of food, there is one which occurs especially +in the Tro-Cortesianus (as in 106a). This shows a row of points +themselves running to a point over a _Kan_ sign. This, as will be +pointed out later (p. 318) may also represent an iguana. The jar +containing a representation of the honey comb (as in Tro-Cortesianus +107b) might come in here in the consideration of the offering-glyphs. + +In many instances the common offerings shown by glyphs are found +associated with the signs for the four cardinal points but there does +not seem to be any strict uniformity as to the special offering +associated with each direction. In Dresden 29b, the lizard glyph is +found in the same group with the sign commonly assigned to the east, the +turkey with the south, the iguana with the west, and the fish with the +north while in Dresden 29c, the deer is associated with the east, the +fish with the south, the iguana with the west, and the turkey with the +north. The iguana is usually found with the sign for the west and the +fish with that of the south. The others vary greatly in the assignment +of the various directions. + +Schellhas (1904, p. 17) considers that the fish, the lizard, "the +sprouting kernel of maize or (according to Foerstemann, parts of a +mammal, game)" and a vulture's head are symbols of the four elements. +The head which Schellhas interprets as that of the vulture is certainly +the head of a turkey. He remarks that these signs of the four elements +appear with god B in the Dresden manuscript. Other gods, as he also +notes, are found with these four offering-glyphs. There seems to be a +fifth glyph, however, (as in Dresden 29b) which we have interpreted as +that of a lizard. + +ANIMALS AS RAIN BEARERS. Various animals are associated with the rain +and water. The serpent is most frequently represented in this +connection. Snails, fish, the turtle, and the frog, as well as the +lizard-crocodile figure in Dresden 74 are naturally found associated +with water. The vulture-headed figure in Dresden 38b and the vulture as +a bird in Tro-Cortesianus 10a both appear in the rain. The peccary +(Dresden 68a), and the turkey (Tro-Cortesianus 10b) appear associated +with the rain as well as with the constellation bands. The scorpion +(Tro-Cortesianus 7a) encloses the rain within its legs. + +The connection of an old female figure occurring in many places in the +codices with the rain will be discussed later (p. 316) when considering +the serpent. It remains at this place to comment upon the woman in +Tro-Cortesianus 30b from whose breasts water is flowing. She is +represented as having animal figures seated on her two outstretched +hands and on her right foot together with another animal at her side. +God B sits on her left foot. This picture immediately recalls +representations in the Mexican codices where the various parts of the +body of a god are associated with various day signs, ten of which have +animal names. In the Maya picture, a jaguar is shown on the right hand, +a peccary on the left, a dog on the right foot, and a rabbit beside the +body at her right. The peccary is not represented among the Nahua day +signs but the other three are found, namely the _oceolotl_ (jaguar), +_itzcuintli_ (dog), and _tochtli_ (rabbit). + +ANIMAL HEAD-DRESSES. Animal figures appear perhaps most frequently as +head-dresses of the various gods in the codices. Here, as elsewhere, +from all that can be made out, the religious character is uppermost as +in addition to being a decoration, they undoubtedly have some religious +signification. Birds occur by far most commonly in this connection. Both +male and female figures seems to have these head-dresses. The same bird +is often found as the head-dress of several different gods as, for +example, the turkey which appears with gods A, B, C, E, and N. The +vulture, on the other hand, when used as a head-dress for male figures, +appears exclusively with god F. The whole bird is seldom represented on +the head-dress of the male figures. It is usually only the head and a +part of the body of the bird which forms but a portion of the whole +head-covering. Landa (1864, p. 148)[292-*] notes the dress of the leader +in the rites. He wears a jacket of red feathers worked with other +feathers and from it hang long plumes. He also wears a feather +head-dress. + +Entire birds appear as the sole head-covering only in connection with +female figures and then only in one section of the Dresden (16-18) and a +parallel passage in the Tro-Cortesianus (94-95). In both these places +the conception and the bearing of children are shown together with their +baptism. The bird above the head of each female figure seems to be a +badge of office, possibly the totems which are held by the women and +given to the children. The parrot, quetzal, vulture, screech owl and the +horned owl appear in this connection. It is to be noted that the birds +associated with these women are not really represented as head-dresses +at all. They are quite different from the head decoration composed of a +bird's head and feathers seen in other parts of the manuscripts. In the +Dresden especially, these birds above the women's heads are shown in +almost every case standing with the claws clasping the necklace at the +back of the neck. Landa (1864, pp. 144-154) gives an interesting account +of the method of baptising children. He also states (p. 304)[292-[+]] +that in the month _Yaxkin_ an old woman brought the little girls to the +general feast. This old woman was dressed in a garment of feathers. It +was understood that this devoted old woman was not permitted to become +intoxicated[293-*] lest she should lose in the road the plume of her +office. + +The serpent appears as a head-dress exclusively with female figures and +then usually when the woman is in the act of offering something or is +associated with water or rain. The centipede occurs only with god D. +Quadrupeds are employed as head-dresses only very seldom. The head of a +deer is, in three places, used as a part of the head decoration of god M +and the head of a jaguar appears in two places only. + +SECULAR OCCUPATIONS. Animals appear frequently in scenes showing various +occupations. These, although appearing at first sight as secular, have +to do with the religion of the people and they show in every case acts +undertaken in behalf of the deities. It is almost exclusively in the +Tro-Cortesianus that these religious-secular occupations are shown. + +Hunting scenes occur in one section of this codex (38-49). The whole aim +of the hunt in these pages is to obtain animals for sacrifice. In almost +every case the various animals are shown as being captured alive, either +in a pitfall or a trap of the "jerk-up" type. This was undoubtedly in +order that the animal might be killed the moment it was offered to the +gods by having its heart cut out. Deer are most commonly represented in +this hunting section although peccaries and armadillos also appear. +Fishing is shown in one place at least (Dresden 33a). + +The practice of agriculture is shown in Tro-Cortesianus 24-28. The +sprouting grain is represented as being eaten by a vulture and a jaguar. +Certain gods in this section which relates to the planting of maize are +shown as being attacked by vultures and blow-flies. Another occupation +of the natives depicted in the Tro-Cortesianus (103-112) is apiculture. +This, again, has clearly some religious significance. Pottery-making is +shown in the same manuscript (95-101). It is, however, a purely +religious ceremony. The renewal of the incense-burners is shown. +Animals occur very infrequently in this section. The quetzal and two +vultures are noted seated on top of an oven-like covering under which is +the head of god C, probably representing the idol. There are several +other occupations shown in this codex such as weaving (79c) and the +gathering of the sap of the rubber tree (102b), but as animals do not +occur in any connection with these operations, it is not necessary to +dwell upon them. + +ANIMAL GLYPHS. It remains finally to speak of the various animals which +are represented in glyph form as well as drawn in full in the pictures +proper. The creatures pictured in the codices are often accompanied by +their glyphs which appear in the lines of signs directly above. In many +cases, the animal pictured below is not represented by its glyph above +and, vice versa, the animal glyph may appear without its picture below. +The same is seen also in connection with the representation of the gods +and their glyphs. Both the picture and the glyph usually appear but +either may appear alone. Many times when the glyph, either of a god or +an animal, is shown with no accompanying picture, the reason seems to be +that there is no room for the latter on account of the numerical +calculations which take up all the space. + +There are some animals in the codices which are represented by glyphs +very frequently. Among these are the screech owl (the Moan, the bird of +death), which has several different glyphs by which it is recognized, +the dog which, in addition to its own glyph, may be represented by the +day sign _Oc_, the king vulture, the turtle, the bee (if we consider the +day sign _Cauac_ stands for this insect), and the centipede. Among the +animals whose glyphs only seldom appear may be mentioned the macaw, the +peccary, the tree-toad (god P), the quetzal, and the jaguar. The glyph +for the black vulture (Tro-Cortesianus 26c), the ape (Tro-Cortesianus +88c), the deer (Peresianus 10), the eagle (Tro-Cortesianus 107c), and +the serpent (Tro-Cortesianus 106c) seem to appear but once. It might +also be well to mention in this place the glyphs for various molluscs +which are used not to represent the shell but to give the value of zero +to the numerical calculations. + +In the inscriptions glyphs frequently occur which represent animals +either showing the whole body or simply the head. In the eastern facade +of the Monjas at Chichen Itza there are glyphs for both the king and the +black vulture and the peccary. The macaw and the turtle seem also to be +represented by glyphs in the inscriptions. The _Tun_ period glyph shows +vulture-like characteristics and the _Uinal_ period glyph certainly +resembles the lizard. The glyphs representing the various animal +offerings have already been discussed under a special heading (p. 289). + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[289-*] p. 162. "Las mugeres no usavan destos derrammamientos, aunque +eran harto santeras; mas de todas las cosas que aver podian que son aves +del cielo, animales de la tierra, o pescados de la agua, siempre les +embadurnavan los rostros al demonio con la sangre dellos." + +p. 164. "Y otras cosas que tenian ofrecian; a algunos animales les +sacavan el corazon y lo ofrecian, a otros enteros, unos vivos, otros +muertos, unos crudos, otros guisados.... Que sin las fiestas en las +quales, para la solemnidad de ellas, se secrificavan animales, tambien +por alguna tribulacion o necessidad." + +p. 254. "Tenian buscados todos animales y savandijas del campo que +podian aver y en la tierra avia, y con ellos se juntavan en el patio del +templo en el qual se ponian los _Chaques_.... Sacavan con liberalidad +los coracones a las aves y animales, y echavanlos a quemar en el fuego; +y sino podian aver los animales grandes como tigres, leones o largartos, +hazian los coracones de su encienso, y si los matavan trayanles los +coracones para aquel fuego." + +[292-*] "Vestido salia con un jaco de pluma colorado y labrado de otras +plumas de colores, y que le cuelgan de los estremos otras plumas largas +y una como coroza en la cabeca de las mesmas plumas." + +[292-[+]] "Y a las ninas se les dava una vieja, vestida de un habito de +plumas, que las traia alli y por esto la llamavan _Ixmol_, la +allegadera.... Aquella devota vieja allegaria con que se emborachava en +casa por no perder la pluma del officio en el camino." + +[293-*] "Intoxication was obligatory with the men in many of the +religious rites. This is reported by the early Spanish historians and is +the case at the present time among the Lacandones." (See Tozzer, 1907, +p. 136.) + + + + +II + +ZOOLOGICAL IDENTIFICATION AND ETHNOLOGICAL EXPLANATION OF ANIMAL FORMS. + + +In the descriptions of the animals which follow the general plan will be +to consider first the identification purely from a zoological point of +view, and, secondly, the connection and, wherever possible, the meaning +of the use of the various animal figures wherever they occur. + + +MOLLUSCA + +FASCIOLARIA GIGANTEA. Representations of this marine shell are found in +several places in the codices. It is the only large _Fusus_-like species +on the western coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and, indeed, is the largest +known American shell. It is therefore not strange that it should have +attracted the attention of the Mayas and found a place in their +writings. Several figures are shown that represent _Fasciolaria_ (Pl. 1, +figs. 1-9). One in the Codex Vaticanus 3773 (Pl. 1, fig. 3) in common +with those shown in Pl. 1, figs. 2, 6, 9, has the spire represented by +segments of successively smaller size. The species of _Fasciolaria_ +occurring on the Yucatan and adjacent coasts is characterized by +numerous prominent bosses or projections on its later whorls, and these, +too, appear in conventionalized form in most of the representations. In +Pl. 1, fig. 2, the second whorl, and in figs. 6, 9, the third whorl is +shown with three stout tubercles in side view, corresponding to those +found in this region of the shell. Figs. 7, 8 (Pl. 1) are glyphs +representing the same species, but as in fig. 4, the spire is omitted, +though the knobs are present. Round spots of color are evidently +intended by the markings on the shells shown in figs. 3, 5, 6 (Pl. 1). +Fig. 5, shows a further modification of the spire, which here is made +like the head of a serpent. + +The _Mollusca_ in the codices are not always associated with the water +although this is usually the case. God N (Pl. 1, fig. 1) sitting with +the shell around his body is represented as in the rain and the shells +in Pl. 1, figs. 4, 6, appear under water. The snail (Maya, _[vs]ot_) is +considered by the Nahuas as the symbol of birth and death. The first +idea is well brought out in Pl. 1, fig. 2, where the human figure is +emerging from a shell. The same idea among the Mayas is seen in Pl. 1, +fig. 1, where god N is coming from a shell. As god N is usually +associated with the end of the year, we may have here the complementary +idea of death associated with the shell. The same meaning is brought out +in the Bologna Codex (Pl. 1, fig. 3) where the shell is decorated with +flint points, the symbol of death. As the tortoise is often identified +with the summer solstice, as previously pointed out, so the snail is +associated with the winter solstice. + +Foerstemann's identification of the head-dress of god D (Dresden 5c), god +A (Dresden 9c, 13a), and god E (Dresden 11c) as representing snails is +not clear. Stempell (1908, p. 739) also follows the same course thinking +that the knob-like prominences represent the stalked eyes of snails. +This seems quite unlikely as such representations are usually short and +occur in too widely dissimilar connections. Moreover, there are +sometimes three of these instead of but a single pair (Dresden 14a). A +similar attempt has been made by Brinton to identify the head-dress of +the death god (god A) as the snail. The head-dress in Dresden 13a and +13b associated with god A looks far more like the head and upper jaw of +some mammal. + +OLIVA. A univalve shell frequently represented is of an oval shape, +pointed at each end, with a longitudinal lip and a short spire at one +extremity. This is doubtless a species of _Oliva_, a marine shell. Mr. +Charles W. Johnson informs us that _O. reticulata_ is the species +occurring on the Yucatan shores, while _O. splendidula_ is found in +other parts of the Gulf of Mexico. Representations of this shell are +shown in Pl. 1, figs. 10-12. In figs. 10, 11, the lip and spire are +apparent but in fig. 12 the lip only is seen as a white fissure against +the general dark background. An earthenware vessel representing a tapir +(Pl. 28, fig. 1) shows a string of _Oliva_ shells about the animal's +neck and similar strings very often decorate the belts worn by the +personages represented on the stelae of Copan. + +The shell in the codices is found in most cases to represent zero in the +Maya numerical calculations. Just as a bar has the meaning five, and a +dot one, so the shell often has the signification of zero. This is seen +especially in the numeration by position in the codices (Pl. 1, figs. 7, +8, 10-14). + +OTHER MOLLUSCA. In addition to the species just described at least two +or three others occur in the Nuttall Codex, but so conventionalized that +it is out of the question to hazard a guess at their identity. One (Pl. +1, figs. 16, 17) is a bivalve with long pointed shell, another (Pl. 1, +figs. 18-20) is rounder with conventionalized scroll-like markings. +Figs. 21, 22 (Pl. 1) may be a side view of the closed bivalve shown in +figs. 16, 17, or possibly a species of cowry. In like manner, fig. 13 is +probably a side view of the mollusc shown in fig. 14, for it is seen +that in each case the figure showing the two opened valves has a +bipartite extended foot, whereas that of the single valve is simple. +This doubling of the single median foot of the bivalve may be an +artistic necessity for the sake of balance, or perhaps represents both +foot and siphon at the same end. Figs. 23, 24 (Pl. 1) seem to represent +molluscs still further reduced and conventionalized. These molluscs from +the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 1, figs. 15-24) are almost all found represented +in the blue water, whereas those which stand for zero in the Maya +codices have no immediate association with either water or rain. + + +INSECTA + +THE HONEY BEE (_Melipona_). A portion of the Tro-Cortesianus appears to +treat of apiculture, as previously noted, or, at all events, contains +numerous figures of bees, some of which are shown in Pl. 2. As stated by +Stempell (1908, p. 735) this is doubtless a species of _Melipona_, +probably _M. fulvipes_ or _domestica_. It is well known that this bee +was kept by the ancient Mexicans, and what appear to be improvised hives +are shown in Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10, where the combs are noted depending +from the ceiling or walls. These combs are seen to be composed of cells +roughly four-sided for the most part, though in fig. 11 several +hexagonal cells are present in the mass of comb held by the black god, +M. Darwin, in his _Origin of Species_, has called attention to the form +of the comb built by this bee, and considers its irregular cells of from +three to six sides intermediate in their degree of perfection between +those of the bumble bee (_Bombus_) and the honey bee of Europe (_Apis +mellifica_). The _Caban_ form in connnection[TN-4] with the hive in fig. +10 may have some phonetic signifiance[TN-5] as _kab_ is honey in Maya. +This sign occurs very frequently in the pages devoted to apiculture. + +The figures of the bees in the codex show a number of interesting +variations. In figs. 1-3, 5, 11, the insect is less conventionalized +than in figs. 4, 6 (Pl. 2). The hairy feet are well indicated as well as +the segmented body and a single pair of wings. All the figures show an +anterodorsal view so that, on account of the size of the first pair of +legs, only the tops of the second pair appear in Pl. 2, figs. 1, 3, 5. +In fig. 2, however, two pairs are seen, and in figs. 4, 6, the +anthropomorphic tendency is further shown by providing the insect with +two pairs of limbs each with four or five digits, and a conventionalized +face, eyes and mouth. In Pl. 2, fig. 1, the bee is represented without +mouthparts but antennae only. This may indicate a drone or a queen bee +that takes no active part in the work of gathering honey or making comb. +Fig. 2 is perhaps the least reduced of any of the figures and shows the +worker bee with antennae and mouthparts. + +The so-called "cloud balls" of the day sign _Cauac_ (Pl. 2, fig. 8) may +represent the honey comb. _Cauac_ is usually supposed to have some +connection with lightening[TN-6] and thunder although Valentini agrees with +the authors in associating _Cauac_ with the bees and honey. The +_Cauac_-like forms in Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10, have been described above as +hives. The representation of legs in the full drawing of a bee as four +large limbs, an anterior and a posterior pair, coupled with the method +of drawing the insect as seen from above and in front, may have led to +its final expression by an X-shaped mark shown in connection with the +hives (Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10). The X is also seen in the day sign _Cauac_. + +Apiculture was common among the various peoples of Central America and +Mexico. Las Casas speaks of hives of bees and Gomara states that the +bees were small and the honey rather bitter. Clavigero (Vol. 1, p. +68)[300-*] mentions six varieties of bees which were found in +Mexico;--the first is the same as the common bee of Europe, the second +differs from the first only in having no sting and is the bee of Yucatan +and Chiapas which makes the fine clear honey of aromatic flavor. The +third species resembles in its form the winged ants but is smaller than +the common bee and without a sting. The fourth is a yellow bee, smaller +than the common one but, like it, furnished with a sting. The fifth is a +small bee without a sting which constructs hives of an orbicular form in +subterranean cavities and the honey is sour and somewhat bitter. The +_Tlalpipiolli_, which is the sixth species, is black and yellow, of the +size of the common bee, but has no sting. + +The natives of the country at the present time often cultivate hives of +bees in logs which they hollow out for this purpose and keep in a +specially constructed shelter. It is, however, rather the ceremonial +side of apiculture that is the interesting feature and this is clearly +emphasized in the Tro-Cortesianus. The section in this manuscript (80b, +103-112), as has been noted, is taken up almost exclusively with the +culture of the bee and in all probability represents a definite +religious ceremony or series of rites which are connected intimately +with bees and honey. Landa (1864, p. 292)[300-[+]] states that in the +month _Tzoz_ the natives prepare for a ceremony in behalf of the bees +which takes place in the following month, _Tzec_. In the month _Mol_ +another fiesta is undertaken in behalf of these insects so that the +gods may provide an abundance of flowers for the bees (Landa, 1864, p. +306).[301-*] + +It seems clear therefore that we have represented in the pages of the +Tro-Cortesianus referred to, the rites carried out in this connection. +The more or less realistic drawings of the bees (Pl. 2, figs. 1-6, 9) +represent the god of the bees and to him offerings of food and incense +are being made. Pl. 2, fig. 11, shows the war god (M) with his eagle +head-dress offering a mass of honey in the comb to the god of the bees. + +Curiously enough the bee does not seem to be represented in the Dresden +Codex. Foerstemann's identification of the head-dress of the goddess in +Dresden 9a as a bee does not seem to us to be correct. + +In addition to the bees, there occurs in the Nuttall Codex 4 (Pl. 3, +fig. 4) a curious representation of an insect with a pointed beak-like +structure and a spine at the posterior extremity of its human-like body. +It is engaged in apparent conflict with a man and may represent a +hornet. + +BLOW-FLY (_Sarcophaga_). Two figures in the Tro-Cortesianus (Pl. 3, +figs. 1, 2) are of special interest since they appear to have been +frequently regarded as picturing snakes attacking men. These are +thick-bodied sinuous creatures distinguished by the curious conformation +of the mouth and by a lateral row of dots that may represent the +metameric spiracles or, as commonly, a demarcation between dorsal and +ventral surfaces. That these are maggots of a blow-fly (_Sarcophaga_) +there can be little doubt, not only on account of their mouth parts +which are similar to those of the agave maggot (see later) but also +because of their relation to God F whom they are devouring. The latter +in fig. 1 is doubtless dead as shown by the closed eye and it is the +habit of the blow-fly to deposit its eggs in the nasal cavity of dead +animals as well as elsewhere on the body. The fact that in each case a +maggot is attacking the god's nose may indicate that this habit was +known to the artist who, consequently, shows the larvae in this +position. In Pl. 3, fig. 2, the god's eye is not closed but his passive +attitude while the maggot devours his hand and nose does not indicate +that he is in full possession of his strength. In addition to the +blow-fly, a screw-fly (_Chrysomyia_) lays its eggs on the bodies of +animals, often on persons sleeping, and these may hatch almost at once +into small maggots that penetrate the skin. It may be, therefore, that +the larvae here considered belong to this genus. + +In addition to god F, in Tro-Cortesianus 24d, there is another +representation of the same god being attacked by a vulture. This bird is +evidently eating his nose. In this case the god is shown with the closed +eye as in 27d. In Tro-Cortesianus 25d the fly seems to be attacking the +mouth of god F. From the fact that no other god is ever found in this +connection it may be suggested that there may be some relation between +god F as a god of human sacrifice and the fact that his dead body is +being eaten by blow-flies and vultures. A portion of the body of the +person sacrificed was usually eaten by those taking part in the +ceremony. + +LEPIDOPTEROUS INSECTS. In Tro-Cortesianus 28c (Pl. 3, fig. 3) is shown a +second insect larva with curiously formed mouth parts. It is represented +as attacking agave which is springing from the ground as shown by the +_Caban_ signs in the codex. Hough (1908, p. 591) has shown this to be +the larva of _Acentrocneme kollari_ Felder, "called by the Mexicans +_guson_, and in Nahuatl _mescuillin_." This grub, he says, is white, +about an inch long, and tunnels the fleshy leaves of the agave. It is +greatly prized as an article of food for "_gusones_ to this day are +collected in April, boiled, wrapped in the epidermis of the agave, sold +on the streets of Mexico, and are eaten with avidity. To all appearances +they are nourishing and palatable, and it is said that connoisseurs +prefer them to oysters or swallows' nests." Hough believes "that the +discovery of the sap-yielding quality of the agave was through search +for these larvae." + +In the Nuttall Codex occur numerous representations of insects, some of +which appear to represent butterflies or moths (Pl. 3, figs. 5-8) but +these are quite unidentifiable. That shown in fig. 6 is colored blue in +the original, while the others are of various colors. Possibly the round +markings on the wings in figs. 5, 8, represent the ocelli on the wings +of certain species of moths. In this connection, too, it is interesting +to compare the conventionalized butterfly with its single eye and +pointed antennae from the Aubin manuscript (Pl. 3, fig. 9) with one +drawn on the same plan from the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 3, fig. 8). + + +MYRIAPODA + +Representations of a centipede (probably a species of _Scolopendra_) +occur in the Dresden Codex and in several others examined. That shown in +Pl. 5, fig. 1, from the Vaticanus 3773, is perhaps the least +conventionalized.[303-*] This figure appears partly to encircle a +temple, behind which the major portion of its length is hidden and hence +is not here shown. The bipartite structure coming from the animal's head +doubtless represents the mouthparts, and at its base on either side +arise antennae. The first pair only of legs is shown with a pinching +claw, possibly intended as a conventionalized hand, while the rest are +simple. The plumes decorating the posterior extremity are of course +extraneous and represent the tail of the quetzal or trogon. + +In the Dresden Codex, god D constantly appears in connection with a +head-dress from which depends a centipede, greatly reduced and +conventionalized. Two forms of this centipede are shown in Pl. 3, figs. +15, 18. The body appears to consist of four or five segments each with +its pair of ambulatory appendages (though there may not always be the +same number of each) terminated by a circular segment with a +conventionalized three-knobbed structure, apparently corresponding to +the portion that bears the quetzal plume in Pl. 5, fig. 1. The outline +of the head in Pl. 3, fig. 15, is shown in dotted line but by solid line +in fig. 18. One of the antennae appears to be omitted from the former +figure, also, but both are present in the latter. The insect-like head +is made on much the same plan as that of the bee (Pl. 2, fig. 11), the +facial portion divided by a median line into a right and a left half +with a small triangle below for a mouth. The eyes, however, instead of +being circular like those of the bee are made as narrow elongated +projections extending inward from the dorsal margin of the facial disc. + +The glyphs for god D in Dresden 7b (Pl. 3, fig. 11), Dresden 7c, and +Dresden 14b (Pl. 3, fig. 12) undoubtedly show three forms of the sign +for god D, only one of which (fig. 12) is given by Schellhas (1904, p. +22) among the signs of this god. In each of these cases the centipede +head surrounded by dots is shown in connection with the main part of the +glyph. In Dresden 44b (Pl. 3, fig. 13) there is a glyph which seems to +show the same centipede head although it has no connection with god D in +the place where it is found. In Dresden 27 (Pl. 3, fig. 14), moreover, +still another variant of the glyph for god D seems to occur. This shows +a prefix clearly representing the centipede and the "moon sign" is the +main part of the glyph. Directly beside this in the codex is found the +_Ahau_-like sign for god D and god D himself is represented in the +middle section of the page. + +The association of god D with the centipede may be explained by the fact +that as this god is regarded as the Moon or Night god, so the centipede +is an animal which frequents dark places. Another point in this +connection may be made if we consider the head of the centipede in the +head-dress and in the glyphs as representing the day sign _Akbal_ (Pl. +3, fig. 10) as _Akbal_ in Maya means night. It must be admitted, +however, that the head might represent the day sign _Chuen_ almost as +well as _Akbal_. The centipede is connected with death and destruction +in the same way as the owl. Both are shown in Vaticanus 3773, 13, +associated with the "house of drought." + + +CRUSTACEA + +With one possible exception no crustaceans were found depicted in the +Maya codices, but we have introduced figures of two from the Nuttall +Codex. The first of these (Pl. 4, fig. 5) is probably a crayfish, +perhaps _Cambarus montezumae_. It seems unlikely that the so-called +Spanish lobster (_Palinurus_) can be intended or the powerful spined +antennae would have been shown. It is interesting to note that the +stalked eyes are clearly pictured. The second example seems to be a crab +(Pl. 4, fig. 6). Two large chelae of nearly equal size are simply drawn +and four rounded projections at the top of the figure appear to +represent the walking legs. Its rotund form and subequal chelae suggest +the land crab, _Geocarcinus_, but exact determination is of course +impossible. What is certainly a large crab, perhaps of the same species, +is shown in Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 36, fig. 1) in connection with a +dog whose feet it seems about to pinch with its two large chelae. The +shell is ornamented in a conventionalized way as if with scales. + + +ARACHNIDA + +In Codex Borbonicus 9 (Pl. 4, fig. 4) there is represented a +stout-bodied form of spider with two sharply pointed chelicerae +projecting from the conventionalized mouth. These characteristics +together with the absence of any web, suggest a large predacious +species, probably the tarantula (_Tarantula_ sp.) which is common in +Mexico. The acute powers of observation shown by the artist are evinced +in this figure since he draws the spider correctly with eight legs +instead of the six or ten sometimes seen in drawings by our own +illustrators. + + +ARACHNOIDEA + +The scorpion (Maya, _sinaan_) figures prominently in the +Tro-Cortesianus, two drawings from which are shown (Pl. 4, figs. 1, 2). +As here conventionalized, the jointed appendages are represented as +composed of an indefinite number of round segments. The large chelate +pedipalps are also prominently figured but the smaller walking legs are +commonly omitted. In Pl. 4, fig. 1, however, there is a pair of +posterior chelate appendages which are probably added to give a more +anthropoid cast to the figure. The slight projections along the sides of +the body in Pl. 4, fig. 2, probably do not represent the legs. In +another drawing (Tro-Cortesianus 44b) these are also present but further +reduced so as not to exceed the heavy fringe of spines surrounding the +body. In Pl. 4, fig. 1, the fringe alone appears. The formidable nature +of the scorpion is of course due to the poisonous sting at the tip of +the attenuated abdomen or "tail." In the Maya pictures this portion is +usually shown as a grasping organ. Thus in fig. 1 it is similar to the +chela and holds a cord by which a deer has been caught. In fig. 2 the +"tail" is terminated by a hand. The same thing is seen in +Tro-Cortesianus 44b where the hand seizes a cord by which a deer is +snared. The scorpion is represented in the drawings with a +conventionalized face that is very characteristic. The facial disc is +divided into three parts by a median area of straight or irregular +lateral boundaries ending anteriorly in two in-turned scrolls suggesting +the alae of the nose. A circular eye is present in each of the lateral +divisions of the face while from the oral region projects a forked +tongue. + +It is of course hazardous to attempt a specific identification of these +figures but, as pointed out by Stempell (1908, p. 739), there are two +large scorpions in Yucatan (_Centruroides margaritatus_ and _C. +gracilis_) which are probably the species pictured in the codices. + +The representations of the scorpion in the Tro-Cortesianus are almost +always associated with scenes of the hunt. As the deer is caught in a +trap so Foerstemann considers that Pl. 4, fig. 1, shows a trap with five +appliances, the "tail" one alone being effective. Brinton (1895, p. 75) +notes that the Mayas applied the term _sinaan ek_, "scorpion stars" to a +certain constellation and suggests that it was derived from the +Spaniards. There is certainly some association between the scorpion and +water as, in Tro-Cortesianus 7a, the fore and hind legs of the animal +enclose a body of water. The scorpion "tail" alone appears in +Tro-Cortesianus 31a and 82a as the tail of a god. Its significance is +difficult to make out. Destruction is indicated by the scorpion in the +Aubin manuscript as suggested by Seler (1900-1901, p. 71). + +In the Nuttall Codex there is a remarkably beautiful conventionalization +of a scorpion (Pl. 4, fig. 3) in which the tripartite nature of the head +is still preserved though it is so reduced as to resemble the calyx of a +flower. The "tail", as elsewhere, and the legs are present. + + +PISCES + +Figures of fish (Maya _kai_) occur commonly in the Maya codices in +various connections as well as in the stone carvings, but none of these +seems certainly identifiable. Among the representations, however, there +are clearly several species. One (Pl. 5, figs. 2, 6, 7-9; Pl. 6, fig. 9) +has a single dorsal fin, powerful teeth, and a generally ferocious +aspect and may represent some large predacious variety, perhaps a tunny. +The distinct operculum in most of the figures would preclude their +representing a shark. Other figures picture similar fish without the +prominent teeth (Pl. 5, fig. 4, 5; Pl. 6, figs. 2, 6, 10, 13). In two +cases the scales are diagramatically shown by straight or crescentric +lines (Pl. 5, fig. 4, 8). A third species of fish is shown provided with +two dorsal fins (Pl. 6, figs. 3, 11; Pl. 7, fig. 6, the last an +excellent stone carving). Others (Pl. 6, figs. 7, 14-17) represent +fishes without dorsal fins, one of which (fig. 7) from its length may be +an eel, possibly _Muraena_. + +In the Nuttall Codex occurs a remarkable fish with an unmistakable wing +arising just behind the head nearly at the dorsal line. While this may +represent a flying fish (_Exocetus_), the head is so bird-like that the +whole may be merely a combination figure. + +Of frequent occurrence in the Dresden is a glyph, two modifications of +which are here shown (Pl. 6, figs. 4, 5). Stempell suggests that the +vertical lines on the posterior portion of such figures may be gill +slits and that hence they may represent sharks in which these orifices +are without an operculum. + +As with the molluscs, so with the fish, we naturally find them usually +associated with the water. This may be seen especially well in the +Nuttall Codex. In Dresden 33a (Pl. 6, fig. 13) the fish is clearly +associated with the operation of fishing as two figures are seated on +the edge of a body of water in the act of casting a net. An eel is shown +in the water under god B in Dresden 65b (Pl. 6, fig. 7) and fish are +shown just below the claws of a crocodile in text figure 1. In Dresden +44a god B holds a fish in his hands. As will be pointed out later (p. +314) this god is frequently associated with water. In Dresden 44c a fish +appears between god B and an unidentifiable deity. In the Maya codices +the greater number of representations of fish are in connection with +sacrifice. In Dresden 27 (Pl. 6, fig. 6) the fish is pictured resting on +two _Kan_ signs, the symbol of maize or bread, and these in turn on a +flat bowl. In Dresden 29b (Pl. 5, fig. 9) the fish is represented +between the red and black numbers of the _tonalamatl_. Here again the +fish is shown as an offering. + +In two cases only do we find the fish used as a part of the head-dress +and in each case the fish is graphically shown as held in the mouth of a +heron. One of these is in the Dresden Codex 36b (Pl. 5, fig. 3) and one +in the stone carving of the Temple of the Cross at Palenque (Pl. 15, +fig. 5). Fish are often represented on the stone carvings as feeding +upon a water plant. This is seen in the border at the bottom of the +Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza (Pl. 5, figs. +2, 4; Pl. 6, fig. 2). In several instances at Copan fish are shown as +forming the sides of the Great Cycle glyph at the beginning of an +Initial Series (Pl. 6, figs. 14-17). It has often been suggested that as +the word fish in Maya is _kai_ (usually written _cay_), there may be +some phonetic significance here, combining the fish, _kai_, with the +usually drum-like sign for stone, _tun_, making _kai tun_ or _katun_. +This is the term usually given not to the Great Cycle but to the period +composed of twenty _tuns_ and is probably derived from _kal_ meaning +twenty and _tun_, a stone. + + +AMPHIBIA + +FROGS. Figures undoubtedly representing frogs (Maya _mut[vs]_ or _uo_) +or toads are found in several places in the codices and in the stone +carvings, but it is quite impossible to refer them definitely to any of +the numerous species occurring in Central America, if, indeed, the +artists had any one species in mind. In the Tro-Cortesianus frogs are +not uncommon. In 31a there are four (Pl. 7, fig. 1) with water coming +from their mouths. They are characterized by their stout tailless +bodies, flattened heads and toothless mouths. In 101d (Pl. 7, figs. 2, +3) there are two, the first painted blue with spots of darker blue and +the second white and represented as broken in two in the middle. The +signs of death above the latter clearly show that a dead animal is +indicated. Pl. 7, fig. 6, shows the end of Altar O from Copan on which a +frog and a fish are pictured, the former in dorsal view, the latter in +lateral aspect. The peculiar pointed snout of this frog is similar to +that of the frog shown in Pl. 7, fig. 7, also in dorsal view. A somewhat +similar creature (Pl. 29, fig. 6) we have included and though it may +represent an opossum it has little to distinguish it from the figures of +frogs.[309-*] + +God B in Tro-Cortesianus 12b should be associated with the frog. His +legs are those of a frog and he appears as if swimming in the water. +Frog in Maya is _Uo_ which is also the name of the second month of the +Maya year. The first day of this month, according to Landa, corresponds +to August 5 of our year and this is the height of the rainy season in +the Maya region. The sign for _Uo_ does not, however, resemble a frog in +any way. The frog above one of the figures in the Lower Chamber of the +Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza (Pl. 7, fig. 7) has clearly some +relation to the name or totem of the warrior. The Nahua custom is seen +here. + +Toads are probably intended in Pl. 7, figs. 4, 5. In these the great +breadth of the head and mouth together with the short inflated body +combine to produce a very toad-like appearance. It is not unlikely that +they represent the huge marine toad, _Bufo marinus_, common from +southern Mexico to Brazil and in the West Indies. There seems to be no +distinction in the treatment of frogs and toads in the codices. + +TREE-TOAD (_Hyla eximia_). Of great interest are the figures in +Tro-Cortesianus 26a and b (Pl. 8, figs. 1, 3), showing a god with +expanded finger tips and characterized further by the presence of two +parallel black stripes from the hinder and lower margins of the eye +respectively. The knob-like finger tips at once suggest one of the +tree-toads, and the presence of the two lines seems to indicate _Hyla +eximia_ as the species represented. In this tree-toad there is a long +black lateral line running posteriorly from the tympanum and above it a +shorter line just as in the drawings. It appears to be a common species +in the valley of Mexico though but little seems to have been written of +its habits. At the beginning of the rainy season it repairs to pools of +water to breed and is then very noticeable from its loud voice. No doubt +its importance in the Maya economy was from its conspicuousness at the +beginning of the rainy period. This fact is brought out more strongly +when we consider that these gods representing the tree-toad are +associated with agriculture and the sowing of grain at the beginning of +the rainy season. Foerstemann (1902, p. 35) identifies these figures as +god F. They are quite unlike the usual representation of this god and +are clearly god P as Schellhas (1904, p. 39) indicates. It is +interesting to note that the two black lines behind the eye are also +seen in the other gods shown in Tro-Cortesianus 26a and b although the +knob-like finger tips are lacking. The glyph for this tree-toad god is +recognized in the fifth place at the top of the same page (Pl. 8, fig. +2) by the same two black lines under and behind the eye. + + +REPTILIA + +SERPENT. It would be impossible in the present paper to enter into any +lengthy discussion of the use of the serpent (Maya _kan_) in Mexico and +Central America. It seems to be one of the main elements in the religion +and consequently in the art of the Mayas and Mexican peoples. It is +represented again and again in many forms and varied combinations. It +underlies the whole general trend of Maya art. The serpent is often +associated with feathers. The culture hero of the Nahuas, +_Quetzalcoatl_ (feathered serpent) corresponds to a similar god among +the Mayas, _Kukulcan_ (also meaning feathered serpent). The feathers of +the quetzal are the ones commonly used in connection with the serpent. + +Any attempt at identification of the species represented is beset by +grave difficulties for so conventionalized have the figures often become +that, except in the case of the rattlesnake with its rattles, there are +no characteristic marks by which the species may be known. It is natural +to suppose that the species used for artistic purposes would be those +that are most noteworthy because of their size, coloring, or venomous +qualities. No doubt a number of harmless species were also used in the +religious ceremonies.[311-*] Such may be those used as hair ornaments in +many of the figures (Pl. 8, figs. 7-13, 15) and in which no indication +of a rattle is to be seen. The fierce eye of these reptiles is shown by +means of an exaggerated overhanging brow occasionally embellished by +recurved crests (Pl. 8, figs. 10, 11, 13, 15). These crests are +sometimes shown as two or three stalked knobs (Pl. 10, fig. 7) that +Stempell was misled into identifying as the eyes of snails. Various +heads of snakes usually with fangs exposed and tongue protruding are +pictured in Pl. 8, figs. 4, 6; Pl. 9, figs. 2, 4-6: one snake with a +spiny back is shown in Pl. 8, fig. 5, but obviously it represents merely +the artist's endeavor to present as terrifying a creature as possible. + +Various types of rattlesnakes are shown in Pl. 9. The presence of the +rattle is of course the characteristic, and this portion alone is +likewise used, in one case, at least, as a glyph (Pl. 9, fig. 7). It +cannot be denied, however, that some or most of the snakes in which no +rattles appear, are nevertheless intended for rattlers. It may have been +that the figures were so well understood that the addition of rattles in +the drawings was quite unnecessary. This, however, is quite conjectural. +The species of rattlesnake is probably _Crotalus basiliscus_ or _C. +terrificus_ of southern Mexico and adjacent regions, not _C. horridus_ +or _adamanteus_ as supposed by Stempell since these two species are +confined to the United States. Among the figures shown on Pl. 9, it is +noteworthy that five of the rattlesnakes show no fangs. Some are +spotted, but in a wholly arbitrary manner. Three are unmarked. One is +shown coiled about the base of a tree (Pl. 9, fig. 5), another coiled +ready to strike though the rattle is pictured trailing on the ground +instead of being held erect in the center of the coil as usually is done +(Pl. 9, fig. 9). A rattlesnake is shown held in the hand of a man in Pl. +9, fig. 8. + +In Pl. 10, fig. 1, is shown a rattle-less snake with prominent fang, +coiled about the top of an altar which may represent a tree or bush. +From the latter fact, it might be concluded that it was a tree or +bush-inhabiting species, possibly the deadly "bush-master" (_Lachesis +lanceolatus_). Other figures (Pl. 10, figs. 3, 7; Pl. 11, figs. 1, 2) +are introduced here as examples of the curious head ornamentation +frequently found in the drawings. The two first are merely serpents with +the jaws extended to the utmost, and with a characteristic head +decoration. The last is provided with an elaborate crest. The size and +markings of the two serpents shown in Pl. 11, as well as their want of +rattles suggest that they may represent some species of large _Boidae_ +as _Loxocemus bicolor_ or _Boa_ (sp?). + +After having commented upon the various serpents occurring in the +codices and in several other places, we will now take up the manner and +connection in which the various figures occur. We shall pass over +completely the use of the "serpent column" at Chichen Itza, the +importance of the serpent motive in the development of the masked panel +as worked out by Spinden, and the countless representations of the +plumed serpent in the whole field of Maya design and decoration. In the +single Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza, the feathered serpent +occurs in the round as a column decoration supporting the portico, as +carved on the wooden lintel at the entrance to the Painted Chamber, +again and again on the frescoes of this room,[313-*] in the Lower +Chamber as dividing the bas-relief into zones or panels, and, finally, +as the center of the whole composition of this bas-relief. It will be +seen, therefore, that it will be necessary in a short paper, to limit +ourselves to the representations of the serpent in the Maya codices. + +The serpent is most frequently associated with god B. Schellhas (1904, +p. 17), Fewkes (1894), Foerstemann (1906), and Thomas (1882), seem to +agree that god B is to be identified as _Kukulcan_, the most important +of the deities of the Mayas and, as pointed out before, appearing in the +Nahua mythology, as _Quetzalcoatl_, and in the Quiche myths as +_Gucumatz_. It was also noted that the name means both in Maya and in +Nahuatl, the "feathered serpent" or the "bird serpent." Other +authorities consider god B as _Itzamna_, another of the main gods of the +Mayas. Seler interprets god B as the counterpart of the Nahua rain god, +_Tlaloc_. It is certain that when god B and the serpent are associated +together water and rain are usually indicated. God H, "the _Chicchan_ +god," also has some relation to the serpent. As pointed out by Schellhas +(1904, pp. 28-30), this god often appears characterized by a skin-spot +or a scale of the serpent on his temple of the same shape as the +hieroglyph of the day _Chicchan_ (serpent). The glyph belonging to this +deity also shows the _Chicchan_ sign as its distinguishing mark. Similar +signs appear on the body of the serpent in many places, as in +Tro-Cortesianus 30a (Pl. 11, fig. 1). + +We have already noted that the serpent, god B, and water are frequently +shown together, so the serpent also appears associated with water and +rain, when no figure of god B is present. From this connection, it can +be argued that there is some relation between the serpent and the coming +of the rains. These facts would give strength to the theory that god B +is to be identified as a rain god. In Dresden 33a, 35a, god B is seated +on the open jaws of a serpent, while the body of the reptile encloses a +blue field evidently signifying water. The number nineteen appears on +this blue color. It will be noted that there are nineteen spots on the +serpents in Pl. 11, figs. 1, 2. In Tro-Cortesianus 3a-6a, corresponding +scenes seem to be shown. The body of the serpent encloses water, and +here the number eighteen appears in each case. God B occurs always in +front of the serpent and his head appears as the head of the reptile in +the first instance. In Dresden 35a, 36a, the head of god B is pictured +as the head of the serpent in the midst of the water. In Dresden 37b +(Pl. 10, fig. 8), B is holding a snake in the water. + +Water appears in connection with the serpent and god B in many places in +the Tro-Cortesianus. In 9, god B is pictured pouring water from a jar, a +common method of showing the idea of rain in the codices. In 12b, B +again is shown perhaps representing a frog, and behind him a serpent. +The reptiles in 13b-18b, are all associated with the idea of rain, the +turtle and frog also appearing in this section. In 30a (Pl. 11, fig. 1), +god B and a female figure are both pouring water from a jar, as they +stand on the body of a serpent. In 32a, the black god (L) is seen in the +rain, and a serpent is near, while in 32b and 33b (Pl. 9, fig. 1), the +serpent forms the belt of god L, and a female figure and water are seen +in both cases. The blue color of the snake and of god B in 31b (Pl. 11, +fig. 2) may also suggest water. + +God B also occurs in connection with the serpent in Dresden 42a (Pl. 8, +fig. 14), where the god is seated on the reptile, in Tro-Cortesianus, +10b, where the head of the same god is the head of the snake, and in +Tro-Cortesianus 19a, where god B again and god A are each seated on the +open jaws of a serpent. + +The astronomical role of the serpent is noted in Dresden 56b, 57b (Pl. +10, fig. 3), Tro-Cortesianus 5b, 12b, 15b, and 67b, where the snake is +shown in connection with a line of constellation signs, the _kin_ or sun +sign prominent in most of the drawings. In the "battle of the +constellations" in Dresden 60, the serpent appears forming a sort of +altar, the seat of a figure which is supported by another figure. A +serpent head also appears at the foot of the latter figure. + +That the serpent appears associated with the idea of time seems clear +from the fact of the long number series in Dresden 61, 62 (Pl. 10, fig. +7), and 69, which are shown in the spaces made by the winding of the +serpents' bodies. In Tro-Cortesianus 13a-16a, four large reptiles appear +in connection with the lines of day signs. + +The study of the serpent used as a head-dress is interesting. As noted +previously, quite a different kind of snake seems to be represented when +used in this connection. Two other points come out in this +investigation, namely, that it is only with female figures that the +serpent is employed as a head-dress, and in far the greater number of +cases the women are shown, either in the act of offering something, or +of pouring water from a jar. The usual type of serpent head-dress is +seen in Dresden 9c (Pl. 8, fig. 11), 15b (Pl. 8, fig. 12), 18a (Pl. 8, +fig. 13), 22b (Pl. 8, fig. 10), and 23b (Pl. 8, fig. 8). In the first +case, the offering is a jicara or gourd of some sacred drink +(_balt[vs]e_?), in the second and third examples, the dish is clearly +shown, but the offering is unidentifiable, in the fourth case, maize (a +_Kan_ sign), and in the last, a fish resting on a dish. In Dresden 20a +(Pl. 8, fig. 15), a woman with serpent head-dress is seen associated +with the Moan-headed figure, possibly in the act of offering it as a +sacrifice. + +In Dresden 39b (Pl. 8, fig. 7), 43b (Pl. 8, fig. 9), and 70, a similar +serpent head-dress is shown on a female figure in the act of pouring +water from a jar. In Tro-Cortesianus, the serpent head-dresses differ in +type only, and in two out of the four cases where they appear, water is +shown flowing from the breasts (30b) of the female figure or from the +mouth (32b). The woman thus represented in connection with the water is +god I, the water goddess of Schellhas. She is, as he notes (1904, p. 31) +usually the figure of an old woman. "Evidently, we have here the +personification of water in its quality of destroyer, a goddess of +floods and cloud-bursts." We are not at all sure that we have here a +distinct god as similar female figures with serpent head-dresses occur +frequently in the Dresden Codex with no suggestion of water. The failure +to find any distinct glyph for this goddess seems to strengthen the view +of not considering her as a separate deity. Finally, in our +consideration of head-dresses, the serpent is to be seen in +Tro-Cortesianus 79c on the head of the first woman who is weaving. +Possibly, a conventionalized serpent forms the head covering of the +second figure who is represented as dead. + +The serpent in Dresden 26c-28c (Pl. 10, fig. 1) coiled around the altar +which rises from a _Tun_ sign is not easily explained. In 25c, the altar +is replaced by god B and in the former cases, the reptiles may stand for +this god with whom they are often associated.[316-*] The serpent seems +closely connected with the idea of offerings as the body of a snake is +shown in several instances as the support of the jar containing the +various gifts in Tro-Cortesianus 34a, 34b, 35a, 35b, 36a, 36b, and +possibly 52c (Pl. 9, fig. 3). + +Finally the serpent is to be noted in a number of miscellaneous +connections:--in Dresden 36b (Pl. 19, fig. 11), as being attacked by a +black vulture,[317-*] in Tro-Cortesianus 40b (Pl. 9, fig. 4) a +rattlesnake is biting the foot of one of the hunters, and in +Tro-Cortesianus 66b, where the serpent has a human head and arm coming +from its open jaws. This is a very frequent method of representing the +serpent in the Maya stone carvings. In Tro-Cortesianus 60c, 100d (Pl. 9, +fig. 8), twice, 106a, and 111b, the rattlesnake is shown as a sprinkler +for the holy water in the hand (in the first, second and fourth +examples) of god D. Landa (1864, p. 150)[317-[+]] describes in the +ceremony of the baptism of children, that the leader of the rite wore on +his head a kind of mitre embroidered with plumage in some manner and in +his hand a small holy-water sprinkler of wood, carved skillfully, of +which the filaments were the tails of serpents, similar to serpents with +rattles. + +In spite of the importance of the serpent in the manuscripts and stone +carvings, it never seems to appear as a separate deity. With one +exception, no glyph is to be found representing this reptile as is the +case with many of the animals. Tro-Cortesianus 106c (Pl. 9, fig. 7) is +this exception showing the rattles of a snake which are found in the +line of glyphs above two of the bees. No serpent appears in the picture. + +The Nahuatl day, _Couatl_, has the signification serpent, as suggested +before, in discussing the meaning of the name _Quetzalcoatl_ or +_Quetzalcouatl_. This day sign occurs throughout the Mexican +manuscripts as the head of a serpent (Pl. 8, figs. 4, 6; Pl. 9, fig. 2; +Pl. 10, figs. 2, 4-6). + +IGUANA. Of the lizards represented, the iguana (Maya _hu_) is the most +striking, and is readily identified on account of the prominent spines +along the back. As noted by Stempell, there are two or three species of +large lizards in Central America commonly called iguana, and it is +probable that the one here considered is the _Ctenosaura acanthura_ of +Yucatan or _Iguana tuberculata_ of South and Central America. + +In the manuscripts the iguana is almost exclusively represented as an +offering (Pl. 12, figs. 1-6). It is usually found on top of the _Kan_ +sign, meaning maize or bread,[318-*] and this, in turn, resting in a +bowl (Pl. 12, figs. 3, 4, 6). Landa (1864, p. 230)[318-[+]] gives a +pleasing confirmation of this offering of an iguana with bread. It is +possible that the object shown in Tro-Cortesianus 12b (Pl. 12, fig. 13) +may be the conventionalized representation of this lizard. It must be +admitted that this interpretation is very doubtful. The triangular +points suggest the lizard, but the pointed character of the sign as a +whole in no way resembles the back of this reptile. It is found +associated with three _Kan_ signs. In Cakchiquel, a dialect of the Maya +stock, _K'an_, according to Guzman and Brinton (1893, p. 24) is the name +applied to the female of the iguana or the lizard, and this is believed +to be the original sense of the Maya term. It may also be noted that the +Nahua day sign _Cuetzpalin_, meaning lizard, is the one which +corresponds with the Maya day _Kan_. Pl. 12, figs. 10, 12, 14, show +representations of the day corresponding to _Cuetzpalin_ in the Aubin +and Nuttall codices. These show a stout spineless species with a short +thick tail and may be the Gila monster (_Heloderma horridum_), a large +and somewhat poisonous species having much these proportions. + +Further offerings are shown in Pl. 12, figs. 7, 8. These seem to be the +heads and forefeet of lizards, but, from the shape of the head, perhaps +not of iguanas. + +In Stela D of Copan, the _Uinal_ period glyph seems to be represented by +a spineless lizard covered with scales (Pl. 12, fig. 9). Frog-like +characteristics also appear. This stone monument is remarkable from the +fact that the glyphs are all more or less realistic representations of +human and animal forms. It should be noted that there certainly seems to +be some connection between the _Uinal_ period glyph and the lizard. Pl. +13, fig. 9, represents a _Uinal_ glyph from the Temple of the Foliated +Cross at Palenque and the lizard form is clearly seen in the eyebrow and +the upper jaw. Compare also Pl. 13, fig. 11, and Pl. 28, fig. 3. A +collection of glyphs of this period shows clearly the lizard-like +character of the face. + +That some connection existed between the lizard and the idea of rain +seems clear from a reference in the _Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida_ +(1900, p. 51).[319-*] Finally the lizard is shown in Dresden 3a (Pl. 12, +fig. 11) directly in front of god H beside the scene of human sacrifice. + +CROCODILE. The text figure (1) shows a dorsal view of a crocodile (Maya, +_ayin_) carved on the top of Altar T at Copan. The general form is +considerably conventionalized with limbs elongated and provided with +human hands and long toes. The protuberances of the back are roughly +shown by oval markings, which are here continued on the legs. The large +scales of the ventral surfaces also appear at the sides of the body, and +along the posterior edges of the limbs. The tail is shortened and +bifurcate. The most interesting portion, however, is the head. The snout +is distinctly pinched in at the base, though broadened again distally. +In the alligator the snout is broad and tapers but little. As in other +representations of the crocodile, the lower jaw does not appear, and +even in this dorsal view the artist seems to have deemed it necessary to +show the row of teeth as if in side view, or as though they projected +laterally from the mouth. What may represent ears or ear plugs are shown +one on each side behind the eyes. There are few other examples of full +drawings of the crocodile in the Maya writings. Dresden 74 shows an +animal which has been considered to represent a crocodile or alligator +but it seems to have more of the characteristics of a lizard. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. +TOP OF ALTAR. T. COPAN.] + +Figures of a crocodile (_Crocodilus americanus_) are frequent in the +Nuttall Codex, where there is one large figure of the entire animal (Pl. +13, fig. 8), making its way along under water. It is shown with numerous +dorsal spines, a long tail, and powerful claws. Curiously, however, it +has no lower jaw and the same is true of the numerous glyphs +representing the head of the animal. This is so pronounced a +characteristic, that it may be doubted if the open-mouthed head and the +single limb shown in Pl. 13, fig. 2, really picture the same animal, +though otherwise apparently referable to the crocodile. In the various +glyphs showing the head of this species, the prominent, elongate eyebrow +and the absence of the lower jaw are noteworthy points, while the teeth +may vary in number from three to six. + +The glyphs (Pl. 13, figs. 1, 3-7) represent the Nahua day sign +_Cipactli_ corresponding to the Maya day _Imix_. In the band of +constellation signs in Dresden 52b (Pl. 13, fig. 10), there occurs a +single figure with a long curled eyebrow and lacking the lower jaw. In +the upper jaw three teeth are indicated. A comparison of this figure +with the glyphs in the Nuttall Codex seems to leave little doubt that it +represents a crocodile. This is the sign which Foerstemann (1906, p. 206) +interprets as standing for Saturn. Pl. 13, fig. 12, is certainly the +same sign as it stands in relatively the same position in the +constellation band on Dresden 53a. It represents the highly +conventionalized head of a crocodile. On Stela 10 from Piedras Negras +(Maler, 1901-1903, Pl. 19) the same glyph is seen. + +The range of the alligator in North America does not extend to Yucatan, +hence the crocodile, which does occur there, is taken as the original of +all these figures. There is nothing in the latter that would distinguish +it from the alligator. + +TURTLES. Representations of the turtle (Maya, _ak_) are not uncommon +among the Mayas. At Uxmal there is a ruined building called _Casa de las +Tortugas_ on which at intervals around the cornice there are carvings of +turtles. Turtles of at least two species occur in the Tro-Cortesianus. +With one exception, they seem to be limited to this codex. That shown on +Pl. 14, figs. 1-3, 5, is a large species with the dorsal scutes +represented by large diamond-shaped pieces. There is little that might +be considered distinctive about these turtles, although one (Pl. 14, +fig. 5) has the anterior paddles much larger than the posterior, +indicating a sea turtle. What is doubtless the same turtle is pictured +in several places in the Nuttall Codex. In one of the figures in the +latter manuscript, the shell is shown apparently in use as a shield (Pl. +14, fig. 4). This would indicate one of the large sea turtles, and there +is not much doubt that either the Loggerhead turtle (_Thalassochelys +cephalo_) or the Hawksbill (_Chelone imbricata_) is here intended. + +Quite another species is that shown in Pl. 14, fig. 6. That this is a +freshwater turtle is plainly indicated by the parasitic leeches that are +noted fastened by their round sucking-discs to the sides of its body. +The long neck, pointed snout, and apparent limitation of the dorsal +spinous scutes to the central area of the back may indicate the snapping +turtle (_Chelydra serpentina_) or possibly a species of the genus +_Cinosternum_ (probably _C. leucostomum_). It is hardly likely that it +is one of the true soft-shelled turtles (_Trionyx_), as the range of +that genus is not known to include Mexico. The turtle from Nuttall 43 +(Pl. 14, fig. 11) may belong to the same species as its scutes seem +rather few, or it may be that the view shown here is of the ventral side +and that the scales indicate the small plastron of one of the sea +turtles. + +The turtle appears alone as one of the figures in the _tonalamatl_ in +several cases in the Tro-Cortesianus, 13a, 17a (Pl. 14, fig. 3), 72b +(Pl. 14, fig. 6). It is found associated with the toad appearing in the +rain in Tro-Cortesianus 17b (Pl. 14, fig. 2) and alone in the rain in +13a. In Tro-Cortesianus 81c (Pl. 14, fig. 5), it appears in front of an +unidentifiable god. + +Schellhas has called the turtle an animal symbolical of the lightning +basing his opinion, as Brinton (1895, p. 74) tells us, on Dresden 40b +where a human figure with animal head is holding two torches in his +hands. This figure does not seem to us to represent a turtle, as is +commonly supposed, but a parrot, as will be pointed out later (p. 343). +Foerstemann (1902, p. 27) identifies the turtle with the summer +solstice, as has been noted before, explaining that the animal is slow +of motion, and is taken to represent the time when the sun seems to +stand still. He bases his theory (1904, p. 423) in part on the fact that +the sign for the Maya month _Kayab_, which is the month in which the +summer solstice occurs, shows the face of the turtle (Pl. 14, fig. 10). +This undoubtedly is correct, but he seems to us wrong in classing as +turtles the figure in Dresden 40b (Pl. 25, fig. 1) with its accompanying +glyph (Pl. 25, fig. 6). + +The turtle is found in connection with two sun (_kin_) signs beneath a +constellation band in Tro-Cortesianus 71a. Resting upon his body are +three _Cauac_ signs. The single representation of the turtle in the +Dresden Codex is on page 49 (Pl. 14, fig. 12) where a god is pictured +with a turtle's head. The heavy sharp beak indicates that he represents +one of the sea turtles previously mentioned. He is shown transfixed by a +spear and corresponds to the other figures in the lower parts of pp. +46-50. These all have some connection with the Venus period which is +considered in these pages.[323-*] + +A number of glyphs representing the turtle are found throughout the +codices (Pl. 14, figs. 7-10). They are all characterized by the heavy +beak. It may be noted that these glyphs are virtually the same as the +sign for the first _a_ in Landa's alphabet. As the turtle is called _ak_ +or _aak_ in Maya, the reason is clear for the selection of this sign for +an _a_ sound. These turtle glyphs often occur alone; one, however, (Pl. +14, fig. 7) is found in connection with the swimming turtle in +Tro-Cortesianus 17a (Pl. 14, fig. 3). Figs. 7-9 agree in having the +small scrolls at the posterior end of the eye. The head shown in Pl. 14, +fig. 10, has quite a different eye, though otherwise similar. Its +resemblance to the glyph on Pl. 25, fig. 9, is marked and suggests the +parrot. Schellhas (1904, p. 44) gives in his fig. 64, a glyph for the +turtle which seems clearly to be a glyph for the parrot (Pl. 25, fig. +7). + + +AVES + +HERONS (_Ardea herodias_; _Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis_). Only a few +water birds are shown in the Maya works. Several are found, however, +that seem to picture herons (Pl. 15, figs. 1-7). The best of these (fig. +5), a carving from the west side panel of the Temple of the Cross at +Palenque shows a crested heron standing on one foot and holding in its +bill a fish. A second figure (Pl. 15, fig. 1) is from the stucco +ornament from the Palace, House B, at Palenque. It is less carefully +executed, but seems to be a long-necked bird with a crest and outspread +wings curiously conventionalized. In the Nuttall Codex there is another +unmistakable heron (Pl. 15, fig. 4) with the same general +characteristics, though the crest is less prominent, here represented as +a series of erectile feathers separated at their tips. This elongation +of the crest seems to be carried still farther in what seems to be the +head and neck of a heron from Dresden 37b (Pl. 15, fig. 3) with erectile +feathers at intervals along its length. + +The heron is seldom employed as a head-dress. In the Lower Chamber of +the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza, one of the warriors wears a +bird head-dress (Pl. 15, fig. 2), which from the length of the bill is +probably made from a heron's head, though the crest seems greatly +exaggerated. The bas-relief on which this is found is strongly Nahua in +feeling and execution. This head covering may indicate, according to the +Nahua fashion, the tribe to which the warrior belongs. Again in Dresden +36a (Pl. 15, fig. 7), a man is shown wearing as a head-dress the head +and neck of a heron that holds in its bill a fish. This head resembles +very closely that of the heron in fig. 1. What appears to be a similar +head is shown in Pl. 15, fig. 6. It is interesting to note that the +heron with a fish (Pl. 15, fig. 5) from Palenque also forms a part of a +complicated head-dress. + +It is, of course, uncertain to which of the several herons occurring in +Central America these representations refer. Possibly the Great Blue +heron (_Ardea herodias_) or the Louisiana heron (_Hydranassa tricolor +ruficollis_) is intended. It seems not unlikely also, that one of the +white egrets may be shown as their crests are fairly conspicuous. + +FRIGATE-BIRD (_Fregata aquila_). We have included here two figures (Pl. +15, figs. 8, 9) that undoubtedly represent a single species of bird. It +is characterized by a deeply forked tail and long beak, which has part +way on its length, a circular object surrounded by a circle of dots. It +seems still problematical what this object may be. In one figure (fig. +9), the beak is strongly hooked, in the other (fig. 8) it is straight, +but as the latter is plainly a much more carelessly made drawing, we may +infer that the hooked bill is more nearly correct. This would exclude +the Terns (_Sterna_), to which Stempell has referred the figures. It +seems probable that the frigate-bird (_Fregata aquila_) is the species +intended, as this is not only a large conspicuous form on these coasts, +but it has a long and strongly hooked beak and forked tail. The length +of the beak would probably exclude from consideration, the +swallow-tailed kite that also occurs in the region. + +Both these birds are pictured, evidently as an offering or sacrifice. It +is very seldom that the whole bird is represented in this connection, +and still more infrequent to find anything but the turkey, which is the +usual bird of sacrifice. The figure from the Dresden Codex (Pl. 15, fig. +9) rests upon the usual bowl or jar, that from the Tro-Cortesianus (Pl. +15, fig. 8) is pictured upon a grotesque animal head, three _Kan_ signs +and these upon the jar. + +In the Tro-Cortesianus 20c, 21c, there occur several representations of +man-like forms with very peculiar heads. The latter are each provided +with a beak-like projection, on which appears the circle surrounded by +dots noted above in connection with the frigate-bird. Brinton concludes +that this mystic symbol is a representation of the curious knob on the +bill of the male white pelican, and therefore identifies these curious +figures as pelicans. Stempell follows Brinton in this, but considers +that they are the brown pelican (_P. fuscus_), since the white pelican +is rare or casual, as far south as Yucatan. Unfortunately, however, for +this supposition, the brown pelican lacks the curious knob that Brinton +believed to be represented by the circle of dots. Moreover, this same +sign occurs on the drawings of the bills of the frigate-bird and the +ocellated turkey, and is evidently not of specific significance. To our +minds it is doubtful if the figures under discussion are birds at all, +and we are unable to assign them a name with any degree of confidence. A +peculiar glyph occurs in connection with them which may be an aid to +their ultimate identification. Brinton calls the glyph the "fish and +oyster sign." + +OCELLATED TURKEY (_Agriocharis ocellata_). This turkey (Maya _ku[[c].]_) +is an important species in the Maya economy, and is seen frequently in +the manuscripts. This is a smaller bird than the more northern true +turkey (_Meleagris_) and is characterized by the presence of curious +erect knobs on the top of the naked head. These are shown in +conventionalized form in the various figures (Pl. 16), and afford a +ready means of identification. On the bill of the bird shown in +Tro-Cortesianus 10b (Pl. 16, fig. 2) occurs again the curious symbol, a +circle surrounded by dots, previously noted under the frigate-bird and +pelican. It probably has some special significance. Other figures of +ocellated turkeys show but little in addition to the points just +discussed. One shown in Pl. 16, fig. 7, from Codex Vaticanus 3773, +however, has a circular ring about the eye and the wattles are indicated +as projections merely. In fig. 13, they are apparently shown as stalked +knobs found elsewhere in connection with serpent head ornaments. It is +only the head in this latter figure, which is considered in this +interpretation. + +In the Nuttall Codex, there frequently occur representations of a bird +that was evidently used for sacrificial purposes. It is shown with +erectile head feathers and a ring of circular marks about the eye (Pl. +26, figs. 12, 14; Pl. 27, figs. 2-3) or with concentric circles (Pl. 27, +fig. 1). These figures are not surely identifiable, but probably +represent this turkey. Possibly they are the chachalaca (_Ortalis vetula +pallidiventris_), a gallinaceous bird, commonly kept in +semi-domestication in Mexico, whose bare eye ring and slightly erectile +head feathers may be represented by the drawings. It is probable that +this turkey is the bird represented frequently in the Maya codices as a +bird of sacrifice. The head alone usually appears in this connection, +among other places, in Dresden 34a (Pl. 16, fig. 10), 41c (fig. 14), 29c +(fig. 16), 28c (fig. 17), and in Tro-Cortesianus 12b (Pl. 16, fig. 11), +105b (fig. 12), 107b (fig. 15). In several of these places the head is +represented as resting on one or more _Kan_ signs, again meaning bread, +as well as on the vessel or jar. In Dresden 26c (Pl. 16, fig. 9), the +whole turkey is pictured as an offering, as in the preceding case noted +in Dresden 35a (Pl. 15, fig. 9). The whole bird as an offering may also +appear in Tro-Cortesianus 4a (Pl. 16, fig. 4) corresponding to the +offering of venison and iguana on the following pages. This +representation of the entire bird is very rare although the fish, when +used as an offering, is always represented as a whole and the iguana is +in most cases when used in the same connection. Landa (1864, p. +222)[327-*] confirms the offering of the heads of birds with bread. + +It is, however, the sacrifice of a bird, probably a turkey, by +decapitating, that is especially interesting, as the operation as shown +in the Dresden Codex 25c (Pl. 26, fig. 2), 26c, 27c, 28c, in the rites +of the four years, is described in full by Landa. In the codex, a priest +is represented as holding in his hand before an altar, a headless bird. +Landa (1864, pp. 212, 218, 224, 228)[327-[+]] tells us that in the +_Kan_, the _Muluc_, the _Ix_, and the _Cauac_ years, the priests burnt +incense to the idol, decapitated a "_gallina_" (undoubtedly a turkey), +and presented it to the god. + +The turkey is also used as a head-dress. Only in one case, however, +Tro-Cortesianus 95c (Pl. 16, fig. 5), is the whole bird represented in +this connection. This is clearly of totemic significance here, as it +occurs in that part of the codex where birth and infant baptism are +shown. In many other places there are curious partial representations of +bird heads in the front of head-dresses which may or may not be +identified as heads of turkeys. Among these are the head-dress of god H +in Dresden 7c, of god E in Dresden 11e, of god C in Dresden 13b, of god +A in Dresden 23c, and a female divinity in Dresden 20a (Pl. 16, fig. +13). Schellhas (1904, p. 43) identifies these birds as vultures. + +That the turkey is connected with the rain seems clear. This is +especially the case among the Nahuas. In the Aubin manuscript the rain +god, _Tlaloc_, often appears in the disguise of the turkey-cock +(_uexolotl_), and in the Vaticanus 3773, 14, the turkey (Pl. 16, fig. 7) +is represented in the "House of Rain," in contrast to the owl shown in +the "House of Drought" (Seler, 1902-1903, p. 75). It might be noted also +that Fewkes (1892, p. 228) shows that the turkey is emblematic of the +rain among the pueblo peoples. The same idea seems to be present among +the Mayas, as we note in the Tro-Cortesianus 10b (Pl. 16, fig. 2) the +turkey is pictured in the rain and surrounded on three sides by bands of +constellation signs. + +Two methods of capturing the turkey are shown in the Tro-Cortesianus 93a +and 91a (Pl. 16, figs. 1, 3). By the first, the bird is captured alive +in a sort of wicker basket, which drops over it at the proper moment. +The second method is by the "twich-up" or snare, which consists of a +noose tied to a bent sapling and properly baited. In connection with Pl. +16, fig. 1, it may be suggested that possibly this represents a cage +rather than a trap, in which the bird is confined. The Lacandones at the +present time often keep their totem animals in captivity (Tozzer, 1907, +p. 40). + +KING VULTURE (_Sarcorhamphus papa_). Numerous figures of vultures appear +in the codices and elsewhere. Indeed, they are among the most common of +the birds depicted. Two species only seem to occur in the writings, the +king vulture and the black vulture. The former is a large black and +white bird with the head and the upper part of the neck unfeathered, +except for numerous short, almost bristle-like plumules. These naked +portions are often colored red and there is a large more or less +squarish fleshy knob at the base of the upper ramus of the beak. This +conspicuous protuberance has been seized upon as a characteristic in the +conventionalized figures, and serves to identify the king from the black +vulture. In addition, a series of concentric circles about the eye seems +to be a rather constant mark of the king vulture, though they are also +sometimes found in connection with figures which, from the absence of +the rostral knob, must represent black vultures (Pl. 18, figs. 18, 27; +Pl. 19, figs. 7, 10, 11). In the case of the bird shown in Pl. 19, fig. +1, the knob is hardly apparent, and the same is true of Pl. 19, fig. 13. +Both these may represent king vultures. A remarkable figure is that +shown in Pl. 17, fig. 4, in which an ocellated turkey and a king vulture +confront each other with necks intertwined. The short hair-like black +feathers of the head are represented in this as well as in Pl. 17, fig. +11, and in the glyph carved in stone (Pl. 17, fig. 10), which from the +presence of the knob is probably a king vulture. The characteristic knob +is shown in a variety of ways. Thus, in Pl. 17, fig. 1, it is greatly +developed and resembles a large horn with a falcate tip. In Pl. 17, fig. +4, it is sharply angular and nearly square. Frequently, it is a circle +with a centered ring surmounted by one or two additional rings or +terminated by a mitre-shaped structure (Pl. 17, figs. 2, 5-7, 8-12). A +very simple form was found in the carving shown in Pl. 17, fig. 13, +where a long projecting knob is seen at the base of the culmen. + +The king vulture seems to have a part to play as a mythological being, +as it is pictured as a god with human body and bird head in the act of +cohabiting with a woman in Dresden 19a, and with a dog in Dresden 13c +(Pl. 17, fig. 3). Moreover, the same vulture god is represented on a +blue background and under a band of constellation signs in Dresden 38b, +and is also to be noted in Dresden 8a. Foerstemann (1906, p. 66) shows +that the thirteenth day of the Maya month is reached in the _tonalamatl_ +reckoning at this place. This day is _Cib_, which corresponds to the +Nahua day _Cozcaquauhtli_, which has the meaning vulture, and here, as +previously noted, the vulture god is represented. In Tro-Cortesianus 22c +(Pl. 17, fig. 2) and 10a,[330-*] the king vulture appears alone, in the +first instance with a blue background, and in the second with a +background representing rain. Rain is also shown in connection with the +vulture god in Dresden 38b, and the black vulture in Tro-Cortesianus 18b +(Pl. 19, fig. 13). + +The king vulture is found employed as a head-dress twice out of the +three times it appears in any connection with female figures, +Tro-Cortesianus 26c (Pl. 17, fig. 12) with male figure, and 94c (Pl. 17, +fig. 11) and 95c with female figures. The last two clearly have to do +with the baptism and naming of infants, as previously explained. + +The study of the glyph used to indicate the vulture is interesting, for +we find it recurring again and again throughout the Maya codices and +often when there is no other drawing of the animal, as in Dresden 39c +(Pl. 17, fig. 5; Pl. 18, fig. 19). The first example (glyph 6) is +clearly the head of the king vulture, whereas the second (glyph 3) is +probably the head of the black vulture. The glyph in Dresden 38b (Pl. +17, fig. 7) appears in connection with the vulture god directly below +it. In Dresden 11b (Pl. 18, fig. 1), it occurs alone and no figure +appears in the usual place below. The _Tun_ period glyph (Pl. 17, fig. +10) frequently shows vulture characteristics especially in the nostril +of the face. The teeth, however, often appearing in the _Tun_ glyph +would be against this theory. The blending of bird and mammal +characteristics is not uncommon in the Maya drawings, however. + +The Nahua day sign, _Cozcaquauhtli_, as previously noted, has the +meaning vulture, and we naturally find this bird frequently represented +in the Mexican codices. In the Nuttall Codex, the head of the king +vulture occurs repeatedly as a glyph for this day. In its less modified +forms (Pl. 18, figs. 2-4), the beak is merely a pair of flattened rami, +surmounted proximally by the conspicuous quadrangular knob. The minute +hair-like feathers on the otherwise naked head are shown as a fringe at +the throat and crown, while a conventionalized ear is represented +posteriorly. A series of interesting figures (Pl. 18, figs. 5-10) +illustrates steps in the further reduction of this head to a small glyph +in which only the beak with its large squarish knob remains (Pl. 18, +fig. 10). + +BLACK VULTURE (_Catharista urubu_). It is difficult to assign any single +characteristic to the figures representing the black vulture (Maya, +_t[vs.]om_) other than the long raptorial beak. A number of drawings +probably depict black vultures, though this cannot be certainly +affirmed. Such are those shown in Pl. 18, figs. 11, 12, 14, 17; Pl. 19, +figs. 2-4, 13, 14. Stempell considers the vulture shown in Pl. 18, fig. +13, to be a king vulture, but it has no knob on the beak, and thus is +quite likely the black vulture. The fact that its head is shaped much +like that of the god with the king vulture head (Pl. 17, fig. 3) would +indicate merely the individuality of the artist. The coloring of the +species under discussion is uniformly black in the Dresden and +Tro-Cortesianus, except in certain cases where the birds are shown in +outline only, as in Pl. 19, fig. 12. It is not certain, however, that +these two last are black vultures, though they suggest the species. The +two birds shown in Pl. 19, figs. 5, 6, are almost surely black vultures, +and, as represented in the manuscript, are descending upon a man. +Stempell thinks they may be ravens, but this is very doubtful, for the +raven probably was unknown to the Mayas, since its range is to the +northward. What appears to be a crest is seen on the head of the bird in +Pl. 19, fig. 4. The black coloring and the shape of the bill otherwise +suggest the black vulture, though perhaps the crest would indicate the +harpy eagle. Similarly, Pl. 19, fig. 14, is provided with a sort of tuft +or crest, but its general appearance is suggestive of the vulture. A +pottery whistle (text fig. 2) from the Uloa Valley evidently represents +a black vulture. The head of the bird shows the characteristic wrinkled +appearance seen in the drawings, with the heavy beak. The absence of the +rostral knob would preclude its being a king vulture. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2. +POTTERY WHISTLE, VULTURE. ULOA VALLEY, HONDURAS.] + +It is natural that this bird should find an important place in the Maya +writing, as it is an abundant species in the region considered, and of +great importance as a scavenger. The black vulture seems to lack the +mythological character associated with the king vulture. It appears +usually in connection with death and in the role of a bird of prey. This +is especially true in the Tro-Cortesianus where in 24d, 26d (Pl. 19, +figs. 5, 6) and 28c, it is attacking a human being, in the first and +last cases represented as dead. In 86a and 87a, the bird is shown +plucking out the eye of a man. In Dresden 3a (Pl. 19, fig. 7), it +appears at the top of the tree above the human sacrifice and seems to be +in the act of consuming the victim. In Tro-Cortesianus 91c, it also +appears in a tree. In Tro-Cortesianus 40a (Pl. 17, fig. 9), and 42a (Pl. +19, fig. 1), it is shown as eating the entrails of a deer. In the first +case, the bird looks like a king vulture, although this is the only +instance where this species is shown as a bird of prey. In +Tro-Cortesianus 28b and 36b (Pl. 18, fig. 17), the black vulture appears +eating the Kan sign. In the first example, the _Kan_ represents the +newly sowed corn, in the second, the _Kan_ is held by god F. Landa +(1864, p. 230)[333-*] records that in the _Cauac_ year there was a +ceremony to prevent the ants and the birds devouring the corn. In +Dresden 34b and 35b, the vulture is shown on top of the head-dress of +god F, evidently the enemy of the harvest and, again, on 35b (Pl. 19, +fig. 4) on top of the _Cauac_ sign. Its role as a bird of prey is +further shown in Dresden 36b (Pl. 19, fig. 11), where it is shown +attacking a serpent. + +This vulture is associated with god B in Dresden 69b, with god M in +Tro-Cortesianus 70a (Pl. 18, fig. 12), and with god D in Tro-Cortesianus +67a (Pl. 17, fig. 1). The last may be the king rather than the black +vulture, as suggested above. The black vulture occurs only once as the +usual head-dress, in Dresden 17b (Pl. 18, fig. 13), and here in +connection with a female figure and the idea of birth. Two birds, +probably vultures, appear over the enclosure around the head of god C in +Tro-Cortesianus 100b (Pl. 19, fig. 12). In the Lower Chamber of the +Temple of the Tigers occurs a black vulture in bas-relief with a +necklace represented (Pl. 19, fig. 14). + +The glyph of the king vulture has already been discussed. There are +other glyphs which seem to show the black vulture, although it is quite +possible that no sharp distinction was made between the two in regard +to the glyphs at least. In one case (Pl. 18, fig. 18), the wrinkled skin +of the head and neck is indicated much as in the case of the king +vulture. A few other glyphs are shown (Pl. 18, figs. 16, 19, 22, 27), as +well as a variety from the Nuttall Codex in which the minute hair-like +feathers of the head are variously represented, usually much exaggerated +as a sort of crest or comb. Pl. 18, fig. 22, is interesting as being the +only case in the Maya codices where the whole figure is shown in the +glyph. As noted in the case of the glyphs of the king vulture, the +greater number of these occur quite alone. They seem to indicate that a +full drawing of the bird is meant to be understood as occurring below. + +Several of the carved glyphs (Pl. 19, figs. 8-10) show the black vulture +heads in some detail with the conspicuously open nostril and hooked +beak. A carving of the entire bird may be shown on Stela D from Copan +(Pl. 28, fig. 5), where the naked head and neck are marked off by lines +indicating wrinkled skin. The same lines on the neck of the bird +depicted on Pl. 28, fig. 2, will probably identify it as a vulture, and, +if the square ornament above the beak certainly is part of the figure, +it is unquestionably the king vulture. The knob is not, however, clearly +on the bird's beak. There are two interesting glyphs which occur on the +eastern facade of the Monjas at Chichen Itza. The glyphs in this +inscription are unlike the usual Maya hieroglyphs, although several of +the so-called constellation signs can be made out. The two glyphs in +question represent the entire body possibly of a vulture, that on Pl. +17, fig. 13, probably the king vulture, and that on Pl. 18, fig. 14, the +black vulture. + +HARPY EAGLE (_Thrasaetos harpyia_). In the Nuttall Codex, what is +undoubtedly the harpy eagle is of frequent occurrence. This great bird +is not uncommon in the forests of southern Mexico and Central America, +and must have attracted the notice of the people from its size. The +elongated feathers at the back of the head form a conspicuous crest, a +feature that characterizes this species in most of the representations. +A stone carving from Chichen Itza (Pl. 20, fig. 10) pictures a harpy +eagle eating an egg-shaped object, and another similarly engaged is +copied from the Codex Vaticanus 3773 (Pl. 20, fig. 14). The former is +considered to be a vulture by Maudslay, but the presence of feathers +covering the head excludes this interpretation. In two stone glyphs (Pl. +20, fig. 1, 3), occurs a large bird apparently devouring something held +in its talons, as in Pl. 20, fig. 10. From this general resemblance, it +seems probable that both represent the harpy, although no crests are +shown on the glyphs. In the Dresden and the Tro-Cortesianus occur a few +figures of crested birds that probably are the same species. The crest +feathers are reduced to two, however, or, in some cases, what may be a +third projecting forward from the base of the bill (Pl. 20, figs. 5, 7, +12, 13). The last two figures are not certainly identifiable, though it +is probable that they represent the harpy. + +The eagle seems to be the bird associated with warriors in the codices. +Seler (1900-1901, p. 89) notes that the eagle and the jaguar are both +the mark of brave warriors among the Nahuas. In the Aubin manuscript, +the warrior god, _Yaotl_, is always associated with the eagle +(_quauhtli_). In the Maya pantheon, god M is usually considered the war +god, as he is almost always armed with a spear. He is seen in Dresden 74 +(Pl. 20, fig. 13), and in Tro-Cortesianus 109c with an eagle as a +head-dress. There are other gods, however, who wear a similar head +covering. God L appears in Dresden 14b (Pl. 20, fig. 7) and again in 14c +(Pl. 20, fig. 5) with an eagle head-dress. God D in Dresden 23c (Pl. 20, +fig. 11) has an eagle coming from a _Tun_ sign on top of his head. The +eagle is probably represented at the prow of a boat in Dresden 43c (Pl. +20, fig. 12) in which god B is rowing. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 20, +fig. 4), a bird which may represent the eagle appears sitting on a +_Cimi_ (death) sign. Above in the glyphs the character for the south is +shown. Here, clearly, there is some connection between the signs of the +cardinal points in the line of glyphs and the various creatures pictured +below. + +There seems to be only one glyph which can in any way be taken for that +of the eagle in the Maya manuscripts and this appears only once, in +Tro-Cortesianus 107c (Pl. 20, fig. 9). This identification may be +questioned, as there is no drawing of an eagle associated with the +glyph. Attention has already been called to the two stone glyphs in Pl. +20, figs. 1, 3. There are various drawings of the glyph for the eagle in +the Nahua and Zapotecan codices (Pl. 20, fig. 8), as the Nahua day, +_Quauhtli_, has the meaning eagle. It is interesting to note in the +glyph from the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 20, fig. 8) the tips of the feathers +are crowned with stone points, a frequent way of representing birds of +prey among the Mexican peoples. + +YUCATAN HORNED OWL (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_). Stempell makes a +serious mistake by confusing the eared owl shown in full face with that +shown in profile in the drawings, for he considers both to represent the +great horned owl. The figures are, however, quite different in every +way. The owl in full face view is unquestionably the great horned owl +(Maya, _ikim_), the Yucatan form of which is recognized by the +subspecific title _mayensis_. This is the bird opposed to the +"Moan-bird" which, as will be shown later, is associated with death. In +Pl. 21 are some truly remarkable figures which seem to represent this +horned owl, the first modelled in stucco from Palenque, the second +carved in stone from Yaxchilan, and the third carved in wood from Tikal. +Figs. 1 and 3 show the bird in flight with extended wings. The two +erectile tufts of feathers or "horns" are conspicuously represented in +fig. 3, at either side of the bird's head and between them the flat top +of the crown is secondarily divided in like manner into three parts, +representing the "horns" and the top of the head. The beetling brows, +heavy hooked beak, and spread talons combine to give a fierce and +spirited mien to the great bird. Pl. 21, fig. 2, may be a greatly +conventionalized owl in which the essential characteristics of the bird +are reproduced in a rectangular design. The large bill is conspicuous in +the center, and in each upper corner terminates one of the ears. The +eyes are represented by rectangular areas at the base of the bill, each +with three vertical bars across it. Below the beak, or at either side of +the tip, are the feet, each with the claw cross-hatched. What seem to be +the reduced and highly conventionalized wings fill the lower corner of +each side of the figure. + +The shield in the center of the Tablet of the Sun at Palenque (Pl. 22, +fig. 6) shows a face in which the motif seems to be the full-face view +of the horned owl. The hooked bill curves over the mouth at each side of +which is the curious scroll seen in the same connection in the figures +of Pl. 21. The ears are somewhat shorter in proportion than usual and +below each, at the sides of the face, is a large ear-plug, similar to +that elsewhere found. The eyes are still further conventionalized with a +decorative scroll surrounding each. Another example of the +conventionalized owl's head is on Stela 1 from Cankuan (Maler, 1908, Pl. +13). We are not yet ready to advance an explanation of the reason why +the owl should occupy such a prominent position in the art of the Mayas. + +In only one case is the horned owl found in the Maya manuscripts. In +Tro-Cortesianus 95c (Pl. 22, fig. 2), this owl appears as the head-dress +of a woman in that portion of the codex where baptism and naming are +shown. An owl's head seems to be shown on the end of a warrior's staff +in the bas-relief of the Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at +Chichen Itza (Pl. 22, fig. 4). Pl. 22, figs. 5, 7, show two owls from +the Aubin manuscript; the first is considered to be the screech owl +(_chiqualli_) and the second the horned owl (_tecolotl_, in Nahuatl). +Pl. 22, figs. 1, 3, show two drawings of owls from Nahua manuscripts. + +YUCATAN SCREECH OWL or MOAN BIRD (_Otus choliba thompsoni_). A second +species of owl is represented by the figures on Pl. 23. This has +likewise two feathered tufts or "ears" on its head and is always shown +with the head, at least, in profile, but the tufts one in front, the +other at the back of the head. The facial disc is not very prominent the +beak rather long, the tail short, and the plumage somewhat mottled. A +dark ring usually surrounds the eye. It is, with little doubt, the +screech owl, the only other form of eared owl commonly met with in the +Central American region, and in Yucatan is represented by the race above +indicated. This owl, under the name of the Moan bird,[338-*] is always +associated with the idea of death among the Mayas. The familiarity of +this species and its mournful quavering cry uttered at night have no +doubt led to its association with death and mystery as with owls in +other parts of the world. + +This Moan bird has an important place in the Maya pantheon, as it is the +representative in many places of god A, the Death god. It appears with a +human body in Dresden 7c (Pl. 23, fig. 1), 10a (Pl. 23, fig. 8), and 11a +(Pl. 23, fig. 3) and in Tro-Cortesianus 66a (Pl. 23, fig. 2). In each of +these places, it occupies the space in which one of the regular gods is +usually found. In Dresden 10a, the day reached in the _tonalamatl_ +reckoning is _Cimi_, meaning death, and here, as has been noted, is +found the Moan bird, the symbol of death, with another sign of death in +the circle just above the head of the bird (Pl. 23, fig. 8). + +This owl is used as a head-dress itself, but always for women, Dresden +16a (Pl. 23, fig. 19), 18b (Pl. 23, fig. 5), Tro-Cortesianus 94c (Pl. +23, fig. 4), and 95c (Pl. 23, fig. 20). It occurs in both manuscripts in +the pages mentioned several times before, where birth, baptism, and the +naming of children are shown. The curious figure, with a head similar to +Pl. 23, fig. 21, carried on the back of some of the women, is the Moan +sign, referring to the idea of death, possibly to still-birth, as +copulation and birth are shown in this section of the codex (Dresden +18c, 19c). The Moan is found associated with man only once in the +manuscripts. In Tro-Cortesianus 73b (Pl. 23, fig. 18), he is found +perching on a curious frame-like structure in which god B is sitting. + +There are several glyphs representing the Moan bird or screech owl; the +first type is easily identifiable, as the head of the bird is clearly +pictured (Pl. 23, figs. 11-14, 16). This head is frequently associated +with the number thirteen (Dresden 8b). It may occur in the line of +glyphs (Dresden 16c), and refer to the Moan pictured below, or it may +occur in the line of glyphs with no picture corresponding to it below +(Dresden 53b). Pl. 23, fig. 15, from Dresden 38c has been placed with +these drawings, although the identification is not certain. It may +refer, however, to the large Moan head below, on which god B is sitting +(Pl. 23, fig. 11). The second type of glyph does not resemble in any way +the Moan, but they are clearly signs for it, as they are often found in +connection with the picture of the Moan, Dresden 7c (Pl. 23, figs. 6, 7, +21) and 10a. In both places fig. 7 is associated with the number +thirteen. Schellhas also places Pl. 23, fig. 17, among the Moan signs. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 3, 4, 5, 6. +GLYPHS OF MONTH MUAN SHOWING MOAN-BIRD CHARACTERISTICS.] + +One of the eighteen Maya months is named Muan, and some of the glyphs +appearing for this month in the codices certainly represent the Moan or +screech owl. This is especially so with text figs. 3-6. Foerstemann +(1904a) considers that the month Muan and, consequently, the sign as +well, refer to the Pleiades. + +In connection with the screech owl referring to death, it is interesting +to note that among the Nahuas the owl is considered of unlucky augury +and is usually found in the "House of Death" and "of Drought", as +contrasted with the turkey, considered as a bird of good fortune, and +found in the "House of Rain." + +COPPERY-TAILED TROGAN or QUETZAL (_Pharomacrus mocinno_). The quetzal is +common locally in certain parts of southern Mexico. Its brilliant +metallic green plumage and the greatly elongated tail feathers make it a +very notable bird. The feathers of the head are erect and stand out as a +light crest, those of the anterior portion being slightly recurved. The +delicate erect feathers of the head are well indicated in Vaticanus +3773, 17 (Pl. 24, fig. 9) and the tail, also, in this figure, is only +slightly conventionalized with an upward instead of the natural downward +sweep. In most of the representations, the crest feathers are +indicatd[TN-7] by large plumes, the most anterior of which project +forward. They may be even further modified into three knobs shown in +Dresden 7c (Pl. 24, fig. 1). The two characteristics of the quetzal, +namely its erect head feathers and its extraordinarily long tail +feathers, are often used separately. Thus the tail, which is commonly +drawn with the outer feather of each side strongly curled forward, +appears by itself in Pl. 24, fig. 8, or it may be seen as a plume in the +head-dress of a priest or warrior and in other connections as an +ornament. A greatly conventionalized drawing of the bird is also shown +in Pl. 24, fig. 11, in which the head bears a curious knob and the +dorsal feather of the tail is upcurled in the manner of the other +drawings. It is not at once apparent why the long drooping tail feathers +should be shown thus recurved. Possibly these feathers, when used by the +Mayas for plumes, curled over by their own weight, if held erect, so +that the representations are a compromise between the natural appearance +and that when used as ornament in the head decoration. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7. +QUETZAL, TEMPLE OF THE CROSS, PALENQUE.] + +The color of the bird and the very long tail feathers have already been +mentioned, and these explain the reason of the importance of this bird +among the Mayas. It is claimed by several old authorities that the +quetzal was reserved for the rulers, and that it was death for any +common person to kill this bird for his own use. It seems from a +statement in Landa (1864, p. 190)[341-*] that birds were domesticated +for the feathers. This bird occurs again and again in various +modifications throughout the Maya art. The feathers of the quetzal are +the ones usually associated with the serpent, making the rebus, +_Quetzalcoatl_, the feathered serpent, the culture hero of the Nahuas, +or _Kukulcan_, which has the same signification among the Mayas. It is +impossible to mention here all the various connections in which the +quetzal appears. The feathers play an important part in the composition +of the head-dresses of the priests and warriors, especially those in the +stone carvings. A quotation has already been given from Landa, showing +the use made of feathers in the dress of the people. Text fig. 7 shows +perhaps the most elaborate representation of this bird. It is found on +the sculptured tablet of the Temple of the Cross at Palenque. The +quetzal is shown seated on top of a branching tree which was long taken +to represent a cross. A similar representation is seen on the tablet of +the Temple of the Foliated Cross from the same ruined city. In the Codex +Fejervary-Mayer, there are four trees in each of which there is a bird. +A quetzal is perched in the one corresponding to the east, which is +regarded as the region of opulence and moisture. Seler (1901, p. 17) +suggests that the quetzal in the tree on the two bas-reliefs at Palenque +may represent a similar idea and that temples which would show the other +three trees and their respective birds had not been built in that +center. + +The representation of the quetzal as an entire bird is, after all, +comparatively rare. The most realistic drawing is seen on a jar from +Copan in the collections of the Peabody Museum. The whole body of the +bird is shown as a head-dress in a few places in the codices where birth +and the naming of children are pictured. In Dresden 16c (Pl. 24, fig. 3) +and Tro-Cortesianus 94c (Pl. 24, fig. 6), the quetzal is the head-dress +of women. In Dresden 13b (Pl. 24, fig. 2), a partial drawing of the bird +is shown as a part of the head-dress of god E, in Dresden 7c (Pl. 24, +fig. 1) of god H, and in Tro-Cortesianus 110c of god F. The feathers +alone appear as a female head decoration in Dresden 20c (Pl. 24, fig. +8). It occurs as a sacrifice among the rites of the four years in +Tro-Cortesianus 36b (Pl. 24, fig. 12). In Tro-Cortesianus 70a (Pl. 24, +fig. 5), it is found in the act of eating fruit growing over the "young +god." In Tro-Cortesianus 100b (Pl. 24, fig. 4), the bird is perched over +the encased head of god C. + +There seems to be a glyph used for the quetzal. In those drawn in Pl. +24, figs. 10, 17, it is noticeable that the anterior part only of the +head is shown. The first is a glyph from the tablet of the Temple of the +Sun at Palenque, and at least suggests the quetzal by the feathers on +the top of the head, as also Pl. 24, fig. 13, a glyph from Copan, Stela +10, where the entire head appears in a much conventionalized form. Other +glyphs are shown in Pl. 24, figs. 14-16, in which there is a single +prominent recurved feather shown over the eye, succeeded by a few +conventionalized feathers, then one or more directed posteriorly. It is +to be noted that whereas in many previous examples of glyphs the full +drawing of the animal or bird has been found in connection with them, +here with the quetzal glyphs there is no instance where a drawing of the +bird occurs with them. A curious human figure (Pl. 24, fig. 19), with a +head decoration similar to the frontal curve and markings on the quetzal +glyphs (fig. 14-16), may possibly represent this bird in some relation. + +BLUE MACAW (_Ara militaris_). A large macaw (Maya, _mox_ or _[t.]u[t.]_) +is undoubtedly pictured in the figures in Pl. 25. The least +conventionalized drawing found is that shown in Dresden 16c (Pl. 25, +fig. 2), a bird characterized by long narrow tail feathers, a heavy +bill, and a series of scale-like markings on the face and about the eye. +Further conventionalized drawings are found in Pl. 25, figs. 3, 10, 13, +and Pl. 26, fig. 1. In all these the tail is less characteristic, though +composed of long, narrow feathers, and the facial markings are reduced +to a ring of circular marks about the eye. These last undoubtedly +represent, as supposed by Stempell, the bare space about the eye found +in certain of these large parrots. In addition, the space between the +eye and the base of the bill is partially bare with small patches of +feathers scattered at somewhat regular intervals in rows. It is probable +that this appearance is represented by the additional round marks about +the base of the bill in Pl. 25, figs. 1, 2, 5, 8, the last two of which +show the head only. There has hitherto been some question as to the +identity of certain stone carvings, similar to that on Stela B from +Copan, of which a portion is shown in Pl. 25, fig. 8. This has even been +interpreted as the trunk of an elephant or a mastodon, but is +unquestionably a macaw's beak. In addition to the ornamental +crosshatching on the beak, which is also seen on the glyph from the same +stela (Pl. 25, fig. 5), there is an ornamental scroll beneath the eye +which likewise is crosshatched and surrounded by a ring of subcircular +marks that continue to the base of the beak. The nostril is the large +oval marking directly in front of the eye. + +The animal in Dresden 40b (Pl. 25, fig. 1) has always been considered +to be a tortoise (Schellhas, 1904, p. 44, and Foerstemann, 1904). This +animal, together with the dog, is found beneath the constellation signs +carrying firebrands; both are regarded as lightning beasts. By comparing +the head of the figure shown in Pl. 25, fig. 1, with figs. 2, 4, 5, of +the same plate, the reasonableness of the identification of this head as +that of a macaw and not that of a tortoise appears clear. The same +figure occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 12a (Pl. 25, fig. 3) carrying a torch. + +In order to make this point clearer, we will take up the consideration +of the glyphs at this place, rather than at the end of the section as +usual. As the macaw in Pl. 25, fig. 1, has been hitherto identified as a +turtle, so the glyph found in connection with it (Pl. 25, fig. 6) has +been considered to stand for the turtle. Pl. 25, fig. 7, is another +drawing of the same glyph. By comparing the markings on the face of fig. +1, it is seen that a similar ring surrounds the eye shown on the glyph. +The second glyph (Pl. 25, fig. 7) is better drawn and shows, in addition +to the eye ring, the slightly erectile feathers at the back of the head. +Comparison with the glyphs representing turtles (Pl. 14, figs. 7-10) +hitherto confused with these macaw glyphs shows differences, the most +important of which are of course the eye ring and the feathers at the +back of the head. + +Various other glyphs occur which undoubtedly represent the heads either +of macaws or smaller parrots. They are, for the most part, glyphs from +the stone inscriptions. A crest, resembling that depicted on the head of +the quetzal, is found on a glyph on Altar Q from Copan (Pl. 25, fig. +10). The eye ring, however, seems to indicate the macaw which also has +slightly erectile feathers on the head. Much doubt is attached to the +identification of the glyph of the month _Kayae_[TN-8] from Stela A, +Quirigua (Pl. 25, fig. 9). It resembles closely the glyphs of the turtle +(Pl. 14, figs. 7-9) and especially that on Pl. 14, fig. 10. The Quirigua +glyph has a prominent fleshy tongue, however, like the parrot. From the +fact that the glyph is certainly that for the month _Kayab_ and the +_Kayab_ glyphs in the codices (Pl. 14, fig. 10) resemble the sign for +_a_, in the Landa alphabet which seems to stand for _ak_ (turtle), we +are led to identify this as a turtle rather than a parrot. + +The use of the macaw as a lightning beast has already been commented +upon. The parrot is also used in the codices as a head-dress. As with +several other birds the only places in the manuscripts where the whole +bird is shown is in connection with the bearing of children and the +baptism. Here the parrot head-dress is seen on women, Dresden 16c (Pl. +25, fig. 2) and Tro-Cortesianus 94c (Pl. 25, fig. 13). There seems to be +an exception to the whole bird appearing as a head-dress exclusively +with women in Tro-Cortesianus 26c (Pl. 26, fig. 1), where god F appears +with a head-dress composed of the whole bird. The bird is also seen as a +head-dress on Altar Q from Copan (Pl. 26, fig. 3). The head of the macaw +appears as part of the head-dress of god H in Dresden 11a (Pl. 26, fig. +13), god E in Dresden 11b (Pl. 26, fig. 11), god F in Dresden 14b, god D +in Tro-Cortesianus 89a (Pl. 26, fig. 5) and of women in Dresden 12b (Pl. +26, fig. 6) and 19a (Pl. 26, fig. 9). In the rites of the four years in +Tro-Cortesianus 37b, there are two birds which are quite different from +those we have been considering, but which may represent macaws (Pl. 25, +fig. 12; Pl. 26, fig. 10). + +In the Nuttall Codex, occur several figures of heavy-billed birds that +may be macaws or other smaller parrots of the genera _Amazona_ or +_Pachyrhynchus_. They are not, however, certainly identifiable (Pl. 26, +figs. 4, 7). + +IMPERIAL WOODPECKER (_Campephilus imperialis_). We have here introduced +two drawings from the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 27, figs. 5, 6) which seem to +represent the Imperial ivory-billed woodpecker, a large species that +occurs in the forests of certain parts of Mexico. The figures show a +long-billed bird with acutely pointed tail feathers, a red crest, and +otherwise black and white plumage. The red crest of the woodpecker is of +course highly conventionalized in the drawings where it is shown as of a +number of erect feathers instead of the prominent occipital tuft of +this bird. The crest and particularly the pointed tail feathers and long +beak combined with the characteristic coloring seem to leave little +doubt as to the identity of the species figured. This bird does not seem +to appear in the Maya drawings. + +RAVEN (_Corvus corax sinuatus_) (?). There occurs in the Nuttall Codex a +figure of a large black bird (Pl. 27, fig. 7), which may be a black +vulture, but which, from the presence of what appear as prominent +bristles over the nostril, may also be a raven. These bristles are +rather prominent in ravens and quite lacking in the vulture, so that we +are led to identify the drawing as representing the former bird. We have +found no other figures that suggest ravens. + +MISCELLANEOUS BIRDS. Four drawings of birds from the Aubin manuscript are +shown here (Pl. 27, figs. 8-11), in order that the conventionalization of +the bird form may be seen. The first two are supposed to represent the +parrot (_cocho_) and the last two the turkey cock (_uexolotl_). There is +little in the drawings by which they can be differentiated. In the codex, +the heads of the parrots are colored red. There is no doubt, however, +about the identification, as they occur in the same relative position on +every page of the manuscript and are two of the thirteen birds associated +with the thirteen gods, the "Lords of the House of Day" (Seler, +1900-1901, pp. 31-35). From the foregoing, it may be seen that where +there is no question about the identification, the drawing of the bird +form is rather carelessly done and no great attempt is made to indicate +the special characteristics of the different birds. + +As has been shown previously, it is not always possible to identify +without question many of the forms appearing in the manuscripts. This is +especially true with birds. In Tro-Cortesianus 20c, an unidentifiable +bird, painted blue, appears on the top of the staff carried by god F. +The head-dress of this same god in Tro-Cortesianus 27c is a bird form +and in Tro-Cortesianus 55b, the _tonalamatl_ figure is a bird whose +identity cannot be made out with certainty. + + +MAMMALIA + +OPOSSUM (_Didelphis yucatanensis_, _D. mesamericana_). Figures +representing opossums are not with certainty identifiable in the Maya +writings. We have provisionally identified as a frog the animal shown in +Pl. 29, fig. 6, although at first sight the two median round markings +might be taken to represent a marsupial pouch. Stempell considers the +animals found in the upper division of Dresden 25-28 as opossums of one +of the above species, and this seems very possible. They are shown with +long tails, slightly curved at the tips, and with long head and +prominent vibrissae. A rather similar figure is found in the Nuttall +Codex (Pl. 34, fig. 7). There is nothing, however, that seems to +preclude their being dogs and, in our opinion, they represent this +animal. + +NINE-BANDED ARMADILLO (_Tatu novemcinctum_). This is the common species +of armadillo (Maya, _wet[vs]_) found throughout the warmer portion of +Mexico and Central America, where it is frequently used as an article of +food, and its shell-like covering is utilized in various ways. Several +representations of it occur in the Tro-Cortesianus (Pl. 29, figs. 1-4), +where it is characterized by its scaly covering, long ears and tail, and +the moveable bands about the body. + +This animal is associated with the bee culture, as it is represented +twice in Tro-Cortesianus 103a (Pl. 29, figs. 1, 3) seated below a bee +under an overhanging roof. The hunting scenes in the Tro-Cortesianus +also show the armadillo; in 48a (Pl. 29, fig. 4) and in 91a it is shown +in a pit-fall. In the last case the _Cauac_ signs are clearly seen on +top of the trap, whereas in the former case the same signs seem to be +indicated by the crosses. Finally, this same animal occurs seated in +Tro-Cortesianus 92d (Pl. 29, fig. 2) facing a female figure. There seems +to be no glyph used in connection with this animal. + +YUCATAN BROCKET (_Mazama pandora_). Among the numerous representations +of deer in the Maya writings, there is but one that appears to show the +brocket. This occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 92a (Pl. 30, fig. 2), where a +hoofed animal with a single spike-like horn is shown, seemingly impaled +on a stake set in the bottom of a pit-fall. As stated by Stempell, this +animal from the character of its horns is probably to be identified as a +brocket, though there is nothing to preclude its being a young spike +buck of some species of _Odocoileus._ + +YUCATAN DEER (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_; _O. thomasi_). Several species +of small deer (Maya, _ke_) occur in Mexico and Central America whose +relationships are not yet thoroughly understood (Pls. 30-32). The +species of Yucatan and southern Mexico have small lyrate antlers with +few, short tines, rather different from the broader type of the more +northern species with well developed secondary tines. The former type of +antlers seems to be indicated by the conventionalized structure shown in +Pl. 32, figs. 8-12. These probably represent the Yucatan deer or its +ally Thomas's deer of southern Mexico. Two of the figures, both from the +Nuttall Codex, show the lower incisor teeth (Pl. 32, figs. 8, 11), +though in other cases these are omitted. The larger part of the figures +of deer represent the does which have no antlers. For this reason it is +impossible to distinguish females of the brocket from those of the other +species of deer, if indeed, the Mayas themselves made such a +distinction. The characteristics of deer drawings are the long head and +ears, the prominently elevated tail with the hair bristling from its +posterior side (the characteristic position of the tail when the deer is +running), the hoofs, and less often the presence of incisors in the +lower jaw only and of a curious oblong mark at each end of the eye, +possibly representing the large tear gland. + +The deer plays a large part in the Maya ceremonials. It is an important, +perhaps the most important animal offering as a sacrifice to the gods. +Several pages of the Tro-Cortesianus (38-49) are given over to the hunt +and the animal usually represented is the deer, the hunters are shown, +the methods of trapping, the return from the chase, and the rites in +connection with the animals slain. Tro-Cortesianus 48b (Pl. 30, fig. 1) +shows the usual method of trapping where the deer is caught by a cord +around one of the fore legs. Tro-Cortesianus 91a pictures the same +method and 92a (Pl. 30, figs. 2) shows where the deer is caught on a +spike in another type of trap. In Tro-Cortesianus 86a (Pl. 31, fig. 5) +the deer appears with a rope around his body held by a god who is not +easily identified. + +Interesting descriptions of the hunt are given in several of the early +accounts.[349-*] It will be noted that the hunt was usually connected +with the religious rites and the offering of deer meat and various parts +of the body of the deer had a ceremonial importance. Attention is called +to similar practices among the Lacandones, the inhabitants of the +region of the Usumacinta at the present time (Tozzer, 1907), where the +greater part of the food of the people must, first of all, be offered to +the gods before it may be eaten by the natives. + +The figures of the deer in the codices are clearly associated with god +M, and the latter may be considered a god of the hunt as well as a god +of war. It is very unusual to find a quadruped used as a head-dress in +any way, and yet in several cases we find god M has the head of a deer +as a sort of head covering, Tro-Cortesianus 50b (Pl. 31, fig. 6), 51c +(Pl. 31, fig. 7) and 68b. In the first two cases, the god seems to be +supplied with a bow and arrow. In a passage in Landa (1864, p. +290)[350-*] there is a description of this very scene. + +In the month _Zip_, the hunters each took an arrow and a deer's head +which was painted blue; thus adorned they danced. God M is found in one +case in the Dresden in connection with the deer. In Dresden 13c the +animal is represented as female and is shown in intercourse with god M. + +An offering of venison is frequently pictured in the manuscripts. Landa +(1864, p. 220)[350-[+]] also furnishes a parallel for this. The haunches +of venison arranged as offerings in dishes are realistically seen in a +number of representations of religious rites, as in Dresden 28c (Pl. 31, +fig. 14) in the last of the rites of the dominical days, 35a (Pl. 31, +fig. 12) and in Tro-Cortesianus 5a above the serpent enclosing the body +of water, 65a in front of god B or D and 105b (Pl. 31, fig. 13) and 108a +(Pl. 31, fig. 15), both of which are in connection with the bee +ceremonies. + +The head of the deer, rather than the legs, is also shown as an +offering, in Tro-Cortesianus 69b with god B and Tro-Cortesianus 78 (Pl. +31, fig. 10) in the line of glyphs. The whole deer may be represented as +an offering in Tro-Cortesianus 2b (Pl. 31, fig. 8).[351-*] + +There are some examples in the manuscripts where the deer is pictured +quite apart from any idea of the hunt or an offering. In Tro-Cortesianus +14b, it is shown on top of the body of one of the large snakes and in +Tro-Cortesianus 29c (Pl. 31, fig. 3), it appears seated on the end of a +snake-like curve. The deer occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 30b (Pl. 30, fig. +6) in connection with the goddess from whose breasts water is flowing. +God B appears in Dresden 41c (Pl. 31, fig. 1) seated on a red deer. The +same animal is also to be noted in Dresden 60a (Pl. 30, fig. 5) in +connection with the combat of the planets.[351-[+]] A deer is seen in +Tro-Cortesianus 92d seated on a mat opposite a female figure in the same +manner as the armadillo on the same page and a dog on the preceding +page. These, as previously noted, probably refer to cohabitation. On Pl. +32, fig. 9, is a deer from the Peresianus and Pl. 32, fig. 12, shows +another from Stela N, east, from Copan. + +The Nahua day _Macatl_ signifies deer and we naturally find a large +number of glyphs representing this animal among the day signs in the +Mexican manuscripts (Pl. 31, fig. 9; Pl. 32, figs. 8, 10, 11). + +YUCATAN PECCARY (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_; _T. ringens_). +Peccaries (Maya, _qeqem_) of the _T. angulatum_ group are common in +Mexico and Yucatan, and a number of local forms have been named. The +white-lipped peccaries also occur, but in the figures it is impossible +to distinguish the species. These animals are characterized by their +prominent snout, curly tail, bristling dorsal crest, and rather +formidable tusks, as well as by the possession of hoofs. By these marks +most of the figures are readily identifiable (Pl. 32, fig. 1; Pl. 33, +figs. 1, 2, 4-6, 9). The tail is, however, often omitted as well as the +erect line of bristles down the back. The presence of hoofs and the +possession of a truncated pig-like snout are sufficiently +characteristic. In the Dresden Codex occur several figures of undoubted +peccaries. Two of these are pictured in Pl. 32, figs. 2, 4. In each the +hoofs and curly tail appear, and in the latter figure the bristling back +is conventionally drawn by a series of serrations. These marks are +sufficient to identify the animals. Their heads are further +conventionalized, however, by a great exaggeration of the snout beyond +that slightly indicated in Pl. 32, fig. 1, and Pl. 33, figs. 6, 9. Other +representations of the peccary, are shown in Pl. 32, fig. 5, a man with +a peccary's head, and fig. 7 in which the animal's hoofs are replaced by +human hands and feet. In both cases the form of the head remains +characteristic. A curious combination is shown in Pl. 32, fig. 3, an +animal whose head and fore feet are those of a peccary, while the hind +feet have five toes, and there is a long tail. The addition of what look +like scales is found in a figure from the Dresden (Pl. 32, fig. 6). + +The peccary is found in several different connections in the +manuscripts. As deer are found associated with the hunt, so, but to a +much more limited extent, the peccary. It is represented pictured as +being captured in snares of the familiar "jerk-up" type. Similar +drawings show this animal caught by the foreleg and held partially +suspended, Tro-Cortesianus 49a (Pl. 33, fig. 9),[352-*] 49c (Pl. 33, +fig. 1), and 93a (Pl. 33, fig. 4). Tro-Cortesianus 41b also shows the +peccary associated with hunting scenes. Another realistic drawing of +this animal in Dresden 62 (Pl. 33, fig. 6)[352-[+]] represents him as +seated on the open jaws of a serpent connected with a long number +series. We are unable to explain the signification of the appearance of +the animal in this connection. The peccary is pictured in +Tro-Cortesianus 27b (Pl. 33, fig. 5) seated on the left hand of the +goddess from whose breasts water is flowing. + +The peccary seems to be associated with the sky, as it is seen in a +conventionalized form in four instances (Dresden 44b, 45b, (Pl. 32, fig. +4)[TN-9] coming from a band of constellation signs and in Dresden 68a (Pl. +32, fig. 2) coming from a similar band with god E sitting +underneath.[353-*] Above each of these conventionalized figures occur +the corresponding glyph forms (Pl. 33, figs. 7, 8), which show merely +the head with the exaggerated upturned snout. There is a striking +resemblance between these snouts and those of the stone mask-like +figures so frequently represented as a facade decoration in northern +Yucatan. The presence in the mouths of the faces there represented of a +recurved tusk in addition to other teeth is a further resemblance to the +drawings of peccaries. Stempell (1908, p. 718) has reproduced a +photograph of these extraordinary carvings and considers them the heads +of mastodons, apparently solely on account of the shape of the upturned +snout, whose tip in many of the carvings turns forward. They certainly +do not represent the heads of mastodons, but we are not ready to say +that the peccary is the prototype of these carvings, although the +similarity between the glyphs (Pl. 33, figs. 7, 8) and the masks is +worthy of note. One point which does not favor this explanation is the +fact that on the eastern facade of the Monjas at Chichen Itza where the +mask-like panel is seen at its best, we find a realistic drawing of a +peccary (Pl. 33, fig. 2) on the band of glyphs over the doorway, and it +in no way suggests the head on the panel and is quite different from the +head already noted as the glyph of the peccary in the codices. + +BAIRD'S TAPIR (_Tapirella bairdi_). No undoubted representations of +tapirs occur in the manuscripts here considered. Possibly tapirs did +not live in the country occupied by the Maya peoples. At the present +time they are found only to the south of Yucatan. In Central America +Baird's and Dow's tapirs are native, the latter, however, more on the +Pacific coast. We have included a drawing of an earthenware vessel (Pl. +28, fig. 1) that represents a tapir, about whose neck is a string of +Oliva shells. The short prehensile trunk of the tapir is well made and +the hoofs are likewise shown. A greatly elongated nose is found in many +of the drawings of the deities, but it does not seem clear that these +represent trunks of tapirs, or, as suggested by Stempell, mastodons! Two +such heads are shown in Pl. 39, figs. 7, 9. These offer a considerable +superficial resemblance to that of a tapir, but as no other drawings +that might be considered to represent this animal are found, it seems +very questionable if the long noses are other than parts of grotesque +masks. The superficial resemblance of the curious nose pieces of the +masks on the panel of the Maya facades to elephants' trunks does not +seem to us especially significant, as otherwise the carvings are quite +unlike elephants. They have no great tusks as an elephant should, but, +instead, short recurved teeth similar to those representing peccary +tusks, as already pointed out. + +RABBIT (_Sylvilagus_ or _Lepus_). Rabbits and hares from their +familiarity, their long ears, and their peculiar method of locomotion, +seem always to attract the notice of primitive peoples. Several species +occur in Mexico, including the Marsh rabbit (_Sylvilagus truei_; _S. +insonus_), various races of the Cottontail rabbit (_S. floridanus +connectens_; _S. f. chiapensis_, _S. f. yucatanicus_; _S. aztecus_; _S. +orizabae_, etc.) and several Jack rabbits (_Lepus alleni pallitans_; _L. +callotis flavigularis_, _L. asellus_). It is, of course, quite +impossible to determine to which of these species belong the few +representations found. Several drawings, shown in Pl. 30, figs. 3, 4, 7, +8, are at once identifiable as rabbits from their long ears, round +heads, and the presence of the prominent gnawing teeth.[354-*] In two +of the figures (Pl. 30, figs. 7, 8), the entire animal is shown, sitting +erect on its haunches, the first with one ear in advance of the other, a +trait more characteristic of the jack rabbit than of the short-eared +rabbits. For convenience of comparison, we have placed beside these two +figures one of a deer in much the same position. It is at once +distinguished, however, by its long head, longer bushy tail, and by the +marks at each end of the eye. What at first sight appear to be two +gnawing teeth of the rabbit seem to be the incisors of the lower jaw. +This is the animal identified by Stempell as a dog. + +The animal shown to be a rabbit in Dresden 61 (Pl. 30, fig. 8) is +pictured seated on the open jaws of a serpent in the same way as the +peccary on the following page. These two animals, together with two +representations of god B and the black god (Dresden 61), are each +clearly connected with the serpents on which they are sitting. + +The Nahua day _Tochtli_ signifies rabbit and naturally the animal occurs +throughout the Mexican manuscripts as representing this day (Pl. 30, +figs. 3, 4). + +OTHER RODENTS. We have included in Pl. 29, figs. 5, 7, 8, three +undetermined mammals. The second of these is characterized by the two +prominent gnawing teeth of a rodent and by its long tail. It may +represent a pack rat (_Neotoma_) of which many species are described +from Mexico. In its rounded ears and long tail, fig. 5 somewhat +resembles fig. 7, but it lacks the gnawing incisors. Still less +satisfactory is fig. 8 from Tro-Cortesianus 24d, at whose identity it +seems unsafe to hazard a guess. It is shown as eating the corn being +sowed by god D. + +JAGUAR (_Felis hernandezi_; _F. h. goldmani_). Throughout its range, the +jaguar (Maya, _balam_ or _t[vs]akmul_) is the most dreaded of the +carnivorous mammals. It is, therefore, natural that the Mayas held it in +great awe and used it as a symbol of strength and courage. A few +characteristic figures are shown in Pl. 34, figs. 1-3; Pl. 35, figs. +5-14. The species represented is probably _Felis hernandezi_, the +Mexican race of jaguar, or one or the other of the more or less nominal +varieties named from Central America. The distinguishing mark of the +jaguar, in addition to the general form with the long tail, short ears +and claws, is the presence of the rosette-like spots. These are +variously conventionalized as solid black markings, as small circles, or +as a central spot ringed by a circle of dots (Pl. 35, fig. 12). +Frequently the solid black spots are used, either in a line down the +back and tail or scattered over the body. The tip of the tail is +characteristically black, and the teeth are often prominent. Such a +figure as this (Pl. 35, fig. 10) Stempell considers to be a water +opossum (_Chironectes_), for the reason that it is held by the goddess +from whose breast water is flowing. This can hardly be, however, for not +only are the markings unlike those of the water opossum, but the large +canine tooth indicates a large carnivore. Moreover, the water opossum is +a small animal, hardly as big as a rat, of shy and retiring habits, and +so is unlikely to figure in the drawings of the Mayas. + +As for the significance of the jaguar in the life of the Mayas, it may +be said that this animal seems to have played a most prominent part. At +Chichen Itza, the building on top of the southern end of the eastern +wall of the Ball Court, usually called the Temple of the Tigers, has a +line of jaguars carved in stone as frieze around the outside of the +building, and in the Lower Chamber of the same structure, the figure of +a jaguar (Maudslay, III, Pl. 43) serves as an altar. The front legs and +the head of a jaguar often are seen as the support of a seat or altar on +which a god is represented as at Palenque in the Palace, House E +(Maudslay, IV, Pl. 44) and in the Temple of the Beau Relief (Holmes, +1895-1897, Pl. 20). Altar F at Copan (Pl. 35, fig. 7) shows the same +idea. The head of a puma or jaguar (Pl. 34, fig. 6) appears in the +bas-relief of the Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers, evidently +representing a part of an altar. A realistic carving of a jaguar was +found on a stone near the Temple of the Cones at Chichen Itza (Maudslay, +III, Pl. 52, fig. a), and another occurs near the present hacienda of +Chichen Itza carved in relief on a ledge of rock. + +In the Maya manuscripts the jaguar appears in a number of connections. +Its mythological character is shown in Dresden 8a (Pl. 35, fig. 5), +where it is pictured as the _tonalamatl_ figure. The day reached here in +the reckoning is _Ix_, and this corresponds to the Nahua _Oceolotl_, +which means jaguar. In Dresden 26, in the pages showing the ceremonies +of the years, the jaguar is carried on the back of the priest, evidently +representing one of the year bearers (_Ti cuch haab_). Balam, the name +of the jaguar, is the title given to the four _Bacabs_ or _Chacs_, the +gods of the four cardinal points. In Tro-Cortesianus 64a, two jaguar +heads are noted as the end of curious bands of _Caban_ signs over a +flaming pot. The second one is shown as dead. A jaguar head is employed +in two places in the Tro-Cortesianus, 34a and 36a, as a head-dress for a +god who is in the act of sowing corn. This animal appears very +infrequently in the pages of the Tro-Cortesianus given over to the +hunting scenes, 41c, 40c, 43b, and, even here, it never appears in the +same way as the deer and peccary, as an animal for sacrifice. + +The jaguar as a predacious beast is noted in Tro-Cortesianus 28b (Pl. +35, fig. 8), where it is attacking god F in a similar way as the +vultures in the preceding picture. The jaguar appears in Tro-Cortesianus +30b (Pl. 35, fig. 10) seated on the right hand of the goddess from whose +breasts water is flowing. The figure in Tro-Cortesianus 12b between the +various offerings may be a jaguar or a dog, more probably from its +connection with an offering, the dog. A curious modification of the +jaguar may be shown in Tro-Cortesianus 20a (Pl. 34, fig. 2), where a god +is seated on the gaping jaws of some animal whose identity is uncertain. +It may be a serpent, although the black-tipped tail from which the head +appears to come certainly suggests the jaguar. + +There are several carved glyphs in stone that probably represent +jaguars. Two of these (Pl. 28, fig. 4; Pl. 35, fig. 9) have the +characteristic round spots, but others are unmarked, and suggest the +jaguar by their general character only (Pl. 35, fig. 6). This latter +may, of course, represent the puma quite as well. A realistic jaguar +head appears as a glyph in Tro-Cortesianus 2a (Pl. 35, fig. 13). The +more usual glyph for the jaguar is more highly conventionalized, +although the spots and the short rounded ear are still characteristic +(Pl. 35, fig. 11). A slight modification of this glyph appears in +Dresden 8a in connection with the full drawing of the animal below. + +The Nahua day _Oceolotl_, as already noted, means jaguar, and the jaguar +glyph is found among the day signs (Pl. 34, fig. 3). Seler (1904, p. +379) associates the jaguar in the Vaticanus and the Bologna with +_Tezcatlipoca_. He notes that the second age of the world, in which the +giants lived and in which _Tezcatlipoca_ shone as the sun, is called the +"jaguar sun." _Tezcatlipoca_ is supposed to have changed himself into a +jaguar. + +PUMA (_Felis bangsi costaricensis_). As shown by Stempell, there can be +little doubt that some one of the mainly nominal species of Central +American puma is represented in Dresden 47 (Pl. 34, fig. 7). This animal +is colored reddish in the original, as is the puma, is without spots, +although the tip of the tail, as in the pictures of the jaguar, is +black. The animal is represented as being transfixed with a +spear.[358-*] Another animal colored red in Dresden 41c seems to +represent a puma. God B is shown seated upon him. A crude figure from +the Painted Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers (Pl. 34, fig. 5) is +probably the same species of puma. The cleverly executed head, shown in +profile in Pl. 34, fig. 6, is also perhaps the same animal, although it +may possibly represent the jaguar. One or the other of these two cats is +also intended, in Pl. 34, fig. 4, a drawing of a piece of pottery. + +COYOTE (_Canis_). Two figures from the Nuttall Codex have been included +as possibly representing coyotes (Pl. 35, figs. 1, 2). They are chiefly +characterized by their prominent ears and bristling hair, and seem to be +engaged in active combat. Coyotes of several species occur in Mexico and +though not generally regarded as aggressive animals are of a predacious +nature. No drawings of the coyote have been noted in the Maya codices. + +DOG (_Canis_). The dog (Maya, _peq_) evidently played an important part +in the life of the Mayas as it does with other races of men generally. +On Pls. 36, 37, we have included certain figures of dogs from several +manuscripts. These may represent two breeds, for it is well known that +both a hairy and a hairless variety were found by the early discoverers +in Mexico.[359-*] Hairiness is more or less clearly indicated in the +following figures:--Pl. 36, figs. 1-7, 12; Pl. 37, figs. 4, 5. The +figures of dogs usually agree in having a black mark about the eyes that +frequently is produced as a downward curved tongue from the posterior +canthus. Sometimes, as in Pl. 37, figs. 1-3, 10, this tongue is not +blackened. Commonly also black patches are elsewhere distributed on the +body, generally on the back. These markings are probably the patches of +color separated by white areas that occur frequently in dogs or other +animals after long domestication.[359-[+]] We have included among the +figures of dogs two in which the eye is differently represented and +which are unspotted (Pl. 37, figs. 4, 6). These modifications may have +some special significance, but otherwise the animals appear most closely +to represent dogs. + +We have already suggested that the animal attired in man's clothing, and +walking erect in Dresden 25a-28a is likewise a dog, though Stempell +believes it to represent the opossum in support of which he calls +attention to its prominent vibrissae and slightly curled tail. + +The dog played a large part in the religion both of the Mayas and the +Mexican peoples. It was connected especially with the idea of death and +destruction. The Lacandones of the present time make a small figure of a +dog to place on the grave (Tozzer, 1907, p. 47). This is but one of the +many survivals of the ancient pre-Columbian religion found among this +people. The dog was regarded as the messenger to prepare the way to the +other world. Seler (1900-1901, pp. 82-83) gives an interesting parallel +of the Nahua idea of the dog and his connection with death. He +paraphrases Sahagun as follows: "The native Mexican dogs barked, wagged +their tails, in a word, behaved in all respects like our own dogs, were +kept by the Mexicans not only as house companions, but above all, for +the shambles, and also in Yucatan and on the coast land for sacrifice. +The importance that the dog had acquired in the funeral rites may +perhaps have originated in the fact that, as the departed of both sexes +were accompanied by their effects, the prince by the women and slaves in +his service, so the dog was assigned to the grave as his master's +associate, friend, and guard, and that the persistence of this custom in +course of time created the belief that the dog stood in some special +relation to the kingdom of the dead. It may also be that, simply because +it was the practice to burn the dead, the dog was looked on as the Fire +God's animal and the emblem of fire, the natives got accustomed to speak +of him as the messenger to prepare the way in the kingdom of the dead, +and thus eventually to regard him as such. At the time when the +Spaniards made their acquaintance, it was the constant practice of the +Mexicans to commit to the grave with the dead a dog who had to be of a +red-yellow color, and had a string of unspun cotton round his neck, and +was first killed by the thrust of a dart in his throat. The Mexicans +believed that four years after death, when the soul had already passed +through many dangers on its way to the underworld, it came at last to +the bank of a great river, the Chicunauhapan, which encircled the +underworld proper. The souls could get across this river only when they +were awaited by their little dog, who, recognizing his master on the +opposite side, rushed into the water to bring him over." (Sahagun, 3 +Appendix, Chap. 1.) + +As might be expected from the foregoing, there are abundant evidences in +the manuscripts of the presence of the dog in the various religious +rites and especially those which have to do with the other world, the +Kingdom of the Dead. In Tro-Cortesianus 35b, 36b, 37a, 37b, the pages +showing the rites of the four years, the dog appears in various +attitudes. In 35b and 36b, it bears on his back the _Imix_ and _Kan_ +signs, in 37a (Pl. 37, fig. 8) it is shown as beating a drum and +singing, in 37b (Pl. 36, fig. 2) it is beside a bowl containing _Kan_ +signs. In all of these places, the dogs seem to be represented among the +various birds and animals which are to be sacrificed for the new years. +Landa (1864, p. 216)[361-*] states that in the _Kan_ year a dog was +sacrificed. In the _Muluc_ year, Landa (1864, p. 222)[361-[+]] records +that they offered dogs made of clay with bread upon their backs and a +_perrito_ which had black shoulders and was a virgin. It has already +been noted that two of the dogs represented in Tro-Cortesianus 35b and +36b have a _Kan_ and _Imix_ sign fastened to the back. Moreover, we have +also pointed out that the _Kan_ sign frequently seems to have the +meaning of maize or bread. It will be noted that in Tro-Cortesianus 36b +two human feet are shown on each of which is a dog-like +animal.[361-[++]] These may indicate the dance in which dogs were +carried as noted by Landa. Cogolludo (1688, p. 184)[361-Sec.] also mentions +a similar dance. Still another reference in Landa (1864, p. 260)[362-*] +mentions that in the months _Muan_ and _Pax_ dogs were sacrificed to the +deities. + +Reference has already been made to the identification of the four +priests at the top of Dresden 25-28 as having the heads of dogs rather +than of opossums. It may be suggested that in the role of the conductor +to the other world the dog is represented as carrying on his back in +each case the year which has just been completed and therefore is dead. +This, of course, would necessitate the identification of god B, the +jaguar, god E, and god A as representing in turn the four years. + +The dog, according to Sahagun's account (p. 360) was looked upon as the +"Fire God's animal," and as an emblem of fire. This idea is seen +frequently in the Maya manuscripts where the dog with firebrands in his +paws or attached to his tail is coming head downward from a line of +constellation signs, as in Dresden 36a (Pl. 37, fig. 3), 40b (Pl. 37, +fig. 1) or is standing beneath similar signs as in Dresden 39a (Pl. 37, +fig. 2) and probably in Tro-Cortesianus 13a. His tail alone has the +firebrand in Tro-Cortesianus 36b. Firebrands are carried by figures +which have been identified by us as dogs in Tro-Cortesianus 24c (Pl. 37, +fig. 6), 25c, and 90a. Here the animal is represented as in the air +holding his firebrands over a blazing altar beside which god F is +seated. In two out of the four cases, F is shown as dead. The dog in +these latter examples has his eye composed of the _Akbal_ sign. This +same glyph can also be made out with difficulty on the forehead of the +dog shown in Dresden 36a (Pl. 37, fig. 3). As has been noted, _Akbal_ +means night and possibly death as well. It is certain that destruction +is indicated in the preceding examples as well as in Tro-Cortesianus 87a +and 88a (Pl. 37, fig. 4) where the dog is holding four human figures by +the hair. + +Beyer (1908, pp. 419-422) has identified the dog as the Pleiades and +various other suggestions have been made that the dog represents some +constellation. The more common form of spotted dog is shown as a single +_tonalamatl_ figure in Tro-Cortesianus 25d and 27d (Pl. 36, fig. 14) and +an unspotted variety in Dresden 7a (Pl. 37, fig. 10). The dog is +frequently shown as copulating with another animal or with a female +figure. In Dresden 13c (Pl. 37, fig. 7) the second figure is a vulture, +in Dresden 21b (Pl. 37, fig. 5) it is a woman and also in +Tro-Cortesianus 91c (Pl. 36, fig. 12). + +The same animal appears also in a number of scenes not included in the +preceding. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 36, fig. 1) a dog is seated on a +crab and seems to be connected with the idea of the north as this sign +is noted above the figure; in Tro-Cortesianus 66b (Pl. 36, fig. 3) a dog +and another animal (Pl. 32, fig. 3) are seated back to back under a +shelter; in Tro-Cortesianus 30b a dog is seated on the right foot of the +woman from whose breasts water is streaming; in Dresden 29a (Pl. 37, +fig. 12) god B is shown seated on a dog; and, finally, in Dresden 30a +(Pl. 37, fig. 9) god B holds the bound dog by the tail over an altar. + +The dog appears from numerous references to be used in connection with a +prayer for rain. Comargo (1843) in his history of Tlaxcallan states that +when rain failed, a procession was held in which a number of hairless +dogs were carried on decorated litters to a place devoted to their use. +There they were sacrificed to the god of water and the bodies were +eaten. + +The glyphs associated with the dog are interesting as we have, as in the +case with the deer, one showing a realistic drawing of a dog's head in +Tro-Cortesianus 91d (Pl. 37, fig. 13) and several others far more +difficult of interpretation. Pl. 37, fig. 11, seems to stand for the dog +as it is found in several places where the dog appears below, Dresden +21b, 40b. It is thought by some to represent the ribs of a dog which +appear in somewhat similar fashion in Pl. 37, fig. 8. Some of the +glyphs in the codices for the month _Kankin_ show the same element (text +figs. 8-10). + +[Illustration: Figs. 8, 9, 10. +GLYPHS FOR MAYA MONTH KANKIN (RIBS OF DOG).] + +The Nahua day sign _Itzcuintli_ signifies dog and corresponds to the +Maya Oc (Pl. 36, figs. 9-11). This in turn is considered by many to +stand for the dog as the animal of death and signifies the end. The +sore, cropped ears of the domesticated dog are supposed to be +represented in this sign, Oc. Nahua and other day signs for _Itzcuintli_ +(dog) are shown in Pl. 36, figs. 4, 6, 13. + +BEAR (_Ursus machetes_; _U. horriaeus_). In northern Mexico, in +Chihuahua and Sonora, occur a black bear (_Ursus machetes_) and the +Sonoran grizzly (_U. horriaeus_). It is unlikely that the Mayas had much +acquaintance with these animals since they range more to the northward +than the area of Maya occupation. Stempell has identified as a bear, a +figure in Dresden 37a (Pl. 35, fig. 3). This represents a creature with +the body of a man walking erect but with the head apparently of some +carnivorous mammal, as shown by the prominent canine tooth. This appears +as a _tonalamatl_ figure. The resemblance to a bear is not very clear. +Less doubt attaches to the figure shown in Pl. 35, fig. 4, which seems +almost certainly to depict a bear. The stout body, absence of a tail, +the plantigrade hind feet, and stout claws, all seem to proclaim it a +bear of one of the two species above mentioned. This picture is found in +connection with one of the warriors shown in the bas-relief of the Lower +Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza. It seems clearly to +designate the figure in much the same way as figures are named in the +Mexican writings, _i.e._, by having a glyph showing this nearby. +Attention has already been called to the fact that here at Chichen Itza, +and, especially on this bas-relief, there is much which shows a strong +influence from the north. The two figures in Tro-Cortesianus 43a are +probably bears. Foerstemann (1902, p. 68) considers that they are men +masked as _Chacs_ or _Bacabs_. + +LEAF-NOSED BAT (_Vampyrus spectrum_; _Artibeus jamaicensis_; or +_Phyllostomus hastatus panamensis_). Several remarkably diabolical +representations of bats (Maya, _so[c]_, usually written _zotz_) occur +among the Maya remains. These all show the prominent nose leaf +distinguishing the family _Phyllostomatidae_ and, as the Mayas probably +used the largest and most conspicuous of the native species for artistic +representation, it is likely that some one of the three species above +mentioned is the one here shown. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 11, 12, 13, 14. +GLYPHS FOR MAYA MONTH ZOTZ (BATS).] + +The bat had a place in the Maya pantheon. One of the months of the Maya +year (_Zotz_) was named after this animal and the glyph for this month +shows the characteristic nasal appendage. This is to be seen more +clearly in the glyphs selected from the stone inscriptions (Pl. 38, +figs. 1, 2, 4-6) than in those from the codices (text figs. 11-14) +although the nose leaf is still visible in the latter. The day sign +_Akbal_ (night) occurs as the eye in the figures from the manuscripts. A +carving showing the whole body of the bat is used as a glyph in Stela D +from Copan (Pl. 38, fig. 3). This may also represent the Bat god who is +associated with the underworld, "the god of the caverns." This god is +pictured on the "Vase of Chama" (Pl. 38, fig. 7) figured by Dieseldorff +(1904, pp. 665-666) and by Gordon (1898, Pl. III). Seler (1904a) has +discussed the presence of this god among the Mayas, the Zapotecs, and +the Nahuas. The bat does not seem to occur in the Maya manuscripts as a +god, although there are glyphs which seem to refer to this god (Dresden +17b), as pointed out by Seler, when there is no other representation of +this deity. + +No doubt in the times of the Maya civilization, these bats haunted the +temples by day as they do now, and thus became readily endowed with a +religious significance. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15. +POTTERY WHISTLE, APE. FROM ULOA VALLEY, HONDURAS.] + +CAPUCHIN MONKEY (_Cebus capucinus,--C. hypoleucus_ Auct.)[TN-10] With the +possible exception of one or two figures, monkeys (Maya, _maa[vs]_ or +_baa[c]_) are not represented in the Maya codices examined. In +Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 39, fig. 4) occurs a curious nondescript animal +with what seem to be hoofs on the forefeet, a somewhat bushy tail of +moderate length, and a head that appears to be distinctly bonneted, +somewhat as in the representations of the capuchin. Stempell regards +this as a monkey, though recognizing that the short bushy tail is unlike +that of any Central American species. The figure seems quite as likely a +peccary or possibly a combination of a deer with some other animal. A +glyph (Pl. 39, fig. 5) found directly above the figure just referred +to, suggests a monkey, though it cannot be surely identified. A pottery +whistle from the Uloa Valley (text fig. 15) shows two monkeys standing +side by side with a posterior extension for the mouth piece. Their heads +are shaped as in other representations of this monkey with a distinct +cap or bonnet and facial discs. A pottery stamp from the same locality +shows a monkey with a long tail (Gordon, 1898, Pl. 11, fig. f). It +recalls the drawings of monkeys given by Strebel (1899, Pls. 1-4). + +In the Nuttall Codex are numerous heads and a few other figures of a +monkey, which from the erect hair of the crown, curling tail, and +distinctly indicated facial area must be the common bonneted or capuchin +monkey of Central America. This species does not occur in Yucatan. What +is undoubtedly the same animal is shown as a head glyph in Pl. 39, fig. +8, from the Aubin manuscript. The identifications of the head-forming +glyphs in the Nuttall and the Aubin manuscripts are certainly correct as +the Nahua day sign (_Ocomatli_) means ape. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 16, 17, 18, 19. +GLYPHS FOR MAYA DAY CHUEN.] + +Text figs. 16-19, show some of the signs for the day _Chuen_ from the +Maya codices. This is the day corresponding to the day Ocomatli of the +Nahuas. There is little resembling an ape in the Maya signs although it +has been remarked that the sign may show the open jaws and teeth of this +animal. + +Foerstemann (1897) as noted by Schellhas (1904, p. 21) alludes to the +fact that the figure of god C, which occurs also in the sign for the +north, in the _tonalamatl_ in Dresden 4a-10a occurs in the day _Chuen_ +of the Maya calendar, and this corresponds to the day _Ocomatli_, the +ape, in the Nahua calendar. This would suggest a connection between god +C and the ape and this may be seen in the glyphs for god C (text figs. +20-24). Foerstemann sees "an ape whose lateral nasal cavity (peculiar to +the American ape or monkey) is occasionally represented plainly in the +hieroglyph picture." He also associates god C with the constellation of +Ursa Minor. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 20, 21, 22, 23, 24. +GLYPHS OF GOD C.] + +It will be seen from the detailed examination of the fauna shown in the +codices that after all a comparatively small part of the animal life of +the country occupied by the Maya speaking peoples is represented. The +drawings in some cases are fairly accurate, so that there is little +difficulty in determining the species intended by the artist. At other +times, it is hazardous to state the exact species to which the animal +belongs. It is only in a comparatively small number of cases, however, +that there is any great doubt attached to the identification. It will be +noted that the drawings of the Dresden manuscript are much more +carefully and accurately done than those of the Tro-Cortesianus. A +greater delicacy and a more minute regard for detail characterize the +Dresden drawings in general. + +In the animals selected for reproduction by the Mayas, only those were +taken which were used either in a purely religious significance for +their mythological character (and here naturally there is to be noted an +anthropomorphic tendency) or animals were chosen which were employed as +offerings to the many different gods of the Maya pantheon. The religious +character of the whole portrayal of animal life in the codices is +clearly manifest, and it is this side of the subject which will come out +more clearly as the manuscripts are better known. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[300-*] Quoted in Thomas, 1882, pp. 115, 116. + +[300-[+]] "En el mes de _Tzoz_ se aparejavan los senores de las +colmenares para celebrar su fiesta en _Tzec_." + +[301-*] "En este mes (_Mol_) tornavan los colmenares a hazer otra fiesta +como la que hizieron en _Tzec_, para que los dioses proveessen de flores +a las avejas." + +[303-*] Strebel (1899, Pl. 11) gives several realistic reproductions of +the centipede from pottery fragments. + +[309-*] Attention is also called to two whistles representing frogs in +the _Memoirs of the Peabody Museum_, I, _No._ 4 (Gordon, 1898), Pl. 9, +figs, i, j. + +[311-*] We have added here a Spanish description from the _Relacion de +la Ciudad de Merida_ (1900, pp. 66, 67) of the varieties of serpent +found in the country. "Ay una suerte de culebra que llaman los naturales +taxinchan, de una tercia de largo, que para andar hinca la cabeza en el +suelo y da un salto, y de aquella suerte dando saltos anda, la espalda y +la cabeza tiene dorada y la punta dela cola este se cria en los montes, +y quando pica a alguna persona le haze reventar sangre por todos los +poros del cuerpo que pareze que suda sangre y si no es le haze algun +rremedio muere dentro de un dia natural y para la mordedura desta +culebra tienen por rremedio los naturales dar a bever ala tal persona +chile y hoja de piciete molido junto y desleido en agua, y con esto +guarecen e sanan--ay biboras muy grandes y ponzonosas de una vara e mas +de largo, y tan gruesa como un brazo, que tienen cascabeles en la punta +de la cola, y si muerden matan sino se rremedio con brebedad, y tienen +los naturales por rremedio beber chile e piciete como para la mordedura +del taxinchan--ay otras suertes de culebras que se llaman cocob, de tres +y cuatro varas de largo y tan gruesas como una lanza gineta, que tanbien +son muy ponzonosas, y al que pican haze salir sangre por todo el cuerpo +y por los ojos, como el taxinchan, ... procuraban guarecerse desta +ponzona con juros y encantamentos, que avia grandes en cantadores y +tenian sus libros para conjurarlas y encantarlas, y estos encantadores, +con pocas palabras que dezian, encantaban y amansaban las culebras +ponzonosas, las cojian y tomaban con las manos sin que les hiziese mal +ninguno--tanbien ay culebras bobas sin ponzonas, de dos varas y mas de +largo y tan gruesas como el brazo, y suelen ponerse sobre arboles juntos +alos caminos, y quando pasa alguna persona se deja caer encima y se le +enrosca y rebuelve al cuerpo y a la garganta, y apretando le procura +ahogarle y matarle, a sucedido matar algunos yndios cacadores yendo +descuidados--tanbien tienen estas culebras distinto natural para comer y +sustentarse." + +[313-*] Pl. 9, figs. 5, 9, show drawings of the rattlesnake which occur +on the fresco. + +[316-*] The reader is also referred to the bas-relief of the Lower +Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza where a serpent is +shown behind a low altar. + +[317-*] Foerstemann (1906, p. 15) agrees with Schellhas that this may be +a rebus for the name _Quetzalcoatl_ or _Kukulcan_. As the bird is a +vulture rather than a quetzal this could hardly be the case. + +[317-[+]] "Y con isopo en el mano de un palo corto muy labrado, y por +barbas o pelos del isopo ciertas colas de unas culebras que son como +caxcavales." + +[318-*] Brinton (1893, p. 25) notes that the equivalent of _Kan_ in the +Nahuatl of Miztitlan is _xilotl_ which means ear of corn. This seems to +show the correctness of the usual identification of the _Kan_ sign as +meaning maize or bread (_pan_). + +[318-[+]] "Y les ofrecian dos pellas de una leche o resina de un arbol +que llaman _kik_, para quemar y ciertas iguanas y pan y una mitra y un +manojo de flores y una piedra preciosa de las suyas." + +[319-*] "Y pintaban un largarto que significaba el Diluvio--y la tierra +e sobre este largarto hazian un gran monton de lena y ponianle fuego." + +[323-*] See in this connection Seler, 1904. + +[327-*] "Y ofrecerle cabecas de pavos y pan y bevidas de maiz." + +[327-[+]] (Kan year) "Sahumavan la imagen, degollavan una gallina y se +la presentavan o offrecian ... y assi le hazian muchas offrendas de +comidas y bevidas de carne y pescado, y estas offrendas repartian a los +estrangeros que alli se hallavan." + +(Muluc year) "Y despues degollavanle la gallina como al passado." + +(Ix year) "Y degollavan la gallina ... a la estatua de _Kac-u-Uayeyab_ +ofrescian una cabeca de un pavo, y empanados de codornices y otras +coasa[TN-11] y su bevida." + +(Cauac year) "Coma solian y degollavanle la gallina ... un hombre muerto +y en cima un paxaro cenicero llamad _kuch_, en senal de mortandad +grande, ca por muy mal ano tenian este." + +[330-*] Foerstemann identifies this bird as a black eagle. + +[333-*] "Este ano en que la letra era _Cauac_ y reynava el +_Bacab-Hozanek_ tenian, allende de la pronosticada mortandad, por ruyn, +por que dezian les avian los muchos soles de matar los maizales, y comer +las muchas hormigas lo que sembrassen y los paxaros, y porque esto no +seria en todas partes avria en algunos comida, la qual avrian con gran +trabajo." + +[338-*] Brinton (1895, p. 74), according to our interpretation, makes a +mistake when he considers the crested falcon as the Moan, "in Maya +_muan_ or _muyan_." He adds, "Some writers have thought the moan bird +was a mythical animal but Dr. C. H. Berendt found the name still applied +to the falcon. In the form _muyan_, it is akin in sound to _muyal_, +cloud, _muan_, cloudy, which may account for its adoption as a symbol of +the rains, etc." + +[341-*] "Crian paxaros para su recreacion y para las plumas para hazer +sus ropas galanas." + +[349-*] _Relacion hecha por el Licenciado Palacio al Rey. D. Felipe II_ +(1866, p. 31). "Lo que hacian en los sacrificios de la pesca y caza, era +que tomaban un venado vivo y llevabanlo al patio del cu e iglesia que +tenian fuera del pueblo y alli lo ahogaban y lo desollaban y le salaban +toda la sangre en una olla, y el higado y bofes y buches los hacian +pedazos muy pequenos y apartaban el corazon, cabeza y pies, y mandaban +cocer el venado por si, la sangre for[TN-12] si, y mientras esto se +cocia, hacian su baile. Tomaban el Papa y sabio la cabeza del venado por +las orejas, y los cuatro sacerdotes los cuatro pies, y el mayordomo +llevaba un brasero, do se quemaba el corazon con uli y copa, e incensaban +al idolo que tenian puesto y senalado para la caza y pesca. Acabado el +mitote, ofrecian la cabeza y pies al idolo y chamuscabanla, y despues de +chamuscada, la llevaban a casa del Papa y se la comia y el venado y su +sangre comian los demas sacerdotes delante del idolo; a los pescados les +sacaban las tripas y los quemaban ante el dicho idolo. Lo propio era con +los demas animales." + +_Relacion de Cotuta y Tibolon_ (1898, p. 105). "Un dios que dezian que +eran benados en matando un yndio un benado benia luego a su dios y con +el coracon le untaba la cara de sangre y sino mataba algo aquel dia +ybase a su casa aquel yndio le quebraba y dabale de cozes diziendo que +no era buen dios." + +Cogolludo (1688, Book I, Chap. VII, p. 43) "Correan tan poco los +venados, y tan sin espantarse de la gente, que los soldados de a cavallo +del exercito los alcancavan, y alanceavan, muy a su placer, y de esta +suerte mataron muchos de ellos, con que comieron algunos dias despues +... Que en que consistia aquella novedad, de aver tanta maquina de +venados, y estar tan mansos? Les dieron por respuesta; Que en aquellos +Pueblos los tenian por sus Dioses a los venador; porque su Idolo Mayor +se les avia aparecido en aquella figura." + +[350-*] "Y con su devocion invocavan los cacadores a los dioses de la +caca, ... sacava cada uno una flecha y una calabera de venado, las +quales los _chaces_ untavan con el betun azul; y untados, vailavan con +ellas en las manos unos." + +[350-[+]] In the _Muluc_ years, he states "davan al sacredote una pierna +de venado" and also in the same month, "Ofrecian a la imagen pan hecho +como yemas de uevos y otros como coracones de venados, y otro hecho con +su pimienta desleida." + +[351-*] Foerstemann (1902, p. 20) identifies this animal as a rabbit! + +[351-[+]] Foerstemann identifies this animal as a dog. + +[352-*] This animal has been identified by Stempell as an agouti +notwithstanding the hoofs and tusks. + +[352-[+]] Foerstemann (1906, p. 228) suggests that this animal is a bear. + +[353-*] Attention is called to the curious half-human, half-animal +figure in Tro-Cortesianus 2a which may suggest the figures in Dresden +44a, 45a and which are here identified as peccaries. Both are descending +from the band of constellation signs and the heads of each are not +greatly dissimilar. + +[354-*] Foerstemann (1906, p. 229) suggests that fig. 8 is a walrus! + +[358-*] Seler (1904) gives an interesting explanation of the reason why +the puma and the other corresponding figures are shown hit with a spear. + +[359-*] _Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida_ (1898, p. 63): "Ay perros +naturales dela tierra que no tienen pelo ninguno, y no ladran, que +tienen los dientes ralos e agudos, las orejas pequenas, tiesas y +levantadas--a estos engordan los yndios para comer y los tienen por gran +rregalo--estos se juntan con los perros de espana y enjendran y los +mestizos que dellos proceden ladran y tienen pelo y tambien los comen +los yndios cano alos demas, y tambien los yndios tienen otra suerte de +perros que tienen pelo pero tan poco ladran y son del mesmo tamano que +los demas." + +[359-[+]] Brinton (1895, p. 72) regards these spots as representing +stars. + +[361-*] "Y que le sacrificassen un perro o un hombre ... porque hazian +en el patio del templo un gran monton de piedras y ponian al hombre o +perro que avian de sacrificiar en alguna cosa mas alta que el." + +[361-[+]] "Avian de ofrescerle perros hechos de barro con pan en las +espaldas, y avian de vailar con ellos en las manos las viejas y +sacrificarle un perrito que tuviesse las espaldas negras y fuesse +virgen." + +[361-[++]] These might quite as well be rabbits as dogs. + +[361-Sec.] "De los Indios de Cozumel dize, que aun en su tiempo eran +grandes Idolatras, y usaban un bayle de su gentilidad, en el qual +flechaban un perro [^q] auian de sacrificar." + +[362-*] "Donde sacrificavan un perro, manchado por la color del cacao +... y ofrecianles yguanas de las azules y ciertas plumas de un paxaro." + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY. + + +Aubin Manuscript, See Seler 1900-1901. + +Beyer, Herman. + 1908, The symbolic meaning of the dog in ancient Mexico; in _American + Anthropologist_ (N. S.), Vol. X, pp. 419-422, Washington. + +Bologna Codex, See Cospiano Codex. + +Borbonicus Codex, See Hamy, 1899. + +Borgia Codex, See Seler, 1904-1906. + +Brasseur de Bourbourg, Charles Etienne. + 1869-1870, Manuscrit Troano. 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Manuscrit Mexicain de la Bibliotheque der + Palais Bourbon; Text and plates, Paris. + +Holmes, William Henry. + 1895-1897, Archaeological studies among the ancient cities of Mexico; + _Field Museum of Natural History, Publications_ 8 and 16, + _Anthropological Series_, Vol. I, No. I, Chicago. + +Hough, Walter. + 1908, The pulque of Mexico; in _Proceedings of the United States + National Museum_, Vol. XXXIII, pp. 577-592, Washington. + +Landa, Diego de. + 1864, Relacion de las cosas de Yucatan; Spanish text with French + translation published by Brasseur de Bourbourg; 8^o, pp. 516, + Paris. (The references in the text are to this edition). Spanish + edition published by Juan de Dios de la Rada y Delgado, Madrid, + 1884, as an appendix to his translation of Leon de Rosny's article, + Essai sur le dechiffrement de l'ecriture hieratique de l'Amerique + Centrale. Second Spanish edition in Coleccion de Documentos ineditos + (2d Series); Madrid, 1900, Vol. XIII, pp. 265-411. + + 1900, See second Spanish edition under 1864. (This contains much that + is not given in the 1864 edition.) + +Maler, Teoberto. + 1901-1903, Researches in the Usumatsintla Valley; in _Memoirs of the + Peabody Museum_, Vol. II, Cambridge. + + 1908, Explorations of the Upper Usumatsintla and adjacent region; in + _Memoirs of the Peabody Museum_, Vol. IV, No. 1, Cambridge. + +Maudslay, Alfred P. + 1889-1902, Biologia Centrali-Americana, or Contributions to the + knowledge of the flora and fauna of Mexico and Central America. + Archaeology; Text and 4 vols. plates, London. + +Nuttall Codex. + 1902, Reproduced in facsimile by the Peabody Museum, Cambridge. + +Palacio. + 1686, Relacion hecha por el Licentiado Palacio al Rey. D. Felipe II en + la que describe la Provincia de Guatemala, las costumbres de los + Indios y otras casas notables; in _Coleccion de Documentos ineditos + relativos al descubrimiento, conquista y organizacion de las + antiguas posesiones Espanales[TN-13] de America y Oceania_; Tomo VI, + pp. 7-40, Madrid. + +Peresianus Codex, See Rosny, 1887. + +Perez, Juan Pio. + 1866-1877, Diccionario de la lengua Maya; sm. 4^o, pp. 437, Merida. + +Rada y Delgado, Juan de Dios de la. + 1893, Codice Maya denominado Cortesianus que se conserva en el Museo + Arqueologio Nacional; 42 colored plates, Madrid. + +Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida. + 1900, in _Coleccion de Documentos ineditos relativos al + descubrimiento, conquista y organizacion de las antiguas posesiones + Espanolas de Ultra mar_ (_Segunda serie_), Tomo XI, pp. 37-75, + Madrid. + +Relacion de Cotuta y Tibolon. + 1900, in _Coleccion de Documentos ineditos etc._, (_Segunda serie_), + Tomo XI, pp. 93-103, Madrid. + +Rosny, Leon de. + 1876, Essai sur le dechiffrement de l'ecriture hieratique de + l'Amerique Centrale, Paris. + + 1887, Codex Peresianus, Manuscrit hieratique des anciens Indiens de + l'Ameirque[TN-14] Centrale conserve a la Bibliotheque[TN-15] National + de Paris, Paris. + +Schellhas, Paul. + 1904, Representations of deities of the Maya manuscripts; in _Papers + of the Peabody Museum_, Vol. IV, No. 1, pp. 1-47, Cambridge. + (Revised translation of second German edition of 1904.) + +Seler, Eduard. + 1900-1901, The Tonalamatl of the Aubin Collection, (English edition), + pp. 147, plates 19, Berlin and London. (Loubat edition.) + + 1901, Codex Fejervary-Mayer. Manuscrit Mexicain precolombien du Free + Public Museum de Liverpool (M 12014). Text and plates, Paris. + (Loubat edition.) + + 1902-1903, Codex Vaticanus 3773, Text and plates, Berlin. (Loubat ed.) + + 1904, Venus period in the picture writings of the Borgia Codex group; + in _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin_ 28, pp. 355-391, Washington. + (Translation of German edition of 1898.) + + 1904a, The Bat god of the Maya race; in _Bureau of Ethnology, + Bulletin_ 28, pp. 231-242, Washington. (Translation of the German + edition of 1894.) + + 1904b, Antiquities from Guatemala: in _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin_ + 28, pp. 75-121, Washington. (Translation of the German edition of + 1895. republished[TN-16] in his collected works, Vol. III, pp. + 578-640.) + + 1904-1906, Codex Borgia. Eine altmexikanische Bilderschrift der + Bibliothek der Congregatio de Propaganda Fide; 4^o, 2 vols. plates, + Berlin (Loubat edition.) + + 1909, Die Tierbilder der mexikanischen und Maya-Handschriften:[TN-17] in + _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1909, pp. 209-257, 381-457 (not + completed). + +Stempell, W. + 1908, Die Tierbilder der Mayahandschriften; in _Zeitschrift fuer + Ethnologie_, 40 Jahrgang, Vol. V, pp. 704-743. + +Strebel, Hermann. + 1899, Uber Tierornamente auf Thongefaessen aus Alt-Mexico; in + _Veroeffentlichen aus dem Konig. Mus. fuer Voelkerkunde_, Vol. VI, part + 1, pp. 1-33, Berlin. + +Thomas, Cyrus. + 1882, A study of the Manuscript Troana; in _Contributions to North + American Ethnology_, Vol. V, pp. 234, Washington. + + 1884-1885, Aids to the study of the Maya codices; in _Bureau of + Ethnology_, 6th annual report, pp. 253-371, Washington. + +Tozzer, Alfred M. + 1907, A comparative study of the Mayas and the Lacandones. Report of + the Fellow in American Archaeology, 1902-1905; Archaeological + Institute of America, 8^o, pp. 195, plates 29, New York. + +Troano Codex, See Brasseur de Bourbourg, 1867-1870. + +Villagutierre Soto Mayor, Juan. + 1701, Historia de la Conquista de la Provincia de el Itza; 4^o, pp. + 660, Madrid. + +Vaticanus 3773, See Seler, 1902. + + + + +PLATE 1 + +MOLLUSCA + + +FASCIOLARIA GIGANTEA + + 1. Man emerging from shell, Dresden 41b. + 2. Same, Borgia 4. + 3. Bologna 4. + 4. Dresden 37b. + 5. Vaticanus 3773, 66. + 6. Nuttall 16. + 7. Sign for zero, Dresden 64. + 8. Glyph, Dresden 41b. + 9. Nuttall 16. + +OLIVA + + 10, 11. Sign for zero, Dresden 63. + 12. Same, Dresden 55b. + +OTHER MOLLUSCA + + 13. Sign for zero, Dresden 54b. + 14. Same. Bivalve, Dresden 63. + 15. Bivalve, Nuttall 25. + 16. Nuttall 49. + 17. Nuttall 23. + 18. Nuttall 16. + 19. Nuttall 36. + 20. Nuttall 75. + 21. Bivalve closed, seen in profile, Nuttall 75. + 22. Same, Nuttall 25. + 23. Probably bivalve, Nuttall 16. + 24. Same. Nuttall 36. + +[Illustration: PLATE 1] + + +PLATE 2 + +INSECTA + +HONEY BEE (_Melipona_) + + 1. Possibly a drone, Tro-Cortesianus 108a. + 2, 3. Tro-Cortesianus 108a. + 4, 6[TN-18] Bees more conventionalized, Tro-Cortesianus 80b. + 5. Bee and honey comb, Tro-Cortesianus 109c. + 7. Honey combs, apparently in a hive, Tro-Cortesianus 11c. + 8. Maya day sign, _Cauac_, possibly representing a honey comb, + Tro-Cortesianus 106b. + 9. Tro-Cortesianus 103c. + 10. Honey combs in a hive, Tro-Cortesianus 104a. + 11. Bee and honey comb, Tro-Cortesianus 109c. + +[Illustration: PLATE 2] + + +PLATE 3 + +INSECTA AND MYRIAPODA + + 1. Maggots, probably of Blowfly (_Sarcophaga_), Tro-Cortesianus 27d. + 2. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 24d. + 3. Larva of _Acentrocneme kollari_, Tro-Cortesianus 28c. + 4. Conventionalized insect, possibly a hornet, Nuttall 3. + 5. Conventionalized insect, unidentified, Nuttall 19. + 6. Same, Nuttall 55. + 7. Same, Nuttall 51. + 8. Butterfly or moth, Nuttall 19. + 9. Butterfly, Aubin. + 10. Maya day sign, _Akbal_, possibly representing the head of a + centipede. + 11. Glyph belonging to god D, apparently composed of signs for + centipede, Dresden 7b. + 12. Glyph for god D, Dresden 14b. + 13. Glyph, Dresden 44b. + 14. Same, Dresden 27a. + 15. Centipede in connection with head-dress of god D, Dresden 15c. + 16. Glyph, Dresden 9b. + 17. Same, Dresden 15c. + 18. Centipede in connection with head-dress of god D, Dresden 7c. + +[Illustration: PLATE 3] + + +PLATE 4 + +ARACHNOIDEA, ARACHNIDA, CRUSTACEA + + 1. Scorpion and deer, Tro-Cortesianus 48c. + 2. Scorpion with sting conventionalized as a hand, Tro-Cortesianus 44c. + 3. Scorpion highly conventionalized, Nuttall 22. + 4. Spider, possibly a tarantula, Borbonicus 9. + 5. Crayfish, Nuttall 16. + 6. Crab, Nuttall 37. + +[Illustration: PLATE 4] + + +PLATE 5 + +MYRIAPODA, PISCES + + 1. Parts of a conventionalized centipede with quetzal tail, Vaticanus + 3773, 13. + 2. Fish with teeth, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber + (Maudslay, III, Pl. 48). + 3. Fish captured by heron, Dresden 36b. (Compare Pl. 15, fig. 5.) + 4. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III, + Pl. 45). + 5. Fish. + 6. Pottery fish, Chajcar (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 93). + 7. Same. + 8. Fish as offering, Tro-Cortesianus 3a. + 9. Same, Dresden 29b. + +[Illustration: PLATE 5] + + +PLATE 6 + +PISCES + + 1. Possibly a flying-fish (_Exocetus_), Nuttall 75. + 2. Palenque, Temple of the Cross (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 68). + 3. Nuttall 36. + 4, 5. Glyphs, possibly of a shark, Dresden 40a. + 6. Fish as offering, Dresden 27c. + 7. Fish without dorsal fins, possibly an eel (_Muraena_), Dresden 65b. + 8. Fish as offering, Dresden 23b. + 9. Pottery animal from Santa Rita (Gann, 1897-1898, Pl. 34). + 10. Dresden 44c. + 11. Nuttall 16. + 12. Palenque, Palace (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 11). + 13. Fish as offering, Dresden 33a. + 14. Fish as part of the Great Cycle glyph, Copan, Stela C, north + (Maudslay, I, Pl. 41). + 15. Same, Copan, Stela C, south (Maudslay, I, Pl. 41.) + 16. Same, Copan, Stela D (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48). + 17. Same, Copan, Stela C, south (Maudslay, I, Pl. 41). + +[Illustration: PLATE 6] + + +PLATE 7 + +AMPHIBIA + + 1. Frog (_Rana_), Tro-Cortesianus 31a. + 2, 3. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 101d. + 4. Probably a toad (_Bufo_), Copan, Oblong altar (Maudslay, I, Pl. + 114). + 5. Frog or toad, Tro-Cortesianus 17b. + 6. Frog and fish, Copan, Altar O (Maudslay, I, Pl. 85). + 7. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III, + Pl. 46). + +[Illustration: PLATE 7] + + +PLATE 8 + +AMPHIBIA, REPTILIA + + 1. God F representing a tree-toad (_Hyla eximia_), Tro-Cortesianus + 26b. + 2. Glyph evidently belonging to fig. 3, Tro-Cortesianus 26a. + 3. Same as fig. 1, Tro-Cortesianus 26a. + 4. Snake, Nuttall 6. + 5. Same, Nuttall 45. + 6. Same, Nuttall 37. + 7. Snake used as head-dress of a woman, Dresden 39b. + 8. Same, Dresden 23b. + 9. Same, Dresden 43b. + 10. Same, Dresden 22b. + 11. Same, Dresden 9c. + 12. Same, Dresden 15b. + 13. Same, Dresden 18a. + 14. Dresden 42a. + 15. Same as figs. 7-13, Dresden 20a. + +[Illustration: PLATE [8][TN-19]] + + +PLATE 9 + +REPTILIA + +RATTLESNAKE (_Crotalus_) + + 1. Tro-Cortesianus 33b. + 2. Nahua day sign, _Couatl_, Aubin 10. + 3. Tro-Cortesianus 52c. + 4. Tro-Cortesianus 40b. + 5. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber (Maudslay, III, + Pl. 40). + 6. Nuttall 29. + 7. Glyph representing rattles, Tro-Cortesianus 106c. + 8. Tro-Cortesianus 100d. + 9. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber (Maudslay, III, + Pl. 40). + 10. Nuttall 54. + +[Illustration: PLATE 9] + + +PLATE 10 + +REPTILIA + +SERPENTS + + 1. Tree snake (possibly _Lachesis_), Dresden 27c. + 2. Nuttall 37. + 3. Dresden 57b. + 4. Nuttall 5. + 5. Nuttall 37. + 6. Nuttall. + 7. Serpent in connection with long number series, Dresden 62. + 8. Dresden 37b. + 9. Dresden 40c. + +[Illustration: PLATE 10.] + + +PLATE 11 + +REPTILIA + +SERPENTS + + 1. Large snake with conventionalized spots, Tro-Cortesianus 30a. + 2. Tro-Cortesianus 31b. + +[Illustration: PLATE 11] + + +PLATE 12 + +REPTILIA + +IGUANA, LIZARDS + + 1. Iguana as offering, Tro-Cortesianus 105c. + 2. Iguana, Tro-Cortesianus 3b. + 3. Iguana, as offering with _Kan_, Dresden 43c. + 4. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107b. + 5. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 6a. + 6. Same, Dresden 29b. + 7. Offering, possibly representing a lizard, Dresden 27b. + 8. Same, Dresden 34a. + 9. Lizard used for _Uinal_ glyph, Copan, Stela D, gl. 4. (Maudslay, I, + Pl. 48). + 10. Nahua day sign, _Cuetzpalin_ (lizard), Aubin 10. + 11. Lizard, Dresden 3a. + 12. Nuttall 10. + 13. Offering, the portion with serrated margin possibly representing + an iguana, Tro-Cortesianus 12b. + 14. Lizard, Nuttall 2. + +[Illustration: PLATE 12] + + +PLATE 13 + +REPTILIA + +CROCODILE (_Crocodilus_) + + 1. Glyph of the Nahua day sign, _Cipactli_, Nuttall 1. + 2. Crocodile represented by head and limb, Nuttall 36. + 3. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 1. + 4. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 4. + 5. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 9. + 6. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 47. + 7. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 1. + 8. Nuttall 75. + 9. Head of lizard or possibly crocodile used as a _Uinal_ glyph, + Palenque, Temple of the Foliated Cross (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 82, + gl. 6). + 10. Head of crocodile, Dresden 52b. + 11. Head, possibly of a crocodile, Palenque, Temple of the Foliated + Cross (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 82, gl. 0,[TN-20] 4). + 12. Conventionalized head of a crocodile, Dresden 53b. + +[Illustration: PLATE 13.] + + +PLATE 14 + +REPTILIA + +TURTLES + + 1. Turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 19b. + 2. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 17b. + 3. Swimming turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 17a. + 4. Possibly representing a turtle, Nuttall 33. + 5. Turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 81c. + 6. Freshwater turtle (_Chelydra_) with leeches attached, + Tro-Cortesianus 72b. + 7. Glyph for fig. 3. + 8. Glyph. + 9. Glyph. + 10. Glyph. + 11. Turtle, Nuttall 43. + 12. Turtle god, _Aac_, Dresden 49. + +[Illustration: PLATE 14] + + +PLATE 15 + +AVES + +HERONS[TN-21] FRIGATE BIRD + + 1. Heron, stucco ornament, Palenque, Palace, House B (Maudslay, IV, + Pl. 18). + 2. Heron head-dress, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber + (Maudslay, III, Pl. 45). + 3. Head and neck of a heron, Dresden 37b. + 4. Heron, Nuttall 74. + 5. Heron with fish, Palenque, Temple of the Cross, West side panel + (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 71). + 6. Heron[TN-22] + 7. Heron with a fish as a head-dress, Dresden 36a. + 8. Fork-tailed bird, probably a Frigate bird (_Fregata aquila_), + Tro-Cortesianus 34a. + 9. Same, arranged for offering, Dresden 35a. + +[Illustration: PLATE 15] + + +PLATE 16 + +AVES + +OCELLATED TURKEY (_Agriocharis ocellata_) + + 1. Turkey in trap, Tro-Cortesianus 93a. + 2. Turkey, Tro-Cortesianus 10b. + 3. Turkey snared, Tro-Cortesianus 91a. + 4. Tro-Cortesianus 4a. + 5. Tro-Cortesianus 95c. + 6. Tro-Cortesianus 37b. + 7. Vaticanus 3773, 14. + 8. Tro-Cortesianus 36a. + 9. Whole turkey as offering, Dresden 26c. + 10. Head of turkey as offering, Dresden 34a. + 11. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 12b. + 12. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 105b. + 13. Dresden 20a. + 14. Head of turkey as offering, Dresden 41c. + 15. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107b. + 16. Same, Dresden 29c. + 17. Same, Dresden 28c. + +[Illustration: PLATE 16] + + +PLATE 17 + +AVES + +KING VULTURE (_Sarcorhamphus papa_) + + 1. Tro-Cortesianus 67a. + 2. Tro-Cortesianus 22c. + 3. God with head of King Vulture, Dresden 19a. + 4. King Vulture and Ocellated Turkey, Tro-Cortesianus 85a. + 5. Glyph, showing head, Dresden 39c. + 6. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107c. + 7. Same, Dresden 38b. + 8. Same. + 9. King Vulture, tearing out entrails of deer, Tro-Cortesianus 40a. + 10. _Tun_ period glyph (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 89). + 11. Tro-Cortesianus 94c. + 12. Tro-Cortesianus 26c. + 13. Glyph, Chichen Itza, Monjas, east (Maudslay, III, Pl. 13). + +[Illustration: PLATE 17] + + +PLATE 18 + +AVES. + +KING VULTURE (_Sarcorhamphus papa_), BLACK VULTURE (_Catharista urubu_) + + 1. Glyph of head of King Vulture, Dresden 11b. + 2. Glyph for Nahua day sign, _Cozcaquauhtli_, Nuttall 5. + 3. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 41. + 4. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 5. + 5. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 4. + 6. Same as fig. 2, showing considerable conventionalization. Nuttall + 2. + 7. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 3. + 8. Same as fig[TN-23] 2, further reduced, Nuttall 18. + 9. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 3. + 10. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 20. + 11. Probably a Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 95c. + 12. Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 70a. + 13. Same, Dresden 17b. + 14. Possibly a Black Vulture, Chichen Itza, Monjas, east (Maudslay, + III, Pl. 13). + 15. Head of Black Vulture, Nuttall 32. + 16. Glyph of head of same, Dresden 54b. + 17. Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 36b. + 18. Head of same, Tro-Cortesianus 26c. + 19. Same, Dresden 39c. + 20. Same, Nuttall 19. + 21. Same, Nuttall 34. + 22. Same, Dresden 37c. + 23. Same, Nuttall 27. + 24. Same, Nuttall 1. + 25. Same, Nuttall 34. + 26. Same, Nuttall 9. + 27. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 19b. + +[Illustration: PLATE 18] + + +PLATE 19 + +AVES. + +VULTURES + + 1. Vulture (probably a King Vulture) tearing at entrails of an animal, + Tro-Cortesianus 42a. + 2. Nuttall 69. + 3. Nuttall 74. + 4. Possibly a Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 35b. + 5. Tro-Cortesianus 26d. + 6. Tro-Cortesianus 26d. + 7. Dresden 3a. + 8. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 16). + 9. Glyph, Copan, Altar K (Maudslay, I, gl. 73). + 10. Glyph, Tikal, House 9 (Maudslay, III, Pl. 79). + 11. Black Vulture and snake, Dresden 36b. + 12. Probably vultures, Tro-Cortesianus 100b. + 13. Probably a vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 18b. + 14. Same, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber, Chichen Itza (Maudslay, + III, Pl. 46). + +[Illustration: PLATE 19] + + +PLATE 20 + +AVES + +HARPY EAGLE (_Thrasaetos harpyia_) + + 1. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 16, gl. 3). + 2. Nuttall 53. + 3. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 16, gl. 13). + 4. Tro-Cortesianus 88c. + 5. Part of a head-dress, Dresden 14c. + 6. Peresianus 2. + 7. Dresden 14b. + 8. Eagle with crest feathers tipped by flints, Nuttall[TN-24] + 9. Glyph, Tro-Cortesianus 107c. + 10. Stone carving, Chichen Itza (Maudslay, III, Pl. 52). + 11. Dresden 23c. + 12. Possibly an eagle's head, Dresden 43c. + 13. Possibly an eagle, Dresden 74. + 14. Bologna 7. + +[Illustration: PLATE 20] + + +PLATE 21 + +AVES + +YUCATAN HORNED OWL (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_) + + 1. Owl in flight, Stucco ornament, Palenque, Palace, House E + (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 43). + 2. Stone carving of owl, Yaxchilan, Stela 4 (Peabody Museum Memoirs, + II, Pl. 70). + 3. Owl in flight, carved in wood, Tikal, House C, lintel (Maudslay, + III, Pl. 78). + +[Illustration: PLATE 21] + + +PLATE 22 + +AVES + +YUCATAN HORNED OWL (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_) + + 1. Bologna 7. + 2. As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 95c. + 3. Borgia 7. + 4. On end of staff carried by warrior, Chichen Itza, Temple of the + Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 49). + 5. Aubin 13. + 6. Head highly conventionalized, Palenque, Temple of the Sun + (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 88). + 7. Screech-owl (_chiquatli_), Aubin. + +[Illustration: [PLATE] 22[TN-25]] + + +PLATE 23 + +AVES + +YUCATAN SCREECH OWL or _Moan-bird_ (_Otus choliba thompsoni_) + + 1. Dresden 7c. + 2. Tro-Cortesianus 66a. + 3. Dresden 11a. + 4. As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 94c. + 5. As a head-dress, Dresden 18b. + 6. Glyph associated with Moan-bird, Dresden 7c. + 7. Same, Dresden 7c. + 8. Dresden 10a. + 9. Peresianus 10. + 10. Peresianus 5. + 11. Glyph representing head, Dresden 38c. + 12. Same, Dresden 8b. + 13. Same, Dresden 53b. + 14. Same, Dresden 16c. + 15. Glyph possibly representing Moan-bird, Dresden 38c. + 16. Glyph of head, Dresden 53b. + 17. Glyph associated with Moan-bird. + 18. Tro-Cortesianus 73b. + 19. As a head-dress, Dresden 16c. + 20. As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 95c. + 21. Glyph associated with Moan-bird, Dresden 7c. + +[Illustration: PLATE 2[3][TN-26]] + + +PLATE 24 + +AVES + +COPPERY-TAILED TROGON or QUETZAL (_Pharomacrus mocinno_) + + 1. Head-dress with crest feathers shown as knobs, Dresden 7c. + 2. Head-dress, Dresden 13b. + 3. Same, Dresden 16c. + 4. Tro-Cortesianus 100b. + 5. Tro-Cortesianus 70a. + 6. Head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 94c. + 7. Nuttall 33. + 8. Conventionalized tail as a head ornament, Dresden 20c. + 9. Vaticanus 3773, 17. + 10. Glyph, Palenque, Temple of the Sun (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 89, gl. O, + 9). + 11. Trogon descending on a sacrifice, Bologna 8. + 12. Tro-Cortesianus 36b. + 13. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 111, gl. 54). + 14. Glyph apparently representing a trogon's head, Dresden 20c. + 15. Same, Dresden 9b. + 16. Same, Dresden 3a. + 17. Head, Nuttall 43. + 18. Tro-Cortesianus 26c. + 19. Figure with head ornament resembling a trogon glyph, Dresden 20c. + +[Illustration: PLATE 24] + + +PLATE 25 + +AVES + +BLUE MACAW (_Ara militaris_) + + 1. Figure with macaw head and holding firebrands, Dresden 40b. + 2. Head-dress, Dresden 16c. + 3. Tro-Cortesianus 12a. + 4. Glyph, Copan, Stela 11 (Maudslay, I, Pl. 112, gl. 12). + 5. Same, Copan, Stela B (Maudslay, I, Pl. 38). + 6. Glyph used in connection with fig. 1. + 7. Glyph. + 8. Stone carving of upper mandible and head, Copan, Stela B (Maudslay, + I, Pl. 37). + 9. Head, probably of a turtle, month sign _Kayab_, Quirigua, Stela A + (Maudslay, II, Pl. 7, gl. 14). + 10. Head, probably of a macaw, Copan, Altar Q (Maudslay, I, Pl. 93). + 11. Tro-Cortesianus 37b. + 12. Head, probably of a macaw, Copan, Stela A (Maudslay, I, Pl. 30, + gl. 19). + 13. Tro-Cortesianus 94c. + +[Illustration: PLATE 25] + + +PLATE 26 + +AVES + +PARROTS, TURKEYS + + 1. Macaw as a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 26c. + 2. Bird of sacrifice, doubtless an Ocellated Turkey (_Agriocharis_) + Dresden 25c. (Compare also Dresden 26c[TN-27] 27c, 28c.) + 3. Head-dress, probably a macaw, Copan, Altar Q (Maudslay, I, Pl. 92). + 4. Possibly a parrot (_Amazona_), Nuttall 4. + 5. Head-dress, head of a macaw, Tro-Cortesianus 89a. + 6. Head-dress, possibly representing a parrot, Dresden 12b. + 7. Possibly a parrot (_Amazona_), Nuttall 71. + 8. Glyph representing a macaw's head, Tikal, Temple C (Maudslay, III, + Pl. 78). + 9. Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 19a. + 10. Possibly a macaw, Tro-Cortesianus 37b. + 11. Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 11b. + 12. Bird of sacrifice, probably an Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca, + Nuttall 22. + 13. Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 11a. + 14. Head of Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca, Nuttall 5. + +[Illustration: PLATE 26] + + +PLATE 27 + +AVES + +MISCELLANEOUS + + 1. Bird of sacrifice, an Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca, Nuttall 2. + 2. Same, Nuttall 16. + 3. Same, Nuttall 19. + 4. Same, Nuttall 1. + 5. Woodpecker possibly _Campephilus imperialis_, Nuttall 74. + 6. Same, Nuttall 71. + 7. Possibly a Raven (_Corvus corax sinuatus_), Nuttall 48. + 8. Parrot (_cocho_), Aubin 11. + 9. Same, Aubin 13. + 10. Turkey-cock (_uexolot_),[TN-28] Aubin 11. + 11. Same, Aubin 13. + +[Illustration: PLATE 27] + + +PLATE 28 + +VARIOUS ANIMALS + + 1. Earthenware vessel representing a tapir (_Tapirella_) with a + necklace of Oliva shells (Seler, 1904b, p. 106, fig. 23). + 2. Stone carving, possibly of a King Vulture (_Sarcorhamphus papa_), + Copan, Altar T (Maudslay, I, Pl. 96). + 3. Stone carving, possibly a lizard, Copan, Stela 6 (Maudslay I, Pl. + 107). + 4. Stone carving, probably a jaguar (_Felis onca hernandezi_), Copan, + Stela 2 (Maudslay, I, Pl. 102). + 5. Stone carving of a Black Vulture (_Catharista urubu_), Copan, Stela + D (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48). + 6. Lizard (?) attacked by two birds (?) perhaps vultures, Quirigua, + Altar B (Maudslay, II, Pl. 15). + +[Illustration: PLATE 28] + + +PLATE 29 + +MAMMALIA + +ARMADILLO AND MISCELLANEOUS + + 1. Nine-banded Armadillo (_Tatu novemcinctum_), Tro-Cortesianus 103a. + 2. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 92d. + 3. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 103a. + 4. Armadillo captured in a pitfall, Tro-Cortesianus 48a. + 5. Undetermined animal, Dresden 14c. + 6. Undetermined animal, possibly a frog or a marsupial, + Tro-Cortesianus 33a. + 7. Rodent, Nuttall 11. + 8. Undetermined animal, Tro-Cortesianus 24d. + +[Illustration: PLATE 29] + + +PLATE 30 + +MAMMALIA + +DEER, HARE + + 1. Yucatan deer, caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 48b. + 2. Yucatan brocket (_Mazama pandora_) caught in a pitfall, + Tro-Cortesianus 92a. + 3. Glyph for hare or rabbit, Nuttall 16. + 4. Same, Nuttall 5. + 5. Yucatan deer, Dresden 60a. + 6. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 30b. + 7. Hare or rabbit, Nuttall 22. + 8. Same, Dresden 61[TN-29] + +[Illustration: PLATE 30] + + +PLATE 31 + +MAMMALIA + +YUCATAN DEER (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_) + + 1. Doe, Dresden 45c. + 2. Same, Fegervary-Mayer 26. + 3. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 29c. + 4. Same, Nuttall 50. + 5. Same captured in snare, Tro-Cortesianus 86a. + 6. Head-dress of god M, Tro-Cortesianus 50b. + 7. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 51c. + 8. Doe, Tro-Cortesianus 2b. + 9. Head of same, Nuttall 43. + 10. Head of doe as sacrifice, Tro-Cortesianus 77. + 11. Same, Peresianus 10. + 12. Haunch of venison as a sacrifice, Dresden 35a. + 13. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 105b. + 14. Same, Dresden 28c. + 15. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 108a. + +[Illustration: PLATE 31] + + +PLATE 32 + +MAMMALIA + +YUCATAN PECCARY (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_) +YUCATAN DEER (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_) + + 1. Peccary, Nuttall 79. + 2. Same, Dresden 68a. + 3. Combination, a peccary's head and forefoot, with long tail and + hindfoot without hoofs, Tro-Cortesianus 66a[TN-30] + 4. Peccary, Dresden 45b. + 5. Man with peccary head, Copan, Sela[TN-31] D, cast (Maudslay, I, Pl. + 46). + 6. Combination animal, with hoofs and dorsal crest of a peccary and + scales of a reptile, Dresden 75. + 7. Peccary, Nuttall 9. + 8. Yucatan deer, with conventionalized antler, glyph for Nahua day + sign, _Macatl_, Nuttall 26. + 9. Same, Peresianus 5. + 10. Glyph for Nahua day sign _Macatl_, Aubin 10. + 11. Same, Nuttall 5. + 12. Deer, Copan, Stela N, East (Maudslay, I, Pl. 79). + +[Illustration: PLATE 32] + + +PLATE 33 + +MAMMALIA + +YUCATAN PECCARY (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_) + + 1. Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 49c. + 2. Glyph, Chichen Itza, Monjas, East (Maudslay, III, Pl. 13). + 3. Head as a head-dress, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower + Chamber (Maudslay, III). + 4. Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 93a. + 5. Tro-Cortesianus 30b. + 6. Dresden 62. + 7. Glyph representing a peccary's head, Dresden 45b. + 8. Same, Dresden 43b. + 9. Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 49a. + +[Illustration: PLATE 33] + + +PLATE 34 + +MAMMALIA + +JAGUAR, PUMA + + 1. Jaguar (_Felis hernandezi_), Nuttall 24. + 2. Man seated in the open mouth of an animal, possibly a jaguar, + Tro-Cortesianus 20a. + 3. Nahua day sign, _Oceolotl_, Aubin 9. + 4. Pot representing a jaguar or puma (Gann, 1897-1898, Pl. 34). + 5. Probably a puma (_Felis bangsi costaricensis_), Chichen Itza, + Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 40). + 6. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III, + Pl. 50). + 7. Probably a puma, Dresden 47. + +[Illustration: PLATE 34,[TN-32]] + + +PLATE 35 + +MAMMALIA + +COYOTE, BEAR, JAGUAR + + 1. Probably a coyote (_Canis_), Nuttall 6. + 2. Same, Nuttall 26. + 3. Possibly a bear (_Ursus_), Dresden 37a. + 4. Same, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers (Maudslay, III, 38). + 5. Jaguar (_Felis hernandezi_), Dresden 8a. + 6. Glyph, probably of a jaguar head, Copan, Stela 4 (Maudslay, I, Pl. + 104). + 7. Copan, Altar F (Maudslay, I, Pl. 114). + 8. Jaguar, Tro-Cortesianus 28c. + 9. Stone carving of jaguar head, Palenque, Palace, House C (Maudslay, + IV, Pl. 24). + 10. Jaguar, Tro-Cortesianus 30b. + 11. Glyph, probably of a jaguar. + 12. Head of jaguar in fresco, Santa Rita (Gann, 1897-1898, Pl. 31). + 13. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 2a. + 14. Same, Nuttall 27. + +[Illustration: PLATE 35] + + +PLATE 36 + +MAMMALIA + +DOG (_Canis_) + + 1. Dog and crab, Tro-Cortesianus 88c. + 2. Tro-Cortesianus 37b. + 3. Tro-Cortesianus 66b. + 4. Head, Nuttall 34. + 5. Nuttall 72. + 6. Head, Nuttall 20. + 7. Probably a dog, Nuttall 3. + 8. Aubin 9. + 9. Glyph for day sign _Oc_. + 10. Same. + 11. Same. + 12. Tro-Cortesianus 91d. + 13. Glyph for Nahua day sign _Itzcuintli_, Aubin 9. + 14. Tro-Cortesianus 27d. + +[Illustration: PLATE 36] + + +PLATE 37 + +MAMMALIA + +DOG (_Canis_) + + 1. Dog bearing firebrands, Dresden 40b. + 2. Same, Dresden 39a. + 3. Same, Dresden 36a. + 4. Tro-Cortesianus 88a. + 5. Dresden 21b. + 6. Tro-Cortesianus 24c. + 7. Dresden 13c. + 8. Tro-Cortesianus 37a. + 9. Dresden 30a. + 10. Dresden 7a. + 11. Glyph supposed to represent a dog's ribs, Dresden 13c. + 12. Dresden 29a. + 13. Head, Tro-Cortesianus 91d. + +[Illustration: PLATE 37] + + +PLATE 38 + +MAMMALIA + +LEAF-NOSED BAT (_Vampyrus spectrum_ or _Phyllostomus hastatus +panamensis_) + + 1. Glyph, Chichen Itza, Akat 'Cib (Maudslay, III, Pl. 19.)[TN-33] + 2. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 8). + 3. Bat god, drawn as glyph, Copan, Stela D (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48). + 4. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 8). + 5. Glyph, Palenque, Temple of the Inscriptions (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 60, + gl. Q 1). + 6. Glyph, Tikal (Maudslay III, Pl. 74, gl. 41). + 7. Bat gad used as decoration on pottery, Chama (Dieseldorff, 1904). + +[Illustration: PLATE 38] + + +PLATE 39 + +MAMMALIA + +MONKEY AND MISCELLANEOUS + + 1. Capuchin monkey (_Cebus capucinus_), Nuttall 1. + 2. Same, Nuttall 5. + 3. Head of same, Nuttall 38. + 4. Nondescript animal, possibly a combination of monkey and peccary, + Tro-Cortesianus 88c. + 5. Glyph, possibly representing a monkey, found in connection with + fig. 4. + 6. Glyph of head of monkey, Nuttall 1. + 7. Head of long-nosed god, Tro-Cortesianus 30a. + 8. Head of monkey, glyph for Nahua day sign, _Ocomatli_, Aubin 9. + 9. Long-nosed god, Tro-Cortesianus 30b. + 10. God with head-dress, Dresden 5c. + +[Illustration: PLATE 39] + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + +The following typographical errors were noted in the original text: + + TN-1 279 "Yucatan Horned Ow" should read "Yucatan Horned Owl" + TN-2 281 "Mandslay" should read "Maudslay" + TN-3 284 "deRosny" should read "de Rosny" + TN-4 299 "connnection" should read "connection" + TN-5 299 "signifiance" should read "significance" + TN-6 299 "lightening" should read "lightning" + TN-7 340 "indicatd" should read "indicated" + TN-8 344 "Kayae" should read "Kayab" + TN-9 353 "(Dresden 44b, 45b, (Pl. 32, fig. 4)" Has an extra ( before + Pl. + TN-10 366 "C. hypoleucus Auct.)" should read "Auct.)." + TN-11 Footnote 327-[+] "coasa" should read "cosas" + TN-12 Footnote 349-* "for" should read "por" + TN-13 371 "Espanales" should read "Espanoles" + TN-14 371 "l'Ameirque" should read "l'Amerique" + TN-15 371 "Bibliotheque" should read "Bibliotheque" + TN-16 372 "1895. republished" should read "1895. Republished" + TN-17 372 "und Maya-Handschriften:" colon should be a semi-colon + TN-18 Plate 2 caption "4, 6" should have a . following + TN-19 Plate 8 Plate number was not printed on the page + TN-20 Plate 13 caption "Pl. 82, gl. 0, 4" should read "O, 4" + TN-21 Plate 15 caption "HERONS FRIGATE" should read "HERONS, FRIGATE" + TN-22 Plate 15 caption "6. Heron" should have a . at the end + TN-23 Plate 18 caption "8. Same as fig" should read "fig." + TN-24 Plate 20 caption "flints, Nuttall" should end with a . + TN-25 Plate 22 The word "Plate" was incompletely printed + TN-26 Plate 23 "23" was missing the second digit + TN-27 Plate 26 caption "Dresden 26c 27c," should have a , after 26c + TN-28 Plate 28 caption "uexolot" should read "uexolotl" + TN-29 Plate 29 caption "Dresden 61" was missing the . at the end + TN-30 Plate 32 caption "Tro-Cortesianus 66a" was missing the . at the + end + TN-31 Plate 32 caption "Sela" should read "Stela" + TN-32 Plate 34 "PLATE 34," should not end with a comma + TN-33 Plate 38 "Pl. 19.)" should read "Pl. 19)." + + +The following words had inconsistent hyphenation: + + Blow-fly / Blowfly + cross-hatched / crosshatched + pit-fall / pitfall + + +The following words had inconsistent spelling: + + dechiffrement / dechiffrement + Fegervary-Mayer / Fejervary-Mayer / Fejervary-Mayer + Relacion / Relacion + role / role + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Animal Figures in the Maya Codices, by +Alfred M. 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