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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Animal Figures in the Maya Codices, by 
+Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Animal Figures in the Maya Codices
+
+Author: Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen
+
+Release Date: August 14, 2006 [EBook #19042]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+A number of typographical errors and inconsistencies have been
+maintained in this version of this book. They have been marked with a
+[TN-#], which refers to a description in the complete list found at the
+end of the text.
+
+The following less-common characters are used in this version of the
+book. If they do not display properly, please try changing your font.
+
+ă       a with breve
+ɔ       open o
+ħ       h with stroke
+š       s with caron
+ṭ       t with dot under
+†       Dagger
+‡       Double dagger
+
+The following codes are used for characters that are not able to be
+represented in the text format used for this version of the book.
+
+[ɔ.]    open o with dot under
+[p.]    p with dot under
+[^q]    q with circumflex
+[ts.]   ts with dot under
+
+
+
+
+
+                   PAPERS
+                   OF THE
+  PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND
+        ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY
+
+              VOL. IV.--No. 3.
+
+
+               ANIMAL FIGURES
+                   IN THE
+                MAYA CODICES
+
+                     BY
+
+           ALFRED M. TOZZER, PH.D.
+                     AND
+           GLOVER M. ALLEN, PH.D.
+
+
+              CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
+           PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM
+               FEBRUARY, 1910
+
+
+
+
+Salem Press:
+THE SALEM PRESS CO., SALEM MASS.
+1910.
+
+
+
+
+NOTE
+
+
+It has been thought desirable, for the advancement of the study of Maya
+hieroglyphs, that the interpretation of the conventionalized animal
+figures, which so frequently occur in the Maya codices, should be
+undertaken. The Peabody Museum Committee on Central American Research
+therefore requested Dr. A. M. Tozzer to prepare a paper on the subject,
+and to secure the valuable cooperation of Dr. Glover M. Allen, a
+zoologist familiar with the animals of Mexico and Central America, to
+aid in the identification of the various species of animals which under
+varying forms are used in connection with the glyphs.
+
+While it is possible that some of the determinations given in this paper
+may require further confirmation, it is evident that the combined
+studies of Dr. Tozzer and Dr. Allen cannot fail to be useful to students
+of the Maya hieroglyphic writing.
+
+F. W. PUTNAM.
+HARVARD UNIVERSITY,
+August, 1909.
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO THE PRONUNCIATION OF MAYA WORDS
+
+
+The vowels and consonants have their continental sounds with the
+following exceptions:--
+
+  =ă=      like _u_ in hut
+  =ai=     like _i_ in island
+  =k=      (Beltran's _c_) ordinary palatal _k_
+  =q=      (Beltran's _k_) velar _k_
+  =[ɔ.]=   (Beltran's _ɔ_) _ts_ explosive or fortis
+  =ɔ=      (Beltran's _tz_) _ts_ non-explosive
+  =š=      (Beltran's _x_) like _sh_ in hush
+  =tš=     (Beltran's _ch_) like _ch_ in church
+  =[ts.]=  (Beltran's _cħ_) _ch_ explosive
+  =[p.]=   (Beltran's _pp_) _p_ explosive
+  =t=      (Beltran's _tħ_) _t_ explosive
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES
+
+
+ Plate.
+   1.  Mollusca: _Fasciolaria gigantea, Oliva_.
+   2.  Insecta: Honey bee (_Melipona_).
+   3.  Insecta and Myriapoda.
+   4.  Arachnoidea, Arachnida, Crustacea.
+   5.  Myriapoda, Pisces.
+   6.  Pisces.
+   7.  Amphibia.
+   8.  Amphibia, Reptilia.
+   9.  Reptilia: Rattlesnake (_Crotalus_).
+  10.  Reptilia: Serpents.
+  11.  Reptilia: Serpents.
+  12.  Reptilia: Iguana, Lizards.
+  13.  Reptilia: Crocodile
+  14.  Reptilia: Turtles.
+  15.  Aves: Herons, Frigate-bird.
+  16.  Aves: Ocellated Turkey (_Agriocharis ocellata_).
+  17.  Aves: King Vulture (_Sarcorhamphus papa_).
+  18.  Aves: King Vulture (_S. papa_), Black Vulture (_Catharista urubu_).
+  19.  Aves: Vultures.
+  20.  Aves: Harpy Eagle (_Thrasaetos harpyia_).
+  21.  Aves: Yucatan Horned Owl (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_).
+  22.  Aves: Yucatan Horned Ow[TN-1] (_B. v. mayensis_).
+  23.  Aves: Yucatan Screech Owl (_Otus choliba thompsoni_).
+  24.  Aves: Quetzal (_Pharomacrus mocinno_).
+  25.  Aves: Blue Macaw (_Ara militaris_).
+  26.  Aves: Parrots, Turkeys.
+  27.  Aves: Miscellaneous.
+  28.  Various animals.
+  29.  Mammalia: Armadillo and miscellaneous.
+  30.  Mammalia: Deer, Hare.
+  31.  Mammalia: Yucatan Deer (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_).
+  32.  Mammalia: Yucatan Peccary (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_),
+                 Yucatan Deer (_O. yucatanensis_).
+  33.  Mammalia: Yucatan Peccary (_T. a. yucatanense_).
+  34.  Mammalia: Jaguar, Puma.
+  35.  Mammalia: Jaguar, Coyote, Bear.
+  36, 37.  Mammalia: Dog (_Canis_).
+  38.  Mammalia: Leaf-nosed Bat (_Vampyrus_ or _Phyllostomus_).
+  39.  Mammalia: Monkey (_Cebus_) and miscellaneous.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT
+
+
+ FIG.
+   1.  Top of Altar T, Copan (Mandslay,[TN-2] I. Pl. 95)             320
+
+   2.  Pottery whistle from Uloa Valley, Honduras, representing a
+       vulture. Peabody Museum Memoirs. I. No. 4, fig. 15            332
+
+   3.  }
+   4.  } Glyphs of Maya month _Moan_ showing moan-bird
+   5.  } characteristics                                             339
+   6.  }
+
+   7.  Quetzal from the bas-relief of the Temple of the Cross,
+       Palenque                                                      341
+
+   8.  }
+   9.  } Glyphs for Maya month _Kankin_ (Ribs of dogs)               364
+  10.  }
+
+  11.  }
+  12.  }
+  13.  } Glyphs for Maya month _Zotz_ (Bats)                         365
+  14.  }
+
+  15.  Pottery whistle from Uloa Valley, Honduras (Peabody Museum
+       Memoirs, I, No. 4, fig. 14), representing an ape              366
+
+  16.  }
+  17.  }
+  18.  } Glyphs for Maya day _Chuen_                                 367
+  19.  }
+
+  20.  }
+  21.  }
+  22.  } Glyphs of God C. (Schellhas, Peabody Museum Papers, IV,     368
+  23.  } No. 1)
+  24.  }
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The various peoples inhabiting Mexico and Central America in early
+pre-Columbian times were accustomed to record various events, especially
+in regard to their calendar and the religious ceremonials in relation to
+it, on long strips of skin or bark. These were usually painted on both
+sides and folded together like a screen. Several of these codices are
+still in existence from the Nahua and Zapotec areas in Mexico, but only
+three have come down to us from the Maya region which is included in the
+peninsula of Yucatan, the states of Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico, and
+portions of Guatemala and Honduras. These three manuscripts are the
+Dresden Codex in the Royal Public Library at Dresden, the
+Tro-Cortesianus (formerly considered to have been two, the Troano and
+the Cortesianus) in the National Archaeological Museum at Madrid, and
+the Peresianus in the National Library at Paris. These pre-Columbian
+manuscripts have all been published in facsimile. (See bibliography.)
+
+These remains of a once extensive literature show evidence not only of
+considerable intellectual attainments on the part of their authors but
+also of a high degree of artistic skill in the drawings and
+hieroglyphics. The frequent occurrence in these manuscripts of
+representations of animals showing various degrees of elaboration and
+conventionalization has led us to undertake the task of identifying
+these figures as far as possible and studying the uses and significance
+of the several species, a field practically untouched.[284-*]
+Förstemann in his various commentaries on the Maya codices (1902, 1903,
+1906), Brinton (1895), and deRosny[TN-3] (1876) have only commented briefly
+upon this side of the study of the manuscripts. Seler (1904a) and some
+others have written short papers on special animals. During the
+preparation of this paper there has appeared a brief account by Stempell
+(1908) of the animals in the Maya codices. The author has, however,
+omitted a number of species and, as we believe, misidentified others. In
+making our identifications we have given the reasons for our
+determinations in some detail and have stated the characteristics
+employed to denote the several species.
+
+We have not limited ourselves entirely to the Maya manuscripts as we
+have drawn upon the vast amount of material available in the stone
+carvings, the stucco figures, and the frescoes found throughout the Maya
+area. This material has by no means been exhausted in the present paper.
+In addition to the figures from the Maya codices and a comparatively few
+from other sources in the Maya region, we have introduced for comparison
+in a number of cases figures from a few of the ancient manuscripts of
+the Nahuas and the Zapotecs to the north. The calendar of these two
+peoples is fundamentally the same as that of the Mayas. The year is made
+up in the same way being composed of eighteen months of twenty days each
+with five days additional at the end of the year. There is therefore a
+more or less close connection as regards subject matter in all the
+pre-Columbian codices of Mexico and Central America but the manner of
+presentation differs among the different peoples of this region.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[284-*] The first two parts of Dr. Seler's Treatise, "Die Tierbilder der
+mexikanischen und der Maya-Handschriften" published in the _Zeitschrift
+für Ethnologie_, Vol. 41, have appeared during the time when this paper
+was passing through the press. The most excellent and exhaustive
+treatment by Dr. Seler would seem to render the present paper
+unnecessary. It has seemed best, however, to continue with its
+publication inasmuch as its field is narrower and more space is devoted
+to the Maya side of the question to the exclusion of the Mexican. Dr.
+Seler, on the other hand, while by no means neglecting the Maya, has
+spent more time in explaining the Mexican figures.
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+SYNOPTIC CONSIDERATION OF THE MEANING AND OCCURRENCE OF ANIMAL FORMS
+
+
+Before taking up the different animals in the codices it may be well to
+consider some of the more common ways in which the figures occur and
+their connection with the surrounding figures.
+
+MANNER OF REPRESENTATION. The entire body of the animal may be
+represented realistically or the head alone may be shown. The animal
+head is frequently attached to a human body. The animal may appear
+conventionalized to a greater or less extent and the head in turn may
+change in the same way until only a single characteristic of the animal
+remains by which to identify it as, for example, the spots of the jaguar
+or the feathering around the eye of the macaw. In the case of the
+glyphs, a term employed to designate the regular and usually square
+characters appearing in lines or columns throughout the codices and
+inscriptions, we find both the realistic drawing and that where
+conventionalism has come in.
+
+THE TONALAMATL. The Maya codices are made up, for the most part, of the
+records of the sacred period of two hundred and sixty days, a period
+called in Nahuatl, _tonalamatl_, and other numerical calculations. The
+_tonalamatl_ was used for purposes of divination in order to find out
+whether good or bad fortune was in store for an individual. It is not
+necessary at this place to go into the different means taken to record
+this period of time or its methods of use. It may be well, however, to
+explain the usual distribution of the pictures in the codices, including
+those of animals, in connection with the representation of the
+_tonalamatl_. A normal period is shown in Dresden 6c-7c. A column of
+five day signs occurs in the middle of 6c with a single red dot over it.
+To the right of this column stretches a horizontal line of numbers
+consisting of alternate groups of black and red lines and dots. Under
+each pair of red and black numbers there is usually a human form and
+over each pair a group of four glyphs belonging to the figure below.
+Schellhas (1904) has classified the various figures of gods appearing in
+these vignettes of the _tonalamatl_ and lettered them. References
+throughout the paper will be made to the gods by letters and the reader
+is referred to Schellhas' paper. Animal figures often take the place of
+these gods as in the second picture in Dresden 7c where the screech owl
+is shown with human body. The greater number of animal figures in the
+codices occur in some connection with these _tonalamatls_.
+
+MYTHOLOGICAL ANIMALS. Where figures are shown with human body and animal
+head standing alone in the place usually occupied by one of the various
+deities in the _tonalamatl_, there can be little doubt that they have a
+mythological meaning and are to be taken, either as gods themselves, or
+as representing certain of the gods. All of the animals are by no means
+shown in this position. The screech owl, or Moan bird (as in Dresden
+10a) appears most frequently in this way. The king vulture (Dresden 8a),
+the dog (Dresden 7a), and the parrot (Dresden 40b) come next in
+descending importance. The animals represented as copulating (as in
+Dresden 13c) might also be considered as mythological animals as well as
+the full drawings of the jaguar (Dresden 8a) and the other animals when
+they occur alone in the regular vignette of the _tonalamatl_. The four
+priests in Dresden 25a-28a should also be regarded as representing, in
+all probability, the dog as a mythological animal. The idea of
+worshipping animals as gods in themselves is strengthened by noting the
+ease with which the Maya people worshipped the horse which was left
+behind by Cortes in his march from Mexico across to Honduras
+(Villagutierre, 1701, pp. 100-101).
+
+ASTRONOMICAL IDEAS. Animals frequently have a part to play in relation
+to the constellations. Throughout the codices and, to a less degree, in
+the stone carvings, we find what have usually been considered to be
+glyphs for several of the constellations. Numerous calculations in the
+codices make it clear that the Mayas had a good knowledge of astronomy.
+These glyphs are usually oblong in shape and three or more are arranged
+together end to end. We have called these the constellation bands.
+Various attempts have been made to identify these signs of the various
+constellations. Animals frequently are pictured below these bands. The
+dog with fire brands in his paws and often attached to his tail is shown
+in several places coming head downward from one of these bands (as in
+Dresden 36a). The peccary is also shown in the same position although
+the fire brands do not appear (Dresden 68a). A figure with macaw head
+occurs once standing beneath one of these bands with fire brands in his
+hands (Dresden 40b). The serpent (as in Dresden 36a), the
+lizard-crocodile-like animal in Dresden 74, the turtle (Tro-Cortesianus
+71a), the vulture (Dresden 38b), the turkey (Tro-Cortesianus 10b), and
+the deer (Tro-Cortesianus 47a) all appear in connection with these
+constellation bands. It is impossible at this time to decide upon the
+part these various animals play in relation to distinct constellations.
+In addition to the animals named, several of the gods, especially god B,
+are found below these bands. One of these signs, the one identified by
+Förstemann as standing for Saturn, is composed of the head of the
+crocodile more or less conventionalized.
+
+Förstemann (1902, p. 27) identifies the turtle with the summer solstice
+and the snail as the animal associated with the winter solstice. There
+does not seem to be any one animal used in connection with any one of
+the cardinal points. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c the dog seems to be
+associated with the north as shown by the glyph which is ordinarily
+regarded as connected with that direction, the ape with the west, and an
+unidentifiable bird sitting on a _Cimi_ (death) sign with the south. The
+east is connected in this place with a human figure. It should be
+stated, however, that it is not absolutely certain that the usual
+assignment of the cardinal points, each to its special direction, is
+correct. The signs for the east and west as well as those for the north
+and south may be reversed. With the exception of the assignment of the
+offering-glyphs to the various cardinal points which will be discussed
+later (p. 290) this is almost the only case where a clear relation can
+be made out between the various animals and the signs for the four
+directions. There is no definite relation as is seen, for example, in
+the Vaticanus 3773, 17, 18 where the quetzal is noted perched on the
+tree of the east, the eagle on that of the north, the humming bird on
+that of the west, and the jaguar on the tree of the south.
+
+COPULATION. The conception, the period of pregnancy, the infant baptism,
+and possibly, the naming of children are shown in both the
+Tro-Cortesianus (91-95) and the Dresden (13-23). Animals are frequently
+shown copulating with various gods or with one another. In Dresden 13c,
+the deer and god M and the vulture and the dog; in 19c, the vulture and
+a woman; in Tro-Cortesianus 91d, a god and a woman; and in 92d, an
+armadillo and a deer both with female figures. These animals probably
+represent in some way the totems of the man or woman in question and are
+shown in place of the human figure. The Lacandones, a Maya people, show
+at the present time the remains of a totemic system (Tozzer, 1907, pp.
+40-42). The deer (_Ke_) gens is found at the present time. In the
+greater number of cases where copulation is shown a god and a female
+figure are pictured. The presentation of the new-born children by women
+with bird head-dresses, also occurring in this same section of both
+manuscripts, is discussed later (p. 291).
+
+ANIMAL SACRIFICES. Various ceremonials occurring at intervals throughout
+the Maya year which included sacrifices to the gods, evidently took up a
+large part of the time of the people. Animals composed by far the major
+part of the gifts made to the gods. This was especially true in regard
+to the ceremonies occurring at the beginning of each year. According to
+the Maya calendar there were four days only which could come at the
+beginning of the year and these came in succession. Landa (1864, pp.
+210-233), the first Bishop of Yucatan, gives a minute description of the
+rites of the four years which were named according to the initial day.
+He also relates the manner in which the various animals are employed as
+offerings in these rites and also in others taking place at the
+beginning of the various months.[289-*]
+
+The rites which took place at the beginning and the end of the year are
+shown in Dresden 25-28 and in Tro-Cortesianus 34-37. The dog, the deer,
+and the turkey are the most important of the animals shown as being
+offered to the gods in this connection. It will not be necessary to
+consider these animals in detail at this place as they are each taken up
+later.
+
+OFFERINGS SHOWN BY GLYPHS. It is, however, in another connection than
+that just considered that the animals are shown as offerings far more
+frequently throughout the Maya manuscripts. In the ceremonies of the
+four years, the animals and birds are, for the most part, represented
+entire and purely as pictures. Offerings are also shown in the form of
+glyphs. These may occur in connection with the figures of the gods or in
+the lines of hieroglyphs above the pictures. When they are used in the
+former relation they are usually shown as resting in a bowl or dish
+(Dresden 35a). It frequently happens that when a god is making an
+offering represented by the entire animal or a glyph of the animal in
+the main picture, there is a corresponding glyph of the offering above
+in the line of hieroglyphics (Dresden 23b).
+
+The fish, iguana, turkey, deer and possibly the lizard are the usual
+animals shown as glyphs in this connection. The frigate bird occurs once
+in the Dresden (35a) and once in the Tro-Cortesianus (34a) as an
+offering. The dog, curiously enough, does not seem to be represented by
+an offering-glyph although he has a glyph of his own when appearing in
+other connections. The iguana and fish are shown entire although drawn
+very small; the head is the only part usually shown of the turkey and
+the haunch of venison of the deer. The head and feet of the lizard, as
+has been noted, may also be shown by a glyph. The turkey and iguana
+glyphs are very often found with a _Kan_ sign indicating an offering of
+maize and bread as well as that of the animal. In connection with glyphs
+showing various offerings of food, there is one which occurs especially
+in the Tro-Cortesianus (as in 106a). This shows a row of points
+themselves running to a point over a _Kan_ sign. This, as will be
+pointed out later (p. 318) may also represent an iguana. The jar
+containing a representation of the honey comb (as in Tro-Cortesianus
+107b) might come in here in the consideration of the offering-glyphs.
+
+In many instances the common offerings shown by glyphs are found
+associated with the signs for the four cardinal points but there does
+not seem to be any strict uniformity as to the special offering
+associated with each direction. In Dresden 29b, the lizard glyph is
+found in the same group with the sign commonly assigned to the east, the
+turkey with the south, the iguana with the west, and the fish with the
+north while in Dresden 29c, the deer is associated with the east, the
+fish with the south, the iguana with the west, and the turkey with the
+north. The iguana is usually found with the sign for the west and the
+fish with that of the south. The others vary greatly in the assignment
+of the various directions.
+
+Schellhas (1904, p. 17) considers that the fish, the lizard, "the
+sprouting kernel of maize or (according to Förstemann, parts of a
+mammal, game)" and a vulture's head are symbols of the four elements.
+The head which Schellhas interprets as that of the vulture is certainly
+the head of a turkey. He remarks that these signs of the four elements
+appear with god B in the Dresden manuscript. Other gods, as he also
+notes, are found with these four offering-glyphs. There seems to be a
+fifth glyph, however, (as in Dresden 29b) which we have interpreted as
+that of a lizard.
+
+ANIMALS AS RAIN BEARERS. Various animals are associated with the rain
+and water. The serpent is most frequently represented in this
+connection. Snails, fish, the turtle, and the frog, as well as the
+lizard-crocodile figure in Dresden 74 are naturally found associated
+with water. The vulture-headed figure in Dresden 38b and the vulture as
+a bird in Tro-Cortesianus 10a both appear in the rain. The peccary
+(Dresden 68a), and the turkey (Tro-Cortesianus 10b) appear associated
+with the rain as well as with the constellation bands. The scorpion
+(Tro-Cortesianus 7a) encloses the rain within its legs.
+
+The connection of an old female figure occurring in many places in the
+codices with the rain will be discussed later (p. 316) when considering
+the serpent. It remains at this place to comment upon the woman in
+Tro-Cortesianus 30b from whose breasts water is flowing. She is
+represented as having animal figures seated on her two outstretched
+hands and on her right foot together with another animal at her side.
+God B sits on her left foot. This picture immediately recalls
+representations in the Mexican codices where the various parts of the
+body of a god are associated with various day signs, ten of which have
+animal names. In the Maya picture, a jaguar is shown on the right hand,
+a peccary on the left, a dog on the right foot, and a rabbit beside the
+body at her right. The peccary is not represented among the Nahua day
+signs but the other three are found, namely the _oceolotl_ (jaguar),
+_itzcuintli_ (dog), and _tochtli_ (rabbit).
+
+ANIMAL HEAD-DRESSES. Animal figures appear perhaps most frequently as
+head-dresses of the various gods in the codices. Here, as elsewhere,
+from all that can be made out, the religious character is uppermost as
+in addition to being a decoration, they undoubtedly have some religious
+signification. Birds occur by far most commonly in this connection. Both
+male and female figures seems to have these head-dresses. The same bird
+is often found as the head-dress of several different gods as, for
+example, the turkey which appears with gods A, B, C, E, and N. The
+vulture, on the other hand, when used as a head-dress for male figures,
+appears exclusively with god F. The whole bird is seldom represented on
+the head-dress of the male figures. It is usually only the head and a
+part of the body of the bird which forms but a portion of the whole
+head-covering. Landa (1864, p. 148)[292-*] notes the dress of the leader
+in the rites. He wears a jacket of red feathers worked with other
+feathers and from it hang long plumes. He also wears a feather
+head-dress.
+
+Entire birds appear as the sole head-covering only in connection with
+female figures and then only in one section of the Dresden (16-18) and a
+parallel passage in the Tro-Cortesianus (94-95). In both these places
+the conception and the bearing of children are shown together with their
+baptism. The bird above the head of each female figure seems to be a
+badge of office, possibly the totems which are held by the women and
+given to the children. The parrot, quetzal, vulture, screech owl and the
+horned owl appear in this connection. It is to be noted that the birds
+associated with these women are not really represented as head-dresses
+at all. They are quite different from the head decoration composed of a
+bird's head and feathers seen in other parts of the manuscripts. In the
+Dresden especially, these birds above the women's heads are shown in
+almost every case standing with the claws clasping the necklace at the
+back of the neck. Landa (1864, pp. 144-154) gives an interesting account
+of the method of baptising children. He also states (p. 304)[292-†]
+that in the month _Yaxkin_ an old woman brought the little girls to the
+general feast. This old woman was dressed in a garment of feathers. It
+was understood that this devoted old woman was not permitted to become
+intoxicated[293-*] lest she should lose in the road the plume of her
+office.
+
+The serpent appears as a head-dress exclusively with female figures and
+then usually when the woman is in the act of offering something or is
+associated with water or rain. The centipede occurs only with god D.
+Quadrupeds are employed as head-dresses only very seldom. The head of a
+deer is, in three places, used as a part of the head decoration of god M
+and the head of a jaguar appears in two places only.
+
+SECULAR OCCUPATIONS. Animals appear frequently in scenes showing various
+occupations. These, although appearing at first sight as secular, have
+to do with the religion of the people and they show in every case acts
+undertaken in behalf of the deities. It is almost exclusively in the
+Tro-Cortesianus that these religious-secular occupations are shown.
+
+Hunting scenes occur in one section of this codex (38-49). The whole aim
+of the hunt in these pages is to obtain animals for sacrifice. In almost
+every case the various animals are shown as being captured alive, either
+in a pitfall or a trap of the "jerk-up" type. This was undoubtedly in
+order that the animal might be killed the moment it was offered to the
+gods by having its heart cut out. Deer are most commonly represented in
+this hunting section although peccaries and armadillos also appear.
+Fishing is shown in one place at least (Dresden 33a).
+
+The practice of agriculture is shown in Tro-Cortesianus 24-28. The
+sprouting grain is represented as being eaten by a vulture and a jaguar.
+Certain gods in this section which relates to the planting of maize are
+shown as being attacked by vultures and blow-flies. Another occupation
+of the natives depicted in the Tro-Cortesianus (103-112) is apiculture.
+This, again, has clearly some religious significance. Pottery-making is
+shown in the same manuscript (95-101). It is, however, a purely
+religious ceremony. The renewal of the incense-burners is shown.
+Animals occur very infrequently in this section. The quetzal and two
+vultures are noted seated on top of an oven-like covering under which is
+the head of god C, probably representing the idol. There are several
+other occupations shown in this codex such as weaving (79c) and the
+gathering of the sap of the rubber tree (102b), but as animals do not
+occur in any connection with these operations, it is not necessary to
+dwell upon them.
+
+ANIMAL GLYPHS. It remains finally to speak of the various animals which
+are represented in glyph form as well as drawn in full in the pictures
+proper. The creatures pictured in the codices are often accompanied by
+their glyphs which appear in the lines of signs directly above. In many
+cases, the animal pictured below is not represented by its glyph above
+and, vice versa, the animal glyph may appear without its picture below.
+The same is seen also in connection with the representation of the gods
+and their glyphs. Both the picture and the glyph usually appear but
+either may appear alone. Many times when the glyph, either of a god or
+an animal, is shown with no accompanying picture, the reason seems to be
+that there is no room for the latter on account of the numerical
+calculations which take up all the space.
+
+There are some animals in the codices which are represented by glyphs
+very frequently. Among these are the screech owl (the Moan, the bird of
+death), which has several different glyphs by which it is recognized,
+the dog which, in addition to its own glyph, may be represented by the
+day sign _Oc_, the king vulture, the turtle, the bee (if we consider the
+day sign _Cauac_ stands for this insect), and the centipede. Among the
+animals whose glyphs only seldom appear may be mentioned the macaw, the
+peccary, the tree-toad (god P), the quetzal, and the jaguar. The glyph
+for the black vulture (Tro-Cortesianus 26c), the ape (Tro-Cortesianus
+88c), the deer (Peresianus 10), the eagle (Tro-Cortesianus 107c), and
+the serpent (Tro-Cortesianus 106c) seem to appear but once. It might
+also be well to mention in this place the glyphs for various molluscs
+which are used not to represent the shell but to give the value of zero
+to the numerical calculations.
+
+In the inscriptions glyphs frequently occur which represent animals
+either showing the whole body or simply the head. In the eastern façade
+of the Monjas at Chichen Itza there are glyphs for both the king and the
+black vulture and the peccary. The macaw and the turtle seem also to be
+represented by glyphs in the inscriptions. The _Tun_ period glyph shows
+vulture-like characteristics and the _Uinal_ period glyph certainly
+resembles the lizard. The glyphs representing the various animal
+offerings have already been discussed under a special heading (p. 289).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[289-*] p. 162. "Las mugeres no usavan destos derrammamientos, aunque
+eran harto santeras; mas de todas las cosas que aver podian que son aves
+del cielo, animales de la tierra, o pescados de la agua, siempre les
+embadurnavan los rostros al demonio con la sangre dellos."
+
+p. 164. "Y otras cosas que tenian ofrecian; a algunos animales les
+sacavan el corazon y lo ofrecian, a otros enteros, unos vivos, otros
+muertos, unos crudos, otros guisados.... Que sin las fiestas en las
+quales, para la solemnidad de ellas, se secrificavan animales, tambien
+por alguna tribulacion o necessidad."
+
+p. 254. "Tenian buscados todos animales y savandijas del campo que
+podian aver y en la tierra avia, y con ellos se juntavan en el patio del
+templo en el qual se ponian los _Chaques_.... Sacavan con liberalidad
+los coraçones a las aves y animales, y echavanlos a quemar en el fuego;
+y sino podian aver los animales grandes como tigres, leones o largartos,
+hazian los coraçones de su encienso, y si los matavan trayanles los
+coraçones para aquel fuego."
+
+[292-*] "Vestido salia con un jaco de pluma colorado y labrado de otras
+plumas de colores, y que le cuelgan de los estremos otras plumas largas
+y una como coroza en la cabeça de las mesmas plumas."
+
+[292-†] "Y a las niñas se les dava una vieja, vestida de un habito de
+plumas, que las traia alli y por esto la llamavan _Ixmol_, la
+allegadera.... Aquella devota vieja allegaria con que se emborachava en
+casa por no perder la pluma del officio en el camino."
+
+[293-*] "Intoxication was obligatory with the men in many of the
+religious rites. This is reported by the early Spanish historians and is
+the case at the present time among the Lacandones." (See Tozzer, 1907,
+p. 136.)
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+ZOOLOGICAL IDENTIFICATION AND ETHNOLOGICAL EXPLANATION OF ANIMAL FORMS.
+
+
+In the descriptions of the animals which follow the general plan will be
+to consider first the identification purely from a zoological point of
+view, and, secondly, the connection and, wherever possible, the meaning
+of the use of the various animal figures wherever they occur.
+
+
+MOLLUSCA
+
+FASCIOLARIA GIGANTEA. Representations of this marine shell are found in
+several places in the codices. It is the only large _Fusus_-like species
+on the western coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and, indeed, is the largest
+known American shell. It is therefore not strange that it should have
+attracted the attention of the Mayas and found a place in their
+writings. Several figures are shown that represent _Fasciolaria_ (Pl. 1,
+figs. 1-9). One in the Codex Vaticanus 3773 (Pl. 1, fig. 3) in common
+with those shown in Pl. 1, figs. 2, 6, 9, has the spire represented by
+segments of successively smaller size. The species of _Fasciolaria_
+occurring on the Yucatan and adjacent coasts is characterized by
+numerous prominent bosses or projections on its later whorls, and these,
+too, appear in conventionalized form in most of the representations. In
+Pl. 1, fig. 2, the second whorl, and in figs. 6, 9, the third whorl is
+shown with three stout tubercles in side view, corresponding to those
+found in this region of the shell. Figs. 7, 8 (Pl. 1) are glyphs
+representing the same species, but as in fig. 4, the spire is omitted,
+though the knobs are present. Round spots of color are evidently
+intended by the markings on the shells shown in figs. 3, 5, 6 (Pl. 1).
+Fig. 5, shows a further modification of the spire, which here is made
+like the head of a serpent.
+
+The _Mollusca_ in the codices are not always associated with the water
+although this is usually the case. God N (Pl. 1, fig. 1) sitting with
+the shell around his body is represented as in the rain and the shells
+in Pl. 1, figs. 4, 6, appear under water. The snail (Maya, _šot_) is
+considered by the Nahuas as the symbol of birth and death. The first
+idea is well brought out in Pl. 1, fig. 2, where the human figure is
+emerging from a shell. The same idea among the Mayas is seen in Pl. 1,
+fig. 1, where god N is coming from a shell. As god N is usually
+associated with the end of the year, we may have here the complementary
+idea of death associated with the shell. The same meaning is brought out
+in the Bologna Codex (Pl. 1, fig. 3) where the shell is decorated with
+flint points, the symbol of death. As the tortoise is often identified
+with the summer solstice, as previously pointed out, so the snail is
+associated with the winter solstice.
+
+Förstemann's identification of the head-dress of god D (Dresden 5c), god
+A (Dresden 9c, 13a), and god E (Dresden 11c) as representing snails is
+not clear. Stempell (1908, p. 739) also follows the same course thinking
+that the knob-like prominences represent the stalked eyes of snails.
+This seems quite unlikely as such representations are usually short and
+occur in too widely dissimilar connections. Moreover, there are
+sometimes three of these instead of but a single pair (Dresden 14a). A
+similar attempt has been made by Brinton to identify the head-dress of
+the death god (god A) as the snail. The head-dress in Dresden 13a and
+13b associated with god A looks far more like the head and upper jaw of
+some mammal.
+
+OLIVA. A univalve shell frequently represented is of an oval shape,
+pointed at each end, with a longitudinal lip and a short spire at one
+extremity. This is doubtless a species of _Oliva_, a marine shell. Mr.
+Charles W. Johnson informs us that _O. reticulata_ is the species
+occurring on the Yucatan shores, while _O. splendidula_ is found in
+other parts of the Gulf of Mexico. Representations of this shell are
+shown in Pl. 1, figs. 10-12. In figs. 10, 11, the lip and spire are
+apparent but in fig. 12 the lip only is seen as a white fissure against
+the general dark background. An earthenware vessel representing a tapir
+(Pl. 28, fig. 1) shows a string of _Oliva_ shells about the animal's
+neck and similar strings very often decorate the belts worn by the
+personages represented on the stelae of Copan.
+
+The shell in the codices is found in most cases to represent zero in the
+Maya numerical calculations. Just as a bar has the meaning five, and a
+dot one, so the shell often has the signification of zero. This is seen
+especially in the numeration by position in the codices (Pl. 1, figs. 7,
+8, 10-14).
+
+OTHER MOLLUSCA. In addition to the species just described at least two
+or three others occur in the Nuttall Codex, but so conventionalized that
+it is out of the question to hazard a guess at their identity. One (Pl.
+1, figs. 16, 17) is a bivalve with long pointed shell, another (Pl. 1,
+figs. 18-20) is rounder with conventionalized scroll-like markings.
+Figs. 21, 22 (Pl. 1) may be a side view of the closed bivalve shown in
+figs. 16, 17, or possibly a species of cowry. In like manner, fig. 13 is
+probably a side view of the mollusc shown in fig. 14, for it is seen
+that in each case the figure showing the two opened valves has a
+bipartite extended foot, whereas that of the single valve is simple.
+This doubling of the single median foot of the bivalve may be an
+artistic necessity for the sake of balance, or perhaps represents both
+foot and siphon at the same end. Figs. 23, 24 (Pl. 1) seem to represent
+molluscs still further reduced and conventionalized. These molluscs from
+the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 1, figs. 15-24) are almost all found represented
+in the blue water, whereas those which stand for zero in the Maya
+codices have no immediate association with either water or rain.
+
+
+INSECTA
+
+THE HONEY BEE (_Melipona_). A portion of the Tro-Cortesianus appears to
+treat of apiculture, as previously noted, or, at all events, contains
+numerous figures of bees, some of which are shown in Pl. 2. As stated by
+Stempell (1908, p. 735) this is doubtless a species of _Melipona_,
+probably _M. fulvipes_ or _domestica_. It is well known that this bee
+was kept by the ancient Mexicans, and what appear to be improvised hives
+are shown in Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10, where the combs are noted depending
+from the ceiling or walls. These combs are seen to be composed of cells
+roughly four-sided for the most part, though in fig. 11 several
+hexagonal cells are present in the mass of comb held by the black god,
+M. Darwin, in his _Origin of Species_, has called attention to the form
+of the comb built by this bee, and considers its irregular cells of from
+three to six sides intermediate in their degree of perfection between
+those of the bumble bee (_Bombus_) and the honey bee of Europe (_Apis
+mellifica_). The _Caban_ form in connnection[TN-4] with the hive in fig.
+10 may have some phonetic signifiance[TN-5] as _kab_ is honey in Maya.
+This sign occurs very frequently in the pages devoted to apiculture.
+
+The figures of the bees in the codex show a number of interesting
+variations. In figs. 1-3, 5, 11, the insect is less conventionalized
+than in figs. 4, 6 (Pl. 2). The hairy feet are well indicated as well as
+the segmented body and a single pair of wings. All the figures show an
+anterodorsal view so that, on account of the size of the first pair of
+legs, only the tops of the second pair appear in Pl. 2, figs. 1, 3, 5.
+In fig. 2, however, two pairs are seen, and in figs. 4, 6, the
+anthropomorphic tendency is further shown by providing the insect with
+two pairs of limbs each with four or five digits, and a conventionalized
+face, eyes and mouth. In Pl. 2, fig. 1, the bee is represented without
+mouthparts but antennae only. This may indicate a drone or a queen bee
+that takes no active part in the work of gathering honey or making comb.
+Fig. 2 is perhaps the least reduced of any of the figures and shows the
+worker bee with antennae and mouthparts.
+
+The so-called "cloud balls" of the day sign _Cauac_ (Pl. 2, fig. 8) may
+represent the honey comb. _Cauac_ is usually supposed to have some
+connection with lightening[TN-6] and thunder although Valentini agrees with
+the authors in associating _Cauac_ with the bees and honey. The
+_Cauac_-like forms in Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10, have been described above as
+hives. The representation of legs in the full drawing of a bee as four
+large limbs, an anterior and a posterior pair, coupled with the method
+of drawing the insect as seen from above and in front, may have led to
+its final expression by an X-shaped mark shown in connection with the
+hives (Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10). The X is also seen in the day sign _Cauac_.
+
+Apiculture was common among the various peoples of Central America and
+Mexico. Las Casas speaks of hives of bees and Gomara states that the
+bees were small and the honey rather bitter. Clavigero (Vol. 1, p.
+68)[300-*] mentions six varieties of bees which were found in
+Mexico;--the first is the same as the common bee of Europe, the second
+differs from the first only in having no sting and is the bee of Yucatan
+and Chiapas which makes the fine clear honey of aromatic flavor. The
+third species resembles in its form the winged ants but is smaller than
+the common bee and without a sting. The fourth is a yellow bee, smaller
+than the common one but, like it, furnished with a sting. The fifth is a
+small bee without a sting which constructs hives of an orbicular form in
+subterranean cavities and the honey is sour and somewhat bitter. The
+_Tlalpipiolli_, which is the sixth species, is black and yellow, of the
+size of the common bee, but has no sting.
+
+The natives of the country at the present time often cultivate hives of
+bees in logs which they hollow out for this purpose and keep in a
+specially constructed shelter. It is, however, rather the ceremonial
+side of apiculture that is the interesting feature and this is clearly
+emphasized in the Tro-Cortesianus. The section in this manuscript (80b,
+103-112), as has been noted, is taken up almost exclusively with the
+culture of the bee and in all probability represents a definite
+religious ceremony or series of rites which are connected intimately
+with bees and honey. Landa (1864, p. 292)[300-†] states that in the
+month _Tzoz_ the natives prepare for a ceremony in behalf of the bees
+which takes place in the following month, _Tzec_. In the month _Mol_
+another fiesta is undertaken in behalf of these insects so that the
+gods may provide an abundance of flowers for the bees (Landa, 1864, p.
+306).[301-*]
+
+It seems clear therefore that we have represented in the pages of the
+Tro-Cortesianus referred to, the rites carried out in this connection.
+The more or less realistic drawings of the bees (Pl. 2, figs. 1-6, 9)
+represent the god of the bees and to him offerings of food and incense
+are being made. Pl. 2, fig. 11, shows the war god (M) with his eagle
+head-dress offering a mass of honey in the comb to the god of the bees.
+
+Curiously enough the bee does not seem to be represented in the Dresden
+Codex. Förstemann's identification of the head-dress of the goddess in
+Dresden 9a as a bee does not seem to us to be correct.
+
+In addition to the bees, there occurs in the Nuttall Codex 4 (Pl. 3,
+fig. 4) a curious representation of an insect with a pointed beak-like
+structure and a spine at the posterior extremity of its human-like body.
+It is engaged in apparent conflict with a man and may represent a
+hornet.
+
+BLOW-FLY (_Sarcophaga_). Two figures in the Tro-Cortesianus (Pl. 3,
+figs. 1, 2) are of special interest since they appear to have been
+frequently regarded as picturing snakes attacking men. These are
+thick-bodied sinuous creatures distinguished by the curious conformation
+of the mouth and by a lateral row of dots that may represent the
+metameric spiracles or, as commonly, a demarcation between dorsal and
+ventral surfaces. That these are maggots of a blow-fly (_Sarcophaga_)
+there can be little doubt, not only on account of their mouth parts
+which are similar to those of the agave maggot (see later) but also
+because of their relation to God F whom they are devouring. The latter
+in fig. 1 is doubtless dead as shown by the closed eye and it is the
+habit of the blow-fly to deposit its eggs in the nasal cavity of dead
+animals as well as elsewhere on the body. The fact that in each case a
+maggot is attacking the god's nose may indicate that this habit was
+known to the artist who, consequently, shows the larvae in this
+position. In Pl. 3, fig. 2, the god's eye is not closed but his passive
+attitude while the maggot devours his hand and nose does not indicate
+that he is in full possession of his strength. In addition to the
+blow-fly, a screw-fly (_Chrysomyia_) lays its eggs on the bodies of
+animals, often on persons sleeping, and these may hatch almost at once
+into small maggots that penetrate the skin. It may be, therefore, that
+the larvae here considered belong to this genus.
+
+In addition to god F, in Tro-Cortesianus 24d, there is another
+representation of the same god being attacked by a vulture. This bird is
+evidently eating his nose. In this case the god is shown with the closed
+eye as in 27d. In Tro-Cortesianus 25d the fly seems to be attacking the
+mouth of god F. From the fact that no other god is ever found in this
+connection it may be suggested that there may be some relation between
+god F as a god of human sacrifice and the fact that his dead body is
+being eaten by blow-flies and vultures. A portion of the body of the
+person sacrificed was usually eaten by those taking part in the
+ceremony.
+
+LEPIDOPTEROUS INSECTS. In Tro-Cortesianus 28c (Pl. 3, fig. 3) is shown a
+second insect larva with curiously formed mouth parts. It is represented
+as attacking agave which is springing from the ground as shown by the
+_Caban_ signs in the codex. Hough (1908, p. 591) has shown this to be
+the larva of _Acentrocneme kollari_ Felder, "called by the Mexicans
+_guson_, and in Nahuatl _mescuillin_." This grub, he says, is white,
+about an inch long, and tunnels the fleshy leaves of the agave. It is
+greatly prized as an article of food for "_gusones_ to this day are
+collected in April, boiled, wrapped in the epidermis of the agave, sold
+on the streets of Mexico, and are eaten with avidity. To all appearances
+they are nourishing and palatable, and it is said that connoisseurs
+prefer them to oysters or swallows' nests." Hough believes "that the
+discovery of the sap-yielding quality of the agave was through search
+for these larvae."
+
+In the Nuttall Codex occur numerous representations of insects, some of
+which appear to represent butterflies or moths (Pl. 3, figs. 5-8) but
+these are quite unidentifiable. That shown in fig. 6 is colored blue in
+the original, while the others are of various colors. Possibly the round
+markings on the wings in figs. 5, 8, represent the ocelli on the wings
+of certain species of moths. In this connection, too, it is interesting
+to compare the conventionalized butterfly with its single eye and
+pointed antennae from the Aubin manuscript (Pl. 3, fig. 9) with one
+drawn on the same plan from the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 3, fig. 8).
+
+
+MYRIAPODA
+
+Representations of a centipede (probably a species of _Scolopendra_)
+occur in the Dresden Codex and in several others examined. That shown in
+Pl. 5, fig. 1, from the Vaticanus 3773, is perhaps the least
+conventionalized.[303-*] This figure appears partly to encircle a
+temple, behind which the major portion of its length is hidden and hence
+is not here shown. The bipartite structure coming from the animal's head
+doubtless represents the mouthparts, and at its base on either side
+arise antennae. The first pair only of legs is shown with a pinching
+claw, possibly intended as a conventionalized hand, while the rest are
+simple. The plumes decorating the posterior extremity are of course
+extraneous and represent the tail of the quetzal or trogon.
+
+In the Dresden Codex, god D constantly appears in connection with a
+head-dress from which depends a centipede, greatly reduced and
+conventionalized. Two forms of this centipede are shown in Pl. 3, figs.
+15, 18. The body appears to consist of four or five segments each with
+its pair of ambulatory appendages (though there may not always be the
+same number of each) terminated by a circular segment with a
+conventionalized three-knobbed structure, apparently corresponding to
+the portion that bears the quetzal plume in Pl. 5, fig. 1. The outline
+of the head in Pl. 3, fig. 15, is shown in dotted line but by solid line
+in fig. 18. One of the antennae appears to be omitted from the former
+figure, also, but both are present in the latter. The insect-like head
+is made on much the same plan as that of the bee (Pl. 2, fig. 11), the
+facial portion divided by a median line into a right and a left half
+with a small triangle below for a mouth. The eyes, however, instead of
+being circular like those of the bee are made as narrow elongated
+projections extending inward from the dorsal margin of the facial disc.
+
+The glyphs for god D in Dresden 7b (Pl. 3, fig. 11), Dresden 7c, and
+Dresden 14b (Pl. 3, fig. 12) undoubtedly show three forms of the sign
+for god D, only one of which (fig. 12) is given by Schellhas (1904, p.
+22) among the signs of this god. In each of these cases the centipede
+head surrounded by dots is shown in connection with the main part of the
+glyph. In Dresden 44b (Pl. 3, fig. 13) there is a glyph which seems to
+show the same centipede head although it has no connection with god D in
+the place where it is found. In Dresden 27 (Pl. 3, fig. 14), moreover,
+still another variant of the glyph for god D seems to occur. This shows
+a prefix clearly representing the centipede and the "moon sign" is the
+main part of the glyph. Directly beside this in the codex is found the
+_Ahau_-like sign for god D and god D himself is represented in the
+middle section of the page.
+
+The association of god D with the centipede may be explained by the fact
+that as this god is regarded as the Moon or Night god, so the centipede
+is an animal which frequents dark places. Another point in this
+connection may be made if we consider the head of the centipede in the
+head-dress and in the glyphs as representing the day sign _Akbal_ (Pl.
+3, fig. 10) as _Akbal_ in Maya means night. It must be admitted,
+however, that the head might represent the day sign _Chuen_ almost as
+well as _Akbal_. The centipede is connected with death and destruction
+in the same way as the owl. Both are shown in Vaticanus 3773, 13,
+associated with the "house of drought."
+
+
+CRUSTACEA
+
+With one possible exception no crustaceans were found depicted in the
+Maya codices, but we have introduced figures of two from the Nuttall
+Codex. The first of these (Pl. 4, fig. 5) is probably a crayfish,
+perhaps _Cambarus montezumae_. It seems unlikely that the so-called
+Spanish lobster (_Palinurus_) can be intended or the powerful spined
+antennae would have been shown. It is interesting to note that the
+stalked eyes are clearly pictured. The second example seems to be a crab
+(Pl. 4, fig. 6). Two large chelae of nearly equal size are simply drawn
+and four rounded projections at the top of the figure appear to
+represent the walking legs. Its rotund form and subequal chelae suggest
+the land crab, _Geocarcinus_, but exact determination is of course
+impossible. What is certainly a large crab, perhaps of the same species,
+is shown in Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 36, fig. 1) in connection with a
+dog whose feet it seems about to pinch with its two large chelae. The
+shell is ornamented in a conventionalized way as if with scales.
+
+
+ARACHNIDA
+
+In Codex Borbonicus 9 (Pl. 4, fig. 4) there is represented a
+stout-bodied form of spider with two sharply pointed chelicerae
+projecting from the conventionalized mouth. These characteristics
+together with the absence of any web, suggest a large predacious
+species, probably the tarantula (_Tarantula_ sp.) which is common in
+Mexico. The acute powers of observation shown by the artist are evinced
+in this figure since he draws the spider correctly with eight legs
+instead of the six or ten sometimes seen in drawings by our own
+illustrators.
+
+
+ARACHNOIDEA
+
+The scorpion (Maya, _sinaan_) figures prominently in the
+Tro-Cortesianus, two drawings from which are shown (Pl. 4, figs. 1, 2).
+As here conventionalized, the jointed appendages are represented as
+composed of an indefinite number of round segments. The large chelate
+pedipalps are also prominently figured but the smaller walking legs are
+commonly omitted. In Pl. 4, fig. 1, however, there is a pair of
+posterior chelate appendages which are probably added to give a more
+anthropoid cast to the figure. The slight projections along the sides of
+the body in Pl. 4, fig. 2, probably do not represent the legs. In
+another drawing (Tro-Cortesianus 44b) these are also present but further
+reduced so as not to exceed the heavy fringe of spines surrounding the
+body. In Pl. 4, fig. 1, the fringe alone appears. The formidable nature
+of the scorpion is of course due to the poisonous sting at the tip of
+the attenuated abdomen or "tail." In the Maya pictures this portion is
+usually shown as a grasping organ. Thus in fig. 1 it is similar to the
+chela and holds a cord by which a deer has been caught. In fig. 2 the
+"tail" is terminated by a hand. The same thing is seen in
+Tro-Cortesianus 44b where the hand seizes a cord by which a deer is
+snared. The scorpion is represented in the drawings with a
+conventionalized face that is very characteristic. The facial disc is
+divided into three parts by a median area of straight or irregular
+lateral boundaries ending anteriorly in two in-turned scrolls suggesting
+the alae of the nose. A circular eye is present in each of the lateral
+divisions of the face while from the oral region projects a forked
+tongue.
+
+It is of course hazardous to attempt a specific identification of these
+figures but, as pointed out by Stempell (1908, p. 739), there are two
+large scorpions in Yucatan (_Centruroides margaritatus_ and _C.
+gracilis_) which are probably the species pictured in the codices.
+
+The representations of the scorpion in the Tro-Cortesianus are almost
+always associated with scenes of the hunt. As the deer is caught in a
+trap so Förstemann considers that Pl. 4, fig. 1, shows a trap with five
+appliances, the "tail" one alone being effective. Brinton (1895, p. 75)
+notes that the Mayas applied the term _sinaan ek_, "scorpion stars" to a
+certain constellation and suggests that it was derived from the
+Spaniards. There is certainly some association between the scorpion and
+water as, in Tro-Cortesianus 7a, the fore and hind legs of the animal
+enclose a body of water. The scorpion "tail" alone appears in
+Tro-Cortesianus 31a and 82a as the tail of a god. Its significance is
+difficult to make out. Destruction is indicated by the scorpion in the
+Aubin manuscript as suggested by Seler (1900-1901, p. 71).
+
+In the Nuttall Codex there is a remarkably beautiful conventionalization
+of a scorpion (Pl. 4, fig. 3) in which the tripartite nature of the head
+is still preserved though it is so reduced as to resemble the calyx of a
+flower. The "tail", as elsewhere, and the legs are present.
+
+
+PISCES
+
+Figures of fish (Maya _kai_) occur commonly in the Maya codices in
+various connections as well as in the stone carvings, but none of these
+seems certainly identifiable. Among the representations, however, there
+are clearly several species. One (Pl. 5, figs. 2, 6, 7-9; Pl. 6, fig. 9)
+has a single dorsal fin, powerful teeth, and a generally ferocious
+aspect and may represent some large predacious variety, perhaps a tunny.
+The distinct operculum in most of the figures would preclude their
+representing a shark. Other figures picture similar fish without the
+prominent teeth (Pl. 5, fig. 4, 5; Pl. 6, figs. 2, 6, 10, 13). In two
+cases the scales are diagramatically shown by straight or crescentric
+lines (Pl. 5, fig. 4, 8). A third species of fish is shown provided with
+two dorsal fins (Pl. 6, figs. 3, 11; Pl. 7, fig. 6, the last an
+excellent stone carving). Others (Pl. 6, figs. 7, 14-17) represent
+fishes without dorsal fins, one of which (fig. 7) from its length may be
+an eel, possibly _Muraena_.
+
+In the Nuttall Codex occurs a remarkable fish with an unmistakable wing
+arising just behind the head nearly at the dorsal line. While this may
+represent a flying fish (_Exocetus_), the head is so bird-like that the
+whole may be merely a combination figure.
+
+Of frequent occurrence in the Dresden is a glyph, two modifications of
+which are here shown (Pl. 6, figs. 4, 5). Stempell suggests that the
+vertical lines on the posterior portion of such figures may be gill
+slits and that hence they may represent sharks in which these orifices
+are without an operculum.
+
+As with the molluscs, so with the fish, we naturally find them usually
+associated with the water. This may be seen especially well in the
+Nuttall Codex. In Dresden 33a (Pl. 6, fig. 13) the fish is clearly
+associated with the operation of fishing as two figures are seated on
+the edge of a body of water in the act of casting a net. An eel is shown
+in the water under god B in Dresden 65b (Pl. 6, fig. 7) and fish are
+shown just below the claws of a crocodile in text figure 1. In Dresden
+44a god B holds a fish in his hands. As will be pointed out later (p.
+314) this god is frequently associated with water. In Dresden 44c a fish
+appears between god B and an unidentifiable deity. In the Maya codices
+the greater number of representations of fish are in connection with
+sacrifice. In Dresden 27 (Pl. 6, fig. 6) the fish is pictured resting on
+two _Kan_ signs, the symbol of maize or bread, and these in turn on a
+flat bowl. In Dresden 29b (Pl. 5, fig. 9) the fish is represented
+between the red and black numbers of the _tonalamatl_. Here again the
+fish is shown as an offering.
+
+In two cases only do we find the fish used as a part of the head-dress
+and in each case the fish is graphically shown as held in the mouth of a
+heron. One of these is in the Dresden Codex 36b (Pl. 5, fig. 3) and one
+in the stone carving of the Temple of the Cross at Palenque (Pl. 15,
+fig. 5). Fish are often represented on the stone carvings as feeding
+upon a water plant. This is seen in the border at the bottom of the
+Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza (Pl. 5, figs.
+2, 4; Pl. 6, fig. 2). In several instances at Copan fish are shown as
+forming the sides of the Great Cycle glyph at the beginning of an
+Initial Series (Pl. 6, figs. 14-17). It has often been suggested that as
+the word fish in Maya is _kai_ (usually written _cay_), there may be
+some phonetic significance here, combining the fish, _kai_, with the
+usually drum-like sign for stone, _tun_, making _kai tun_ or _katun_.
+This is the term usually given not to the Great Cycle but to the period
+composed of twenty _tuns_ and is probably derived from _kal_ meaning
+twenty and _tun_, a stone.
+
+
+AMPHIBIA
+
+FROGS. Figures undoubtedly representing frogs (Maya _mutš_ or _uo_)
+or toads are found in several places in the codices and in the stone
+carvings, but it is quite impossible to refer them definitely to any of
+the numerous species occurring in Central America, if, indeed, the
+artists had any one species in mind. In the Tro-Cortesianus frogs are
+not uncommon. In 31a there are four (Pl. 7, fig. 1) with water coming
+from their mouths. They are characterized by their stout tailless
+bodies, flattened heads and toothless mouths. In 101d (Pl. 7, figs. 2,
+3) there are two, the first painted blue with spots of darker blue and
+the second white and represented as broken in two in the middle. The
+signs of death above the latter clearly show that a dead animal is
+indicated. Pl. 7, fig. 6, shows the end of Altar O from Copan on which a
+frog and a fish are pictured, the former in dorsal view, the latter in
+lateral aspect. The peculiar pointed snout of this frog is similar to
+that of the frog shown in Pl. 7, fig. 7, also in dorsal view. A somewhat
+similar creature (Pl. 29, fig. 6) we have included and though it may
+represent an opossum it has little to distinguish it from the figures of
+frogs.[309-*]
+
+God B in Tro-Cortesianus 12b should be associated with the frog. His
+legs are those of a frog and he appears as if swimming in the water.
+Frog in Maya is _Uo_ which is also the name of the second month of the
+Maya year. The first day of this month, according to Landa, corresponds
+to August 5 of our year and this is the height of the rainy season in
+the Maya region. The sign for _Uo_ does not, however, resemble a frog in
+any way. The frog above one of the figures in the Lower Chamber of the
+Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza (Pl. 7, fig. 7) has clearly some
+relation to the name or totem of the warrior. The Nahua custom is seen
+here.
+
+Toads are probably intended in Pl. 7, figs. 4, 5. In these the great
+breadth of the head and mouth together with the short inflated body
+combine to produce a very toad-like appearance. It is not unlikely that
+they represent the huge marine toad, _Bufo marinus_, common from
+southern Mexico to Brazil and in the West Indies. There seems to be no
+distinction in the treatment of frogs and toads in the codices.
+
+TREE-TOAD (_Hyla eximia_). Of great interest are the figures in
+Tro-Cortesianus 26a and b (Pl. 8, figs. 1, 3), showing a god with
+expanded finger tips and characterized further by the presence of two
+parallel black stripes from the hinder and lower margins of the eye
+respectively. The knob-like finger tips at once suggest one of the
+tree-toads, and the presence of the two lines seems to indicate _Hyla
+eximia_ as the species represented. In this tree-toad there is a long
+black lateral line running posteriorly from the tympanum and above it a
+shorter line just as in the drawings. It appears to be a common species
+in the valley of Mexico though but little seems to have been written of
+its habits. At the beginning of the rainy season it repairs to pools of
+water to breed and is then very noticeable from its loud voice. No doubt
+its importance in the Maya economy was from its conspicuousness at the
+beginning of the rainy period. This fact is brought out more strongly
+when we consider that these gods representing the tree-toad are
+associated with agriculture and the sowing of grain at the beginning of
+the rainy season. Förstemann (1902, p. 35) identifies these figures as
+god F. They are quite unlike the usual representation of this god and
+are clearly god P as Schellhas (1904, p. 39) indicates. It is
+interesting to note that the two black lines behind the eye are also
+seen in the other gods shown in Tro-Cortesianus 26a and b although the
+knob-like finger tips are lacking. The glyph for this tree-toad god is
+recognized in the fifth place at the top of the same page (Pl. 8, fig.
+2) by the same two black lines under and behind the eye.
+
+
+REPTILIA
+
+SERPENT. It would be impossible in the present paper to enter into any
+lengthy discussion of the use of the serpent (Maya _kan_) in Mexico and
+Central America. It seems to be one of the main elements in the religion
+and consequently in the art of the Mayas and Mexican peoples. It is
+represented again and again in many forms and varied combinations. It
+underlies the whole general trend of Maya art. The serpent is often
+associated with feathers. The culture hero of the Nahuas,
+_Quetzalcoatl_ (feathered serpent) corresponds to a similar god among
+the Mayas, _Kukulcan_ (also meaning feathered serpent). The feathers of
+the quetzal are the ones commonly used in connection with the serpent.
+
+Any attempt at identification of the species represented is beset by
+grave difficulties for so conventionalized have the figures often become
+that, except in the case of the rattlesnake with its rattles, there are
+no characteristic marks by which the species may be known. It is natural
+to suppose that the species used for artistic purposes would be those
+that are most noteworthy because of their size, coloring, or venomous
+qualities. No doubt a number of harmless species were also used in the
+religious ceremonies.[311-*] Such may be those used as hair ornaments in
+many of the figures (Pl. 8, figs. 7-13, 15) and in which no indication
+of a rattle is to be seen. The fierce eye of these reptiles is shown by
+means of an exaggerated overhanging brow occasionally embellished by
+recurved crests (Pl. 8, figs. 10, 11, 13, 15). These crests are
+sometimes shown as two or three stalked knobs (Pl. 10, fig. 7) that
+Stempell was misled into identifying as the eyes of snails. Various
+heads of snakes usually with fangs exposed and tongue protruding are
+pictured in Pl. 8, figs. 4, 6; Pl. 9, figs. 2, 4-6: one snake with a
+spiny back is shown in Pl. 8, fig. 5, but obviously it represents merely
+the artist's endeavor to present as terrifying a creature as possible.
+
+Various types of rattlesnakes are shown in Pl. 9. The presence of the
+rattle is of course the characteristic, and this portion alone is
+likewise used, in one case, at least, as a glyph (Pl. 9, fig. 7). It
+cannot be denied, however, that some or most of the snakes in which no
+rattles appear, are nevertheless intended for rattlers. It may have been
+that the figures were so well understood that the addition of rattles in
+the drawings was quite unnecessary. This, however, is quite conjectural.
+The species of rattlesnake is probably _Crotalus basiliscus_ or _C.
+terrificus_ of southern Mexico and adjacent regions, not _C. horridus_
+or _adamanteus_ as supposed by Stempell since these two species are
+confined to the United States. Among the figures shown on Pl. 9, it is
+noteworthy that five of the rattlesnakes show no fangs. Some are
+spotted, but in a wholly arbitrary manner. Three are unmarked. One is
+shown coiled about the base of a tree (Pl. 9, fig. 5), another coiled
+ready to strike though the rattle is pictured trailing on the ground
+instead of being held erect in the center of the coil as usually is done
+(Pl. 9, fig. 9). A rattlesnake is shown held in the hand of a man in Pl.
+9, fig. 8.
+
+In Pl. 10, fig. 1, is shown a rattle-less snake with prominent fang,
+coiled about the top of an altar which may represent a tree or bush.
+From the latter fact, it might be concluded that it was a tree or
+bush-inhabiting species, possibly the deadly "bush-master" (_Lachesis
+lanceolatus_). Other figures (Pl. 10, figs. 3, 7; Pl. 11, figs. 1, 2)
+are introduced here as examples of the curious head ornamentation
+frequently found in the drawings. The two first are merely serpents with
+the jaws extended to the utmost, and with a characteristic head
+decoration. The last is provided with an elaborate crest. The size and
+markings of the two serpents shown in Pl. 11, as well as their want of
+rattles suggest that they may represent some species of large _Boidae_
+as _Loxocemus bicolor_ or _Boa_ (sp?).
+
+After having commented upon the various serpents occurring in the
+codices and in several other places, we will now take up the manner and
+connection in which the various figures occur. We shall pass over
+completely the use of the "serpent column" at Chichen Itza, the
+importance of the serpent motive in the development of the masked panel
+as worked out by Spinden, and the countless representations of the
+plumed serpent in the whole field of Maya design and decoration. In the
+single Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza, the feathered serpent
+occurs in the round as a column decoration supporting the portico, as
+carved on the wooden lintel at the entrance to the Painted Chamber,
+again and again on the frescoes of this room,[313-*] in the Lower
+Chamber as dividing the bas-relief into zones or panels, and, finally,
+as the center of the whole composition of this bas-relief. It will be
+seen, therefore, that it will be necessary in a short paper, to limit
+ourselves to the representations of the serpent in the Maya codices.
+
+The serpent is most frequently associated with god B. Schellhas (1904,
+p. 17), Fewkes (1894), Förstemann (1906), and Thomas (1882), seem to
+agree that god B is to be identified as _Kukulcan_, the most important
+of the deities of the Mayas and, as pointed out before, appearing in the
+Nahua mythology, as _Quetzalcoatl_, and in the Quiche myths as
+_Gucumatz_. It was also noted that the name means both in Maya and in
+Nahuatl, the "feathered serpent" or the "bird serpent." Other
+authorities consider god B as _Itzamna_, another of the main gods of the
+Mayas. Seler interprets god B as the counterpart of the Nahua rain god,
+_Tlaloc_. It is certain that when god B and the serpent are associated
+together water and rain are usually indicated. God H, "the _Chicchan_
+god," also has some relation to the serpent. As pointed out by Schellhas
+(1904, pp. 28-30), this god often appears characterized by a skin-spot
+or a scale of the serpent on his temple of the same shape as the
+hieroglyph of the day _Chicchan_ (serpent). The glyph belonging to this
+deity also shows the _Chicchan_ sign as its distinguishing mark. Similar
+signs appear on the body of the serpent in many places, as in
+Tro-Cortesianus 30a (Pl. 11, fig. 1).
+
+We have already noted that the serpent, god B, and water are frequently
+shown together, so the serpent also appears associated with water and
+rain, when no figure of god B is present. From this connection, it can
+be argued that there is some relation between the serpent and the coming
+of the rains. These facts would give strength to the theory that god B
+is to be identified as a rain god. In Dresden 33a, 35a, god B is seated
+on the open jaws of a serpent, while the body of the reptile encloses a
+blue field evidently signifying water. The number nineteen appears on
+this blue color. It will be noted that there are nineteen spots on the
+serpents in Pl. 11, figs. 1, 2. In Tro-Cortesianus 3a-6a, corresponding
+scenes seem to be shown. The body of the serpent encloses water, and
+here the number eighteen appears in each case. God B occurs always in
+front of the serpent and his head appears as the head of the reptile in
+the first instance. In Dresden 35a, 36a, the head of god B is pictured
+as the head of the serpent in the midst of the water. In Dresden 37b
+(Pl. 10, fig. 8), B is holding a snake in the water.
+
+Water appears in connection with the serpent and god B in many places in
+the Tro-Cortesianus. In 9, god B is pictured pouring water from a jar, a
+common method of showing the idea of rain in the codices. In 12b, B
+again is shown perhaps representing a frog, and behind him a serpent.
+The reptiles in 13b-18b, are all associated with the idea of rain, the
+turtle and frog also appearing in this section. In 30a (Pl. 11, fig. 1),
+god B and a female figure are both pouring water from a jar, as they
+stand on the body of a serpent. In 32a, the black god (L) is seen in the
+rain, and a serpent is near, while in 32b and 33b (Pl. 9, fig. 1), the
+serpent forms the belt of god L, and a female figure and water are seen
+in both cases. The blue color of the snake and of god B in 31b (Pl. 11,
+fig. 2) may also suggest water.
+
+God B also occurs in connection with the serpent in Dresden 42a (Pl. 8,
+fig. 14), where the god is seated on the reptile, in Tro-Cortesianus,
+10b, where the head of the same god is the head of the snake, and in
+Tro-Cortesianus 19a, where god B again and god A are each seated on the
+open jaws of a serpent.
+
+The astronomical role of the serpent is noted in Dresden 56b, 57b (Pl.
+10, fig. 3), Tro-Cortesianus 5b, 12b, 15b, and 67b, where the snake is
+shown in connection with a line of constellation signs, the _kin_ or sun
+sign prominent in most of the drawings. In the "battle of the
+constellations" in Dresden 60, the serpent appears forming a sort of
+altar, the seat of a figure which is supported by another figure. A
+serpent head also appears at the foot of the latter figure.
+
+That the serpent appears associated with the idea of time seems clear
+from the fact of the long number series in Dresden 61, 62 (Pl. 10, fig.
+7), and 69, which are shown in the spaces made by the winding of the
+serpents' bodies. In Tro-Cortesianus 13a-16a, four large reptiles appear
+in connection with the lines of day signs.
+
+The study of the serpent used as a head-dress is interesting. As noted
+previously, quite a different kind of snake seems to be represented when
+used in this connection. Two other points come out in this
+investigation, namely, that it is only with female figures that the
+serpent is employed as a head-dress, and in far the greater number of
+cases the women are shown, either in the act of offering something, or
+of pouring water from a jar. The usual type of serpent head-dress is
+seen in Dresden 9c (Pl. 8, fig. 11), 15b (Pl. 8, fig. 12), 18a (Pl. 8,
+fig. 13), 22b (Pl. 8, fig. 10), and 23b (Pl. 8, fig. 8). In the first
+case, the offering is a jicara or gourd of some sacred drink
+(_baltše_?), in the second and third examples, the dish is clearly
+shown, but the offering is unidentifiable, in the fourth case, maize (a
+_Kan_ sign), and in the last, a fish resting on a dish. In Dresden 20a
+(Pl. 8, fig. 15), a woman with serpent head-dress is seen associated
+with the Moan-headed figure, possibly in the act of offering it as a
+sacrifice.
+
+In Dresden 39b (Pl. 8, fig. 7), 43b (Pl. 8, fig. 9), and 70, a similar
+serpent head-dress is shown on a female figure in the act of pouring
+water from a jar. In Tro-Cortesianus, the serpent head-dresses differ in
+type only, and in two out of the four cases where they appear, water is
+shown flowing from the breasts (30b) of the female figure or from the
+mouth (32b). The woman thus represented in connection with the water is
+god I, the water goddess of Schellhas. She is, as he notes (1904, p. 31)
+usually the figure of an old woman. "Evidently, we have here the
+personification of water in its quality of destroyer, a goddess of
+floods and cloud-bursts." We are not at all sure that we have here a
+distinct god as similar female figures with serpent head-dresses occur
+frequently in the Dresden Codex with no suggestion of water. The failure
+to find any distinct glyph for this goddess seems to strengthen the view
+of not considering her as a separate deity. Finally, in our
+consideration of head-dresses, the serpent is to be seen in
+Tro-Cortesianus 79c on the head of the first woman who is weaving.
+Possibly, a conventionalized serpent forms the head covering of the
+second figure who is represented as dead.
+
+The serpent in Dresden 26c-28c (Pl. 10, fig. 1) coiled around the altar
+which rises from a _Tun_ sign is not easily explained. In 25c, the altar
+is replaced by god B and in the former cases, the reptiles may stand for
+this god with whom they are often associated.[316-*] The serpent seems
+closely connected with the idea of offerings as the body of a snake is
+shown in several instances as the support of the jar containing the
+various gifts in Tro-Cortesianus 34a, 34b, 35a, 35b, 36a, 36b, and
+possibly 52c (Pl. 9, fig. 3).
+
+Finally the serpent is to be noted in a number of miscellaneous
+connections:--in Dresden 36b (Pl. 19, fig. 11), as being attacked by a
+black vulture,[317-*] in Tro-Cortesianus 40b (Pl. 9, fig. 4) a
+rattlesnake is biting the foot of one of the hunters, and in
+Tro-Cortesianus 66b, where the serpent has a human head and arm coming
+from its open jaws. This is a very frequent method of representing the
+serpent in the Maya stone carvings. In Tro-Cortesianus 60c, 100d (Pl. 9,
+fig. 8), twice, 106a, and 111b, the rattlesnake is shown as a sprinkler
+for the holy water in the hand (in the first, second and fourth
+examples) of god D. Landa (1864, p. 150)[317-†] describes in the
+ceremony of the baptism of children, that the leader of the rite wore on
+his head a kind of mitre embroidered with plumage in some manner and in
+his hand a small holy-water sprinkler of wood, carved skillfully, of
+which the filaments were the tails of serpents, similar to serpents with
+rattles.
+
+In spite of the importance of the serpent in the manuscripts and stone
+carvings, it never seems to appear as a separate deity. With one
+exception, no glyph is to be found representing this reptile as is the
+case with many of the animals. Tro-Cortesianus 106c (Pl. 9, fig. 7) is
+this exception showing the rattles of a snake which are found in the
+line of glyphs above two of the bees. No serpent appears in the picture.
+
+The Nahuatl day, _Couatl_, has the signification serpent, as suggested
+before, in discussing the meaning of the name _Quetzalcoatl_ or
+_Quetzalcouatl_. This day sign occurs throughout the Mexican
+manuscripts as the head of a serpent (Pl. 8, figs. 4, 6; Pl. 9, fig. 2;
+Pl. 10, figs. 2, 4-6).
+
+IGUANA. Of the lizards represented, the iguana (Maya _hu_) is the most
+striking, and is readily identified on account of the prominent spines
+along the back. As noted by Stempell, there are two or three species of
+large lizards in Central America commonly called iguana, and it is
+probable that the one here considered is the _Ctenosaura acanthura_ of
+Yucatan or _Iguana tuberculata_ of South and Central America.
+
+In the manuscripts the iguana is almost exclusively represented as an
+offering (Pl. 12, figs. 1-6). It is usually found on top of the _Kan_
+sign, meaning maize or bread,[318-*] and this, in turn, resting in a
+bowl (Pl. 12, figs. 3, 4, 6). Landa (1864, p. 230)[318-†] gives a
+pleasing confirmation of this offering of an iguana with bread. It is
+possible that the object shown in Tro-Cortesianus 12b (Pl. 12, fig. 13)
+may be the conventionalized representation of this lizard. It must be
+admitted that this interpretation is very doubtful. The triangular
+points suggest the lizard, but the pointed character of the sign as a
+whole in no way resembles the back of this reptile. It is found
+associated with three _Kan_ signs. In Cakchiquel, a dialect of the Maya
+stock, _K'an_, according to Guzman and Brinton (1893, p. 24) is the name
+applied to the female of the iguana or the lizard, and this is believed
+to be the original sense of the Maya term. It may also be noted that the
+Nahua day sign _Cuetzpalin_, meaning lizard, is the one which
+corresponds with the Maya day _Kan_. Pl. 12, figs. 10, 12, 14, show
+representations of the day corresponding to _Cuetzpalin_ in the Aubin
+and Nuttall codices. These show a stout spineless species with a short
+thick tail and may be the Gila monster (_Heloderma horridum_), a large
+and somewhat poisonous species having much these proportions.
+
+Further offerings are shown in Pl. 12, figs. 7, 8. These seem to be the
+heads and forefeet of lizards, but, from the shape of the head, perhaps
+not of iguanas.
+
+In Stela D of Copan, the _Uinal_ period glyph seems to be represented by
+a spineless lizard covered with scales (Pl. 12, fig. 9). Frog-like
+characteristics also appear. This stone monument is remarkable from the
+fact that the glyphs are all more or less realistic representations of
+human and animal forms. It should be noted that there certainly seems to
+be some connection between the _Uinal_ period glyph and the lizard. Pl.
+13, fig. 9, represents a _Uinal_ glyph from the Temple of the Foliated
+Cross at Palenque and the lizard form is clearly seen in the eyebrow and
+the upper jaw. Compare also Pl. 13, fig. 11, and Pl. 28, fig. 3. A
+collection of glyphs of this period shows clearly the lizard-like
+character of the face.
+
+That some connection existed between the lizard and the idea of rain
+seems clear from a reference in the _Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida_
+(1900, p. 51).[319-*] Finally the lizard is shown in Dresden 3a (Pl. 12,
+fig. 11) directly in front of god H beside the scene of human sacrifice.
+
+CROCODILE. The text figure (1) shows a dorsal view of a crocodile (Maya,
+_ayin_) carved on the top of Altar T at Copan. The general form is
+considerably conventionalized with limbs elongated and provided with
+human hands and long toes. The protuberances of the back are roughly
+shown by oval markings, which are here continued on the legs. The large
+scales of the ventral surfaces also appear at the sides of the body, and
+along the posterior edges of the limbs. The tail is shortened and
+bifurcate. The most interesting portion, however, is the head. The snout
+is distinctly pinched in at the base, though broadened again distally.
+In the alligator the snout is broad and tapers but little. As in other
+representations of the crocodile, the lower jaw does not appear, and
+even in this dorsal view the artist seems to have deemed it necessary to
+show the row of teeth as if in side view, or as though they projected
+laterally from the mouth. What may represent ears or ear plugs are shown
+one on each side behind the eyes. There are few other examples of full
+drawings of the crocodile in the Maya writings. Dresden 74 shows an
+animal which has been considered to represent a crocodile or alligator
+but it seems to have more of the characteristics of a lizard.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.
+TOP OF ALTAR. T. COPAN.]
+
+Figures of a crocodile (_Crocodilus americanus_) are frequent in the
+Nuttall Codex, where there is one large figure of the entire animal (Pl.
+13, fig. 8), making its way along under water. It is shown with numerous
+dorsal spines, a long tail, and powerful claws. Curiously, however, it
+has no lower jaw and the same is true of the numerous glyphs
+representing the head of the animal. This is so pronounced a
+characteristic, that it may be doubted if the open-mouthed head and the
+single limb shown in Pl. 13, fig. 2, really picture the same animal,
+though otherwise apparently referable to the crocodile. In the various
+glyphs showing the head of this species, the prominent, elongate eyebrow
+and the absence of the lower jaw are noteworthy points, while the teeth
+may vary in number from three to six.
+
+The glyphs (Pl. 13, figs. 1, 3-7) represent the Nahua day sign
+_Cipactli_ corresponding to the Maya day _Imix_. In the band of
+constellation signs in Dresden 52b (Pl. 13, fig. 10), there occurs a
+single figure with a long curled eyebrow and lacking the lower jaw. In
+the upper jaw three teeth are indicated. A comparison of this figure
+with the glyphs in the Nuttall Codex seems to leave little doubt that it
+represents a crocodile. This is the sign which Förstemann (1906, p. 206)
+interprets as standing for Saturn. Pl. 13, fig. 12, is certainly the
+same sign as it stands in relatively the same position in the
+constellation band on Dresden 53a. It represents the highly
+conventionalized head of a crocodile. On Stela 10 from Piedras Negras
+(Maler, 1901-1903, Pl. 19) the same glyph is seen.
+
+The range of the alligator in North America does not extend to Yucatan,
+hence the crocodile, which does occur there, is taken as the original of
+all these figures. There is nothing in the latter that would distinguish
+it from the alligator.
+
+TURTLES. Representations of the turtle (Maya, _ak_) are not uncommon
+among the Mayas. At Uxmal there is a ruined building called _Casa de las
+Tortugas_ on which at intervals around the cornice there are carvings of
+turtles. Turtles of at least two species occur in the Tro-Cortesianus.
+With one exception, they seem to be limited to this codex. That shown on
+Pl. 14, figs. 1-3, 5, is a large species with the dorsal scutes
+represented by large diamond-shaped pieces. There is little that might
+be considered distinctive about these turtles, although one (Pl. 14,
+fig. 5) has the anterior paddles much larger than the posterior,
+indicating a sea turtle. What is doubtless the same turtle is pictured
+in several places in the Nuttall Codex. In one of the figures in the
+latter manuscript, the shell is shown apparently in use as a shield (Pl.
+14, fig. 4). This would indicate one of the large sea turtles, and there
+is not much doubt that either the Loggerhead turtle (_Thalassochelys
+cephalo_) or the Hawksbill (_Chelone imbricata_) is here intended.
+
+Quite another species is that shown in Pl. 14, fig. 6. That this is a
+freshwater turtle is plainly indicated by the parasitic leeches that are
+noted fastened by their round sucking-discs to the sides of its body.
+The long neck, pointed snout, and apparent limitation of the dorsal
+spinous scutes to the central area of the back may indicate the snapping
+turtle (_Chelydra serpentina_) or possibly a species of the genus
+_Cinosternum_ (probably _C. leucostomum_). It is hardly likely that it
+is one of the true soft-shelled turtles (_Trionyx_), as the range of
+that genus is not known to include Mexico. The turtle from Nuttall 43
+(Pl. 14, fig. 11) may belong to the same species as its scutes seem
+rather few, or it may be that the view shown here is of the ventral side
+and that the scales indicate the small plastron of one of the sea
+turtles.
+
+The turtle appears alone as one of the figures in the _tonalamatl_ in
+several cases in the Tro-Cortesianus, 13a, 17a (Pl. 14, fig. 3), 72b
+(Pl. 14, fig. 6). It is found associated with the toad appearing in the
+rain in Tro-Cortesianus 17b (Pl. 14, fig. 2) and alone in the rain in
+13a. In Tro-Cortesianus 81c (Pl. 14, fig. 5), it appears in front of an
+unidentifiable god.
+
+Schellhas has called the turtle an animal symbolical of the lightning
+basing his opinion, as Brinton (1895, p. 74) tells us, on Dresden 40b
+where a human figure with animal head is holding two torches in his
+hands. This figure does not seem to us to represent a turtle, as is
+commonly supposed, but a parrot, as will be pointed out later (p. 343).
+Förstemann (1902, p. 27) identifies the turtle with the summer
+solstice, as has been noted before, explaining that the animal is slow
+of motion, and is taken to represent the time when the sun seems to
+stand still. He bases his theory (1904, p. 423) in part on the fact that
+the sign for the Maya month _Kayab_, which is the month in which the
+summer solstice occurs, shows the face of the turtle (Pl. 14, fig. 10).
+This undoubtedly is correct, but he seems to us wrong in classing as
+turtles the figure in Dresden 40b (Pl. 25, fig. 1) with its accompanying
+glyph (Pl. 25, fig. 6).
+
+The turtle is found in connection with two sun (_kin_) signs beneath a
+constellation band in Tro-Cortesianus 71a. Resting upon his body are
+three _Cauac_ signs. The single representation of the turtle in the
+Dresden Codex is on page 49 (Pl. 14, fig. 12) where a god is pictured
+with a turtle's head. The heavy sharp beak indicates that he represents
+one of the sea turtles previously mentioned. He is shown transfixed by a
+spear and corresponds to the other figures in the lower parts of pp.
+46-50. These all have some connection with the Venus period which is
+considered in these pages.[323-*]
+
+A number of glyphs representing the turtle are found throughout the
+codices (Pl. 14, figs. 7-10). They are all characterized by the heavy
+beak. It may be noted that these glyphs are virtually the same as the
+sign for the first _a_ in Landa's alphabet. As the turtle is called _ak_
+or _aak_ in Maya, the reason is clear for the selection of this sign for
+an _a_ sound. These turtle glyphs often occur alone; one, however, (Pl.
+14, fig. 7) is found in connection with the swimming turtle in
+Tro-Cortesianus 17a (Pl. 14, fig. 3). Figs. 7-9 agree in having the
+small scrolls at the posterior end of the eye. The head shown in Pl. 14,
+fig. 10, has quite a different eye, though otherwise similar. Its
+resemblance to the glyph on Pl. 25, fig. 9, is marked and suggests the
+parrot. Schellhas (1904, p. 44) gives in his fig. 64, a glyph for the
+turtle which seems clearly to be a glyph for the parrot (Pl. 25, fig.
+7).
+
+
+AVES
+
+HERONS (_Ardea herodias_; _Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis_). Only a few
+water birds are shown in the Maya works. Several are found, however,
+that seem to picture herons (Pl. 15, figs. 1-7). The best of these (fig.
+5), a carving from the west side panel of the Temple of the Cross at
+Palenque shows a crested heron standing on one foot and holding in its
+bill a fish. A second figure (Pl. 15, fig. 1) is from the stucco
+ornament from the Palace, House B, at Palenque. It is less carefully
+executed, but seems to be a long-necked bird with a crest and outspread
+wings curiously conventionalized. In the Nuttall Codex there is another
+unmistakable heron (Pl. 15, fig. 4) with the same general
+characteristics, though the crest is less prominent, here represented as
+a series of erectile feathers separated at their tips. This elongation
+of the crest seems to be carried still farther in what seems to be the
+head and neck of a heron from Dresden 37b (Pl. 15, fig. 3) with erectile
+feathers at intervals along its length.
+
+The heron is seldom employed as a head-dress. In the Lower Chamber of
+the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza, one of the warriors wears a
+bird head-dress (Pl. 15, fig. 2), which from the length of the bill is
+probably made from a heron's head, though the crest seems greatly
+exaggerated. The bas-relief on which this is found is strongly Nahua in
+feeling and execution. This head covering may indicate, according to the
+Nahua fashion, the tribe to which the warrior belongs. Again in Dresden
+36a (Pl. 15, fig. 7), a man is shown wearing as a head-dress the head
+and neck of a heron that holds in its bill a fish. This head resembles
+very closely that of the heron in fig. 1. What appears to be a similar
+head is shown in Pl. 15, fig. 6. It is interesting to note that the
+heron with a fish (Pl. 15, fig. 5) from Palenque also forms a part of a
+complicated head-dress.
+
+It is, of course, uncertain to which of the several herons occurring in
+Central America these representations refer. Possibly the Great Blue
+heron (_Ardea herodias_) or the Louisiana heron (_Hydranassa tricolor
+ruficollis_) is intended. It seems not unlikely also, that one of the
+white egrets may be shown as their crests are fairly conspicuous.
+
+FRIGATE-BIRD (_Fregata aquila_). We have included here two figures (Pl.
+15, figs. 8, 9) that undoubtedly represent a single species of bird. It
+is characterized by a deeply forked tail and long beak, which has part
+way on its length, a circular object surrounded by a circle of dots. It
+seems still problematical what this object may be. In one figure (fig.
+9), the beak is strongly hooked, in the other (fig. 8) it is straight,
+but as the latter is plainly a much more carelessly made drawing, we may
+infer that the hooked bill is more nearly correct. This would exclude
+the Terns (_Sterna_), to which Stempell has referred the figures. It
+seems probable that the frigate-bird (_Fregata aquila_) is the species
+intended, as this is not only a large conspicuous form on these coasts,
+but it has a long and strongly hooked beak and forked tail. The length
+of the beak would probably exclude from consideration, the
+swallow-tailed kite that also occurs in the region.
+
+Both these birds are pictured, evidently as an offering or sacrifice. It
+is very seldom that the whole bird is represented in this connection,
+and still more infrequent to find anything but the turkey, which is the
+usual bird of sacrifice. The figure from the Dresden Codex (Pl. 15, fig.
+9) rests upon the usual bowl or jar, that from the Tro-Cortesianus (Pl.
+15, fig. 8) is pictured upon a grotesque animal head, three _Kan_ signs
+and these upon the jar.
+
+In the Tro-Cortesianus 20c, 21c, there occur several representations of
+man-like forms with very peculiar heads. The latter are each provided
+with a beak-like projection, on which appears the circle surrounded by
+dots noted above in connection with the frigate-bird. Brinton concludes
+that this mystic symbol is a representation of the curious knob on the
+bill of the male white pelican, and therefore identifies these curious
+figures as pelicans. Stempell follows Brinton in this, but considers
+that they are the brown pelican (_P. fuscus_), since the white pelican
+is rare or casual, as far south as Yucatan. Unfortunately, however, for
+this supposition, the brown pelican lacks the curious knob that Brinton
+believed to be represented by the circle of dots. Moreover, this same
+sign occurs on the drawings of the bills of the frigate-bird and the
+ocellated turkey, and is evidently not of specific significance. To our
+minds it is doubtful if the figures under discussion are birds at all,
+and we are unable to assign them a name with any degree of confidence. A
+peculiar glyph occurs in connection with them which may be an aid to
+their ultimate identification. Brinton calls the glyph the "fish and
+oyster sign."
+
+OCELLATED TURKEY (_Agriocharis ocellata_). This turkey (Maya _ku[ɔ.]_)
+is an important species in the Maya economy, and is seen frequently in
+the manuscripts. This is a smaller bird than the more northern true
+turkey (_Meleagris_) and is characterized by the presence of curious
+erect knobs on the top of the naked head. These are shown in
+conventionalized form in the various figures (Pl. 16), and afford a
+ready means of identification. On the bill of the bird shown in
+Tro-Cortesianus 10b (Pl. 16, fig. 2) occurs again the curious symbol, a
+circle surrounded by dots, previously noted under the frigate-bird and
+pelican. It probably has some special significance. Other figures of
+ocellated turkeys show but little in addition to the points just
+discussed. One shown in Pl. 16, fig. 7, from Codex Vaticanus 3773,
+however, has a circular ring about the eye and the wattles are indicated
+as projections merely. In fig. 13, they are apparently shown as stalked
+knobs found elsewhere in connection with serpent head ornaments. It is
+only the head in this latter figure, which is considered in this
+interpretation.
+
+In the Nuttall Codex, there frequently occur representations of a bird
+that was evidently used for sacrificial purposes. It is shown with
+erectile head feathers and a ring of circular marks about the eye (Pl.
+26, figs. 12, 14; Pl. 27, figs. 2-3) or with concentric circles (Pl. 27,
+fig. 1). These figures are not surely identifiable, but probably
+represent this turkey. Possibly they are the chachalaca (_Ortalis vetula
+pallidiventris_), a gallinaceous bird, commonly kept in
+semi-domestication in Mexico, whose bare eye ring and slightly erectile
+head feathers may be represented by the drawings. It is probable that
+this turkey is the bird represented frequently in the Maya codices as a
+bird of sacrifice. The head alone usually appears in this connection,
+among other places, in Dresden 34a (Pl. 16, fig. 10), 41c (fig. 14), 29c
+(fig. 16), 28c (fig. 17), and in Tro-Cortesianus 12b (Pl. 16, fig. 11),
+105b (fig. 12), 107b (fig. 15). In several of these places the head is
+represented as resting on one or more _Kan_ signs, again meaning bread,
+as well as on the vessel or jar. In Dresden 26c (Pl. 16, fig. 9), the
+whole turkey is pictured as an offering, as in the preceding case noted
+in Dresden 35a (Pl. 15, fig. 9). The whole bird as an offering may also
+appear in Tro-Cortesianus 4a (Pl. 16, fig. 4) corresponding to the
+offering of venison and iguana on the following pages. This
+representation of the entire bird is very rare although the fish, when
+used as an offering, is always represented as a whole and the iguana is
+in most cases when used in the same connection. Landa (1864, p.
+222)[327-*] confirms the offering of the heads of birds with bread.
+
+It is, however, the sacrifice of a bird, probably a turkey, by
+decapitating, that is especially interesting, as the operation as shown
+in the Dresden Codex 25c (Pl. 26, fig. 2), 26c, 27c, 28c, in the rites
+of the four years, is described in full by Landa. In the codex, a priest
+is represented as holding in his hand before an altar, a headless bird.
+Landa (1864, pp. 212, 218, 224, 228)[327-†] tells us that in the
+_Kan_, the _Muluc_, the _Ix_, and the _Cauac_ years, the priests burnt
+incense to the idol, decapitated a "_gallina_" (undoubtedly a turkey),
+and presented it to the god.
+
+The turkey is also used as a head-dress. Only in one case, however,
+Tro-Cortesianus 95c (Pl. 16, fig. 5), is the whole bird represented in
+this connection. This is clearly of totemic significance here, as it
+occurs in that part of the codex where birth and infant baptism are
+shown. In many other places there are curious partial representations of
+bird heads in the front of head-dresses which may or may not be
+identified as heads of turkeys. Among these are the head-dress of god H
+in Dresden 7c, of god E in Dresden 11e, of god C in Dresden 13b, of god
+A in Dresden 23c, and a female divinity in Dresden 20a (Pl. 16, fig.
+13). Schellhas (1904, p. 43) identifies these birds as vultures.
+
+That the turkey is connected with the rain seems clear. This is
+especially the case among the Nahuas. In the Aubin manuscript the rain
+god, _Tlaloc_, often appears in the disguise of the turkey-cock
+(_uexolotl_), and in the Vaticanus 3773, 14, the turkey (Pl. 16, fig. 7)
+is represented in the "House of Rain," in contrast to the owl shown in
+the "House of Drought" (Seler, 1902-1903, p. 75). It might be noted also
+that Fewkes (1892, p. 228) shows that the turkey is emblematic of the
+rain among the pueblo peoples. The same idea seems to be present among
+the Mayas, as we note in the Tro-Cortesianus 10b (Pl. 16, fig. 2) the
+turkey is pictured in the rain and surrounded on three sides by bands of
+constellation signs.
+
+Two methods of capturing the turkey are shown in the Tro-Cortesianus 93a
+and 91a (Pl. 16, figs. 1, 3). By the first, the bird is captured alive
+in a sort of wicker basket, which drops over it at the proper moment.
+The second method is by the "twich-up" or snare, which consists of a
+noose tied to a bent sapling and properly baited. In connection with Pl.
+16, fig. 1, it may be suggested that possibly this represents a cage
+rather than a trap, in which the bird is confined. The Lacandones at the
+present time often keep their totem animals in captivity (Tozzer, 1907,
+p. 40).
+
+KING VULTURE (_Sarcorhamphus papa_). Numerous figures of vultures appear
+in the codices and elsewhere. Indeed, they are among the most common of
+the birds depicted. Two species only seem to occur in the writings, the
+king vulture and the black vulture. The former is a large black and
+white bird with the head and the upper part of the neck unfeathered,
+except for numerous short, almost bristle-like plumules. These naked
+portions are often colored red and there is a large more or less
+squarish fleshy knob at the base of the upper ramus of the beak. This
+conspicuous protuberance has been seized upon as a characteristic in the
+conventionalized figures, and serves to identify the king from the black
+vulture. In addition, a series of concentric circles about the eye seems
+to be a rather constant mark of the king vulture, though they are also
+sometimes found in connection with figures which, from the absence of
+the rostral knob, must represent black vultures (Pl. 18, figs. 18, 27;
+Pl. 19, figs. 7, 10, 11). In the case of the bird shown in Pl. 19, fig.
+1, the knob is hardly apparent, and the same is true of Pl. 19, fig. 13.
+Both these may represent king vultures. A remarkable figure is that
+shown in Pl. 17, fig. 4, in which an ocellated turkey and a king vulture
+confront each other with necks intertwined. The short hair-like black
+feathers of the head are represented in this as well as in Pl. 17, fig.
+11, and in the glyph carved in stone (Pl. 17, fig. 10), which from the
+presence of the knob is probably a king vulture. The characteristic knob
+is shown in a variety of ways. Thus, in Pl. 17, fig. 1, it is greatly
+developed and resembles a large horn with a falcate tip. In Pl. 17, fig.
+4, it is sharply angular and nearly square. Frequently, it is a circle
+with a centered ring surmounted by one or two additional rings or
+terminated by a mitre-shaped structure (Pl. 17, figs. 2, 5-7, 8-12). A
+very simple form was found in the carving shown in Pl. 17, fig. 13,
+where a long projecting knob is seen at the base of the culmen.
+
+The king vulture seems to have a part to play as a mythological being,
+as it is pictured as a god with human body and bird head in the act of
+cohabiting with a woman in Dresden 19a, and with a dog in Dresden 13c
+(Pl. 17, fig. 3). Moreover, the same vulture god is represented on a
+blue background and under a band of constellation signs in Dresden 38b,
+and is also to be noted in Dresden 8a. Förstemann (1906, p. 66) shows
+that the thirteenth day of the Maya month is reached in the _tonalamatl_
+reckoning at this place. This day is _Cib_, which corresponds to the
+Nahua day _Cozcaquauhtli_, which has the meaning vulture, and here, as
+previously noted, the vulture god is represented. In Tro-Cortesianus 22c
+(Pl. 17, fig. 2) and 10a,[330-*] the king vulture appears alone, in the
+first instance with a blue background, and in the second with a
+background representing rain. Rain is also shown in connection with the
+vulture god in Dresden 38b, and the black vulture in Tro-Cortesianus 18b
+(Pl. 19, fig. 13).
+
+The king vulture is found employed as a head-dress twice out of the
+three times it appears in any connection with female figures,
+Tro-Cortesianus 26c (Pl. 17, fig. 12) with male figure, and 94c (Pl. 17,
+fig. 11) and 95c with female figures. The last two clearly have to do
+with the baptism and naming of infants, as previously explained.
+
+The study of the glyph used to indicate the vulture is interesting, for
+we find it recurring again and again throughout the Maya codices and
+often when there is no other drawing of the animal, as in Dresden 39c
+(Pl. 17, fig. 5; Pl. 18, fig. 19). The first example (glyph 6) is
+clearly the head of the king vulture, whereas the second (glyph 3) is
+probably the head of the black vulture. The glyph in Dresden 38b (Pl.
+17, fig. 7) appears in connection with the vulture god directly below
+it. In Dresden 11b (Pl. 18, fig. 1), it occurs alone and no figure
+appears in the usual place below. The _Tun_ period glyph (Pl. 17, fig.
+10) frequently shows vulture characteristics especially in the nostril
+of the face. The teeth, however, often appearing in the _Tun_ glyph
+would be against this theory. The blending of bird and mammal
+characteristics is not uncommon in the Maya drawings, however.
+
+The Nahua day sign, _Cozcaquauhtli_, as previously noted, has the
+meaning vulture, and we naturally find this bird frequently represented
+in the Mexican codices. In the Nuttall Codex, the head of the king
+vulture occurs repeatedly as a glyph for this day. In its less modified
+forms (Pl. 18, figs. 2-4), the beak is merely a pair of flattened rami,
+surmounted proximally by the conspicuous quadrangular knob. The minute
+hair-like feathers on the otherwise naked head are shown as a fringe at
+the throat and crown, while a conventionalized ear is represented
+posteriorly. A series of interesting figures (Pl. 18, figs. 5-10)
+illustrates steps in the further reduction of this head to a small glyph
+in which only the beak with its large squarish knob remains (Pl. 18,
+fig. 10).
+
+BLACK VULTURE (_Catharista urubu_). It is difficult to assign any single
+characteristic to the figures representing the black vulture (Maya,
+_t[vs.]om_) other than the long raptorial beak. A number of drawings
+probably depict black vultures, though this cannot be certainly
+affirmed. Such are those shown in Pl. 18, figs. 11, 12, 14, 17; Pl. 19,
+figs. 2-4, 13, 14. Stempell considers the vulture shown in Pl. 18, fig.
+13, to be a king vulture, but it has no knob on the beak, and thus is
+quite likely the black vulture. The fact that its head is shaped much
+like that of the god with the king vulture head (Pl. 17, fig. 3) would
+indicate merely the individuality of the artist. The coloring of the
+species under discussion is uniformly black in the Dresden and
+Tro-Cortesianus, except in certain cases where the birds are shown in
+outline only, as in Pl. 19, fig. 12. It is not certain, however, that
+these two last are black vultures, though they suggest the species. The
+two birds shown in Pl. 19, figs. 5, 6, are almost surely black vultures,
+and, as represented in the manuscript, are descending upon a man.
+Stempell thinks they may be ravens, but this is very doubtful, for the
+raven probably was unknown to the Mayas, since its range is to the
+northward. What appears to be a crest is seen on the head of the bird in
+Pl. 19, fig. 4. The black coloring and the shape of the bill otherwise
+suggest the black vulture, though perhaps the crest would indicate the
+harpy eagle. Similarly, Pl. 19, fig. 14, is provided with a sort of tuft
+or crest, but its general appearance is suggestive of the vulture. A
+pottery whistle (text fig. 2) from the Uloa Valley evidently represents
+a black vulture. The head of the bird shows the characteristic wrinkled
+appearance seen in the drawings, with the heavy beak. The absence of the
+rostral knob would preclude its being a king vulture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.
+POTTERY WHISTLE, VULTURE. ULOA VALLEY, HONDURAS.]
+
+It is natural that this bird should find an important place in the Maya
+writing, as it is an abundant species in the region considered, and of
+great importance as a scavenger. The black vulture seems to lack the
+mythological character associated with the king vulture. It appears
+usually in connection with death and in the role of a bird of prey. This
+is especially true in the Tro-Cortesianus where in 24d, 26d (Pl. 19,
+figs. 5, 6) and 28c, it is attacking a human being, in the first and
+last cases represented as dead. In 86a and 87a, the bird is shown
+plucking out the eye of a man. In Dresden 3a (Pl. 19, fig. 7), it
+appears at the top of the tree above the human sacrifice and seems to be
+in the act of consuming the victim. In Tro-Cortesianus 91c, it also
+appears in a tree. In Tro-Cortesianus 40a (Pl. 17, fig. 9), and 42a (Pl.
+19, fig. 1), it is shown as eating the entrails of a deer. In the first
+case, the bird looks like a king vulture, although this is the only
+instance where this species is shown as a bird of prey. In
+Tro-Cortesianus 28b and 36b (Pl. 18, fig. 17), the black vulture appears
+eating the Kan sign. In the first example, the _Kan_ represents the
+newly sowed corn, in the second, the _Kan_ is held by god F. Landa
+(1864, p. 230)[333-*] records that in the _Cauac_ year there was a
+ceremony to prevent the ants and the birds devouring the corn. In
+Dresden 34b and 35b, the vulture is shown on top of the head-dress of
+god F, evidently the enemy of the harvest and, again, on 35b (Pl. 19,
+fig. 4) on top of the _Cauac_ sign. Its role as a bird of prey is
+further shown in Dresden 36b (Pl. 19, fig. 11), where it is shown
+attacking a serpent.
+
+This vulture is associated with god B in Dresden 69b, with god M in
+Tro-Cortesianus 70a (Pl. 18, fig. 12), and with god D in Tro-Cortesianus
+67a (Pl. 17, fig. 1). The last may be the king rather than the black
+vulture, as suggested above. The black vulture occurs only once as the
+usual head-dress, in Dresden 17b (Pl. 18, fig. 13), and here in
+connection with a female figure and the idea of birth. Two birds,
+probably vultures, appear over the enclosure around the head of god C in
+Tro-Cortesianus 100b (Pl. 19, fig. 12). In the Lower Chamber of the
+Temple of the Tigers occurs a black vulture in bas-relief with a
+necklace represented (Pl. 19, fig. 14).
+
+The glyph of the king vulture has already been discussed. There are
+other glyphs which seem to show the black vulture, although it is quite
+possible that no sharp distinction was made between the two in regard
+to the glyphs at least. In one case (Pl. 18, fig. 18), the wrinkled skin
+of the head and neck is indicated much as in the case of the king
+vulture. A few other glyphs are shown (Pl. 18, figs. 16, 19, 22, 27), as
+well as a variety from the Nuttall Codex in which the minute hair-like
+feathers of the head are variously represented, usually much exaggerated
+as a sort of crest or comb. Pl. 18, fig. 22, is interesting as being the
+only case in the Maya codices where the whole figure is shown in the
+glyph. As noted in the case of the glyphs of the king vulture, the
+greater number of these occur quite alone. They seem to indicate that a
+full drawing of the bird is meant to be understood as occurring below.
+
+Several of the carved glyphs (Pl. 19, figs. 8-10) show the black vulture
+heads in some detail with the conspicuously open nostril and hooked
+beak. A carving of the entire bird may be shown on Stela D from Copan
+(Pl. 28, fig. 5), where the naked head and neck are marked off by lines
+indicating wrinkled skin. The same lines on the neck of the bird
+depicted on Pl. 28, fig. 2, will probably identify it as a vulture, and,
+if the square ornament above the beak certainly is part of the figure,
+it is unquestionably the king vulture. The knob is not, however, clearly
+on the bird's beak. There are two interesting glyphs which occur on the
+eastern façade of the Monjas at Chichen Itza. The glyphs in this
+inscription are unlike the usual Maya hieroglyphs, although several of
+the so-called constellation signs can be made out. The two glyphs in
+question represent the entire body possibly of a vulture, that on Pl.
+17, fig. 13, probably the king vulture, and that on Pl. 18, fig. 14, the
+black vulture.
+
+HARPY EAGLE (_Thrasaetos harpyia_). In the Nuttall Codex, what is
+undoubtedly the harpy eagle is of frequent occurrence. This great bird
+is not uncommon in the forests of southern Mexico and Central America,
+and must have attracted the notice of the people from its size. The
+elongated feathers at the back of the head form a conspicuous crest, a
+feature that characterizes this species in most of the representations.
+A stone carving from Chichen Itza (Pl. 20, fig. 10) pictures a harpy
+eagle eating an egg-shaped object, and another similarly engaged is
+copied from the Codex Vaticanus 3773 (Pl. 20, fig. 14). The former is
+considered to be a vulture by Maudslay, but the presence of feathers
+covering the head excludes this interpretation. In two stone glyphs (Pl.
+20, fig. 1, 3), occurs a large bird apparently devouring something held
+in its talons, as in Pl. 20, fig. 10. From this general resemblance, it
+seems probable that both represent the harpy, although no crests are
+shown on the glyphs. In the Dresden and the Tro-Cortesianus occur a few
+figures of crested birds that probably are the same species. The crest
+feathers are reduced to two, however, or, in some cases, what may be a
+third projecting forward from the base of the bill (Pl. 20, figs. 5, 7,
+12, 13). The last two figures are not certainly identifiable, though it
+is probable that they represent the harpy.
+
+The eagle seems to be the bird associated with warriors in the codices.
+Seler (1900-1901, p. 89) notes that the eagle and the jaguar are both
+the mark of brave warriors among the Nahuas. In the Aubin manuscript,
+the warrior god, _Yaotl_, is always associated with the eagle
+(_quauhtli_). In the Maya pantheon, god M is usually considered the war
+god, as he is almost always armed with a spear. He is seen in Dresden 74
+(Pl. 20, fig. 13), and in Tro-Cortesianus 109c with an eagle as a
+head-dress. There are other gods, however, who wear a similar head
+covering. God L appears in Dresden 14b (Pl. 20, fig. 7) and again in 14c
+(Pl. 20, fig. 5) with an eagle head-dress. God D in Dresden 23c (Pl. 20,
+fig. 11) has an eagle coming from a _Tun_ sign on top of his head. The
+eagle is probably represented at the prow of a boat in Dresden 43c (Pl.
+20, fig. 12) in which god B is rowing. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 20,
+fig. 4), a bird which may represent the eagle appears sitting on a
+_Cimi_ (death) sign. Above in the glyphs the character for the south is
+shown. Here, clearly, there is some connection between the signs of the
+cardinal points in the line of glyphs and the various creatures pictured
+below.
+
+There seems to be only one glyph which can in any way be taken for that
+of the eagle in the Maya manuscripts and this appears only once, in
+Tro-Cortesianus 107c (Pl. 20, fig. 9). This identification may be
+questioned, as there is no drawing of an eagle associated with the
+glyph. Attention has already been called to the two stone glyphs in Pl.
+20, figs. 1, 3. There are various drawings of the glyph for the eagle in
+the Nahua and Zapotecan codices (Pl. 20, fig. 8), as the Nahua day,
+_Quauhtli_, has the meaning eagle. It is interesting to note in the
+glyph from the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 20, fig. 8) the tips of the feathers
+are crowned with stone points, a frequent way of representing birds of
+prey among the Mexican peoples.
+
+YUCATAN HORNED OWL (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_). Stempell makes a
+serious mistake by confusing the eared owl shown in full face with that
+shown in profile in the drawings, for he considers both to represent the
+great horned owl. The figures are, however, quite different in every
+way. The owl in full face view is unquestionably the great horned owl
+(Maya, _ikim_), the Yucatan form of which is recognized by the
+subspecific title _mayensis_. This is the bird opposed to the
+"Moan-bird" which, as will be shown later, is associated with death. In
+Pl. 21 are some truly remarkable figures which seem to represent this
+horned owl, the first modelled in stucco from Palenque, the second
+carved in stone from Yaxchilan, and the third carved in wood from Tikal.
+Figs. 1 and 3 show the bird in flight with extended wings. The two
+erectile tufts of feathers or "horns" are conspicuously represented in
+fig. 3, at either side of the bird's head and between them the flat top
+of the crown is secondarily divided in like manner into three parts,
+representing the "horns" and the top of the head. The beetling brows,
+heavy hooked beak, and spread talons combine to give a fierce and
+spirited mien to the great bird. Pl. 21, fig. 2, may be a greatly
+conventionalized owl in which the essential characteristics of the bird
+are reproduced in a rectangular design. The large bill is conspicuous in
+the center, and in each upper corner terminates one of the ears. The
+eyes are represented by rectangular areas at the base of the bill, each
+with three vertical bars across it. Below the beak, or at either side of
+the tip, are the feet, each with the claw cross-hatched. What seem to be
+the reduced and highly conventionalized wings fill the lower corner of
+each side of the figure.
+
+The shield in the center of the Tablet of the Sun at Palenque (Pl. 22,
+fig. 6) shows a face in which the motif seems to be the full-face view
+of the horned owl. The hooked bill curves over the mouth at each side of
+which is the curious scroll seen in the same connection in the figures
+of Pl. 21. The ears are somewhat shorter in proportion than usual and
+below each, at the sides of the face, is a large ear-plug, similar to
+that elsewhere found. The eyes are still further conventionalized with a
+decorative scroll surrounding each. Another example of the
+conventionalized owl's head is on Stela 1 from Cankuan (Maler, 1908, Pl.
+13). We are not yet ready to advance an explanation of the reason why
+the owl should occupy such a prominent position in the art of the Mayas.
+
+In only one case is the horned owl found in the Maya manuscripts. In
+Tro-Cortesianus 95c (Pl. 22, fig. 2), this owl appears as the head-dress
+of a woman in that portion of the codex where baptism and naming are
+shown. An owl's head seems to be shown on the end of a warrior's staff
+in the bas-relief of the Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at
+Chichen Itza (Pl. 22, fig. 4). Pl. 22, figs. 5, 7, show two owls from
+the Aubin manuscript; the first is considered to be the screech owl
+(_chiqualli_) and the second the horned owl (_tecolotl_, in Nahuatl).
+Pl. 22, figs. 1, 3, show two drawings of owls from Nahua manuscripts.
+
+YUCATAN SCREECH OWL or MOAN BIRD (_Otus choliba thompsoni_). A second
+species of owl is represented by the figures on Pl. 23. This has
+likewise two feathered tufts or "ears" on its head and is always shown
+with the head, at least, in profile, but the tufts one in front, the
+other at the back of the head. The facial disc is not very prominent the
+beak rather long, the tail short, and the plumage somewhat mottled. A
+dark ring usually surrounds the eye. It is, with little doubt, the
+screech owl, the only other form of eared owl commonly met with in the
+Central American region, and in Yucatan is represented by the race above
+indicated. This owl, under the name of the Moan bird,[338-*] is always
+associated with the idea of death among the Mayas. The familiarity of
+this species and its mournful quavering cry uttered at night have no
+doubt led to its association with death and mystery as with owls in
+other parts of the world.
+
+This Moan bird has an important place in the Maya pantheon, as it is the
+representative in many places of god A, the Death god. It appears with a
+human body in Dresden 7c (Pl. 23, fig. 1), 10a (Pl. 23, fig. 8), and 11a
+(Pl. 23, fig. 3) and in Tro-Cortesianus 66a (Pl. 23, fig. 2). In each of
+these places, it occupies the space in which one of the regular gods is
+usually found. In Dresden 10a, the day reached in the _tonalamatl_
+reckoning is _Cimi_, meaning death, and here, as has been noted, is
+found the Moan bird, the symbol of death, with another sign of death in
+the circle just above the head of the bird (Pl. 23, fig. 8).
+
+This owl is used as a head-dress itself, but always for women, Dresden
+16a (Pl. 23, fig. 19), 18b (Pl. 23, fig. 5), Tro-Cortesianus 94c (Pl.
+23, fig. 4), and 95c (Pl. 23, fig. 20). It occurs in both manuscripts in
+the pages mentioned several times before, where birth, baptism, and the
+naming of children are shown. The curious figure, with a head similar to
+Pl. 23, fig. 21, carried on the back of some of the women, is the Moan
+sign, referring to the idea of death, possibly to still-birth, as
+copulation and birth are shown in this section of the codex (Dresden
+18c, 19c). The Moan is found associated with man only once in the
+manuscripts. In Tro-Cortesianus 73b (Pl. 23, fig. 18), he is found
+perching on a curious frame-like structure in which god B is sitting.
+
+There are several glyphs representing the Moan bird or screech owl; the
+first type is easily identifiable, as the head of the bird is clearly
+pictured (Pl. 23, figs. 11-14, 16). This head is frequently associated
+with the number thirteen (Dresden 8b). It may occur in the line of
+glyphs (Dresden 16c), and refer to the Moan pictured below, or it may
+occur in the line of glyphs with no picture corresponding to it below
+(Dresden 53b). Pl. 23, fig. 15, from Dresden 38c has been placed with
+these drawings, although the identification is not certain. It may
+refer, however, to the large Moan head below, on which god B is sitting
+(Pl. 23, fig. 11). The second type of glyph does not resemble in any way
+the Moan, but they are clearly signs for it, as they are often found in
+connection with the picture of the Moan, Dresden 7c (Pl. 23, figs. 6, 7,
+21) and 10a. In both places fig. 7 is associated with the number
+thirteen. Schellhas also places Pl. 23, fig. 17, among the Moan signs.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 3, 4, 5, 6.
+GLYPHS OF MONTH MUAN SHOWING MOAN-BIRD CHARACTERISTICS.]
+
+One of the eighteen Maya months is named Muan, and some of the glyphs
+appearing for this month in the codices certainly represent the Moan or
+screech owl. This is especially so with text figs. 3-6. Förstemann
+(1904a) considers that the month Muan and, consequently, the sign as
+well, refer to the Pleiades.
+
+In connection with the screech owl referring to death, it is interesting
+to note that among the Nahuas the owl is considered of unlucky augury
+and is usually found in the "House of Death" and "of Drought", as
+contrasted with the turkey, considered as a bird of good fortune, and
+found in the "House of Rain."
+
+COPPERY-TAILED TROGAN or QUETZAL (_Pharomacrus mocinno_). The quetzal is
+common locally in certain parts of southern Mexico. Its brilliant
+metallic green plumage and the greatly elongated tail feathers make it a
+very notable bird. The feathers of the head are erect and stand out as a
+light crest, those of the anterior portion being slightly recurved. The
+delicate erect feathers of the head are well indicated in Vaticanus
+3773, 17 (Pl. 24, fig. 9) and the tail, also, in this figure, is only
+slightly conventionalized with an upward instead of the natural downward
+sweep. In most of the representations, the crest feathers are
+indicatd[TN-7] by large plumes, the most anterior of which project
+forward. They may be even further modified into three knobs shown in
+Dresden 7c (Pl. 24, fig. 1). The two characteristics of the quetzal,
+namely its erect head feathers and its extraordinarily long tail
+feathers, are often used separately. Thus the tail, which is commonly
+drawn with the outer feather of each side strongly curled forward,
+appears by itself in Pl. 24, fig. 8, or it may be seen as a plume in the
+head-dress of a priest or warrior and in other connections as an
+ornament. A greatly conventionalized drawing of the bird is also shown
+in Pl. 24, fig. 11, in which the head bears a curious knob and the
+dorsal feather of the tail is upcurled in the manner of the other
+drawings. It is not at once apparent why the long drooping tail feathers
+should be shown thus recurved. Possibly these feathers, when used by the
+Mayas for plumes, curled over by their own weight, if held erect, so
+that the representations are a compromise between the natural appearance
+and that when used as ornament in the head decoration.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.
+QUETZAL, TEMPLE OF THE CROSS, PALENQUE.]
+
+The color of the bird and the very long tail feathers have already been
+mentioned, and these explain the reason of the importance of this bird
+among the Mayas. It is claimed by several old authorities that the
+quetzal was reserved for the rulers, and that it was death for any
+common person to kill this bird for his own use. It seems from a
+statement in Landa (1864, p. 190)[341-*] that birds were domesticated
+for the feathers. This bird occurs again and again in various
+modifications throughout the Maya art. The feathers of the quetzal are
+the ones usually associated with the serpent, making the rebus,
+_Quetzalcoatl_, the feathered serpent, the culture hero of the Nahuas,
+or _Kukulcan_, which has the same signification among the Mayas. It is
+impossible to mention here all the various connections in which the
+quetzal appears. The feathers play an important part in the composition
+of the head-dresses of the priests and warriors, especially those in the
+stone carvings. A quotation has already been given from Landa, showing
+the use made of feathers in the dress of the people. Text fig. 7 shows
+perhaps the most elaborate representation of this bird. It is found on
+the sculptured tablet of the Temple of the Cross at Palenque. The
+quetzal is shown seated on top of a branching tree which was long taken
+to represent a cross. A similar representation is seen on the tablet of
+the Temple of the Foliated Cross from the same ruined city. In the Codex
+Fejervary-Mayer, there are four trees in each of which there is a bird.
+A quetzal is perched in the one corresponding to the east, which is
+regarded as the region of opulence and moisture. Seler (1901, p. 17)
+suggests that the quetzal in the tree on the two bas-reliefs at Palenque
+may represent a similar idea and that temples which would show the other
+three trees and their respective birds had not been built in that
+center.
+
+The representation of the quetzal as an entire bird is, after all,
+comparatively rare. The most realistic drawing is seen on a jar from
+Copan in the collections of the Peabody Museum. The whole body of the
+bird is shown as a head-dress in a few places in the codices where birth
+and the naming of children are pictured. In Dresden 16c (Pl. 24, fig. 3)
+and Tro-Cortesianus 94c (Pl. 24, fig. 6), the quetzal is the head-dress
+of women. In Dresden 13b (Pl. 24, fig. 2), a partial drawing of the bird
+is shown as a part of the head-dress of god E, in Dresden 7c (Pl. 24,
+fig. 1) of god H, and in Tro-Cortesianus 110c of god F. The feathers
+alone appear as a female head decoration in Dresden 20c (Pl. 24, fig.
+8). It occurs as a sacrifice among the rites of the four years in
+Tro-Cortesianus 36b (Pl. 24, fig. 12). In Tro-Cortesianus 70a (Pl. 24,
+fig. 5), it is found in the act of eating fruit growing over the "young
+god." In Tro-Cortesianus 100b (Pl. 24, fig. 4), the bird is perched over
+the encased head of god C.
+
+There seems to be a glyph used for the quetzal. In those drawn in Pl.
+24, figs. 10, 17, it is noticeable that the anterior part only of the
+head is shown. The first is a glyph from the tablet of the Temple of the
+Sun at Palenque, and at least suggests the quetzal by the feathers on
+the top of the head, as also Pl. 24, fig. 13, a glyph from Copan, Stela
+10, where the entire head appears in a much conventionalized form. Other
+glyphs are shown in Pl. 24, figs. 14-16, in which there is a single
+prominent recurved feather shown over the eye, succeeded by a few
+conventionalized feathers, then one or more directed posteriorly. It is
+to be noted that whereas in many previous examples of glyphs the full
+drawing of the animal or bird has been found in connection with them,
+here with the quetzal glyphs there is no instance where a drawing of the
+bird occurs with them. A curious human figure (Pl. 24, fig. 19), with a
+head decoration similar to the frontal curve and markings on the quetzal
+glyphs (fig. 14-16), may possibly represent this bird in some relation.
+
+BLUE MACAW (_Ara militaris_). A large macaw (Maya, _mox_ or _ṭuṭ_) is
+undoubtedly pictured in the figures in Pl. 25. The least
+conventionalized drawing found is that shown in Dresden 16c (Pl. 25,
+fig. 2), a bird characterized by long narrow tail feathers, a heavy
+bill, and a series of scale-like markings on the face and about the eye.
+Further conventionalized drawings are found in Pl. 25, figs. 3, 10, 13,
+and Pl. 26, fig. 1. In all these the tail is less characteristic, though
+composed of long, narrow feathers, and the facial markings are reduced
+to a ring of circular marks about the eye. These last undoubtedly
+represent, as supposed by Stempell, the bare space about the eye found
+in certain of these large parrots. In addition, the space between the
+eye and the base of the bill is partially bare with small patches of
+feathers scattered at somewhat regular intervals in rows. It is probable
+that this appearance is represented by the additional round marks about
+the base of the bill in Pl. 25, figs. 1, 2, 5, 8, the last two of which
+show the head only. There has hitherto been some question as to the
+identity of certain stone carvings, similar to that on Stela B from
+Copan, of which a portion is shown in Pl. 25, fig. 8. This has even been
+interpreted as the trunk of an elephant or a mastodon, but is
+unquestionably a macaw's beak. In addition to the ornamental
+crosshatching on the beak, which is also seen on the glyph from the same
+stela (Pl. 25, fig. 5), there is an ornamental scroll beneath the eye
+which likewise is crosshatched and surrounded by a ring of subcircular
+marks that continue to the base of the beak. The nostril is the large
+oval marking directly in front of the eye.
+
+The animal in Dresden 40b (Pl. 25, fig. 1) has always been considered
+to be a tortoise (Schellhas, 1904, p. 44, and Förstemann, 1904). This
+animal, together with the dog, is found beneath the constellation signs
+carrying firebrands; both are regarded as lightning beasts. By comparing
+the head of the figure shown in Pl. 25, fig. 1, with figs. 2, 4, 5, of
+the same plate, the reasonableness of the identification of this head as
+that of a macaw and not that of a tortoise appears clear. The same
+figure occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 12a (Pl. 25, fig. 3) carrying a torch.
+
+In order to make this point clearer, we will take up the consideration
+of the glyphs at this place, rather than at the end of the section as
+usual. As the macaw in Pl. 25, fig. 1, has been hitherto identified as a
+turtle, so the glyph found in connection with it (Pl. 25, fig. 6) has
+been considered to stand for the turtle. Pl. 25, fig. 7, is another
+drawing of the same glyph. By comparing the markings on the face of fig.
+1, it is seen that a similar ring surrounds the eye shown on the glyph.
+The second glyph (Pl. 25, fig. 7) is better drawn and shows, in addition
+to the eye ring, the slightly erectile feathers at the back of the head.
+Comparison with the glyphs representing turtles (Pl. 14, figs. 7-10)
+hitherto confused with these macaw glyphs shows differences, the most
+important of which are of course the eye ring and the feathers at the
+back of the head.
+
+Various other glyphs occur which undoubtedly represent the heads either
+of macaws or smaller parrots. They are, for the most part, glyphs from
+the stone inscriptions. A crest, resembling that depicted on the head of
+the quetzal, is found on a glyph on Altar Q from Copan (Pl. 25, fig.
+10). The eye ring, however, seems to indicate the macaw which also has
+slightly erectile feathers on the head. Much doubt is attached to the
+identification of the glyph of the month _Kayae_[TN-8] from Stela A,
+Quirigua (Pl. 25, fig. 9). It resembles closely the glyphs of the turtle
+(Pl. 14, figs. 7-9) and especially that on Pl. 14, fig. 10. The Quirigua
+glyph has a prominent fleshy tongue, however, like the parrot. From the
+fact that the glyph is certainly that for the month _Kayab_ and the
+_Kayab_ glyphs in the codices (Pl. 14, fig. 10) resemble the sign for
+_a_, in the Landa alphabet which seems to stand for _ak_ (turtle), we
+are led to identify this as a turtle rather than a parrot.
+
+The use of the macaw as a lightning beast has already been commented
+upon. The parrot is also used in the codices as a head-dress. As with
+several other birds the only places in the manuscripts where the whole
+bird is shown is in connection with the bearing of children and the
+baptism. Here the parrot head-dress is seen on women, Dresden 16c (Pl.
+25, fig. 2) and Tro-Cortesianus 94c (Pl. 25, fig. 13). There seems to be
+an exception to the whole bird appearing as a head-dress exclusively
+with women in Tro-Cortesianus 26c (Pl. 26, fig. 1), where god F appears
+with a head-dress composed of the whole bird. The bird is also seen as a
+head-dress on Altar Q from Copan (Pl. 26, fig. 3). The head of the macaw
+appears as part of the head-dress of god H in Dresden 11a (Pl. 26, fig.
+13), god E in Dresden 11b (Pl. 26, fig. 11), god F in Dresden 14b, god D
+in Tro-Cortesianus 89a (Pl. 26, fig. 5) and of women in Dresden 12b (Pl.
+26, fig. 6) and 19a (Pl. 26, fig. 9). In the rites of the four years in
+Tro-Cortesianus 37b, there are two birds which are quite different from
+those we have been considering, but which may represent macaws (Pl. 25,
+fig. 12; Pl. 26, fig. 10).
+
+In the Nuttall Codex, occur several figures of heavy-billed birds that
+may be macaws or other smaller parrots of the genera _Amazona_ or
+_Pachyrhynchus_. They are not, however, certainly identifiable (Pl. 26,
+figs. 4, 7).
+
+IMPERIAL WOODPECKER (_Campephilus imperialis_). We have here introduced
+two drawings from the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 27, figs. 5, 6) which seem to
+represent the Imperial ivory-billed woodpecker, a large species that
+occurs in the forests of certain parts of Mexico. The figures show a
+long-billed bird with acutely pointed tail feathers, a red crest, and
+otherwise black and white plumage. The red crest of the woodpecker is of
+course highly conventionalized in the drawings where it is shown as of a
+number of erect feathers instead of the prominent occipital tuft of
+this bird. The crest and particularly the pointed tail feathers and long
+beak combined with the characteristic coloring seem to leave little
+doubt as to the identity of the species figured. This bird does not seem
+to appear in the Maya drawings.
+
+RAVEN (_Corvus corax sinuatus_) (?). There occurs in the Nuttall Codex a
+figure of a large black bird (Pl. 27, fig. 7), which may be a black
+vulture, but which, from the presence of what appear as prominent
+bristles over the nostril, may also be a raven. These bristles are
+rather prominent in ravens and quite lacking in the vulture, so that we
+are led to identify the drawing as representing the former bird. We have
+found no other figures that suggest ravens.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS BIRDS. Four drawings of birds from the Aubin manuscript are
+shown here (Pl. 27, figs. 8-11), in order that the conventionalization of
+the bird form may be seen. The first two are supposed to represent the
+parrot (_cocho_) and the last two the turkey cock (_uexolotl_). There is
+little in the drawings by which they can be differentiated. In the codex,
+the heads of the parrots are colored red. There is no doubt, however,
+about the identification, as they occur in the same relative position on
+every page of the manuscript and are two of the thirteen birds associated
+with the thirteen gods, the "Lords of the House of Day" (Seler,
+1900-1901, pp. 31-35). From the foregoing, it may be seen that where
+there is no question about the identification, the drawing of the bird
+form is rather carelessly done and no great attempt is made to indicate
+the special characteristics of the different birds.
+
+As has been shown previously, it is not always possible to identify
+without question many of the forms appearing in the manuscripts. This is
+especially true with birds. In Tro-Cortesianus 20c, an unidentifiable
+bird, painted blue, appears on the top of the staff carried by god F.
+The head-dress of this same god in Tro-Cortesianus 27c is a bird form
+and in Tro-Cortesianus 55b, the _tonalamatl_ figure is a bird whose
+identity cannot be made out with certainty.
+
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+OPOSSUM (_Didelphis yucatanensis_, _D. mesamericana_). Figures
+representing opossums are not with certainty identifiable in the Maya
+writings. We have provisionally identified as a frog the animal shown in
+Pl. 29, fig. 6, although at first sight the two median round markings
+might be taken to represent a marsupial pouch. Stempell considers the
+animals found in the upper division of Dresden 25-28 as opossums of one
+of the above species, and this seems very possible. They are shown with
+long tails, slightly curved at the tips, and with long head and
+prominent vibrissae. A rather similar figure is found in the Nuttall
+Codex (Pl. 34, fig. 7). There is nothing, however, that seems to
+preclude their being dogs and, in our opinion, they represent this
+animal.
+
+NINE-BANDED ARMADILLO (_Tatu novemcinctum_). This is the common species
+of armadillo (Maya, _wetš_) found throughout the warmer portion of
+Mexico and Central America, where it is frequently used as an article of
+food, and its shell-like covering is utilized in various ways. Several
+representations of it occur in the Tro-Cortesianus (Pl. 29, figs. 1-4),
+where it is characterized by its scaly covering, long ears and tail, and
+the moveable bands about the body.
+
+This animal is associated with the bee culture, as it is represented
+twice in Tro-Cortesianus 103a (Pl. 29, figs. 1, 3) seated below a bee
+under an overhanging roof. The hunting scenes in the Tro-Cortesianus
+also show the armadillo; in 48a (Pl. 29, fig. 4) and in 91a it is shown
+in a pit-fall. In the last case the _Cauac_ signs are clearly seen on
+top of the trap, whereas in the former case the same signs seem to be
+indicated by the crosses. Finally, this same animal occurs seated in
+Tro-Cortesianus 92d (Pl. 29, fig. 2) facing a female figure. There seems
+to be no glyph used in connection with this animal.
+
+YUCATAN BROCKET (_Mazama pandora_). Among the numerous representations
+of deer in the Maya writings, there is but one that appears to show the
+brocket. This occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 92a (Pl. 30, fig. 2), where a
+hoofed animal with a single spike-like horn is shown, seemingly impaled
+on a stake set in the bottom of a pit-fall. As stated by Stempell, this
+animal from the character of its horns is probably to be identified as a
+brocket, though there is nothing to preclude its being a young spike
+buck of some species of _Odocoileus._
+
+YUCATAN DEER (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_; _O. thomasi_). Several species
+of small deer (Maya, _ke_) occur in Mexico and Central America whose
+relationships are not yet thoroughly understood (Pls. 30-32). The
+species of Yucatan and southern Mexico have small lyrate antlers with
+few, short tines, rather different from the broader type of the more
+northern species with well developed secondary tines. The former type of
+antlers seems to be indicated by the conventionalized structure shown in
+Pl. 32, figs. 8-12. These probably represent the Yucatan deer or its
+ally Thomas's deer of southern Mexico. Two of the figures, both from the
+Nuttall Codex, show the lower incisor teeth (Pl. 32, figs. 8, 11),
+though in other cases these are omitted. The larger part of the figures
+of deer represent the does which have no antlers. For this reason it is
+impossible to distinguish females of the brocket from those of the other
+species of deer, if indeed, the Mayas themselves made such a
+distinction. The characteristics of deer drawings are the long head and
+ears, the prominently elevated tail with the hair bristling from its
+posterior side (the characteristic position of the tail when the deer is
+running), the hoofs, and less often the presence of incisors in the
+lower jaw only and of a curious oblong mark at each end of the eye,
+possibly representing the large tear gland.
+
+The deer plays a large part in the Maya ceremonials. It is an important,
+perhaps the most important animal offering as a sacrifice to the gods.
+Several pages of the Tro-Cortesianus (38-49) are given over to the hunt
+and the animal usually represented is the deer, the hunters are shown,
+the methods of trapping, the return from the chase, and the rites in
+connection with the animals slain. Tro-Cortesianus 48b (Pl. 30, fig. 1)
+shows the usual method of trapping where the deer is caught by a cord
+around one of the fore legs. Tro-Cortesianus 91a pictures the same
+method and 92a (Pl. 30, figs. 2) shows where the deer is caught on a
+spike in another type of trap. In Tro-Cortesianus 86a (Pl. 31, fig. 5)
+the deer appears with a rope around his body held by a god who is not
+easily identified.
+
+Interesting descriptions of the hunt are given in several of the early
+accounts.[349-*] It will be noted that the hunt was usually connected
+with the religious rites and the offering of deer meat and various parts
+of the body of the deer had a ceremonial importance. Attention is called
+to similar practices among the Lacandones, the inhabitants of the
+region of the Usumacinta at the present time (Tozzer, 1907), where the
+greater part of the food of the people must, first of all, be offered to
+the gods before it may be eaten by the natives.
+
+The figures of the deer in the codices are clearly associated with god
+M, and the latter may be considered a god of the hunt as well as a god
+of war. It is very unusual to find a quadruped used as a head-dress in
+any way, and yet in several cases we find god M has the head of a deer
+as a sort of head covering, Tro-Cortesianus 50b (Pl. 31, fig. 6), 51c
+(Pl. 31, fig. 7) and 68b. In the first two cases, the god seems to be
+supplied with a bow and arrow. In a passage in Landa (1864, p.
+290)[350-*] there is a description of this very scene.
+
+In the month _Zip_, the hunters each took an arrow and a deer's head
+which was painted blue; thus adorned they danced. God M is found in one
+case in the Dresden in connection with the deer. In Dresden 13c the
+animal is represented as female and is shown in intercourse with god M.
+
+An offering of venison is frequently pictured in the manuscripts. Landa
+(1864, p. 220)[350-†] also furnishes a parallel for this. The haunches
+of venison arranged as offerings in dishes are realistically seen in a
+number of representations of religious rites, as in Dresden 28c (Pl. 31,
+fig. 14) in the last of the rites of the dominical days, 35a (Pl. 31,
+fig. 12) and in Tro-Cortesianus 5a above the serpent enclosing the body
+of water, 65a in front of god B or D and 105b (Pl. 31, fig. 13) and 108a
+(Pl. 31, fig. 15), both of which are in connection with the bee
+ceremonies.
+
+The head of the deer, rather than the legs, is also shown as an
+offering, in Tro-Cortesianus 69b with god B and Tro-Cortesianus 78 (Pl.
+31, fig. 10) in the line of glyphs. The whole deer may be represented as
+an offering in Tro-Cortesianus 2b (Pl. 31, fig. 8).[351-*]
+
+There are some examples in the manuscripts where the deer is pictured
+quite apart from any idea of the hunt or an offering. In Tro-Cortesianus
+14b, it is shown on top of the body of one of the large snakes and in
+Tro-Cortesianus 29c (Pl. 31, fig. 3), it appears seated on the end of a
+snake-like curve. The deer occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 30b (Pl. 30, fig.
+6) in connection with the goddess from whose breasts water is flowing.
+God B appears in Dresden 41c (Pl. 31, fig. 1) seated on a red deer. The
+same animal is also to be noted in Dresden 60a (Pl. 30, fig. 5) in
+connection with the combat of the planets.[351-†] A deer is seen in
+Tro-Cortesianus 92d seated on a mat opposite a female figure in the same
+manner as the armadillo on the same page and a dog on the preceding
+page. These, as previously noted, probably refer to cohabitation. On Pl.
+32, fig. 9, is a deer from the Peresianus and Pl. 32, fig. 12, shows
+another from Stela N, east, from Copan.
+
+The Nahua day _Maçatl_ signifies deer and we naturally find a large
+number of glyphs representing this animal among the day signs in the
+Mexican manuscripts (Pl. 31, fig. 9; Pl. 32, figs. 8, 10, 11).
+
+YUCATAN PECCARY (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_; _T. ringens_).
+Peccaries (Maya, _qeqem_) of the _T. angulatum_ group are common in
+Mexico and Yucatan, and a number of local forms have been named. The
+white-lipped peccaries also occur, but in the figures it is impossible
+to distinguish the species. These animals are characterized by their
+prominent snout, curly tail, bristling dorsal crest, and rather
+formidable tusks, as well as by the possession of hoofs. By these marks
+most of the figures are readily identifiable (Pl. 32, fig. 1; Pl. 33,
+figs. 1, 2, 4-6, 9). The tail is, however, often omitted as well as the
+erect line of bristles down the back. The presence of hoofs and the
+possession of a truncated pig-like snout are sufficiently
+characteristic. In the Dresden Codex occur several figures of undoubted
+peccaries. Two of these are pictured in Pl. 32, figs. 2, 4. In each the
+hoofs and curly tail appear, and in the latter figure the bristling back
+is conventionally drawn by a series of serrations. These marks are
+sufficient to identify the animals. Their heads are further
+conventionalized, however, by a great exaggeration of the snout beyond
+that slightly indicated in Pl. 32, fig. 1, and Pl. 33, figs. 6, 9. Other
+representations of the peccary, are shown in Pl. 32, fig. 5, a man with
+a peccary's head, and fig. 7 in which the animal's hoofs are replaced by
+human hands and feet. In both cases the form of the head remains
+characteristic. A curious combination is shown in Pl. 32, fig. 3, an
+animal whose head and fore feet are those of a peccary, while the hind
+feet have five toes, and there is a long tail. The addition of what look
+like scales is found in a figure from the Dresden (Pl. 32, fig. 6).
+
+The peccary is found in several different connections in the
+manuscripts. As deer are found associated with the hunt, so, but to a
+much more limited extent, the peccary. It is represented pictured as
+being captured in snares of the familiar "jerk-up" type. Similar
+drawings show this animal caught by the foreleg and held partially
+suspended, Tro-Cortesianus 49a (Pl. 33, fig. 9),[352-*] 49c (Pl. 33,
+fig. 1), and 93a (Pl. 33, fig. 4). Tro-Cortesianus 41b also shows the
+peccary associated with hunting scenes. Another realistic drawing of
+this animal in Dresden 62 (Pl. 33, fig. 6)[352-†] represents him as
+seated on the open jaws of a serpent connected with a long number
+series. We are unable to explain the signification of the appearance of
+the animal in this connection. The peccary is pictured in
+Tro-Cortesianus 27b (Pl. 33, fig. 5) seated on the left hand of the
+goddess from whose breasts water is flowing.
+
+The peccary seems to be associated with the sky, as it is seen in a
+conventionalized form in four instances (Dresden 44b, 45b, (Pl. 32, fig.
+4)[TN-9] coming from a band of constellation signs and in Dresden 68a (Pl.
+32, fig. 2) coming from a similar band with god E sitting
+underneath.[353-*] Above each of these conventionalized figures occur
+the corresponding glyph forms (Pl. 33, figs. 7, 8), which show merely
+the head with the exaggerated upturned snout. There is a striking
+resemblance between these snouts and those of the stone mask-like
+figures so frequently represented as a façade decoration in northern
+Yucatan. The presence in the mouths of the faces there represented of a
+recurved tusk in addition to other teeth is a further resemblance to the
+drawings of peccaries. Stempell (1908, p. 718) has reproduced a
+photograph of these extraordinary carvings and considers them the heads
+of mastodons, apparently solely on account of the shape of the upturned
+snout, whose tip in many of the carvings turns forward. They certainly
+do not represent the heads of mastodons, but we are not ready to say
+that the peccary is the prototype of these carvings, although the
+similarity between the glyphs (Pl. 33, figs. 7, 8) and the masks is
+worthy of note. One point which does not favor this explanation is the
+fact that on the eastern façade of the Monjas at Chichen Itza where the
+mask-like panel is seen at its best, we find a realistic drawing of a
+peccary (Pl. 33, fig. 2) on the band of glyphs over the doorway, and it
+in no way suggests the head on the panel and is quite different from the
+head already noted as the glyph of the peccary in the codices.
+
+BAIRD'S TAPIR (_Tapirella bairdi_). No undoubted representations of
+tapirs occur in the manuscripts here considered. Possibly tapirs did
+not live in the country occupied by the Maya peoples. At the present
+time they are found only to the south of Yucatan. In Central America
+Baird's and Dow's tapirs are native, the latter, however, more on the
+Pacific coast. We have included a drawing of an earthenware vessel (Pl.
+28, fig. 1) that represents a tapir, about whose neck is a string of
+Oliva shells. The short prehensile trunk of the tapir is well made and
+the hoofs are likewise shown. A greatly elongated nose is found in many
+of the drawings of the deities, but it does not seem clear that these
+represent trunks of tapirs, or, as suggested by Stempell, mastodons! Two
+such heads are shown in Pl. 39, figs. 7, 9. These offer a considerable
+superficial resemblance to that of a tapir, but as no other drawings
+that might be considered to represent this animal are found, it seems
+very questionable if the long noses are other than parts of grotesque
+masks. The superficial resemblance of the curious nose pieces of the
+masks on the panel of the Maya façades to elephants' trunks does not
+seem to us especially significant, as otherwise the carvings are quite
+unlike elephants. They have no great tusks as an elephant should, but,
+instead, short recurved teeth similar to those representing peccary
+tusks, as already pointed out.
+
+RABBIT (_Sylvilagus_ or _Lepus_). Rabbits and hares from their
+familiarity, their long ears, and their peculiar method of locomotion,
+seem always to attract the notice of primitive peoples. Several species
+occur in Mexico, including the Marsh rabbit (_Sylvilagus truei_; _S.
+insonus_), various races of the Cottontail rabbit (_S. floridanus
+connectens_; _S. f. chiapensis_, _S. f. yucatanicus_; _S. aztecus_; _S.
+orizabae_, etc.) and several Jack rabbits (_Lepus alleni pallitans_; _L.
+callotis flavigularis_, _L. asellus_). It is, of course, quite
+impossible to determine to which of these species belong the few
+representations found. Several drawings, shown in Pl. 30, figs. 3, 4, 7,
+8, are at once identifiable as rabbits from their long ears, round
+heads, and the presence of the prominent gnawing teeth.[354-*] In two
+of the figures (Pl. 30, figs. 7, 8), the entire animal is shown, sitting
+erect on its haunches, the first with one ear in advance of the other, a
+trait more characteristic of the jack rabbit than of the short-eared
+rabbits. For convenience of comparison, we have placed beside these two
+figures one of a deer in much the same position. It is at once
+distinguished, however, by its long head, longer bushy tail, and by the
+marks at each end of the eye. What at first sight appear to be two
+gnawing teeth of the rabbit seem to be the incisors of the lower jaw.
+This is the animal identified by Stempell as a dog.
+
+The animal shown to be a rabbit in Dresden 61 (Pl. 30, fig. 8) is
+pictured seated on the open jaws of a serpent in the same way as the
+peccary on the following page. These two animals, together with two
+representations of god B and the black god (Dresden 61), are each
+clearly connected with the serpents on which they are sitting.
+
+The Nahua day _Tochtli_ signifies rabbit and naturally the animal occurs
+throughout the Mexican manuscripts as representing this day (Pl. 30,
+figs. 3, 4).
+
+OTHER RODENTS. We have included in Pl. 29, figs. 5, 7, 8, three
+undetermined mammals. The second of these is characterized by the two
+prominent gnawing teeth of a rodent and by its long tail. It may
+represent a pack rat (_Neotoma_) of which many species are described
+from Mexico. In its rounded ears and long tail, fig. 5 somewhat
+resembles fig. 7, but it lacks the gnawing incisors. Still less
+satisfactory is fig. 8 from Tro-Cortesianus 24d, at whose identity it
+seems unsafe to hazard a guess. It is shown as eating the corn being
+sowed by god D.
+
+JAGUAR (_Felis hernandezi_; _F. h. goldmani_). Throughout its range, the
+jaguar (Maya, _balam_ or _tšakmul_) is the most dreaded of the
+carnivorous mammals. It is, therefore, natural that the Mayas held it in
+great awe and used it as a symbol of strength and courage. A few
+characteristic figures are shown in Pl. 34, figs. 1-3; Pl. 35, figs.
+5-14. The species represented is probably _Felis hernandezi_, the
+Mexican race of jaguar, or one or the other of the more or less nominal
+varieties named from Central America. The distinguishing mark of the
+jaguar, in addition to the general form with the long tail, short ears
+and claws, is the presence of the rosette-like spots. These are
+variously conventionalized as solid black markings, as small circles, or
+as a central spot ringed by a circle of dots (Pl. 35, fig. 12).
+Frequently the solid black spots are used, either in a line down the
+back and tail or scattered over the body. The tip of the tail is
+characteristically black, and the teeth are often prominent. Such a
+figure as this (Pl. 35, fig. 10) Stempell considers to be a water
+opossum (_Chironectes_), for the reason that it is held by the goddess
+from whose breast water is flowing. This can hardly be, however, for not
+only are the markings unlike those of the water opossum, but the large
+canine tooth indicates a large carnivore. Moreover, the water opossum is
+a small animal, hardly as big as a rat, of shy and retiring habits, and
+so is unlikely to figure in the drawings of the Mayas.
+
+As for the significance of the jaguar in the life of the Mayas, it may
+be said that this animal seems to have played a most prominent part. At
+Chichen Itza, the building on top of the southern end of the eastern
+wall of the Ball Court, usually called the Temple of the Tigers, has a
+line of jaguars carved in stone as frieze around the outside of the
+building, and in the Lower Chamber of the same structure, the figure of
+a jaguar (Maudslay, III, Pl. 43) serves as an altar. The front legs and
+the head of a jaguar often are seen as the support of a seat or altar on
+which a god is represented as at Palenque in the Palace, House E
+(Maudslay, IV, Pl. 44) and in the Temple of the Beau Relief (Holmes,
+1895-1897, Pl. 20). Altar F at Copan (Pl. 35, fig. 7) shows the same
+idea. The head of a puma or jaguar (Pl. 34, fig. 6) appears in the
+bas-relief of the Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers, evidently
+representing a part of an altar. A realistic carving of a jaguar was
+found on a stone near the Temple of the Cones at Chichen Itza (Maudslay,
+III, Pl. 52, fig. a), and another occurs near the present hacienda of
+Chichen Itza carved in relief on a ledge of rock.
+
+In the Maya manuscripts the jaguar appears in a number of connections.
+Its mythological character is shown in Dresden 8a (Pl. 35, fig. 5),
+where it is pictured as the _tonalamatl_ figure. The day reached here in
+the reckoning is _Ix_, and this corresponds to the Nahua _Oceolotl_,
+which means jaguar. In Dresden 26, in the pages showing the ceremonies
+of the years, the jaguar is carried on the back of the priest, evidently
+representing one of the year bearers (_Ti cuch haab_). Balam, the name
+of the jaguar, is the title given to the four _Bacabs_ or _Chacs_, the
+gods of the four cardinal points. In Tro-Cortesianus 64a, two jaguar
+heads are noted as the end of curious bands of _Caban_ signs over a
+flaming pot. The second one is shown as dead. A jaguar head is employed
+in two places in the Tro-Cortesianus, 34a and 36a, as a head-dress for a
+god who is in the act of sowing corn. This animal appears very
+infrequently in the pages of the Tro-Cortesianus given over to the
+hunting scenes, 41c, 40c, 43b, and, even here, it never appears in the
+same way as the deer and peccary, as an animal for sacrifice.
+
+The jaguar as a predacious beast is noted in Tro-Cortesianus 28b (Pl.
+35, fig. 8), where it is attacking god F in a similar way as the
+vultures in the preceding picture. The jaguar appears in Tro-Cortesianus
+30b (Pl. 35, fig. 10) seated on the right hand of the goddess from whose
+breasts water is flowing. The figure in Tro-Cortesianus 12b between the
+various offerings may be a jaguar or a dog, more probably from its
+connection with an offering, the dog. A curious modification of the
+jaguar may be shown in Tro-Cortesianus 20a (Pl. 34, fig. 2), where a god
+is seated on the gaping jaws of some animal whose identity is uncertain.
+It may be a serpent, although the black-tipped tail from which the head
+appears to come certainly suggests the jaguar.
+
+There are several carved glyphs in stone that probably represent
+jaguars. Two of these (Pl. 28, fig. 4; Pl. 35, fig. 9) have the
+characteristic round spots, but others are unmarked, and suggest the
+jaguar by their general character only (Pl. 35, fig. 6). This latter
+may, of course, represent the puma quite as well. A realistic jaguar
+head appears as a glyph in Tro-Cortesianus 2a (Pl. 35, fig. 13). The
+more usual glyph for the jaguar is more highly conventionalized,
+although the spots and the short rounded ear are still characteristic
+(Pl. 35, fig. 11). A slight modification of this glyph appears in
+Dresden 8a in connection with the full drawing of the animal below.
+
+The Nahua day _Oceolotl_, as already noted, means jaguar, and the jaguar
+glyph is found among the day signs (Pl. 34, fig. 3). Seler (1904, p.
+379) associates the jaguar in the Vaticanus and the Bologna with
+_Tezcatlipoca_. He notes that the second age of the world, in which the
+giants lived and in which _Tezcatlipoca_ shone as the sun, is called the
+"jaguar sun." _Tezcatlipoca_ is supposed to have changed himself into a
+jaguar.
+
+PUMA (_Felis bangsi costaricensis_). As shown by Stempell, there can be
+little doubt that some one of the mainly nominal species of Central
+American puma is represented in Dresden 47 (Pl. 34, fig. 7). This animal
+is colored reddish in the original, as is the puma, is without spots,
+although the tip of the tail, as in the pictures of the jaguar, is
+black. The animal is represented as being transfixed with a
+spear.[358-*] Another animal colored red in Dresden 41c seems to
+represent a puma. God B is shown seated upon him. A crude figure from
+the Painted Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers (Pl. 34, fig. 5) is
+probably the same species of puma. The cleverly executed head, shown in
+profile in Pl. 34, fig. 6, is also perhaps the same animal, although it
+may possibly represent the jaguar. One or the other of these two cats is
+also intended, in Pl. 34, fig. 4, a drawing of a piece of pottery.
+
+COYOTE (_Canis_). Two figures from the Nuttall Codex have been included
+as possibly representing coyotes (Pl. 35, figs. 1, 2). They are chiefly
+characterized by their prominent ears and bristling hair, and seem to be
+engaged in active combat. Coyotes of several species occur in Mexico and
+though not generally regarded as aggressive animals are of a predacious
+nature. No drawings of the coyote have been noted in the Maya codices.
+
+DOG (_Canis_). The dog (Maya, _peq_) evidently played an important part
+in the life of the Mayas as it does with other races of men generally.
+On Pls. 36, 37, we have included certain figures of dogs from several
+manuscripts. These may represent two breeds, for it is well known that
+both a hairy and a hairless variety were found by the early discoverers
+in Mexico.[359-*] Hairiness is more or less clearly indicated in the
+following figures:--Pl. 36, figs. 1-7, 12; Pl. 37, figs. 4, 5. The
+figures of dogs usually agree in having a black mark about the eyes that
+frequently is produced as a downward curved tongue from the posterior
+canthus. Sometimes, as in Pl. 37, figs. 1-3, 10, this tongue is not
+blackened. Commonly also black patches are elsewhere distributed on the
+body, generally on the back. These markings are probably the patches of
+color separated by white areas that occur frequently in dogs or other
+animals after long domestication.[359-†] We have included among the
+figures of dogs two in which the eye is differently represented and
+which are unspotted (Pl. 37, figs. 4, 6). These modifications may have
+some special significance, but otherwise the animals appear most closely
+to represent dogs.
+
+We have already suggested that the animal attired in man's clothing, and
+walking erect in Dresden 25a-28a is likewise a dog, though Stempell
+believes it to represent the opossum in support of which he calls
+attention to its prominent vibrissae and slightly curled tail.
+
+The dog played a large part in the religion both of the Mayas and the
+Mexican peoples. It was connected especially with the idea of death and
+destruction. The Lacandones of the present time make a small figure of a
+dog to place on the grave (Tozzer, 1907, p. 47). This is but one of the
+many survivals of the ancient pre-Columbian religion found among this
+people. The dog was regarded as the messenger to prepare the way to the
+other world. Seler (1900-1901, pp. 82-83) gives an interesting parallel
+of the Nahua idea of the dog and his connection with death. He
+paraphrases Sahagun as follows: "The native Mexican dogs barked, wagged
+their tails, in a word, behaved in all respects like our own dogs, were
+kept by the Mexicans not only as house companions, but above all, for
+the shambles, and also in Yucatan and on the coast land for sacrifice.
+The importance that the dog had acquired in the funeral rites may
+perhaps have originated in the fact that, as the departed of both sexes
+were accompanied by their effects, the prince by the women and slaves in
+his service, so the dog was assigned to the grave as his master's
+associate, friend, and guard, and that the persistence of this custom in
+course of time created the belief that the dog stood in some special
+relation to the kingdom of the dead. It may also be that, simply because
+it was the practice to burn the dead, the dog was looked on as the Fire
+God's animal and the emblem of fire, the natives got accustomed to speak
+of him as the messenger to prepare the way in the kingdom of the dead,
+and thus eventually to regard him as such. At the time when the
+Spaniards made their acquaintance, it was the constant practice of the
+Mexicans to commit to the grave with the dead a dog who had to be of a
+red-yellow color, and had a string of unspun cotton round his neck, and
+was first killed by the thrust of a dart in his throat. The Mexicans
+believed that four years after death, when the soul had already passed
+through many dangers on its way to the underworld, it came at last to
+the bank of a great river, the Chicunauhapan, which encircled the
+underworld proper. The souls could get across this river only when they
+were awaited by their little dog, who, recognizing his master on the
+opposite side, rushed into the water to bring him over." (Sahagun, 3
+Appendix, Chap. 1.)
+
+As might be expected from the foregoing, there are abundant evidences in
+the manuscripts of the presence of the dog in the various religious
+rites and especially those which have to do with the other world, the
+Kingdom of the Dead. In Tro-Cortesianus 35b, 36b, 37a, 37b, the pages
+showing the rites of the four years, the dog appears in various
+attitudes. In 35b and 36b, it bears on his back the _Imix_ and _Kan_
+signs, in 37a (Pl. 37, fig. 8) it is shown as beating a drum and
+singing, in 37b (Pl. 36, fig. 2) it is beside a bowl containing _Kan_
+signs. In all of these places, the dogs seem to be represented among the
+various birds and animals which are to be sacrificed for the new years.
+Landa (1864, p. 216)[361-*] states that in the _Kan_ year a dog was
+sacrificed. In the _Muluc_ year, Landa (1864, p. 222)[361-†] records
+that they offered dogs made of clay with bread upon their backs and a
+_perrito_ which had black shoulders and was a virgin. It has already
+been noted that two of the dogs represented in Tro-Cortesianus 35b and
+36b have a _Kan_ and _Imix_ sign fastened to the back. Moreover, we have
+also pointed out that the _Kan_ sign frequently seems to have the
+meaning of maize or bread. It will be noted that in Tro-Cortesianus 36b
+two human feet are shown on each of which is a dog-like
+animal.[361-‡] These may indicate the dance in which dogs were
+carried as noted by Landa. Cogolludo (1688, p. 184)[361-§] also mentions
+a similar dance. Still another reference in Landa (1864, p. 260)[362-*]
+mentions that in the months _Muan_ and _Pax_ dogs were sacrificed to the
+deities.
+
+Reference has already been made to the identification of the four
+priests at the top of Dresden 25-28 as having the heads of dogs rather
+than of opossums. It may be suggested that in the rôle of the conductor
+to the other world the dog is represented as carrying on his back in
+each case the year which has just been completed and therefore is dead.
+This, of course, would necessitate the identification of god B, the
+jaguar, god E, and god A as representing in turn the four years.
+
+The dog, according to Sahagun's account (p. 360) was looked upon as the
+"Fire God's animal," and as an emblem of fire. This idea is seen
+frequently in the Maya manuscripts where the dog with firebrands in his
+paws or attached to his tail is coming head downward from a line of
+constellation signs, as in Dresden 36a (Pl. 37, fig. 3), 40b (Pl. 37,
+fig. 1) or is standing beneath similar signs as in Dresden 39a (Pl. 37,
+fig. 2) and probably in Tro-Cortesianus 13a. His tail alone has the
+firebrand in Tro-Cortesianus 36b. Firebrands are carried by figures
+which have been identified by us as dogs in Tro-Cortesianus 24c (Pl. 37,
+fig. 6), 25c, and 90a. Here the animal is represented as in the air
+holding his firebrands over a blazing altar beside which god F is
+seated. In two out of the four cases, F is shown as dead. The dog in
+these latter examples has his eye composed of the _Akbal_ sign. This
+same glyph can also be made out with difficulty on the forehead of the
+dog shown in Dresden 36a (Pl. 37, fig. 3). As has been noted, _Akbal_
+means night and possibly death as well. It is certain that destruction
+is indicated in the preceding examples as well as in Tro-Cortesianus 87a
+and 88a (Pl. 37, fig. 4) where the dog is holding four human figures by
+the hair.
+
+Beyer (1908, pp. 419-422) has identified the dog as the Pleiades and
+various other suggestions have been made that the dog represents some
+constellation. The more common form of spotted dog is shown as a single
+_tonalamatl_ figure in Tro-Cortesianus 25d and 27d (Pl. 36, fig. 14) and
+an unspotted variety in Dresden 7a (Pl. 37, fig. 10). The dog is
+frequently shown as copulating with another animal or with a female
+figure. In Dresden 13c (Pl. 37, fig. 7) the second figure is a vulture,
+in Dresden 21b (Pl. 37, fig. 5) it is a woman and also in
+Tro-Cortesianus 91c (Pl. 36, fig. 12).
+
+The same animal appears also in a number of scenes not included in the
+preceding. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 36, fig. 1) a dog is seated on a
+crab and seems to be connected with the idea of the north as this sign
+is noted above the figure; in Tro-Cortesianus 66b (Pl. 36, fig. 3) a dog
+and another animal (Pl. 32, fig. 3) are seated back to back under a
+shelter; in Tro-Cortesianus 30b a dog is seated on the right foot of the
+woman from whose breasts water is streaming; in Dresden 29a (Pl. 37,
+fig. 12) god B is shown seated on a dog; and, finally, in Dresden 30a
+(Pl. 37, fig. 9) god B holds the bound dog by the tail over an altar.
+
+The dog appears from numerous references to be used in connection with a
+prayer for rain. Comargo (1843) in his history of Tlaxcallan states that
+when rain failed, a procession was held in which a number of hairless
+dogs were carried on decorated litters to a place devoted to their use.
+There they were sacrificed to the god of water and the bodies were
+eaten.
+
+The glyphs associated with the dog are interesting as we have, as in the
+case with the deer, one showing a realistic drawing of a dog's head in
+Tro-Cortesianus 91d (Pl. 37, fig. 13) and several others far more
+difficult of interpretation. Pl. 37, fig. 11, seems to stand for the dog
+as it is found in several places where the dog appears below, Dresden
+21b, 40b. It is thought by some to represent the ribs of a dog which
+appear in somewhat similar fashion in Pl. 37, fig. 8. Some of the
+glyphs in the codices for the month _Kankin_ show the same element (text
+figs. 8-10).
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 8, 9, 10.
+GLYPHS FOR MAYA MONTH KANKIN (RIBS OF DOG).]
+
+The Nahua day sign _Itzcuintli_ signifies dog and corresponds to the
+Maya Oc (Pl. 36, figs. 9-11). This in turn is considered by many to
+stand for the dog as the animal of death and signifies the end. The
+sore, cropped ears of the domesticated dog are supposed to be
+represented in this sign, Oc. Nahua and other day signs for _Itzcuintli_
+(dog) are shown in Pl. 36, figs. 4, 6, 13.
+
+BEAR (_Ursus machetes_; _U. horriaeus_). In northern Mexico, in
+Chihuahua and Sonora, occur a black bear (_Ursus machetes_) and the
+Sonoran grizzly (_U. horriaeus_). It is unlikely that the Mayas had much
+acquaintance with these animals since they range more to the northward
+than the area of Maya occupation. Stempell has identified as a bear, a
+figure in Dresden 37a (Pl. 35, fig. 3). This represents a creature with
+the body of a man walking erect but with the head apparently of some
+carnivorous mammal, as shown by the prominent canine tooth. This appears
+as a _tonalamatl_ figure. The resemblance to a bear is not very clear.
+Less doubt attaches to the figure shown in Pl. 35, fig. 4, which seems
+almost certainly to depict a bear. The stout body, absence of a tail,
+the plantigrade hind feet, and stout claws, all seem to proclaim it a
+bear of one of the two species above mentioned. This picture is found in
+connection with one of the warriors shown in the bas-relief of the Lower
+Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza. It seems clearly to
+designate the figure in much the same way as figures are named in the
+Mexican writings, _i.e._, by having a glyph showing this nearby.
+Attention has already been called to the fact that here at Chichen Itza,
+and, especially on this bas-relief, there is much which shows a strong
+influence from the north. The two figures in Tro-Cortesianus 43a are
+probably bears. Förstemann (1902, p. 68) considers that they are men
+masked as _Chacs_ or _Bacabs_.
+
+LEAF-NOSED BAT (_Vampyrus spectrum_; _Artibeus jamaicensis_; or
+_Phyllostomus hastatus panamensis_). Several remarkably diabolical
+representations of bats (Maya, _soɔ_, usually written _zotz_) occur
+among the Maya remains. These all show the prominent nose leaf
+distinguishing the family _Phyllostomatidae_ and, as the Mayas probably
+used the largest and most conspicuous of the native species for artistic
+representation, it is likely that some one of the three species above
+mentioned is the one here shown.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 11, 12, 13, 14.
+GLYPHS FOR MAYA MONTH ZOTZ (BATS).]
+
+The bat had a place in the Maya pantheon. One of the months of the Maya
+year (_Zotz_) was named after this animal and the glyph for this month
+shows the characteristic nasal appendage. This is to be seen more
+clearly in the glyphs selected from the stone inscriptions (Pl. 38,
+figs. 1, 2, 4-6) than in those from the codices (text figs. 11-14)
+although the nose leaf is still visible in the latter. The day sign
+_Akbal_ (night) occurs as the eye in the figures from the manuscripts. A
+carving showing the whole body of the bat is used as a glyph in Stela D
+from Copan (Pl. 38, fig. 3). This may also represent the Bat god who is
+associated with the underworld, "the god of the caverns." This god is
+pictured on the "Vase of Chama" (Pl. 38, fig. 7) figured by Dieseldorff
+(1904, pp. 665-666) and by Gordon (1898, Pl. III). Seler (1904a) has
+discussed the presence of this god among the Mayas, the Zapotecs, and
+the Nahuas. The bat does not seem to occur in the Maya manuscripts as a
+god, although there are glyphs which seem to refer to this god (Dresden
+17b), as pointed out by Seler, when there is no other representation of
+this deity.
+
+No doubt in the times of the Maya civilization, these bats haunted the
+temples by day as they do now, and thus became readily endowed with a
+religious significance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.
+POTTERY WHISTLE, APE. FROM ULOA VALLEY, HONDURAS.]
+
+CAPUCHIN MONKEY (_Cebus capucinus,--C. hypoleucus_ Auct.)[TN-10] With the
+possible exception of one or two figures, monkeys (Maya, _maaš_ or
+_baaɔ_) are not represented in the Maya codices examined. In
+Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 39, fig. 4) occurs a curious nondescript animal
+with what seem to be hoofs on the forefeet, a somewhat bushy tail of
+moderate length, and a head that appears to be distinctly bonneted,
+somewhat as in the representations of the capuchin. Stempell regards
+this as a monkey, though recognizing that the short bushy tail is unlike
+that of any Central American species. The figure seems quite as likely a
+peccary or possibly a combination of a deer with some other animal. A
+glyph (Pl. 39, fig. 5) found directly above the figure just referred
+to, suggests a monkey, though it cannot be surely identified. A pottery
+whistle from the Uloa Valley (text fig. 15) shows two monkeys standing
+side by side with a posterior extension for the mouth piece. Their heads
+are shaped as in other representations of this monkey with a distinct
+cap or bonnet and facial discs. A pottery stamp from the same locality
+shows a monkey with a long tail (Gordon, 1898, Pl. 11, fig. f). It
+recalls the drawings of monkeys given by Strebel (1899, Pls. 1-4).
+
+In the Nuttall Codex are numerous heads and a few other figures of a
+monkey, which from the erect hair of the crown, curling tail, and
+distinctly indicated facial area must be the common bonneted or capuchin
+monkey of Central America. This species does not occur in Yucatan. What
+is undoubtedly the same animal is shown as a head glyph in Pl. 39, fig.
+8, from the Aubin manuscript. The identifications of the head-forming
+glyphs in the Nuttall and the Aubin manuscripts are certainly correct as
+the Nahua day sign (_Oçomatli_) means ape.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 16, 17, 18, 19.
+GLYPHS FOR MAYA DAY CHUEN.]
+
+Text figs. 16-19, show some of the signs for the day _Chuen_ from the
+Maya codices. This is the day corresponding to the day Oçomatli of the
+Nahuas. There is little resembling an ape in the Maya signs although it
+has been remarked that the sign may show the open jaws and teeth of this
+animal.
+
+Förstemann (1897) as noted by Schellhas (1904, p. 21) alludes to the
+fact that the figure of god C, which occurs also in the sign for the
+north, in the _tonalamatl_ in Dresden 4a-10a occurs in the day _Chuen_
+of the Maya calendar, and this corresponds to the day _Oçomatli_, the
+ape, in the Nahua calendar. This would suggest a connection between god
+C and the ape and this may be seen in the glyphs for god C (text figs.
+20-24). Förstemann sees "an ape whose lateral nasal cavity (peculiar to
+the American ape or monkey) is occasionally represented plainly in the
+hieroglyph picture." He also associates god C with the constellation of
+Ursa Minor.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 20, 21, 22, 23, 24.
+GLYPHS OF GOD C.]
+
+It will be seen from the detailed examination of the fauna shown in the
+codices that after all a comparatively small part of the animal life of
+the country occupied by the Maya speaking peoples is represented. The
+drawings in some cases are fairly accurate, so that there is little
+difficulty in determining the species intended by the artist. At other
+times, it is hazardous to state the exact species to which the animal
+belongs. It is only in a comparatively small number of cases, however,
+that there is any great doubt attached to the identification. It will be
+noted that the drawings of the Dresden manuscript are much more
+carefully and accurately done than those of the Tro-Cortesianus. A
+greater delicacy and a more minute regard for detail characterize the
+Dresden drawings in general.
+
+In the animals selected for reproduction by the Mayas, only those were
+taken which were used either in a purely religious significance for
+their mythological character (and here naturally there is to be noted an
+anthropomorphic tendency) or animals were chosen which were employed as
+offerings to the many different gods of the Maya pantheon. The religious
+character of the whole portrayal of animal life in the codices is
+clearly manifest, and it is this side of the subject which will come out
+more clearly as the manuscripts are better known.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[300-*] Quoted in Thomas, 1882, pp. 115, 116.
+
+[300-†] "En el mes de _Tzoz_ se aparejavan los señores de las
+colmenares para celebrar su fiesta en _Tzec_."
+
+[301-*] "En este mes (_Mol_) tornavan los colmenares a hazer otra fiesta
+como la que hizieron en _Tzec_, para que los dioses proveessen de flores
+a las avejas."
+
+[303-*] Strebel (1899, Pl. 11) gives several realistic reproductions of
+the centipede from pottery fragments.
+
+[309-*] Attention is also called to two whistles representing frogs in
+the _Memoirs of the Peabody Museum_, I, _No._ 4 (Gordon, 1898), Pl. 9,
+figs, i, j.
+
+[311-*] We have added here a Spanish description from the _Relacion de
+la Ciudad de Mérida_ (1900, pp. 66, 67) of the varieties of serpent
+found in the country. "Ay una suerte de culebra que llaman los naturales
+taxinchan, de una tercia de largo, que para andar hinca la cabeza en el
+suelo y da un salto, y de aquella suerte dando saltos anda, la espalda y
+la cabeza tiene dorada y la punta dela cola este se cria en los montes,
+y quando pica a alguna persona le haze reventar sangre por todos los
+poros del cuerpo que pareze que suda sangre y si no es le haze algun
+rremedio muere dentro de un dia natural y para la mordedura desta
+culebra tienen por rremedio los naturales dar a bever ala tal persona
+chile y hoja de piciete molido junto y desleido en agua, y con esto
+guarecen e sanan--ay biboras muy grandes y ponzoñosas de una vara e mas
+de largo, y tan gruesa como un brazo, que tienen cascabeles en la punta
+de la cola, y si muerden matan sino se rremedio con brebedad, y tienen
+los naturales por rremedio beber chile e piciete como para la mordedura
+del taxinchan--ay otras suertes de culebras que se llaman cocob, de tres
+y cuatro varas de largo y tan gruesas como una lanza gineta, que tanbien
+son muy ponzoñosas, y al que pican haze salir sangre por todo el cuerpo
+y por los ojos, como el taxinchan, ... procuraban guarecerse desta
+ponzoña con juros y encantamentos, que avia grandes en cantadores y
+tenian sus libros para conjurarlas y encantarlas, y estos encantadores,
+con pocas palabras que dezian, encantaban y amansaban las culebras
+ponzoñosas, las cojian y tomaban con las manos sin que les hiziese mal
+ninguno--tanbien ay culebras bobas sin ponzoñas, de dos varas y mas de
+largo y tan gruesas como el brazo, y suelen ponerse sobre arboles juntos
+alos caminos, y quando pasa alguna persona se deja caer encima y se le
+enrosça y rebuelve al cuerpo y a la garganta, y apretando le procura
+ahogarle y matarle, a sucedido matar algunos yndios caçadores yendo
+descuidados--tanbien tienen estas culebras distinto natural para comer y
+sustentarse."
+
+[313-*] Pl. 9, figs. 5, 9, show drawings of the rattlesnake which occur
+on the fresco.
+
+[316-*] The reader is also referred to the bas-relief of the Lower
+Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza where a serpent is
+shown behind a low altar.
+
+[317-*] Förstemann (1906, p. 15) agrees with Schellhas that this may be
+a rebus for the name _Quetzalcoatl_ or _Kukulcan_. As the bird is a
+vulture rather than a quetzal this could hardly be the case.
+
+[317-†] "Y con isopo en el mano de un palo corto muy labrado, y por
+barbas o pelos del isopo ciertas colas de unas culebras que son como
+caxcavales."
+
+[318-*] Brinton (1893, p. 25) notes that the equivalent of _Kan_ in the
+Nahuatl of Miztitlan is _xilotl_ which means ear of corn. This seems to
+show the correctness of the usual identification of the _Kan_ sign as
+meaning maize or bread (_pan_).
+
+[318-†] "Y les ofrecían dos pellas de una leche o resina de un arbol
+que llaman _kik_, para quemar y ciertas iguanas y pan y una mitra y un
+manojo de flores y una piedra preciosa de las suyas."
+
+[319-*] "Y pintaban un largarto que significaba el Diluvio--y la tierra
+e sobre este largarto hazian un gran monton de leña y ponianle fuego."
+
+[323-*] See in this connection Seler, 1904.
+
+[327-*] "Y ofrecerle cabeças de pavos y pan y bevidas de maiz."
+
+[327-†] (Kan year) "Sahumavan la imagen, degollavan una gallina y se
+la presentavan o offrecian ... y assi le hazian muchas offrendas de
+comidas y bevidas de carne y pescado, y estas offrendas repartian a los
+estrangeros que alli se hallavan."
+
+(Muluc year) "Y despues degollavanle la gallina como al passado."
+
+(Ix year) "Y degollavan la gallina ... a la estatua de _Kac-u-Uayeyab_
+ofrescian una cabeça de un pavo, y empanados de codornices y otras
+coasa[TN-11] y su bevida."
+
+(Cauac year) "Coma solian y degollavanle la gallina ... un hombre muerto
+y en cima un paxaro cenicero llamad _kuch_, en señal de mortandad
+grande, ca por muy mal año tenian este."
+
+[330-*] Förstemann identifies this bird as a black eagle.
+
+[333-*] "Este año en que la letra era _Cauac_ y reynava el
+_Bacab-Hozanek_ tenian, allende de la pronosticada mortandad, por ruyn,
+por que dezian les avian los muchos soles de matar los maizales, y comer
+las muchas hormigas lo que sembrassen y los paxaros, y porque esto no
+seria en todas partes avria en algunos comida, la qual avrian con gran
+trabajo."
+
+[338-*] Brinton (1895, p. 74), according to our interpretation, makes a
+mistake when he considers the crested falcon as the Moan, "in Maya
+_muan_ or _muyan_." He adds, "Some writers have thought the moan bird
+was a mythical animal but Dr. C. H. Berendt found the name still applied
+to the falcon. In the form _muyan_, it is akin in sound to _muyal_,
+cloud, _muan_, cloudy, which may account for its adoption as a symbol of
+the rains, etc."
+
+[341-*] "Crian paxaros para su recreacion y para las plumas para hazer
+sus ropas galanas."
+
+[349-*] _Relacion hecha por el Licenciado Palacio al Rey. D. Felipe II_
+(1866, p. 31). "Lo que hacian en los sacrificios de la pesca y caza, era
+que tomaban un venado vivo y llevábanlo al patio del cu é iglesia que
+tenian fuera del pueblo y allí lo ahogaban y lo desollaban y le salaban
+toda la sangre en una olla, y el hígado y bofes y buches los hacian
+pedazos muy pequeños y apartaban el corazon, cabeza y pies, y mandaban
+cocer el venado por si, la sangre for[TN-12] sí, y mientras esto se
+cocia, hacian su baile. Tomaban el Papa y sábio la cabeza del venado por
+las orejas, y los cuatro sacerdotes los cuatro pies, y el mayordomo
+llevaba un brasero, do se quemaba el corazon con ulí y copa, é incensaban
+al ídolo que tenian puesto y señalado para la caza y pesca. Acabado el
+mitote, ofrecian la cabeza y piés al ídolo y chamuscábanla, y despues de
+chamuscada, la llevaban á casa del Papa y se la comia y el venado y su
+sangre comian los demás sacerdotes delante del ídolo; á los pescados les
+sacaban las tripas y los quemaban ante el dicho ídolo. Lo propio era con
+los demás animales."
+
+_Relacion de Cotuta y Tibolon_ (1898, p. 105). "Un dios que dezian que
+eran benados en matando un yndio un benado benia luego a su dios y con
+el coraçon le untaba la cara de sangre y sino mataba algo aquel dia
+ybase a su casa aquel yndio le quebraba y dabale de cozes diziendo que
+no era buen dios."
+
+Cogolludo (1688, Book I, Chap. VII, p. 43) "Correan tan poco los
+venados, y tan sin espantarse de la gente, que los soldados de á cavallo
+del exercito los alcancavan, y alançeavan, muy á su placer, y de esta
+suerte mataron muchos de ellos, con que comieron algunos dias despues
+... Que en que consistia aquella novedad, de aver tanta maquina de
+venados, y estar tan mansos? Les dieron por respuesta; Que en aquellos
+Pueblos los tenian por sus Dioses á los venador; porque su Idolo Mayor
+se les avia aparecido en aquella figura."
+
+[350-*] "Y con su devocion invocavan los caçadores a los dioses de la
+caça, ... sacava cada uno una flecha y una calabera de venado, las
+quales los _chaces_ untavan con el betun azul; y untados, vailavan con
+ellas en las manos unos."
+
+[350-†] In the _Muluc_ years, he states "davan al sacredote una pierna
+de venado" and also in the same month, "Ofrecian a la imagen pan hecho
+como yemas de uevos y otros como coraçones de venados, y otro hecho con
+su pimienta desleida."
+
+[351-*] Förstemann (1902, p. 20) identifies this animal as a rabbit!
+
+[351-†] Förstemann identifies this animal as a dog.
+
+[352-*] This animal has been identified by Stempell as an agouti
+notwithstanding the hoofs and tusks.
+
+[352-†] Förstemann (1906, p. 228) suggests that this animal is a bear.
+
+[353-*] Attention is called to the curious half-human, half-animal
+figure in Tro-Cortesianus 2a which may suggest the figures in Dresden
+44a, 45a and which are here identified as peccaries. Both are descending
+from the band of constellation signs and the heads of each are not
+greatly dissimilar.
+
+[354-*] Förstemann (1906, p. 229) suggests that fig. 8 is a walrus!
+
+[358-*] Seler (1904) gives an interesting explanation of the reason why
+the puma and the other corresponding figures are shown hit with a spear.
+
+[359-*] _Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida_ (1898, p. 63): "Ay perros
+naturales dela tierra que no tienen pelo ninguno, y no ladran, que
+tienen los dientes ralos e agudos, las orejas pequeñas, tiesas y
+levantadas--a estos engordan los yndios para comer y los tienen por gran
+rregalo--estos se juntan con los perros de españa y enjendran y los
+mestizos que dellos proceden ladran y tienen pelo y tambien los comen
+los yndios cano alos demas, y tambien los yndios tienen otra suerte de
+perros que tienen pelo pero tan poco ladran y son del mesmo tamaño que
+los demas."
+
+[359-†] Brinton (1895, p. 72) regards these spots as representing
+stars.
+
+[361-*] "Y que le sacrificassen un perro o un hombre ... porque hazian
+en el patio del templo un gran monton de piedras y ponian al hombre o
+perro que avian de sacrificiar en alguna cosa mas alta que el."
+
+[361-†] "Avian de ofrescerle perros hechos de barro con pan en las
+espaldas, y avian de vailar con ellos en las manos las viejas y
+sacrificarle un perrito que tuviesse las espaldas negras y fuesse
+virgen."
+
+[361-‡] These might quite as well be rabbits as dogs.
+
+[361-§] "De los Indios de Cozumèl dize, que aun en su tiempo eran
+grandes Idolatras, y usaban un bayle de su gentilidad, en el qual
+flechaban un perro [^q] auian de sacrificar."
+
+[362-*] "Donde sacrificavan un perro, manchado por la color del cacao
+... y ofrecianles yguanas de las azules y ciertas plumas de un paxaro."
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+
+Aubin Manuscript, See Seler 1900-1901.
+
+Beyer, Herman.
+  1908, The symbolic meaning of the dog in ancient Mexico; in _American
+    Anthropologist_ (N. S.), Vol. X, pp. 419-422, Washington.
+
+Bologna Codex, See Cospiano Codex.
+
+Borbonicus Codex, See Hamy, 1899.
+
+Borgia Codex, See Seler, 1904-1906.
+
+Brasseur de Bourbourg, Charles Etienne.
+  1869-1870, Manuscrit Troano. Etudes sur le système graphique et la
+    langue des Mayas; 2 vols., 4^o Paris.
+
+Brinton, Daniel Garrison.
+  1893, The native calendar of Central America and Mexico; in
+    _Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society_; Vol. XXXI, pp.
+    258-314, Philadelphia.
+
+1895, A primer of Mayan hieroglyphics; in _Publications of the
+University of Pennsylvania, Series in Philosophy, Literature, and
+Archaeology_, Vol. III, No. 2, pp. 152, Boston.
+
+Camargo, Domingo Muñoz.
+  1843, Histoire de la République de Tlaxcallan; in _Nouvelles Annales
+    des Voyages et des Sciences Géographique_; IV Série, Tome 3, Paris.
+    (Spanish edition published by Chavero, Mexico, 1892.)
+
+Cogolludo, Diego Lopez.
+  1688, Historia de Yucatan; 4^o, pp. 791, Madrid.
+
+Cortesianus Codex, See Rada y Delgado, 1893.
+
+Cospiano Codex (formerly Bologna).
+  1899, Published in facsimile, Paris. (Loubat edition.)
+
+Dieseldorff, Erwin P.
+  1904, A clay vessel with a picture of a vampire-headed deity; in
+    _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin 28_, pp. 665-666, Washington.
+    (Translation of German edition published in _Zeitschrift für
+    Ethnologie_, 1894, pp. 576-577.)
+
+Dresden Codex, See Förstemann, 1880 and 1892.
+
+Fejérváry-Mayer Codex, See Seler, 1901.
+
+Fewkes, J. Walter.
+  1892, The Mam-zraú-ti; a Tusayan ceremony; in _American Anthropologist_,
+     Vol. V, pp. 217-246.
+
+  1894, A study of certain figures in a Maya codex; in _American
+     Anthropologist_, Vol. VII, pp. 260-274.
+
+Förstemann, Ernst.
+  1880, Die Maya-Handschrift der königlichen öffentlichen Bibliothek zu
+    Dresden; 4^o, Preface pp. xvii, 74 colored plates, Leipzig.
+
+  1892, Second edition of 1880, Dresden.
+
+  1902, Commentar zur Madrider Mayahandschrift (Codex Tro-Cortesianus);
+    8^o, pp. 160, Danzig.
+
+  1903, Commentar zur Pariser Mayahandschrift (Codex Peresianus); 8^o,
+    pp. 32, Danzig.
+
+  1904, Tortoise and shell in Maya literature; in _Bureau of Ethnology,
+    Bulletin_ 28, pp. 423-430, Washington. (Translation of German
+    edition of 1892. Dresden.)
+
+  1904a, The Pleiades among the Mayas; in _Bureau of Ethnology,
+    Bulletin_ 28, pp. 523-524, Washington. (Translation of German
+    edition published in _Globus_, Vol. XVI, No. 15, p. 246, 1894.)
+
+  1904b, The Day Gods of the Mayas; in _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin_
+    28, pp. 557-572, Washington. (Translation of German edition
+    published in _Globus_, Vol. LXIII, Nos. 9, 10, 1898.)
+
+  1906, Commentary of the Maya manuscript in the Royal Public Library of
+    Dresden; in _Papers of the Peabody Museum_, Vol. IV, No. 2, pp.
+    48-266. Cambridge. (Translation, revised by the author, of the
+    German edition of 1901.)
+
+Gann, Thomas.
+  1897-1898, Mounds in Northern Honduras; in _Bureau of Ethnology_, 19th
+    annual report, part 2, pp. 661-691, Washington.
+
+Gordon, George Byron.
+  1898, Researches in the Uloa Valley, Honduras; in _Memoirs of the
+    Peabody Museum_, Vol. I, No. 4, pp. 44, Cambridge.
+
+Hamy, Ernest T.
+  1899, Codex Borbonicus. Manuscrit Mexicain de la Bibliothèque der
+    Palais Bourbon; Text and plates, Paris.
+
+Holmes, William Henry.
+  1895-1897, Archaeological studies among the ancient cities of Mexico;
+    _Field Museum of Natural History, Publications_ 8 and 16,
+    _Anthropological Series_, Vol. I, No. I, Chicago.
+
+Hough, Walter.
+  1908, The pulque of Mexico; in _Proceedings of the United States
+    National Museum_, Vol. XXXIII, pp. 577-592, Washington.
+
+Landa, Diego de.
+  1864, Relación de las cosas de Yucatan; Spanish text with French
+    translation published by Brasseur de Bourbourg; 8^o, pp. 516,
+    Paris. (The references in the text are to this edition). Spanish
+    edition published by Juan de Dios de la Rada y Delgado, Madrid,
+    1884, as an appendix to his translation of Leon de Rosny's article,
+    Essai sur le déchiffrement de l'écriture hiératique de l'Amérique
+    Centrale. Second Spanish edition in Colección de Documentos inéditos
+    (2d Series); Madrid, 1900, Vol. XIII, pp. 265-411.
+
+  1900, See second Spanish edition under 1864. (This contains much that
+    is not given in the 1864 edition.)
+
+Maler, Teoberto.
+  1901-1903, Researches in the Usumatsintla Valley; in _Memoirs of the
+    Peabody Museum_, Vol. II, Cambridge.
+
+  1908, Explorations of the Upper Usumatsintla and adjacent region; in
+    _Memoirs of the Peabody Museum_, Vol. IV, No. 1, Cambridge.
+
+Maudslay, Alfred P.
+  1889-1902, Biologia Centrali-Americana, or Contributions to the
+    knowledge of the flora and fauna of Mexico and Central America.
+    Archaeology; Text and 4 vols. plates, London.
+
+Nuttall Codex.
+  1902, Reproduced in facsimile by the Peabody Museum, Cambridge.
+
+Palacio.
+  1686, Relacion hecha por el Licentiado Palacio al Rey. D. Felipe II en
+    la que describe la Provincia de Guatemala, las costumbres de los
+    Indios y otras casas notables; in _Colección de Documentos inéditos
+    relativos al descubrimiento, conquista y organizacion de las
+    antiguas posesiones Españales[TN-13] de América y Oceania_; Tomo VI,
+    pp. 7-40, Madrid.
+
+Peresianus Codex, See Rosny, 1887.
+
+Perez, Juan Pio.
+  1866-1877, Diccionario de la lengua Maya; sm. 4^o, pp. 437, Merida.
+
+Rada y Delgado, Juan de Dios de la.
+  1893, Codice Maya denominado Cortesianus que se conserva en el Museo
+    Arqueologio Nacional; 42 colored plates, Madrid.
+
+Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida.
+  1900, in _Colección de Documentos inéditos relativos al
+    descubrimiento, conquista y organizacion de las antiguas posesiones
+    Españolas de Ultra mar_ (_Segunda serie_), Tomo XI, pp. 37-75,
+    Madrid.
+
+Relación de Cotuta y Tibolon.
+  1900, in _Colección de Documentos inéditos etc._, (_Segunda serie_),
+    Tomo XI, pp. 93-103, Madrid.
+
+Rosny, Leon de.
+  1876, Essai sur le dechiffrement de l'écriture hiératique de
+    l'Amérique Centrale, Paris.
+
+  1887, Codex Peresianus, Manuscrit hiératique des anciens Indiens de
+    l'Améirque[TN-14] Centrale conservé à la Bibliothéque[TN-15] National
+    de Paris, Paris.
+
+Schellhas, Paul.
+  1904, Representations of deities of the Maya manuscripts; in _Papers
+    of the Peabody Museum_, Vol. IV, No. 1, pp. 1-47, Cambridge.
+    (Revised translation of second German edition of 1904.)
+
+Seler, Eduard.
+  1900-1901, The Tonalamatl of the Aubin Collection, (English edition),
+    pp. 147, plates 19, Berlin and London. (Loubat edition.)
+
+  1901, Codex Fejérváry-Mayer. Manuscrit Mexicain précolombien du Free
+    Public Museum de Liverpool (M 12014). Text and plates, Paris.
+    (Loubat edition.)
+
+  1902-1903, Codex Vaticanus 3773, Text and plates, Berlin. (Loubat ed.)
+
+  1904, Venus period in the picture writings of the Borgia Codex group;
+    in _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin_ 28, pp. 355-391, Washington.
+    (Translation of German edition of 1898.)
+
+  1904a, The Bat god of the Maya race; in _Bureau of Ethnology,
+    Bulletin_ 28, pp. 231-242, Washington. (Translation of the German
+    edition of 1894.)
+
+  1904b, Antiquities from Guatemala: in _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin_
+    28, pp. 75-121, Washington. (Translation of the German edition of
+    1895. republished[TN-16] in his collected works, Vol. III, pp.
+    578-640.)
+
+  1904-1906, Codex Borgia. Eine altmexikanische Bilderschrift der
+    Bibliothek der Congregatio de Propaganda Fide; 4^o, 2 vols. plates,
+    Berlin (Loubat edition.)
+
+  1909, Die Tierbilder der mexikanischen und Maya-Handschriften:[TN-17] in
+    _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1909, pp. 209-257, 381-457 (not
+    completed).
+
+Stempell, W.
+  1908, Die Tierbilder der Mayahandschriften; in _Zeitschrift für
+    Ethnologie_, 40 Jahrgang, Vol. V, pp. 704-743.
+
+Strebel, Hermann.
+  1899, Uber Tierornamente auf Thongefässen aus Alt-Mexico; in
+    _Veröffentlichen aus dem Konig. Mus. für Völkerkunde_, Vol. VI, part
+    1, pp. 1-33, Berlin.
+
+Thomas, Cyrus.
+  1882, A study of the Manuscript Troana; in _Contributions to North
+    American Ethnology_, Vol. V, pp. 234, Washington.
+
+  1884-1885, Aids to the study of the Maya codices; in _Bureau of
+    Ethnology_, 6th annual report, pp. 253-371, Washington.
+
+Tozzer, Alfred M.
+  1907, A comparative study of the Mayas and the Lacandones. Report of
+    the Fellow in American Archaeology, 1902-1905; Archaeological
+    Institute of America, 8^o, pp. 195, plates 29, New York.
+
+Troano Codex, See Brasseur de Bourbourg, 1867-1870.
+
+Villagutierre Soto Mayor, Juan.
+  1701, Historia de la Conquista de la Provincia de el Itza; 4^o, pp.
+    660, Madrid.
+
+Vaticanus 3773, See Seler, 1902.
+
+
+
+
+PLATE 1
+
+MOLLUSCA
+
+
+FASCIOLARIA GIGANTEA
+
+   1. Man emerging from shell, Dresden 41b.
+   2. Same, Borgia 4.
+   3. Bologna 4.
+   4. Dresden 37b.
+   5. Vaticanus 3773, 66.
+   6. Nuttall 16.
+   7. Sign for zero, Dresden 64.
+   8. Glyph, Dresden 41b.
+   9. Nuttall 16.
+
+OLIVA
+
+  10, 11. Sign for zero, Dresden 63.
+  12. Same, Dresden 55b.
+
+OTHER MOLLUSCA
+
+  13. Sign for zero, Dresden 54b.
+  14. Same. Bivalve, Dresden 63.
+  15. Bivalve, Nuttall 25.
+  16. Nuttall 49.
+  17. Nuttall 23.
+  18. Nuttall 16.
+  19. Nuttall 36.
+  20. Nuttall 75.
+  21. Bivalve closed, seen in profile, Nuttall 75.
+  22. Same, Nuttall 25.
+  23. Probably bivalve, Nuttall 16.
+  24. Same. Nuttall 36.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 1]
+
+
+PLATE 2
+
+INSECTA
+
+HONEY BEE (_Melipona_)
+
+   1. Possibly a drone, Tro-Cortesianus 108a.
+   2, 3. Tro-Cortesianus 108a.
+   4, 6[TN-18] Bees more conventionalized, Tro-Cortesianus 80b.
+   5. Bee and honey comb, Tro-Cortesianus 109c.
+   7. Honey combs, apparently in a hive, Tro-Cortesianus 11c.
+   8. Maya day sign, _Cauac_, possibly representing a honey comb,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 106b.
+   9. Tro-Cortesianus 103c.
+  10. Honey combs in a hive, Tro-Cortesianus 104a.
+  11. Bee and honey comb, Tro-Cortesianus 109c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 2]
+
+
+PLATE 3
+
+INSECTA AND MYRIAPODA
+
+   1. Maggots, probably of Blowfly (_Sarcophaga_), Tro-Cortesianus 27d.
+   2. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 24d.
+   3. Larva of _Acentrocneme kollari_, Tro-Cortesianus 28c.
+   4. Conventionalized insect, possibly a hornet, Nuttall 3.
+   5. Conventionalized insect, unidentified, Nuttall 19.
+   6. Same, Nuttall 55.
+   7. Same, Nuttall 51.
+   8. Butterfly or moth, Nuttall 19.
+   9. Butterfly, Aubin.
+  10. Maya day sign, _Akbal_, possibly representing the head of a
+        centipede.
+  11. Glyph belonging to god D, apparently composed of signs for
+        centipede, Dresden 7b.
+  12. Glyph for god D, Dresden 14b.
+  13. Glyph, Dresden 44b.
+  14. Same, Dresden 27a.
+  15. Centipede in connection with head-dress of god D, Dresden 15c.
+  16. Glyph, Dresden 9b.
+  17. Same, Dresden 15c.
+  18. Centipede in connection with head-dress of god D, Dresden 7c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 3]
+
+
+PLATE 4
+
+ARACHNOIDEA, ARACHNIDA, CRUSTACEA
+
+   1. Scorpion and deer, Tro-Cortesianus 48c.
+   2. Scorpion with sting conventionalized as a hand, Tro-Cortesianus 44c.
+   3. Scorpion highly conventionalized, Nuttall 22.
+   4. Spider, possibly a tarantula, Borbonicus 9.
+   5. Crayfish, Nuttall 16.
+   6. Crab, Nuttall 37.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 4]
+
+
+PLATE 5
+
+MYRIAPODA, PISCES
+
+   1. Parts of a conventionalized centipede with quetzal tail, Vaticanus
+        3773, 13.
+   2. Fish with teeth, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber
+        (Maudslay, III, Pl. 48).
+   3. Fish captured by heron, Dresden 36b. (Compare Pl. 15, fig. 5.)
+   4. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+        Pl. 45).
+   5. Fish.
+   6. Pottery fish, Chajcar (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 93).
+   7. Same.
+   8. Fish as offering, Tro-Cortesianus 3a.
+   9. Same, Dresden 29b.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 5]
+
+
+PLATE 6
+
+PISCES
+
+   1. Possibly a flying-fish (_Exocetus_), Nuttall 75.
+   2. Palenque, Temple of the Cross (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 68).
+   3. Nuttall 36.
+   4, 5. Glyphs, possibly of a shark, Dresden 40a.
+   6. Fish as offering, Dresden 27c.
+   7. Fish without dorsal fins, possibly an eel (_Muraena_), Dresden 65b.
+   8. Fish as offering, Dresden 23b.
+   9. Pottery animal from Santa Rita (Gann, 1897-1898, Pl. 34).
+  10. Dresden 44c.
+  11. Nuttall 16.
+  12. Palenque, Palace (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 11).
+  13. Fish as offering, Dresden 33a.
+  14. Fish as part of the Great Cycle glyph, Copan, Stela C, north
+        (Maudslay, I, Pl. 41).
+  15. Same, Copan, Stela C, south (Maudslay, I, Pl. 41.)
+  16. Same, Copan, Stela D (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48).
+  17. Same, Copan, Stela C, south (Maudslay, I, Pl. 41).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 6]
+
+
+PLATE 7
+
+AMPHIBIA
+
+   1. Frog (_Rana_), Tro-Cortesianus 31a.
+   2, 3. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 101d.
+   4. Probably a toad (_Bufo_), Copan, Oblong altar (Maudslay, I, Pl.
+        114).
+   5. Frog or toad, Tro-Cortesianus 17b.
+   6. Frog and fish, Copan, Altar O (Maudslay, I, Pl. 85).
+   7. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+        Pl. 46).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 7]
+
+
+PLATE 8
+
+AMPHIBIA, REPTILIA
+
+   1. God F representing a tree-toad (_Hyla eximia_), Tro-Cortesianus
+        26b.
+   2. Glyph evidently belonging to fig. 3, Tro-Cortesianus 26a.
+   3. Same as fig. 1, Tro-Cortesianus 26a.
+   4. Snake, Nuttall 6.
+   5. Same, Nuttall 45.
+   6. Same, Nuttall 37.
+   7. Snake used as head-dress of a woman, Dresden 39b.
+   8. Same, Dresden 23b.
+   9. Same, Dresden 43b.
+  10. Same, Dresden 22b.
+  11. Same, Dresden 9c.
+  12. Same, Dresden 15b.
+  13. Same, Dresden 18a.
+  14. Dresden 42a.
+  15. Same as figs. 7-13, Dresden 20a.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE [8][TN-19]]
+
+
+PLATE 9
+
+REPTILIA
+
+RATTLESNAKE (_Crotalus_)
+
+   1. Tro-Cortesianus 33b.
+   2. Nahua day sign, _Couatl_, Aubin 10.
+   3. Tro-Cortesianus 52c.
+   4. Tro-Cortesianus 40b.
+   5. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+        Pl. 40).
+   6. Nuttall 29.
+   7. Glyph representing rattles, Tro-Cortesianus 106c.
+   8. Tro-Cortesianus 100d.
+   9. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+        Pl. 40).
+  10. Nuttall 54.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 9]
+
+
+PLATE 10
+
+REPTILIA
+
+SERPENTS
+
+   1. Tree snake (possibly _Lachesis_), Dresden 27c.
+   2. Nuttall 37.
+   3. Dresden 57b.
+   4. Nuttall 5.
+   5. Nuttall 37.
+   6. Nuttall.
+   7. Serpent in connection with long number series, Dresden 62.
+   8. Dresden 37b.
+   9. Dresden 40c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 10.]
+
+
+PLATE 11
+
+REPTILIA
+
+SERPENTS
+
+   1. Large snake with conventionalized spots, Tro-Cortesianus 30a.
+   2. Tro-Cortesianus 31b.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 11]
+
+
+PLATE 12
+
+REPTILIA
+
+IGUANA, LIZARDS
+
+   1. Iguana as offering, Tro-Cortesianus 105c.
+   2. Iguana, Tro-Cortesianus 3b.
+   3. Iguana, as offering with _Kan_, Dresden 43c.
+   4. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107b.
+   5. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 6a.
+   6. Same, Dresden 29b.
+   7. Offering, possibly representing a lizard, Dresden 27b.
+   8. Same, Dresden 34a.
+   9. Lizard used for _Uinal_ glyph, Copan, Stela D, gl. 4. (Maudslay, I,
+        Pl. 48).
+  10. Nahua day sign, _Cuetzpalin_ (lizard), Aubin 10.
+  11. Lizard, Dresden 3a.
+  12. Nuttall 10.
+  13. Offering, the portion with serrated margin possibly representing
+        an iguana, Tro-Cortesianus 12b.
+  14. Lizard, Nuttall 2.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 12]
+
+
+PLATE 13
+
+REPTILIA
+
+CROCODILE (_Crocodilus_)
+
+   1. Glyph of the Nahua day sign, _Cipactli_, Nuttall 1.
+   2. Crocodile represented by head and limb, Nuttall 36.
+   3. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 1.
+   4. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 4.
+   5. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 9.
+   6. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 47.
+   7. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 1.
+   8. Nuttall 75.
+   9. Head of lizard or possibly crocodile used as a _Uinal_ glyph,
+        Palenque, Temple of the Foliated Cross (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 82,
+        gl. 6).
+  10. Head of crocodile, Dresden 52b.
+  11. Head, possibly of a crocodile, Palenque, Temple of the Foliated
+        Cross (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 82, gl. 0,[TN-20] 4).
+  12. Conventionalized head of a crocodile, Dresden 53b.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 13.]
+
+
+PLATE 14
+
+REPTILIA
+
+TURTLES
+
+   1. Turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 19b.
+   2. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 17b.
+   3. Swimming turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 17a.
+   4. Possibly representing a turtle, Nuttall 33.
+   5. Turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 81c.
+   6. Freshwater turtle (_Chelydra_) with leeches attached,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 72b.
+   7. Glyph for fig. 3.
+   8. Glyph.
+   9. Glyph.
+  10. Glyph.
+  11. Turtle, Nuttall 43.
+  12. Turtle god, _Aac_, Dresden 49.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 14]
+
+
+PLATE 15
+
+AVES
+
+HERONS[TN-21] FRIGATE BIRD
+
+   1. Heron, stucco ornament, Palenque, Palace, House B (Maudslay, IV,
+        Pl. 18).
+   2. Heron head-dress, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber
+        (Maudslay, III, Pl. 45).
+   3. Head and neck of a heron, Dresden 37b.
+   4. Heron, Nuttall 74.
+   5. Heron with fish, Palenque, Temple of the Cross, West side panel
+        (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 71).
+   6. Heron[TN-22]
+   7. Heron with a fish as a head-dress, Dresden 36a.
+   8. Fork-tailed bird, probably a Frigate bird (_Fregata aquila_),
+        Tro-Cortesianus 34a.
+   9. Same, arranged for offering, Dresden 35a.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 15]
+
+
+PLATE 16
+
+AVES
+
+OCELLATED TURKEY (_Agriocharis ocellata_)
+
+   1. Turkey in trap, Tro-Cortesianus 93a.
+   2. Turkey, Tro-Cortesianus 10b.
+   3. Turkey snared, Tro-Cortesianus 91a.
+   4. Tro-Cortesianus 4a.
+   5. Tro-Cortesianus 95c.
+   6. Tro-Cortesianus 37b.
+   7. Vaticanus 3773, 14.
+   8. Tro-Cortesianus 36a.
+   9. Whole turkey as offering, Dresden 26c.
+  10. Head of turkey as offering, Dresden 34a.
+  11. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 12b.
+  12. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 105b.
+  13. Dresden 20a.
+  14. Head of turkey as offering, Dresden 41c.
+  15. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107b.
+  16. Same, Dresden 29c.
+  17. Same, Dresden 28c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 16]
+
+
+PLATE 17
+
+AVES
+
+KING VULTURE (_Sarcorhamphus papa_)
+
+   1. Tro-Cortesianus 67a.
+   2. Tro-Cortesianus 22c.
+   3. God with head of King Vulture, Dresden 19a.
+   4. King Vulture and Ocellated Turkey, Tro-Cortesianus 85a.
+   5. Glyph, showing head, Dresden 39c.
+   6. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107c.
+   7. Same, Dresden 38b.
+   8. Same.
+   9. King Vulture, tearing out entrails of deer, Tro-Cortesianus 40a.
+  10. _Tun_ period glyph (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 89).
+  11. Tro-Cortesianus 94c.
+  12. Tro-Cortesianus 26c.
+  13. Glyph, Chichen Itza, Monjas, east (Maudslay, III, Pl. 13).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 17]
+
+
+PLATE 18
+
+AVES.
+
+KING VULTURE (_Sarcorhamphus papa_), BLACK VULTURE (_Catharista urubu_)
+
+   1. Glyph of head of King Vulture, Dresden 11b.
+   2. Glyph for Nahua day sign, _Cozcaquauhtli_, Nuttall 5.
+   3. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 41.
+   4. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 5.
+   5. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 4.
+   6. Same as fig. 2, showing considerable conventionalization. Nuttall
+        2.
+   7. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 3.
+   8. Same as fig[TN-23] 2, further reduced, Nuttall 18.
+   9. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 3.
+  10. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 20.
+  11. Probably a Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 95c.
+  12. Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 70a.
+  13. Same, Dresden 17b.
+  14. Possibly a Black Vulture, Chichen Itza, Monjas, east (Maudslay,
+        III, Pl. 13).
+  15. Head of Black Vulture, Nuttall 32.
+  16. Glyph of head of same, Dresden 54b.
+  17. Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 36b.
+  18. Head of same, Tro-Cortesianus 26c.
+  19. Same, Dresden 39c.
+  20. Same, Nuttall 19.
+  21. Same, Nuttall 34.
+  22. Same, Dresden 37c.
+  23. Same, Nuttall 27.
+  24. Same, Nuttall 1.
+  25. Same, Nuttall 34.
+  26. Same, Nuttall 9.
+  27. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 19b.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 18]
+
+
+PLATE 19
+
+AVES.
+
+VULTURES
+
+   1. Vulture (probably a King Vulture) tearing at entrails of an animal,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 42a.
+   2. Nuttall 69.
+   3. Nuttall 74.
+   4. Possibly a Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 35b.
+   5. Tro-Cortesianus 26d.
+   6. Tro-Cortesianus 26d.
+   7. Dresden 3a.
+   8. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 16).
+   9. Glyph, Copan, Altar K (Maudslay, I, gl. 73).
+  10. Glyph, Tikal, House 9 (Maudslay, III, Pl. 79).
+  11. Black Vulture and snake, Dresden 36b.
+  12. Probably vultures, Tro-Cortesianus 100b.
+  13. Probably a vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 18b.
+  14. Same, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber, Chichen Itza (Maudslay,
+        III, Pl. 46).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 19]
+
+
+PLATE 20
+
+AVES
+
+HARPY EAGLE (_Thrasaetos harpyia_)
+
+   1. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 16, gl. 3).
+   2. Nuttall 53.
+   3. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 16, gl. 13).
+   4. Tro-Cortesianus 88c.
+   5. Part of a head-dress, Dresden 14c.
+   6. Peresianus 2.
+   7. Dresden 14b.
+   8. Eagle with crest feathers tipped by flints, Nuttall[TN-24]
+   9. Glyph, Tro-Cortesianus 107c.
+  10. Stone carving, Chichen Itza (Maudslay, III, Pl. 52).
+  11. Dresden 23c.
+  12. Possibly an eagle's head, Dresden 43c.
+  13. Possibly an eagle, Dresden 74.
+  14. Bologna 7.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 20]
+
+
+PLATE 21
+
+AVES
+
+YUCATAN HORNED OWL (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_)
+
+   1. Owl in flight, Stucco ornament, Palenque, Palace, House E
+        (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 43).
+   2. Stone carving of owl, Yaxchilan, Stela 4 (Peabody Museum Memoirs,
+        II, Pl. 70).
+   3. Owl in flight, carved in wood, Tikal, House C, lintel (Maudslay,
+        III, Pl. 78).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 21]
+
+
+PLATE 22
+
+AVES
+
+YUCATAN HORNED OWL (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_)
+
+   1. Bologna 7.
+   2. As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 95c.
+   3. Borgia 7.
+   4. On end of staff carried by warrior, Chichen Itza, Temple of the
+        Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 49).
+   5. Aubin 13.
+   6. Head highly conventionalized, Palenque, Temple of the Sun
+        (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 88).
+   7. Screech-owl (_chiquàtli_), Aubin.
+
+[Illustration: [PLATE] 22[TN-25]]
+
+
+PLATE 23
+
+AVES
+
+YUCATAN SCREECH OWL or _Moan-bird_ (_Otus choliba thompsoni_)
+
+   1. Dresden 7c.
+   2. Tro-Cortesianus 66a.
+   3. Dresden 11a.
+   4. As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 94c.
+   5. As a head-dress, Dresden 18b.
+   6. Glyph associated with Moan-bird, Dresden 7c.
+   7. Same, Dresden 7c.
+   8. Dresden 10a.
+   9. Peresianus 10.
+  10. Peresianus 5.
+  11. Glyph representing head, Dresden 38c.
+  12. Same, Dresden 8b.
+  13. Same, Dresden 53b.
+  14. Same, Dresden 16c.
+  15. Glyph possibly representing Moan-bird, Dresden 38c.
+  16. Glyph of head, Dresden 53b.
+  17. Glyph associated with Moan-bird.
+  18. Tro-Cortesianus 73b.
+  19. As a head-dress, Dresden 16c.
+  20. As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 95c.
+  21. Glyph associated with Moan-bird, Dresden 7c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 2[3][TN-26]]
+
+
+PLATE 24
+
+AVES
+
+COPPERY-TAILED TROGON or QUETZAL (_Pharomacrus mocinno_)
+
+   1. Head-dress with crest feathers shown as knobs, Dresden 7c.
+   2. Head-dress, Dresden 13b.
+   3. Same, Dresden 16c.
+   4. Tro-Cortesianus 100b.
+   5. Tro-Cortesianus 70a.
+   6. Head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 94c.
+   7. Nuttall 33.
+   8. Conventionalized tail as a head ornament, Dresden 20c.
+   9. Vaticanus 3773, 17.
+  10. Glyph, Palenque, Temple of the Sun (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 89, gl. O,
+        9).
+  11. Trogon descending on a sacrifice, Bologna 8.
+  12. Tro-Cortesianus 36b.
+  13. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 111, gl. 54).
+  14. Glyph apparently representing a trogon's head, Dresden 20c.
+  15. Same, Dresden 9b.
+  16. Same, Dresden 3a.
+  17. Head, Nuttall 43.
+  18. Tro-Cortesianus 26c.
+  19. Figure with head ornament resembling a trogon glyph, Dresden 20c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 24]
+
+
+PLATE 25
+
+AVES
+
+BLUE MACAW (_Ara militaris_)
+
+   1. Figure with macaw head and holding firebrands, Dresden 40b.
+   2. Head-dress, Dresden 16c.
+   3. Tro-Cortesianus 12a.
+   4. Glyph, Copan, Stela 11 (Maudslay, I, Pl. 112, gl. 12).
+   5. Same, Copan, Stela B (Maudslay, I, Pl. 38).
+   6. Glyph used in connection with fig. 1.
+   7. Glyph.
+   8. Stone carving of upper mandible and head, Copan, Stela B (Maudslay,
+        I, Pl. 37).
+   9. Head, probably of a turtle, month sign _Kayab_, Quirigua, Stela A
+        (Maudslay, II, Pl. 7, gl. 14).
+  10. Head, probably of a macaw, Copan, Altar Q (Maudslay, I, Pl. 93).
+  11. Tro-Cortesianus 37b.
+  12. Head, probably of a macaw, Copan, Stela A (Maudslay, I, Pl. 30,
+        gl. 19).
+  13. Tro-Cortesianus 94c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 25]
+
+
+PLATE 26
+
+AVES
+
+PARROTS, TURKEYS
+
+   1. Macaw as a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 26c.
+   2. Bird of sacrifice, doubtless an Ocellated Turkey (_Agriocharis_)
+        Dresden 25c. (Compare also Dresden 26c[TN-27] 27c, 28c.)
+   3. Head-dress, probably a macaw, Copan, Altar Q (Maudslay, I, Pl. 92).
+   4. Possibly a parrot (_Amazona_), Nuttall 4.
+   5. Head-dress, head of a macaw, Tro-Cortesianus 89a.
+   6. Head-dress, possibly representing a parrot, Dresden 12b.
+   7. Possibly a parrot (_Amazona_), Nuttall 71.
+   8. Glyph representing a macaw's head, Tikal, Temple C (Maudslay, III,
+        Pl. 78).
+   9. Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 19a.
+  10. Possibly a macaw, Tro-Cortesianus 37b.
+  11. Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 11b.
+  12. Bird of sacrifice, probably an Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca,
+        Nuttall 22.
+  13. Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 11a.
+  14. Head of Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca, Nuttall 5.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 26]
+
+
+PLATE 27
+
+AVES
+
+MISCELLANEOUS
+
+   1. Bird of sacrifice, an Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca, Nuttall 2.
+   2. Same, Nuttall 16.
+   3. Same, Nuttall 19.
+   4. Same, Nuttall 1.
+   5. Woodpecker possibly _Campephilus imperialis_, Nuttall 74.
+   6. Same, Nuttall 71.
+   7. Possibly a Raven (_Corvus corax sinuatus_), Nuttall 48.
+   8. Parrot (_cocho_), Aubin 11.
+   9. Same, Aubin 13.
+  10. Turkey-cock (_uexolot_),[TN-28] Aubin 11.
+  11. Same, Aubin 13.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 27]
+
+
+PLATE 28
+
+VARIOUS ANIMALS
+
+   1. Earthenware vessel representing a tapir (_Tapirella_) with a
+        necklace of Oliva shells (Seler, 1904b, p. 106, fig. 23).
+   2. Stone carving, possibly of a King Vulture (_Sarcorhamphus papa_),
+        Copan, Altar T (Maudslay, I, Pl. 96).
+   3. Stone carving, possibly a lizard, Copan, Stela 6 (Maudslay I, Pl.
+        107).
+   4. Stone carving, probably a jaguar (_Felis onca hernandezi_), Copan,
+        Stela 2 (Maudslay, I, Pl. 102).
+   5. Stone carving of a Black Vulture (_Catharista urubu_), Copan, Stela
+        D (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48).
+   6. Lizard (?) attacked by two birds (?) perhaps vultures, Quirigua,
+        Altar B (Maudslay, II, Pl. 15).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 28]
+
+
+PLATE 29
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+ARMADILLO AND MISCELLANEOUS
+
+   1. Nine-banded Armadillo (_Tatu novemcinctum_), Tro-Cortesianus 103a.
+   2. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 92d.
+   3. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 103a.
+   4. Armadillo captured in a pitfall, Tro-Cortesianus 48a.
+   5. Undetermined animal, Dresden 14c.
+   6. Undetermined animal, possibly a frog or a marsupial,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 33a.
+   7. Rodent, Nuttall 11.
+   8. Undetermined animal, Tro-Cortesianus 24d.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 29]
+
+
+PLATE 30
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+DEER, HARE
+
+   1. Yucatan deer, caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 48b.
+   2. Yucatan brocket (_Mazama pandora_) caught in a pitfall,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 92a.
+   3. Glyph for hare or rabbit, Nuttall 16.
+   4. Same, Nuttall 5.
+   5. Yucatan deer, Dresden 60a.
+   6. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 30b.
+   7. Hare or rabbit, Nuttall 22.
+   8. Same, Dresden 61[TN-29]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 30]
+
+
+PLATE 31
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+YUCATAN DEER (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_)
+
+   1. Doe, Dresden 45c.
+   2. Same, Fégerváry-Mayer 26.
+   3. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 29c.
+   4. Same, Nuttall 50.
+   5. Same captured in snare, Tro-Cortesianus 86a.
+   6. Head-dress of god M, Tro-Cortesianus 50b.
+   7. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 51c.
+   8. Doe, Tro-Cortesianus 2b.
+   9. Head of same, Nuttall 43.
+  10. Head of doe as sacrifice, Tro-Cortesianus 77.
+  11. Same, Peresianus 10.
+  12. Haunch of venison as a sacrifice, Dresden 35a.
+  13. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 105b.
+  14. Same, Dresden 28c.
+  15. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 108a.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 31]
+
+
+PLATE 32
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+YUCATAN PECCARY (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_)
+YUCATAN DEER (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_)
+
+   1. Peccary, Nuttall 79.
+   2. Same, Dresden 68a.
+   3. Combination, a peccary's head and forefoot, with long tail and
+        hindfoot without hoofs, Tro-Cortesianus 66a[TN-30]
+   4. Peccary, Dresden 45b.
+   5. Man with peccary head, Copan, Sela[TN-31] D, cast (Maudslay, I, Pl.
+        46).
+   6. Combination animal, with hoofs and dorsal crest of a peccary and
+        scales of a reptile, Dresden 75.
+   7. Peccary, Nuttall 9.
+   8. Yucatan deer, with conventionalized antler, glyph for Nahua day
+        sign, _Maçatl_, Nuttall 26.
+   9. Same, Peresianus 5.
+  10. Glyph for Nahua day sign _Maçatl_, Aubin 10.
+  11. Same, Nuttall 5.
+  12. Deer, Copan, Stela N, East (Maudslay, I, Pl. 79).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 32]
+
+
+PLATE 33
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+YUCATAN PECCARY (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_)
+
+   1. Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 49c.
+   2. Glyph, Chichen Itza, Monjas, East (Maudslay, III, Pl. 13).
+   3. Head as a head-dress, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower
+        Chamber (Maudslay, III).
+   4. Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 93a.
+   5. Tro-Cortesianus 30b.
+   6. Dresden 62.
+   7. Glyph representing a peccary's head, Dresden 45b.
+   8. Same, Dresden 43b.
+   9. Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 49a.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 33]
+
+
+PLATE 34
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+JAGUAR, PUMA
+
+   1. Jaguar (_Felis hernandezi_), Nuttall 24.
+   2. Man seated in the open mouth of an animal, possibly a jaguar,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 20a.
+   3. Nahua day sign, _Oceolotl_, Aubin 9.
+   4. Pot representing a jaguar or puma (Gann, 1897-1898, Pl. 34).
+   5. Probably a puma (_Felis bangsi costaricensis_), Chichen Itza,
+        Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 40).
+   6. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+        Pl. 50).
+   7. Probably a puma, Dresden 47.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 34,[TN-32]]
+
+
+PLATE 35
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+COYOTE, BEAR, JAGUAR
+
+   1. Probably a coyote (_Canis_), Nuttall 6.
+   2. Same, Nuttall 26.
+   3. Possibly a bear (_Ursus_), Dresden 37a.
+   4. Same, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers (Maudslay, III, 38).
+   5. Jaguar (_Felis hernandezi_), Dresden 8a.
+   6. Glyph, probably of a jaguar head, Copan, Stela 4 (Maudslay, I, Pl.
+        104).
+   7. Copan, Altar F (Maudslay, I, Pl. 114).
+   8. Jaguar, Tro-Cortesianus 28c.
+   9. Stone carving of jaguar head, Palenque, Palace, House C (Maudslay,
+        IV, Pl. 24).
+  10. Jaguar, Tro-Cortesianus 30b.
+  11. Glyph, probably of a jaguar.
+  12. Head of jaguar in fresco, Santa Rita (Gann, 1897-1898, Pl. 31).
+  13. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 2a.
+  14. Same, Nuttall 27.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 35]
+
+
+PLATE 36
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+DOG (_Canis_)
+
+   1. Dog and crab, Tro-Cortesianus 88c.
+   2. Tro-Cortesianus 37b.
+   3. Tro-Cortesianus 66b.
+   4. Head, Nuttall 34.
+   5. Nuttall 72.
+   6. Head, Nuttall 20.
+   7. Probably a dog, Nuttall 3.
+   8. Aubin 9.
+   9. Glyph for day sign _Oc_.
+  10. Same.
+  11. Same.
+  12. Tro-Cortesianus 91d.
+  13. Glyph for Nahua day sign _Itzcuintli_, Aubin 9.
+  14. Tro-Cortesianus 27d.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 36]
+
+
+PLATE 37
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+DOG (_Canis_)
+
+   1. Dog bearing firebrands, Dresden 40b.
+   2. Same, Dresden 39a.
+   3. Same, Dresden 36a.
+   4. Tro-Cortesianus 88a.
+   5. Dresden 21b.
+   6. Tro-Cortesianus 24c.
+   7. Dresden 13c.
+   8. Tro-Cortesianus 37a.
+   9. Dresden 30a.
+  10. Dresden 7a.
+  11. Glyph supposed to represent a dog's ribs, Dresden 13c.
+  12. Dresden 29a.
+  13. Head, Tro-Cortesianus 91d.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 37]
+
+
+PLATE 38
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+LEAF-NOSED BAT (_Vampyrus spectrum_ or _Phyllostomus hastatus
+panamensis_)
+
+   1. Glyph, Chichen Itza, Akat 'Cib (Maudslay, III, Pl. 19.)[TN-33]
+   2. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 8).
+   3. Bat god, drawn as glyph, Copan, Stela D (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48).
+   4. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 8).
+   5. Glyph, Palenque, Temple of the Inscriptions (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 60,
+        gl. Q 1).
+   6. Glyph, Tikal (Maudslay III, Pl. 74, gl. 41).
+   7. Bat gad used as decoration on pottery, Chama (Dieseldorff, 1904).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 38]
+
+
+PLATE 39
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+MONKEY AND MISCELLANEOUS
+
+   1. Capuchin monkey (_Cebus capucinus_), Nuttall 1.
+   2. Same, Nuttall 5.
+   3. Head of same, Nuttall 38.
+   4. Nondescript animal, possibly a combination of monkey and peccary,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 88c.
+   5. Glyph, possibly representing a monkey, found in connection with
+        fig. 4.
+   6. Glyph of head of monkey, Nuttall 1.
+   7. Head of long-nosed god, Tro-Cortesianus 30a.
+   8. Head of monkey, glyph for Nahua day sign, _Oçomatli_, Aubin 9.
+   9. Long-nosed god, Tro-Cortesianus 30b.
+  10. God with head-dress, Dresden 5c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 39]
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+The following typographical errors were noted in the original text:
+
+  TN-1  279  "Yucatan Horned Ow" should read "Yucatan Horned Owl"
+  TN-2  281  "Mandslay" should read "Maudslay"
+  TN-3  284  "deRosny" should read "de Rosny"
+  TN-4  299  "connnection" should read "connection"
+  TN-5  299  "signifiance" should read "significance"
+  TN-6  299  "lightening" should read "lightning"
+  TN-7  340  "indicatd" should read "indicated"
+  TN-8  344  "Kayae" should read "Kayab"
+  TN-9  353  "(Dresden 44b, 45b, (Pl. 32, fig. 4)" Has an extra ( before
+             Pl.
+  TN-10 366  "C. hypoleucus Auct.)" should read "Auct.)."
+  TN-11 Footnote 327-†  "coasa" should read "cosas"
+  TN-12 Footnote 349-*    "for" should read "por"
+  TN-13 371  "Españales" should read "Españoles"
+  TN-14 371  "l'Améirque" should read "l'Amérique"
+  TN-15 371  "Bibliothéque" should read "Bibliothèque"
+  TN-16 372  "1895. republished" should read "1895. Republished"
+  TN-17 372  "und Maya-Handschriften:" colon should be a semi-colon
+  TN-18 Plate 2 caption  "4, 6" should have a . following
+  TN-19 Plate 8  Plate number was not printed on the page
+  TN-20 Plate 13 caption  "Pl. 82, gl. 0, 4" should read "O, 4"
+  TN-21 Plate 15 caption  "HERONS FRIGATE" should read "HERONS, FRIGATE"
+  TN-22 Plate 15 caption  "6. Heron" should have a . at the end
+  TN-23 Plate 18 caption  "8. Same as fig" should read "fig."
+  TN-24 Plate 20 caption  "flints, Nuttall" should end with a .
+  TN-25 Plate 22  The word "Plate" was incompletely printed
+  TN-26 Plate 23  "23" was missing the second digit
+  TN-27 Plate 26 caption  "Dresden 26c 27c," should have a , after 26c
+  TN-28 Plate 28 caption  "uexolot" should read "uexolotl"
+  TN-29 Plate 29 caption  "Dresden 61" was missing the . at the end
+  TN-30 Plate 32 caption  "Tro-Cortesianus 66a" was missing the . at the
+                          end
+  TN-31 Plate 32 caption  "Sela" should read "Stela"
+  TN-32 Plate 34  "PLATE 34," should not end with a comma
+  TN-33 Plate 38  "Pl. 19.)" should read "Pl. 19)."
+
+
+The following words had inconsistent hyphenation:
+
+  Blow-fly / Blowfly
+  cross-hatched / crosshatched
+  pit-fall / pitfall
+
+
+The following words had inconsistent spelling:
+
+  dechiffrement / déchiffrement
+  Fégerváry-Mayer / Fejérváry-Mayer / Fejervary-Mayer
+  Rélacion / Relacion
+  rôle / role
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Animal Figures in the Maya Codices, by 
+Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Animal Figures in the Maya Codices, by 
+Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Animal Figures in the Maya Codices
+
+Author: Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen
+
+Release Date: August 14, 2006 [EBook #19042]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+A number of typographical errors and inconsistencies have been
+maintained in this version of this book. They have been marked with a
+[TN-#], which refers to a description in the complete list found at the
+end of the text.
+
+The following codes are used for characters that are not able to be
+represented in the text format used for this version of the book.
+
+[)a]    a with breve
+[c]     open o
+[[c].]  open o with dot under
+[=h]    h with stroke
+[p.]    p with dot under
+[^q]    q with circumflex
+[vs]    s with caron
+[vs.]   s with caron and dot under
+[t.]    t with dot under
+[ts.]   ts with dot under
+[+]     Dagger
+[++]    Double dagger
+
+
+
+
+
+                   PAPERS
+                   OF THE
+  PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND
+        ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY
+
+              VOL. IV.--No. 3.
+
+
+               ANIMAL FIGURES
+                   IN THE
+                MAYA CODICES
+
+                     BY
+
+           ALFRED M. TOZZER, PH.D.
+                     AND
+           GLOVER M. ALLEN, PH.D.
+
+
+              CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
+           PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM
+               FEBRUARY, 1910
+
+
+
+
+Salem Press:
+THE SALEM PRESS CO., SALEM MASS.
+1910.
+
+
+
+
+NOTE
+
+
+It has been thought desirable, for the advancement of the study of Maya
+hieroglyphs, that the interpretation of the conventionalized animal
+figures, which so frequently occur in the Maya codices, should be
+undertaken. The Peabody Museum Committee on Central American Research
+therefore requested Dr. A. M. Tozzer to prepare a paper on the subject,
+and to secure the valuable cooperation of Dr. Glover M. Allen, a
+zoologist familiar with the animals of Mexico and Central America, to
+aid in the identification of the various species of animals which under
+varying forms are used in connection with the glyphs.
+
+While it is possible that some of the determinations given in this paper
+may require further confirmation, it is evident that the combined
+studies of Dr. Tozzer and Dr. Allen cannot fail to be useful to students
+of the Maya hieroglyphic writing.
+
+F. W. PUTNAM.
+HARVARD UNIVERSITY,
+August, 1909.
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO THE PRONUNCIATION OF MAYA WORDS
+
+
+The vowels and consonants have their continental sounds with the
+following exceptions:--
+
+  =[)a]=   like _u_ in hut
+  =ai=     like _i_ in island
+  =k=      (Beltran's _c_) ordinary palatal _k_
+  =q=      (Beltran's _k_) velar _k_
+  =[[c].]= (Beltran's _[c]_) _ts_ explosive or fortis
+  =[c]=    (Beltran's _tz_) _ts_ non-explosive
+  =[vs]=   (Beltran's _x_) like _sh_ in hush
+  =t[vs]=  (Beltran's _ch_) like _ch_ in church
+  =[ts.]=  (Beltran's _c[=h]_) _ch_ explosive
+  =[p.]=   (Beltran's _pp_) _p_ explosive
+  =t=      (Beltran's _t[=h]_) _t_ explosive
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES
+
+
+ Plate.
+   1.  Mollusca: _Fasciolaria gigantea, Oliva_.
+   2.  Insecta: Honey bee (_Melipona_).
+   3.  Insecta and Myriapoda.
+   4.  Arachnoidea, Arachnida, Crustacea.
+   5.  Myriapoda, Pisces.
+   6.  Pisces.
+   7.  Amphibia.
+   8.  Amphibia, Reptilia.
+   9.  Reptilia: Rattlesnake (_Crotalus_).
+  10.  Reptilia: Serpents.
+  11.  Reptilia: Serpents.
+  12.  Reptilia: Iguana, Lizards.
+  13.  Reptilia: Crocodile
+  14.  Reptilia: Turtles.
+  15.  Aves: Herons, Frigate-bird.
+  16.  Aves: Ocellated Turkey (_Agriocharis ocellata_).
+  17.  Aves: King Vulture (_Sarcorhamphus papa_).
+  18.  Aves: King Vulture (_S. papa_), Black Vulture (_Catharista urubu_).
+  19.  Aves: Vultures.
+  20.  Aves: Harpy Eagle (_Thrasaetos harpyia_).
+  21.  Aves: Yucatan Horned Owl (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_).
+  22.  Aves: Yucatan Horned Ow[TN-1] (_B. v. mayensis_).
+  23.  Aves: Yucatan Screech Owl (_Otus choliba thompsoni_).
+  24.  Aves: Quetzal (_Pharomacrus mocinno_).
+  25.  Aves: Blue Macaw (_Ara militaris_).
+  26.  Aves: Parrots, Turkeys.
+  27.  Aves: Miscellaneous.
+  28.  Various animals.
+  29.  Mammalia: Armadillo and miscellaneous.
+  30.  Mammalia: Deer, Hare.
+  31.  Mammalia: Yucatan Deer (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_).
+  32.  Mammalia: Yucatan Peccary (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_),
+                 Yucatan Deer (_O. yucatanensis_).
+  33.  Mammalia: Yucatan Peccary (_T. a. yucatanense_).
+  34.  Mammalia: Jaguar, Puma.
+  35.  Mammalia: Jaguar, Coyote, Bear.
+  36, 37.  Mammalia: Dog (_Canis_).
+  38.  Mammalia: Leaf-nosed Bat (_Vampyrus_ or _Phyllostomus_).
+  39.  Mammalia: Monkey (_Cebus_) and miscellaneous.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT
+
+
+ FIG.
+   1.  Top of Altar T, Copan (Mandslay,[TN-2] I. Pl. 95)             320
+
+   2.  Pottery whistle from Uloa Valley, Honduras, representing a
+       vulture. Peabody Museum Memoirs. I. No. 4, fig. 15            332
+
+   3.  }
+   4.  } Glyphs of Maya month _Moan_ showing moan-bird
+   5.  } characteristics                                             339
+   6.  }
+
+   7.  Quetzal from the bas-relief of the Temple of the Cross,
+       Palenque                                                      341
+
+   8.  }
+   9.  } Glyphs for Maya month _Kankin_ (Ribs of dogs)               364
+  10.  }
+
+  11.  }
+  12.  }
+  13.  } Glyphs for Maya month _Zotz_ (Bats)                         365
+  14.  }
+
+  15.  Pottery whistle from Uloa Valley, Honduras (Peabody Museum
+       Memoirs, I, No. 4, fig. 14), representing an ape              366
+
+  16.  }
+  17.  }
+  18.  } Glyphs for Maya day _Chuen_                                 367
+  19.  }
+
+  20.  }
+  21.  }
+  22.  } Glyphs of God C. (Schellhas, Peabody Museum Papers, IV,     368
+  23.  } No. 1)
+  24.  }
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The various peoples inhabiting Mexico and Central America in early
+pre-Columbian times were accustomed to record various events, especially
+in regard to their calendar and the religious ceremonials in relation to
+it, on long strips of skin or bark. These were usually painted on both
+sides and folded together like a screen. Several of these codices are
+still in existence from the Nahua and Zapotec areas in Mexico, but only
+three have come down to us from the Maya region which is included in the
+peninsula of Yucatan, the states of Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico, and
+portions of Guatemala and Honduras. These three manuscripts are the
+Dresden Codex in the Royal Public Library at Dresden, the
+Tro-Cortesianus (formerly considered to have been two, the Troano and
+the Cortesianus) in the National Archaeological Museum at Madrid, and
+the Peresianus in the National Library at Paris. These pre-Columbian
+manuscripts have all been published in facsimile. (See bibliography.)
+
+These remains of a once extensive literature show evidence not only of
+considerable intellectual attainments on the part of their authors but
+also of a high degree of artistic skill in the drawings and
+hieroglyphics. The frequent occurrence in these manuscripts of
+representations of animals showing various degrees of elaboration and
+conventionalization has led us to undertake the task of identifying
+these figures as far as possible and studying the uses and significance
+of the several species, a field practically untouched.[284-*]
+F�rstemann in his various commentaries on the Maya codices (1902, 1903,
+1906), Brinton (1895), and deRosny[TN-3] (1876) have only commented briefly
+upon this side of the study of the manuscripts. Seler (1904a) and some
+others have written short papers on special animals. During the
+preparation of this paper there has appeared a brief account by Stempell
+(1908) of the animals in the Maya codices. The author has, however,
+omitted a number of species and, as we believe, misidentified others. In
+making our identifications we have given the reasons for our
+determinations in some detail and have stated the characteristics
+employed to denote the several species.
+
+We have not limited ourselves entirely to the Maya manuscripts as we
+have drawn upon the vast amount of material available in the stone
+carvings, the stucco figures, and the frescoes found throughout the Maya
+area. This material has by no means been exhausted in the present paper.
+In addition to the figures from the Maya codices and a comparatively few
+from other sources in the Maya region, we have introduced for comparison
+in a number of cases figures from a few of the ancient manuscripts of
+the Nahuas and the Zapotecs to the north. The calendar of these two
+peoples is fundamentally the same as that of the Mayas. The year is made
+up in the same way being composed of eighteen months of twenty days each
+with five days additional at the end of the year. There is therefore a
+more or less close connection as regards subject matter in all the
+pre-Columbian codices of Mexico and Central America but the manner of
+presentation differs among the different peoples of this region.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[284-*] The first two parts of Dr. Seler's Treatise, "Die Tierbilder der
+mexikanischen und der Maya-Handschriften" published in the _Zeitschrift
+f�r Ethnologie_, Vol. 41, have appeared during the time when this paper
+was passing through the press. The most excellent and exhaustive
+treatment by Dr. Seler would seem to render the present paper
+unnecessary. It has seemed best, however, to continue with its
+publication inasmuch as its field is narrower and more space is devoted
+to the Maya side of the question to the exclusion of the Mexican. Dr.
+Seler, on the other hand, while by no means neglecting the Maya, has
+spent more time in explaining the Mexican figures.
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+SYNOPTIC CONSIDERATION OF THE MEANING AND OCCURRENCE OF ANIMAL FORMS
+
+
+Before taking up the different animals in the codices it may be well to
+consider some of the more common ways in which the figures occur and
+their connection with the surrounding figures.
+
+MANNER OF REPRESENTATION. The entire body of the animal may be
+represented realistically or the head alone may be shown. The animal
+head is frequently attached to a human body. The animal may appear
+conventionalized to a greater or less extent and the head in turn may
+change in the same way until only a single characteristic of the animal
+remains by which to identify it as, for example, the spots of the jaguar
+or the feathering around the eye of the macaw. In the case of the
+glyphs, a term employed to designate the regular and usually square
+characters appearing in lines or columns throughout the codices and
+inscriptions, we find both the realistic drawing and that where
+conventionalism has come in.
+
+THE TONALAMATL. The Maya codices are made up, for the most part, of the
+records of the sacred period of two hundred and sixty days, a period
+called in Nahuatl, _tonalamatl_, and other numerical calculations. The
+_tonalamatl_ was used for purposes of divination in order to find out
+whether good or bad fortune was in store for an individual. It is not
+necessary at this place to go into the different means taken to record
+this period of time or its methods of use. It may be well, however, to
+explain the usual distribution of the pictures in the codices, including
+those of animals, in connection with the representation of the
+_tonalamatl_. A normal period is shown in Dresden 6c-7c. A column of
+five day signs occurs in the middle of 6c with a single red dot over it.
+To the right of this column stretches a horizontal line of numbers
+consisting of alternate groups of black and red lines and dots. Under
+each pair of red and black numbers there is usually a human form and
+over each pair a group of four glyphs belonging to the figure below.
+Schellhas (1904) has classified the various figures of gods appearing in
+these vignettes of the _tonalamatl_ and lettered them. References
+throughout the paper will be made to the gods by letters and the reader
+is referred to Schellhas' paper. Animal figures often take the place of
+these gods as in the second picture in Dresden 7c where the screech owl
+is shown with human body. The greater number of animal figures in the
+codices occur in some connection with these _tonalamatls_.
+
+MYTHOLOGICAL ANIMALS. Where figures are shown with human body and animal
+head standing alone in the place usually occupied by one of the various
+deities in the _tonalamatl_, there can be little doubt that they have a
+mythological meaning and are to be taken, either as gods themselves, or
+as representing certain of the gods. All of the animals are by no means
+shown in this position. The screech owl, or Moan bird (as in Dresden
+10a) appears most frequently in this way. The king vulture (Dresden 8a),
+the dog (Dresden 7a), and the parrot (Dresden 40b) come next in
+descending importance. The animals represented as copulating (as in
+Dresden 13c) might also be considered as mythological animals as well as
+the full drawings of the jaguar (Dresden 8a) and the other animals when
+they occur alone in the regular vignette of the _tonalamatl_. The four
+priests in Dresden 25a-28a should also be regarded as representing, in
+all probability, the dog as a mythological animal. The idea of
+worshipping animals as gods in themselves is strengthened by noting the
+ease with which the Maya people worshipped the horse which was left
+behind by Cortes in his march from Mexico across to Honduras
+(Villagutierre, 1701, pp. 100-101).
+
+ASTRONOMICAL IDEAS. Animals frequently have a part to play in relation
+to the constellations. Throughout the codices and, to a less degree, in
+the stone carvings, we find what have usually been considered to be
+glyphs for several of the constellations. Numerous calculations in the
+codices make it clear that the Mayas had a good knowledge of astronomy.
+These glyphs are usually oblong in shape and three or more are arranged
+together end to end. We have called these the constellation bands.
+Various attempts have been made to identify these signs of the various
+constellations. Animals frequently are pictured below these bands. The
+dog with fire brands in his paws and often attached to his tail is shown
+in several places coming head downward from one of these bands (as in
+Dresden 36a). The peccary is also shown in the same position although
+the fire brands do not appear (Dresden 68a). A figure with macaw head
+occurs once standing beneath one of these bands with fire brands in his
+hands (Dresden 40b). The serpent (as in Dresden 36a), the
+lizard-crocodile-like animal in Dresden 74, the turtle (Tro-Cortesianus
+71a), the vulture (Dresden 38b), the turkey (Tro-Cortesianus 10b), and
+the deer (Tro-Cortesianus 47a) all appear in connection with these
+constellation bands. It is impossible at this time to decide upon the
+part these various animals play in relation to distinct constellations.
+In addition to the animals named, several of the gods, especially god B,
+are found below these bands. One of these signs, the one identified by
+F�rstemann as standing for Saturn, is composed of the head of the
+crocodile more or less conventionalized.
+
+F�rstemann (1902, p. 27) identifies the turtle with the summer solstice
+and the snail as the animal associated with the winter solstice. There
+does not seem to be any one animal used in connection with any one of
+the cardinal points. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c the dog seems to be
+associated with the north as shown by the glyph which is ordinarily
+regarded as connected with that direction, the ape with the west, and an
+unidentifiable bird sitting on a _Cimi_ (death) sign with the south. The
+east is connected in this place with a human figure. It should be
+stated, however, that it is not absolutely certain that the usual
+assignment of the cardinal points, each to its special direction, is
+correct. The signs for the east and west as well as those for the north
+and south may be reversed. With the exception of the assignment of the
+offering-glyphs to the various cardinal points which will be discussed
+later (p. 290) this is almost the only case where a clear relation can
+be made out between the various animals and the signs for the four
+directions. There is no definite relation as is seen, for example, in
+the Vaticanus 3773, 17, 18 where the quetzal is noted perched on the
+tree of the east, the eagle on that of the north, the humming bird on
+that of the west, and the jaguar on the tree of the south.
+
+COPULATION. The conception, the period of pregnancy, the infant baptism,
+and possibly, the naming of children are shown in both the
+Tro-Cortesianus (91-95) and the Dresden (13-23). Animals are frequently
+shown copulating with various gods or with one another. In Dresden 13c,
+the deer and god M and the vulture and the dog; in 19c, the vulture and
+a woman; in Tro-Cortesianus 91d, a god and a woman; and in 92d, an
+armadillo and a deer both with female figures. These animals probably
+represent in some way the totems of the man or woman in question and are
+shown in place of the human figure. The Lacandones, a Maya people, show
+at the present time the remains of a totemic system (Tozzer, 1907, pp.
+40-42). The deer (_Ke_) gens is found at the present time. In the
+greater number of cases where copulation is shown a god and a female
+figure are pictured. The presentation of the new-born children by women
+with bird head-dresses, also occurring in this same section of both
+manuscripts, is discussed later (p. 291).
+
+ANIMAL SACRIFICES. Various ceremonials occurring at intervals throughout
+the Maya year which included sacrifices to the gods, evidently took up a
+large part of the time of the people. Animals composed by far the major
+part of the gifts made to the gods. This was especially true in regard
+to the ceremonies occurring at the beginning of each year. According to
+the Maya calendar there were four days only which could come at the
+beginning of the year and these came in succession. Landa (1864, pp.
+210-233), the first Bishop of Yucatan, gives a minute description of the
+rites of the four years which were named according to the initial day.
+He also relates the manner in which the various animals are employed as
+offerings in these rites and also in others taking place at the
+beginning of the various months.[289-*]
+
+The rites which took place at the beginning and the end of the year are
+shown in Dresden 25-28 and in Tro-Cortesianus 34-37. The dog, the deer,
+and the turkey are the most important of the animals shown as being
+offered to the gods in this connection. It will not be necessary to
+consider these animals in detail at this place as they are each taken up
+later.
+
+OFFERINGS SHOWN BY GLYPHS. It is, however, in another connection than
+that just considered that the animals are shown as offerings far more
+frequently throughout the Maya manuscripts. In the ceremonies of the
+four years, the animals and birds are, for the most part, represented
+entire and purely as pictures. Offerings are also shown in the form of
+glyphs. These may occur in connection with the figures of the gods or in
+the lines of hieroglyphs above the pictures. When they are used in the
+former relation they are usually shown as resting in a bowl or dish
+(Dresden 35a). It frequently happens that when a god is making an
+offering represented by the entire animal or a glyph of the animal in
+the main picture, there is a corresponding glyph of the offering above
+in the line of hieroglyphics (Dresden 23b).
+
+The fish, iguana, turkey, deer and possibly the lizard are the usual
+animals shown as glyphs in this connection. The frigate bird occurs once
+in the Dresden (35a) and once in the Tro-Cortesianus (34a) as an
+offering. The dog, curiously enough, does not seem to be represented by
+an offering-glyph although he has a glyph of his own when appearing in
+other connections. The iguana and fish are shown entire although drawn
+very small; the head is the only part usually shown of the turkey and
+the haunch of venison of the deer. The head and feet of the lizard, as
+has been noted, may also be shown by a glyph. The turkey and iguana
+glyphs are very often found with a _Kan_ sign indicating an offering of
+maize and bread as well as that of the animal. In connection with glyphs
+showing various offerings of food, there is one which occurs especially
+in the Tro-Cortesianus (as in 106a). This shows a row of points
+themselves running to a point over a _Kan_ sign. This, as will be
+pointed out later (p. 318) may also represent an iguana. The jar
+containing a representation of the honey comb (as in Tro-Cortesianus
+107b) might come in here in the consideration of the offering-glyphs.
+
+In many instances the common offerings shown by glyphs are found
+associated with the signs for the four cardinal points but there does
+not seem to be any strict uniformity as to the special offering
+associated with each direction. In Dresden 29b, the lizard glyph is
+found in the same group with the sign commonly assigned to the east, the
+turkey with the south, the iguana with the west, and the fish with the
+north while in Dresden 29c, the deer is associated with the east, the
+fish with the south, the iguana with the west, and the turkey with the
+north. The iguana is usually found with the sign for the west and the
+fish with that of the south. The others vary greatly in the assignment
+of the various directions.
+
+Schellhas (1904, p. 17) considers that the fish, the lizard, "the
+sprouting kernel of maize or (according to F�rstemann, parts of a
+mammal, game)" and a vulture's head are symbols of the four elements.
+The head which Schellhas interprets as that of the vulture is certainly
+the head of a turkey. He remarks that these signs of the four elements
+appear with god B in the Dresden manuscript. Other gods, as he also
+notes, are found with these four offering-glyphs. There seems to be a
+fifth glyph, however, (as in Dresden 29b) which we have interpreted as
+that of a lizard.
+
+ANIMALS AS RAIN BEARERS. Various animals are associated with the rain
+and water. The serpent is most frequently represented in this
+connection. Snails, fish, the turtle, and the frog, as well as the
+lizard-crocodile figure in Dresden 74 are naturally found associated
+with water. The vulture-headed figure in Dresden 38b and the vulture as
+a bird in Tro-Cortesianus 10a both appear in the rain. The peccary
+(Dresden 68a), and the turkey (Tro-Cortesianus 10b) appear associated
+with the rain as well as with the constellation bands. The scorpion
+(Tro-Cortesianus 7a) encloses the rain within its legs.
+
+The connection of an old female figure occurring in many places in the
+codices with the rain will be discussed later (p. 316) when considering
+the serpent. It remains at this place to comment upon the woman in
+Tro-Cortesianus 30b from whose breasts water is flowing. She is
+represented as having animal figures seated on her two outstretched
+hands and on her right foot together with another animal at her side.
+God B sits on her left foot. This picture immediately recalls
+representations in the Mexican codices where the various parts of the
+body of a god are associated with various day signs, ten of which have
+animal names. In the Maya picture, a jaguar is shown on the right hand,
+a peccary on the left, a dog on the right foot, and a rabbit beside the
+body at her right. The peccary is not represented among the Nahua day
+signs but the other three are found, namely the _oceolotl_ (jaguar),
+_itzcuintli_ (dog), and _tochtli_ (rabbit).
+
+ANIMAL HEAD-DRESSES. Animal figures appear perhaps most frequently as
+head-dresses of the various gods in the codices. Here, as elsewhere,
+from all that can be made out, the religious character is uppermost as
+in addition to being a decoration, they undoubtedly have some religious
+signification. Birds occur by far most commonly in this connection. Both
+male and female figures seems to have these head-dresses. The same bird
+is often found as the head-dress of several different gods as, for
+example, the turkey which appears with gods A, B, C, E, and N. The
+vulture, on the other hand, when used as a head-dress for male figures,
+appears exclusively with god F. The whole bird is seldom represented on
+the head-dress of the male figures. It is usually only the head and a
+part of the body of the bird which forms but a portion of the whole
+head-covering. Landa (1864, p. 148)[292-*] notes the dress of the leader
+in the rites. He wears a jacket of red feathers worked with other
+feathers and from it hang long plumes. He also wears a feather
+head-dress.
+
+Entire birds appear as the sole head-covering only in connection with
+female figures and then only in one section of the Dresden (16-18) and a
+parallel passage in the Tro-Cortesianus (94-95). In both these places
+the conception and the bearing of children are shown together with their
+baptism. The bird above the head of each female figure seems to be a
+badge of office, possibly the totems which are held by the women and
+given to the children. The parrot, quetzal, vulture, screech owl and the
+horned owl appear in this connection. It is to be noted that the birds
+associated with these women are not really represented as head-dresses
+at all. They are quite different from the head decoration composed of a
+bird's head and feathers seen in other parts of the manuscripts. In the
+Dresden especially, these birds above the women's heads are shown in
+almost every case standing with the claws clasping the necklace at the
+back of the neck. Landa (1864, pp. 144-154) gives an interesting account
+of the method of baptising children. He also states (p. 304)[292-[+]]
+that in the month _Yaxkin_ an old woman brought the little girls to the
+general feast. This old woman was dressed in a garment of feathers. It
+was understood that this devoted old woman was not permitted to become
+intoxicated[293-*] lest she should lose in the road the plume of her
+office.
+
+The serpent appears as a head-dress exclusively with female figures and
+then usually when the woman is in the act of offering something or is
+associated with water or rain. The centipede occurs only with god D.
+Quadrupeds are employed as head-dresses only very seldom. The head of a
+deer is, in three places, used as a part of the head decoration of god M
+and the head of a jaguar appears in two places only.
+
+SECULAR OCCUPATIONS. Animals appear frequently in scenes showing various
+occupations. These, although appearing at first sight as secular, have
+to do with the religion of the people and they show in every case acts
+undertaken in behalf of the deities. It is almost exclusively in the
+Tro-Cortesianus that these religious-secular occupations are shown.
+
+Hunting scenes occur in one section of this codex (38-49). The whole aim
+of the hunt in these pages is to obtain animals for sacrifice. In almost
+every case the various animals are shown as being captured alive, either
+in a pitfall or a trap of the "jerk-up" type. This was undoubtedly in
+order that the animal might be killed the moment it was offered to the
+gods by having its heart cut out. Deer are most commonly represented in
+this hunting section although peccaries and armadillos also appear.
+Fishing is shown in one place at least (Dresden 33a).
+
+The practice of agriculture is shown in Tro-Cortesianus 24-28. The
+sprouting grain is represented as being eaten by a vulture and a jaguar.
+Certain gods in this section which relates to the planting of maize are
+shown as being attacked by vultures and blow-flies. Another occupation
+of the natives depicted in the Tro-Cortesianus (103-112) is apiculture.
+This, again, has clearly some religious significance. Pottery-making is
+shown in the same manuscript (95-101). It is, however, a purely
+religious ceremony. The renewal of the incense-burners is shown.
+Animals occur very infrequently in this section. The quetzal and two
+vultures are noted seated on top of an oven-like covering under which is
+the head of god C, probably representing the idol. There are several
+other occupations shown in this codex such as weaving (79c) and the
+gathering of the sap of the rubber tree (102b), but as animals do not
+occur in any connection with these operations, it is not necessary to
+dwell upon them.
+
+ANIMAL GLYPHS. It remains finally to speak of the various animals which
+are represented in glyph form as well as drawn in full in the pictures
+proper. The creatures pictured in the codices are often accompanied by
+their glyphs which appear in the lines of signs directly above. In many
+cases, the animal pictured below is not represented by its glyph above
+and, vice versa, the animal glyph may appear without its picture below.
+The same is seen also in connection with the representation of the gods
+and their glyphs. Both the picture and the glyph usually appear but
+either may appear alone. Many times when the glyph, either of a god or
+an animal, is shown with no accompanying picture, the reason seems to be
+that there is no room for the latter on account of the numerical
+calculations which take up all the space.
+
+There are some animals in the codices which are represented by glyphs
+very frequently. Among these are the screech owl (the Moan, the bird of
+death), which has several different glyphs by which it is recognized,
+the dog which, in addition to its own glyph, may be represented by the
+day sign _Oc_, the king vulture, the turtle, the bee (if we consider the
+day sign _Cauac_ stands for this insect), and the centipede. Among the
+animals whose glyphs only seldom appear may be mentioned the macaw, the
+peccary, the tree-toad (god P), the quetzal, and the jaguar. The glyph
+for the black vulture (Tro-Cortesianus 26c), the ape (Tro-Cortesianus
+88c), the deer (Peresianus 10), the eagle (Tro-Cortesianus 107c), and
+the serpent (Tro-Cortesianus 106c) seem to appear but once. It might
+also be well to mention in this place the glyphs for various molluscs
+which are used not to represent the shell but to give the value of zero
+to the numerical calculations.
+
+In the inscriptions glyphs frequently occur which represent animals
+either showing the whole body or simply the head. In the eastern fa�ade
+of the Monjas at Chichen Itza there are glyphs for both the king and the
+black vulture and the peccary. The macaw and the turtle seem also to be
+represented by glyphs in the inscriptions. The _Tun_ period glyph shows
+vulture-like characteristics and the _Uinal_ period glyph certainly
+resembles the lizard. The glyphs representing the various animal
+offerings have already been discussed under a special heading (p. 289).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[289-*] p. 162. "Las mugeres no usavan destos derrammamientos, aunque
+eran harto santeras; mas de todas las cosas que aver podian que son aves
+del cielo, animales de la tierra, o pescados de la agua, siempre les
+embadurnavan los rostros al demonio con la sangre dellos."
+
+p. 164. "Y otras cosas que tenian ofrecian; a algunos animales les
+sacavan el corazon y lo ofrecian, a otros enteros, unos vivos, otros
+muertos, unos crudos, otros guisados.... Que sin las fiestas en las
+quales, para la solemnidad de ellas, se secrificavan animales, tambien
+por alguna tribulacion o necessidad."
+
+p. 254. "Tenian buscados todos animales y savandijas del campo que
+podian aver y en la tierra avia, y con ellos se juntavan en el patio del
+templo en el qual se ponian los _Chaques_.... Sacavan con liberalidad
+los cora�ones a las aves y animales, y echavanlos a quemar en el fuego;
+y sino podian aver los animales grandes como tigres, leones o largartos,
+hazian los cora�ones de su encienso, y si los matavan trayanles los
+cora�ones para aquel fuego."
+
+[292-*] "Vestido salia con un jaco de pluma colorado y labrado de otras
+plumas de colores, y que le cuelgan de los estremos otras plumas largas
+y una como coroza en la cabe�a de las mesmas plumas."
+
+[292-[+]] "Y a las ni�as se les dava una vieja, vestida de un habito de
+plumas, que las traia alli y por esto la llamavan _Ixmol_, la
+allegadera.... Aquella devota vieja allegaria con que se emborachava en
+casa por no perder la pluma del officio en el camino."
+
+[293-*] "Intoxication was obligatory with the men in many of the
+religious rites. This is reported by the early Spanish historians and is
+the case at the present time among the Lacandones." (See Tozzer, 1907,
+p. 136.)
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+ZOOLOGICAL IDENTIFICATION AND ETHNOLOGICAL EXPLANATION OF ANIMAL FORMS.
+
+
+In the descriptions of the animals which follow the general plan will be
+to consider first the identification purely from a zoological point of
+view, and, secondly, the connection and, wherever possible, the meaning
+of the use of the various animal figures wherever they occur.
+
+
+MOLLUSCA
+
+FASCIOLARIA GIGANTEA. Representations of this marine shell are found in
+several places in the codices. It is the only large _Fusus_-like species
+on the western coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and, indeed, is the largest
+known American shell. It is therefore not strange that it should have
+attracted the attention of the Mayas and found a place in their
+writings. Several figures are shown that represent _Fasciolaria_ (Pl. 1,
+figs. 1-9). One in the Codex Vaticanus 3773 (Pl. 1, fig. 3) in common
+with those shown in Pl. 1, figs. 2, 6, 9, has the spire represented by
+segments of successively smaller size. The species of _Fasciolaria_
+occurring on the Yucatan and adjacent coasts is characterized by
+numerous prominent bosses or projections on its later whorls, and these,
+too, appear in conventionalized form in most of the representations. In
+Pl. 1, fig. 2, the second whorl, and in figs. 6, 9, the third whorl is
+shown with three stout tubercles in side view, corresponding to those
+found in this region of the shell. Figs. 7, 8 (Pl. 1) are glyphs
+representing the same species, but as in fig. 4, the spire is omitted,
+though the knobs are present. Round spots of color are evidently
+intended by the markings on the shells shown in figs. 3, 5, 6 (Pl. 1).
+Fig. 5, shows a further modification of the spire, which here is made
+like the head of a serpent.
+
+The _Mollusca_ in the codices are not always associated with the water
+although this is usually the case. God N (Pl. 1, fig. 1) sitting with
+the shell around his body is represented as in the rain and the shells
+in Pl. 1, figs. 4, 6, appear under water. The snail (Maya, _[vs]ot_) is
+considered by the Nahuas as the symbol of birth and death. The first
+idea is well brought out in Pl. 1, fig. 2, where the human figure is
+emerging from a shell. The same idea among the Mayas is seen in Pl. 1,
+fig. 1, where god N is coming from a shell. As god N is usually
+associated with the end of the year, we may have here the complementary
+idea of death associated with the shell. The same meaning is brought out
+in the Bologna Codex (Pl. 1, fig. 3) where the shell is decorated with
+flint points, the symbol of death. As the tortoise is often identified
+with the summer solstice, as previously pointed out, so the snail is
+associated with the winter solstice.
+
+F�rstemann's identification of the head-dress of god D (Dresden 5c), god
+A (Dresden 9c, 13a), and god E (Dresden 11c) as representing snails is
+not clear. Stempell (1908, p. 739) also follows the same course thinking
+that the knob-like prominences represent the stalked eyes of snails.
+This seems quite unlikely as such representations are usually short and
+occur in too widely dissimilar connections. Moreover, there are
+sometimes three of these instead of but a single pair (Dresden 14a). A
+similar attempt has been made by Brinton to identify the head-dress of
+the death god (god A) as the snail. The head-dress in Dresden 13a and
+13b associated with god A looks far more like the head and upper jaw of
+some mammal.
+
+OLIVA. A univalve shell frequently represented is of an oval shape,
+pointed at each end, with a longitudinal lip and a short spire at one
+extremity. This is doubtless a species of _Oliva_, a marine shell. Mr.
+Charles W. Johnson informs us that _O. reticulata_ is the species
+occurring on the Yucatan shores, while _O. splendidula_ is found in
+other parts of the Gulf of Mexico. Representations of this shell are
+shown in Pl. 1, figs. 10-12. In figs. 10, 11, the lip and spire are
+apparent but in fig. 12 the lip only is seen as a white fissure against
+the general dark background. An earthenware vessel representing a tapir
+(Pl. 28, fig. 1) shows a string of _Oliva_ shells about the animal's
+neck and similar strings very often decorate the belts worn by the
+personages represented on the stelae of Copan.
+
+The shell in the codices is found in most cases to represent zero in the
+Maya numerical calculations. Just as a bar has the meaning five, and a
+dot one, so the shell often has the signification of zero. This is seen
+especially in the numeration by position in the codices (Pl. 1, figs. 7,
+8, 10-14).
+
+OTHER MOLLUSCA. In addition to the species just described at least two
+or three others occur in the Nuttall Codex, but so conventionalized that
+it is out of the question to hazard a guess at their identity. One (Pl.
+1, figs. 16, 17) is a bivalve with long pointed shell, another (Pl. 1,
+figs. 18-20) is rounder with conventionalized scroll-like markings.
+Figs. 21, 22 (Pl. 1) may be a side view of the closed bivalve shown in
+figs. 16, 17, or possibly a species of cowry. In like manner, fig. 13 is
+probably a side view of the mollusc shown in fig. 14, for it is seen
+that in each case the figure showing the two opened valves has a
+bipartite extended foot, whereas that of the single valve is simple.
+This doubling of the single median foot of the bivalve may be an
+artistic necessity for the sake of balance, or perhaps represents both
+foot and siphon at the same end. Figs. 23, 24 (Pl. 1) seem to represent
+molluscs still further reduced and conventionalized. These molluscs from
+the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 1, figs. 15-24) are almost all found represented
+in the blue water, whereas those which stand for zero in the Maya
+codices have no immediate association with either water or rain.
+
+
+INSECTA
+
+THE HONEY BEE (_Melipona_). A portion of the Tro-Cortesianus appears to
+treat of apiculture, as previously noted, or, at all events, contains
+numerous figures of bees, some of which are shown in Pl. 2. As stated by
+Stempell (1908, p. 735) this is doubtless a species of _Melipona_,
+probably _M. fulvipes_ or _domestica_. It is well known that this bee
+was kept by the ancient Mexicans, and what appear to be improvised hives
+are shown in Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10, where the combs are noted depending
+from the ceiling or walls. These combs are seen to be composed of cells
+roughly four-sided for the most part, though in fig. 11 several
+hexagonal cells are present in the mass of comb held by the black god,
+M. Darwin, in his _Origin of Species_, has called attention to the form
+of the comb built by this bee, and considers its irregular cells of from
+three to six sides intermediate in their degree of perfection between
+those of the bumble bee (_Bombus_) and the honey bee of Europe (_Apis
+mellifica_). The _Caban_ form in connnection[TN-4] with the hive in fig.
+10 may have some phonetic signifiance[TN-5] as _kab_ is honey in Maya.
+This sign occurs very frequently in the pages devoted to apiculture.
+
+The figures of the bees in the codex show a number of interesting
+variations. In figs. 1-3, 5, 11, the insect is less conventionalized
+than in figs. 4, 6 (Pl. 2). The hairy feet are well indicated as well as
+the segmented body and a single pair of wings. All the figures show an
+anterodorsal view so that, on account of the size of the first pair of
+legs, only the tops of the second pair appear in Pl. 2, figs. 1, 3, 5.
+In fig. 2, however, two pairs are seen, and in figs. 4, 6, the
+anthropomorphic tendency is further shown by providing the insect with
+two pairs of limbs each with four or five digits, and a conventionalized
+face, eyes and mouth. In Pl. 2, fig. 1, the bee is represented without
+mouthparts but antennae only. This may indicate a drone or a queen bee
+that takes no active part in the work of gathering honey or making comb.
+Fig. 2 is perhaps the least reduced of any of the figures and shows the
+worker bee with antennae and mouthparts.
+
+The so-called "cloud balls" of the day sign _Cauac_ (Pl. 2, fig. 8) may
+represent the honey comb. _Cauac_ is usually supposed to have some
+connection with lightening[TN-6] and thunder although Valentini agrees with
+the authors in associating _Cauac_ with the bees and honey. The
+_Cauac_-like forms in Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10, have been described above as
+hives. The representation of legs in the full drawing of a bee as four
+large limbs, an anterior and a posterior pair, coupled with the method
+of drawing the insect as seen from above and in front, may have led to
+its final expression by an X-shaped mark shown in connection with the
+hives (Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10). The X is also seen in the day sign _Cauac_.
+
+Apiculture was common among the various peoples of Central America and
+Mexico. Las Casas speaks of hives of bees and Gomara states that the
+bees were small and the honey rather bitter. Clavigero (Vol. 1, p.
+68)[300-*] mentions six varieties of bees which were found in
+Mexico;--the first is the same as the common bee of Europe, the second
+differs from the first only in having no sting and is the bee of Yucatan
+and Chiapas which makes the fine clear honey of aromatic flavor. The
+third species resembles in its form the winged ants but is smaller than
+the common bee and without a sting. The fourth is a yellow bee, smaller
+than the common one but, like it, furnished with a sting. The fifth is a
+small bee without a sting which constructs hives of an orbicular form in
+subterranean cavities and the honey is sour and somewhat bitter. The
+_Tlalpipiolli_, which is the sixth species, is black and yellow, of the
+size of the common bee, but has no sting.
+
+The natives of the country at the present time often cultivate hives of
+bees in logs which they hollow out for this purpose and keep in a
+specially constructed shelter. It is, however, rather the ceremonial
+side of apiculture that is the interesting feature and this is clearly
+emphasized in the Tro-Cortesianus. The section in this manuscript (80b,
+103-112), as has been noted, is taken up almost exclusively with the
+culture of the bee and in all probability represents a definite
+religious ceremony or series of rites which are connected intimately
+with bees and honey. Landa (1864, p. 292)[300-[+]] states that in the
+month _Tzoz_ the natives prepare for a ceremony in behalf of the bees
+which takes place in the following month, _Tzec_. In the month _Mol_
+another fiesta is undertaken in behalf of these insects so that the
+gods may provide an abundance of flowers for the bees (Landa, 1864, p.
+306).[301-*]
+
+It seems clear therefore that we have represented in the pages of the
+Tro-Cortesianus referred to, the rites carried out in this connection.
+The more or less realistic drawings of the bees (Pl. 2, figs. 1-6, 9)
+represent the god of the bees and to him offerings of food and incense
+are being made. Pl. 2, fig. 11, shows the war god (M) with his eagle
+head-dress offering a mass of honey in the comb to the god of the bees.
+
+Curiously enough the bee does not seem to be represented in the Dresden
+Codex. F�rstemann's identification of the head-dress of the goddess in
+Dresden 9a as a bee does not seem to us to be correct.
+
+In addition to the bees, there occurs in the Nuttall Codex 4 (Pl. 3,
+fig. 4) a curious representation of an insect with a pointed beak-like
+structure and a spine at the posterior extremity of its human-like body.
+It is engaged in apparent conflict with a man and may represent a
+hornet.
+
+BLOW-FLY (_Sarcophaga_). Two figures in the Tro-Cortesianus (Pl. 3,
+figs. 1, 2) are of special interest since they appear to have been
+frequently regarded as picturing snakes attacking men. These are
+thick-bodied sinuous creatures distinguished by the curious conformation
+of the mouth and by a lateral row of dots that may represent the
+metameric spiracles or, as commonly, a demarcation between dorsal and
+ventral surfaces. That these are maggots of a blow-fly (_Sarcophaga_)
+there can be little doubt, not only on account of their mouth parts
+which are similar to those of the agave maggot (see later) but also
+because of their relation to God F whom they are devouring. The latter
+in fig. 1 is doubtless dead as shown by the closed eye and it is the
+habit of the blow-fly to deposit its eggs in the nasal cavity of dead
+animals as well as elsewhere on the body. The fact that in each case a
+maggot is attacking the god's nose may indicate that this habit was
+known to the artist who, consequently, shows the larvae in this
+position. In Pl. 3, fig. 2, the god's eye is not closed but his passive
+attitude while the maggot devours his hand and nose does not indicate
+that he is in full possession of his strength. In addition to the
+blow-fly, a screw-fly (_Chrysomyia_) lays its eggs on the bodies of
+animals, often on persons sleeping, and these may hatch almost at once
+into small maggots that penetrate the skin. It may be, therefore, that
+the larvae here considered belong to this genus.
+
+In addition to god F, in Tro-Cortesianus 24d, there is another
+representation of the same god being attacked by a vulture. This bird is
+evidently eating his nose. In this case the god is shown with the closed
+eye as in 27d. In Tro-Cortesianus 25d the fly seems to be attacking the
+mouth of god F. From the fact that no other god is ever found in this
+connection it may be suggested that there may be some relation between
+god F as a god of human sacrifice and the fact that his dead body is
+being eaten by blow-flies and vultures. A portion of the body of the
+person sacrificed was usually eaten by those taking part in the
+ceremony.
+
+LEPIDOPTEROUS INSECTS. In Tro-Cortesianus 28c (Pl. 3, fig. 3) is shown a
+second insect larva with curiously formed mouth parts. It is represented
+as attacking agave which is springing from the ground as shown by the
+_Caban_ signs in the codex. Hough (1908, p. 591) has shown this to be
+the larva of _Acentrocneme kollari_ Felder, "called by the Mexicans
+_guson_, and in Nahuatl _mescuillin_." This grub, he says, is white,
+about an inch long, and tunnels the fleshy leaves of the agave. It is
+greatly prized as an article of food for "_gusones_ to this day are
+collected in April, boiled, wrapped in the epidermis of the agave, sold
+on the streets of Mexico, and are eaten with avidity. To all appearances
+they are nourishing and palatable, and it is said that connoisseurs
+prefer them to oysters or swallows' nests." Hough believes "that the
+discovery of the sap-yielding quality of the agave was through search
+for these larvae."
+
+In the Nuttall Codex occur numerous representations of insects, some of
+which appear to represent butterflies or moths (Pl. 3, figs. 5-8) but
+these are quite unidentifiable. That shown in fig. 6 is colored blue in
+the original, while the others are of various colors. Possibly the round
+markings on the wings in figs. 5, 8, represent the ocelli on the wings
+of certain species of moths. In this connection, too, it is interesting
+to compare the conventionalized butterfly with its single eye and
+pointed antennae from the Aubin manuscript (Pl. 3, fig. 9) with one
+drawn on the same plan from the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 3, fig. 8).
+
+
+MYRIAPODA
+
+Representations of a centipede (probably a species of _Scolopendra_)
+occur in the Dresden Codex and in several others examined. That shown in
+Pl. 5, fig. 1, from the Vaticanus 3773, is perhaps the least
+conventionalized.[303-*] This figure appears partly to encircle a
+temple, behind which the major portion of its length is hidden and hence
+is not here shown. The bipartite structure coming from the animal's head
+doubtless represents the mouthparts, and at its base on either side
+arise antennae. The first pair only of legs is shown with a pinching
+claw, possibly intended as a conventionalized hand, while the rest are
+simple. The plumes decorating the posterior extremity are of course
+extraneous and represent the tail of the quetzal or trogon.
+
+In the Dresden Codex, god D constantly appears in connection with a
+head-dress from which depends a centipede, greatly reduced and
+conventionalized. Two forms of this centipede are shown in Pl. 3, figs.
+15, 18. The body appears to consist of four or five segments each with
+its pair of ambulatory appendages (though there may not always be the
+same number of each) terminated by a circular segment with a
+conventionalized three-knobbed structure, apparently corresponding to
+the portion that bears the quetzal plume in Pl. 5, fig. 1. The outline
+of the head in Pl. 3, fig. 15, is shown in dotted line but by solid line
+in fig. 18. One of the antennae appears to be omitted from the former
+figure, also, but both are present in the latter. The insect-like head
+is made on much the same plan as that of the bee (Pl. 2, fig. 11), the
+facial portion divided by a median line into a right and a left half
+with a small triangle below for a mouth. The eyes, however, instead of
+being circular like those of the bee are made as narrow elongated
+projections extending inward from the dorsal margin of the facial disc.
+
+The glyphs for god D in Dresden 7b (Pl. 3, fig. 11), Dresden 7c, and
+Dresden 14b (Pl. 3, fig. 12) undoubtedly show three forms of the sign
+for god D, only one of which (fig. 12) is given by Schellhas (1904, p.
+22) among the signs of this god. In each of these cases the centipede
+head surrounded by dots is shown in connection with the main part of the
+glyph. In Dresden 44b (Pl. 3, fig. 13) there is a glyph which seems to
+show the same centipede head although it has no connection with god D in
+the place where it is found. In Dresden 27 (Pl. 3, fig. 14), moreover,
+still another variant of the glyph for god D seems to occur. This shows
+a prefix clearly representing the centipede and the "moon sign" is the
+main part of the glyph. Directly beside this in the codex is found the
+_Ahau_-like sign for god D and god D himself is represented in the
+middle section of the page.
+
+The association of god D with the centipede may be explained by the fact
+that as this god is regarded as the Moon or Night god, so the centipede
+is an animal which frequents dark places. Another point in this
+connection may be made if we consider the head of the centipede in the
+head-dress and in the glyphs as representing the day sign _Akbal_ (Pl.
+3, fig. 10) as _Akbal_ in Maya means night. It must be admitted,
+however, that the head might represent the day sign _Chuen_ almost as
+well as _Akbal_. The centipede is connected with death and destruction
+in the same way as the owl. Both are shown in Vaticanus 3773, 13,
+associated with the "house of drought."
+
+
+CRUSTACEA
+
+With one possible exception no crustaceans were found depicted in the
+Maya codices, but we have introduced figures of two from the Nuttall
+Codex. The first of these (Pl. 4, fig. 5) is probably a crayfish,
+perhaps _Cambarus montezumae_. It seems unlikely that the so-called
+Spanish lobster (_Palinurus_) can be intended or the powerful spined
+antennae would have been shown. It is interesting to note that the
+stalked eyes are clearly pictured. The second example seems to be a crab
+(Pl. 4, fig. 6). Two large chelae of nearly equal size are simply drawn
+and four rounded projections at the top of the figure appear to
+represent the walking legs. Its rotund form and subequal chelae suggest
+the land crab, _Geocarcinus_, but exact determination is of course
+impossible. What is certainly a large crab, perhaps of the same species,
+is shown in Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 36, fig. 1) in connection with a
+dog whose feet it seems about to pinch with its two large chelae. The
+shell is ornamented in a conventionalized way as if with scales.
+
+
+ARACHNIDA
+
+In Codex Borbonicus 9 (Pl. 4, fig. 4) there is represented a
+stout-bodied form of spider with two sharply pointed chelicerae
+projecting from the conventionalized mouth. These characteristics
+together with the absence of any web, suggest a large predacious
+species, probably the tarantula (_Tarantula_ sp.) which is common in
+Mexico. The acute powers of observation shown by the artist are evinced
+in this figure since he draws the spider correctly with eight legs
+instead of the six or ten sometimes seen in drawings by our own
+illustrators.
+
+
+ARACHNOIDEA
+
+The scorpion (Maya, _sinaan_) figures prominently in the
+Tro-Cortesianus, two drawings from which are shown (Pl. 4, figs. 1, 2).
+As here conventionalized, the jointed appendages are represented as
+composed of an indefinite number of round segments. The large chelate
+pedipalps are also prominently figured but the smaller walking legs are
+commonly omitted. In Pl. 4, fig. 1, however, there is a pair of
+posterior chelate appendages which are probably added to give a more
+anthropoid cast to the figure. The slight projections along the sides of
+the body in Pl. 4, fig. 2, probably do not represent the legs. In
+another drawing (Tro-Cortesianus 44b) these are also present but further
+reduced so as not to exceed the heavy fringe of spines surrounding the
+body. In Pl. 4, fig. 1, the fringe alone appears. The formidable nature
+of the scorpion is of course due to the poisonous sting at the tip of
+the attenuated abdomen or "tail." In the Maya pictures this portion is
+usually shown as a grasping organ. Thus in fig. 1 it is similar to the
+chela and holds a cord by which a deer has been caught. In fig. 2 the
+"tail" is terminated by a hand. The same thing is seen in
+Tro-Cortesianus 44b where the hand seizes a cord by which a deer is
+snared. The scorpion is represented in the drawings with a
+conventionalized face that is very characteristic. The facial disc is
+divided into three parts by a median area of straight or irregular
+lateral boundaries ending anteriorly in two in-turned scrolls suggesting
+the alae of the nose. A circular eye is present in each of the lateral
+divisions of the face while from the oral region projects a forked
+tongue.
+
+It is of course hazardous to attempt a specific identification of these
+figures but, as pointed out by Stempell (1908, p. 739), there are two
+large scorpions in Yucatan (_Centruroides margaritatus_ and _C.
+gracilis_) which are probably the species pictured in the codices.
+
+The representations of the scorpion in the Tro-Cortesianus are almost
+always associated with scenes of the hunt. As the deer is caught in a
+trap so F�rstemann considers that Pl. 4, fig. 1, shows a trap with five
+appliances, the "tail" one alone being effective. Brinton (1895, p. 75)
+notes that the Mayas applied the term _sinaan ek_, "scorpion stars" to a
+certain constellation and suggests that it was derived from the
+Spaniards. There is certainly some association between the scorpion and
+water as, in Tro-Cortesianus 7a, the fore and hind legs of the animal
+enclose a body of water. The scorpion "tail" alone appears in
+Tro-Cortesianus 31a and 82a as the tail of a god. Its significance is
+difficult to make out. Destruction is indicated by the scorpion in the
+Aubin manuscript as suggested by Seler (1900-1901, p. 71).
+
+In the Nuttall Codex there is a remarkably beautiful conventionalization
+of a scorpion (Pl. 4, fig. 3) in which the tripartite nature of the head
+is still preserved though it is so reduced as to resemble the calyx of a
+flower. The "tail", as elsewhere, and the legs are present.
+
+
+PISCES
+
+Figures of fish (Maya _kai_) occur commonly in the Maya codices in
+various connections as well as in the stone carvings, but none of these
+seems certainly identifiable. Among the representations, however, there
+are clearly several species. One (Pl. 5, figs. 2, 6, 7-9; Pl. 6, fig. 9)
+has a single dorsal fin, powerful teeth, and a generally ferocious
+aspect and may represent some large predacious variety, perhaps a tunny.
+The distinct operculum in most of the figures would preclude their
+representing a shark. Other figures picture similar fish without the
+prominent teeth (Pl. 5, fig. 4, 5; Pl. 6, figs. 2, 6, 10, 13). In two
+cases the scales are diagramatically shown by straight or crescentric
+lines (Pl. 5, fig. 4, 8). A third species of fish is shown provided with
+two dorsal fins (Pl. 6, figs. 3, 11; Pl. 7, fig. 6, the last an
+excellent stone carving). Others (Pl. 6, figs. 7, 14-17) represent
+fishes without dorsal fins, one of which (fig. 7) from its length may be
+an eel, possibly _Muraena_.
+
+In the Nuttall Codex occurs a remarkable fish with an unmistakable wing
+arising just behind the head nearly at the dorsal line. While this may
+represent a flying fish (_Exocetus_), the head is so bird-like that the
+whole may be merely a combination figure.
+
+Of frequent occurrence in the Dresden is a glyph, two modifications of
+which are here shown (Pl. 6, figs. 4, 5). Stempell suggests that the
+vertical lines on the posterior portion of such figures may be gill
+slits and that hence they may represent sharks in which these orifices
+are without an operculum.
+
+As with the molluscs, so with the fish, we naturally find them usually
+associated with the water. This may be seen especially well in the
+Nuttall Codex. In Dresden 33a (Pl. 6, fig. 13) the fish is clearly
+associated with the operation of fishing as two figures are seated on
+the edge of a body of water in the act of casting a net. An eel is shown
+in the water under god B in Dresden 65b (Pl. 6, fig. 7) and fish are
+shown just below the claws of a crocodile in text figure 1. In Dresden
+44a god B holds a fish in his hands. As will be pointed out later (p.
+314) this god is frequently associated with water. In Dresden 44c a fish
+appears between god B and an unidentifiable deity. In the Maya codices
+the greater number of representations of fish are in connection with
+sacrifice. In Dresden 27 (Pl. 6, fig. 6) the fish is pictured resting on
+two _Kan_ signs, the symbol of maize or bread, and these in turn on a
+flat bowl. In Dresden 29b (Pl. 5, fig. 9) the fish is represented
+between the red and black numbers of the _tonalamatl_. Here again the
+fish is shown as an offering.
+
+In two cases only do we find the fish used as a part of the head-dress
+and in each case the fish is graphically shown as held in the mouth of a
+heron. One of these is in the Dresden Codex 36b (Pl. 5, fig. 3) and one
+in the stone carving of the Temple of the Cross at Palenque (Pl. 15,
+fig. 5). Fish are often represented on the stone carvings as feeding
+upon a water plant. This is seen in the border at the bottom of the
+Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza (Pl. 5, figs.
+2, 4; Pl. 6, fig. 2). In several instances at Copan fish are shown as
+forming the sides of the Great Cycle glyph at the beginning of an
+Initial Series (Pl. 6, figs. 14-17). It has often been suggested that as
+the word fish in Maya is _kai_ (usually written _cay_), there may be
+some phonetic significance here, combining the fish, _kai_, with the
+usually drum-like sign for stone, _tun_, making _kai tun_ or _katun_.
+This is the term usually given not to the Great Cycle but to the period
+composed of twenty _tuns_ and is probably derived from _kal_ meaning
+twenty and _tun_, a stone.
+
+
+AMPHIBIA
+
+FROGS. Figures undoubtedly representing frogs (Maya _mut[vs]_ or _uo_)
+or toads are found in several places in the codices and in the stone
+carvings, but it is quite impossible to refer them definitely to any of
+the numerous species occurring in Central America, if, indeed, the
+artists had any one species in mind. In the Tro-Cortesianus frogs are
+not uncommon. In 31a there are four (Pl. 7, fig. 1) with water coming
+from their mouths. They are characterized by their stout tailless
+bodies, flattened heads and toothless mouths. In 101d (Pl. 7, figs. 2,
+3) there are two, the first painted blue with spots of darker blue and
+the second white and represented as broken in two in the middle. The
+signs of death above the latter clearly show that a dead animal is
+indicated. Pl. 7, fig. 6, shows the end of Altar O from Copan on which a
+frog and a fish are pictured, the former in dorsal view, the latter in
+lateral aspect. The peculiar pointed snout of this frog is similar to
+that of the frog shown in Pl. 7, fig. 7, also in dorsal view. A somewhat
+similar creature (Pl. 29, fig. 6) we have included and though it may
+represent an opossum it has little to distinguish it from the figures of
+frogs.[309-*]
+
+God B in Tro-Cortesianus 12b should be associated with the frog. His
+legs are those of a frog and he appears as if swimming in the water.
+Frog in Maya is _Uo_ which is also the name of the second month of the
+Maya year. The first day of this month, according to Landa, corresponds
+to August 5 of our year and this is the height of the rainy season in
+the Maya region. The sign for _Uo_ does not, however, resemble a frog in
+any way. The frog above one of the figures in the Lower Chamber of the
+Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza (Pl. 7, fig. 7) has clearly some
+relation to the name or totem of the warrior. The Nahua custom is seen
+here.
+
+Toads are probably intended in Pl. 7, figs. 4, 5. In these the great
+breadth of the head and mouth together with the short inflated body
+combine to produce a very toad-like appearance. It is not unlikely that
+they represent the huge marine toad, _Bufo marinus_, common from
+southern Mexico to Brazil and in the West Indies. There seems to be no
+distinction in the treatment of frogs and toads in the codices.
+
+TREE-TOAD (_Hyla eximia_). Of great interest are the figures in
+Tro-Cortesianus 26a and b (Pl. 8, figs. 1, 3), showing a god with
+expanded finger tips and characterized further by the presence of two
+parallel black stripes from the hinder and lower margins of the eye
+respectively. The knob-like finger tips at once suggest one of the
+tree-toads, and the presence of the two lines seems to indicate _Hyla
+eximia_ as the species represented. In this tree-toad there is a long
+black lateral line running posteriorly from the tympanum and above it a
+shorter line just as in the drawings. It appears to be a common species
+in the valley of Mexico though but little seems to have been written of
+its habits. At the beginning of the rainy season it repairs to pools of
+water to breed and is then very noticeable from its loud voice. No doubt
+its importance in the Maya economy was from its conspicuousness at the
+beginning of the rainy period. This fact is brought out more strongly
+when we consider that these gods representing the tree-toad are
+associated with agriculture and the sowing of grain at the beginning of
+the rainy season. F�rstemann (1902, p. 35) identifies these figures as
+god F. They are quite unlike the usual representation of this god and
+are clearly god P as Schellhas (1904, p. 39) indicates. It is
+interesting to note that the two black lines behind the eye are also
+seen in the other gods shown in Tro-Cortesianus 26a and b although the
+knob-like finger tips are lacking. The glyph for this tree-toad god is
+recognized in the fifth place at the top of the same page (Pl. 8, fig.
+2) by the same two black lines under and behind the eye.
+
+
+REPTILIA
+
+SERPENT. It would be impossible in the present paper to enter into any
+lengthy discussion of the use of the serpent (Maya _kan_) in Mexico and
+Central America. It seems to be one of the main elements in the religion
+and consequently in the art of the Mayas and Mexican peoples. It is
+represented again and again in many forms and varied combinations. It
+underlies the whole general trend of Maya art. The serpent is often
+associated with feathers. The culture hero of the Nahuas,
+_Quetzalcoatl_ (feathered serpent) corresponds to a similar god among
+the Mayas, _Kukulcan_ (also meaning feathered serpent). The feathers of
+the quetzal are the ones commonly used in connection with the serpent.
+
+Any attempt at identification of the species represented is beset by
+grave difficulties for so conventionalized have the figures often become
+that, except in the case of the rattlesnake with its rattles, there are
+no characteristic marks by which the species may be known. It is natural
+to suppose that the species used for artistic purposes would be those
+that are most noteworthy because of their size, coloring, or venomous
+qualities. No doubt a number of harmless species were also used in the
+religious ceremonies.[311-*] Such may be those used as hair ornaments in
+many of the figures (Pl. 8, figs. 7-13, 15) and in which no indication
+of a rattle is to be seen. The fierce eye of these reptiles is shown by
+means of an exaggerated overhanging brow occasionally embellished by
+recurved crests (Pl. 8, figs. 10, 11, 13, 15). These crests are
+sometimes shown as two or three stalked knobs (Pl. 10, fig. 7) that
+Stempell was misled into identifying as the eyes of snails. Various
+heads of snakes usually with fangs exposed and tongue protruding are
+pictured in Pl. 8, figs. 4, 6; Pl. 9, figs. 2, 4-6: one snake with a
+spiny back is shown in Pl. 8, fig. 5, but obviously it represents merely
+the artist's endeavor to present as terrifying a creature as possible.
+
+Various types of rattlesnakes are shown in Pl. 9. The presence of the
+rattle is of course the characteristic, and this portion alone is
+likewise used, in one case, at least, as a glyph (Pl. 9, fig. 7). It
+cannot be denied, however, that some or most of the snakes in which no
+rattles appear, are nevertheless intended for rattlers. It may have been
+that the figures were so well understood that the addition of rattles in
+the drawings was quite unnecessary. This, however, is quite conjectural.
+The species of rattlesnake is probably _Crotalus basiliscus_ or _C.
+terrificus_ of southern Mexico and adjacent regions, not _C. horridus_
+or _adamanteus_ as supposed by Stempell since these two species are
+confined to the United States. Among the figures shown on Pl. 9, it is
+noteworthy that five of the rattlesnakes show no fangs. Some are
+spotted, but in a wholly arbitrary manner. Three are unmarked. One is
+shown coiled about the base of a tree (Pl. 9, fig. 5), another coiled
+ready to strike though the rattle is pictured trailing on the ground
+instead of being held erect in the center of the coil as usually is done
+(Pl. 9, fig. 9). A rattlesnake is shown held in the hand of a man in Pl.
+9, fig. 8.
+
+In Pl. 10, fig. 1, is shown a rattle-less snake with prominent fang,
+coiled about the top of an altar which may represent a tree or bush.
+From the latter fact, it might be concluded that it was a tree or
+bush-inhabiting species, possibly the deadly "bush-master" (_Lachesis
+lanceolatus_). Other figures (Pl. 10, figs. 3, 7; Pl. 11, figs. 1, 2)
+are introduced here as examples of the curious head ornamentation
+frequently found in the drawings. The two first are merely serpents with
+the jaws extended to the utmost, and with a characteristic head
+decoration. The last is provided with an elaborate crest. The size and
+markings of the two serpents shown in Pl. 11, as well as their want of
+rattles suggest that they may represent some species of large _Boidae_
+as _Loxocemus bicolor_ or _Boa_ (sp?).
+
+After having commented upon the various serpents occurring in the
+codices and in several other places, we will now take up the manner and
+connection in which the various figures occur. We shall pass over
+completely the use of the "serpent column" at Chichen Itza, the
+importance of the serpent motive in the development of the masked panel
+as worked out by Spinden, and the countless representations of the
+plumed serpent in the whole field of Maya design and decoration. In the
+single Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza, the feathered serpent
+occurs in the round as a column decoration supporting the portico, as
+carved on the wooden lintel at the entrance to the Painted Chamber,
+again and again on the frescoes of this room,[313-*] in the Lower
+Chamber as dividing the bas-relief into zones or panels, and, finally,
+as the center of the whole composition of this bas-relief. It will be
+seen, therefore, that it will be necessary in a short paper, to limit
+ourselves to the representations of the serpent in the Maya codices.
+
+The serpent is most frequently associated with god B. Schellhas (1904,
+p. 17), Fewkes (1894), F�rstemann (1906), and Thomas (1882), seem to
+agree that god B is to be identified as _Kukulcan_, the most important
+of the deities of the Mayas and, as pointed out before, appearing in the
+Nahua mythology, as _Quetzalcoatl_, and in the Quiche myths as
+_Gucumatz_. It was also noted that the name means both in Maya and in
+Nahuatl, the "feathered serpent" or the "bird serpent." Other
+authorities consider god B as _Itzamna_, another of the main gods of the
+Mayas. Seler interprets god B as the counterpart of the Nahua rain god,
+_Tlaloc_. It is certain that when god B and the serpent are associated
+together water and rain are usually indicated. God H, "the _Chicchan_
+god," also has some relation to the serpent. As pointed out by Schellhas
+(1904, pp. 28-30), this god often appears characterized by a skin-spot
+or a scale of the serpent on his temple of the same shape as the
+hieroglyph of the day _Chicchan_ (serpent). The glyph belonging to this
+deity also shows the _Chicchan_ sign as its distinguishing mark. Similar
+signs appear on the body of the serpent in many places, as in
+Tro-Cortesianus 30a (Pl. 11, fig. 1).
+
+We have already noted that the serpent, god B, and water are frequently
+shown together, so the serpent also appears associated with water and
+rain, when no figure of god B is present. From this connection, it can
+be argued that there is some relation between the serpent and the coming
+of the rains. These facts would give strength to the theory that god B
+is to be identified as a rain god. In Dresden 33a, 35a, god B is seated
+on the open jaws of a serpent, while the body of the reptile encloses a
+blue field evidently signifying water. The number nineteen appears on
+this blue color. It will be noted that there are nineteen spots on the
+serpents in Pl. 11, figs. 1, 2. In Tro-Cortesianus 3a-6a, corresponding
+scenes seem to be shown. The body of the serpent encloses water, and
+here the number eighteen appears in each case. God B occurs always in
+front of the serpent and his head appears as the head of the reptile in
+the first instance. In Dresden 35a, 36a, the head of god B is pictured
+as the head of the serpent in the midst of the water. In Dresden 37b
+(Pl. 10, fig. 8), B is holding a snake in the water.
+
+Water appears in connection with the serpent and god B in many places in
+the Tro-Cortesianus. In 9, god B is pictured pouring water from a jar, a
+common method of showing the idea of rain in the codices. In 12b, B
+again is shown perhaps representing a frog, and behind him a serpent.
+The reptiles in 13b-18b, are all associated with the idea of rain, the
+turtle and frog also appearing in this section. In 30a (Pl. 11, fig. 1),
+god B and a female figure are both pouring water from a jar, as they
+stand on the body of a serpent. In 32a, the black god (L) is seen in the
+rain, and a serpent is near, while in 32b and 33b (Pl. 9, fig. 1), the
+serpent forms the belt of god L, and a female figure and water are seen
+in both cases. The blue color of the snake and of god B in 31b (Pl. 11,
+fig. 2) may also suggest water.
+
+God B also occurs in connection with the serpent in Dresden 42a (Pl. 8,
+fig. 14), where the god is seated on the reptile, in Tro-Cortesianus,
+10b, where the head of the same god is the head of the snake, and in
+Tro-Cortesianus 19a, where god B again and god A are each seated on the
+open jaws of a serpent.
+
+The astronomical role of the serpent is noted in Dresden 56b, 57b (Pl.
+10, fig. 3), Tro-Cortesianus 5b, 12b, 15b, and 67b, where the snake is
+shown in connection with a line of constellation signs, the _kin_ or sun
+sign prominent in most of the drawings. In the "battle of the
+constellations" in Dresden 60, the serpent appears forming a sort of
+altar, the seat of a figure which is supported by another figure. A
+serpent head also appears at the foot of the latter figure.
+
+That the serpent appears associated with the idea of time seems clear
+from the fact of the long number series in Dresden 61, 62 (Pl. 10, fig.
+7), and 69, which are shown in the spaces made by the winding of the
+serpents' bodies. In Tro-Cortesianus 13a-16a, four large reptiles appear
+in connection with the lines of day signs.
+
+The study of the serpent used as a head-dress is interesting. As noted
+previously, quite a different kind of snake seems to be represented when
+used in this connection. Two other points come out in this
+investigation, namely, that it is only with female figures that the
+serpent is employed as a head-dress, and in far the greater number of
+cases the women are shown, either in the act of offering something, or
+of pouring water from a jar. The usual type of serpent head-dress is
+seen in Dresden 9c (Pl. 8, fig. 11), 15b (Pl. 8, fig. 12), 18a (Pl. 8,
+fig. 13), 22b (Pl. 8, fig. 10), and 23b (Pl. 8, fig. 8). In the first
+case, the offering is a jicara or gourd of some sacred drink
+(_balt[vs]e_?), in the second and third examples, the dish is clearly
+shown, but the offering is unidentifiable, in the fourth case, maize (a
+_Kan_ sign), and in the last, a fish resting on a dish. In Dresden 20a
+(Pl. 8, fig. 15), a woman with serpent head-dress is seen associated
+with the Moan-headed figure, possibly in the act of offering it as a
+sacrifice.
+
+In Dresden 39b (Pl. 8, fig. 7), 43b (Pl. 8, fig. 9), and 70, a similar
+serpent head-dress is shown on a female figure in the act of pouring
+water from a jar. In Tro-Cortesianus, the serpent head-dresses differ in
+type only, and in two out of the four cases where they appear, water is
+shown flowing from the breasts (30b) of the female figure or from the
+mouth (32b). The woman thus represented in connection with the water is
+god I, the water goddess of Schellhas. She is, as he notes (1904, p. 31)
+usually the figure of an old woman. "Evidently, we have here the
+personification of water in its quality of destroyer, a goddess of
+floods and cloud-bursts." We are not at all sure that we have here a
+distinct god as similar female figures with serpent head-dresses occur
+frequently in the Dresden Codex with no suggestion of water. The failure
+to find any distinct glyph for this goddess seems to strengthen the view
+of not considering her as a separate deity. Finally, in our
+consideration of head-dresses, the serpent is to be seen in
+Tro-Cortesianus 79c on the head of the first woman who is weaving.
+Possibly, a conventionalized serpent forms the head covering of the
+second figure who is represented as dead.
+
+The serpent in Dresden 26c-28c (Pl. 10, fig. 1) coiled around the altar
+which rises from a _Tun_ sign is not easily explained. In 25c, the altar
+is replaced by god B and in the former cases, the reptiles may stand for
+this god with whom they are often associated.[316-*] The serpent seems
+closely connected with the idea of offerings as the body of a snake is
+shown in several instances as the support of the jar containing the
+various gifts in Tro-Cortesianus 34a, 34b, 35a, 35b, 36a, 36b, and
+possibly 52c (Pl. 9, fig. 3).
+
+Finally the serpent is to be noted in a number of miscellaneous
+connections:--in Dresden 36b (Pl. 19, fig. 11), as being attacked by a
+black vulture,[317-*] in Tro-Cortesianus 40b (Pl. 9, fig. 4) a
+rattlesnake is biting the foot of one of the hunters, and in
+Tro-Cortesianus 66b, where the serpent has a human head and arm coming
+from its open jaws. This is a very frequent method of representing the
+serpent in the Maya stone carvings. In Tro-Cortesianus 60c, 100d (Pl. 9,
+fig. 8), twice, 106a, and 111b, the rattlesnake is shown as a sprinkler
+for the holy water in the hand (in the first, second and fourth
+examples) of god D. Landa (1864, p. 150)[317-[+]] describes in the
+ceremony of the baptism of children, that the leader of the rite wore on
+his head a kind of mitre embroidered with plumage in some manner and in
+his hand a small holy-water sprinkler of wood, carved skillfully, of
+which the filaments were the tails of serpents, similar to serpents with
+rattles.
+
+In spite of the importance of the serpent in the manuscripts and stone
+carvings, it never seems to appear as a separate deity. With one
+exception, no glyph is to be found representing this reptile as is the
+case with many of the animals. Tro-Cortesianus 106c (Pl. 9, fig. 7) is
+this exception showing the rattles of a snake which are found in the
+line of glyphs above two of the bees. No serpent appears in the picture.
+
+The Nahuatl day, _Couatl_, has the signification serpent, as suggested
+before, in discussing the meaning of the name _Quetzalcoatl_ or
+_Quetzalcouatl_. This day sign occurs throughout the Mexican
+manuscripts as the head of a serpent (Pl. 8, figs. 4, 6; Pl. 9, fig. 2;
+Pl. 10, figs. 2, 4-6).
+
+IGUANA. Of the lizards represented, the iguana (Maya _hu_) is the most
+striking, and is readily identified on account of the prominent spines
+along the back. As noted by Stempell, there are two or three species of
+large lizards in Central America commonly called iguana, and it is
+probable that the one here considered is the _Ctenosaura acanthura_ of
+Yucatan or _Iguana tuberculata_ of South and Central America.
+
+In the manuscripts the iguana is almost exclusively represented as an
+offering (Pl. 12, figs. 1-6). It is usually found on top of the _Kan_
+sign, meaning maize or bread,[318-*] and this, in turn, resting in a
+bowl (Pl. 12, figs. 3, 4, 6). Landa (1864, p. 230)[318-[+]] gives a
+pleasing confirmation of this offering of an iguana with bread. It is
+possible that the object shown in Tro-Cortesianus 12b (Pl. 12, fig. 13)
+may be the conventionalized representation of this lizard. It must be
+admitted that this interpretation is very doubtful. The triangular
+points suggest the lizard, but the pointed character of the sign as a
+whole in no way resembles the back of this reptile. It is found
+associated with three _Kan_ signs. In Cakchiquel, a dialect of the Maya
+stock, _K'an_, according to Guzman and Brinton (1893, p. 24) is the name
+applied to the female of the iguana or the lizard, and this is believed
+to be the original sense of the Maya term. It may also be noted that the
+Nahua day sign _Cuetzpalin_, meaning lizard, is the one which
+corresponds with the Maya day _Kan_. Pl. 12, figs. 10, 12, 14, show
+representations of the day corresponding to _Cuetzpalin_ in the Aubin
+and Nuttall codices. These show a stout spineless species with a short
+thick tail and may be the Gila monster (_Heloderma horridum_), a large
+and somewhat poisonous species having much these proportions.
+
+Further offerings are shown in Pl. 12, figs. 7, 8. These seem to be the
+heads and forefeet of lizards, but, from the shape of the head, perhaps
+not of iguanas.
+
+In Stela D of Copan, the _Uinal_ period glyph seems to be represented by
+a spineless lizard covered with scales (Pl. 12, fig. 9). Frog-like
+characteristics also appear. This stone monument is remarkable from the
+fact that the glyphs are all more or less realistic representations of
+human and animal forms. It should be noted that there certainly seems to
+be some connection between the _Uinal_ period glyph and the lizard. Pl.
+13, fig. 9, represents a _Uinal_ glyph from the Temple of the Foliated
+Cross at Palenque and the lizard form is clearly seen in the eyebrow and
+the upper jaw. Compare also Pl. 13, fig. 11, and Pl. 28, fig. 3. A
+collection of glyphs of this period shows clearly the lizard-like
+character of the face.
+
+That some connection existed between the lizard and the idea of rain
+seems clear from a reference in the _Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida_
+(1900, p. 51).[319-*] Finally the lizard is shown in Dresden 3a (Pl. 12,
+fig. 11) directly in front of god H beside the scene of human sacrifice.
+
+CROCODILE. The text figure (1) shows a dorsal view of a crocodile (Maya,
+_ayin_) carved on the top of Altar T at Copan. The general form is
+considerably conventionalized with limbs elongated and provided with
+human hands and long toes. The protuberances of the back are roughly
+shown by oval markings, which are here continued on the legs. The large
+scales of the ventral surfaces also appear at the sides of the body, and
+along the posterior edges of the limbs. The tail is shortened and
+bifurcate. The most interesting portion, however, is the head. The snout
+is distinctly pinched in at the base, though broadened again distally.
+In the alligator the snout is broad and tapers but little. As in other
+representations of the crocodile, the lower jaw does not appear, and
+even in this dorsal view the artist seems to have deemed it necessary to
+show the row of teeth as if in side view, or as though they projected
+laterally from the mouth. What may represent ears or ear plugs are shown
+one on each side behind the eyes. There are few other examples of full
+drawings of the crocodile in the Maya writings. Dresden 74 shows an
+animal which has been considered to represent a crocodile or alligator
+but it seems to have more of the characteristics of a lizard.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.
+TOP OF ALTAR. T. COPAN.]
+
+Figures of a crocodile (_Crocodilus americanus_) are frequent in the
+Nuttall Codex, where there is one large figure of the entire animal (Pl.
+13, fig. 8), making its way along under water. It is shown with numerous
+dorsal spines, a long tail, and powerful claws. Curiously, however, it
+has no lower jaw and the same is true of the numerous glyphs
+representing the head of the animal. This is so pronounced a
+characteristic, that it may be doubted if the open-mouthed head and the
+single limb shown in Pl. 13, fig. 2, really picture the same animal,
+though otherwise apparently referable to the crocodile. In the various
+glyphs showing the head of this species, the prominent, elongate eyebrow
+and the absence of the lower jaw are noteworthy points, while the teeth
+may vary in number from three to six.
+
+The glyphs (Pl. 13, figs. 1, 3-7) represent the Nahua day sign
+_Cipactli_ corresponding to the Maya day _Imix_. In the band of
+constellation signs in Dresden 52b (Pl. 13, fig. 10), there occurs a
+single figure with a long curled eyebrow and lacking the lower jaw. In
+the upper jaw three teeth are indicated. A comparison of this figure
+with the glyphs in the Nuttall Codex seems to leave little doubt that it
+represents a crocodile. This is the sign which F�rstemann (1906, p. 206)
+interprets as standing for Saturn. Pl. 13, fig. 12, is certainly the
+same sign as it stands in relatively the same position in the
+constellation band on Dresden 53a. It represents the highly
+conventionalized head of a crocodile. On Stela 10 from Piedras Negras
+(Maler, 1901-1903, Pl. 19) the same glyph is seen.
+
+The range of the alligator in North America does not extend to Yucatan,
+hence the crocodile, which does occur there, is taken as the original of
+all these figures. There is nothing in the latter that would distinguish
+it from the alligator.
+
+TURTLES. Representations of the turtle (Maya, _ak_) are not uncommon
+among the Mayas. At Uxmal there is a ruined building called _Casa de las
+Tortugas_ on which at intervals around the cornice there are carvings of
+turtles. Turtles of at least two species occur in the Tro-Cortesianus.
+With one exception, they seem to be limited to this codex. That shown on
+Pl. 14, figs. 1-3, 5, is a large species with the dorsal scutes
+represented by large diamond-shaped pieces. There is little that might
+be considered distinctive about these turtles, although one (Pl. 14,
+fig. 5) has the anterior paddles much larger than the posterior,
+indicating a sea turtle. What is doubtless the same turtle is pictured
+in several places in the Nuttall Codex. In one of the figures in the
+latter manuscript, the shell is shown apparently in use as a shield (Pl.
+14, fig. 4). This would indicate one of the large sea turtles, and there
+is not much doubt that either the Loggerhead turtle (_Thalassochelys
+cephalo_) or the Hawksbill (_Chelone imbricata_) is here intended.
+
+Quite another species is that shown in Pl. 14, fig. 6. That this is a
+freshwater turtle is plainly indicated by the parasitic leeches that are
+noted fastened by their round sucking-discs to the sides of its body.
+The long neck, pointed snout, and apparent limitation of the dorsal
+spinous scutes to the central area of the back may indicate the snapping
+turtle (_Chelydra serpentina_) or possibly a species of the genus
+_Cinosternum_ (probably _C. leucostomum_). It is hardly likely that it
+is one of the true soft-shelled turtles (_Trionyx_), as the range of
+that genus is not known to include Mexico. The turtle from Nuttall 43
+(Pl. 14, fig. 11) may belong to the same species as its scutes seem
+rather few, or it may be that the view shown here is of the ventral side
+and that the scales indicate the small plastron of one of the sea
+turtles.
+
+The turtle appears alone as one of the figures in the _tonalamatl_ in
+several cases in the Tro-Cortesianus, 13a, 17a (Pl. 14, fig. 3), 72b
+(Pl. 14, fig. 6). It is found associated with the toad appearing in the
+rain in Tro-Cortesianus 17b (Pl. 14, fig. 2) and alone in the rain in
+13a. In Tro-Cortesianus 81c (Pl. 14, fig. 5), it appears in front of an
+unidentifiable god.
+
+Schellhas has called the turtle an animal symbolical of the lightning
+basing his opinion, as Brinton (1895, p. 74) tells us, on Dresden 40b
+where a human figure with animal head is holding two torches in his
+hands. This figure does not seem to us to represent a turtle, as is
+commonly supposed, but a parrot, as will be pointed out later (p. 343).
+F�rstemann (1902, p. 27) identifies the turtle with the summer
+solstice, as has been noted before, explaining that the animal is slow
+of motion, and is taken to represent the time when the sun seems to
+stand still. He bases his theory (1904, p. 423) in part on the fact that
+the sign for the Maya month _Kayab_, which is the month in which the
+summer solstice occurs, shows the face of the turtle (Pl. 14, fig. 10).
+This undoubtedly is correct, but he seems to us wrong in classing as
+turtles the figure in Dresden 40b (Pl. 25, fig. 1) with its accompanying
+glyph (Pl. 25, fig. 6).
+
+The turtle is found in connection with two sun (_kin_) signs beneath a
+constellation band in Tro-Cortesianus 71a. Resting upon his body are
+three _Cauac_ signs. The single representation of the turtle in the
+Dresden Codex is on page 49 (Pl. 14, fig. 12) where a god is pictured
+with a turtle's head. The heavy sharp beak indicates that he represents
+one of the sea turtles previously mentioned. He is shown transfixed by a
+spear and corresponds to the other figures in the lower parts of pp.
+46-50. These all have some connection with the Venus period which is
+considered in these pages.[323-*]
+
+A number of glyphs representing the turtle are found throughout the
+codices (Pl. 14, figs. 7-10). They are all characterized by the heavy
+beak. It may be noted that these glyphs are virtually the same as the
+sign for the first _a_ in Landa's alphabet. As the turtle is called _ak_
+or _aak_ in Maya, the reason is clear for the selection of this sign for
+an _a_ sound. These turtle glyphs often occur alone; one, however, (Pl.
+14, fig. 7) is found in connection with the swimming turtle in
+Tro-Cortesianus 17a (Pl. 14, fig. 3). Figs. 7-9 agree in having the
+small scrolls at the posterior end of the eye. The head shown in Pl. 14,
+fig. 10, has quite a different eye, though otherwise similar. Its
+resemblance to the glyph on Pl. 25, fig. 9, is marked and suggests the
+parrot. Schellhas (1904, p. 44) gives in his fig. 64, a glyph for the
+turtle which seems clearly to be a glyph for the parrot (Pl. 25, fig.
+7).
+
+
+AVES
+
+HERONS (_Ardea herodias_; _Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis_). Only a few
+water birds are shown in the Maya works. Several are found, however,
+that seem to picture herons (Pl. 15, figs. 1-7). The best of these (fig.
+5), a carving from the west side panel of the Temple of the Cross at
+Palenque shows a crested heron standing on one foot and holding in its
+bill a fish. A second figure (Pl. 15, fig. 1) is from the stucco
+ornament from the Palace, House B, at Palenque. It is less carefully
+executed, but seems to be a long-necked bird with a crest and outspread
+wings curiously conventionalized. In the Nuttall Codex there is another
+unmistakable heron (Pl. 15, fig. 4) with the same general
+characteristics, though the crest is less prominent, here represented as
+a series of erectile feathers separated at their tips. This elongation
+of the crest seems to be carried still farther in what seems to be the
+head and neck of a heron from Dresden 37b (Pl. 15, fig. 3) with erectile
+feathers at intervals along its length.
+
+The heron is seldom employed as a head-dress. In the Lower Chamber of
+the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza, one of the warriors wears a
+bird head-dress (Pl. 15, fig. 2), which from the length of the bill is
+probably made from a heron's head, though the crest seems greatly
+exaggerated. The bas-relief on which this is found is strongly Nahua in
+feeling and execution. This head covering may indicate, according to the
+Nahua fashion, the tribe to which the warrior belongs. Again in Dresden
+36a (Pl. 15, fig. 7), a man is shown wearing as a head-dress the head
+and neck of a heron that holds in its bill a fish. This head resembles
+very closely that of the heron in fig. 1. What appears to be a similar
+head is shown in Pl. 15, fig. 6. It is interesting to note that the
+heron with a fish (Pl. 15, fig. 5) from Palenque also forms a part of a
+complicated head-dress.
+
+It is, of course, uncertain to which of the several herons occurring in
+Central America these representations refer. Possibly the Great Blue
+heron (_Ardea herodias_) or the Louisiana heron (_Hydranassa tricolor
+ruficollis_) is intended. It seems not unlikely also, that one of the
+white egrets may be shown as their crests are fairly conspicuous.
+
+FRIGATE-BIRD (_Fregata aquila_). We have included here two figures (Pl.
+15, figs. 8, 9) that undoubtedly represent a single species of bird. It
+is characterized by a deeply forked tail and long beak, which has part
+way on its length, a circular object surrounded by a circle of dots. It
+seems still problematical what this object may be. In one figure (fig.
+9), the beak is strongly hooked, in the other (fig. 8) it is straight,
+but as the latter is plainly a much more carelessly made drawing, we may
+infer that the hooked bill is more nearly correct. This would exclude
+the Terns (_Sterna_), to which Stempell has referred the figures. It
+seems probable that the frigate-bird (_Fregata aquila_) is the species
+intended, as this is not only a large conspicuous form on these coasts,
+but it has a long and strongly hooked beak and forked tail. The length
+of the beak would probably exclude from consideration, the
+swallow-tailed kite that also occurs in the region.
+
+Both these birds are pictured, evidently as an offering or sacrifice. It
+is very seldom that the whole bird is represented in this connection,
+and still more infrequent to find anything but the turkey, which is the
+usual bird of sacrifice. The figure from the Dresden Codex (Pl. 15, fig.
+9) rests upon the usual bowl or jar, that from the Tro-Cortesianus (Pl.
+15, fig. 8) is pictured upon a grotesque animal head, three _Kan_ signs
+and these upon the jar.
+
+In the Tro-Cortesianus 20c, 21c, there occur several representations of
+man-like forms with very peculiar heads. The latter are each provided
+with a beak-like projection, on which appears the circle surrounded by
+dots noted above in connection with the frigate-bird. Brinton concludes
+that this mystic symbol is a representation of the curious knob on the
+bill of the male white pelican, and therefore identifies these curious
+figures as pelicans. Stempell follows Brinton in this, but considers
+that they are the brown pelican (_P. fuscus_), since the white pelican
+is rare or casual, as far south as Yucatan. Unfortunately, however, for
+this supposition, the brown pelican lacks the curious knob that Brinton
+believed to be represented by the circle of dots. Moreover, this same
+sign occurs on the drawings of the bills of the frigate-bird and the
+ocellated turkey, and is evidently not of specific significance. To our
+minds it is doubtful if the figures under discussion are birds at all,
+and we are unable to assign them a name with any degree of confidence. A
+peculiar glyph occurs in connection with them which may be an aid to
+their ultimate identification. Brinton calls the glyph the "fish and
+oyster sign."
+
+OCELLATED TURKEY (_Agriocharis ocellata_). This turkey (Maya _ku[[c].]_)
+is an important species in the Maya economy, and is seen frequently in
+the manuscripts. This is a smaller bird than the more northern true
+turkey (_Meleagris_) and is characterized by the presence of curious
+erect knobs on the top of the naked head. These are shown in
+conventionalized form in the various figures (Pl. 16), and afford a
+ready means of identification. On the bill of the bird shown in
+Tro-Cortesianus 10b (Pl. 16, fig. 2) occurs again the curious symbol, a
+circle surrounded by dots, previously noted under the frigate-bird and
+pelican. It probably has some special significance. Other figures of
+ocellated turkeys show but little in addition to the points just
+discussed. One shown in Pl. 16, fig. 7, from Codex Vaticanus 3773,
+however, has a circular ring about the eye and the wattles are indicated
+as projections merely. In fig. 13, they are apparently shown as stalked
+knobs found elsewhere in connection with serpent head ornaments. It is
+only the head in this latter figure, which is considered in this
+interpretation.
+
+In the Nuttall Codex, there frequently occur representations of a bird
+that was evidently used for sacrificial purposes. It is shown with
+erectile head feathers and a ring of circular marks about the eye (Pl.
+26, figs. 12, 14; Pl. 27, figs. 2-3) or with concentric circles (Pl. 27,
+fig. 1). These figures are not surely identifiable, but probably
+represent this turkey. Possibly they are the chachalaca (_Ortalis vetula
+pallidiventris_), a gallinaceous bird, commonly kept in
+semi-domestication in Mexico, whose bare eye ring and slightly erectile
+head feathers may be represented by the drawings. It is probable that
+this turkey is the bird represented frequently in the Maya codices as a
+bird of sacrifice. The head alone usually appears in this connection,
+among other places, in Dresden 34a (Pl. 16, fig. 10), 41c (fig. 14), 29c
+(fig. 16), 28c (fig. 17), and in Tro-Cortesianus 12b (Pl. 16, fig. 11),
+105b (fig. 12), 107b (fig. 15). In several of these places the head is
+represented as resting on one or more _Kan_ signs, again meaning bread,
+as well as on the vessel or jar. In Dresden 26c (Pl. 16, fig. 9), the
+whole turkey is pictured as an offering, as in the preceding case noted
+in Dresden 35a (Pl. 15, fig. 9). The whole bird as an offering may also
+appear in Tro-Cortesianus 4a (Pl. 16, fig. 4) corresponding to the
+offering of venison and iguana on the following pages. This
+representation of the entire bird is very rare although the fish, when
+used as an offering, is always represented as a whole and the iguana is
+in most cases when used in the same connection. Landa (1864, p.
+222)[327-*] confirms the offering of the heads of birds with bread.
+
+It is, however, the sacrifice of a bird, probably a turkey, by
+decapitating, that is especially interesting, as the operation as shown
+in the Dresden Codex 25c (Pl. 26, fig. 2), 26c, 27c, 28c, in the rites
+of the four years, is described in full by Landa. In the codex, a priest
+is represented as holding in his hand before an altar, a headless bird.
+Landa (1864, pp. 212, 218, 224, 228)[327-[+]] tells us that in the
+_Kan_, the _Muluc_, the _Ix_, and the _Cauac_ years, the priests burnt
+incense to the idol, decapitated a "_gallina_" (undoubtedly a turkey),
+and presented it to the god.
+
+The turkey is also used as a head-dress. Only in one case, however,
+Tro-Cortesianus 95c (Pl. 16, fig. 5), is the whole bird represented in
+this connection. This is clearly of totemic significance here, as it
+occurs in that part of the codex where birth and infant baptism are
+shown. In many other places there are curious partial representations of
+bird heads in the front of head-dresses which may or may not be
+identified as heads of turkeys. Among these are the head-dress of god H
+in Dresden 7c, of god E in Dresden 11e, of god C in Dresden 13b, of god
+A in Dresden 23c, and a female divinity in Dresden 20a (Pl. 16, fig.
+13). Schellhas (1904, p. 43) identifies these birds as vultures.
+
+That the turkey is connected with the rain seems clear. This is
+especially the case among the Nahuas. In the Aubin manuscript the rain
+god, _Tlaloc_, often appears in the disguise of the turkey-cock
+(_uexolotl_), and in the Vaticanus 3773, 14, the turkey (Pl. 16, fig. 7)
+is represented in the "House of Rain," in contrast to the owl shown in
+the "House of Drought" (Seler, 1902-1903, p. 75). It might be noted also
+that Fewkes (1892, p. 228) shows that the turkey is emblematic of the
+rain among the pueblo peoples. The same idea seems to be present among
+the Mayas, as we note in the Tro-Cortesianus 10b (Pl. 16, fig. 2) the
+turkey is pictured in the rain and surrounded on three sides by bands of
+constellation signs.
+
+Two methods of capturing the turkey are shown in the Tro-Cortesianus 93a
+and 91a (Pl. 16, figs. 1, 3). By the first, the bird is captured alive
+in a sort of wicker basket, which drops over it at the proper moment.
+The second method is by the "twich-up" or snare, which consists of a
+noose tied to a bent sapling and properly baited. In connection with Pl.
+16, fig. 1, it may be suggested that possibly this represents a cage
+rather than a trap, in which the bird is confined. The Lacandones at the
+present time often keep their totem animals in captivity (Tozzer, 1907,
+p. 40).
+
+KING VULTURE (_Sarcorhamphus papa_). Numerous figures of vultures appear
+in the codices and elsewhere. Indeed, they are among the most common of
+the birds depicted. Two species only seem to occur in the writings, the
+king vulture and the black vulture. The former is a large black and
+white bird with the head and the upper part of the neck unfeathered,
+except for numerous short, almost bristle-like plumules. These naked
+portions are often colored red and there is a large more or less
+squarish fleshy knob at the base of the upper ramus of the beak. This
+conspicuous protuberance has been seized upon as a characteristic in the
+conventionalized figures, and serves to identify the king from the black
+vulture. In addition, a series of concentric circles about the eye seems
+to be a rather constant mark of the king vulture, though they are also
+sometimes found in connection with figures which, from the absence of
+the rostral knob, must represent black vultures (Pl. 18, figs. 18, 27;
+Pl. 19, figs. 7, 10, 11). In the case of the bird shown in Pl. 19, fig.
+1, the knob is hardly apparent, and the same is true of Pl. 19, fig. 13.
+Both these may represent king vultures. A remarkable figure is that
+shown in Pl. 17, fig. 4, in which an ocellated turkey and a king vulture
+confront each other with necks intertwined. The short hair-like black
+feathers of the head are represented in this as well as in Pl. 17, fig.
+11, and in the glyph carved in stone (Pl. 17, fig. 10), which from the
+presence of the knob is probably a king vulture. The characteristic knob
+is shown in a variety of ways. Thus, in Pl. 17, fig. 1, it is greatly
+developed and resembles a large horn with a falcate tip. In Pl. 17, fig.
+4, it is sharply angular and nearly square. Frequently, it is a circle
+with a centered ring surmounted by one or two additional rings or
+terminated by a mitre-shaped structure (Pl. 17, figs. 2, 5-7, 8-12). A
+very simple form was found in the carving shown in Pl. 17, fig. 13,
+where a long projecting knob is seen at the base of the culmen.
+
+The king vulture seems to have a part to play as a mythological being,
+as it is pictured as a god with human body and bird head in the act of
+cohabiting with a woman in Dresden 19a, and with a dog in Dresden 13c
+(Pl. 17, fig. 3). Moreover, the same vulture god is represented on a
+blue background and under a band of constellation signs in Dresden 38b,
+and is also to be noted in Dresden 8a. F�rstemann (1906, p. 66) shows
+that the thirteenth day of the Maya month is reached in the _tonalamatl_
+reckoning at this place. This day is _Cib_, which corresponds to the
+Nahua day _Cozcaquauhtli_, which has the meaning vulture, and here, as
+previously noted, the vulture god is represented. In Tro-Cortesianus 22c
+(Pl. 17, fig. 2) and 10a,[330-*] the king vulture appears alone, in the
+first instance with a blue background, and in the second with a
+background representing rain. Rain is also shown in connection with the
+vulture god in Dresden 38b, and the black vulture in Tro-Cortesianus 18b
+(Pl. 19, fig. 13).
+
+The king vulture is found employed as a head-dress twice out of the
+three times it appears in any connection with female figures,
+Tro-Cortesianus 26c (Pl. 17, fig. 12) with male figure, and 94c (Pl. 17,
+fig. 11) and 95c with female figures. The last two clearly have to do
+with the baptism and naming of infants, as previously explained.
+
+The study of the glyph used to indicate the vulture is interesting, for
+we find it recurring again and again throughout the Maya codices and
+often when there is no other drawing of the animal, as in Dresden 39c
+(Pl. 17, fig. 5; Pl. 18, fig. 19). The first example (glyph 6) is
+clearly the head of the king vulture, whereas the second (glyph 3) is
+probably the head of the black vulture. The glyph in Dresden 38b (Pl.
+17, fig. 7) appears in connection with the vulture god directly below
+it. In Dresden 11b (Pl. 18, fig. 1), it occurs alone and no figure
+appears in the usual place below. The _Tun_ period glyph (Pl. 17, fig.
+10) frequently shows vulture characteristics especially in the nostril
+of the face. The teeth, however, often appearing in the _Tun_ glyph
+would be against this theory. The blending of bird and mammal
+characteristics is not uncommon in the Maya drawings, however.
+
+The Nahua day sign, _Cozcaquauhtli_, as previously noted, has the
+meaning vulture, and we naturally find this bird frequently represented
+in the Mexican codices. In the Nuttall Codex, the head of the king
+vulture occurs repeatedly as a glyph for this day. In its less modified
+forms (Pl. 18, figs. 2-4), the beak is merely a pair of flattened rami,
+surmounted proximally by the conspicuous quadrangular knob. The minute
+hair-like feathers on the otherwise naked head are shown as a fringe at
+the throat and crown, while a conventionalized ear is represented
+posteriorly. A series of interesting figures (Pl. 18, figs. 5-10)
+illustrates steps in the further reduction of this head to a small glyph
+in which only the beak with its large squarish knob remains (Pl. 18,
+fig. 10).
+
+BLACK VULTURE (_Catharista urubu_). It is difficult to assign any single
+characteristic to the figures representing the black vulture (Maya,
+_t[vs.]om_) other than the long raptorial beak. A number of drawings
+probably depict black vultures, though this cannot be certainly
+affirmed. Such are those shown in Pl. 18, figs. 11, 12, 14, 17; Pl. 19,
+figs. 2-4, 13, 14. Stempell considers the vulture shown in Pl. 18, fig.
+13, to be a king vulture, but it has no knob on the beak, and thus is
+quite likely the black vulture. The fact that its head is shaped much
+like that of the god with the king vulture head (Pl. 17, fig. 3) would
+indicate merely the individuality of the artist. The coloring of the
+species under discussion is uniformly black in the Dresden and
+Tro-Cortesianus, except in certain cases where the birds are shown in
+outline only, as in Pl. 19, fig. 12. It is not certain, however, that
+these two last are black vultures, though they suggest the species. The
+two birds shown in Pl. 19, figs. 5, 6, are almost surely black vultures,
+and, as represented in the manuscript, are descending upon a man.
+Stempell thinks they may be ravens, but this is very doubtful, for the
+raven probably was unknown to the Mayas, since its range is to the
+northward. What appears to be a crest is seen on the head of the bird in
+Pl. 19, fig. 4. The black coloring and the shape of the bill otherwise
+suggest the black vulture, though perhaps the crest would indicate the
+harpy eagle. Similarly, Pl. 19, fig. 14, is provided with a sort of tuft
+or crest, but its general appearance is suggestive of the vulture. A
+pottery whistle (text fig. 2) from the Uloa Valley evidently represents
+a black vulture. The head of the bird shows the characteristic wrinkled
+appearance seen in the drawings, with the heavy beak. The absence of the
+rostral knob would preclude its being a king vulture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.
+POTTERY WHISTLE, VULTURE. ULOA VALLEY, HONDURAS.]
+
+It is natural that this bird should find an important place in the Maya
+writing, as it is an abundant species in the region considered, and of
+great importance as a scavenger. The black vulture seems to lack the
+mythological character associated with the king vulture. It appears
+usually in connection with death and in the role of a bird of prey. This
+is especially true in the Tro-Cortesianus where in 24d, 26d (Pl. 19,
+figs. 5, 6) and 28c, it is attacking a human being, in the first and
+last cases represented as dead. In 86a and 87a, the bird is shown
+plucking out the eye of a man. In Dresden 3a (Pl. 19, fig. 7), it
+appears at the top of the tree above the human sacrifice and seems to be
+in the act of consuming the victim. In Tro-Cortesianus 91c, it also
+appears in a tree. In Tro-Cortesianus 40a (Pl. 17, fig. 9), and 42a (Pl.
+19, fig. 1), it is shown as eating the entrails of a deer. In the first
+case, the bird looks like a king vulture, although this is the only
+instance where this species is shown as a bird of prey. In
+Tro-Cortesianus 28b and 36b (Pl. 18, fig. 17), the black vulture appears
+eating the Kan sign. In the first example, the _Kan_ represents the
+newly sowed corn, in the second, the _Kan_ is held by god F. Landa
+(1864, p. 230)[333-*] records that in the _Cauac_ year there was a
+ceremony to prevent the ants and the birds devouring the corn. In
+Dresden 34b and 35b, the vulture is shown on top of the head-dress of
+god F, evidently the enemy of the harvest and, again, on 35b (Pl. 19,
+fig. 4) on top of the _Cauac_ sign. Its role as a bird of prey is
+further shown in Dresden 36b (Pl. 19, fig. 11), where it is shown
+attacking a serpent.
+
+This vulture is associated with god B in Dresden 69b, with god M in
+Tro-Cortesianus 70a (Pl. 18, fig. 12), and with god D in Tro-Cortesianus
+67a (Pl. 17, fig. 1). The last may be the king rather than the black
+vulture, as suggested above. The black vulture occurs only once as the
+usual head-dress, in Dresden 17b (Pl. 18, fig. 13), and here in
+connection with a female figure and the idea of birth. Two birds,
+probably vultures, appear over the enclosure around the head of god C in
+Tro-Cortesianus 100b (Pl. 19, fig. 12). In the Lower Chamber of the
+Temple of the Tigers occurs a black vulture in bas-relief with a
+necklace represented (Pl. 19, fig. 14).
+
+The glyph of the king vulture has already been discussed. There are
+other glyphs which seem to show the black vulture, although it is quite
+possible that no sharp distinction was made between the two in regard
+to the glyphs at least. In one case (Pl. 18, fig. 18), the wrinkled skin
+of the head and neck is indicated much as in the case of the king
+vulture. A few other glyphs are shown (Pl. 18, figs. 16, 19, 22, 27), as
+well as a variety from the Nuttall Codex in which the minute hair-like
+feathers of the head are variously represented, usually much exaggerated
+as a sort of crest or comb. Pl. 18, fig. 22, is interesting as being the
+only case in the Maya codices where the whole figure is shown in the
+glyph. As noted in the case of the glyphs of the king vulture, the
+greater number of these occur quite alone. They seem to indicate that a
+full drawing of the bird is meant to be understood as occurring below.
+
+Several of the carved glyphs (Pl. 19, figs. 8-10) show the black vulture
+heads in some detail with the conspicuously open nostril and hooked
+beak. A carving of the entire bird may be shown on Stela D from Copan
+(Pl. 28, fig. 5), where the naked head and neck are marked off by lines
+indicating wrinkled skin. The same lines on the neck of the bird
+depicted on Pl. 28, fig. 2, will probably identify it as a vulture, and,
+if the square ornament above the beak certainly is part of the figure,
+it is unquestionably the king vulture. The knob is not, however, clearly
+on the bird's beak. There are two interesting glyphs which occur on the
+eastern fa�ade of the Monjas at Chichen Itza. The glyphs in this
+inscription are unlike the usual Maya hieroglyphs, although several of
+the so-called constellation signs can be made out. The two glyphs in
+question represent the entire body possibly of a vulture, that on Pl.
+17, fig. 13, probably the king vulture, and that on Pl. 18, fig. 14, the
+black vulture.
+
+HARPY EAGLE (_Thrasaetos harpyia_). In the Nuttall Codex, what is
+undoubtedly the harpy eagle is of frequent occurrence. This great bird
+is not uncommon in the forests of southern Mexico and Central America,
+and must have attracted the notice of the people from its size. The
+elongated feathers at the back of the head form a conspicuous crest, a
+feature that characterizes this species in most of the representations.
+A stone carving from Chichen Itza (Pl. 20, fig. 10) pictures a harpy
+eagle eating an egg-shaped object, and another similarly engaged is
+copied from the Codex Vaticanus 3773 (Pl. 20, fig. 14). The former is
+considered to be a vulture by Maudslay, but the presence of feathers
+covering the head excludes this interpretation. In two stone glyphs (Pl.
+20, fig. 1, 3), occurs a large bird apparently devouring something held
+in its talons, as in Pl. 20, fig. 10. From this general resemblance, it
+seems probable that both represent the harpy, although no crests are
+shown on the glyphs. In the Dresden and the Tro-Cortesianus occur a few
+figures of crested birds that probably are the same species. The crest
+feathers are reduced to two, however, or, in some cases, what may be a
+third projecting forward from the base of the bill (Pl. 20, figs. 5, 7,
+12, 13). The last two figures are not certainly identifiable, though it
+is probable that they represent the harpy.
+
+The eagle seems to be the bird associated with warriors in the codices.
+Seler (1900-1901, p. 89) notes that the eagle and the jaguar are both
+the mark of brave warriors among the Nahuas. In the Aubin manuscript,
+the warrior god, _Yaotl_, is always associated with the eagle
+(_quauhtli_). In the Maya pantheon, god M is usually considered the war
+god, as he is almost always armed with a spear. He is seen in Dresden 74
+(Pl. 20, fig. 13), and in Tro-Cortesianus 109c with an eagle as a
+head-dress. There are other gods, however, who wear a similar head
+covering. God L appears in Dresden 14b (Pl. 20, fig. 7) and again in 14c
+(Pl. 20, fig. 5) with an eagle head-dress. God D in Dresden 23c (Pl. 20,
+fig. 11) has an eagle coming from a _Tun_ sign on top of his head. The
+eagle is probably represented at the prow of a boat in Dresden 43c (Pl.
+20, fig. 12) in which god B is rowing. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 20,
+fig. 4), a bird which may represent the eagle appears sitting on a
+_Cimi_ (death) sign. Above in the glyphs the character for the south is
+shown. Here, clearly, there is some connection between the signs of the
+cardinal points in the line of glyphs and the various creatures pictured
+below.
+
+There seems to be only one glyph which can in any way be taken for that
+of the eagle in the Maya manuscripts and this appears only once, in
+Tro-Cortesianus 107c (Pl. 20, fig. 9). This identification may be
+questioned, as there is no drawing of an eagle associated with the
+glyph. Attention has already been called to the two stone glyphs in Pl.
+20, figs. 1, 3. There are various drawings of the glyph for the eagle in
+the Nahua and Zapotecan codices (Pl. 20, fig. 8), as the Nahua day,
+_Quauhtli_, has the meaning eagle. It is interesting to note in the
+glyph from the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 20, fig. 8) the tips of the feathers
+are crowned with stone points, a frequent way of representing birds of
+prey among the Mexican peoples.
+
+YUCATAN HORNED OWL (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_). Stempell makes a
+serious mistake by confusing the eared owl shown in full face with that
+shown in profile in the drawings, for he considers both to represent the
+great horned owl. The figures are, however, quite different in every
+way. The owl in full face view is unquestionably the great horned owl
+(Maya, _ikim_), the Yucatan form of which is recognized by the
+subspecific title _mayensis_. This is the bird opposed to the
+"Moan-bird" which, as will be shown later, is associated with death. In
+Pl. 21 are some truly remarkable figures which seem to represent this
+horned owl, the first modelled in stucco from Palenque, the second
+carved in stone from Yaxchilan, and the third carved in wood from Tikal.
+Figs. 1 and 3 show the bird in flight with extended wings. The two
+erectile tufts of feathers or "horns" are conspicuously represented in
+fig. 3, at either side of the bird's head and between them the flat top
+of the crown is secondarily divided in like manner into three parts,
+representing the "horns" and the top of the head. The beetling brows,
+heavy hooked beak, and spread talons combine to give a fierce and
+spirited mien to the great bird. Pl. 21, fig. 2, may be a greatly
+conventionalized owl in which the essential characteristics of the bird
+are reproduced in a rectangular design. The large bill is conspicuous in
+the center, and in each upper corner terminates one of the ears. The
+eyes are represented by rectangular areas at the base of the bill, each
+with three vertical bars across it. Below the beak, or at either side of
+the tip, are the feet, each with the claw cross-hatched. What seem to be
+the reduced and highly conventionalized wings fill the lower corner of
+each side of the figure.
+
+The shield in the center of the Tablet of the Sun at Palenque (Pl. 22,
+fig. 6) shows a face in which the motif seems to be the full-face view
+of the horned owl. The hooked bill curves over the mouth at each side of
+which is the curious scroll seen in the same connection in the figures
+of Pl. 21. The ears are somewhat shorter in proportion than usual and
+below each, at the sides of the face, is a large ear-plug, similar to
+that elsewhere found. The eyes are still further conventionalized with a
+decorative scroll surrounding each. Another example of the
+conventionalized owl's head is on Stela 1 from Cankuan (Maler, 1908, Pl.
+13). We are not yet ready to advance an explanation of the reason why
+the owl should occupy such a prominent position in the art of the Mayas.
+
+In only one case is the horned owl found in the Maya manuscripts. In
+Tro-Cortesianus 95c (Pl. 22, fig. 2), this owl appears as the head-dress
+of a woman in that portion of the codex where baptism and naming are
+shown. An owl's head seems to be shown on the end of a warrior's staff
+in the bas-relief of the Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at
+Chichen Itza (Pl. 22, fig. 4). Pl. 22, figs. 5, 7, show two owls from
+the Aubin manuscript; the first is considered to be the screech owl
+(_chiqualli_) and the second the horned owl (_tecolotl_, in Nahuatl).
+Pl. 22, figs. 1, 3, show two drawings of owls from Nahua manuscripts.
+
+YUCATAN SCREECH OWL or MOAN BIRD (_Otus choliba thompsoni_). A second
+species of owl is represented by the figures on Pl. 23. This has
+likewise two feathered tufts or "ears" on its head and is always shown
+with the head, at least, in profile, but the tufts one in front, the
+other at the back of the head. The facial disc is not very prominent the
+beak rather long, the tail short, and the plumage somewhat mottled. A
+dark ring usually surrounds the eye. It is, with little doubt, the
+screech owl, the only other form of eared owl commonly met with in the
+Central American region, and in Yucatan is represented by the race above
+indicated. This owl, under the name of the Moan bird,[338-*] is always
+associated with the idea of death among the Mayas. The familiarity of
+this species and its mournful quavering cry uttered at night have no
+doubt led to its association with death and mystery as with owls in
+other parts of the world.
+
+This Moan bird has an important place in the Maya pantheon, as it is the
+representative in many places of god A, the Death god. It appears with a
+human body in Dresden 7c (Pl. 23, fig. 1), 10a (Pl. 23, fig. 8), and 11a
+(Pl. 23, fig. 3) and in Tro-Cortesianus 66a (Pl. 23, fig. 2). In each of
+these places, it occupies the space in which one of the regular gods is
+usually found. In Dresden 10a, the day reached in the _tonalamatl_
+reckoning is _Cimi_, meaning death, and here, as has been noted, is
+found the Moan bird, the symbol of death, with another sign of death in
+the circle just above the head of the bird (Pl. 23, fig. 8).
+
+This owl is used as a head-dress itself, but always for women, Dresden
+16a (Pl. 23, fig. 19), 18b (Pl. 23, fig. 5), Tro-Cortesianus 94c (Pl.
+23, fig. 4), and 95c (Pl. 23, fig. 20). It occurs in both manuscripts in
+the pages mentioned several times before, where birth, baptism, and the
+naming of children are shown. The curious figure, with a head similar to
+Pl. 23, fig. 21, carried on the back of some of the women, is the Moan
+sign, referring to the idea of death, possibly to still-birth, as
+copulation and birth are shown in this section of the codex (Dresden
+18c, 19c). The Moan is found associated with man only once in the
+manuscripts. In Tro-Cortesianus 73b (Pl. 23, fig. 18), he is found
+perching on a curious frame-like structure in which god B is sitting.
+
+There are several glyphs representing the Moan bird or screech owl; the
+first type is easily identifiable, as the head of the bird is clearly
+pictured (Pl. 23, figs. 11-14, 16). This head is frequently associated
+with the number thirteen (Dresden 8b). It may occur in the line of
+glyphs (Dresden 16c), and refer to the Moan pictured below, or it may
+occur in the line of glyphs with no picture corresponding to it below
+(Dresden 53b). Pl. 23, fig. 15, from Dresden 38c has been placed with
+these drawings, although the identification is not certain. It may
+refer, however, to the large Moan head below, on which god B is sitting
+(Pl. 23, fig. 11). The second type of glyph does not resemble in any way
+the Moan, but they are clearly signs for it, as they are often found in
+connection with the picture of the Moan, Dresden 7c (Pl. 23, figs. 6, 7,
+21) and 10a. In both places fig. 7 is associated with the number
+thirteen. Schellhas also places Pl. 23, fig. 17, among the Moan signs.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 3, 4, 5, 6.
+GLYPHS OF MONTH MUAN SHOWING MOAN-BIRD CHARACTERISTICS.]
+
+One of the eighteen Maya months is named Muan, and some of the glyphs
+appearing for this month in the codices certainly represent the Moan or
+screech owl. This is especially so with text figs. 3-6. F�rstemann
+(1904a) considers that the month Muan and, consequently, the sign as
+well, refer to the Pleiades.
+
+In connection with the screech owl referring to death, it is interesting
+to note that among the Nahuas the owl is considered of unlucky augury
+and is usually found in the "House of Death" and "of Drought", as
+contrasted with the turkey, considered as a bird of good fortune, and
+found in the "House of Rain."
+
+COPPERY-TAILED TROGAN or QUETZAL (_Pharomacrus mocinno_). The quetzal is
+common locally in certain parts of southern Mexico. Its brilliant
+metallic green plumage and the greatly elongated tail feathers make it a
+very notable bird. The feathers of the head are erect and stand out as a
+light crest, those of the anterior portion being slightly recurved. The
+delicate erect feathers of the head are well indicated in Vaticanus
+3773, 17 (Pl. 24, fig. 9) and the tail, also, in this figure, is only
+slightly conventionalized with an upward instead of the natural downward
+sweep. In most of the representations, the crest feathers are
+indicatd[TN-7] by large plumes, the most anterior of which project
+forward. They may be even further modified into three knobs shown in
+Dresden 7c (Pl. 24, fig. 1). The two characteristics of the quetzal,
+namely its erect head feathers and its extraordinarily long tail
+feathers, are often used separately. Thus the tail, which is commonly
+drawn with the outer feather of each side strongly curled forward,
+appears by itself in Pl. 24, fig. 8, or it may be seen as a plume in the
+head-dress of a priest or warrior and in other connections as an
+ornament. A greatly conventionalized drawing of the bird is also shown
+in Pl. 24, fig. 11, in which the head bears a curious knob and the
+dorsal feather of the tail is upcurled in the manner of the other
+drawings. It is not at once apparent why the long drooping tail feathers
+should be shown thus recurved. Possibly these feathers, when used by the
+Mayas for plumes, curled over by their own weight, if held erect, so
+that the representations are a compromise between the natural appearance
+and that when used as ornament in the head decoration.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.
+QUETZAL, TEMPLE OF THE CROSS, PALENQUE.]
+
+The color of the bird and the very long tail feathers have already been
+mentioned, and these explain the reason of the importance of this bird
+among the Mayas. It is claimed by several old authorities that the
+quetzal was reserved for the rulers, and that it was death for any
+common person to kill this bird for his own use. It seems from a
+statement in Landa (1864, p. 190)[341-*] that birds were domesticated
+for the feathers. This bird occurs again and again in various
+modifications throughout the Maya art. The feathers of the quetzal are
+the ones usually associated with the serpent, making the rebus,
+_Quetzalcoatl_, the feathered serpent, the culture hero of the Nahuas,
+or _Kukulcan_, which has the same signification among the Mayas. It is
+impossible to mention here all the various connections in which the
+quetzal appears. The feathers play an important part in the composition
+of the head-dresses of the priests and warriors, especially those in the
+stone carvings. A quotation has already been given from Landa, showing
+the use made of feathers in the dress of the people. Text fig. 7 shows
+perhaps the most elaborate representation of this bird. It is found on
+the sculptured tablet of the Temple of the Cross at Palenque. The
+quetzal is shown seated on top of a branching tree which was long taken
+to represent a cross. A similar representation is seen on the tablet of
+the Temple of the Foliated Cross from the same ruined city. In the Codex
+Fejervary-Mayer, there are four trees in each of which there is a bird.
+A quetzal is perched in the one corresponding to the east, which is
+regarded as the region of opulence and moisture. Seler (1901, p. 17)
+suggests that the quetzal in the tree on the two bas-reliefs at Palenque
+may represent a similar idea and that temples which would show the other
+three trees and their respective birds had not been built in that
+center.
+
+The representation of the quetzal as an entire bird is, after all,
+comparatively rare. The most realistic drawing is seen on a jar from
+Copan in the collections of the Peabody Museum. The whole body of the
+bird is shown as a head-dress in a few places in the codices where birth
+and the naming of children are pictured. In Dresden 16c (Pl. 24, fig. 3)
+and Tro-Cortesianus 94c (Pl. 24, fig. 6), the quetzal is the head-dress
+of women. In Dresden 13b (Pl. 24, fig. 2), a partial drawing of the bird
+is shown as a part of the head-dress of god E, in Dresden 7c (Pl. 24,
+fig. 1) of god H, and in Tro-Cortesianus 110c of god F. The feathers
+alone appear as a female head decoration in Dresden 20c (Pl. 24, fig.
+8). It occurs as a sacrifice among the rites of the four years in
+Tro-Cortesianus 36b (Pl. 24, fig. 12). In Tro-Cortesianus 70a (Pl. 24,
+fig. 5), it is found in the act of eating fruit growing over the "young
+god." In Tro-Cortesianus 100b (Pl. 24, fig. 4), the bird is perched over
+the encased head of god C.
+
+There seems to be a glyph used for the quetzal. In those drawn in Pl.
+24, figs. 10, 17, it is noticeable that the anterior part only of the
+head is shown. The first is a glyph from the tablet of the Temple of the
+Sun at Palenque, and at least suggests the quetzal by the feathers on
+the top of the head, as also Pl. 24, fig. 13, a glyph from Copan, Stela
+10, where the entire head appears in a much conventionalized form. Other
+glyphs are shown in Pl. 24, figs. 14-16, in which there is a single
+prominent recurved feather shown over the eye, succeeded by a few
+conventionalized feathers, then one or more directed posteriorly. It is
+to be noted that whereas in many previous examples of glyphs the full
+drawing of the animal or bird has been found in connection with them,
+here with the quetzal glyphs there is no instance where a drawing of the
+bird occurs with them. A curious human figure (Pl. 24, fig. 19), with a
+head decoration similar to the frontal curve and markings on the quetzal
+glyphs (fig. 14-16), may possibly represent this bird in some relation.
+
+BLUE MACAW (_Ara militaris_). A large macaw (Maya, _mox_ or _[t.]u[t.]_)
+is undoubtedly pictured in the figures in Pl. 25. The least
+conventionalized drawing found is that shown in Dresden 16c (Pl. 25,
+fig. 2), a bird characterized by long narrow tail feathers, a heavy
+bill, and a series of scale-like markings on the face and about the eye.
+Further conventionalized drawings are found in Pl. 25, figs. 3, 10, 13,
+and Pl. 26, fig. 1. In all these the tail is less characteristic, though
+composed of long, narrow feathers, and the facial markings are reduced
+to a ring of circular marks about the eye. These last undoubtedly
+represent, as supposed by Stempell, the bare space about the eye found
+in certain of these large parrots. In addition, the space between the
+eye and the base of the bill is partially bare with small patches of
+feathers scattered at somewhat regular intervals in rows. It is probable
+that this appearance is represented by the additional round marks about
+the base of the bill in Pl. 25, figs. 1, 2, 5, 8, the last two of which
+show the head only. There has hitherto been some question as to the
+identity of certain stone carvings, similar to that on Stela B from
+Copan, of which a portion is shown in Pl. 25, fig. 8. This has even been
+interpreted as the trunk of an elephant or a mastodon, but is
+unquestionably a macaw's beak. In addition to the ornamental
+crosshatching on the beak, which is also seen on the glyph from the same
+stela (Pl. 25, fig. 5), there is an ornamental scroll beneath the eye
+which likewise is crosshatched and surrounded by a ring of subcircular
+marks that continue to the base of the beak. The nostril is the large
+oval marking directly in front of the eye.
+
+The animal in Dresden 40b (Pl. 25, fig. 1) has always been considered
+to be a tortoise (Schellhas, 1904, p. 44, and F�rstemann, 1904). This
+animal, together with the dog, is found beneath the constellation signs
+carrying firebrands; both are regarded as lightning beasts. By comparing
+the head of the figure shown in Pl. 25, fig. 1, with figs. 2, 4, 5, of
+the same plate, the reasonableness of the identification of this head as
+that of a macaw and not that of a tortoise appears clear. The same
+figure occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 12a (Pl. 25, fig. 3) carrying a torch.
+
+In order to make this point clearer, we will take up the consideration
+of the glyphs at this place, rather than at the end of the section as
+usual. As the macaw in Pl. 25, fig. 1, has been hitherto identified as a
+turtle, so the glyph found in connection with it (Pl. 25, fig. 6) has
+been considered to stand for the turtle. Pl. 25, fig. 7, is another
+drawing of the same glyph. By comparing the markings on the face of fig.
+1, it is seen that a similar ring surrounds the eye shown on the glyph.
+The second glyph (Pl. 25, fig. 7) is better drawn and shows, in addition
+to the eye ring, the slightly erectile feathers at the back of the head.
+Comparison with the glyphs representing turtles (Pl. 14, figs. 7-10)
+hitherto confused with these macaw glyphs shows differences, the most
+important of which are of course the eye ring and the feathers at the
+back of the head.
+
+Various other glyphs occur which undoubtedly represent the heads either
+of macaws or smaller parrots. They are, for the most part, glyphs from
+the stone inscriptions. A crest, resembling that depicted on the head of
+the quetzal, is found on a glyph on Altar Q from Copan (Pl. 25, fig.
+10). The eye ring, however, seems to indicate the macaw which also has
+slightly erectile feathers on the head. Much doubt is attached to the
+identification of the glyph of the month _Kayae_[TN-8] from Stela A,
+Quirigua (Pl. 25, fig. 9). It resembles closely the glyphs of the turtle
+(Pl. 14, figs. 7-9) and especially that on Pl. 14, fig. 10. The Quirigua
+glyph has a prominent fleshy tongue, however, like the parrot. From the
+fact that the glyph is certainly that for the month _Kayab_ and the
+_Kayab_ glyphs in the codices (Pl. 14, fig. 10) resemble the sign for
+_a_, in the Landa alphabet which seems to stand for _ak_ (turtle), we
+are led to identify this as a turtle rather than a parrot.
+
+The use of the macaw as a lightning beast has already been commented
+upon. The parrot is also used in the codices as a head-dress. As with
+several other birds the only places in the manuscripts where the whole
+bird is shown is in connection with the bearing of children and the
+baptism. Here the parrot head-dress is seen on women, Dresden 16c (Pl.
+25, fig. 2) and Tro-Cortesianus 94c (Pl. 25, fig. 13). There seems to be
+an exception to the whole bird appearing as a head-dress exclusively
+with women in Tro-Cortesianus 26c (Pl. 26, fig. 1), where god F appears
+with a head-dress composed of the whole bird. The bird is also seen as a
+head-dress on Altar Q from Copan (Pl. 26, fig. 3). The head of the macaw
+appears as part of the head-dress of god H in Dresden 11a (Pl. 26, fig.
+13), god E in Dresden 11b (Pl. 26, fig. 11), god F in Dresden 14b, god D
+in Tro-Cortesianus 89a (Pl. 26, fig. 5) and of women in Dresden 12b (Pl.
+26, fig. 6) and 19a (Pl. 26, fig. 9). In the rites of the four years in
+Tro-Cortesianus 37b, there are two birds which are quite different from
+those we have been considering, but which may represent macaws (Pl. 25,
+fig. 12; Pl. 26, fig. 10).
+
+In the Nuttall Codex, occur several figures of heavy-billed birds that
+may be macaws or other smaller parrots of the genera _Amazona_ or
+_Pachyrhynchus_. They are not, however, certainly identifiable (Pl. 26,
+figs. 4, 7).
+
+IMPERIAL WOODPECKER (_Campephilus imperialis_). We have here introduced
+two drawings from the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 27, figs. 5, 6) which seem to
+represent the Imperial ivory-billed woodpecker, a large species that
+occurs in the forests of certain parts of Mexico. The figures show a
+long-billed bird with acutely pointed tail feathers, a red crest, and
+otherwise black and white plumage. The red crest of the woodpecker is of
+course highly conventionalized in the drawings where it is shown as of a
+number of erect feathers instead of the prominent occipital tuft of
+this bird. The crest and particularly the pointed tail feathers and long
+beak combined with the characteristic coloring seem to leave little
+doubt as to the identity of the species figured. This bird does not seem
+to appear in the Maya drawings.
+
+RAVEN (_Corvus corax sinuatus_) (?). There occurs in the Nuttall Codex a
+figure of a large black bird (Pl. 27, fig. 7), which may be a black
+vulture, but which, from the presence of what appear as prominent
+bristles over the nostril, may also be a raven. These bristles are
+rather prominent in ravens and quite lacking in the vulture, so that we
+are led to identify the drawing as representing the former bird. We have
+found no other figures that suggest ravens.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS BIRDS. Four drawings of birds from the Aubin manuscript are
+shown here (Pl. 27, figs. 8-11), in order that the conventionalization of
+the bird form may be seen. The first two are supposed to represent the
+parrot (_cocho_) and the last two the turkey cock (_uexolotl_). There is
+little in the drawings by which they can be differentiated. In the codex,
+the heads of the parrots are colored red. There is no doubt, however,
+about the identification, as they occur in the same relative position on
+every page of the manuscript and are two of the thirteen birds associated
+with the thirteen gods, the "Lords of the House of Day" (Seler,
+1900-1901, pp. 31-35). From the foregoing, it may be seen that where
+there is no question about the identification, the drawing of the bird
+form is rather carelessly done and no great attempt is made to indicate
+the special characteristics of the different birds.
+
+As has been shown previously, it is not always possible to identify
+without question many of the forms appearing in the manuscripts. This is
+especially true with birds. In Tro-Cortesianus 20c, an unidentifiable
+bird, painted blue, appears on the top of the staff carried by god F.
+The head-dress of this same god in Tro-Cortesianus 27c is a bird form
+and in Tro-Cortesianus 55b, the _tonalamatl_ figure is a bird whose
+identity cannot be made out with certainty.
+
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+OPOSSUM (_Didelphis yucatanensis_, _D. mesamericana_). Figures
+representing opossums are not with certainty identifiable in the Maya
+writings. We have provisionally identified as a frog the animal shown in
+Pl. 29, fig. 6, although at first sight the two median round markings
+might be taken to represent a marsupial pouch. Stempell considers the
+animals found in the upper division of Dresden 25-28 as opossums of one
+of the above species, and this seems very possible. They are shown with
+long tails, slightly curved at the tips, and with long head and
+prominent vibrissae. A rather similar figure is found in the Nuttall
+Codex (Pl. 34, fig. 7). There is nothing, however, that seems to
+preclude their being dogs and, in our opinion, they represent this
+animal.
+
+NINE-BANDED ARMADILLO (_Tatu novemcinctum_). This is the common species
+of armadillo (Maya, _wet[vs]_) found throughout the warmer portion of
+Mexico and Central America, where it is frequently used as an article of
+food, and its shell-like covering is utilized in various ways. Several
+representations of it occur in the Tro-Cortesianus (Pl. 29, figs. 1-4),
+where it is characterized by its scaly covering, long ears and tail, and
+the moveable bands about the body.
+
+This animal is associated with the bee culture, as it is represented
+twice in Tro-Cortesianus 103a (Pl. 29, figs. 1, 3) seated below a bee
+under an overhanging roof. The hunting scenes in the Tro-Cortesianus
+also show the armadillo; in 48a (Pl. 29, fig. 4) and in 91a it is shown
+in a pit-fall. In the last case the _Cauac_ signs are clearly seen on
+top of the trap, whereas in the former case the same signs seem to be
+indicated by the crosses. Finally, this same animal occurs seated in
+Tro-Cortesianus 92d (Pl. 29, fig. 2) facing a female figure. There seems
+to be no glyph used in connection with this animal.
+
+YUCATAN BROCKET (_Mazama pandora_). Among the numerous representations
+of deer in the Maya writings, there is but one that appears to show the
+brocket. This occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 92a (Pl. 30, fig. 2), where a
+hoofed animal with a single spike-like horn is shown, seemingly impaled
+on a stake set in the bottom of a pit-fall. As stated by Stempell, this
+animal from the character of its horns is probably to be identified as a
+brocket, though there is nothing to preclude its being a young spike
+buck of some species of _Odocoileus._
+
+YUCATAN DEER (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_; _O. thomasi_). Several species
+of small deer (Maya, _ke_) occur in Mexico and Central America whose
+relationships are not yet thoroughly understood (Pls. 30-32). The
+species of Yucatan and southern Mexico have small lyrate antlers with
+few, short tines, rather different from the broader type of the more
+northern species with well developed secondary tines. The former type of
+antlers seems to be indicated by the conventionalized structure shown in
+Pl. 32, figs. 8-12. These probably represent the Yucatan deer or its
+ally Thomas's deer of southern Mexico. Two of the figures, both from the
+Nuttall Codex, show the lower incisor teeth (Pl. 32, figs. 8, 11),
+though in other cases these are omitted. The larger part of the figures
+of deer represent the does which have no antlers. For this reason it is
+impossible to distinguish females of the brocket from those of the other
+species of deer, if indeed, the Mayas themselves made such a
+distinction. The characteristics of deer drawings are the long head and
+ears, the prominently elevated tail with the hair bristling from its
+posterior side (the characteristic position of the tail when the deer is
+running), the hoofs, and less often the presence of incisors in the
+lower jaw only and of a curious oblong mark at each end of the eye,
+possibly representing the large tear gland.
+
+The deer plays a large part in the Maya ceremonials. It is an important,
+perhaps the most important animal offering as a sacrifice to the gods.
+Several pages of the Tro-Cortesianus (38-49) are given over to the hunt
+and the animal usually represented is the deer, the hunters are shown,
+the methods of trapping, the return from the chase, and the rites in
+connection with the animals slain. Tro-Cortesianus 48b (Pl. 30, fig. 1)
+shows the usual method of trapping where the deer is caught by a cord
+around one of the fore legs. Tro-Cortesianus 91a pictures the same
+method and 92a (Pl. 30, figs. 2) shows where the deer is caught on a
+spike in another type of trap. In Tro-Cortesianus 86a (Pl. 31, fig. 5)
+the deer appears with a rope around his body held by a god who is not
+easily identified.
+
+Interesting descriptions of the hunt are given in several of the early
+accounts.[349-*] It will be noted that the hunt was usually connected
+with the religious rites and the offering of deer meat and various parts
+of the body of the deer had a ceremonial importance. Attention is called
+to similar practices among the Lacandones, the inhabitants of the
+region of the Usumacinta at the present time (Tozzer, 1907), where the
+greater part of the food of the people must, first of all, be offered to
+the gods before it may be eaten by the natives.
+
+The figures of the deer in the codices are clearly associated with god
+M, and the latter may be considered a god of the hunt as well as a god
+of war. It is very unusual to find a quadruped used as a head-dress in
+any way, and yet in several cases we find god M has the head of a deer
+as a sort of head covering, Tro-Cortesianus 50b (Pl. 31, fig. 6), 51c
+(Pl. 31, fig. 7) and 68b. In the first two cases, the god seems to be
+supplied with a bow and arrow. In a passage in Landa (1864, p.
+290)[350-*] there is a description of this very scene.
+
+In the month _Zip_, the hunters each took an arrow and a deer's head
+which was painted blue; thus adorned they danced. God M is found in one
+case in the Dresden in connection with the deer. In Dresden 13c the
+animal is represented as female and is shown in intercourse with god M.
+
+An offering of venison is frequently pictured in the manuscripts. Landa
+(1864, p. 220)[350-[+]] also furnishes a parallel for this. The haunches
+of venison arranged as offerings in dishes are realistically seen in a
+number of representations of religious rites, as in Dresden 28c (Pl. 31,
+fig. 14) in the last of the rites of the dominical days, 35a (Pl. 31,
+fig. 12) and in Tro-Cortesianus 5a above the serpent enclosing the body
+of water, 65a in front of god B or D and 105b (Pl. 31, fig. 13) and 108a
+(Pl. 31, fig. 15), both of which are in connection with the bee
+ceremonies.
+
+The head of the deer, rather than the legs, is also shown as an
+offering, in Tro-Cortesianus 69b with god B and Tro-Cortesianus 78 (Pl.
+31, fig. 10) in the line of glyphs. The whole deer may be represented as
+an offering in Tro-Cortesianus 2b (Pl. 31, fig. 8).[351-*]
+
+There are some examples in the manuscripts where the deer is pictured
+quite apart from any idea of the hunt or an offering. In Tro-Cortesianus
+14b, it is shown on top of the body of one of the large snakes and in
+Tro-Cortesianus 29c (Pl. 31, fig. 3), it appears seated on the end of a
+snake-like curve. The deer occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 30b (Pl. 30, fig.
+6) in connection with the goddess from whose breasts water is flowing.
+God B appears in Dresden 41c (Pl. 31, fig. 1) seated on a red deer. The
+same animal is also to be noted in Dresden 60a (Pl. 30, fig. 5) in
+connection with the combat of the planets.[351-[+]] A deer is seen in
+Tro-Cortesianus 92d seated on a mat opposite a female figure in the same
+manner as the armadillo on the same page and a dog on the preceding
+page. These, as previously noted, probably refer to cohabitation. On Pl.
+32, fig. 9, is a deer from the Peresianus and Pl. 32, fig. 12, shows
+another from Stela N, east, from Copan.
+
+The Nahua day _Ma�atl_ signifies deer and we naturally find a large
+number of glyphs representing this animal among the day signs in the
+Mexican manuscripts (Pl. 31, fig. 9; Pl. 32, figs. 8, 10, 11).
+
+YUCATAN PECCARY (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_; _T. ringens_).
+Peccaries (Maya, _qeqem_) of the _T. angulatum_ group are common in
+Mexico and Yucatan, and a number of local forms have been named. The
+white-lipped peccaries also occur, but in the figures it is impossible
+to distinguish the species. These animals are characterized by their
+prominent snout, curly tail, bristling dorsal crest, and rather
+formidable tusks, as well as by the possession of hoofs. By these marks
+most of the figures are readily identifiable (Pl. 32, fig. 1; Pl. 33,
+figs. 1, 2, 4-6, 9). The tail is, however, often omitted as well as the
+erect line of bristles down the back. The presence of hoofs and the
+possession of a truncated pig-like snout are sufficiently
+characteristic. In the Dresden Codex occur several figures of undoubted
+peccaries. Two of these are pictured in Pl. 32, figs. 2, 4. In each the
+hoofs and curly tail appear, and in the latter figure the bristling back
+is conventionally drawn by a series of serrations. These marks are
+sufficient to identify the animals. Their heads are further
+conventionalized, however, by a great exaggeration of the snout beyond
+that slightly indicated in Pl. 32, fig. 1, and Pl. 33, figs. 6, 9. Other
+representations of the peccary, are shown in Pl. 32, fig. 5, a man with
+a peccary's head, and fig. 7 in which the animal's hoofs are replaced by
+human hands and feet. In both cases the form of the head remains
+characteristic. A curious combination is shown in Pl. 32, fig. 3, an
+animal whose head and fore feet are those of a peccary, while the hind
+feet have five toes, and there is a long tail. The addition of what look
+like scales is found in a figure from the Dresden (Pl. 32, fig. 6).
+
+The peccary is found in several different connections in the
+manuscripts. As deer are found associated with the hunt, so, but to a
+much more limited extent, the peccary. It is represented pictured as
+being captured in snares of the familiar "jerk-up" type. Similar
+drawings show this animal caught by the foreleg and held partially
+suspended, Tro-Cortesianus 49a (Pl. 33, fig. 9),[352-*] 49c (Pl. 33,
+fig. 1), and 93a (Pl. 33, fig. 4). Tro-Cortesianus 41b also shows the
+peccary associated with hunting scenes. Another realistic drawing of
+this animal in Dresden 62 (Pl. 33, fig. 6)[352-[+]] represents him as
+seated on the open jaws of a serpent connected with a long number
+series. We are unable to explain the signification of the appearance of
+the animal in this connection. The peccary is pictured in
+Tro-Cortesianus 27b (Pl. 33, fig. 5) seated on the left hand of the
+goddess from whose breasts water is flowing.
+
+The peccary seems to be associated with the sky, as it is seen in a
+conventionalized form in four instances (Dresden 44b, 45b, (Pl. 32, fig.
+4)[TN-9] coming from a band of constellation signs and in Dresden 68a (Pl.
+32, fig. 2) coming from a similar band with god E sitting
+underneath.[353-*] Above each of these conventionalized figures occur
+the corresponding glyph forms (Pl. 33, figs. 7, 8), which show merely
+the head with the exaggerated upturned snout. There is a striking
+resemblance between these snouts and those of the stone mask-like
+figures so frequently represented as a fa�ade decoration in northern
+Yucatan. The presence in the mouths of the faces there represented of a
+recurved tusk in addition to other teeth is a further resemblance to the
+drawings of peccaries. Stempell (1908, p. 718) has reproduced a
+photograph of these extraordinary carvings and considers them the heads
+of mastodons, apparently solely on account of the shape of the upturned
+snout, whose tip in many of the carvings turns forward. They certainly
+do not represent the heads of mastodons, but we are not ready to say
+that the peccary is the prototype of these carvings, although the
+similarity between the glyphs (Pl. 33, figs. 7, 8) and the masks is
+worthy of note. One point which does not favor this explanation is the
+fact that on the eastern fa�ade of the Monjas at Chichen Itza where the
+mask-like panel is seen at its best, we find a realistic drawing of a
+peccary (Pl. 33, fig. 2) on the band of glyphs over the doorway, and it
+in no way suggests the head on the panel and is quite different from the
+head already noted as the glyph of the peccary in the codices.
+
+BAIRD'S TAPIR (_Tapirella bairdi_). No undoubted representations of
+tapirs occur in the manuscripts here considered. Possibly tapirs did
+not live in the country occupied by the Maya peoples. At the present
+time they are found only to the south of Yucatan. In Central America
+Baird's and Dow's tapirs are native, the latter, however, more on the
+Pacific coast. We have included a drawing of an earthenware vessel (Pl.
+28, fig. 1) that represents a tapir, about whose neck is a string of
+Oliva shells. The short prehensile trunk of the tapir is well made and
+the hoofs are likewise shown. A greatly elongated nose is found in many
+of the drawings of the deities, but it does not seem clear that these
+represent trunks of tapirs, or, as suggested by Stempell, mastodons! Two
+such heads are shown in Pl. 39, figs. 7, 9. These offer a considerable
+superficial resemblance to that of a tapir, but as no other drawings
+that might be considered to represent this animal are found, it seems
+very questionable if the long noses are other than parts of grotesque
+masks. The superficial resemblance of the curious nose pieces of the
+masks on the panel of the Maya fa�ades to elephants' trunks does not
+seem to us especially significant, as otherwise the carvings are quite
+unlike elephants. They have no great tusks as an elephant should, but,
+instead, short recurved teeth similar to those representing peccary
+tusks, as already pointed out.
+
+RABBIT (_Sylvilagus_ or _Lepus_). Rabbits and hares from their
+familiarity, their long ears, and their peculiar method of locomotion,
+seem always to attract the notice of primitive peoples. Several species
+occur in Mexico, including the Marsh rabbit (_Sylvilagus truei_; _S.
+insonus_), various races of the Cottontail rabbit (_S. floridanus
+connectens_; _S. f. chiapensis_, _S. f. yucatanicus_; _S. aztecus_; _S.
+orizabae_, etc.) and several Jack rabbits (_Lepus alleni pallitans_; _L.
+callotis flavigularis_, _L. asellus_). It is, of course, quite
+impossible to determine to which of these species belong the few
+representations found. Several drawings, shown in Pl. 30, figs. 3, 4, 7,
+8, are at once identifiable as rabbits from their long ears, round
+heads, and the presence of the prominent gnawing teeth.[354-*] In two
+of the figures (Pl. 30, figs. 7, 8), the entire animal is shown, sitting
+erect on its haunches, the first with one ear in advance of the other, a
+trait more characteristic of the jack rabbit than of the short-eared
+rabbits. For convenience of comparison, we have placed beside these two
+figures one of a deer in much the same position. It is at once
+distinguished, however, by its long head, longer bushy tail, and by the
+marks at each end of the eye. What at first sight appear to be two
+gnawing teeth of the rabbit seem to be the incisors of the lower jaw.
+This is the animal identified by Stempell as a dog.
+
+The animal shown to be a rabbit in Dresden 61 (Pl. 30, fig. 8) is
+pictured seated on the open jaws of a serpent in the same way as the
+peccary on the following page. These two animals, together with two
+representations of god B and the black god (Dresden 61), are each
+clearly connected with the serpents on which they are sitting.
+
+The Nahua day _Tochtli_ signifies rabbit and naturally the animal occurs
+throughout the Mexican manuscripts as representing this day (Pl. 30,
+figs. 3, 4).
+
+OTHER RODENTS. We have included in Pl. 29, figs. 5, 7, 8, three
+undetermined mammals. The second of these is characterized by the two
+prominent gnawing teeth of a rodent and by its long tail. It may
+represent a pack rat (_Neotoma_) of which many species are described
+from Mexico. In its rounded ears and long tail, fig. 5 somewhat
+resembles fig. 7, but it lacks the gnawing incisors. Still less
+satisfactory is fig. 8 from Tro-Cortesianus 24d, at whose identity it
+seems unsafe to hazard a guess. It is shown as eating the corn being
+sowed by god D.
+
+JAGUAR (_Felis hernandezi_; _F. h. goldmani_). Throughout its range, the
+jaguar (Maya, _balam_ or _t[vs]akmul_) is the most dreaded of the
+carnivorous mammals. It is, therefore, natural that the Mayas held it in
+great awe and used it as a symbol of strength and courage. A few
+characteristic figures are shown in Pl. 34, figs. 1-3; Pl. 35, figs.
+5-14. The species represented is probably _Felis hernandezi_, the
+Mexican race of jaguar, or one or the other of the more or less nominal
+varieties named from Central America. The distinguishing mark of the
+jaguar, in addition to the general form with the long tail, short ears
+and claws, is the presence of the rosette-like spots. These are
+variously conventionalized as solid black markings, as small circles, or
+as a central spot ringed by a circle of dots (Pl. 35, fig. 12).
+Frequently the solid black spots are used, either in a line down the
+back and tail or scattered over the body. The tip of the tail is
+characteristically black, and the teeth are often prominent. Such a
+figure as this (Pl. 35, fig. 10) Stempell considers to be a water
+opossum (_Chironectes_), for the reason that it is held by the goddess
+from whose breast water is flowing. This can hardly be, however, for not
+only are the markings unlike those of the water opossum, but the large
+canine tooth indicates a large carnivore. Moreover, the water opossum is
+a small animal, hardly as big as a rat, of shy and retiring habits, and
+so is unlikely to figure in the drawings of the Mayas.
+
+As for the significance of the jaguar in the life of the Mayas, it may
+be said that this animal seems to have played a most prominent part. At
+Chichen Itza, the building on top of the southern end of the eastern
+wall of the Ball Court, usually called the Temple of the Tigers, has a
+line of jaguars carved in stone as frieze around the outside of the
+building, and in the Lower Chamber of the same structure, the figure of
+a jaguar (Maudslay, III, Pl. 43) serves as an altar. The front legs and
+the head of a jaguar often are seen as the support of a seat or altar on
+which a god is represented as at Palenque in the Palace, House E
+(Maudslay, IV, Pl. 44) and in the Temple of the Beau Relief (Holmes,
+1895-1897, Pl. 20). Altar F at Copan (Pl. 35, fig. 7) shows the same
+idea. The head of a puma or jaguar (Pl. 34, fig. 6) appears in the
+bas-relief of the Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers, evidently
+representing a part of an altar. A realistic carving of a jaguar was
+found on a stone near the Temple of the Cones at Chichen Itza (Maudslay,
+III, Pl. 52, fig. a), and another occurs near the present hacienda of
+Chichen Itza carved in relief on a ledge of rock.
+
+In the Maya manuscripts the jaguar appears in a number of connections.
+Its mythological character is shown in Dresden 8a (Pl. 35, fig. 5),
+where it is pictured as the _tonalamatl_ figure. The day reached here in
+the reckoning is _Ix_, and this corresponds to the Nahua _Oceolotl_,
+which means jaguar. In Dresden 26, in the pages showing the ceremonies
+of the years, the jaguar is carried on the back of the priest, evidently
+representing one of the year bearers (_Ti cuch haab_). Balam, the name
+of the jaguar, is the title given to the four _Bacabs_ or _Chacs_, the
+gods of the four cardinal points. In Tro-Cortesianus 64a, two jaguar
+heads are noted as the end of curious bands of _Caban_ signs over a
+flaming pot. The second one is shown as dead. A jaguar head is employed
+in two places in the Tro-Cortesianus, 34a and 36a, as a head-dress for a
+god who is in the act of sowing corn. This animal appears very
+infrequently in the pages of the Tro-Cortesianus given over to the
+hunting scenes, 41c, 40c, 43b, and, even here, it never appears in the
+same way as the deer and peccary, as an animal for sacrifice.
+
+The jaguar as a predacious beast is noted in Tro-Cortesianus 28b (Pl.
+35, fig. 8), where it is attacking god F in a similar way as the
+vultures in the preceding picture. The jaguar appears in Tro-Cortesianus
+30b (Pl. 35, fig. 10) seated on the right hand of the goddess from whose
+breasts water is flowing. The figure in Tro-Cortesianus 12b between the
+various offerings may be a jaguar or a dog, more probably from its
+connection with an offering, the dog. A curious modification of the
+jaguar may be shown in Tro-Cortesianus 20a (Pl. 34, fig. 2), where a god
+is seated on the gaping jaws of some animal whose identity is uncertain.
+It may be a serpent, although the black-tipped tail from which the head
+appears to come certainly suggests the jaguar.
+
+There are several carved glyphs in stone that probably represent
+jaguars. Two of these (Pl. 28, fig. 4; Pl. 35, fig. 9) have the
+characteristic round spots, but others are unmarked, and suggest the
+jaguar by their general character only (Pl. 35, fig. 6). This latter
+may, of course, represent the puma quite as well. A realistic jaguar
+head appears as a glyph in Tro-Cortesianus 2a (Pl. 35, fig. 13). The
+more usual glyph for the jaguar is more highly conventionalized,
+although the spots and the short rounded ear are still characteristic
+(Pl. 35, fig. 11). A slight modification of this glyph appears in
+Dresden 8a in connection with the full drawing of the animal below.
+
+The Nahua day _Oceolotl_, as already noted, means jaguar, and the jaguar
+glyph is found among the day signs (Pl. 34, fig. 3). Seler (1904, p.
+379) associates the jaguar in the Vaticanus and the Bologna with
+_Tezcatlipoca_. He notes that the second age of the world, in which the
+giants lived and in which _Tezcatlipoca_ shone as the sun, is called the
+"jaguar sun." _Tezcatlipoca_ is supposed to have changed himself into a
+jaguar.
+
+PUMA (_Felis bangsi costaricensis_). As shown by Stempell, there can be
+little doubt that some one of the mainly nominal species of Central
+American puma is represented in Dresden 47 (Pl. 34, fig. 7). This animal
+is colored reddish in the original, as is the puma, is without spots,
+although the tip of the tail, as in the pictures of the jaguar, is
+black. The animal is represented as being transfixed with a
+spear.[358-*] Another animal colored red in Dresden 41c seems to
+represent a puma. God B is shown seated upon him. A crude figure from
+the Painted Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers (Pl. 34, fig. 5) is
+probably the same species of puma. The cleverly executed head, shown in
+profile in Pl. 34, fig. 6, is also perhaps the same animal, although it
+may possibly represent the jaguar. One or the other of these two cats is
+also intended, in Pl. 34, fig. 4, a drawing of a piece of pottery.
+
+COYOTE (_Canis_). Two figures from the Nuttall Codex have been included
+as possibly representing coyotes (Pl. 35, figs. 1, 2). They are chiefly
+characterized by their prominent ears and bristling hair, and seem to be
+engaged in active combat. Coyotes of several species occur in Mexico and
+though not generally regarded as aggressive animals are of a predacious
+nature. No drawings of the coyote have been noted in the Maya codices.
+
+DOG (_Canis_). The dog (Maya, _peq_) evidently played an important part
+in the life of the Mayas as it does with other races of men generally.
+On Pls. 36, 37, we have included certain figures of dogs from several
+manuscripts. These may represent two breeds, for it is well known that
+both a hairy and a hairless variety were found by the early discoverers
+in Mexico.[359-*] Hairiness is more or less clearly indicated in the
+following figures:--Pl. 36, figs. 1-7, 12; Pl. 37, figs. 4, 5. The
+figures of dogs usually agree in having a black mark about the eyes that
+frequently is produced as a downward curved tongue from the posterior
+canthus. Sometimes, as in Pl. 37, figs. 1-3, 10, this tongue is not
+blackened. Commonly also black patches are elsewhere distributed on the
+body, generally on the back. These markings are probably the patches of
+color separated by white areas that occur frequently in dogs or other
+animals after long domestication.[359-[+]] We have included among the
+figures of dogs two in which the eye is differently represented and
+which are unspotted (Pl. 37, figs. 4, 6). These modifications may have
+some special significance, but otherwise the animals appear most closely
+to represent dogs.
+
+We have already suggested that the animal attired in man's clothing, and
+walking erect in Dresden 25a-28a is likewise a dog, though Stempell
+believes it to represent the opossum in support of which he calls
+attention to its prominent vibrissae and slightly curled tail.
+
+The dog played a large part in the religion both of the Mayas and the
+Mexican peoples. It was connected especially with the idea of death and
+destruction. The Lacandones of the present time make a small figure of a
+dog to place on the grave (Tozzer, 1907, p. 47). This is but one of the
+many survivals of the ancient pre-Columbian religion found among this
+people. The dog was regarded as the messenger to prepare the way to the
+other world. Seler (1900-1901, pp. 82-83) gives an interesting parallel
+of the Nahua idea of the dog and his connection with death. He
+paraphrases Sahagun as follows: "The native Mexican dogs barked, wagged
+their tails, in a word, behaved in all respects like our own dogs, were
+kept by the Mexicans not only as house companions, but above all, for
+the shambles, and also in Yucatan and on the coast land for sacrifice.
+The importance that the dog had acquired in the funeral rites may
+perhaps have originated in the fact that, as the departed of both sexes
+were accompanied by their effects, the prince by the women and slaves in
+his service, so the dog was assigned to the grave as his master's
+associate, friend, and guard, and that the persistence of this custom in
+course of time created the belief that the dog stood in some special
+relation to the kingdom of the dead. It may also be that, simply because
+it was the practice to burn the dead, the dog was looked on as the Fire
+God's animal and the emblem of fire, the natives got accustomed to speak
+of him as the messenger to prepare the way in the kingdom of the dead,
+and thus eventually to regard him as such. At the time when the
+Spaniards made their acquaintance, it was the constant practice of the
+Mexicans to commit to the grave with the dead a dog who had to be of a
+red-yellow color, and had a string of unspun cotton round his neck, and
+was first killed by the thrust of a dart in his throat. The Mexicans
+believed that four years after death, when the soul had already passed
+through many dangers on its way to the underworld, it came at last to
+the bank of a great river, the Chicunauhapan, which encircled the
+underworld proper. The souls could get across this river only when they
+were awaited by their little dog, who, recognizing his master on the
+opposite side, rushed into the water to bring him over." (Sahagun, 3
+Appendix, Chap. 1.)
+
+As might be expected from the foregoing, there are abundant evidences in
+the manuscripts of the presence of the dog in the various religious
+rites and especially those which have to do with the other world, the
+Kingdom of the Dead. In Tro-Cortesianus 35b, 36b, 37a, 37b, the pages
+showing the rites of the four years, the dog appears in various
+attitudes. In 35b and 36b, it bears on his back the _Imix_ and _Kan_
+signs, in 37a (Pl. 37, fig. 8) it is shown as beating a drum and
+singing, in 37b (Pl. 36, fig. 2) it is beside a bowl containing _Kan_
+signs. In all of these places, the dogs seem to be represented among the
+various birds and animals which are to be sacrificed for the new years.
+Landa (1864, p. 216)[361-*] states that in the _Kan_ year a dog was
+sacrificed. In the _Muluc_ year, Landa (1864, p. 222)[361-[+]] records
+that they offered dogs made of clay with bread upon their backs and a
+_perrito_ which had black shoulders and was a virgin. It has already
+been noted that two of the dogs represented in Tro-Cortesianus 35b and
+36b have a _Kan_ and _Imix_ sign fastened to the back. Moreover, we have
+also pointed out that the _Kan_ sign frequently seems to have the
+meaning of maize or bread. It will be noted that in Tro-Cortesianus 36b
+two human feet are shown on each of which is a dog-like
+animal.[361-[++]] These may indicate the dance in which dogs were
+carried as noted by Landa. Cogolludo (1688, p. 184)[361-�] also mentions
+a similar dance. Still another reference in Landa (1864, p. 260)[362-*]
+mentions that in the months _Muan_ and _Pax_ dogs were sacrificed to the
+deities.
+
+Reference has already been made to the identification of the four
+priests at the top of Dresden 25-28 as having the heads of dogs rather
+than of opossums. It may be suggested that in the r�le of the conductor
+to the other world the dog is represented as carrying on his back in
+each case the year which has just been completed and therefore is dead.
+This, of course, would necessitate the identification of god B, the
+jaguar, god E, and god A as representing in turn the four years.
+
+The dog, according to Sahagun's account (p. 360) was looked upon as the
+"Fire God's animal," and as an emblem of fire. This idea is seen
+frequently in the Maya manuscripts where the dog with firebrands in his
+paws or attached to his tail is coming head downward from a line of
+constellation signs, as in Dresden 36a (Pl. 37, fig. 3), 40b (Pl. 37,
+fig. 1) or is standing beneath similar signs as in Dresden 39a (Pl. 37,
+fig. 2) and probably in Tro-Cortesianus 13a. His tail alone has the
+firebrand in Tro-Cortesianus 36b. Firebrands are carried by figures
+which have been identified by us as dogs in Tro-Cortesianus 24c (Pl. 37,
+fig. 6), 25c, and 90a. Here the animal is represented as in the air
+holding his firebrands over a blazing altar beside which god F is
+seated. In two out of the four cases, F is shown as dead. The dog in
+these latter examples has his eye composed of the _Akbal_ sign. This
+same glyph can also be made out with difficulty on the forehead of the
+dog shown in Dresden 36a (Pl. 37, fig. 3). As has been noted, _Akbal_
+means night and possibly death as well. It is certain that destruction
+is indicated in the preceding examples as well as in Tro-Cortesianus 87a
+and 88a (Pl. 37, fig. 4) where the dog is holding four human figures by
+the hair.
+
+Beyer (1908, pp. 419-422) has identified the dog as the Pleiades and
+various other suggestions have been made that the dog represents some
+constellation. The more common form of spotted dog is shown as a single
+_tonalamatl_ figure in Tro-Cortesianus 25d and 27d (Pl. 36, fig. 14) and
+an unspotted variety in Dresden 7a (Pl. 37, fig. 10). The dog is
+frequently shown as copulating with another animal or with a female
+figure. In Dresden 13c (Pl. 37, fig. 7) the second figure is a vulture,
+in Dresden 21b (Pl. 37, fig. 5) it is a woman and also in
+Tro-Cortesianus 91c (Pl. 36, fig. 12).
+
+The same animal appears also in a number of scenes not included in the
+preceding. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 36, fig. 1) a dog is seated on a
+crab and seems to be connected with the idea of the north as this sign
+is noted above the figure; in Tro-Cortesianus 66b (Pl. 36, fig. 3) a dog
+and another animal (Pl. 32, fig. 3) are seated back to back under a
+shelter; in Tro-Cortesianus 30b a dog is seated on the right foot of the
+woman from whose breasts water is streaming; in Dresden 29a (Pl. 37,
+fig. 12) god B is shown seated on a dog; and, finally, in Dresden 30a
+(Pl. 37, fig. 9) god B holds the bound dog by the tail over an altar.
+
+The dog appears from numerous references to be used in connection with a
+prayer for rain. Comargo (1843) in his history of Tlaxcallan states that
+when rain failed, a procession was held in which a number of hairless
+dogs were carried on decorated litters to a place devoted to their use.
+There they were sacrificed to the god of water and the bodies were
+eaten.
+
+The glyphs associated with the dog are interesting as we have, as in the
+case with the deer, one showing a realistic drawing of a dog's head in
+Tro-Cortesianus 91d (Pl. 37, fig. 13) and several others far more
+difficult of interpretation. Pl. 37, fig. 11, seems to stand for the dog
+as it is found in several places where the dog appears below, Dresden
+21b, 40b. It is thought by some to represent the ribs of a dog which
+appear in somewhat similar fashion in Pl. 37, fig. 8. Some of the
+glyphs in the codices for the month _Kankin_ show the same element (text
+figs. 8-10).
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 8, 9, 10.
+GLYPHS FOR MAYA MONTH KANKIN (RIBS OF DOG).]
+
+The Nahua day sign _Itzcuintli_ signifies dog and corresponds to the
+Maya Oc (Pl. 36, figs. 9-11). This in turn is considered by many to
+stand for the dog as the animal of death and signifies the end. The
+sore, cropped ears of the domesticated dog are supposed to be
+represented in this sign, Oc. Nahua and other day signs for _Itzcuintli_
+(dog) are shown in Pl. 36, figs. 4, 6, 13.
+
+BEAR (_Ursus machetes_; _U. horriaeus_). In northern Mexico, in
+Chihuahua and Sonora, occur a black bear (_Ursus machetes_) and the
+Sonoran grizzly (_U. horriaeus_). It is unlikely that the Mayas had much
+acquaintance with these animals since they range more to the northward
+than the area of Maya occupation. Stempell has identified as a bear, a
+figure in Dresden 37a (Pl. 35, fig. 3). This represents a creature with
+the body of a man walking erect but with the head apparently of some
+carnivorous mammal, as shown by the prominent canine tooth. This appears
+as a _tonalamatl_ figure. The resemblance to a bear is not very clear.
+Less doubt attaches to the figure shown in Pl. 35, fig. 4, which seems
+almost certainly to depict a bear. The stout body, absence of a tail,
+the plantigrade hind feet, and stout claws, all seem to proclaim it a
+bear of one of the two species above mentioned. This picture is found in
+connection with one of the warriors shown in the bas-relief of the Lower
+Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza. It seems clearly to
+designate the figure in much the same way as figures are named in the
+Mexican writings, _i.e._, by having a glyph showing this nearby.
+Attention has already been called to the fact that here at Chichen Itza,
+and, especially on this bas-relief, there is much which shows a strong
+influence from the north. The two figures in Tro-Cortesianus 43a are
+probably bears. F�rstemann (1902, p. 68) considers that they are men
+masked as _Chacs_ or _Bacabs_.
+
+LEAF-NOSED BAT (_Vampyrus spectrum_; _Artibeus jamaicensis_; or
+_Phyllostomus hastatus panamensis_). Several remarkably diabolical
+representations of bats (Maya, _so[c]_, usually written _zotz_) occur
+among the Maya remains. These all show the prominent nose leaf
+distinguishing the family _Phyllostomatidae_ and, as the Mayas probably
+used the largest and most conspicuous of the native species for artistic
+representation, it is likely that some one of the three species above
+mentioned is the one here shown.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 11, 12, 13, 14.
+GLYPHS FOR MAYA MONTH ZOTZ (BATS).]
+
+The bat had a place in the Maya pantheon. One of the months of the Maya
+year (_Zotz_) was named after this animal and the glyph for this month
+shows the characteristic nasal appendage. This is to be seen more
+clearly in the glyphs selected from the stone inscriptions (Pl. 38,
+figs. 1, 2, 4-6) than in those from the codices (text figs. 11-14)
+although the nose leaf is still visible in the latter. The day sign
+_Akbal_ (night) occurs as the eye in the figures from the manuscripts. A
+carving showing the whole body of the bat is used as a glyph in Stela D
+from Copan (Pl. 38, fig. 3). This may also represent the Bat god who is
+associated with the underworld, "the god of the caverns." This god is
+pictured on the "Vase of Chama" (Pl. 38, fig. 7) figured by Dieseldorff
+(1904, pp. 665-666) and by Gordon (1898, Pl. III). Seler (1904a) has
+discussed the presence of this god among the Mayas, the Zapotecs, and
+the Nahuas. The bat does not seem to occur in the Maya manuscripts as a
+god, although there are glyphs which seem to refer to this god (Dresden
+17b), as pointed out by Seler, when there is no other representation of
+this deity.
+
+No doubt in the times of the Maya civilization, these bats haunted the
+temples by day as they do now, and thus became readily endowed with a
+religious significance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.
+POTTERY WHISTLE, APE. FROM ULOA VALLEY, HONDURAS.]
+
+CAPUCHIN MONKEY (_Cebus capucinus,--C. hypoleucus_ Auct.)[TN-10] With the
+possible exception of one or two figures, monkeys (Maya, _maa[vs]_ or
+_baa[c]_) are not represented in the Maya codices examined. In
+Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 39, fig. 4) occurs a curious nondescript animal
+with what seem to be hoofs on the forefeet, a somewhat bushy tail of
+moderate length, and a head that appears to be distinctly bonneted,
+somewhat as in the representations of the capuchin. Stempell regards
+this as a monkey, though recognizing that the short bushy tail is unlike
+that of any Central American species. The figure seems quite as likely a
+peccary or possibly a combination of a deer with some other animal. A
+glyph (Pl. 39, fig. 5) found directly above the figure just referred
+to, suggests a monkey, though it cannot be surely identified. A pottery
+whistle from the Uloa Valley (text fig. 15) shows two monkeys standing
+side by side with a posterior extension for the mouth piece. Their heads
+are shaped as in other representations of this monkey with a distinct
+cap or bonnet and facial discs. A pottery stamp from the same locality
+shows a monkey with a long tail (Gordon, 1898, Pl. 11, fig. f). It
+recalls the drawings of monkeys given by Strebel (1899, Pls. 1-4).
+
+In the Nuttall Codex are numerous heads and a few other figures of a
+monkey, which from the erect hair of the crown, curling tail, and
+distinctly indicated facial area must be the common bonneted or capuchin
+monkey of Central America. This species does not occur in Yucatan. What
+is undoubtedly the same animal is shown as a head glyph in Pl. 39, fig.
+8, from the Aubin manuscript. The identifications of the head-forming
+glyphs in the Nuttall and the Aubin manuscripts are certainly correct as
+the Nahua day sign (_O�omatli_) means ape.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 16, 17, 18, 19.
+GLYPHS FOR MAYA DAY CHUEN.]
+
+Text figs. 16-19, show some of the signs for the day _Chuen_ from the
+Maya codices. This is the day corresponding to the day O�omatli of the
+Nahuas. There is little resembling an ape in the Maya signs although it
+has been remarked that the sign may show the open jaws and teeth of this
+animal.
+
+F�rstemann (1897) as noted by Schellhas (1904, p. 21) alludes to the
+fact that the figure of god C, which occurs also in the sign for the
+north, in the _tonalamatl_ in Dresden 4a-10a occurs in the day _Chuen_
+of the Maya calendar, and this corresponds to the day _O�omatli_, the
+ape, in the Nahua calendar. This would suggest a connection between god
+C and the ape and this may be seen in the glyphs for god C (text figs.
+20-24). F�rstemann sees "an ape whose lateral nasal cavity (peculiar to
+the American ape or monkey) is occasionally represented plainly in the
+hieroglyph picture." He also associates god C with the constellation of
+Ursa Minor.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 20, 21, 22, 23, 24.
+GLYPHS OF GOD C.]
+
+It will be seen from the detailed examination of the fauna shown in the
+codices that after all a comparatively small part of the animal life of
+the country occupied by the Maya speaking peoples is represented. The
+drawings in some cases are fairly accurate, so that there is little
+difficulty in determining the species intended by the artist. At other
+times, it is hazardous to state the exact species to which the animal
+belongs. It is only in a comparatively small number of cases, however,
+that there is any great doubt attached to the identification. It will be
+noted that the drawings of the Dresden manuscript are much more
+carefully and accurately done than those of the Tro-Cortesianus. A
+greater delicacy and a more minute regard for detail characterize the
+Dresden drawings in general.
+
+In the animals selected for reproduction by the Mayas, only those were
+taken which were used either in a purely religious significance for
+their mythological character (and here naturally there is to be noted an
+anthropomorphic tendency) or animals were chosen which were employed as
+offerings to the many different gods of the Maya pantheon. The religious
+character of the whole portrayal of animal life in the codices is
+clearly manifest, and it is this side of the subject which will come out
+more clearly as the manuscripts are better known.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[300-*] Quoted in Thomas, 1882, pp. 115, 116.
+
+[300-[+]] "En el mes de _Tzoz_ se aparejavan los se�ores de las
+colmenares para celebrar su fiesta en _Tzec_."
+
+[301-*] "En este mes (_Mol_) tornavan los colmenares a hazer otra fiesta
+como la que hizieron en _Tzec_, para que los dioses proveessen de flores
+a las avejas."
+
+[303-*] Strebel (1899, Pl. 11) gives several realistic reproductions of
+the centipede from pottery fragments.
+
+[309-*] Attention is also called to two whistles representing frogs in
+the _Memoirs of the Peabody Museum_, I, _No._ 4 (Gordon, 1898), Pl. 9,
+figs, i, j.
+
+[311-*] We have added here a Spanish description from the _Relacion de
+la Ciudad de M�rida_ (1900, pp. 66, 67) of the varieties of serpent
+found in the country. "Ay una suerte de culebra que llaman los naturales
+taxinchan, de una tercia de largo, que para andar hinca la cabeza en el
+suelo y da un salto, y de aquella suerte dando saltos anda, la espalda y
+la cabeza tiene dorada y la punta dela cola este se cria en los montes,
+y quando pica a alguna persona le haze reventar sangre por todos los
+poros del cuerpo que pareze que suda sangre y si no es le haze algun
+rremedio muere dentro de un dia natural y para la mordedura desta
+culebra tienen por rremedio los naturales dar a bever ala tal persona
+chile y hoja de piciete molido junto y desleido en agua, y con esto
+guarecen e sanan--ay biboras muy grandes y ponzo�osas de una vara e mas
+de largo, y tan gruesa como un brazo, que tienen cascabeles en la punta
+de la cola, y si muerden matan sino se rremedio con brebedad, y tienen
+los naturales por rremedio beber chile e piciete como para la mordedura
+del taxinchan--ay otras suertes de culebras que se llaman cocob, de tres
+y cuatro varas de largo y tan gruesas como una lanza gineta, que tanbien
+son muy ponzo�osas, y al que pican haze salir sangre por todo el cuerpo
+y por los ojos, como el taxinchan, ... procuraban guarecerse desta
+ponzo�a con juros y encantamentos, que avia grandes en cantadores y
+tenian sus libros para conjurarlas y encantarlas, y estos encantadores,
+con pocas palabras que dezian, encantaban y amansaban las culebras
+ponzo�osas, las cojian y tomaban con las manos sin que les hiziese mal
+ninguno--tanbien ay culebras bobas sin ponzo�as, de dos varas y mas de
+largo y tan gruesas como el brazo, y suelen ponerse sobre arboles juntos
+alos caminos, y quando pasa alguna persona se deja caer encima y se le
+enros�a y rebuelve al cuerpo y a la garganta, y apretando le procura
+ahogarle y matarle, a sucedido matar algunos yndios ca�adores yendo
+descuidados--tanbien tienen estas culebras distinto natural para comer y
+sustentarse."
+
+[313-*] Pl. 9, figs. 5, 9, show drawings of the rattlesnake which occur
+on the fresco.
+
+[316-*] The reader is also referred to the bas-relief of the Lower
+Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza where a serpent is
+shown behind a low altar.
+
+[317-*] F�rstemann (1906, p. 15) agrees with Schellhas that this may be
+a rebus for the name _Quetzalcoatl_ or _Kukulcan_. As the bird is a
+vulture rather than a quetzal this could hardly be the case.
+
+[317-[+]] "Y con isopo en el mano de un palo corto muy labrado, y por
+barbas o pelos del isopo ciertas colas de unas culebras que son como
+caxcavales."
+
+[318-*] Brinton (1893, p. 25) notes that the equivalent of _Kan_ in the
+Nahuatl of Miztitlan is _xilotl_ which means ear of corn. This seems to
+show the correctness of the usual identification of the _Kan_ sign as
+meaning maize or bread (_pan_).
+
+[318-[+]] "Y les ofrec�an dos pellas de una leche o resina de un arbol
+que llaman _kik_, para quemar y ciertas iguanas y pan y una mitra y un
+manojo de flores y una piedra preciosa de las suyas."
+
+[319-*] "Y pintaban un largarto que significaba el Diluvio--y la tierra
+e sobre este largarto hazian un gran monton de le�a y ponianle fuego."
+
+[323-*] See in this connection Seler, 1904.
+
+[327-*] "Y ofrecerle cabe�as de pavos y pan y bevidas de maiz."
+
+[327-[+]] (Kan year) "Sahumavan la imagen, degollavan una gallina y se
+la presentavan o offrecian ... y assi le hazian muchas offrendas de
+comidas y bevidas de carne y pescado, y estas offrendas repartian a los
+estrangeros que alli se hallavan."
+
+(Muluc year) "Y despues degollavanle la gallina como al passado."
+
+(Ix year) "Y degollavan la gallina ... a la estatua de _Kac-u-Uayeyab_
+ofrescian una cabe�a de un pavo, y empanados de codornices y otras
+coasa[TN-11] y su bevida."
+
+(Cauac year) "Coma solian y degollavanle la gallina ... un hombre muerto
+y en cima un paxaro cenicero llamad _kuch_, en se�al de mortandad
+grande, ca por muy mal a�o tenian este."
+
+[330-*] F�rstemann identifies this bird as a black eagle.
+
+[333-*] "Este a�o en que la letra era _Cauac_ y reynava el
+_Bacab-Hozanek_ tenian, allende de la pronosticada mortandad, por ruyn,
+por que dezian les avian los muchos soles de matar los maizales, y comer
+las muchas hormigas lo que sembrassen y los paxaros, y porque esto no
+seria en todas partes avria en algunos comida, la qual avrian con gran
+trabajo."
+
+[338-*] Brinton (1895, p. 74), according to our interpretation, makes a
+mistake when he considers the crested falcon as the Moan, "in Maya
+_muan_ or _muyan_." He adds, "Some writers have thought the moan bird
+was a mythical animal but Dr. C. H. Berendt found the name still applied
+to the falcon. In the form _muyan_, it is akin in sound to _muyal_,
+cloud, _muan_, cloudy, which may account for its adoption as a symbol of
+the rains, etc."
+
+[341-*] "Crian paxaros para su recreacion y para las plumas para hazer
+sus ropas galanas."
+
+[349-*] _Relacion hecha por el Licenciado Palacio al Rey. D. Felipe II_
+(1866, p. 31). "Lo que hacian en los sacrificios de la pesca y caza, era
+que tomaban un venado vivo y llev�banlo al patio del cu � iglesia que
+tenian fuera del pueblo y all� lo ahogaban y lo desollaban y le salaban
+toda la sangre en una olla, y el h�gado y bofes y buches los hacian
+pedazos muy peque�os y apartaban el corazon, cabeza y pies, y mandaban
+cocer el venado por si, la sangre for[TN-12] s�, y mientras esto se
+cocia, hacian su baile. Tomaban el Papa y s�bio la cabeza del venado por
+las orejas, y los cuatro sacerdotes los cuatro pies, y el mayordomo
+llevaba un brasero, do se quemaba el corazon con ul� y copa, � incensaban
+al �dolo que tenian puesto y se�alado para la caza y pesca. Acabado el
+mitote, ofrecian la cabeza y pi�s al �dolo y chamusc�banla, y despues de
+chamuscada, la llevaban � casa del Papa y se la comia y el venado y su
+sangre comian los dem�s sacerdotes delante del �dolo; � los pescados les
+sacaban las tripas y los quemaban ante el dicho �dolo. Lo propio era con
+los dem�s animales."
+
+_Relacion de Cotuta y Tibolon_ (1898, p. 105). "Un dios que dezian que
+eran benados en matando un yndio un benado benia luego a su dios y con
+el cora�on le untaba la cara de sangre y sino mataba algo aquel dia
+ybase a su casa aquel yndio le quebraba y dabale de cozes diziendo que
+no era buen dios."
+
+Cogolludo (1688, Book I, Chap. VII, p. 43) "Correan tan poco los
+venados, y tan sin espantarse de la gente, que los soldados de � cavallo
+del exercito los alcancavan, y alan�eavan, muy � su placer, y de esta
+suerte mataron muchos de ellos, con que comieron algunos dias despues
+... Que en que consistia aquella novedad, de aver tanta maquina de
+venados, y estar tan mansos? Les dieron por respuesta; Que en aquellos
+Pueblos los tenian por sus Dioses � los venador; porque su Idolo Mayor
+se les avia aparecido en aquella figura."
+
+[350-*] "Y con su devocion invocavan los ca�adores a los dioses de la
+ca�a, ... sacava cada uno una flecha y una calabera de venado, las
+quales los _chaces_ untavan con el betun azul; y untados, vailavan con
+ellas en las manos unos."
+
+[350-[+]] In the _Muluc_ years, he states "davan al sacredote una pierna
+de venado" and also in the same month, "Ofrecian a la imagen pan hecho
+como yemas de uevos y otros como cora�ones de venados, y otro hecho con
+su pimienta desleida."
+
+[351-*] F�rstemann (1902, p. 20) identifies this animal as a rabbit!
+
+[351-[+]] F�rstemann identifies this animal as a dog.
+
+[352-*] This animal has been identified by Stempell as an agouti
+notwithstanding the hoofs and tusks.
+
+[352-[+]] F�rstemann (1906, p. 228) suggests that this animal is a bear.
+
+[353-*] Attention is called to the curious half-human, half-animal
+figure in Tro-Cortesianus 2a which may suggest the figures in Dresden
+44a, 45a and which are here identified as peccaries. Both are descending
+from the band of constellation signs and the heads of each are not
+greatly dissimilar.
+
+[354-*] F�rstemann (1906, p. 229) suggests that fig. 8 is a walrus!
+
+[358-*] Seler (1904) gives an interesting explanation of the reason why
+the puma and the other corresponding figures are shown hit with a spear.
+
+[359-*] _Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida_ (1898, p. 63): "Ay perros
+naturales dela tierra que no tienen pelo ninguno, y no ladran, que
+tienen los dientes ralos e agudos, las orejas peque�as, tiesas y
+levantadas--a estos engordan los yndios para comer y los tienen por gran
+rregalo--estos se juntan con los perros de espa�a y enjendran y los
+mestizos que dellos proceden ladran y tienen pelo y tambien los comen
+los yndios cano alos demas, y tambien los yndios tienen otra suerte de
+perros que tienen pelo pero tan poco ladran y son del mesmo tama�o que
+los demas."
+
+[359-[+]] Brinton (1895, p. 72) regards these spots as representing
+stars.
+
+[361-*] "Y que le sacrificassen un perro o un hombre ... porque hazian
+en el patio del templo un gran monton de piedras y ponian al hombre o
+perro que avian de sacrificiar en alguna cosa mas alta que el."
+
+[361-[+]] "Avian de ofrescerle perros hechos de barro con pan en las
+espaldas, y avian de vailar con ellos en las manos las viejas y
+sacrificarle un perrito que tuviesse las espaldas negras y fuesse
+virgen."
+
+[361-[++]] These might quite as well be rabbits as dogs.
+
+[361-�] "De los Indios de Cozum�l dize, que aun en su tiempo eran
+grandes Idolatras, y usaban un bayle de su gentilidad, en el qual
+flechaban un perro [^q] auian de sacrificar."
+
+[362-*] "Donde sacrificavan un perro, manchado por la color del cacao
+... y ofrecianles yguanas de las azules y ciertas plumas de un paxaro."
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+
+Aubin Manuscript, See Seler 1900-1901.
+
+Beyer, Herman.
+  1908, The symbolic meaning of the dog in ancient Mexico; in _American
+    Anthropologist_ (N. S.), Vol. X, pp. 419-422, Washington.
+
+Bologna Codex, See Cospiano Codex.
+
+Borbonicus Codex, See Hamy, 1899.
+
+Borgia Codex, See Seler, 1904-1906.
+
+Brasseur de Bourbourg, Charles Etienne.
+  1869-1870, Manuscrit Troano. Etudes sur le syst�me graphique et la
+    langue des Mayas; 2 vols., 4^o Paris.
+
+Brinton, Daniel Garrison.
+  1893, The native calendar of Central America and Mexico; in
+    _Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society_; Vol. XXXI, pp.
+    258-314, Philadelphia.
+
+1895, A primer of Mayan hieroglyphics; in _Publications of the
+University of Pennsylvania, Series in Philosophy, Literature, and
+Archaeology_, Vol. III, No. 2, pp. 152, Boston.
+
+Camargo, Domingo Mu�oz.
+  1843, Histoire de la R�publique de Tlaxcallan; in _Nouvelles Annales
+    des Voyages et des Sciences G�ographique_; IV S�rie, Tome 3, Paris.
+    (Spanish edition published by Chavero, Mexico, 1892.)
+
+Cogolludo, Diego Lopez.
+  1688, Historia de Yucatan; 4^o, pp. 791, Madrid.
+
+Cortesianus Codex, See Rada y Delgado, 1893.
+
+Cospiano Codex (formerly Bologna).
+  1899, Published in facsimile, Paris. (Loubat edition.)
+
+Dieseldorff, Erwin P.
+  1904, A clay vessel with a picture of a vampire-headed deity; in
+    _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin 28_, pp. 665-666, Washington.
+    (Translation of German edition published in _Zeitschrift f�r
+    Ethnologie_, 1894, pp. 576-577.)
+
+Dresden Codex, See F�rstemann, 1880 and 1892.
+
+Fej�rv�ry-Mayer Codex, See Seler, 1901.
+
+Fewkes, J. Walter.
+  1892, The Mam-zra�-ti; a Tusayan ceremony; in _American Anthropologist_,
+     Vol. V, pp. 217-246.
+
+  1894, A study of certain figures in a Maya codex; in _American
+     Anthropologist_, Vol. VII, pp. 260-274.
+
+F�rstemann, Ernst.
+  1880, Die Maya-Handschrift der k�niglichen �ffentlichen Bibliothek zu
+    Dresden; 4^o, Preface pp. xvii, 74 colored plates, Leipzig.
+
+  1892, Second edition of 1880, Dresden.
+
+  1902, Commentar zur Madrider Mayahandschrift (Codex Tro-Cortesianus);
+    8^o, pp. 160, Danzig.
+
+  1903, Commentar zur Pariser Mayahandschrift (Codex Peresianus); 8^o,
+    pp. 32, Danzig.
+
+  1904, Tortoise and shell in Maya literature; in _Bureau of Ethnology,
+    Bulletin_ 28, pp. 423-430, Washington. (Translation of German
+    edition of 1892. Dresden.)
+
+  1904a, The Pleiades among the Mayas; in _Bureau of Ethnology,
+    Bulletin_ 28, pp. 523-524, Washington. (Translation of German
+    edition published in _Globus_, Vol. XVI, No. 15, p. 246, 1894.)
+
+  1904b, The Day Gods of the Mayas; in _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin_
+    28, pp. 557-572, Washington. (Translation of German edition
+    published in _Globus_, Vol. LXIII, Nos. 9, 10, 1898.)
+
+  1906, Commentary of the Maya manuscript in the Royal Public Library of
+    Dresden; in _Papers of the Peabody Museum_, Vol. IV, No. 2, pp.
+    48-266. Cambridge. (Translation, revised by the author, of the
+    German edition of 1901.)
+
+Gann, Thomas.
+  1897-1898, Mounds in Northern Honduras; in _Bureau of Ethnology_, 19th
+    annual report, part 2, pp. 661-691, Washington.
+
+Gordon, George Byron.
+  1898, Researches in the Uloa Valley, Honduras; in _Memoirs of the
+    Peabody Museum_, Vol. I, No. 4, pp. 44, Cambridge.
+
+Hamy, Ernest T.
+  1899, Codex Borbonicus. Manuscrit Mexicain de la Biblioth�que der
+    Palais Bourbon; Text and plates, Paris.
+
+Holmes, William Henry.
+  1895-1897, Archaeological studies among the ancient cities of Mexico;
+    _Field Museum of Natural History, Publications_ 8 and 16,
+    _Anthropological Series_, Vol. I, No. I, Chicago.
+
+Hough, Walter.
+  1908, The pulque of Mexico; in _Proceedings of the United States
+    National Museum_, Vol. XXXIII, pp. 577-592, Washington.
+
+Landa, Diego de.
+  1864, Relaci�n de las cosas de Yucatan; Spanish text with French
+    translation published by Brasseur de Bourbourg; 8^o, pp. 516,
+    Paris. (The references in the text are to this edition). Spanish
+    edition published by Juan de Dios de la Rada y Delgado, Madrid,
+    1884, as an appendix to his translation of Leon de Rosny's article,
+    Essai sur le d�chiffrement de l'�criture hi�ratique de l'Am�rique
+    Centrale. Second Spanish edition in Colecci�n de Documentos in�ditos
+    (2d Series); Madrid, 1900, Vol. XIII, pp. 265-411.
+
+  1900, See second Spanish edition under 1864. (This contains much that
+    is not given in the 1864 edition.)
+
+Maler, Teoberto.
+  1901-1903, Researches in the Usumatsintla Valley; in _Memoirs of the
+    Peabody Museum_, Vol. II, Cambridge.
+
+  1908, Explorations of the Upper Usumatsintla and adjacent region; in
+    _Memoirs of the Peabody Museum_, Vol. IV, No. 1, Cambridge.
+
+Maudslay, Alfred P.
+  1889-1902, Biologia Centrali-Americana, or Contributions to the
+    knowledge of the flora and fauna of Mexico and Central America.
+    Archaeology; Text and 4 vols. plates, London.
+
+Nuttall Codex.
+  1902, Reproduced in facsimile by the Peabody Museum, Cambridge.
+
+Palacio.
+  1686, Relacion hecha por el Licentiado Palacio al Rey. D. Felipe II en
+    la que describe la Provincia de Guatemala, las costumbres de los
+    Indios y otras casas notables; in _Colecci�n de Documentos in�ditos
+    relativos al descubrimiento, conquista y organizacion de las
+    antiguas posesiones Espa�ales[TN-13] de Am�rica y Oceania_; Tomo VI,
+    pp. 7-40, Madrid.
+
+Peresianus Codex, See Rosny, 1887.
+
+Perez, Juan Pio.
+  1866-1877, Diccionario de la lengua Maya; sm. 4^o, pp. 437, Merida.
+
+Rada y Delgado, Juan de Dios de la.
+  1893, Codice Maya denominado Cortesianus que se conserva en el Museo
+    Arqueologio Nacional; 42 colored plates, Madrid.
+
+Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida.
+  1900, in _Colecci�n de Documentos in�ditos relativos al
+    descubrimiento, conquista y organizacion de las antiguas posesiones
+    Espa�olas de Ultra mar_ (_Segunda serie_), Tomo XI, pp. 37-75,
+    Madrid.
+
+Relaci�n de Cotuta y Tibolon.
+  1900, in _Colecci�n de Documentos in�ditos etc._, (_Segunda serie_),
+    Tomo XI, pp. 93-103, Madrid.
+
+Rosny, Leon de.
+  1876, Essai sur le dechiffrement de l'�criture hi�ratique de
+    l'Am�rique Centrale, Paris.
+
+  1887, Codex Peresianus, Manuscrit hi�ratique des anciens Indiens de
+    l'Am�irque[TN-14] Centrale conserv� � la Biblioth�que[TN-15] National
+    de Paris, Paris.
+
+Schellhas, Paul.
+  1904, Representations of deities of the Maya manuscripts; in _Papers
+    of the Peabody Museum_, Vol. IV, No. 1, pp. 1-47, Cambridge.
+    (Revised translation of second German edition of 1904.)
+
+Seler, Eduard.
+  1900-1901, The Tonalamatl of the Aubin Collection, (English edition),
+    pp. 147, plates 19, Berlin and London. (Loubat edition.)
+
+  1901, Codex Fej�rv�ry-Mayer. Manuscrit Mexicain pr�colombien du Free
+    Public Museum de Liverpool (M 12014). Text and plates, Paris.
+    (Loubat edition.)
+
+  1902-1903, Codex Vaticanus 3773, Text and plates, Berlin. (Loubat ed.)
+
+  1904, Venus period in the picture writings of the Borgia Codex group;
+    in _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin_ 28, pp. 355-391, Washington.
+    (Translation of German edition of 1898.)
+
+  1904a, The Bat god of the Maya race; in _Bureau of Ethnology,
+    Bulletin_ 28, pp. 231-242, Washington. (Translation of the German
+    edition of 1894.)
+
+  1904b, Antiquities from Guatemala: in _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin_
+    28, pp. 75-121, Washington. (Translation of the German edition of
+    1895. republished[TN-16] in his collected works, Vol. III, pp.
+    578-640.)
+
+  1904-1906, Codex Borgia. Eine altmexikanische Bilderschrift der
+    Bibliothek der Congregatio de Propaganda Fide; 4^o, 2 vols. plates,
+    Berlin (Loubat edition.)
+
+  1909, Die Tierbilder der mexikanischen und Maya-Handschriften:[TN-17] in
+    _Zeitschrift f�r Ethnologie_, 1909, pp. 209-257, 381-457 (not
+    completed).
+
+Stempell, W.
+  1908, Die Tierbilder der Mayahandschriften; in _Zeitschrift f�r
+    Ethnologie_, 40 Jahrgang, Vol. V, pp. 704-743.
+
+Strebel, Hermann.
+  1899, Uber Tierornamente auf Thongef�ssen aus Alt-Mexico; in
+    _Ver�ffentlichen aus dem Konig. Mus. f�r V�lkerkunde_, Vol. VI, part
+    1, pp. 1-33, Berlin.
+
+Thomas, Cyrus.
+  1882, A study of the Manuscript Troana; in _Contributions to North
+    American Ethnology_, Vol. V, pp. 234, Washington.
+
+  1884-1885, Aids to the study of the Maya codices; in _Bureau of
+    Ethnology_, 6th annual report, pp. 253-371, Washington.
+
+Tozzer, Alfred M.
+  1907, A comparative study of the Mayas and the Lacandones. Report of
+    the Fellow in American Archaeology, 1902-1905; Archaeological
+    Institute of America, 8^o, pp. 195, plates 29, New York.
+
+Troano Codex, See Brasseur de Bourbourg, 1867-1870.
+
+Villagutierre Soto Mayor, Juan.
+  1701, Historia de la Conquista de la Provincia de el Itza; 4^o, pp.
+    660, Madrid.
+
+Vaticanus 3773, See Seler, 1902.
+
+
+
+
+PLATE 1
+
+MOLLUSCA
+
+
+FASCIOLARIA GIGANTEA
+
+   1. Man emerging from shell, Dresden 41b.
+   2. Same, Borgia 4.
+   3. Bologna 4.
+   4. Dresden 37b.
+   5. Vaticanus 3773, 66.
+   6. Nuttall 16.
+   7. Sign for zero, Dresden 64.
+   8. Glyph, Dresden 41b.
+   9. Nuttall 16.
+
+OLIVA
+
+  10, 11. Sign for zero, Dresden 63.
+  12. Same, Dresden 55b.
+
+OTHER MOLLUSCA
+
+  13. Sign for zero, Dresden 54b.
+  14. Same. Bivalve, Dresden 63.
+  15. Bivalve, Nuttall 25.
+  16. Nuttall 49.
+  17. Nuttall 23.
+  18. Nuttall 16.
+  19. Nuttall 36.
+  20. Nuttall 75.
+  21. Bivalve closed, seen in profile, Nuttall 75.
+  22. Same, Nuttall 25.
+  23. Probably bivalve, Nuttall 16.
+  24. Same. Nuttall 36.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 1]
+
+
+PLATE 2
+
+INSECTA
+
+HONEY BEE (_Melipona_)
+
+   1. Possibly a drone, Tro-Cortesianus 108a.
+   2, 3. Tro-Cortesianus 108a.
+   4, 6[TN-18] Bees more conventionalized, Tro-Cortesianus 80b.
+   5. Bee and honey comb, Tro-Cortesianus 109c.
+   7. Honey combs, apparently in a hive, Tro-Cortesianus 11c.
+   8. Maya day sign, _Cauac_, possibly representing a honey comb,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 106b.
+   9. Tro-Cortesianus 103c.
+  10. Honey combs in a hive, Tro-Cortesianus 104a.
+  11. Bee and honey comb, Tro-Cortesianus 109c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 2]
+
+
+PLATE 3
+
+INSECTA AND MYRIAPODA
+
+   1. Maggots, probably of Blowfly (_Sarcophaga_), Tro-Cortesianus 27d.
+   2. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 24d.
+   3. Larva of _Acentrocneme kollari_, Tro-Cortesianus 28c.
+   4. Conventionalized insect, possibly a hornet, Nuttall 3.
+   5. Conventionalized insect, unidentified, Nuttall 19.
+   6. Same, Nuttall 55.
+   7. Same, Nuttall 51.
+   8. Butterfly or moth, Nuttall 19.
+   9. Butterfly, Aubin.
+  10. Maya day sign, _Akbal_, possibly representing the head of a
+        centipede.
+  11. Glyph belonging to god D, apparently composed of signs for
+        centipede, Dresden 7b.
+  12. Glyph for god D, Dresden 14b.
+  13. Glyph, Dresden 44b.
+  14. Same, Dresden 27a.
+  15. Centipede in connection with head-dress of god D, Dresden 15c.
+  16. Glyph, Dresden 9b.
+  17. Same, Dresden 15c.
+  18. Centipede in connection with head-dress of god D, Dresden 7c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 3]
+
+
+PLATE 4
+
+ARACHNOIDEA, ARACHNIDA, CRUSTACEA
+
+   1. Scorpion and deer, Tro-Cortesianus 48c.
+   2. Scorpion with sting conventionalized as a hand, Tro-Cortesianus 44c.
+   3. Scorpion highly conventionalized, Nuttall 22.
+   4. Spider, possibly a tarantula, Borbonicus 9.
+   5. Crayfish, Nuttall 16.
+   6. Crab, Nuttall 37.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 4]
+
+
+PLATE 5
+
+MYRIAPODA, PISCES
+
+   1. Parts of a conventionalized centipede with quetzal tail, Vaticanus
+        3773, 13.
+   2. Fish with teeth, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber
+        (Maudslay, III, Pl. 48).
+   3. Fish captured by heron, Dresden 36b. (Compare Pl. 15, fig. 5.)
+   4. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+        Pl. 45).
+   5. Fish.
+   6. Pottery fish, Chajcar (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 93).
+   7. Same.
+   8. Fish as offering, Tro-Cortesianus 3a.
+   9. Same, Dresden 29b.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 5]
+
+
+PLATE 6
+
+PISCES
+
+   1. Possibly a flying-fish (_Exocetus_), Nuttall 75.
+   2. Palenque, Temple of the Cross (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 68).
+   3. Nuttall 36.
+   4, 5. Glyphs, possibly of a shark, Dresden 40a.
+   6. Fish as offering, Dresden 27c.
+   7. Fish without dorsal fins, possibly an eel (_Muraena_), Dresden 65b.
+   8. Fish as offering, Dresden 23b.
+   9. Pottery animal from Santa Rita (Gann, 1897-1898, Pl. 34).
+  10. Dresden 44c.
+  11. Nuttall 16.
+  12. Palenque, Palace (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 11).
+  13. Fish as offering, Dresden 33a.
+  14. Fish as part of the Great Cycle glyph, Copan, Stela C, north
+        (Maudslay, I, Pl. 41).
+  15. Same, Copan, Stela C, south (Maudslay, I, Pl. 41.)
+  16. Same, Copan, Stela D (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48).
+  17. Same, Copan, Stela C, south (Maudslay, I, Pl. 41).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 6]
+
+
+PLATE 7
+
+AMPHIBIA
+
+   1. Frog (_Rana_), Tro-Cortesianus 31a.
+   2, 3. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 101d.
+   4. Probably a toad (_Bufo_), Copan, Oblong altar (Maudslay, I, Pl.
+        114).
+   5. Frog or toad, Tro-Cortesianus 17b.
+   6. Frog and fish, Copan, Altar O (Maudslay, I, Pl. 85).
+   7. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+        Pl. 46).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 7]
+
+
+PLATE 8
+
+AMPHIBIA, REPTILIA
+
+   1. God F representing a tree-toad (_Hyla eximia_), Tro-Cortesianus
+        26b.
+   2. Glyph evidently belonging to fig. 3, Tro-Cortesianus 26a.
+   3. Same as fig. 1, Tro-Cortesianus 26a.
+   4. Snake, Nuttall 6.
+   5. Same, Nuttall 45.
+   6. Same, Nuttall 37.
+   7. Snake used as head-dress of a woman, Dresden 39b.
+   8. Same, Dresden 23b.
+   9. Same, Dresden 43b.
+  10. Same, Dresden 22b.
+  11. Same, Dresden 9c.
+  12. Same, Dresden 15b.
+  13. Same, Dresden 18a.
+  14. Dresden 42a.
+  15. Same as figs. 7-13, Dresden 20a.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE [8][TN-19]]
+
+
+PLATE 9
+
+REPTILIA
+
+RATTLESNAKE (_Crotalus_)
+
+   1. Tro-Cortesianus 33b.
+   2. Nahua day sign, _Couatl_, Aubin 10.
+   3. Tro-Cortesianus 52c.
+   4. Tro-Cortesianus 40b.
+   5. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+        Pl. 40).
+   6. Nuttall 29.
+   7. Glyph representing rattles, Tro-Cortesianus 106c.
+   8. Tro-Cortesianus 100d.
+   9. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+        Pl. 40).
+  10. Nuttall 54.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 9]
+
+
+PLATE 10
+
+REPTILIA
+
+SERPENTS
+
+   1. Tree snake (possibly _Lachesis_), Dresden 27c.
+   2. Nuttall 37.
+   3. Dresden 57b.
+   4. Nuttall 5.
+   5. Nuttall 37.
+   6. Nuttall.
+   7. Serpent in connection with long number series, Dresden 62.
+   8. Dresden 37b.
+   9. Dresden 40c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 10.]
+
+
+PLATE 11
+
+REPTILIA
+
+SERPENTS
+
+   1. Large snake with conventionalized spots, Tro-Cortesianus 30a.
+   2. Tro-Cortesianus 31b.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 11]
+
+
+PLATE 12
+
+REPTILIA
+
+IGUANA, LIZARDS
+
+   1. Iguana as offering, Tro-Cortesianus 105c.
+   2. Iguana, Tro-Cortesianus 3b.
+   3. Iguana, as offering with _Kan_, Dresden 43c.
+   4. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107b.
+   5. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 6a.
+   6. Same, Dresden 29b.
+   7. Offering, possibly representing a lizard, Dresden 27b.
+   8. Same, Dresden 34a.
+   9. Lizard used for _Uinal_ glyph, Copan, Stela D, gl. 4. (Maudslay, I,
+        Pl. 48).
+  10. Nahua day sign, _Cuetzpalin_ (lizard), Aubin 10.
+  11. Lizard, Dresden 3a.
+  12. Nuttall 10.
+  13. Offering, the portion with serrated margin possibly representing
+        an iguana, Tro-Cortesianus 12b.
+  14. Lizard, Nuttall 2.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 12]
+
+
+PLATE 13
+
+REPTILIA
+
+CROCODILE (_Crocodilus_)
+
+   1. Glyph of the Nahua day sign, _Cipactli_, Nuttall 1.
+   2. Crocodile represented by head and limb, Nuttall 36.
+   3. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 1.
+   4. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 4.
+   5. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 9.
+   6. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 47.
+   7. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 1.
+   8. Nuttall 75.
+   9. Head of lizard or possibly crocodile used as a _Uinal_ glyph,
+        Palenque, Temple of the Foliated Cross (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 82,
+        gl. 6).
+  10. Head of crocodile, Dresden 52b.
+  11. Head, possibly of a crocodile, Palenque, Temple of the Foliated
+        Cross (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 82, gl. 0,[TN-20] 4).
+  12. Conventionalized head of a crocodile, Dresden 53b.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 13.]
+
+
+PLATE 14
+
+REPTILIA
+
+TURTLES
+
+   1. Turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 19b.
+   2. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 17b.
+   3. Swimming turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 17a.
+   4. Possibly representing a turtle, Nuttall 33.
+   5. Turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 81c.
+   6. Freshwater turtle (_Chelydra_) with leeches attached,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 72b.
+   7. Glyph for fig. 3.
+   8. Glyph.
+   9. Glyph.
+  10. Glyph.
+  11. Turtle, Nuttall 43.
+  12. Turtle god, _Aac_, Dresden 49.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 14]
+
+
+PLATE 15
+
+AVES
+
+HERONS[TN-21] FRIGATE BIRD
+
+   1. Heron, stucco ornament, Palenque, Palace, House B (Maudslay, IV,
+        Pl. 18).
+   2. Heron head-dress, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber
+        (Maudslay, III, Pl. 45).
+   3. Head and neck of a heron, Dresden 37b.
+   4. Heron, Nuttall 74.
+   5. Heron with fish, Palenque, Temple of the Cross, West side panel
+        (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 71).
+   6. Heron[TN-22]
+   7. Heron with a fish as a head-dress, Dresden 36a.
+   8. Fork-tailed bird, probably a Frigate bird (_Fregata aquila_),
+        Tro-Cortesianus 34a.
+   9. Same, arranged for offering, Dresden 35a.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 15]
+
+
+PLATE 16
+
+AVES
+
+OCELLATED TURKEY (_Agriocharis ocellata_)
+
+   1. Turkey in trap, Tro-Cortesianus 93a.
+   2. Turkey, Tro-Cortesianus 10b.
+   3. Turkey snared, Tro-Cortesianus 91a.
+   4. Tro-Cortesianus 4a.
+   5. Tro-Cortesianus 95c.
+   6. Tro-Cortesianus 37b.
+   7. Vaticanus 3773, 14.
+   8. Tro-Cortesianus 36a.
+   9. Whole turkey as offering, Dresden 26c.
+  10. Head of turkey as offering, Dresden 34a.
+  11. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 12b.
+  12. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 105b.
+  13. Dresden 20a.
+  14. Head of turkey as offering, Dresden 41c.
+  15. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107b.
+  16. Same, Dresden 29c.
+  17. Same, Dresden 28c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 16]
+
+
+PLATE 17
+
+AVES
+
+KING VULTURE (_Sarcorhamphus papa_)
+
+   1. Tro-Cortesianus 67a.
+   2. Tro-Cortesianus 22c.
+   3. God with head of King Vulture, Dresden 19a.
+   4. King Vulture and Ocellated Turkey, Tro-Cortesianus 85a.
+   5. Glyph, showing head, Dresden 39c.
+   6. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107c.
+   7. Same, Dresden 38b.
+   8. Same.
+   9. King Vulture, tearing out entrails of deer, Tro-Cortesianus 40a.
+  10. _Tun_ period glyph (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 89).
+  11. Tro-Cortesianus 94c.
+  12. Tro-Cortesianus 26c.
+  13. Glyph, Chichen Itza, Monjas, east (Maudslay, III, Pl. 13).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 17]
+
+
+PLATE 18
+
+AVES.
+
+KING VULTURE (_Sarcorhamphus papa_), BLACK VULTURE (_Catharista urubu_)
+
+   1. Glyph of head of King Vulture, Dresden 11b.
+   2. Glyph for Nahua day sign, _Cozcaquauhtli_, Nuttall 5.
+   3. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 41.
+   4. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 5.
+   5. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 4.
+   6. Same as fig. 2, showing considerable conventionalization. Nuttall
+        2.
+   7. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 3.
+   8. Same as fig[TN-23] 2, further reduced, Nuttall 18.
+   9. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 3.
+  10. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 20.
+  11. Probably a Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 95c.
+  12. Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 70a.
+  13. Same, Dresden 17b.
+  14. Possibly a Black Vulture, Chichen Itza, Monjas, east (Maudslay,
+        III, Pl. 13).
+  15. Head of Black Vulture, Nuttall 32.
+  16. Glyph of head of same, Dresden 54b.
+  17. Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 36b.
+  18. Head of same, Tro-Cortesianus 26c.
+  19. Same, Dresden 39c.
+  20. Same, Nuttall 19.
+  21. Same, Nuttall 34.
+  22. Same, Dresden 37c.
+  23. Same, Nuttall 27.
+  24. Same, Nuttall 1.
+  25. Same, Nuttall 34.
+  26. Same, Nuttall 9.
+  27. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 19b.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 18]
+
+
+PLATE 19
+
+AVES.
+
+VULTURES
+
+   1. Vulture (probably a King Vulture) tearing at entrails of an animal,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 42a.
+   2. Nuttall 69.
+   3. Nuttall 74.
+   4. Possibly a Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 35b.
+   5. Tro-Cortesianus 26d.
+   6. Tro-Cortesianus 26d.
+   7. Dresden 3a.
+   8. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 16).
+   9. Glyph, Copan, Altar K (Maudslay, I, gl. 73).
+  10. Glyph, Tikal, House 9 (Maudslay, III, Pl. 79).
+  11. Black Vulture and snake, Dresden 36b.
+  12. Probably vultures, Tro-Cortesianus 100b.
+  13. Probably a vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 18b.
+  14. Same, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber, Chichen Itza (Maudslay,
+        III, Pl. 46).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 19]
+
+
+PLATE 20
+
+AVES
+
+HARPY EAGLE (_Thrasaetos harpyia_)
+
+   1. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 16, gl. 3).
+   2. Nuttall 53.
+   3. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 16, gl. 13).
+   4. Tro-Cortesianus 88c.
+   5. Part of a head-dress, Dresden 14c.
+   6. Peresianus 2.
+   7. Dresden 14b.
+   8. Eagle with crest feathers tipped by flints, Nuttall[TN-24]
+   9. Glyph, Tro-Cortesianus 107c.
+  10. Stone carving, Chichen Itza (Maudslay, III, Pl. 52).
+  11. Dresden 23c.
+  12. Possibly an eagle's head, Dresden 43c.
+  13. Possibly an eagle, Dresden 74.
+  14. Bologna 7.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 20]
+
+
+PLATE 21
+
+AVES
+
+YUCATAN HORNED OWL (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_)
+
+   1. Owl in flight, Stucco ornament, Palenque, Palace, House E
+        (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 43).
+   2. Stone carving of owl, Yaxchilan, Stela 4 (Peabody Museum Memoirs,
+        II, Pl. 70).
+   3. Owl in flight, carved in wood, Tikal, House C, lintel (Maudslay,
+        III, Pl. 78).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 21]
+
+
+PLATE 22
+
+AVES
+
+YUCATAN HORNED OWL (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_)
+
+   1. Bologna 7.
+   2. As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 95c.
+   3. Borgia 7.
+   4. On end of staff carried by warrior, Chichen Itza, Temple of the
+        Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 49).
+   5. Aubin 13.
+   6. Head highly conventionalized, Palenque, Temple of the Sun
+        (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 88).
+   7. Screech-owl (_chiqu�tli_), Aubin.
+
+[Illustration: [PLATE] 22[TN-25]]
+
+
+PLATE 23
+
+AVES
+
+YUCATAN SCREECH OWL or _Moan-bird_ (_Otus choliba thompsoni_)
+
+   1. Dresden 7c.
+   2. Tro-Cortesianus 66a.
+   3. Dresden 11a.
+   4. As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 94c.
+   5. As a head-dress, Dresden 18b.
+   6. Glyph associated with Moan-bird, Dresden 7c.
+   7. Same, Dresden 7c.
+   8. Dresden 10a.
+   9. Peresianus 10.
+  10. Peresianus 5.
+  11. Glyph representing head, Dresden 38c.
+  12. Same, Dresden 8b.
+  13. Same, Dresden 53b.
+  14. Same, Dresden 16c.
+  15. Glyph possibly representing Moan-bird, Dresden 38c.
+  16. Glyph of head, Dresden 53b.
+  17. Glyph associated with Moan-bird.
+  18. Tro-Cortesianus 73b.
+  19. As a head-dress, Dresden 16c.
+  20. As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 95c.
+  21. Glyph associated with Moan-bird, Dresden 7c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 2[3][TN-26]]
+
+
+PLATE 24
+
+AVES
+
+COPPERY-TAILED TROGON or QUETZAL (_Pharomacrus mocinno_)
+
+   1. Head-dress with crest feathers shown as knobs, Dresden 7c.
+   2. Head-dress, Dresden 13b.
+   3. Same, Dresden 16c.
+   4. Tro-Cortesianus 100b.
+   5. Tro-Cortesianus 70a.
+   6. Head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 94c.
+   7. Nuttall 33.
+   8. Conventionalized tail as a head ornament, Dresden 20c.
+   9. Vaticanus 3773, 17.
+  10. Glyph, Palenque, Temple of the Sun (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 89, gl. O,
+        9).
+  11. Trogon descending on a sacrifice, Bologna 8.
+  12. Tro-Cortesianus 36b.
+  13. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 111, gl. 54).
+  14. Glyph apparently representing a trogon's head, Dresden 20c.
+  15. Same, Dresden 9b.
+  16. Same, Dresden 3a.
+  17. Head, Nuttall 43.
+  18. Tro-Cortesianus 26c.
+  19. Figure with head ornament resembling a trogon glyph, Dresden 20c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 24]
+
+
+PLATE 25
+
+AVES
+
+BLUE MACAW (_Ara militaris_)
+
+   1. Figure with macaw head and holding firebrands, Dresden 40b.
+   2. Head-dress, Dresden 16c.
+   3. Tro-Cortesianus 12a.
+   4. Glyph, Copan, Stela 11 (Maudslay, I, Pl. 112, gl. 12).
+   5. Same, Copan, Stela B (Maudslay, I, Pl. 38).
+   6. Glyph used in connection with fig. 1.
+   7. Glyph.
+   8. Stone carving of upper mandible and head, Copan, Stela B (Maudslay,
+        I, Pl. 37).
+   9. Head, probably of a turtle, month sign _Kayab_, Quirigua, Stela A
+        (Maudslay, II, Pl. 7, gl. 14).
+  10. Head, probably of a macaw, Copan, Altar Q (Maudslay, I, Pl. 93).
+  11. Tro-Cortesianus 37b.
+  12. Head, probably of a macaw, Copan, Stela A (Maudslay, I, Pl. 30,
+        gl. 19).
+  13. Tro-Cortesianus 94c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 25]
+
+
+PLATE 26
+
+AVES
+
+PARROTS, TURKEYS
+
+   1. Macaw as a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 26c.
+   2. Bird of sacrifice, doubtless an Ocellated Turkey (_Agriocharis_)
+        Dresden 25c. (Compare also Dresden 26c[TN-27] 27c, 28c.)
+   3. Head-dress, probably a macaw, Copan, Altar Q (Maudslay, I, Pl. 92).
+   4. Possibly a parrot (_Amazona_), Nuttall 4.
+   5. Head-dress, head of a macaw, Tro-Cortesianus 89a.
+   6. Head-dress, possibly representing a parrot, Dresden 12b.
+   7. Possibly a parrot (_Amazona_), Nuttall 71.
+   8. Glyph representing a macaw's head, Tikal, Temple C (Maudslay, III,
+        Pl. 78).
+   9. Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 19a.
+  10. Possibly a macaw, Tro-Cortesianus 37b.
+  11. Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 11b.
+  12. Bird of sacrifice, probably an Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca,
+        Nuttall 22.
+  13. Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 11a.
+  14. Head of Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca, Nuttall 5.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 26]
+
+
+PLATE 27
+
+AVES
+
+MISCELLANEOUS
+
+   1. Bird of sacrifice, an Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca, Nuttall 2.
+   2. Same, Nuttall 16.
+   3. Same, Nuttall 19.
+   4. Same, Nuttall 1.
+   5. Woodpecker possibly _Campephilus imperialis_, Nuttall 74.
+   6. Same, Nuttall 71.
+   7. Possibly a Raven (_Corvus corax sinuatus_), Nuttall 48.
+   8. Parrot (_cocho_), Aubin 11.
+   9. Same, Aubin 13.
+  10. Turkey-cock (_uexolot_),[TN-28] Aubin 11.
+  11. Same, Aubin 13.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 27]
+
+
+PLATE 28
+
+VARIOUS ANIMALS
+
+   1. Earthenware vessel representing a tapir (_Tapirella_) with a
+        necklace of Oliva shells (Seler, 1904b, p. 106, fig. 23).
+   2. Stone carving, possibly of a King Vulture (_Sarcorhamphus papa_),
+        Copan, Altar T (Maudslay, I, Pl. 96).
+   3. Stone carving, possibly a lizard, Copan, Stela 6 (Maudslay I, Pl.
+        107).
+   4. Stone carving, probably a jaguar (_Felis onca hernandezi_), Copan,
+        Stela 2 (Maudslay, I, Pl. 102).
+   5. Stone carving of a Black Vulture (_Catharista urubu_), Copan, Stela
+        D (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48).
+   6. Lizard (?) attacked by two birds (?) perhaps vultures, Quirigua,
+        Altar B (Maudslay, II, Pl. 15).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 28]
+
+
+PLATE 29
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+ARMADILLO AND MISCELLANEOUS
+
+   1. Nine-banded Armadillo (_Tatu novemcinctum_), Tro-Cortesianus 103a.
+   2. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 92d.
+   3. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 103a.
+   4. Armadillo captured in a pitfall, Tro-Cortesianus 48a.
+   5. Undetermined animal, Dresden 14c.
+   6. Undetermined animal, possibly a frog or a marsupial,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 33a.
+   7. Rodent, Nuttall 11.
+   8. Undetermined animal, Tro-Cortesianus 24d.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 29]
+
+
+PLATE 30
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+DEER, HARE
+
+   1. Yucatan deer, caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 48b.
+   2. Yucatan brocket (_Mazama pandora_) caught in a pitfall,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 92a.
+   3. Glyph for hare or rabbit, Nuttall 16.
+   4. Same, Nuttall 5.
+   5. Yucatan deer, Dresden 60a.
+   6. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 30b.
+   7. Hare or rabbit, Nuttall 22.
+   8. Same, Dresden 61[TN-29]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 30]
+
+
+PLATE 31
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+YUCATAN DEER (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_)
+
+   1. Doe, Dresden 45c.
+   2. Same, F�gerv�ry-Mayer 26.
+   3. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 29c.
+   4. Same, Nuttall 50.
+   5. Same captured in snare, Tro-Cortesianus 86a.
+   6. Head-dress of god M, Tro-Cortesianus 50b.
+   7. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 51c.
+   8. Doe, Tro-Cortesianus 2b.
+   9. Head of same, Nuttall 43.
+  10. Head of doe as sacrifice, Tro-Cortesianus 77.
+  11. Same, Peresianus 10.
+  12. Haunch of venison as a sacrifice, Dresden 35a.
+  13. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 105b.
+  14. Same, Dresden 28c.
+  15. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 108a.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 31]
+
+
+PLATE 32
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+YUCATAN PECCARY (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_)
+YUCATAN DEER (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_)
+
+   1. Peccary, Nuttall 79.
+   2. Same, Dresden 68a.
+   3. Combination, a peccary's head and forefoot, with long tail and
+        hindfoot without hoofs, Tro-Cortesianus 66a[TN-30]
+   4. Peccary, Dresden 45b.
+   5. Man with peccary head, Copan, Sela[TN-31] D, cast (Maudslay, I, Pl.
+        46).
+   6. Combination animal, with hoofs and dorsal crest of a peccary and
+        scales of a reptile, Dresden 75.
+   7. Peccary, Nuttall 9.
+   8. Yucatan deer, with conventionalized antler, glyph for Nahua day
+        sign, _Ma�atl_, Nuttall 26.
+   9. Same, Peresianus 5.
+  10. Glyph for Nahua day sign _Ma�atl_, Aubin 10.
+  11. Same, Nuttall 5.
+  12. Deer, Copan, Stela N, East (Maudslay, I, Pl. 79).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 32]
+
+
+PLATE 33
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+YUCATAN PECCARY (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_)
+
+   1. Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 49c.
+   2. Glyph, Chichen Itza, Monjas, East (Maudslay, III, Pl. 13).
+   3. Head as a head-dress, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower
+        Chamber (Maudslay, III).
+   4. Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 93a.
+   5. Tro-Cortesianus 30b.
+   6. Dresden 62.
+   7. Glyph representing a peccary's head, Dresden 45b.
+   8. Same, Dresden 43b.
+   9. Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 49a.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 33]
+
+
+PLATE 34
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+JAGUAR, PUMA
+
+   1. Jaguar (_Felis hernandezi_), Nuttall 24.
+   2. Man seated in the open mouth of an animal, possibly a jaguar,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 20a.
+   3. Nahua day sign, _Oceolotl_, Aubin 9.
+   4. Pot representing a jaguar or puma (Gann, 1897-1898, Pl. 34).
+   5. Probably a puma (_Felis bangsi costaricensis_), Chichen Itza,
+        Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 40).
+   6. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+        Pl. 50).
+   7. Probably a puma, Dresden 47.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 34,[TN-32]]
+
+
+PLATE 35
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+COYOTE, BEAR, JAGUAR
+
+   1. Probably a coyote (_Canis_), Nuttall 6.
+   2. Same, Nuttall 26.
+   3. Possibly a bear (_Ursus_), Dresden 37a.
+   4. Same, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers (Maudslay, III, 38).
+   5. Jaguar (_Felis hernandezi_), Dresden 8a.
+   6. Glyph, probably of a jaguar head, Copan, Stela 4 (Maudslay, I, Pl.
+        104).
+   7. Copan, Altar F (Maudslay, I, Pl. 114).
+   8. Jaguar, Tro-Cortesianus 28c.
+   9. Stone carving of jaguar head, Palenque, Palace, House C (Maudslay,
+        IV, Pl. 24).
+  10. Jaguar, Tro-Cortesianus 30b.
+  11. Glyph, probably of a jaguar.
+  12. Head of jaguar in fresco, Santa Rita (Gann, 1897-1898, Pl. 31).
+  13. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 2a.
+  14. Same, Nuttall 27.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 35]
+
+
+PLATE 36
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+DOG (_Canis_)
+
+   1. Dog and crab, Tro-Cortesianus 88c.
+   2. Tro-Cortesianus 37b.
+   3. Tro-Cortesianus 66b.
+   4. Head, Nuttall 34.
+   5. Nuttall 72.
+   6. Head, Nuttall 20.
+   7. Probably a dog, Nuttall 3.
+   8. Aubin 9.
+   9. Glyph for day sign _Oc_.
+  10. Same.
+  11. Same.
+  12. Tro-Cortesianus 91d.
+  13. Glyph for Nahua day sign _Itzcuintli_, Aubin 9.
+  14. Tro-Cortesianus 27d.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 36]
+
+
+PLATE 37
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+DOG (_Canis_)
+
+   1. Dog bearing firebrands, Dresden 40b.
+   2. Same, Dresden 39a.
+   3. Same, Dresden 36a.
+   4. Tro-Cortesianus 88a.
+   5. Dresden 21b.
+   6. Tro-Cortesianus 24c.
+   7. Dresden 13c.
+   8. Tro-Cortesianus 37a.
+   9. Dresden 30a.
+  10. Dresden 7a.
+  11. Glyph supposed to represent a dog's ribs, Dresden 13c.
+  12. Dresden 29a.
+  13. Head, Tro-Cortesianus 91d.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 37]
+
+
+PLATE 38
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+LEAF-NOSED BAT (_Vampyrus spectrum_ or _Phyllostomus hastatus
+panamensis_)
+
+   1. Glyph, Chichen Itza, Akat 'Cib (Maudslay, III, Pl. 19.)[TN-33]
+   2. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 8).
+   3. Bat god, drawn as glyph, Copan, Stela D (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48).
+   4. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 8).
+   5. Glyph, Palenque, Temple of the Inscriptions (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 60,
+        gl. Q 1).
+   6. Glyph, Tikal (Maudslay III, Pl. 74, gl. 41).
+   7. Bat gad used as decoration on pottery, Chama (Dieseldorff, 1904).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 38]
+
+
+PLATE 39
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+MONKEY AND MISCELLANEOUS
+
+   1. Capuchin monkey (_Cebus capucinus_), Nuttall 1.
+   2. Same, Nuttall 5.
+   3. Head of same, Nuttall 38.
+   4. Nondescript animal, possibly a combination of monkey and peccary,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 88c.
+   5. Glyph, possibly representing a monkey, found in connection with
+        fig. 4.
+   6. Glyph of head of monkey, Nuttall 1.
+   7. Head of long-nosed god, Tro-Cortesianus 30a.
+   8. Head of monkey, glyph for Nahua day sign, _O�omatli_, Aubin 9.
+   9. Long-nosed god, Tro-Cortesianus 30b.
+  10. God with head-dress, Dresden 5c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 39]
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+The following typographical errors were noted in the original text:
+
+  TN-1  279  "Yucatan Horned Ow" should read "Yucatan Horned Owl"
+  TN-2  281  "Mandslay" should read "Maudslay"
+  TN-3  284  "deRosny" should read "de Rosny"
+  TN-4  299  "connnection" should read "connection"
+  TN-5  299  "signifiance" should read "significance"
+  TN-6  299  "lightening" should read "lightning"
+  TN-7  340  "indicatd" should read "indicated"
+  TN-8  344  "Kayae" should read "Kayab"
+  TN-9  353  "(Dresden 44b, 45b, (Pl. 32, fig. 4)" Has an extra ( before
+             Pl.
+  TN-10 366  "C. hypoleucus Auct.)" should read "Auct.)."
+  TN-11 Footnote 327-[+]  "coasa" should read "cosas"
+  TN-12 Footnote 349-*    "for" should read "por"
+  TN-13 371  "Espa�ales" should read "Espa�oles"
+  TN-14 371  "l'Am�irque" should read "l'Am�rique"
+  TN-15 371  "Biblioth�que" should read "Biblioth�que"
+  TN-16 372  "1895. republished" should read "1895. Republished"
+  TN-17 372  "und Maya-Handschriften:" colon should be a semi-colon
+  TN-18 Plate 2 caption  "4, 6" should have a . following
+  TN-19 Plate 8  Plate number was not printed on the page
+  TN-20 Plate 13 caption  "Pl. 82, gl. 0, 4" should read "O, 4"
+  TN-21 Plate 15 caption  "HERONS FRIGATE" should read "HERONS, FRIGATE"
+  TN-22 Plate 15 caption  "6. Heron" should have a . at the end
+  TN-23 Plate 18 caption  "8. Same as fig" should read "fig."
+  TN-24 Plate 20 caption  "flints, Nuttall" should end with a .
+  TN-25 Plate 22  The word "Plate" was incompletely printed
+  TN-26 Plate 23  "23" was missing the second digit
+  TN-27 Plate 26 caption  "Dresden 26c 27c," should have a , after 26c
+  TN-28 Plate 28 caption  "uexolot" should read "uexolotl"
+  TN-29 Plate 29 caption  "Dresden 61" was missing the . at the end
+  TN-30 Plate 32 caption  "Tro-Cortesianus 66a" was missing the . at the
+                          end
+  TN-31 Plate 32 caption  "Sela" should read "Stela"
+  TN-32 Plate 34  "PLATE 34," should not end with a comma
+  TN-33 Plate 38  "Pl. 19.)" should read "Pl. 19)."
+
+
+The following words had inconsistent hyphenation:
+
+  Blow-fly / Blowfly
+  cross-hatched / crosshatched
+  pit-fall / pitfall
+
+
+The following words had inconsistent spelling:
+
+  dechiffrement / d�chiffrement
+  F�gerv�ry-Mayer / Fej�rv�ry-Mayer / Fejervary-Mayer
+  R�lacion / Relacion
+  r�le / role
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Animal Figures in the Maya Codices, by 
+Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES ***
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Animal Figures in the Maya Codices, by Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen.
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Animal Figures in the Maya Codices, by 
+Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Animal Figures in the Maya Codices
+
+Author: Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen
+
+Release Date: August 14, 2006 [EBook #19042]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div style="background-color: #EEE; padding: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 1em;">
+<p class="center"><b>Transcriber&rsquo;s&nbsp;Note</b></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">A number of typographical errors have been maintained
+in the current version of this book. They are <ins class="correction" title="correction">marked</ins>
+and the corrected text is shown in the popup. A <a href="#trans_note">list</a> of these
+errors is found at the end of this book.</p>
+
+<p>The following less-common characters are found in this book: &#259; (a with breve), &#596; (open o),
+&#295; (h with stroke), &#353; (s with caron), &#7789; (t with dot under). If they do
+not display properly, please try changing your font.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 150%;">PAPERS</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 90%;">OF THE</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 120%;">PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND<br />
+ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 120%;">VOL. IV.&mdash;No. 3.</p>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 5em;" />
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 150%;">ANIMAL FIGURES</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">IN THE</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 200%;">MAYA CODICES</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 90%; margin-top: 3em;">BY</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 120%;"><span class="smcap">ALFRED M. TOZZER, Ph.D.</span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 90%;">AND</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: 120%;"><span class="smcap">GLOVER M. ALLEN, Ph.D.</span></p>
+
+<hr class="bbox" style="width: 5em;" />
+
+<p class="titlepage"><span class="smcap">Cambridge, Mass.<br />
+Published by the Museum<br />
+February, 1910</span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="titlepage">
+Salem Press:<br />
+<span class="smcap">The Salem Press Co., Salem Mass.</span><br />
+1910.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="NOTE" id="NOTE"></a>NOTE</h2>
+
+
+<p>It has been thought desirable, for the advancement of the study of Maya
+hieroglyphs, that the interpretation of the conventionalized animal
+figures, which so frequently occur in the Maya codices, should be
+undertaken. The Peabody Museum Committee on Central American Research
+therefore requested Dr. A. M. Tozzer to prepare a paper on the subject,
+and to secure the valuable cooperation of Dr. Glover M. Allen, a
+zoologist familiar with the animals of Mexico and Central America, to
+aid in the identification of the various species of animals which under
+varying forms are used in connection with the glyphs.</p>
+
+<p>While it is possible that some of the determinations given in this paper
+may require further confirmation, it is evident that the combined
+studies of Dr. Tozzer and Dr. Allen cannot fail to be useful to students
+of the Maya hieroglyphic writing.</p>
+
+<p class="right smcap">F. W. Putnam.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">Harvard University</span>,<br />
+<span style="padding-left: 3em;">August, 1909.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead" style="font-weight: normal;"><a name="KEY_TO_THE_PRONUNCIATION_OF_MAYA_WORDS" id="KEY_TO_THE_PRONUNCIATION_OF_MAYA_WORDS"></a>KEY TO THE PRONUNCIATION OF MAYA WORDS</h2>
+
+
+<p>The vowels and consonants have their continental sounds with the
+following exceptions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Pronunciation key">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><b>&#259;</b></td>
+  <td>like <i>u</i> in hut</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><b>ai</b></td>
+  <td>like <i>i</i> in island</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><b>k</b></td>
+  <td>(Beltran&#8217;s <i>c</i>) ordinary palatal <i>k</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><b>q</b></td>
+  <td>(Beltran&#8217;s <i>k</i>) velar <i>k</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><img src="images/image49.png" width="13" height="20" style="vertical-align: middle;" alt="open o with dot under" title="open o with dot under" /></td>
+  <td>(Beltran&#8217;s <i>&#596;</i>) <i>ts</i> explosive or fortis</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><b>&#596;</b></td>
+  <td>(Beltran&#8217;s <i>tz</i>) <i>ts</i> non-explosive</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><b>&#353;</b></td>
+  <td>(Beltran&#8217;s <i>x</i>) like <i>sh</i> in hush</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><b>t&#353;</b></td>
+  <td>(Beltran&#8217;s <i>ch</i>) like <i>ch</i> in church</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><img src="images/image50.png" width="15" height="20" style="vertical-align: middle;" alt="ts with dot under" title="ts with dot under" /></td>
+  <td>(Beltran&#8217;s <i>c&#295;</i>) <i>ch</i> explosive</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><img src="images/image51.png" width="11" height="20" style="vertical-align: middle;" alt="p with dot under" title="p with dot under" /></td>
+  <td>(Beltran&#8217;s <i>pp</i>) <i>p</i> explosive</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><b>t</b></td>
+  <td>(Beltran&#8217;s <i>t&#295;</i>) <i>t</i> explosive</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead" style="font-weight: normal;"><a name="LIST_OF_PLATES" id="LIST_OF_PLATES"></a>LIST OF PLATES</h2>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="List of Plates">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">Plate.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image10">1.</a></td>
+  <td>Mollusca: <i>Fasciolaria gigantea, Oliva</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image11">2.</a></td>
+  <td>Insecta: Honey bee (<i>Melipona</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image12">3.</a></td>
+  <td>Insecta and Myriapoda.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image13">4.</a></td>
+  <td>Arachnoidea, Arachnida, Crustacea.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image14">5.</a></td>
+  <td>Myriapoda, Pisces.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image15">6.</a></td>
+  <td>Pisces.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image16">7.</a></td>
+  <td>Amphibia.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image17">8.</a></td>
+  <td>Amphibia, Reptilia.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image18">9.</a></td>
+  <td>Reptilia: Rattlesnake (<i>Crotalus</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image19">10.</a></td>
+  <td>Reptilia: Serpents.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image20">11.</a></td>
+  <td>Reptilia: Serpents.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image21">12.</a></td>
+  <td>Reptilia: Iguana, Lizards.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image22">13.</a></td>
+  <td>Reptilia: Crocodile</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image23">14.</a></td>
+  <td>Reptilia: Turtles.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image24">15.</a></td>
+  <td>Aves: Herons, Frigate-bird.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image25">16.</a></td>
+  <td>Aves: Ocellated Turkey (<i>Agriocharis ocellata</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image26">17.</a></td>
+  <td>Aves: King Vulture (<i>Sarcorhamphus papa</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image27">18.</a></td>
+  <td>Aves: King Vulture (<i>S. papa</i>), Black Vulture (<i>Catharista urubu</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image28">19.</a></td>
+  <td>Aves: Vultures.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image29">20.</a></td>
+  <td>Aves: Harpy Eagle (<i>Thrasaetos harpyia</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image30">21.</a></td>
+  <td>Aves: Yucatan Horned Owl (<i>Bubo virginianus mayensis</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image31">22.</a></td>
+  <td>Aves: Yucatan Horned <a name="corr1" id="corr1"></a><ins class="correction" title="Owl">Ow</ins> (<i>B. v. mayensis</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image32">23.</a></td>
+  <td>Aves: Yucatan Screech Owl (<i>Otus choliba thompsoni</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image33">24.</a></td>
+  <td>Aves: Quetzal (<i>Pharomacrus mocinno</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image34">25.</a></td>
+  <td>Aves: Blue Macaw (<i>Ara militaris</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image35">26.</a></td>
+  <td>Aves: Parrots, Turkeys.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image36">27.</a></td>
+  <td>Aves: Miscellaneous.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image37">28.</a></td>
+  <td>Various animals.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image38">29.</a></td>
+  <td>Mammalia: Armadillo and miscellaneous.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image39">30.</a></td>
+  <td>Mammalia: Deer, Hare.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span><a href="#image40">31.</a></td>
+  <td>Mammalia: Yucatan Deer (<i>Odocoileus yucatanensis</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image41">32.</a></td>
+  <td>Mammalia: Yucatan Peccary (<i>Tayassu angulatum yucatanense</i>),
+Yucatan Deer (<i>O. yucatanensis</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image42">33.</a></td>
+  <td>Mammalia: Yucatan Peccary (<i>T. a. yucatanense</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image43">34.</a></td>
+  <td>Mammalia: Jaguar, Puma.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image44">35.</a></td>
+  <td>Mammalia: Jaguar, Coyote, Bear.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image45">36</a>, <a href="#image46">37.</a></td>
+  <td>Mammalia: Dog (<i>Canis</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image47">38.</a></td>
+  <td>Mammalia: Leaf-nosed Bat (<i>Vampyrus</i> or <i>Phyllostomus</i>).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr"><a href="#image48">39.</a></td>
+  <td>Mammalia: Monkey (<i>Cebus</i>) and miscellaneous.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead" style="font-weight: normal;"><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS_IN_TEXT" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS_IN_TEXT"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT</h2>
+
+
+<table width="80%" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="List of Plates">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">1.</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td>Top of Altar T, Copan (<a name="corr2" id="corr2"></a><ins class="correction" title="Maudslay">Mandslay</ins>, I. Pl. 95)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#image01">320</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr" valign="top">2.</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td>Pottery whistle from Uloa Valley, Honduras, representing a vulture.
+   Peabody Museum Memoirs. I. No. 4, fig. 15</td>
+  <td class="tdr" valign="top"><a href="#image02">332</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">3.<br />4.<br />5.<br />6.</td>
+  <td>
+    <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="bracket">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+    </table></td>
+  <td>Glyphs of Maya month <i>Moan</i> showing moan-bird
+   characteristics</td>
+  <td><a href="#image03">339</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr" valign="top">7.</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td>Quetzal from the bas-relief of the Temple of the Cross,
+  Palenque</td>
+  <td class="tdr" valign="top"><a href="#image04">341</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">8.<br />9.<br />10.</td>
+  <td>
+    <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="bracket">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+    </table></td>
+  <td>Glyphs for Maya month <i>Kankin</i> (Ribs of dogs)</td>
+  <td><a href="#image05">364</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">11.<br />12.<br />13.<br />14.</td>
+  <td>
+    <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="bracket">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+    </table></td>
+  <td>Glyphs for Maya month <i>Zotz</i> (Bats)</td>
+  <td><a href="#image06">365</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr" valign="top">15.</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td>Pottery whistle from Uloa Valley, Honduras (Peabody Museum
+  Memoirs, I, No. 4, fig. 14), representing an ape</td>
+  <td class="tdr" valign="top"><a href="#image07">366</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">16.<br />17.<br />18.<br />19.</td>
+  <td>
+    <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="bracket">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+    </table></td>
+  <td>Glyphs for Maya day <i>Chuen</i></td>
+  <td><a href="#image08">367</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">20.<br />21.<br />22.<br />23.<br />24.</td>
+  <td>
+    <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="bracket">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="bt br bb">&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;<br />&nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+    </table></td>
+  <td>Glyphs of God C. (Schellhas, Peabody Museum Papers, IV, No. 1)</td>
+  <td><a href="#image09">368</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The various peoples inhabiting Mexico and Central America in early
+pre-Columbian times were accustomed to record various events, especially
+in regard to their calendar and the religious ceremonials in relation to
+it, on long strips of skin or bark. These were usually painted on both
+sides and folded together like a screen. Several of these codices are
+still in existence from the Nahua and Zapotec areas in Mexico, but only
+three have come down to us from the Maya region which is included in the
+peninsula of Yucatan, the states of Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico, and
+portions of Guatemala and Honduras. These three manuscripts are the
+Dresden Codex in the Royal Public Library at Dresden, the
+Tro-Cortesianus (formerly considered to have been two, the Troano and
+the Cortesianus) in the National Archaeological Museum at Madrid, and
+the Peresianus in the National Library at Paris. These pre-Columbian
+manuscripts have all been published in facsimile. (See <a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">bibliography</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>These remains of a once extensive literature show evidence not only of
+considerable intellectual attainments on the part of their authors but
+also of a high degree of artistic skill in the drawings and
+hieroglyphics. The frequent occurrence in these manuscripts of
+representations of animals showing various degrees of elaboration and
+conventionalization has led us to undertake the task of identifying
+these figures as far as possible and studying the uses and significance
+of the several species, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> field practically untouched.<a name="FNanchor_284-1_1" id="FNanchor_284-1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_284-1_1" class="fnanchor">284-*</a>
+F&ouml;rstemann in his various commentaries on the Maya codices (1902, 1903,
+1906), Brinton (1895), and <a name="corr3" id="corr3"></a><ins class="correction" title="de Rosny">deRosny</ins> (1876) have only commented briefly
+upon this side of the study of the manuscripts. Seler (1904a) and some
+others have written short papers on special animals. During the
+preparation of this paper there has appeared a brief account by Stempell
+(1908) of the animals in the Maya codices. The author has, however,
+omitted a number of species and, as we believe, misidentified others. In
+making our identifications we have given the reasons for our
+determinations in some detail and have stated the characteristics
+employed to denote the several species.</p>
+
+<p>We have not limited ourselves entirely to the Maya manuscripts as we
+have drawn upon the vast amount of material available in the stone
+carvings, the stucco figures, and the frescoes found throughout the Maya
+area. This material has by no means been exhausted in the present paper.
+In addition to the figures from the Maya codices and a comparatively few
+from other sources in the Maya region, we have introduced for comparison
+in a number of cases figures from a few of the ancient manuscripts of
+the Nahuas and the Zapotecs to the north. The calendar of these two
+peoples is fundamentally the same as that of the Mayas. The year is made
+up in the same way being composed of eighteen months of twenty days each
+with five days additional at the end of the year. There is therefore a
+more or less close connection as regards subject matter in all the
+pre-Columbian codices of Mexico and Central America but the manner of
+presentation differs among the different peoples of this region.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_284-1_1" id="Footnote_284-1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284-1_1"><span class="label">284-*</span></a> The first two parts of Dr. Seler&#8217;s Treatise, &#8220;Die
+Tierbilder der mexikanischen und der Maya-Handschriften&#8221; published in
+the <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, Vol. 41, have appeared during the time
+when this paper was passing through the press. The most excellent and
+exhaustive treatment by Dr. Seler would seem to render the present paper
+unnecessary. It has seemed best, however, to continue with its
+publication inasmuch as its field is narrower and more space is devoted
+to the Maya side of the question to the exclusion of the Mexican. Dr.
+Seler, on the other hand, while by no means neglecting the Maya, has
+spent more time in explaining the Mexican figures.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="I" id="I"></a>I</h2>
+
+<p class="chaptitle">SYNOPTIC CONSIDERATION OF THE MEANING AND OCCURRENCE OF ANIMAL FORMS</p>
+
+
+<p>Before taking up the different animals in the codices it may be well to
+consider some of the more common ways in which the figures occur and
+their connection with the surrounding figures.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Manner of representation.</span> The entire body of the animal may be
+represented realistically or the head alone may be shown. The animal
+head is frequently attached to a human body. The animal may appear
+conventionalized to a greater or less extent and the head in turn may
+change in the same way until only a single characteristic of the animal
+remains by which to identify it as, for example, the spots of the jaguar
+or the feathering around the eye of the macaw. In the case of the
+glyphs, a term employed to designate the regular and usually square
+characters appearing in lines or columns throughout the codices and
+inscriptions, we find both the realistic drawing and that where
+conventionalism has come in.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Tonalamatl.</span> The Maya codices are made up, for the most part, of the
+records of the sacred period of two hundred and sixty days, a period
+called in Nahuatl, <i>tonalamatl</i>, and other numerical calculations. The
+<i>tonalamatl</i> was used for purposes of divination in order to find out
+whether good or bad fortune was in store for an individual. It is not
+necessary at this place to go into the different means taken to record
+this period of time or its methods of use. It may be well, however, to
+explain the usual distribution of the pictures in the codices, including
+those of animals, in connection with the representation of the
+<i>tonalamatl</i>. A normal period is shown in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> Dresden 6c-7c. A column of
+five day signs occurs in the middle of 6c with a single red dot over it.
+To the right of this column stretches a horizontal line of numbers
+consisting of alternate groups of black and red lines and dots. Under
+each pair of red and black numbers there is usually a human form and
+over each pair a group of four glyphs belonging to the figure below.
+Schellhas (1904) has classified the various figures of gods appearing in
+these vignettes of the <i>tonalamatl</i> and lettered them. References
+throughout the paper will be made to the gods by letters and the reader
+is referred to Schellhas&#8217; paper. Animal figures often take the place of
+these gods as in the second picture in Dresden 7c where the screech owl
+is shown with human body. The greater number of animal figures in the
+codices occur in some connection with these <i>tonalamatls</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mythological animals.</span> Where figures are shown with human body and animal
+head standing alone in the place usually occupied by one of the various
+deities in the <i>tonalamatl</i>, there can be little doubt that they have a
+mythological meaning and are to be taken, either as gods themselves, or
+as representing certain of the gods. All of the animals are by no means
+shown in this position. The screech owl, or Moan bird (as in Dresden
+10a) appears most frequently in this way. The king vulture (Dresden 8a),
+the dog (Dresden 7a), and the parrot (Dresden 40b) come next in
+descending importance. The animals represented as copulating (as in
+Dresden 13c) might also be considered as mythological animals as well as
+the full drawings of the jaguar (Dresden 8a) and the other animals when
+they occur alone in the regular vignette of the <i>tonalamatl</i>. The four
+priests in Dresden 25a-28a should also be regarded as representing, in
+all probability, the dog as a mythological animal. The idea of
+worshipping animals as gods in themselves is strengthened by noting the
+ease with which the Maya people worshipped the horse which was left
+behind by Cortes in his march from Mexico across to Honduras
+(Villagutierre, 1701, pp. 100-101).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Astronomical ideas.</span> Animals frequently have a part to play in relation
+to the constellations. Throughout the codices and, to a less degree, in
+the stone carvings, we find what have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> usually been considered to be
+glyphs for several of the constellations. Numerous calculations in the
+codices make it clear that the Mayas had a good knowledge of astronomy.
+These glyphs are usually oblong in shape and three or more are arranged
+together end to end. We have called these the constellation bands.
+Various attempts have been made to identify these signs of the various
+constellations. Animals frequently are pictured below these bands. The
+dog with fire brands in his paws and often attached to his tail is shown
+in several places coming head downward from one of these bands (as in
+Dresden 36a). The peccary is also shown in the same position although
+the fire brands do not appear (Dresden 68a). A figure with macaw head
+occurs once standing beneath one of these bands with fire brands in his
+hands (Dresden 40b). The serpent (as in Dresden 36a), the
+lizard-crocodile-like animal in Dresden 74, the turtle (Tro-Cortesianus
+71a), the vulture (Dresden 38b), the turkey (Tro-Cortesianus 10b), and
+the deer (Tro-Cortesianus 47a) all appear in connection with these
+constellation bands. It is impossible at this time to decide upon the
+part these various animals play in relation to distinct constellations.
+In addition to the animals named, several of the gods, especially god B,
+are found below these bands. One of these signs, the one identified by
+F&ouml;rstemann as standing for Saturn, is composed of the head of the
+crocodile more or less conventionalized.</p>
+
+<p>F&ouml;rstemann (1902, p. 27) identifies the turtle with the summer solstice
+and the snail as the animal associated with the winter solstice. There
+does not seem to be any one animal used in connection with any one of
+the cardinal points. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c the dog seems to be
+associated with the north as shown by the glyph which is ordinarily
+regarded as connected with that direction, the ape with the west, and an
+unidentifiable bird sitting on a <i>Cimi</i> (death) sign with the south. The
+east is connected in this place with a human figure. It should be
+stated, however, that it is not absolutely certain that the usual
+assignment of the cardinal points, each to its special direction, is
+correct. The signs for the east and west as well as those for the north
+and south may be reversed. With the ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span>ception of the assignment of the
+offering-glyphs to the various cardinal points which will be discussed
+later (p. 290) this is almost the only case where a clear relation can
+be made out between the various animals and the signs for the four
+directions. There is no definite relation as is seen, for example, in
+the Vaticanus 3773, 17, 18 where the quetzal is noted perched on the
+tree of the east, the eagle on that of the north, the humming bird on
+that of the west, and the jaguar on the tree of the south.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Copulation.</span> The conception, the period of pregnancy, the infant baptism,
+and possibly, the naming of children are shown in both the
+Tro-Cortesianus (91-95) and the Dresden (13-23). Animals are frequently
+shown copulating with various gods or with one another. In Dresden 13c,
+the deer and god M and the vulture and the dog; in 19c, the vulture and
+a woman; in Tro-Cortesianus 91d, a god and a woman; and in 92d, an
+armadillo and a deer both with female figures. These animals probably
+represent in some way the totems of the man or woman in question and are
+shown in place of the human figure. The Lacandones, a Maya people, show
+at the present time the remains of a totemic system (Tozzer, 1907, pp.
+40-42). The deer (<i>Ke</i>) gens is found at the present time. In the
+greater number of cases where copulation is shown a god and a female
+figure are pictured. The presentation of the new-born children by women
+with bird head-dresses, also occurring in this same section of both
+manuscripts, is discussed later (p. 291).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Animal sacrifices.</span> Various ceremonials occurring at intervals throughout
+the Maya year which included sacrifices to the gods, evidently took up a
+large part of the time of the people. Animals composed by far the major
+part of the gifts made to the gods. This was especially true in regard
+to the ceremonies occurring at the beginning of each year. According to
+the Maya calendar there were four days only which could come at the
+beginning of the year and these came in succession. Landa (1864, pp.
+210-233), the first Bishop of Yucatan, gives a minute description of the
+rites of the four years which were named according to the initial day.
+He also relates the manner in which the various animals are employed as
+offer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span>ings in these rites and also in others taking place at the
+beginning of the various months.<a name="FNanchor_289-1_2" id="FNanchor_289-1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_289-1_2" class="fnanchor">289-*</a></p>
+
+<p>The rites which took place at the beginning and the end of the year are
+shown in Dresden 25-28 and in Tro-Cortesianus 34-37. The dog, the deer,
+and the turkey are the most important of the animals shown as being
+offered to the gods in this connection. It will not be necessary to
+consider these animals in detail at this place as they are each taken up
+later.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Offerings shown by glyphs.</span> It is, however, in another connection than
+that just considered that the animals are shown as offerings far more
+frequently throughout the Maya manuscripts. In the ceremonies of the
+four years, the animals and birds are, for the most part, represented
+entire and purely as pictures. Offerings are also shown in the form of
+glyphs. These may occur in connection with the figures of the gods or in
+the lines of hieroglyphs above the pictures. When they are used in the
+former relation they are usually shown as resting in a bowl or dish
+(Dresden 35a). It frequently happens that when a god is making an
+offering represented by the entire animal or a glyph of the animal in
+the main picture, there is a corresponding glyph of the offering above
+in the line of hieroglyphics (Dresden 23b).</p>
+
+<p>The fish, iguana, turkey, deer and possibly the lizard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> are the usual
+animals shown as glyphs in this connection. The frigate bird occurs once
+in the Dresden (35a) and once in the Tro-Cortesianus (34a) as an
+offering. The dog, curiously enough, does not seem to be represented by
+an offering-glyph although he has a glyph of his own when appearing in
+other connections. The iguana and fish are shown entire although drawn
+very small; the head is the only part usually shown of the turkey and
+the haunch of venison of the deer. The head and feet of the lizard, as
+has been noted, may also be shown by a glyph. The turkey and iguana
+glyphs are very often found with a <i>Kan</i> sign indicating an offering of
+maize and bread as well as that of the animal. In connection with glyphs
+showing various offerings of food, there is one which occurs especially
+in the Tro-Cortesianus (as in 106a). This shows a row of points
+themselves running to a point over a <i>Kan</i> sign. This, as will be
+pointed out later (p. 318) may also represent an iguana. The jar
+containing a representation of the honey comb (as in Tro-Cortesianus
+107b) might come in here in the consideration of the offering-glyphs.</p>
+
+<p>In many instances the common offerings shown by glyphs are found
+associated with the signs for the four cardinal points but there does
+not seem to be any strict uniformity as to the special offering
+associated with each direction. In Dresden 29b, the lizard glyph is
+found in the same group with the sign commonly assigned to the east, the
+turkey with the south, the iguana with the west, and the fish with the
+north while in Dresden 29c, the deer is associated with the east, the
+fish with the south, the iguana with the west, and the turkey with the
+north. The iguana is usually found with the sign for the west and the
+fish with that of the south. The others vary greatly in the assignment
+of the various directions.</p>
+
+<p>Schellhas (1904, p. 17) considers that the fish, the lizard, &#8220;the
+sprouting kernel of maize or (according to F&ouml;rstemann, parts of a
+mammal, game)&#8221; and a vulture&#8217;s head are symbols of the four elements.
+The head which Schellhas interprets as that of the vulture is certainly
+the head of a turkey. He remarks that these signs of the four elements
+appear with god B in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> Dresden manuscript. Other gods, as he also
+notes, are found with these four offering-glyphs. There seems to be a
+fifth glyph, however, (as in Dresden 29b) which we have interpreted as
+that of a lizard.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Animals as rain bearers.</span> Various animals are associated with the rain
+and water. The serpent is most frequently represented in this
+connection. Snails, fish, the turtle, and the frog, as well as the
+lizard-crocodile figure in Dresden 74 are naturally found associated
+with water. The vulture-headed figure in Dresden 38b and the vulture as
+a bird in Tro-Cortesianus 10a both appear in the rain. The peccary
+(Dresden 68a), and the turkey (Tro-Cortesianus 10b) appear associated
+with the rain as well as with the constellation bands. The scorpion
+(Tro-Cortesianus 7a) encloses the rain within its legs.</p>
+
+<p>The connection of an old female figure occurring in many places in the
+codices with the rain will be discussed later (p. 316) when considering
+the serpent. It remains at this place to comment upon the woman in
+Tro-Cortesianus 30b from whose breasts water is flowing. She is
+represented as having animal figures seated on her two outstretched
+hands and on her right foot together with another animal at her side.
+God B sits on her left foot. This picture immediately recalls
+representations in the Mexican codices where the various parts of the
+body of a god are associated with various day signs, ten of which have
+animal names. In the Maya picture, a jaguar is shown on the right hand,
+a peccary on the left, a dog on the right foot, and a rabbit beside the
+body at her right. The peccary is not represented among the Nahua day
+signs but the other three are found, namely the <i>oceolotl</i> (jaguar),
+<i>itzcuintli</i> (dog), and <i>tochtli</i> (rabbit).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Animal head-dresses.</span> Animal figures appear perhaps most frequently as
+head-dresses of the various gods in the codices. Here, as elsewhere,
+from all that can be made out, the religious character is uppermost as
+in addition to being a decoration, they undoubtedly have some religious
+signification. Birds occur by far most commonly in this connection. Both
+male and female figures seems to have these head-dresses. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> same bird
+is often found as the head-dress of several different gods as, for
+example, the turkey which appears with gods A, B, C, E, and N. The
+vulture, on the other hand, when used as a head-dress for male figures,
+appears exclusively with god F. The whole bird is seldom represented on
+the head-dress of the male figures. It is usually only the head and a
+part of the body of the bird which forms but a portion of the whole
+head-covering. Landa (1864, p. 148)<a name="FNanchor_292-1_3" id="FNanchor_292-1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_292-1_3" class="fnanchor">292-*</a> notes the dress of the leader
+in the rites. He wears a jacket of red feathers worked with other
+feathers and from it hang long plumes. He also wears a feather
+head-dress.</p>
+
+<p>Entire birds appear as the sole head-covering only in connection with
+female figures and then only in one section of the Dresden (16-18) and a
+parallel passage in the Tro-Cortesianus (94-95). In both these places
+the conception and the bearing of children are shown together with their
+baptism. The bird above the head of each female figure seems to be a
+badge of office, possibly the totems which are held by the women and
+given to the children. The parrot, quetzal, vulture, screech owl and the
+horned owl appear in this connection. It is to be noted that the birds
+associated with these women are not really represented as head-dresses
+at all. They are quite different from the head decoration composed of a
+bird&#8217;s head and feathers seen in other parts of the manuscripts. In the
+Dresden especially, these birds above the women&#8217;s heads are shown in
+almost every case standing with the claws clasping the necklace at the
+back of the neck. Landa (1864, pp. 144-154) gives an interesting account
+of the method of baptising children. He also states (p. 304)<a name="FNanchor_292-2_4" id="FNanchor_292-2_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_292-2_4" class="fnanchor">292-&#8224;</a>
+that in the month <i>Yaxkin</i> an old woman brought the little girls to the
+general feast. This old woman<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> was dressed in a garment of feathers. It
+was understood that this devoted old woman was not permitted to become
+intoxicated<a name="FNanchor_293-1_5" id="FNanchor_293-1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_293-1_5" class="fnanchor">293-*</a> lest she should lose in the road the plume of her
+office.</p>
+
+<p>The serpent appears as a head-dress exclusively with female figures and
+then usually when the woman is in the act of offering something or is
+associated with water or rain. The centipede occurs only with god D.
+Quadrupeds are employed as head-dresses only very seldom. The head of a
+deer is, in three places, used as a part of the head decoration of god M
+and the head of a jaguar appears in two places only.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Secular occupations.</span> Animals appear frequently in scenes showing various
+occupations. These, although appearing at first sight as secular, have
+to do with the religion of the people and they show in every case acts
+undertaken in behalf of the deities. It is almost exclusively in the
+Tro-Cortesianus that these religious-secular occupations are shown.</p>
+
+<p>Hunting scenes occur in one section of this codex (38-49). The whole aim
+of the hunt in these pages is to obtain animals for sacrifice. In almost
+every case the various animals are shown as being captured alive, either
+in a pitfall or a trap of the &#8220;jerk-up&#8221; type. This was undoubtedly in
+order that the animal might be killed the moment it was offered to the
+gods by having its heart cut out. Deer are most commonly represented in
+this hunting section although peccaries and armadillos also appear.
+Fishing is shown in one place at least (Dresden 33a).</p>
+
+<p>The practice of agriculture is shown in Tro-Cortesianus 24-28. The
+sprouting grain is represented as being eaten by a vulture and a jaguar.
+Certain gods in this section which relates to the planting of maize are
+shown as being attacked by vultures and blow-flies. Another occupation
+of the natives depicted in the Tro-Cortesianus (103-112) is apiculture.
+This, again, has clearly some religious significance. Pottery-making is
+shown in the same manuscript (95-101). It is, however, a purely
+religious ceremony. The renewal of the incense-burners is shown.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span>
+Animals occur very infrequently in this section. The quetzal and two
+vultures are noted seated on top of an oven-like covering under which is
+the head of god C, probably representing the idol. There are several
+other occupations shown in this codex such as weaving (79c) and the
+gathering of the sap of the rubber tree (102b), but as animals do not
+occur in any connection with these operations, it is not necessary to
+dwell upon them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Animal glyphs.</span> It remains finally to speak of the various animals which
+are represented in glyph form as well as drawn in full in the pictures
+proper. The creatures pictured in the codices are often accompanied by
+their glyphs which appear in the lines of signs directly above. In many
+cases, the animal pictured below is not represented by its glyph above
+and, vice versa, the animal glyph may appear without its picture below.
+The same is seen also in connection with the representation of the gods
+and their glyphs. Both the picture and the glyph usually appear but
+either may appear alone. Many times when the glyph, either of a god or
+an animal, is shown with no accompanying picture, the reason seems to be
+that there is no room for the latter on account of the numerical
+calculations which take up all the space.</p>
+
+<p>There are some animals in the codices which are represented by glyphs
+very frequently. Among these are the screech owl (the Moan, the bird of
+death), which has several different glyphs by which it is recognized,
+the dog which, in addition to its own glyph, may be represented by the
+day sign <i>Oc</i>, the king vulture, the turtle, the bee (if we consider the
+day sign <i>Cauac</i> stands for this insect), and the centipede. Among the
+animals whose glyphs only seldom appear may be mentioned the macaw, the
+peccary, the tree-toad (god P), the quetzal, and the jaguar. The glyph
+for the black vulture (Tro-Cortesianus 26c), the ape (Tro-Cortesianus
+88c), the deer (Peresianus 10), the eagle (Tro-Cortesianus 107c), and
+the serpent (Tro-Cortesianus 106c) seem to appear but once. It might
+also be well to mention in this place the glyphs for various molluscs
+which are used not to represent the shell but to give the value of zero
+to the numerical calculations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the inscriptions glyphs frequently occur which represent animals
+either showing the whole body or simply the head. In the eastern fa&ccedil;ade
+of the Monjas at Chichen Itza there are glyphs for both the king and the
+black vulture and the peccary. The macaw and the turtle seem also to be
+represented by glyphs in the inscriptions. The <i>Tun</i> period glyph shows
+vulture-like characteristics and the <i>Uinal</i> period glyph certainly
+resembles the lizard. The glyphs representing the various animal
+offerings have already been discussed under a special heading (p. 289).</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_289-1_2" id="Footnote_289-1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_289-1_2"><span class="label">289-*</span></a> p. 162. &#8220;Las mugeres no usavan destos derrammamientos,
+aunque eran harto santeras; mas de todas las cosas que aver podian que
+son aves del cielo, animales de la tierra, o pescados de la agua,
+siempre les embadurnavan los rostros al demonio con la sangre dellos.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">p. 164. &#8220;Y otras cosas que tenian ofrecian; a algunos animales les
+sacavan el corazon y lo ofrecian, a otros enteros, unos vivos, otros
+muertos, unos crudos, otros guisados.... Que sin las fiestas en las
+quales, para la solemnidad de ellas, se secrificavan animales, tambien
+por alguna tribulacion o necessidad.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">p. 254. &#8220;Tenian buscados todos animales y savandijas del campo que
+podian aver y en la tierra avia, y con ellos se juntavan en el patio del
+templo en el qual se ponian los <i>Chaques</i>.... Sacavan con liberalidad
+los cora&ccedil;ones a las aves y animales, y echavanlos a quemar en el fuego;
+y sino podian aver los animales grandes como tigres, leones o largartos,
+hazian los cora&ccedil;ones de su encienso, y si los matavan trayanles los
+cora&ccedil;ones para aquel fuego.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_292-1_3" id="Footnote_292-1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292-1_3"><span class="label">292-*</span></a> &#8220;Vestido salia con un jaco de pluma colorado y labrado
+de otras plumas de colores, y que le cuelgan de los estremos otras
+plumas largas y una como coroza en la cabe&ccedil;a de las mesmas plumas.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_292-2_4" id="Footnote_292-2_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292-2_4"><span class="label">292-&#8224;</span></a> &#8220;Y a las ni&ntilde;as se les dava una vieja, vestida de un
+habito de plumas, que las traia alli y por esto la llamavan <i>Ixmol</i>, la
+allegadera.... Aquella devota vieja allegaria con que se emborachava en
+casa por no perder la pluma del officio en el camino.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_293-1_5" id="Footnote_293-1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293-1_5"><span class="label">293-*</span></a> &#8220;Intoxication was obligatory with the men in many of
+the religious rites. This is reported by the early Spanish historians
+and is the case at the present time among the Lacandones.&#8221; (See Tozzer,
+1907, p. 136.)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="II" id="II"></a>II</h2>
+
+<p class="chaptitle">ZOOLOGICAL IDENTIFICATION AND ETHNOLOGICAL EXPLANATION OF ANIMAL FORMS.</p>
+
+
+<p>In the descriptions of the animals which follow the general plan will be
+to consider first the identification purely from a zoological point of
+view, and, secondly, the connection and, wherever possible, the meaning
+of the use of the various animal figures wherever they occur.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectitle">MOLLUSCA</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fasciolaria gigantea.</span> Representations of this marine shell are found in
+several places in the codices. It is the only large <i>Fusus</i>-like species
+on the western coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and, indeed, is the largest
+known American shell. It is therefore not strange that it should have
+attracted the attention of the Mayas and found a place in their
+writings. Several figures are shown that represent <i>Fasciolaria</i> (<a href="#image10">Pl. 1</a>,
+figs. 1-9). One in the Codex Vaticanus 3773 (<a href="#image10">Pl. 1</a>, fig. 3) in common
+with those shown in <a href="#image10">Pl. 1</a>, figs. 2, 6, 9, has the spire represented by
+segments of successively smaller size. The species of <i>Fasciolaria</i>
+occurring on the Yucatan and adjacent coasts is characterized by
+numerous prominent bosses or projections on its later whorls, and these,
+too, appear in conventionalized form in most of the representations. In
+<a href="#image10">Pl. 1</a>, fig. 2, the second whorl, and in figs. 6, 9, the third whorl is
+shown with three stout tubercles in side view, corresponding to those
+found in this region of the shell. Figs. 7, 8 (<a href="#image10">Pl. 1</a>) are glyphs
+representing the same species, but as in fig. 4, the spire is omitted,
+though the knobs are present. Round spots of color are evidently
+intended by the markings on the shells shown in figs. 3, 5, 6 (<a href="#image10">Pl. 1</a>).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span>
+Fig. 5, shows a further modification of the spire, which here is made
+like the head of a serpent.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Mollusca</i> in the codices are not always associated with the water
+although this is usually the case. God N (<a href="#image10">Pl. 1</a>, fig. 1) sitting with
+the shell around his body is represented as in the rain and the shells
+in <a href="#image10">Pl. 1</a>, figs. 4, 6, appear under water. The snail (Maya, <i>&#353;ot</i>) is
+considered by the Nahuas as the symbol of birth and death. The first
+idea is well brought out in <a href="#image10">Pl. 1</a>, fig. 2, where the human figure is
+emerging from a shell. The same idea among the Mayas is seen in <a href="#image10">Pl. 1</a>,
+fig. 1, where god N is coming from a shell. As god N is usually
+associated with the end of the year, we may have here the complementary
+idea of death associated with the shell. The same meaning is brought out
+in the Bologna Codex (<a href="#image10">Pl. 1</a>, fig. 3) where the shell is decorated with
+flint points, the symbol of death. As the tortoise is often identified
+with the summer solstice, as previously pointed out, so the snail is
+associated with the winter solstice.</p>
+
+<p>F&ouml;rstemann&#8217;s identification of the head-dress of god D (Dresden 5c), god
+A (Dresden 9c, 13a), and god E (Dresden 11c) as representing snails is
+not clear. Stempell (1908, p. 739) also follows the same course thinking
+that the knob-like prominences represent the stalked eyes of snails.
+This seems quite unlikely as such representations are usually short and
+occur in too widely dissimilar connections. Moreover, there are
+sometimes three of these instead of but a single pair (Dresden 14a). A
+similar attempt has been made by Brinton to identify the head-dress of
+the death god (god A) as the snail. The head-dress in Dresden 13a and
+13b associated with god A looks far more like the head and upper jaw of
+some mammal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oliva.</span> A univalve shell frequently represented is of an oval shape,
+pointed at each end, with a longitudinal lip and a short spire at one
+extremity. This is doubtless a species of <i>Oliva</i>, a marine shell. Mr.
+Charles W. Johnson informs us that <i>O. reticulata</i> is the species
+occurring on the Yucatan shores, while <i>O. splendidula</i> is found in
+other parts of the Gulf of Mexico. Representations of this shell are
+shown in <a href="#image10">Pl. 1</a>, figs. 10-12. In figs. 10, 11, the lip and spire are
+apparent but in fig. 12 the lip<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span> only is seen as a white fissure against
+the general dark background. An earthenware vessel representing a tapir
+(<a href="#image37">Pl. 28</a>, fig. 1) shows a string of <i>Oliva</i> shells about the animal&#8217;s
+neck and similar strings very often decorate the belts worn by the
+personages represented on the stelae of Copan.</p>
+
+<p>The shell in the codices is found in most cases to represent zero in the
+Maya numerical calculations. Just as a bar has the meaning five, and a
+dot one, so the shell often has the signification of zero. This is seen
+especially in the numeration by position in the codices (<a href="#image10">Pl. 1</a>, figs. 7,
+8, 10-14).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Other Mollusca.</span> In addition to the species just described at least two
+or three others occur in the Nuttall Codex, but so conventionalized that
+it is out of the question to hazard a guess at their identity. One (<a href="#image10">Pl.
+1</a>, figs. 16, 17) is a bivalve with long pointed shell, another (<a href="#image10">Pl. 1</a>,
+figs. 18-20) is rounder with conventionalized scroll-like markings.
+Figs. 21, 22 (<a href="#image10">Pl. 1</a>) may be a side view of the closed bivalve shown in
+figs. 16, 17, or possibly a species of cowry. In like manner, fig. 13 is
+probably a side view of the mollusc shown in fig. 14, for it is seen
+that in each case the figure showing the two opened valves has a
+bipartite extended foot, whereas that of the single valve is simple.
+This doubling of the single median foot of the bivalve may be an
+artistic necessity for the sake of balance, or perhaps represents both
+foot and siphon at the same end. Figs. 23, 24 (<a href="#image10">Pl. 1</a>) seem to represent
+molluscs still further reduced and conventionalized. These molluscs from
+the Nuttall Codex (<a href="#image10">Pl. 1</a>, figs. 15-24) are almost all found represented
+in the blue water, whereas those which stand for zero in the Maya
+codices have no immediate association with either water or rain.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectitle">INSECTA</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Honey Bee</span> (<i>Melipona</i>). A portion of the Tro-Cortesianus appears to
+treat of apiculture, as previously noted, or, at all events, contains
+numerous figures of bees, some of which are shown in <a href="#image11">Pl. 2</a>. As stated by
+Stempell (1908, p. 735) this is doubtless a species of <i>Melipona</i>,
+probably <i>M. fulvipes</i> or <i>do<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span>mestica</i>. It is well known that this bee
+was kept by the ancient Mexicans, and what appear to be improvised hives
+are shown in <a href="#image11">Pl. 2</a>, figs. 7, 10, where the combs are noted depending
+from the ceiling or walls. These combs are seen to be composed of cells
+roughly four-sided for the most part, though in fig. 11 several
+hexagonal cells are present in the mass of comb held by the black god,
+M. Darwin, in his <i>Origin of Species</i>, has called attention to the form
+of the comb built by this bee, and considers its irregular cells of from
+three to six sides intermediate in their degree of perfection between
+those of the bumble bee (<i>Bombus</i>) and the honey bee of Europe (<i>Apis
+mellifica</i>). The <i>Caban</i> form in <a name="corr4" id="corr4"></a><ins class="correction" title="connection">connnection</ins> with the hive in fig.
+10 may have some phonetic <a name="corr5" id="corr5"></a><ins class="correction" title="significance">signifiance</ins> as <i>kab</i> is honey in Maya.
+This sign occurs very frequently in the pages devoted to apiculture.</p>
+
+<p>The figures of the bees in the codex show a number of interesting
+variations. In figs. 1-3, 5, 11, the insect is less conventionalized
+than in figs. 4, 6 (<a href="#image11">Pl. 2</a>). The hairy feet are well indicated as well as
+the segmented body and a single pair of wings. All the figures show an
+anterodorsal view so that, on account of the size of the first pair of
+legs, only the tops of the second pair appear in <a href="#image11">Pl. 2</a>, figs. 1, 3, 5.
+In fig. 2, however, two pairs are seen, and in figs. 4, 6, the
+anthropomorphic tendency is further shown by providing the insect with
+two pairs of limbs each with four or five digits, and a conventionalized
+face, eyes and mouth. In <a href="#image11">Pl. 2</a>, fig. 1, the bee is represented without
+mouthparts but antennae only. This may indicate a drone or a queen bee
+that takes no active part in the work of gathering honey or making comb.
+Fig. 2 is perhaps the least reduced of any of the figures and shows the
+worker bee with antennae and mouthparts.</p>
+
+<p>The so-called &#8220;cloud balls&#8221; of the day sign <i>Cauac</i> (<a href="#image11">Pl. 2</a>, fig. 8) may
+represent the honey comb. <i>Cauac</i> is usually supposed to have some
+connection with <a name="corr6" id="corr6"></a><ins class="correction" title="lightning">lightening</ins> and thunder although Valentini agrees with
+the authors in associating <i>Cauac</i> with the bees and honey. The
+<i>Cauac</i>-like forms in <a href="#image11">Pl. 2</a>, figs. 7, 10, have been described above as
+hives. The representation of legs in the full drawing of a bee as four
+large limbs, an anterior and a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> posterior pair, coupled with the method
+of drawing the insect as seen from above and in front, may have led to
+its final expression by an X-shaped mark shown in connection with the
+hives (<a href="#image11">Pl. 2</a>, figs. 7, 10). The X is also seen in the day sign <i>Cauac</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Apiculture was common among the various peoples of Central America and
+Mexico. Las Casas speaks of hives of bees and Gomara states that the
+bees were small and the honey rather bitter. Clavigero (Vol. 1, p.
+68)<a name="FNanchor_300-1_6" id="FNanchor_300-1_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_300-1_6" class="fnanchor">300-*</a> mentions six varieties of bees which were found in
+Mexico;&mdash;the first is the same as the common bee of Europe, the second
+differs from the first only in having no sting and is the bee of Yucatan
+and Chiapas which makes the fine clear honey of aromatic flavor. The
+third species resembles in its form the winged ants but is smaller than
+the common bee and without a sting. The fourth is a yellow bee, smaller
+than the common one but, like it, furnished with a sting. The fifth is a
+small bee without a sting which constructs hives of an orbicular form in
+subterranean cavities and the honey is sour and somewhat bitter. The
+<i>Tlalpipiolli</i>, which is the sixth species, is black and yellow, of the
+size of the common bee, but has no sting.</p>
+
+<p>The natives of the country at the present time often cultivate hives of
+bees in logs which they hollow out for this purpose and keep in a
+specially constructed shelter. It is, however, rather the ceremonial
+side of apiculture that is the interesting feature and this is clearly
+emphasized in the Tro-Cortesianus. The section in this manuscript (80b,
+103-112), as has been noted, is taken up almost exclusively with the
+culture of the bee and in all probability represents a definite
+religious ceremony or series of rites which are connected intimately
+with bees and honey. Landa (1864, p. 292)<a name="FNanchor_300-2_7" id="FNanchor_300-2_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_300-2_7" class="fnanchor">300-&#8224;</a> states that in the
+month <i>Tzoz</i> the natives prepare for a ceremony in behalf of the bees
+which takes place in the following month, <i>Tzec</i>. In the month <i>Mol</i>
+another fiesta is undertaken in behalf of these insects so that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> the
+gods may provide an abundance of flowers for the bees (Landa, 1864, p.
+306).<a name="FNanchor_301-1_8" id="FNanchor_301-1_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_301-1_8" class="fnanchor">301-*</a></p>
+
+<p>It seems clear therefore that we have represented in the pages of the
+Tro-Cortesianus referred to, the rites carried out in this connection.
+The more or less realistic drawings of the bees (<a href="#image11">Pl. 2</a>, figs. 1-6, 9)
+represent the god of the bees and to him offerings of food and incense
+are being made. <a href="#image11">Pl. 2</a>, fig. 11, shows the war god (M) with his eagle
+head-dress offering a mass of honey in the comb to the god of the bees.</p>
+
+<p>Curiously enough the bee does not seem to be represented in the Dresden
+Codex. F&ouml;rstemann&#8217;s identification of the head-dress of the goddess in
+Dresden 9a as a bee does not seem to us to be correct.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the bees, there occurs in the Nuttall Codex 4 (<a href="#image12">Pl. 3</a>,
+fig. 4) a curious representation of an insect with a pointed beak-like
+structure and a spine at the posterior extremity of its human-like body.
+It is engaged in apparent conflict with a man and may represent a
+hornet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Blow-fly</span> (<i>Sarcophaga</i>). Two figures in the Tro-Cortesianus (<a href="#image12">Pl. 3</a>,
+figs. 1, 2) are of special interest since they appear to have been
+frequently regarded as picturing snakes attacking men. These are
+thick-bodied sinuous creatures distinguished by the curious conformation
+of the mouth and by a lateral row of dots that may represent the
+metameric spiracles or, as commonly, a demarcation between dorsal and
+ventral surfaces. That these are maggots of a blow-fly (<i>Sarcophaga</i>)
+there can be little doubt, not only on account of their mouth parts
+which are similar to those of the agave maggot (see later) but also
+because of their relation to God F whom they are devouring. The latter
+in fig. 1 is doubtless dead as shown by the closed eye and it is the
+habit of the blow-fly to deposit its eggs in the nasal cavity of dead
+animals as well as elsewhere on the body. The fact that in each case a
+maggot is attacking the god&#8217;s nose may indicate that this habit was
+known to the artist who, consequently,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> shows the larvae in this
+position. In <a href="#image12">Pl. 3</a>, fig. 2, the god&#8217;s eye is not closed but his passive
+attitude while the maggot devours his hand and nose does not indicate
+that he is in full possession of his strength. In addition to the
+blow-fly, a screw-fly (<i>Chrysomyia</i>) lays its eggs on the bodies of
+animals, often on persons sleeping, and these may hatch almost at once
+into small maggots that penetrate the skin. It may be, therefore, that
+the larvae here considered belong to this genus.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to god F, in Tro-Cortesianus 24d, there is another
+representation of the same god being attacked by a vulture. This bird is
+evidently eating his nose. In this case the god is shown with the closed
+eye as in 27d. In Tro-Cortesianus 25d the fly seems to be attacking the
+mouth of god F. From the fact that no other god is ever found in this
+connection it may be suggested that there may be some relation between
+god F as a god of human sacrifice and the fact that his dead body is
+being eaten by blow-flies and vultures. A portion of the body of the
+person sacrificed was usually eaten by those taking part in the
+ceremony.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lepidopterous Insects.</span> In Tro-Cortesianus 28c (<a href="#image12">Pl. 3</a>, fig. 3) is shown a
+second insect larva with curiously formed mouth parts. It is represented
+as attacking agave which is springing from the ground as shown by the
+<i>Caban</i> signs in the codex. Hough (1908, p. 591) has shown this to be
+the larva of <i>Acentrocneme kollari</i> Felder, &#8220;called by the Mexicans
+<i>guson</i>, and in Nahuatl <i>mescuillin</i>.&#8221; This grub, he says, is white,
+about an inch long, and tunnels the fleshy leaves of the agave. It is
+greatly prized as an article of food for &#8220;<i>gusones</i> to this day are
+collected in April, boiled, wrapped in the epidermis of the agave, sold
+on the streets of Mexico, and are eaten with avidity. To all appearances
+they are nourishing and palatable, and it is said that connoisseurs
+prefer them to oysters or swallows&#8217; nests.&#8221; Hough believes &#8220;that the
+discovery of the sap-yielding quality of the agave was through search
+for these larvae.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In the Nuttall Codex occur numerous representations of insects, some of
+which appear to represent butterflies or moths (<a href="#image12">Pl. 3</a>, figs. 5-8) but
+these are quite unidentifiable. That shown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span> in fig. 6 is colored blue in
+the original, while the others are of various colors. Possibly the round
+markings on the wings in figs. 5, 8, represent the ocelli on the wings
+of certain species of moths. In this connection, too, it is interesting
+to compare the conventionalized butterfly with its single eye and
+pointed antennae from the Aubin manuscript (<a href="#image12">Pl. 3</a>, fig. 9) with one
+drawn on the same plan from the Nuttall Codex (<a href="#image12">Pl. 3</a>, fig. 8).</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectitle">MYRIAPODA</p>
+
+<p>Representations of a centipede (probably a species of <i>Scolopendra</i>)
+occur in the Dresden Codex and in several others examined. That shown in
+<a href="#image14">Pl. 5</a>, fig. 1, from the Vaticanus 3773, is perhaps the least
+conventionalized.<a name="FNanchor_303-1_9" id="FNanchor_303-1_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_303-1_9" class="fnanchor">303-*</a> This figure appears partly to encircle a
+temple, behind which the major portion of its length is hidden and hence
+is not here shown. The bipartite structure coming from the animal&#8217;s head
+doubtless represents the mouthparts, and at its base on either side
+arise antennae. The first pair only of legs is shown with a pinching
+claw, possibly intended as a conventionalized hand, while the rest are
+simple. The plumes decorating the posterior extremity are of course
+extraneous and represent the tail of the quetzal or trogon.</p>
+
+<p>In the Dresden Codex, god D constantly appears in connection with a
+head-dress from which depends a centipede, greatly reduced and
+conventionalized. Two forms of this centipede are shown in <a href="#image12">Pl. 3</a>, figs.
+15, 18. The body appears to consist of four or five segments each with
+its pair of ambulatory appendages (though there may not always be the
+same number of each) terminated by a circular segment with a
+conventionalized three-knobbed structure, apparently corresponding to
+the portion that bears the quetzal plume in <a href="#image14">Pl. 5</a>, fig. 1. The outline
+of the head in <a href="#image12">Pl. 3</a>, fig. 15, is shown in dotted line but by solid line
+in fig. 18. One of the antennae appears to be omitted from the former
+figure, also, but both are present in the latter. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span> insect-like head
+is made on much the same plan as that of the bee (<a href="#image11">Pl. 2</a>, fig. 11), the
+facial portion divided by a median line into a right and a left half
+with a small triangle below for a mouth. The eyes, however, instead of
+being circular like those of the bee are made as narrow elongated
+projections extending inward from the dorsal margin of the facial disc.</p>
+
+<p>The glyphs for god D in Dresden 7b (<a href="#image12">Pl. 3</a>, fig. 11), Dresden 7c, and
+Dresden 14b (<a href="#image12">Pl. 3</a>, fig. 12) undoubtedly show three forms of the sign
+for god D, only one of which (fig. 12) is given by Schellhas (1904, p.
+22) among the signs of this god. In each of these cases the centipede
+head surrounded by dots is shown in connection with the main part of the
+glyph. In Dresden 44b (<a href="#image12">Pl. 3</a>, fig. 13) there is a glyph which seems to
+show the same centipede head although it has no connection with god D in
+the place where it is found. In Dresden 27 (<a href="#image12">Pl. 3</a>, fig. 14), moreover,
+still another variant of the glyph for god D seems to occur. This shows
+a prefix clearly representing the centipede and the &#8220;moon sign&#8221; is the
+main part of the glyph. Directly beside this in the codex is found the
+<i>Ahau</i>-like sign for god D and god D himself is represented in the
+middle section of the page.</p>
+
+<p>The association of god D with the centipede may be explained by the fact
+that as this god is regarded as the Moon or Night god, so the centipede
+is an animal which frequents dark places. Another point in this
+connection may be made if we consider the head of the centipede in the
+head-dress and in the glyphs as representing the day sign <i>Akbal</i> (<a href="#image12">Pl.
+3</a>, fig. 10) as <i>Akbal</i> in Maya means night. It must be admitted,
+however, that the head might represent the day sign <i>Chuen</i> almost as
+well as <i>Akbal</i>. The centipede is connected with death and destruction
+in the same way as the owl. Both are shown in Vaticanus 3773, 13,
+associated with the &#8220;house of drought.&#8221;</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectitle">CRUSTACEA</p>
+
+<p>With one possible exception no crustaceans were found depicted in the
+Maya codices, but we have introduced figures of two from the Nuttall
+Codex. The first of these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> (<a href="#image13">Pl. 4</a>, fig. 5) is probably a crayfish,
+perhaps <i>Cambarus montezumae</i>. It seems unlikely that the so-called
+Spanish lobster (<i>Palinurus</i>) can be intended or the powerful spined
+antennae would have been shown. It is interesting to note that the
+stalked eyes are clearly pictured. The second example seems to be a crab
+(<a href="#image13">Pl. 4</a>, fig. 6). Two large chelae of nearly equal size are simply drawn
+and four rounded projections at the top of the figure appear to
+represent the walking legs. Its rotund form and subequal chelae suggest
+the land crab, <i>Geocarcinus</i>, but exact determination is of course
+impossible. What is certainly a large crab, perhaps of the same species,
+is shown in Tro-Cortesianus 88c (<a href="#image45">Pl. 36</a>, fig. 1) in connection with a
+dog whose feet it seems about to pinch with its two large chelae. The
+shell is ornamented in a conventionalized way as if with scales.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectitle">ARACHNIDA</p>
+
+<p>In Codex Borbonicus 9 (<a href="#image13">Pl. 4</a>, fig. 4) there is represented a
+stout-bodied form of spider with two sharply pointed chelicerae
+projecting from the conventionalized mouth. These characteristics
+together with the absence of any web, suggest a large predacious
+species, probably the tarantula (<i>Tarantula</i> sp.) which is common in
+Mexico. The acute powers of observation shown by the artist are evinced
+in this figure since he draws the spider correctly with eight legs
+instead of the six or ten sometimes seen in drawings by our own
+illustrators.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectitle">ARACHNOIDEA</p>
+
+<p>The scorpion (Maya, <i>sinaan</i>) figures prominently in the
+Tro-Cortesianus, two drawings from which are shown (<a href="#image13">Pl. 4</a>, figs. 1, 2).
+As here conventionalized, the jointed appendages are represented as
+composed of an indefinite number of round segments. The large chelate
+pedipalps are also prominently figured but the smaller walking legs are
+commonly omitted. In <a href="#image13">Pl. 4</a>, fig. 1, however, there is a pair of
+posterior chelate appendages which are probably added to give a more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span>
+anthropoid cast to the figure. The slight projections along the sides of
+the body in <a href="#image13">Pl. 4</a>, fig. 2, probably do not represent the legs. In
+another drawing (Tro-Cortesianus 44b) these are also present but further
+reduced so as not to exceed the heavy fringe of spines surrounding the
+body. In <a href="#image13">Pl. 4</a>, fig. 1, the fringe alone appears. The formidable nature
+of the scorpion is of course due to the poisonous sting at the tip of
+the attenuated abdomen or &#8220;tail.&#8221; In the Maya pictures this portion is
+usually shown as a grasping organ. Thus in fig. 1 it is similar to the
+chela and holds a cord by which a deer has been caught. In fig. 2 the
+&#8220;tail&#8221; is terminated by a hand. The same thing is seen in
+Tro-Cortesianus 44b where the hand seizes a cord by which a deer is
+snared. The scorpion is represented in the drawings with a
+conventionalized face that is very characteristic. The facial disc is
+divided into three parts by a median area of straight or irregular
+lateral boundaries ending anteriorly in two in-turned scrolls suggesting
+the alae of the nose. A circular eye is present in each of the lateral
+divisions of the face while from the oral region projects a forked
+tongue.</p>
+
+<p>It is of course hazardous to attempt a specific identification of these
+figures but, as pointed out by Stempell (1908, p. 739), there are two
+large scorpions in Yucatan (<i>Centruroides margaritatus</i> and <i>C.
+gracilis</i>) which are probably the species pictured in the codices.</p>
+
+<p>The representations of the scorpion in the Tro-Cortesianus are almost
+always associated with scenes of the hunt. As the deer is caught in a
+trap so F&ouml;rstemann considers that <a href="#image13">Pl. 4</a>, fig. 1, shows a trap with five
+appliances, the &#8220;tail&#8221; one alone being effective. Brinton (1895, p. 75)
+notes that the Mayas applied the term <i>sinaan ek</i>, &#8220;scorpion stars&#8221; to a
+certain constellation and suggests that it was derived from the
+Spaniards. There is certainly some association between the scorpion and
+water as, in Tro-Cortesianus 7a, the fore and hind legs of the animal
+enclose a body of water. The scorpion &#8220;tail&#8221; alone appears in
+Tro-Cortesianus 31a and 82a as the tail of a god. Its significance is
+difficult to make out. Destruction is indicated by the scorpion in the
+Aubin manuscript as suggested by Seler (1900-1901, p. 71).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the Nuttall Codex there is a remarkably beautiful conventionalization
+of a scorpion (<a href="#image13">Pl. 4</a>, fig. 3) in which the tripartite nature of the head
+is still preserved though it is so reduced as to resemble the calyx of a
+flower. The &#8220;tail&#8221;, as elsewhere, and the legs are present.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectitle">PISCES</p>
+
+<p>Figures of fish (Maya <i>kai</i>) occur commonly in the Maya codices in
+various connections as well as in the stone carvings, but none of these
+seems certainly identifiable. Among the representations, however, there
+are clearly several species. One (<a href="#image14">Pl. 5</a>, figs. 2, 6, 7-9; <a href="#image15">Pl. 6</a>, fig. 9)
+has a single dorsal fin, powerful teeth, and a generally ferocious
+aspect and may represent some large predacious variety, perhaps a tunny.
+The distinct operculum in most of the figures would preclude their
+representing a shark. Other figures picture similar fish without the
+prominent teeth (<a href="#image14">Pl. 5</a>, fig. 4, 5; <a href="#image15">Pl. 6</a>, figs. 2, 6, 10, 13). In two
+cases the scales are diagramatically shown by straight or crescentric
+lines (<a href="#image14">Pl. 5</a>, fig. 4, 8). A third species of fish is shown provided with
+two dorsal fins (<a href="#image15">Pl. 6</a>, figs. 3, 11; <a href="#image16">Pl. 7</a>, fig. 6, the last an
+excellent stone carving). Others (<a href="#image15">Pl. 6</a>, figs. 7, 14-17) represent
+fishes without dorsal fins, one of which (fig. 7) from its length may be
+an eel, possibly <i>Muraena</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the Nuttall Codex occurs a remarkable fish with an unmistakable wing
+arising just behind the head nearly at the dorsal line. While this may
+represent a flying fish (<i>Exocetus</i>), the head is so bird-like that the
+whole may be merely a combination figure.</p>
+
+<p>Of frequent occurrence in the Dresden is a glyph, two modifications of
+which are here shown (<a href="#image15">Pl. 6</a>, figs. 4, 5). Stempell suggests that the
+vertical lines on the posterior portion of such figures may be gill
+slits and that hence they may represent sharks in which these orifices
+are without an operculum.</p>
+
+<p>As with the molluscs, so with the fish, we naturally find them usually
+associated with the water. This may be seen especially well in the
+Nuttall Codex. In Dresden 33a (<a href="#image15">Pl. 6</a>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span> fig. 13) the fish is clearly
+associated with the operation of fishing as two figures are seated on
+the edge of a body of water in the act of casting a net. An eel is shown
+in the water under god B in Dresden 65b (<a href="#image15">Pl. 6</a>, fig. 7) and fish are
+shown just below the claws of a crocodile in text <a href="#image01">figure 1</a>. In Dresden
+44a god B holds a fish in his hands. As will be pointed out later (p.
+314) this god is frequently associated with water. In Dresden 44c a fish
+appears between god B and an unidentifiable deity. In the Maya codices
+the greater number of representations of fish are in connection with
+sacrifice. In Dresden 27 (<a href="#image15">Pl. 6</a>, fig. 6) the fish is pictured resting on
+two <i>Kan</i> signs, the symbol of maize or bread, and these in turn on a
+flat bowl. In Dresden 29b (<a href="#image14">Pl. 5</a>, fig. 9) the fish is represented
+between the red and black numbers of the <i>tonalamatl</i>. Here again the
+fish is shown as an offering.</p>
+
+<p>In two cases only do we find the fish used as a part of the head-dress
+and in each case the fish is graphically shown as held in the mouth of a
+heron. One of these is in the Dresden Codex 36b (<a href="#image14">Pl. 5</a>, fig. 3) and one
+in the stone carving of the Temple of the Cross at Palenque (<a href="#image24">Pl. 15</a>,
+fig. 5). Fish are often represented on the stone carvings as feeding
+upon a water plant. This is seen in the border at the bottom of the
+Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza (<a href="#image14">Pl. 5</a>, figs.
+2, 4; <a href="#image15">Pl. 6</a>, fig. 2). In several instances at Copan fish are shown as
+forming the sides of the Great Cycle glyph at the beginning of an
+Initial Series (<a href="#image15">Pl. 6</a>, figs. 14-17). It has often been suggested that as
+the word fish in Maya is <i>kai</i> (usually written <i>cay</i>), there may be
+some phonetic significance here, combining the fish, <i>kai</i>, with the
+usually drum-like sign for stone, <i>tun</i>, making <i>kai tun</i> or <i>katun</i>.
+This is the term usually given not to the Great Cycle but to the period
+composed of twenty <i>tuns</i> and is probably derived from <i>kal</i> meaning
+twenty and <i>tun</i>, a stone.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectitle">AMPHIBIA</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Frogs.</span> Figures undoubtedly representing frogs (Maya <i>mut&#353;</i> or <i>uo</i>)
+or toads are found in several places in the codices<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span> and in the stone
+carvings, but it is quite impossible to refer them definitely to any of
+the numerous species occurring in Central America, if, indeed, the
+artists had any one species in mind. In the Tro-Cortesianus frogs are
+not uncommon. In 31a there are four (<a href="#image16">Pl. 7</a>, fig. 1) with water coming
+from their mouths. They are characterized by their stout tailless
+bodies, flattened heads and toothless mouths. In 101d (<a href="#image16">Pl. 7</a>, figs. 2,
+3) there are two, the first painted blue with spots of darker blue and
+the second white and represented as broken in two in the middle. The
+signs of death above the latter clearly show that a dead animal is
+indicated. <a href="#image16">Pl. 7</a>, fig. 6, shows the end of Altar O from Copan on which a
+frog and a fish are pictured, the former in dorsal view, the latter in
+lateral aspect. The peculiar pointed snout of this frog is similar to
+that of the frog shown in <a href="#image16">Pl. 7</a>, fig. 7, also in dorsal view. A somewhat
+similar creature (<a href="#image38">Pl. 29</a>, fig. 6) we have included and though it may
+represent an opossum it has little to distinguish it from the figures of
+frogs.<a name="FNanchor_309-1_10" id="FNanchor_309-1_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_309-1_10" class="fnanchor">309-*</a></p>
+
+<p>God B in Tro-Cortesianus 12b should be associated with the frog. His
+legs are those of a frog and he appears as if swimming in the water.
+Frog in Maya is <i>Uo</i> which is also the name of the second month of the
+Maya year. The first day of this month, according to Landa, corresponds
+to August 5 of our year and this is the height of the rainy season in
+the Maya region. The sign for <i>Uo</i> does not, however, resemble a frog in
+any way. The frog above one of the figures in the Lower Chamber of the
+Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza (<a href="#image16">Pl. 7</a>, fig. 7) has clearly some
+relation to the name or totem of the warrior. The Nahua custom is seen
+here.</p>
+
+<p>Toads are probably intended in <a href="#image16">Pl. 7</a>, figs. 4, 5. In these the great
+breadth of the head and mouth together with the short inflated body
+combine to produce a very toad-like appearance. It is not unlikely that
+they represent the huge marine toad, <i>Bufo marinus</i>, common from
+southern Mexico to Brazil and in the West Indies. There seems to be no
+distinction in the treatment of frogs and toads in the codices.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tree-toad</span> (<i>Hyla eximia</i>). Of great interest are the figures in
+Tro-Cortesianus 26a and b (<a href="#image17">Pl. 8</a>, figs. 1, 3), showing a god with
+expanded finger tips and characterized further by the presence of two
+parallel black stripes from the hinder and lower margins of the eye
+respectively. The knob-like finger tips at once suggest one of the
+tree-toads, and the presence of the two lines seems to indicate <i>Hyla
+eximia</i> as the species represented. In this tree-toad there is a long
+black lateral line running posteriorly from the tympanum and above it a
+shorter line just as in the drawings. It appears to be a common species
+in the valley of Mexico though but little seems to have been written of
+its habits. At the beginning of the rainy season it repairs to pools of
+water to breed and is then very noticeable from its loud voice. No doubt
+its importance in the Maya economy was from its conspicuousness at the
+beginning of the rainy period. This fact is brought out more strongly
+when we consider that these gods representing the tree-toad are
+associated with agriculture and the sowing of grain at the beginning of
+the rainy season. F&ouml;rstemann (1902, p. 35) identifies these figures as
+god F. They are quite unlike the usual representation of this god and
+are clearly god P as Schellhas (1904, p. 39) indicates. It is
+interesting to note that the two black lines behind the eye are also
+seen in the other gods shown in Tro-Cortesianus 26a and b although the
+knob-like finger tips are lacking. The glyph for this tree-toad god is
+recognized in the fifth place at the top of the same page (<a href="#image17">Pl. 8</a>, fig.
+2) by the same two black lines under and behind the eye.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectitle">REPTILIA</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Serpent.</span> It would be impossible in the present paper to enter into any
+lengthy discussion of the use of the serpent (Maya <i>kan</i>) in Mexico and
+Central America. It seems to be one of the main elements in the religion
+and consequently in the art of the Mayas and Mexican peoples. It is
+represented again and again in many forms and varied combinations. It
+underlies the whole general trend of Maya art. The serpent is often
+associ<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span>ated with feathers. The culture hero of the Nahuas,
+<i>Quetzalcoatl</i> (feathered serpent) corresponds to a similar god among
+the Mayas, <i>Kukulcan</i> (also meaning feathered serpent). The feathers of
+the quetzal are the ones commonly used in connection with the serpent.</p>
+
+<p>Any attempt at identification of the species represented is beset by
+grave difficulties for so conventionalized have the figures often become
+that, except in the case of the rattlesnake with its rattles, there are
+no characteristic marks by which the species may be known. It is natural
+to suppose that the species used for artistic purposes would be those
+that are most noteworthy because of their size, coloring, or venomous
+qualities. No doubt a number of harmless species were also used in the
+religious ceremonies.<a name="FNanchor_311-1_11" id="FNanchor_311-1_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_311-1_11" class="fnanchor">311-*</a> Such may be those used as hair ornaments in
+many of the figures (<a href="#image17">Pl. 8</a>, figs. 7-13, 15) and in which no indication
+of a rattle is to be seen. The fierce eye of these reptiles is shown by
+means of an exaggerated overhanging brow occasionally embellished by
+recurved crests (<a href="#image17">Pl. 8</a>, figs. 10, 11, 13, 15). These crests are
+sometimes shown as two or three stalked knobs (<a href="#image19">Pl. 10</a>, fig. 7) that
+Stempell was misled into identifying as the eyes of snails. Various
+heads of snakes usually with fangs exposed and tongue protruding are
+pictured in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span> <a href="#image17">Pl. 8</a>, figs. 4, 6; <a href="#image18">Pl. 9</a>, figs. 2, 4-6: one snake with a
+spiny back is shown in <a href="#image17">Pl. 8</a>, fig. 5, but obviously it represents merely
+the artist&#8217;s endeavor to present as terrifying a creature as possible.</p>
+
+<p>Various types of rattlesnakes are shown in <a href="#image18">Pl. 9</a>. The presence of the
+rattle is of course the characteristic, and this portion alone is
+likewise used, in one case, at least, as a glyph (<a href="#image18">Pl. 9</a>, fig. 7). It
+cannot be denied, however, that some or most of the snakes in which no
+rattles appear, are nevertheless intended for rattlers. It may have been
+that the figures were so well understood that the addition of rattles in
+the drawings was quite unnecessary. This, however, is quite conjectural.
+The species of rattlesnake is probably <i>Crotalus basiliscus</i> or <i>C.
+terrificus</i> of southern Mexico and adjacent regions, not <i>C. horridus</i>
+or <i>adamanteus</i> as supposed by Stempell since these two species are
+confined to the United States. Among the figures shown on <a href="#image18">Pl. 9</a>, it is
+noteworthy that five of the rattlesnakes show no fangs. Some are
+spotted, but in a wholly arbitrary manner. Three are unmarked. One is
+shown coiled about the base of a tree (<a href="#image18">Pl. 9</a>, fig. 5), another coiled
+ready to strike though the rattle is pictured trailing on the ground
+instead of being held erect in the center of the coil as usually is done
+(<a href="#image18">Pl. 9</a>, fig. 9). A rattlesnake is shown held in the hand of a man in <a href="#image18">Pl.
+9</a>, fig. 8.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#image19">Pl. 10</a>, fig. 1, is shown a rattle-less snake with prominent fang,
+coiled about the top of an altar which may represent a tree or bush.
+From the latter fact, it might be concluded that it was a tree or
+bush-inhabiting species,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span> possibly the deadly &#8220;bush-master&#8221; (<i>Lachesis
+lanceolatus</i>). Other figures (<a href="#image19">Pl. 10</a>, figs. 3, 7; <a href="#image20">Pl. 11</a>, figs. 1, 2)
+are introduced here as examples of the curious head ornamentation
+frequently found in the drawings. The two first are merely serpents with
+the jaws extended to the utmost, and with a characteristic head
+decoration. The last is provided with an elaborate crest. The size and
+markings of the two serpents shown in <a href="#image20">Pl. 11</a>, as well as their want of
+rattles suggest that they may represent some species of large <i>Boidae</i>
+as <i>Loxocemus bicolor</i> or <i>Boa</i> (sp?).</p>
+
+<p>After having commented upon the various serpents occurring in the
+codices and in several other places, we will now take up the manner and
+connection in which the various figures occur. We shall pass over
+completely the use of the &#8220;serpent column&#8221; at Chichen Itza, the
+importance of the serpent motive in the development of the masked panel
+as worked out by Spinden, and the countless representations of the
+plumed serpent in the whole field of Maya design and decoration. In the
+single Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza, the feathered serpent
+occurs in the round as a column decoration supporting the portico, as
+carved on the wooden lintel at the entrance to the Painted Chamber,
+again and again on the frescoes of this room,<a name="FNanchor_313-1_12" id="FNanchor_313-1_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_313-1_12" class="fnanchor">313-*</a> in the Lower
+Chamber as dividing the bas-relief into zones or panels, and, finally,
+as the center of the whole composition of this bas-relief. It will be
+seen, therefore, that it will be necessary in a short paper, to limit
+ourselves to the representations of the serpent in the Maya codices.</p>
+
+<p>The serpent is most frequently associated with god B. Schellhas (1904,
+p. 17), Fewkes (1894), F&ouml;rstemann (1906), and Thomas (1882), seem to
+agree that god B is to be identified as <i>Kukulcan</i>, the most important
+of the deities of the Mayas and, as pointed out before, appearing in the
+Nahua mythology, as <i>Quetzalcoatl</i>, and in the Quiche myths as
+<i>Gucumatz</i>. It was also noted that the name means both in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> Maya and in
+Nahuatl, the &#8220;feathered serpent&#8221; or the &#8220;bird serpent.&#8221; Other
+authorities consider god B as <i>Itzamna</i>, another of the main gods of the
+Mayas. Seler interprets god B as the counterpart of the Nahua rain god,
+<i>Tlaloc</i>. It is certain that when god B and the serpent are associated
+together water and rain are usually indicated. God H, &#8220;the <i>Chicchan</i>
+god,&#8221; also has some relation to the serpent. As pointed out by Schellhas
+(1904, pp. 28-30), this god often appears characterized by a skin-spot
+or a scale of the serpent on his temple of the same shape as the
+hieroglyph of the day <i>Chicchan</i> (serpent). The glyph belonging to this
+deity also shows the <i>Chicchan</i> sign as its distinguishing mark. Similar
+signs appear on the body of the serpent in many places, as in
+Tro-Cortesianus 30a (<a href="#image20">Pl. 11</a>, fig. 1).</p>
+
+<p>We have already noted that the serpent, god B, and water are frequently
+shown together, so the serpent also appears associated with water and
+rain, when no figure of god B is present. From this connection, it can
+be argued that there is some relation between the serpent and the coming
+of the rains. These facts would give strength to the theory that god B
+is to be identified as a rain god. In Dresden 33a, 35a, god B is seated
+on the open jaws of a serpent, while the body of the reptile encloses a
+blue field evidently signifying water. The number nineteen appears on
+this blue color. It will be noted that there are nineteen spots on the
+serpents in <a href="#image20">Pl. 11</a>, figs. 1, 2. In Tro-Cortesianus 3a-6a, corresponding
+scenes seem to be shown. The body of the serpent encloses water, and
+here the number eighteen appears in each case. God B occurs always in
+front of the serpent and his head appears as the head of the reptile in
+the first instance. In Dresden 35a, 36a, the head of god B is pictured
+as the head of the serpent in the midst of the water. In Dresden 37b
+(<a href="#image19">Pl. 10</a>, fig. 8), B is holding a snake in the water.</p>
+
+<p>Water appears in connection with the serpent and god B in many places in
+the Tro-Cortesianus. In 9, god B is pictured pouring water from a jar, a
+common method of showing the idea of rain in the codices. In 12b, B
+again is shown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span> perhaps representing a frog, and behind him a serpent.
+The reptiles in 13b-18b, are all associated with the idea of rain, the
+turtle and frog also appearing in this section. In 30a (<a href="#image20">Pl. 11</a>, fig. 1),
+god B and a female figure are both pouring water from a jar, as they
+stand on the body of a serpent. In 32a, the black god (L) is seen in the
+rain, and a serpent is near, while in 32b and 33b (<a href="#image18">Pl. 9</a>, fig. 1), the
+serpent forms the belt of god L, and a female figure and water are seen
+in both cases. The blue color of the snake and of god B in 31b (<a href="#image20">Pl. 11</a>,
+fig. 2) may also suggest water.</p>
+
+<p>God B also occurs in connection with the serpent in Dresden 42a (<a href="#image17">Pl. 8</a>,
+fig. 14), where the god is seated on the reptile, in Tro-Cortesianus,
+10b, where the head of the same god is the head of the snake, and in
+Tro-Cortesianus 19a, where god B again and god A are each seated on the
+open jaws of a serpent.</p>
+
+<p>The astronomical role of the serpent is noted in Dresden 56b, 57b (<a href="#image19">Pl.
+10</a>, fig. 3), Tro-Cortesianus 5b, 12b, 15b, and 67b, where the snake is
+shown in connection with a line of constellation signs, the <i>kin</i> or sun
+sign prominent in most of the drawings. In the &#8220;battle of the
+constellations&#8221; in Dresden 60, the serpent appears forming a sort of
+altar, the seat of a figure which is supported by another figure. A
+serpent head also appears at the foot of the latter figure.</p>
+
+<p>That the serpent appears associated with the idea of time seems clear
+from the fact of the long number series in Dresden 61, 62 (<a href="#image19">Pl. 10</a>, fig.
+7), and 69, which are shown in the spaces made by the winding of the
+serpents&#8217; bodies. In Tro-Cortesianus 13a-16a, four large reptiles appear
+in connection with the lines of day signs.</p>
+
+<p>The study of the serpent used as a head-dress is interesting. As noted
+previously, quite a different kind of snake seems to be represented when
+used in this connection. Two other points come out in this
+investigation, namely, that it is only with female figures that the
+serpent is employed as a head-dress, and in far the greater number of
+cases the women are shown, either in the act of offering something, or
+of pouring water from a jar. The usual type of serpent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> head-dress is
+seen in Dresden 9c (<a href="#image17">Pl. 8</a>, fig. 11), 15b (<a href="#image17">Pl. 8</a>, fig. 12), 18a (<a href="#image17">Pl. 8</a>,
+fig. 13), 22b (<a href="#image17">Pl. 8</a>, fig. 10), and 23b (<a href="#image17">Pl. 8</a>, fig. 8). In the first
+case, the offering is a jicara or gourd of some sacred drink
+(<i>balt&#353;e</i>?), in the second and third examples, the dish is clearly
+shown, but the offering is unidentifiable, in the fourth case, maize (a
+<i>Kan</i> sign), and in the last, a fish resting on a dish. In Dresden 20a
+(<a href="#image17">Pl. 8</a>, fig. 15), a woman with serpent head-dress is seen associated
+with the Moan-headed figure, possibly in the act of offering it as a
+sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>In Dresden 39b (<a href="#image17">Pl. 8</a>, fig. 7), 43b (<a href="#image17">Pl. 8</a>, fig. 9), and 70, a similar
+serpent head-dress is shown on a female figure in the act of pouring
+water from a jar. In Tro-Cortesianus, the serpent head-dresses differ in
+type only, and in two out of the four cases where they appear, water is
+shown flowing from the breasts (30b) of the female figure or from the
+mouth (32b). The woman thus represented in connection with the water is
+god I, the water goddess of Schellhas. She is, as he notes (1904, p. 31)
+usually the figure of an old woman. &#8220;Evidently, we have here the
+personification of water in its quality of destroyer, a goddess of
+floods and cloud-bursts.&#8221; We are not at all sure that we have here a
+distinct god as similar female figures with serpent head-dresses occur
+frequently in the Dresden Codex with no suggestion of water. The failure
+to find any distinct glyph for this goddess seems to strengthen the view
+of not considering her as a separate deity. Finally, in our
+consideration of head-dresses, the serpent is to be seen in
+Tro-Cortesianus 79c on the head of the first woman who is weaving.
+Possibly, a conventionalized serpent forms the head covering of the
+second figure who is represented as dead.</p>
+
+<p>The serpent in Dresden 26c-28c (<a href="#image19">Pl. 10</a>, fig. 1) coiled around the altar
+which rises from a <i>Tun</i> sign is not easily explained. In 25c, the altar
+is replaced by god B and in the former cases, the reptiles may stand for
+this god with whom they are often associated.<a name="FNanchor_316-1_13" id="FNanchor_316-1_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_316-1_13" class="fnanchor">316-*</a> The serpent seems
+closely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span> connected with the idea of offerings as the body of a snake is
+shown in several instances as the support of the jar containing the
+various gifts in Tro-Cortesianus 34a, 34b, 35a, 35b, 36a, 36b, and
+possibly 52c (<a href="#image18">Pl. 9</a>, fig. 3).</p>
+
+<p>Finally the serpent is to be noted in a number of miscellaneous
+connections:&mdash;in Dresden 36b (<a href="#image28">Pl. 19</a>, fig. 11), as being attacked by a
+black vulture,<a name="FNanchor_317-1_14" id="FNanchor_317-1_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_317-1_14" class="fnanchor">317-*</a> in Tro-Cortesianus 40b (<a href="#image18">Pl. 9</a>, fig. 4) a
+rattlesnake is biting the foot of one of the hunters, and in
+Tro-Cortesianus 66b, where the serpent has a human head and arm coming
+from its open jaws. This is a very frequent method of representing the
+serpent in the Maya stone carvings. In Tro-Cortesianus 60c, 100d (<a href="#image18">Pl. 9</a>,
+fig. 8), twice, 106a, and 111b, the rattlesnake is shown as a sprinkler
+for the holy water in the hand (in the first, second and fourth
+examples) of god D. Landa (1864, p. 150)<a name="FNanchor_317-2_15" id="FNanchor_317-2_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_317-2_15" class="fnanchor">317-&#8224;</a> describes in the
+ceremony of the baptism of children, that the leader of the rite wore on
+his head a kind of mitre embroidered with plumage in some manner and in
+his hand a small holy-water sprinkler of wood, carved skillfully, of
+which the filaments were the tails of serpents, similar to serpents with
+rattles.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the importance of the serpent in the manuscripts and stone
+carvings, it never seems to appear as a separate deity. With one
+exception, no glyph is to be found representing this reptile as is the
+case with many of the animals. Tro-Cortesianus 106c (<a href="#image18">Pl. 9</a>, fig. 7) is
+this exception showing the rattles of a snake which are found in the
+line of glyphs above two of the bees. No serpent appears in the picture.</p>
+
+<p>The Nahuatl day, <i>Couatl</i>, has the signification serpent, as suggested
+before, in discussing the meaning of the name <i>Quetzalcoatl</i> or
+<i>Quetzalcouatl</i>. This day sign occurs through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span>out the Mexican
+manuscripts as the head of a serpent (<a href="#image17">Pl. 8</a>, figs. 4, 6; <a href="#image18">Pl. 9</a>, fig. 2;
+<a href="#image19">Pl. 10</a>, figs. 2, 4-6).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Iguana</span>. Of the lizards represented, the iguana (Maya <i>hu</i>) is the most
+striking, and is readily identified on account of the prominent spines
+along the back. As noted by Stempell, there are two or three species of
+large lizards in Central America commonly called iguana, and it is
+probable that the one here considered is the <i>Ctenosaura acanthura</i> of
+Yucatan or <i>Iguana tuberculata</i> of South and Central America.</p>
+
+<p>In the manuscripts the iguana is almost exclusively represented as an
+offering (<a href="#image21">Pl. 12</a>, figs. 1-6). It is usually found on top of the <i>Kan</i>
+sign, meaning maize or bread,<a name="FNanchor_318-1_16" id="FNanchor_318-1_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_318-1_16" class="fnanchor">318-*</a> and this, in turn, resting in a
+bowl (<a href="#image21">Pl. 12</a>, figs. 3, 4, 6). Landa (1864, p. 230)<a name="FNanchor_318-2_17" id="FNanchor_318-2_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_318-2_17" class="fnanchor">318-&#8224;</a> gives a
+pleasing confirmation of this offering of an iguana with bread. It is
+possible that the object shown in Tro-Cortesianus 12b (<a href="#image21">Pl. 12</a>, fig. 13)
+may be the conventionalized representation of this lizard. It must be
+admitted that this interpretation is very doubtful. The triangular
+points suggest the lizard, but the pointed character of the sign as a
+whole in no way resembles the back of this reptile. It is found
+associated with three <i>Kan</i> signs. In Cakchiquel, a dialect of the Maya
+stock, <i>K&#8217;an</i>, according to Guzman and Brinton (1893, p. 24) is the name
+applied to the female of the iguana or the lizard, and this is believed
+to be the original sense of the Maya term. It may also be noted that the
+Nahua day sign <i>Cuetzpalin</i>, meaning lizard, is the one which
+corresponds with the Maya day <i>Kan</i>. <a href="#image21">Pl. 12</a>, figs. 10, 12, 14, show
+representations of the day corresponding to <i>Cuetzpalin</i> in the Aubin
+and Nuttall codices. These show a stout spineless species with a short
+thick tail and may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span> the Gila monster (<i>Heloderma horridum</i>), a large
+and somewhat poisonous species having much these proportions.</p>
+
+<p>Further offerings are shown in <a href="#image21">Pl. 12</a>, figs. 7, 8. These seem to be the
+heads and forefeet of lizards, but, from the shape of the head, perhaps
+not of iguanas.</p>
+
+<p>In Stela D of Copan, the <i>Uinal</i> period glyph seems to be represented by
+a spineless lizard covered with scales (<a href="#image21">Pl. 12</a>, fig. 9). Frog-like
+characteristics also appear. This stone monument is remarkable from the
+fact that the glyphs are all more or less realistic representations of
+human and animal forms. It should be noted that there certainly seems to
+be some connection between the <i>Uinal</i> period glyph and the lizard. <a href="#image22">Pl.
+13</a>, fig. 9, represents a <i>Uinal</i> glyph from the Temple of the Foliated
+Cross at Palenque and the lizard form is clearly seen in the eyebrow and
+the upper jaw. Compare also <a href="#image22">Pl. 13</a>, fig. 11, and <a href="#image37">Pl. 28</a>, fig. 3. A
+collection of glyphs of this period shows clearly the lizard-like
+character of the face.</p>
+
+<p>That some connection existed between the lizard and the idea of rain
+seems clear from a reference in the <i>Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida</i>
+(1900, p. 51).<a name="FNanchor_319-1_18" id="FNanchor_319-1_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_319-1_18" class="fnanchor">319-*</a> Finally the lizard is shown in Dresden 3a (<a href="#image21">Pl. 12</a>,
+fig. 11) directly in front of god H beside the scene of human sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Crocodile.</span> The text figure (<a href="#image01">1</a>) shows a dorsal view of a crocodile (Maya,
+<i>ayin</i>) carved on the top of Altar T at Copan. The general form is
+considerably conventionalized with limbs elongated and provided with
+human hands and long toes. The protuberances of the back are roughly
+shown by oval markings, which are here continued on the legs. The large
+scales of the ventral surfaces also appear at the sides of the body, and
+along the posterior edges of the limbs. The tail is shortened and
+bifurcate. The most interesting portion, however, is the head. The snout
+is distinctly pinched in at the base, though broadened again distally.
+In the alligator the snout is broad and tapers but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> little. As in other
+representations of the crocodile, the lower jaw does not appear, and
+even in this dorsal view the artist seems to have deemed it necessary to
+show the row of teeth as if in side view, or as though they projected
+laterally from the mouth. What may represent ears or ear plugs are shown
+one on each side behind the eyes. There are few other examples of full
+drawings of the crocodile in the Maya writings. Dresden 74 shows an
+animal which has been considered to represent a crocodile or alligator
+but it seems to have more of the characteristics of a lizard.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="image01" id="image01"></a><a href="images/image01-full.png"><img src="images/image01.png" width="242" height="212" alt="Fig. 1.
+TOP OF ALTAR. T. COPAN." title="Fig. 1.
+TOP OF ALTAR. T. COPAN." /></a><br />
+<span class="caption smcap">Fig. 1.</span><br />
+<span class="caption">TOP OF ALTAR. T. COPAN.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Figures of a crocodile (<i>Crocodilus americanus</i>) are frequent in the
+Nuttall Codex, where there is one large figure of the entire animal (<a href="#image22">Pl.
+13</a>, fig. 8), making its way along under water. It is shown with numerous
+dorsal spines, a long tail,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span> and powerful claws. Curiously, however, it
+has no lower jaw and the same is true of the numerous glyphs
+representing the head of the animal. This is so pronounced a
+characteristic, that it may be doubted if the open-mouthed head and the
+single limb shown in <a href="#image22">Pl. 13</a>, fig. 2, really picture the same animal,
+though otherwise apparently referable to the crocodile. In the various
+glyphs showing the head of this species, the prominent, elongate eyebrow
+and the absence of the lower jaw are noteworthy points, while the teeth
+may vary in number from three to six.</p>
+
+<p>The glyphs (<a href="#image22">Pl. 13</a>, figs. 1, 3-7) represent the Nahua day sign
+<i>Cipactli</i> corresponding to the Maya day <i>Imix</i>. In the band of
+constellation signs in Dresden 52b (<a href="#image22">Pl. 13</a>, fig. 10), there occurs a
+single figure with a long curled eyebrow and lacking the lower jaw. In
+the upper jaw three teeth are indicated. A comparison of this figure
+with the glyphs in the Nuttall Codex seems to leave little doubt that it
+represents a crocodile. This is the sign which F&ouml;rstemann (1906, p. 206)
+interprets as standing for Saturn. <a href="#image22">Pl. 13</a>, fig. 12, is certainly the
+same sign as it stands in relatively the same position in the
+constellation band on Dresden 53a. It represents the highly
+conventionalized head of a crocodile. On Stela 10 from Piedras Negras
+(Maler, 1901-1903, Pl. 19) the same glyph is seen.</p>
+
+<p>The range of the alligator in North America does not extend to Yucatan,
+hence the crocodile, which does occur there, is taken as the original of
+all these figures. There is nothing in the latter that would distinguish
+it from the alligator.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Turtles.</span> Representations of the turtle (Maya, <i>ak</i>) are not uncommon
+among the Mayas. At Uxmal there is a ruined building called <i>Casa de las
+Tortugas</i> on which at intervals around the cornice there are carvings of
+turtles. Turtles of at least two species occur in the Tro-Cortesianus.
+With one exception, they seem to be limited to this codex. That shown on
+<a href="#image23">Pl. 14</a>, figs. 1-3, 5, is a large species with the dorsal scutes
+represented by large diamond-shaped pieces. There is little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> that might
+be considered distinctive about these turtles, although one (<a href="#image23">Pl. 14</a>,
+fig. 5) has the anterior paddles much larger than the posterior,
+indicating a sea turtle. What is doubtless the same turtle is pictured
+in several places in the Nuttall Codex. In one of the figures in the
+latter manuscript, the shell is shown apparently in use as a shield (<a href="#image23">Pl.
+14</a>, fig. 4). This would indicate one of the large sea turtles, and there
+is not much doubt that either the Loggerhead turtle (<i>Thalassochelys
+cephalo</i>) or the Hawksbill (<i>Chelone imbricata</i>) is here intended.</p>
+
+<p>Quite another species is that shown in <a href="#image23">Pl. 14</a>, fig. 6. That this is a
+freshwater turtle is plainly indicated by the parasitic leeches that are
+noted fastened by their round sucking-discs to the sides of its body.
+The long neck, pointed snout, and apparent limitation of the dorsal
+spinous scutes to the central area of the back may indicate the snapping
+turtle (<i>Chelydra serpentina</i>) or possibly a species of the genus
+<i>Cinosternum</i> (probably <i>C. leucostomum</i>). It is hardly likely that it
+is one of the true soft-shelled turtles (<i>Trionyx</i>), as the range of
+that genus is not known to include Mexico. The turtle from Nuttall 43
+(<a href="#image23">Pl. 14</a>, fig. 11) may belong to the same species as its scutes seem
+rather few, or it may be that the view shown here is of the ventral side
+and that the scales indicate the small plastron of one of the sea
+turtles.</p>
+
+<p>The turtle appears alone as one of the figures in the <i>tonalamatl</i> in
+several cases in the Tro-Cortesianus, 13a, 17a (<a href="#image23">Pl. 14</a>, fig. 3), 72b
+(<a href="#image23">Pl. 14</a>, fig. 6). It is found associated with the toad appearing in the
+rain in Tro-Cortesianus 17b (<a href="#image23">Pl. 14</a>, fig. 2) and alone in the rain in
+13a. In Tro-Cortesianus 81c (<a href="#image23">Pl. 14</a>, fig. 5), it appears in front of an
+unidentifiable god.</p>
+
+<p>Schellhas has called the turtle an animal symbolical of the lightning
+basing his opinion, as Brinton (1895, p. 74) tells us, on Dresden 40b
+where a human figure with animal head is holding two torches in his
+hands. This figure does not seem to us to represent a turtle, as is
+commonly supposed, but a parrot, as will be pointed out later (p. 343).
+F&ouml;rste<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span>mann (1902, p. 27) identifies the turtle with the summer
+solstice, as has been noted before, explaining that the animal is slow
+of motion, and is taken to represent the time when the sun seems to
+stand still. He bases his theory (1904, p. 423) in part on the fact that
+the sign for the Maya month <i>Kayab</i>, which is the month in which the
+summer solstice occurs, shows the face of the turtle (<a href="#image23">Pl. 14</a>, fig. 10).
+This undoubtedly is correct, but he seems to us wrong in classing as
+turtles the figure in Dresden 40b (<a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>, fig. 1) with its accompanying
+glyph (<a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>, fig. 6).</p>
+
+<p>The turtle is found in connection with two sun (<i>kin</i>) signs beneath a
+constellation band in Tro-Cortesianus 71a. Resting upon his body are
+three <i>Cauac</i> signs. The single representation of the turtle in the
+Dresden Codex is on page 49 (<a href="#image23">Pl. 14</a>, fig. 12) where a god is pictured
+with a turtle&#8217;s head. The heavy sharp beak indicates that he represents
+one of the sea turtles previously mentioned. He is shown transfixed by a
+spear and corresponds to the other figures in the lower parts of pp.
+46-50. These all have some connection with the Venus period which is
+considered in these pages.<a name="FNanchor_323-1_19" id="FNanchor_323-1_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_323-1_19" class="fnanchor">323-*</a></p>
+
+<p>A number of glyphs representing the turtle are found throughout the
+codices (<a href="#image23">Pl. 14</a>, figs. 7-10). They are all characterized by the heavy
+beak. It may be noted that these glyphs are virtually the same as the
+sign for the first <i>a</i> in Landa&#8217;s alphabet. As the turtle is called <i>ak</i>
+or <i>aak</i> in Maya, the reason is clear for the selection of this sign for
+an <i>a</i> sound. These turtle glyphs often occur alone; one, however, (<a href="#image23">Pl.
+14</a>, fig. 7) is found in connection with the swimming turtle in
+Tro-Cortesianus 17a (<a href="#image23">Pl. 14</a>, fig. 3). Figs. 7-9 agree in having the
+small scrolls at the posterior end of the eye. The head shown in <a href="#image23">Pl. 14</a>,
+fig. 10, has quite a different eye, though otherwise similar. Its
+resemblance to the glyph on <a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>, fig. 9, is marked and suggests the
+parrot. Schellhas (1904, p. 44) gives in his fig. 64, a glyph for the
+turtle which seems clearly to be a glyph for the parrot (<a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>, fig.
+7).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectitle">AVES</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Herons</span> (<i>Ardea herodias</i>; <i>Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis</i>). Only a few
+water birds are shown in the Maya works. Several are found, however,
+that seem to picture herons (<a href="#image24">Pl. 15</a>, figs. 1-7). The best of these (fig.
+5), a carving from the west side panel of the Temple of the Cross at
+Palenque shows a crested heron standing on one foot and holding in its
+bill a fish. A second figure (<a href="#image24">Pl. 15</a>, fig. 1) is from the stucco
+ornament from the Palace, House B, at Palenque. It is less carefully
+executed, but seems to be a long-necked bird with a crest and outspread
+wings curiously conventionalized. In the Nuttall Codex there is another
+unmistakable heron (<a href="#image24">Pl. 15</a>, fig. 4) with the same general
+characteristics, though the crest is less prominent, here represented as
+a series of erectile feathers separated at their tips. This elongation
+of the crest seems to be carried still farther in what seems to be the
+head and neck of a heron from Dresden 37b (<a href="#image24">Pl. 15</a>, fig. 3) with erectile
+feathers at intervals along its length.</p>
+
+<p>The heron is seldom employed as a head-dress. In the Lower Chamber of
+the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza, one of the warriors wears a
+bird head-dress (<a href="#image24">Pl. 15</a>, fig. 2), which from the length of the bill is
+probably made from a heron&#8217;s head, though the crest seems greatly
+exaggerated. The bas-relief on which this is found is strongly Nahua in
+feeling and execution. This head covering may indicate, according to the
+Nahua fashion, the tribe to which the warrior belongs. Again in Dresden
+36a (<a href="#image24">Pl. 15</a>, fig. 7), a man is shown wearing as a head-dress the head
+and neck of a heron that holds in its bill a fish. This head resembles
+very closely that of the heron in fig. 1. What appears to be a similar
+head is shown in <a href="#image24">Pl. 15</a>, fig. 6. It is interesting to note that the
+heron with a fish (<a href="#image24">Pl. 15</a>, fig. 5) from Palenque also forms a part of a
+complicated head-dress.</p>
+
+<p>It is, of course, uncertain to which of the several herons occurring in
+Central America these representations refer. Possibly the Great Blue
+heron (<i>Ardea herodias</i>) or the Louisi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span>ana heron (<i>Hydranassa tricolor
+ruficollis</i>) is intended. It seems not unlikely also, that one of the
+white egrets may be shown as their crests are fairly conspicuous.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Frigate-bird</span> (<i>Fregata aquila</i>). We have included here two figures (<a href="#image24">Pl.
+15</a>, figs. 8, 9) that undoubtedly represent a single species of bird. It
+is characterized by a deeply forked tail and long beak, which has part
+way on its length, a circular object surrounded by a circle of dots. It
+seems still problematical what this object may be. In one figure (fig.
+9), the beak is strongly hooked, in the other (fig. 8) it is straight,
+but as the latter is plainly a much more carelessly made drawing, we may
+infer that the hooked bill is more nearly correct. This would exclude
+the Terns (<i>Sterna</i>), to which Stempell has referred the figures. It
+seems probable that the frigate-bird (<i>Fregata aquila</i>) is the species
+intended, as this is not only a large conspicuous form on these coasts,
+but it has a long and strongly hooked beak and forked tail. The length
+of the beak would probably exclude from consideration, the
+swallow-tailed kite that also occurs in the region.</p>
+
+<p>Both these birds are pictured, evidently as an offering or sacrifice. It
+is very seldom that the whole bird is represented in this connection,
+and still more infrequent to find anything but the turkey, which is the
+usual bird of sacrifice. The figure from the Dresden Codex (<a href="#image24">Pl. 15</a>, fig.
+9) rests upon the usual bowl or jar, that from the Tro-Cortesianus (<a href="#image24">Pl.
+15</a>, fig. 8) is pictured upon a grotesque animal head, three <i>Kan</i> signs
+and these upon the jar.</p>
+
+<p>In the Tro-Cortesianus 20c, 21c, there occur several representations of
+man-like forms with very peculiar heads. The latter are each provided
+with a beak-like projection, on which appears the circle surrounded by
+dots noted above in connection with the frigate-bird. Brinton concludes
+that this mystic symbol is a representation of the curious knob on the
+bill of the male white pelican, and therefore identifies these curious
+figures as pelicans. Stempell follows Brinton in this, but considers
+that they are the brown pelican (<i>P.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> fuscus</i>), since the white pelican
+is rare or casual, as far south as Yucatan. Unfortunately, however, for
+this supposition, the brown pelican lacks the curious knob that Brinton
+believed to be represented by the circle of dots. Moreover, this same
+sign occurs on the drawings of the bills of the frigate-bird and the
+ocellated turkey, and is evidently not of specific significance. To our
+minds it is doubtful if the figures under discussion are birds at all,
+and we are unable to assign them a name with any degree of confidence. A
+peculiar glyph occurs in connection with them which may be an aid to
+their ultimate identification. Brinton calls the glyph the &#8220;fish and
+oyster sign.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ocellated Turkey</span> (<i>Agriocharis ocellata</i>). This turkey (Maya <i>ku<img src="images/image54.png" width="12" height="20" style="vertical-align: middle;" alt="open o with dot under" title="open o with dot under" /></i>)
+is an important species in the Maya economy, and is seen frequently in
+the manuscripts. This is a smaller bird than the more northern true
+turkey (<i>Meleagris</i>) and is characterized by the presence of curious
+erect knobs on the top of the naked head. These are shown in
+conventionalized form in the various figures (<a href="#image25">Pl. 16</a>), and afford a
+ready means of identification. On the bill of the bird shown in
+Tro-Cortesianus 10b (<a href="#image25">Pl. 16</a>, fig. 2) occurs again the curious symbol, a
+circle surrounded by dots, previously noted under the frigate-bird and
+pelican. It probably has some special significance. Other figures of
+ocellated turkeys show but little in addition to the points just
+discussed. One shown in <a href="#image25">Pl. 16</a>, fig. 7, from Codex Vaticanus 3773,
+however, has a circular ring about the eye and the wattles are indicated
+as projections merely. In fig. 13, they are apparently shown as stalked
+knobs found elsewhere in connection with serpent head ornaments. It is
+only the head in this latter figure, which is considered in this
+interpretation.</p>
+
+<p>In the Nuttall Codex, there frequently occur representations of a bird
+that was evidently used for sacrificial purposes. It is shown with
+erectile head feathers and a ring of circular marks about the eye (<a href="#image35">Pl.
+26</a>, figs. 12, 14; <a href="#image36">Pl. 27</a>, figs. 2-3) or with concentric circles (<a href="#image36">Pl. 27</a>,
+fig. 1). These figures are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> not surely identifiable, but probably
+represent this turkey. Possibly they are the chachalaca (<i>Ortalis vetula
+pallidiventris</i>), a gallinaceous bird, commonly kept in
+semi-domestication in Mexico, whose bare eye ring and slightly erectile
+head feathers may be represented by the drawings. It is probable that
+this turkey is the bird represented frequently in the Maya codices as a
+bird of sacrifice. The head alone usually appears in this connection,
+among other places, in Dresden 34a (<a href="#image25">Pl. 16</a>, fig. 10), 41c (fig. 14), 29c
+(fig. 16), 28c (fig. 17), and in Tro-Cortesianus 12b (<a href="#image25">Pl. 16</a>, fig. 11),
+105b (fig. 12), 107b (fig. 15). In several of these places the head is
+represented as resting on one or more <i>Kan</i> signs, again meaning bread,
+as well as on the vessel or jar. In Dresden 26c (<a href="#image25">Pl. 16</a>, fig. 9), the
+whole turkey is pictured as an offering, as in the preceding case noted
+in Dresden 35a (<a href="#image24">Pl. 15</a>, fig. 9). The whole bird as an offering may also
+appear in Tro-Cortesianus 4a (<a href="#image25">Pl. 16</a>, fig. 4) corresponding to the
+offering of venison and iguana on the following pages. This
+representation of the entire bird is very rare although the fish, when
+used as an offering, is always represented as a whole and the iguana is
+in most cases when used in the same connection. Landa (1864, p.
+222)<a name="FNanchor_327-1_20" id="FNanchor_327-1_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_327-1_20" class="fnanchor">327-*</a> confirms the offering of the heads of birds with bread.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, the sacrifice of a bird, probably a turkey, by
+decapitating, that is especially interesting, as the operation as shown
+in the Dresden Codex 25c (<a href="#image35">Pl. 26</a>, fig. 2), 26c, 27c, 28c, in the rites
+of the four years, is described in full by Landa. In the codex, a priest
+is represented as holding in his hand before an altar, a headless bird.
+Landa (1864, pp. 212, 218, 224, 228)<a name="FNanchor_327-2_21" id="FNanchor_327-2_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_327-2_21" class="fnanchor">327-&#8224;</a> tells us that in the
+<i>Kan</i>, the <i>Muluc</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span> the <i>Ix</i>, and the <i>Cauac</i> years, the priests burnt
+incense to the idol, decapitated a &#8220;<i>gallina</i>&#8221; (undoubtedly a turkey),
+and presented it to the god.</p>
+
+<p>The turkey is also used as a head-dress. Only in one case, however,
+Tro-Cortesianus 95c (<a href="#image25">Pl. 16</a>, fig. 5), is the whole bird represented in
+this connection. This is clearly of totemic significance here, as it
+occurs in that part of the codex where birth and infant baptism are
+shown. In many other places there are curious partial representations of
+bird heads in the front of head-dresses which may or may not be
+identified as heads of turkeys. Among these are the head-dress of god H
+in Dresden 7c, of god E in Dresden 11e, of god C in Dresden 13b, of god
+A in Dresden 23c, and a female divinity in Dresden 20a (<a href="#image25">Pl. 16</a>, fig.
+13). Schellhas (1904, p. 43) identifies these birds as vultures.</p>
+
+<p>That the turkey is connected with the rain seems clear. This is
+especially the case among the Nahuas. In the Aubin manuscript the rain
+god, <i>Tlaloc</i>, often appears in the disguise of the turkey-cock
+(<i>uexolotl</i>), and in the Vaticanus 3773, 14, the turkey (<a href="#image25">Pl. 16</a>, fig. 7)
+is represented in the &#8220;House of Rain,&#8221; in contrast to the owl shown in
+the &#8220;House of Drought&#8221; (Seler, 1902-1903, p. 75). It might be noted also
+that Fewkes (1892, p. 228) shows that the turkey is emblematic of the
+rain among the pueblo peoples. The same idea seems to be present among
+the Mayas, as we note in the Tro-Cortesianus 10b (<a href="#image25">Pl. 16</a>, fig. 2) the
+turkey is pictured in the rain and surrounded on three sides by bands of
+constellation signs.</p>
+
+<p>Two methods of capturing the turkey are shown in the Tro-Cortesianus 93a
+and 91a (<a href="#image25">Pl. 16</a>, figs. 1, 3). By the first, the bird is captured alive
+in a sort of wicker basket, which drops over it at the proper moment.
+The second method is by the &#8220;twich-up&#8221; or snare, which consists of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span>
+noose tied to a bent sapling and properly baited. In connection with <a href="#image25">Pl.
+16</a>, fig. 1, it may be suggested that possibly this represents a cage
+rather than a trap, in which the bird is confined. The Lacandones at the
+present time often keep their totem animals in captivity (Tozzer, 1907,
+p. 40).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">King Vulture</span> (<i>Sarcorhamphus papa</i>). Numerous figures of vultures appear
+in the codices and elsewhere. Indeed, they are among the most common of
+the birds depicted. Two species only seem to occur in the writings, the
+king vulture and the black vulture. The former is a large black and
+white bird with the head and the upper part of the neck unfeathered,
+except for numerous short, almost bristle-like plumules. These naked
+portions are often colored red and there is a large more or less
+squarish fleshy knob at the base of the upper ramus of the beak. This
+conspicuous protuberance has been seized upon as a characteristic in the
+conventionalized figures, and serves to identify the king from the black
+vulture. In addition, a series of concentric circles about the eye seems
+to be a rather constant mark of the king vulture, though they are also
+sometimes found in connection with figures which, from the absence of
+the rostral knob, must represent black vultures (<a href="#image27">Pl. 18</a>, figs. 18, 27;
+<a href="#image28">Pl. 19</a>, figs. 7, 10, 11). In the case of the bird shown in <a href="#image28">Pl. 19</a>, fig.
+1, the knob is hardly apparent, and the same is true of <a href="#image28">Pl. 19</a>, fig. 13.
+Both these may represent king vultures. A remarkable figure is that
+shown in <a href="#image26">Pl. 17</a>, fig. 4, in which an ocellated turkey and a king vulture
+confront each other with necks intertwined. The short hair-like black
+feathers of the head are represented in this as well as in <a href="#image26">Pl. 17</a>, fig.
+11, and in the glyph carved in stone (<a href="#image26">Pl. 17</a>, fig. 10), which from the
+presence of the knob is probably a king vulture. The characteristic knob
+is shown in a variety of ways. Thus, in <a href="#image26">Pl. 17</a>, fig. 1, it is greatly
+developed and resembles a large horn with a falcate tip. In <a href="#image26">Pl. 17</a>, fig.
+4, it is sharply angular and nearly square. Frequently, it is a circle
+with a centered ring surmounted by one or two additional rings or
+terminated by a mitre-shaped structure (<a href="#image26">Pl. 17</a>, figs. 2, 5-7, 8-12). A<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span>
+very simple form was found in the carving shown in <a href="#image26">Pl. 17</a>, fig. 13,
+where a long projecting knob is seen at the base of the culmen.</p>
+
+<p>The king vulture seems to have a part to play as a mythological being,
+as it is pictured as a god with human body and bird head in the act of
+cohabiting with a woman in Dresden 19a, and with a dog in Dresden 13c
+(<a href="#image26">Pl. 17</a>, fig. 3). Moreover, the same vulture god is represented on a
+blue background and under a band of constellation signs in Dresden 38b,
+and is also to be noted in Dresden 8a. F&ouml;rstemann (1906, p. 66) shows
+that the thirteenth day of the Maya month is reached in the <i>tonalamatl</i>
+reckoning at this place. This day is <i>Cib</i>, which corresponds to the
+Nahua day <i>Cozcaquauhtli</i>, which has the meaning vulture, and here, as
+previously noted, the vulture god is represented. In Tro-Cortesianus 22c
+(<a href="#image26">Pl. 17</a>, fig. 2) and 10a,<a name="FNanchor_330-1_22" id="FNanchor_330-1_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_330-1_22" class="fnanchor">330-*</a> the king vulture appears alone, in the
+first instance with a blue background, and in the second with a
+background representing rain. Rain is also shown in connection with the
+vulture god in Dresden 38b, and the black vulture in Tro-Cortesianus 18b
+(<a href="#image28">Pl. 19</a>, fig. 13).</p>
+
+<p>The king vulture is found employed as a head-dress twice out of the
+three times it appears in any connection with female figures,
+Tro-Cortesianus 26c (<a href="#image26">Pl. 17</a>, fig. 12) with male figure, and 94c (<a href="#image26">Pl. 17</a>,
+fig. 11) and 95c with female figures. The last two clearly have to do
+with the baptism and naming of infants, as previously explained.</p>
+
+<p>The study of the glyph used to indicate the vulture is interesting, for
+we find it recurring again and again throughout the Maya codices and
+often when there is no other drawing of the animal, as in Dresden 39c
+(<a href="#image26">Pl. 17</a>, fig. 5; <a href="#image27">Pl. 18</a>, fig. 19). The first example (glyph 6) is
+clearly the head of the king vulture, whereas the second (glyph 3) is
+probably the head of the black vulture. The glyph in Dresden 38b (<a href="#image26">Pl.
+17</a>, fig. 7) appears in connection with the vulture god directly below
+it. In Dresden 11b (<a href="#image27">Pl. 18</a>, fig. 1), it occurs alone and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span> no figure
+appears in the usual place below. The <i>Tun</i> period glyph (<a href="#image26">Pl. 17</a>, fig.
+10) frequently shows vulture characteristics especially in the nostril
+of the face. The teeth, however, often appearing in the <i>Tun</i> glyph
+would be against this theory. The blending of bird and mammal
+characteristics is not uncommon in the Maya drawings, however.</p>
+
+<p>The Nahua day sign, <i>Cozcaquauhtli</i>, as previously noted, has the
+meaning vulture, and we naturally find this bird frequently represented
+in the Mexican codices. In the Nuttall Codex, the head of the king
+vulture occurs repeatedly as a glyph for this day. In its less modified
+forms (<a href="#image27">Pl. 18</a>, figs. 2-4), the beak is merely a pair of flattened rami,
+surmounted proximally by the conspicuous quadrangular knob. The minute
+hair-like feathers on the otherwise naked head are shown as a fringe at
+the throat and crown, while a conventionalized ear is represented
+posteriorly. A series of interesting figures (<a href="#image27">Pl. 18</a>, figs. 5-10)
+illustrates steps in the further reduction of this head to a small glyph
+in which only the beak with its large squarish knob remains (<a href="#image27">Pl. 18</a>,
+fig. 10).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Black Vulture</span> (<i>Catharista urubu</i>). It is difficult to assign any single
+characteristic to the figures representing the black vulture (Maya,
+<i>t<img src="images/image53.png" style="vertical-align: middle;" width="9" height="20" alt="s with caron and dot below" title="s with caron and dot below" />om</i>) other than the long raptorial beak. A number of drawings
+probably depict black vultures, though this cannot be certainly
+affirmed. Such are those shown in <a href="#image27">Pl. 18</a>, figs. 11, 12, 14, 17; <a href="#image28">Pl. 19</a>,
+figs. 2-4, 13, 14. Stempell considers the vulture shown in <a href="#image27">Pl. 18</a>, fig.
+13, to be a king vulture, but it has no knob on the beak, and thus is
+quite likely the black vulture. The fact that its head is shaped much
+like that of the god with the king vulture head (<a href="#image26">Pl. 17</a>, fig. 3) would
+indicate merely the individuality of the artist. The coloring of the
+species under discussion is uniformly black in the Dresden and
+Tro-Cortesianus, except in certain cases where the birds are shown in
+outline only, as in <a href="#image28">Pl. 19</a>, fig. 12. It is not certain, however, that
+these two last are black vultures, though they suggest the species. The
+two birds shown in <a href="#image28">Pl. 19</a>, figs. 5, 6, are almost surely black vultures,
+and, as represented in the manuscript, are descending<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span> upon a man.
+Stempell thinks they may be ravens, but this is very doubtful, for the
+raven probably was unknown to the Mayas, since its range is to the
+northward. What appears to be a crest is seen on the head of the bird in
+<a href="#image28">Pl. 19</a>, fig. 4. The black coloring and the shape of the bill otherwise
+suggest the black vulture, though perhaps the crest would indicate the
+harpy eagle. Similarly, <a href="#image28">Pl. 19</a>, fig. 14, is provided with a sort of tuft
+or crest, but its general appearance is suggestive of the vulture. A
+pottery whistle (text <a href="#image02">fig. 2</a>) from the Uloa Valley evidently represents
+a black vulture. The head of the bird shows the characteristic wrinkled
+appearance seen in the drawings, with the heavy beak. The absence of the
+rostral knob would preclude its being a king vulture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="image02" id="image02"></a><a href="images/image02-full.png"><img src="images/image02.png" width="100" height="91" alt="Fig. 2.
+
+POTTERY WHISTLE, VULTURE. ULOA VALLEY, HONDURAS." title="Fig. 2.
+
+POTTERY WHISTLE, VULTURE. ULOA VALLEY, HONDURAS." /></a><br />
+<span class="caption smcap">Fig. 2.</span><br />
+<span class="caption">POTTERY WHISTLE, VULTURE. ULOA VALLEY, HONDURAS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is natural that this bird should find an important place in the Maya
+writing, as it is an abundant species in the region considered, and of
+great importance as a scavenger. The black vulture seems to lack the
+mythological character associated with the king vulture. It appears
+usually in connection with death and in the role of a bird of prey. This
+is especially true in the Tro-Cortesianus where in 24d, 26d (<a href="#image28">Pl. 19</a>,
+figs. 5, 6) and 28c, it is attacking a human being, in the first and
+last cases represented as dead. In 86a and 87a, the bird is shown
+plucking out the eye of a man. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span> Dresden 3a (<a href="#image28">Pl. 19</a>, fig. 7), it
+appears at the top of the tree above the human sacrifice and seems to be
+in the act of consuming the victim. In Tro-Cortesianus 91c, it also
+appears in a tree. In Tro-Cortesianus 40a (<a href="#image26">Pl. 17</a>, fig. 9), and 42a (<a href="#image28">Pl.
+19</a>, fig. 1), it is shown as eating the entrails of a deer. In the first
+case, the bird looks like a king vulture, although this is the only
+instance where this species is shown as a bird of prey. In
+Tro-Cortesianus 28b and 36b (<a href="#image27">Pl. 18</a>, fig. 17), the black vulture appears
+eating the Kan sign. In the first example, the <i>Kan</i> represents the
+newly sowed corn, in the second, the <i>Kan</i> is held by god F. Landa
+(1864, p. 230)<a name="FNanchor_333-1_23" id="FNanchor_333-1_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_333-1_23" class="fnanchor">333-*</a> records that in the <i>Cauac</i> year there was a
+ceremony to prevent the ants and the birds devouring the corn. In
+Dresden 34b and 35b, the vulture is shown on top of the head-dress of
+god F, evidently the enemy of the harvest and, again, on 35b (<a href="#image28">Pl. 19</a>,
+fig. 4) on top of the <i>Cauac</i> sign. Its role as a bird of prey is
+further shown in Dresden 36b (<a href="#image28">Pl. 19</a>, fig. 11), where it is shown
+attacking a serpent.</p>
+
+<p>This vulture is associated with god B in Dresden 69b, with god M in
+Tro-Cortesianus 70a (<a href="#image27">Pl. 18</a>, fig. 12), and with god D in Tro-Cortesianus
+67a (<a href="#image26">Pl. 17</a>, fig. 1). The last may be the king rather than the black
+vulture, as suggested above. The black vulture occurs only once as the
+usual head-dress, in Dresden 17b (<a href="#image27">Pl. 18</a>, fig. 13), and here in
+connection with a female figure and the idea of birth. Two birds,
+probably vultures, appear over the enclosure around the head of god C in
+Tro-Cortesianus 100b (<a href="#image28">Pl. 19</a>, fig. 12). In the Lower Chamber of the
+Temple of the Tigers occurs a black vulture in bas-relief with a
+necklace represented (<a href="#image28">Pl. 19</a>, fig. 14).</p>
+
+<p>The glyph of the king vulture has already been discussed. There are
+other glyphs which seem to show the black vulture, although it is quite
+possible that no sharp distinction was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span> made between the two in regard
+to the glyphs at least. In one case (<a href="#image27">Pl. 18</a>, fig. 18), the wrinkled skin
+of the head and neck is indicated much as in the case of the king
+vulture. A few other glyphs are shown (<a href="#image27">Pl. 18</a>, figs. 16, 19, 22, 27), as
+well as a variety from the Nuttall Codex in which the minute hair-like
+feathers of the head are variously represented, usually much exaggerated
+as a sort of crest or comb. <a href="#image27">Pl. 18</a>, fig. 22, is interesting as being the
+only case in the Maya codices where the whole figure is shown in the
+glyph. As noted in the case of the glyphs of the king vulture, the
+greater number of these occur quite alone. They seem to indicate that a
+full drawing of the bird is meant to be understood as occurring below.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the carved glyphs (<a href="#image28">Pl. 19</a>, figs. 8-10) show the black vulture
+heads in some detail with the conspicuously open nostril and hooked
+beak. A carving of the entire bird may be shown on Stela D from Copan
+(<a href="#image37">Pl. 28</a>, fig. 5), where the naked head and neck are marked off by lines
+indicating wrinkled skin. The same lines on the neck of the bird
+depicted on <a href="#image37">Pl. 28</a>, fig. 2, will probably identify it as a vulture, and,
+if the square ornament above the beak certainly is part of the figure,
+it is unquestionably the king vulture. The knob is not, however, clearly
+on the bird&#8217;s beak. There are two interesting glyphs which occur on the
+eastern fa&ccedil;ade of the Monjas at Chichen Itza. The glyphs in this
+inscription are unlike the usual Maya hieroglyphs, although several of
+the so-called constellation signs can be made out. The two glyphs in
+question represent the entire body possibly of a vulture, that on <a href="#image26">Pl.
+17</a>, fig. 13, probably the king vulture, and that on <a href="#image27">Pl. 18</a>, fig. 14, the
+black vulture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Harpy Eagle</span> (<i>Thrasaetos harpyia</i>). In the Nuttall Codex, what is
+undoubtedly the harpy eagle is of frequent occurrence. This great bird
+is not uncommon in the forests of southern Mexico and Central America,
+and must have attracted the notice of the people from its size. The
+elongated feathers at the back of the head form a conspicuous crest, a
+feature that characterizes this species in most of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> representations.
+A stone carving from Chichen Itza (<a href="#image29">Pl. 20</a>, fig. 10) pictures a harpy
+eagle eating an egg-shaped object, and another similarly engaged is
+copied from the Codex Vaticanus 3773 (<a href="#image29">Pl. 20</a>, fig. 14). The former is
+considered to be a vulture by Maudslay, but the presence of feathers
+covering the head excludes this interpretation. In two stone glyphs (<a href="#image29">Pl.
+20</a>, fig. 1, 3), occurs a large bird apparently devouring something held
+in its talons, as in <a href="#image29">Pl. 20</a>, fig. 10. From this general resemblance, it
+seems probable that both represent the harpy, although no crests are
+shown on the glyphs. In the Dresden and the Tro-Cortesianus occur a few
+figures of crested birds that probably are the same species. The crest
+feathers are reduced to two, however, or, in some cases, what may be a
+third projecting forward from the base of the bill (<a href="#image29">Pl. 20</a>, figs. 5, 7,
+12, 13). The last two figures are not certainly identifiable, though it
+is probable that they represent the harpy.</p>
+
+<p>The eagle seems to be the bird associated with warriors in the codices.
+Seler (1900-1901, p. 89) notes that the eagle and the jaguar are both
+the mark of brave warriors among the Nahuas. In the Aubin manuscript,
+the warrior god, <i>Yaotl</i>, is always associated with the eagle
+(<i>quauhtli</i>). In the Maya pantheon, god M is usually considered the war
+god, as he is almost always armed with a spear. He is seen in Dresden 74
+(<a href="#image29">Pl. 20</a>, fig. 13), and in Tro-Cortesianus 109c with an eagle as a
+head-dress. There are other gods, however, who wear a similar head
+covering. God L appears in Dresden 14b (<a href="#image29">Pl. 20</a>, fig. 7) and again in 14c
+(<a href="#image29">Pl. 20</a>, fig. 5) with an eagle head-dress. God D in Dresden 23c (<a href="#image29">Pl. 20</a>,
+fig. 11) has an eagle coming from a <i>Tun</i> sign on top of his head. The
+eagle is probably represented at the prow of a boat in Dresden 43c (<a href="#image29">Pl.
+20</a>, fig. 12) in which god B is rowing. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c (<a href="#image29">Pl. 20</a>,
+fig. 4), a bird which may represent the eagle appears sitting on a
+<i>Cimi</i> (death) sign. Above in the glyphs the character for the south is
+shown. Here, clearly, there is some connection between the signs of the
+cardinal points in the line of glyphs and the various creatures pictured
+below.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There seems to be only one glyph which can in any way be taken for that
+of the eagle in the Maya manuscripts and this appears only once, in
+Tro-Cortesianus 107c (<a href="#image29">Pl. 20</a>, fig. 9). This identification may be
+questioned, as there is no drawing of an eagle associated with the
+glyph. Attention has already been called to the two stone glyphs in <a href="#image29">Pl.
+20</a>, figs. 1, 3. There are various drawings of the glyph for the eagle in
+the Nahua and Zapotecan codices (<a href="#image29">Pl. 20</a>, fig. 8), as the Nahua day,
+<i>Quauhtli</i>, has the meaning eagle. It is interesting to note in the
+glyph from the Nuttall Codex (<a href="#image29">Pl. 20</a>, fig. 8) the tips of the feathers
+are crowned with stone points, a frequent way of representing birds of
+prey among the Mexican peoples.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Yucatan Horned Owl</span> (<i>Bubo virginianus mayensis</i>). Stempell makes a
+serious mistake by confusing the eared owl shown in full face with that
+shown in profile in the drawings, for he considers both to represent the
+great horned owl. The figures are, however, quite different in every
+way. The owl in full face view is unquestionably the great horned owl
+(Maya, <i>ikim</i>), the Yucatan form of which is recognized by the
+subspecific title <i>mayensis</i>. This is the bird opposed to the
+&#8220;Moan-bird&#8221; which, as will be shown later, is associated with death. In
+<a href="#image30">Pl. 21</a> are some truly remarkable figures which seem to represent this
+horned owl, the first modelled in stucco from Palenque, the second
+carved in stone from Yaxchilan, and the third carved in wood from Tikal.
+Figs. 1 and 3 show the bird in flight with extended wings. The two
+erectile tufts of feathers or &#8220;horns&#8221; are conspicuously represented in
+fig. 3, at either side of the bird&#8217;s head and between them the flat top
+of the crown is secondarily divided in like manner into three parts,
+representing the &#8220;horns&#8221; and the top of the head. The beetling brows,
+heavy hooked beak, and spread talons combine to give a fierce and
+spirited mien to the great bird. <a href="#image30">Pl. 21</a>, fig. 2, may be a greatly
+conventionalized owl in which the essential characteristics of the bird
+are reproduced in a rectangular design. The large bill is conspicuous in
+the center, and in each upper corner terminates one of the ears. The
+eyes are represented by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span> rectangular areas at the base of the bill, each
+with three vertical bars across it. Below the beak, or at either side of
+the tip, are the feet, each with the claw cross-hatched. What seem to be
+the reduced and highly conventionalized wings fill the lower corner of
+each side of the figure.</p>
+
+<p>The shield in the center of the Tablet of the Sun at Palenque (<a href="#image31">Pl. 22</a>,
+fig. 6) shows a face in which the motif seems to be the full-face view
+of the horned owl. The hooked bill curves over the mouth at each side of
+which is the curious scroll seen in the same connection in the figures
+of <a href="#image30">Pl. 21</a>. The ears are somewhat shorter in proportion than usual and
+below each, at the sides of the face, is a large ear-plug, similar to
+that elsewhere found. The eyes are still further conventionalized with a
+decorative scroll surrounding each. Another example of the
+conventionalized owl&#8217;s head is on Stela 1 from Cankuan (Maler, 1908, <a href="#image22">Pl.
+13</a>). We are not yet ready to advance an explanation of the reason why
+the owl should occupy such a prominent position in the art of the Mayas.</p>
+
+<p>In only one case is the horned owl found in the Maya manuscripts. In
+Tro-Cortesianus 95c (<a href="#image31">Pl. 22</a>, fig. 2), this owl appears as the head-dress
+of a woman in that portion of the codex where baptism and naming are
+shown. An owl&#8217;s head seems to be shown on the end of a warrior&#8217;s staff
+in the bas-relief of the Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at
+Chichen Itza (<a href="#image31">Pl. 22</a>, fig. 4). <a href="#image31">Pl. 22</a>, figs. 5, 7, show two owls from
+the Aubin manuscript; the first is considered to be the screech owl
+(<i>chiqualli</i>) and the second the horned owl (<i>tecolotl</i>, in Nahuatl).
+<a href="#image31">Pl. 22</a>, figs. 1, 3, show two drawings of owls from Nahua manuscripts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Yucatan Screech Owl</span> or <span class="smcap">Moan Bird</span> (<i>Otus choliba thompsoni</i>). A second
+species of owl is represented by the figures on <a href="#image32">Pl. 23</a>. This has
+likewise two feathered tufts or &#8220;ears&#8221; on its head and is always shown
+with the head, at least, in profile, but the tufts one in front, the
+other at the back of the head. The facial disc is not very prominent the
+beak rather long, the tail short, and the plumage some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span>what mottled. A
+dark ring usually surrounds the eye. It is, with little doubt, the
+screech owl, the only other form of eared owl commonly met with in the
+Central American region, and in Yucatan is represented by the race above
+indicated. This owl, under the name of the Moan bird,<a name="FNanchor_338-1_24" id="FNanchor_338-1_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_338-1_24" class="fnanchor">338-*</a> is always
+associated with the idea of death among the Mayas. The familiarity of
+this species and its mournful quavering cry uttered at night have no
+doubt led to its association with death and mystery as with owls in
+other parts of the world.</p>
+
+<p>This Moan bird has an important place in the Maya pantheon, as it is the
+representative in many places of god A, the Death god. It appears with a
+human body in Dresden 7c (<a href="#image32">Pl. 23</a>, fig. 1), 10a (<a href="#image32">Pl. 23</a>, fig. 8), and 11a
+(<a href="#image32">Pl. 23</a>, fig. 3) and in Tro-Cortesianus 66a (<a href="#image32">Pl. 23</a>, fig. 2). In each of
+these places, it occupies the space in which one of the regular gods is
+usually found. In Dresden 10a, the day reached in the <i>tonalamatl</i>
+reckoning is <i>Cimi</i>, meaning death, and here, as has been noted, is
+found the Moan bird, the symbol of death, with another sign of death in
+the circle just above the head of the bird (<a href="#image32">Pl. 23</a>, fig. 8).</p>
+
+<p>This owl is used as a head-dress itself, but always for women, Dresden
+16a (<a href="#image32">Pl. 23</a>, fig. 19), 18b (<a href="#image32">Pl. 23</a>, fig. 5), Tro-Cortesianus 94c (<a href="#image32">Pl.
+23</a>, fig. 4), and 95c (<a href="#image32">Pl. 23</a>, fig. 20). It occurs in both manuscripts in
+the pages mentioned several times before, where birth, baptism, and the
+naming of children are shown. The curious figure, with a head similar to
+<a href="#image32">Pl. 23</a>, fig. 21, carried on the back of some of the women, is the Moan
+sign, referring to the idea of death, possibly to still-birth, as
+copulation and birth are shown in this section of the codex (Dresden
+18c, 19c). The Moan is found associated with man only once in the
+manuscripts. In Tro-Cortesianus 73b<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span> (<a href="#image32">Pl. 23</a>, fig. 18), he is found
+perching on a curious frame-like structure in which god B is sitting.</p>
+
+<p>There are several glyphs representing the Moan bird or screech owl; the
+first type is easily identifiable, as the head of the bird is clearly
+pictured (<a href="#image32">Pl. 23</a>, figs. 11-14, 16). This head is frequently associated
+with the number thirteen (Dresden 8b). It may occur in the line of
+glyphs (Dresden 16c), and refer to the Moan pictured below, or it may
+occur in the line of glyphs with no picture corresponding to it below
+(Dresden 53b). <a href="#image32">Pl. 23</a>, fig. 15, from Dresden 38c has been placed with
+these drawings, although the identification is not certain. It may
+refer, however, to the large Moan head below, on which god B is sitting
+(<a href="#image32">Pl. 23</a>, fig. 11). The second type of glyph does not resemble in any way
+the Moan, but they are clearly signs for it, as they are often found in
+connection with the picture of the Moan, Dresden 7c (<a href="#image32">Pl. 23</a>, figs. 6, 7,
+21) and 10a. In both places fig. 7 is associated with the number
+thirteen. Schellhas also places <a href="#image32">Pl. 23</a>, fig. 17, among the Moan signs.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="image03" id="image03"></a><a href="images/image03-full.png"><img src="images/image03.png" width="216" height="46" alt="Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6.
+GLYPHS OF MONTH MUAN SHOWING MOAN-BIRD CHARACTERISTICS." title="Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6.
+GLYPHS OF MONTH MUAN SHOWING MO" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption smcap">Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6.</span><br />
+<span class="caption">GLYPHS OF MONTH MUAN SHOWING MOAN-BIRD CHARACTERISTICS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the eighteen Maya months is named Muan, and some of the glyphs
+appearing for this month in the codices certainly represent the Moan or
+screech owl. This is especially so with text <a href="#image03">figs. 3-6</a>. F&ouml;rstemann
+(1904a) considers that the month Muan and, consequently, the sign as
+well, refer to the Pleiades.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the screech owl referring to death, it is interesting
+to note that among the Nahuas the owl is considered of unlucky augury
+and is usually found in the &#8220;House of Death&#8221; and &#8220;of Drought&#8221;, as
+contrasted with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span> the turkey, considered as a bird of good fortune, and
+found in the &#8220;House of Rain.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Coppery-tailed Trogan</span> or <span class="smcap">Quetzal</span> (<i>Pharomacrus mocinno</i>). The quetzal is
+common locally in certain parts of southern Mexico. Its brilliant
+metallic green plumage and the greatly elongated tail feathers make it a
+very notable bird. The feathers of the head are erect and stand out as a
+light crest, those of the anterior portion being slightly recurved. The
+delicate erect feathers of the head are well indicated in Vaticanus
+3773, 17 (<a href="#image33">Pl. 24</a>, fig. 9) and the tail, also, in this figure, is only
+slightly conventionalized with an upward instead of the natural downward
+sweep. In most of the representations, the crest feathers are
+<a name="corr7" id="corr7"></a><ins class="correction" title="indicated">indicatd</ins> by large plumes, the most anterior of which project
+forward. They may be even further modified into three knobs shown in
+Dresden 7c (<a href="#image33">Pl. 24</a>, fig. 1). The two characteristics of the quetzal,
+namely its erect head feathers and its extraordinarily long tail
+feathers, are often used separately. Thus the tail, which is commonly
+drawn with the outer feather of each side strongly curled forward,
+appears by itself in <a href="#image33">Pl. 24</a>, fig. 8, or it may be seen as a plume in the
+head-dress of a priest or warrior and in other connections as an
+ornament. A greatly conventionalized drawing of the bird is also shown
+in <a href="#image33">Pl. 24</a>, fig. 11, in which the head bears a curious knob and the
+dorsal feather of the tail is upcurled in the manner of the other
+drawings. It is not at once apparent why the long drooping tail feathers
+should be shown thus recurved. Possibly these feathers, when used by the
+Mayas for plumes, curled over by their own weight, if held erect, so
+that the representations are a compromise between the natural appearance
+and that when used as ornament in the head decoration.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="image04" id="image04"></a><a href="images/image04-full.png"><img src="images/image04.png" width="252" height="152" alt="Fig. 7.
+QUETZAL, TEMPLE OF THE CROSS, PALENQUE." title="Fig. 7.
+QUETZAL, TEMPLE OF THE CROSS, PALENQUE." /></a><br />
+<span class="caption smcap">Fig. 7.</span><br />
+<span class="caption">QUETZAL, TEMPLE OF THE CROSS, PALENQUE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The color of the bird and the very long tail feathers have already been
+mentioned, and these explain the reason of the importance of this bird
+among the Mayas. It is claimed by several old authorities that the
+quetzal was reserved for the rulers, and that it was death for any
+common person to kill this bird for his own use. It seems from a
+statement in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span> Landa (1864, p. 190)<a name="FNanchor_341-1_25" id="FNanchor_341-1_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_341-1_25" class="fnanchor">341-*</a> that birds were domesticated
+for the feathers. This bird occurs again and again in various
+modifications throughout the Maya art. The feathers of the quetzal are
+the ones usually associated with the serpent, making the rebus,
+<i>Quetzalcoatl</i>, the feathered serpent, the culture hero of the Nahuas,
+or <i>Kukulcan</i>, which has the same signification among the Mayas. It is
+impossible to mention here all the various connections in which the
+quetzal appears. The feathers play an important part in the composition
+of the head-dresses of the priests and warriors, especially those in the
+stone carvings. A quotation has already been given from Landa, showing
+the use made of feathers in the dress of the people. Text <a href="#image04">fig. 7</a> shows
+perhaps the most elaborate representation of this bird. It is found on
+the sculptured tablet of the Temple of the Cross at Palenque. The
+quetzal is shown seated on top of a branching tree which was long taken
+to represent a cross. A similar representation is seen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span> on the tablet of
+the Temple of the Foliated Cross from the same ruined city. In the Codex
+Fejervary-Mayer, there are four trees in each of which there is a bird.
+A quetzal is perched in the one corresponding to the east, which is
+regarded as the region of opulence and moisture. Seler (1901, p. 17)
+suggests that the quetzal in the tree on the two bas-reliefs at Palenque
+may represent a similar idea and that temples which would show the other
+three trees and their respective birds had not been built in that
+center.</p>
+
+<p>The representation of the quetzal as an entire bird is, after all,
+comparatively rare. The most realistic drawing is seen on a jar from
+Copan in the collections of the Peabody Museum. The whole body of the
+bird is shown as a head-dress in a few places in the codices where birth
+and the naming of children are pictured. In Dresden 16c (<a href="#image33">Pl. 24</a>, fig. 3)
+and Tro-Cortesianus 94c (<a href="#image33">Pl. 24</a>, fig. 6), the quetzal is the head-dress
+of women. In Dresden 13b (<a href="#image33">Pl. 24</a>, fig. 2), a partial drawing of the bird
+is shown as a part of the head-dress of god E, in Dresden 7c (<a href="#image33">Pl. 24</a>,
+fig. 1) of god H, and in Tro-Cortesianus 110c of god F. The feathers
+alone appear as a female head decoration in Dresden 20c (<a href="#image33">Pl. 24</a>, fig.
+8). It occurs as a sacrifice among the rites of the four years in
+Tro-Cortesianus 36b (<a href="#image33">Pl. 24</a>, fig. 12). In Tro-Cortesianus 70a (<a href="#image33">Pl. 24</a>,
+fig. 5), it is found in the act of eating fruit growing over the &#8220;young
+god.&#8221; In Tro-Cortesianus 100b (<a href="#image33">Pl. 24</a>, fig. 4), the bird is perched over
+the encased head of god C.</p>
+
+<p>There seems to be a glyph used for the quetzal. In those drawn in <a href="#image33">Pl.
+24</a>, figs. 10, 17, it is noticeable that the anterior part only of the
+head is shown. The first is a glyph from the tablet of the Temple of the
+Sun at Palenque, and at least suggests the quetzal by the feathers on
+the top of the head, as also <a href="#image33">Pl. 24</a>, fig. 13, a glyph from Copan, Stela
+10, where the entire head appears in a much conventionalized form. Other
+glyphs are shown in <a href="#image33">Pl. 24</a>, figs. 14-16, in which there is a single
+prominent recurved feather shown over the eye, succeeded by a few
+conventionalized feathers, then one or more directed posteriorly. It is
+to be noted that whereas in many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span> previous examples of glyphs the full
+drawing of the animal or bird has been found in connection with them,
+here with the quetzal glyphs there is no instance where a drawing of the
+bird occurs with them. A curious human figure (<a href="#image33">Pl. 24</a>, fig. 19), with a
+head decoration similar to the frontal curve and markings on the quetzal
+glyphs (fig. 14-16), may possibly represent this bird in some relation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Blue Macaw</span> (<i>Ara militaris</i>). A large macaw (Maya, <i>mox</i> or <i>&#7789;u&#7789;</i>)
+is undoubtedly pictured in the figures in <a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>. The least
+conventionalized drawing found is that shown in Dresden 16c (<a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>,
+fig. 2), a bird characterized by long narrow tail feathers, a heavy
+bill, and a series of scale-like markings on the face and about the eye.
+Further conventionalized drawings are found in <a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>, figs. 3, 10, 13,
+and <a href="#image35">Pl. 26</a>, fig. 1. In all these the tail is less characteristic, though
+composed of long, narrow feathers, and the facial markings are reduced
+to a ring of circular marks about the eye. These last undoubtedly
+represent, as supposed by Stempell, the bare space about the eye found
+in certain of these large parrots. In addition, the space between the
+eye and the base of the bill is partially bare with small patches of
+feathers scattered at somewhat regular intervals in rows. It is probable
+that this appearance is represented by the additional round marks about
+the base of the bill in <a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>, figs. 1, 2, 5, 8, the last two of which
+show the head only. There has hitherto been some question as to the
+identity of certain stone carvings, similar to that on Stela B from
+Copan, of which a portion is shown in <a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>, fig. 8. This has even been
+interpreted as the trunk of an elephant or a mastodon, but is
+unquestionably a macaw&#8217;s beak. In addition to the ornamental
+crosshatching on the beak, which is also seen on the glyph from the same
+stela (<a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>, fig. 5), there is an ornamental scroll beneath the eye
+which likewise is crosshatched and surrounded by a ring of subcircular
+marks that continue to the base of the beak. The nostril is the large
+oval marking directly in front of the eye.</p>
+
+<p>The animal in Dresden 40b (<a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>, fig. 1) has always<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span> been considered
+to be a tortoise (Schellhas, 1904, p. 44, and F&ouml;rstemann, 1904). This
+animal, together with the dog, is found beneath the constellation signs
+carrying firebrands; both are regarded as lightning beasts. By comparing
+the head of the figure shown in <a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>, fig. 1, with figs. 2, 4, 5, of
+the same plate, the reasonableness of the identification of this head as
+that of a macaw and not that of a tortoise appears clear. The same
+figure occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 12a (<a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>, fig. 3) carrying a torch.</p>
+
+<p>In order to make this point clearer, we will take up the consideration
+of the glyphs at this place, rather than at the end of the section as
+usual. As the macaw in <a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>, fig. 1, has been hitherto identified as a
+turtle, so the glyph found in connection with it (<a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>, fig. 6) has
+been considered to stand for the turtle. <a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>, fig. 7, is another
+drawing of the same glyph. By comparing the markings on the face of fig.
+1, it is seen that a similar ring surrounds the eye shown on the glyph.
+The second glyph (<a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>, fig. 7) is better drawn and shows, in addition
+to the eye ring, the slightly erectile feathers at the back of the head.
+Comparison with the glyphs representing turtles (<a href="#image23">Pl. 14</a>, figs. 7-10)
+hitherto confused with these macaw glyphs shows differences, the most
+important of which are of course the eye ring and the feathers at the
+back of the head.</p>
+
+<p>Various other glyphs occur which undoubtedly represent the heads either
+of macaws or smaller parrots. They are, for the most part, glyphs from
+the stone inscriptions. A crest, resembling that depicted on the head of
+the quetzal, is found on a glyph on Altar Q from Copan (<a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>, fig.
+10). The eye ring, however, seems to indicate the macaw which also has
+slightly erectile feathers on the head. Much doubt is attached to the
+identification of the glyph of the month <a name="corr8" id="corr8"></a><ins class="correction" title="Kayab"><i>Kayae</i></ins> from Stela A,
+Quirigua (<a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>, fig. 9). It resembles closely the glyphs of the turtle
+(<a href="#image23">Pl. 14</a>, figs. 7-9) and especially that on <a href="#image23">Pl. 14</a>, fig. 10. The Quirigua
+glyph has a prominent fleshy tongue, however, like the parrot. From the
+fact that the glyph is certainly that for the month <i>Kayab</i> and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span>
+<i>Kayab</i> glyphs in the codices (<a href="#image23">Pl. 14</a>, fig. 10) resemble the sign for
+<i>a</i>, in the Landa alphabet which seems to stand for <i>ak</i> (turtle), we
+are led to identify this as a turtle rather than a parrot.</p>
+
+<p>The use of the macaw as a lightning beast has already been commented
+upon. The parrot is also used in the codices as a head-dress. As with
+several other birds the only places in the manuscripts where the whole
+bird is shown is in connection with the bearing of children and the
+baptism. Here the parrot head-dress is seen on women, Dresden 16c (<a href="#image35">Pl.
+25</a>, fig. 2) and Tro-Cortesianus 94c (<a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>, fig. 13). There seems to be
+an exception to the whole bird appearing as a head-dress exclusively
+with women in Tro-Cortesianus 26c (<a href="#image35">Pl. 26</a>, fig. 1), where god F appears
+with a head-dress composed of the whole bird. The bird is also seen as a
+head-dress on Altar Q from Copan (<a href="#image35">Pl. 26</a>, fig. 3). The head of the macaw
+appears as part of the head-dress of god H in Dresden 11a (<a href="#image35">Pl. 26</a>, fig.
+13), god E in Dresden 11b (<a href="#image35">Pl. 26</a>, fig. 11), god F in Dresden 14b, god D
+in Tro-Cortesianus 89a (<a href="#image35">Pl. 26</a>, fig. 5) and of women in Dresden 12b (<a href="#image35">Pl.
+26</a>, fig. 6) and 19a (<a href="#image35">Pl. 26</a>, fig. 9). In the rites of the four years in
+Tro-Cortesianus 37b, there are two birds which are quite different from
+those we have been considering, but which may represent macaws (<a href="#image34">Pl. 25</a>,
+fig. 12; <a href="#image35">Pl. 26</a>, fig. 10).</p>
+
+<p>In the Nuttall Codex, occur several figures of heavy-billed birds that
+may be macaws or other smaller parrots of the genera <i>Amazona</i> or
+<i>Pachyrhynchus</i>. They are not, however, certainly identifiable (<a href="#image35">Pl. 26</a>,
+figs. 4, 7).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Imperial Woodpecker</span> (<i>Campephilus imperialis</i>). We have here introduced
+two drawings from the Nuttall Codex (<a href="#image36">Pl. 27</a>, figs. 5, 6) which seem to
+represent the Imperial ivory-billed woodpecker, a large species that
+occurs in the forests of certain parts of Mexico. The figures show a
+long-billed bird with acutely pointed tail feathers, a red crest, and
+otherwise black and white plumage. The red crest of the woodpecker is of
+course highly conventionalized in the drawings where it is shown as of a
+number of erect feathers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span> instead of the prominent occipital tuft of
+this bird. The crest and particularly the pointed tail feathers and long
+beak combined with the characteristic coloring seem to leave little
+doubt as to the identity of the species figured. This bird does not seem
+to appear in the Maya drawings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Raven</span> (<i>Corvus corax sinuatus</i>) (?). There occurs in the Nuttall Codex a
+figure of a large black bird (<a href="#image36">Pl. 27</a>, fig. 7), which may be a black
+vulture, but which, from the presence of what appear as prominent
+bristles over the nostril, may also be a raven. These bristles are
+rather prominent in ravens and quite lacking in the vulture, so that we
+are led to identify the drawing as representing the former bird. We have
+found no other figures that suggest ravens.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Miscellaneous Birds</span>. Four drawings of birds from the Aubin manuscript
+are shown here (<a href="#image36">Pl. 27</a>, figs. 8-11), in order that the
+conventionalization of the bird form may be seen. The first two are
+supposed to represent the parrot (<i>cocho</i>) and the last two the turkey
+cock (<i>uexolotl</i>). There is little in the drawings by which they can be
+differentiated. In the codex, the heads of the parrots are colored red.
+There is no doubt, however, about the identification, as they occur in
+the same relative position on every page of the manuscript and are two
+of the thirteen birds associated with the thirteen gods, the &#8220;Lords of
+the House of Day&#8221; (Seler, 1900-1901, pp. 31-35). From the foregoing, it
+may be seen that where there is no question about the identification,
+the drawing of the bird form is rather carelessly done and no great
+attempt is made to indicate the special characteristics of the different
+birds.</p>
+
+<p>As has been shown previously, it is not always possible to identify
+without question many of the forms appearing in the manuscripts. This is
+especially true with birds. In Tro-Cortesianus 20c, an unidentifiable
+bird, painted blue, appears on the top of the staff carried by god F.
+The head-dress of this same god in Tro-Cortesianus 27c is a bird form
+and in Tro-Cortesianus 55b, the <i>tonalamatl</i> figure is a bird whose
+identity cannot be made out with certainty.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectitle">MAMMALIA</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Opossum</span> (<i>Didelphis yucatanensis</i>, <i>D. mesamericana</i>). Figures
+representing opossums are not with certainty identifiable in the Maya
+writings. We have provisionally identified as a frog the animal shown in
+<a href="#image38">Pl. 29</a>, fig. 6, although at first sight the two median round markings
+might be taken to represent a marsupial pouch. Stempell considers the
+animals found in the upper division of Dresden 25-28 as opossums of one
+of the above species, and this seems very possible. They are shown with
+long tails, slightly curved at the tips, and with long head and
+prominent vibrissae. A rather similar figure is found in the Nuttall
+Codex (<a href="#image43">Pl. 34</a>, fig. 7). There is nothing, however, that seems to
+preclude their being dogs and, in our opinion, they represent this
+animal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nine-banded Armadillo</span> (<i>Tatu novemcinctum</i>). This is the common species
+of armadillo (Maya, <i>wet&#353;</i>) found throughout the warmer portion of
+Mexico and Central America, where it is frequently used as an article of
+food, and its shell-like covering is utilized in various ways. Several
+representations of it occur in the Tro-Cortesianus (<a href="#image38">Pl. 29</a>, figs. 1-4),
+where it is characterized by its scaly covering, long ears and tail, and
+the moveable bands about the body.</p>
+
+<p>This animal is associated with the bee culture, as it is represented
+twice in Tro-Cortesianus 103a (<a href="#image38">Pl. 29</a>, figs. 1, 3) seated below a bee
+under an overhanging roof. The hunting scenes in the Tro-Cortesianus
+also show the armadillo; in 48a (<a href="#image38">Pl. 29</a>, fig. 4) and in 91a it is shown
+in a pit-fall. In the last case the <i>Cauac</i> signs are clearly seen on
+top of the trap, whereas in the former case the same signs seem to be
+indicated by the crosses. Finally, this same animal occurs seated in
+Tro-Cortesianus 92d (<a href="#image38">Pl. 29</a>, fig. 2) facing a female figure. There seems
+to be no glyph used in connection with this animal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Yucatan Brocket</span> (<i>Mazama pandora</i>). Among the numerous representations
+of deer in the Maya writings, there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span> is but one that appears to show the
+brocket. This occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 92a (<a href="#image39">Pl. 30</a>, fig. 2), where a
+hoofed animal with a single spike-like horn is shown, seemingly impaled
+on a stake set in the bottom of a pit-fall. As stated by Stempell, this
+animal from the character of its horns is probably to be identified as a
+brocket, though there is nothing to preclude its being a young spike
+buck of some species of <i>Odocoileus.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Yucatan Deer</span> (<i>Odocoileus yucatanensis</i>; <i>O. thomasi</i>). Several species
+of small deer (Maya, <i>ke</i>) occur in Mexico and Central America whose
+relationships are not yet thoroughly understood (Pls. 30-32). The
+species of Yucatan and southern Mexico have small lyrate antlers with
+few, short tines, rather different from the broader type of the more
+northern species with well developed secondary tines. The former type of
+antlers seems to be indicated by the conventionalized structure shown in
+<a href="#image41">Pl. 32</a>, figs. 8-12. These probably represent the Yucatan deer or its
+ally Thomas&#8217;s deer of southern Mexico. Two of the figures, both from the
+Nuttall Codex, show the lower incisor teeth (<a href="#image41">Pl. 32</a>, figs. 8, 11),
+though in other cases these are omitted. The larger part of the figures
+of deer represent the does which have no antlers. For this reason it is
+impossible to distinguish females of the brocket from those of the other
+species of deer, if indeed, the Mayas themselves made such a
+distinction. The characteristics of deer drawings are the long head and
+ears, the prominently elevated tail with the hair bristling from its
+posterior side (the characteristic position of the tail when the deer is
+running), the hoofs, and less often the presence of incisors in the
+lower jaw only and of a curious oblong mark at each end of the eye,
+possibly representing the large tear gland.</p>
+
+<p>The deer plays a large part in the Maya ceremonials. It is an important,
+perhaps the most important animal offering as a sacrifice to the gods.
+Several pages of the Tro-Cortesianus (38-49) are given over to the hunt
+and the animal usually represented is the deer, the hunters are shown,
+the methods of trapping, the return from the chase, and the rites in
+connection with the animals slain. Tro-Cortesianus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span> 48b (<a href="#image39">Pl. 30</a>, fig. 1)
+shows the usual method of trapping where the deer is caught by a cord
+around one of the fore legs. Tro-Cortesianus 91a pictures the same
+method and 92a (<a href="#image39">Pl. 30</a>, figs. 2) shows where the deer is caught on a
+spike in another type of trap. In Tro-Cortesianus 86a (<a href="#image40">Pl. 31</a>, fig. 5)
+the deer appears with a rope around his body held by a god who is not
+easily identified.</p>
+
+<p>Interesting descriptions of the hunt are given in several of the early
+accounts.<a name="FNanchor_349-1_26" id="FNanchor_349-1_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_349-1_26" class="fnanchor">349-*</a> It will be noted that the hunt was usually connected
+with the religious rites and the offering of deer meat and various parts
+of the body of the deer had a ceremonial importance. Attention is called
+to similar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span> practices among the Lacandones, the inhabitants of the
+region of the Usumacinta at the present time (Tozzer, 1907), where the
+greater part of the food of the people must, first of all, be offered to
+the gods before it may be eaten by the natives.</p>
+
+<p>The figures of the deer in the codices are clearly associated with god
+M, and the latter may be considered a god of the hunt as well as a god
+of war. It is very unusual to find a quadruped used as a head-dress in
+any way, and yet in several cases we find god M has the head of a deer
+as a sort of head covering, Tro-Cortesianus 50b (<a href="#image40">Pl. 31</a>, fig. 6), 51c
+(<a href="#image40">Pl. 31</a>, fig. 7) and 68b. In the first two cases, the god seems to be
+supplied with a bow and arrow. In a passage in Landa (1864, p.
+290)<a name="FNanchor_350-1_27" id="FNanchor_350-1_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_350-1_27" class="fnanchor">350-*</a> there is a description of this very scene.</p>
+
+<p>In the month <i>Zip</i>, the hunters each took an arrow and a deer&#8217;s head
+which was painted blue; thus adorned they danced. God M is found in one
+case in the Dresden in connection with the deer. In Dresden 13c the
+animal is represented as female and is shown in intercourse with god M.</p>
+
+<p>An offering of venison is frequently pictured in the manuscripts. Landa
+(1864, p. 220)<a name="FNanchor_350-2_28" id="FNanchor_350-2_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_350-2_28" class="fnanchor">350-&#8224;</a> also furnishes a parallel for this. The haunches
+of venison arranged as offerings in dishes are realistically seen in a
+number of representations of religious rites, as in Dresden 28c (<a href="#image40">Pl. 31</a>,
+fig. 14) in the last of the rites of the dominical days, 35a (<a href="#image40">Pl. 31</a>,
+fig. 12) and in Tro-Cortesianus 5a above the serpent enclosing the body
+of water, 65a in front of god B or D and 105b (<a href="#image40">Pl. 31</a>, fig. 13) and 108a
+(<a href="#image40">Pl. 31</a>, fig. 15), both of which are in connection with the bee
+ceremonies.</p>
+
+<p>The head of the deer, rather than the legs, is also shown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span> as an
+offering, in Tro-Cortesianus 69b with god B and Tro-Cortesianus 78 (<a href="#image40">Pl.
+31</a>, fig. 10) in the line of glyphs. The whole deer may be represented as
+an offering in Tro-Cortesianus 2b (<a href="#image40">Pl. 31</a>, fig. 8).<a name="FNanchor_351-1_29" id="FNanchor_351-1_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_351-1_29" class="fnanchor">351-*</a></p>
+
+<p>There are some examples in the manuscripts where the deer is pictured
+quite apart from any idea of the hunt or an offering. In Tro-Cortesianus
+14b, it is shown on top of the body of one of the large snakes and in
+Tro-Cortesianus 29c (<a href="#image40">Pl. 31</a>, fig. 3), it appears seated on the end of a
+snake-like curve. The deer occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 30b (<a href="#image39">Pl. 30</a>, fig.
+6) in connection with the goddess from whose breasts water is flowing.
+God B appears in Dresden 41c (<a href="#image40">Pl. 31</a>, fig. 1) seated on a red deer. The
+same animal is also to be noted in Dresden 60a (<a href="#image39">Pl. 30</a>, fig. 5) in
+connection with the combat of the planets.<a name="FNanchor_351-2_30" id="FNanchor_351-2_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_351-2_30" class="fnanchor">351-&#8224;</a> A deer is seen in
+Tro-Cortesianus 92d seated on a mat opposite a female figure in the same
+manner as the armadillo on the same page and a dog on the preceding
+page. These, as previously noted, probably refer to cohabitation. On <a href="#image41">Pl.
+32</a>, fig. 9, is a deer from the Peresianus and <a href="#image41">Pl. 32</a>, fig. 12, shows
+another from Stela N, east, from Copan.</p>
+
+<p>The Nahua day <i>Ma&ccedil;atl</i> signifies deer and we naturally find a large
+number of glyphs representing this animal among the day signs in the
+Mexican manuscripts (<a href="#image40">Pl. 31</a>, fig. 9; <a href="#image41">Pl. 32</a>, figs. 8, 10, 11).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Yucatan Peccary</span> (<i>Tayassu angulatum yucatanense</i>; <i>T. ringens</i>).
+Peccaries (Maya, <i>qeqem</i>) of the <i>T. angulatum</i> group are common in
+Mexico and Yucatan, and a number of local forms have been named. The
+white-lipped peccaries also occur, but in the figures it is impossible
+to distinguish the species. These animals are characterized by their
+prominent snout, curly tail, bristling dorsal crest, and rather
+formidable tusks, as well as by the possession of hoofs. By these marks
+most of the figures are readily identifiable (<a href="#image41">Pl. 32</a>, fig. 1; Pl.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span> 33,
+figs. 1, 2, 4-6, 9). The tail is, however, often omitted as well as the
+erect line of bristles down the back. The presence of hoofs and the
+possession of a truncated pig-like snout are sufficiently
+characteristic. In the Dresden Codex occur several figures of undoubted
+peccaries. Two of these are pictured in <a href="#image41">Pl. 32</a>, figs. 2, 4. In each the
+hoofs and curly tail appear, and in the latter figure the bristling back
+is conventionally drawn by a series of serrations. These marks are
+sufficient to identify the animals. Their heads are further
+conventionalized, however, by a great exaggeration of the snout beyond
+that slightly indicated in <a href="#image41">Pl. 32</a>, fig. 1, and <a href="#image42">Pl. 33</a>, figs. 6, 9. Other
+representations of the peccary, are shown in <a href="#image41">Pl. 32</a>, fig. 5, a man with
+a peccary&#8217;s head, and fig. 7 in which the animal&#8217;s hoofs are replaced by
+human hands and feet. In both cases the form of the head remains
+characteristic. A curious combination is shown in <a href="#image41">Pl. 32</a>, fig. 3, an
+animal whose head and fore feet are those of a peccary, while the hind
+feet have five toes, and there is a long tail. The addition of what look
+like scales is found in a figure from the Dresden (<a href="#image41">Pl. 32</a>, fig. 6).</p>
+
+<p>The peccary is found in several different connections in the
+manuscripts. As deer are found associated with the hunt, so, but to a
+much more limited extent, the peccary. It is represented pictured as
+being captured in snares of the familiar &#8220;jerk-up&#8221; type. Similar
+drawings show this animal caught by the foreleg and held partially
+suspended, Tro-Cortesianus 49a (<a href="#image42">Pl. 33</a>, fig. 9),<a name="FNanchor_352-1_31" id="FNanchor_352-1_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_352-1_31" class="fnanchor">352-*</a> 49c (<a href="#image42">Pl. 33</a>,
+fig. 1), and 93a (<a href="#image42">Pl. 33</a>, fig. 4). Tro-Cortesianus 41b also shows the
+peccary associated with hunting scenes. Another realistic drawing of
+this animal in Dresden 62 (<a href="#image42">Pl. 33</a>, fig. 6)<a name="FNanchor_352-2_32" id="FNanchor_352-2_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_352-2_32" class="fnanchor">352-&#8224;</a> represents him as
+seated on the open jaws of a serpent connected with a long number
+series. We are unable to explain the signification of the appearance of
+the animal in this connection. The peccary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span> is pictured in
+Tro-Cortesianus 27b (<a href="#image42">Pl. 33</a>, fig. 5) seated on the left hand of the
+goddess from whose breasts water is flowing.</p>
+
+<p>The peccary seems to be associated with the sky, as it is seen in a
+conventionalized form in four instances (Dresden 44b, 45b, <a name="corr9" id="corr9"></a><ins class="correction" title="Pl. 32">(<a href="#image41">Pl. 32</a></ins>, fig.
+4) coming from a band of constellation signs and in Dresden 68a (<a href="#image41">Pl.
+32</a>, fig. 2) coming from a similar band with god E sitting
+underneath.<a name="FNanchor_353-1_33" id="FNanchor_353-1_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_353-1_33" class="fnanchor">353-*</a> Above each of these conventionalized figures occur
+the corresponding glyph forms (<a href="#image42">Pl. 33</a>, figs. 7, 8), which show merely
+the head with the exaggerated upturned snout. There is a striking
+resemblance between these snouts and those of the stone mask-like
+figures so frequently represented as a fa&ccedil;ade decoration in northern
+Yucatan. The presence in the mouths of the faces there represented of a
+recurved tusk in addition to other teeth is a further resemblance to the
+drawings of peccaries. Stempell (1908, p. 718) has reproduced a
+photograph of these extraordinary carvings and considers them the heads
+of mastodons, apparently solely on account of the shape of the upturned
+snout, whose tip in many of the carvings turns forward. They certainly
+do not represent the heads of mastodons, but we are not ready to say
+that the peccary is the prototype of these carvings, although the
+similarity between the glyphs (<a href="#image42">Pl. 33</a>, figs. 7, 8) and the masks is
+worthy of note. One point which does not favor this explanation is the
+fact that on the eastern fa&ccedil;ade of the Monjas at Chichen Itza where the
+mask-like panel is seen at its best, we find a realistic drawing of a
+peccary (<a href="#image42">Pl. 33</a>, fig. 2) on the band of glyphs over the doorway, and it
+in no way suggests the head on the panel and is quite different from the
+head already noted as the glyph of the peccary in the codices.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Baird&#8217;s Tapir</span> (<i>Tapirella bairdi</i>). No undoubted representations of
+tapirs occur in the manuscripts here considered.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span> Possibly tapirs did
+not live in the country occupied by the Maya peoples. At the present
+time they are found only to the south of Yucatan. In Central America
+Baird&#8217;s and Dow&#8217;s tapirs are native, the latter, however, more on the
+Pacific coast. We have included a drawing of an earthenware vessel (<a href="#image37">Pl.
+28</a>, fig. 1) that represents a tapir, about whose neck is a string of
+Oliva shells. The short prehensile trunk of the tapir is well made and
+the hoofs are likewise shown. A greatly elongated nose is found in many
+of the drawings of the deities, but it does not seem clear that these
+represent trunks of tapirs, or, as suggested by Stempell, mastodons! Two
+such heads are shown in <a href="#image48">Pl. 39</a>, figs. 7, 9. These offer a considerable
+superficial resemblance to that of a tapir, but as no other drawings
+that might be considered to represent this animal are found, it seems
+very questionable if the long noses are other than parts of grotesque
+masks. The superficial resemblance of the curious nose pieces of the
+masks on the panel of the Maya fa&ccedil;ades to elephants&#8217; trunks does not
+seem to us especially significant, as otherwise the carvings are quite
+unlike elephants. They have no great tusks as an elephant should, but,
+instead, short recurved teeth similar to those representing peccary
+tusks, as already pointed out.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rabbit</span> (<i>Sylvilagus</i> or <i>Lepus</i>). Rabbits and hares from their
+familiarity, their long ears, and their peculiar method of locomotion,
+seem always to attract the notice of primitive peoples. Several species
+occur in Mexico, including the Marsh rabbit (<i>Sylvilagus truei</i>; <i>S.
+insonus</i>), various races of the Cottontail rabbit (<i>S. floridanus
+connectens</i>; <i>S. f. chiapensis</i>, <i>S. f. yucatanicus</i>; <i>S. aztecus</i>; <i>S.
+orizabae</i>, etc.) and several Jack rabbits (<i>Lepus alleni pallitans</i>; <i>L.
+callotis flavigularis</i>, <i>L. asellus</i>). It is, of course, quite
+impossible to determine to which of these species belong the few
+representations found. Several drawings, shown in <a href="#image39">Pl. 30</a>, figs. 3, 4, 7,
+8, are at once identifiable as rabbits from their long ears, round
+heads, and the presence of the prominent gnawing teeth.<a name="FNanchor_354-1_34" id="FNanchor_354-1_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_354-1_34" class="fnanchor">354-*</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span> In two
+of the figures (<a href="#image39">Pl. 30</a>, figs. 7, 8), the entire animal is shown, sitting
+erect on its haunches, the first with one ear in advance of the other, a
+trait more characteristic of the jack rabbit than of the short-eared
+rabbits. For convenience of comparison, we have placed beside these two
+figures one of a deer in much the same position. It is at once
+distinguished, however, by its long head, longer bushy tail, and by the
+marks at each end of the eye. What at first sight appear to be two
+gnawing teeth of the rabbit seem to be the incisors of the lower jaw.
+This is the animal identified by Stempell as a dog.</p>
+
+<p>The animal shown to be a rabbit in Dresden 61 (<a href="#image39">Pl. 30</a>, fig. 8) is
+pictured seated on the open jaws of a serpent in the same way as the
+peccary on the following page. These two animals, together with two
+representations of god B and the black god (Dresden 61), are each
+clearly connected with the serpents on which they are sitting.</p>
+
+<p>The Nahua day <i>Tochtli</i> signifies rabbit and naturally the animal occurs
+throughout the Mexican manuscripts as representing this day (<a href="#image39">Pl. 30</a>,
+figs. 3, 4).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Other Rodents</span>. We have included in <a href="#image38">Pl. 29</a>, figs. 5, 7, 8, three
+undetermined mammals. The second of these is characterized by the two
+prominent gnawing teeth of a rodent and by its long tail. It may
+represent a pack rat (<i>Neotoma</i>) of which many species are described
+from Mexico. In its rounded ears and long tail, fig. 5 somewhat
+resembles fig. 7, but it lacks the gnawing incisors. Still less
+satisfactory is fig. 8 from Tro-Cortesianus 24d, at whose identity it
+seems unsafe to hazard a guess. It is shown as eating the corn being
+sowed by god D.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Jaguar</span> (<i>Felis hernandezi</i>; <i>F. h. goldmani</i>). Throughout its range, the
+jaguar (Maya, <i>balam</i> or <i>t&#353;akmul</i>) is the most dreaded of the
+carnivorous mammals. It is, therefore, natural that the Mayas held it in
+great awe and used it as a symbol of strength and courage. A few
+characteristic figures are shown in <a href="#image43">Pl. 34</a>, figs. 1-3; <a href="#image44">Pl. 35</a>, figs.
+5-14. The species represented is probably <i>Felis hernandezi</i>, the
+Mexican<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span> race of jaguar, or one or the other of the more or less nominal
+varieties named from Central America. The distinguishing mark of the
+jaguar, in addition to the general form with the long tail, short ears
+and claws, is the presence of the rosette-like spots. These are
+variously conventionalized as solid black markings, as small circles, or
+as a central spot ringed by a circle of dots (<a href="#image44">Pl. 35</a>, fig. 12).
+Frequently the solid black spots are used, either in a line down the
+back and tail or scattered over the body. The tip of the tail is
+characteristically black, and the teeth are often prominent. Such a
+figure as this (<a href="#image44">Pl. 35</a>, fig. 10) Stempell considers to be a water
+opossum (<i>Chironectes</i>), for the reason that it is held by the goddess
+from whose breast water is flowing. This can hardly be, however, for not
+only are the markings unlike those of the water opossum, but the large
+canine tooth indicates a large carnivore. Moreover, the water opossum is
+a small animal, hardly as big as a rat, of shy and retiring habits, and
+so is unlikely to figure in the drawings of the Mayas.</p>
+
+<p>As for the significance of the jaguar in the life of the Mayas, it may
+be said that this animal seems to have played a most prominent part. At
+Chichen Itza, the building on top of the southern end of the eastern
+wall of the Ball Court, usually called the Temple of the Tigers, has a
+line of jaguars carved in stone as frieze around the outside of the
+building, and in the Lower Chamber of the same structure, the figure of
+a jaguar (Maudslay, III, Pl. 43) serves as an altar. The front legs and
+the head of a jaguar often are seen as the support of a seat or altar on
+which a god is represented as at Palenque in the Palace, House E
+(Maudslay, IV, Pl. 44) and in the Temple of the Beau Relief (Holmes,
+1895-1897, Pl. 20). Altar F at Copan (<a href="#image44">Pl. 35</a>, fig. 7) shows the same
+idea. The head of a puma or jaguar (<a href="#image43">Pl. 34</a>, fig. 6) appears in the
+bas-relief of the Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers, evidently
+representing a part of an altar. A realistic carving of a jaguar was
+found on a stone near the Temple of the Cones at Chichen Itza (Maudslay,
+III, Pl. 52, fig. a), and another occurs near the present hacienda of
+Chichen Itza carved in relief on a ledge of rock.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the Maya manuscripts the jaguar appears in a number of connections.
+Its mythological character is shown in Dresden 8a (<a href="#image44">Pl. 35</a>, fig. 5),
+where it is pictured as the <i>tonalamatl</i> figure. The day reached here in
+the reckoning is <i>Ix</i>, and this corresponds to the Nahua <i>Oceolotl</i>,
+which means jaguar. In Dresden 26, in the pages showing the ceremonies
+of the years, the jaguar is carried on the back of the priest, evidently
+representing one of the year bearers (<i>Ti cuch haab</i>). Balam, the name
+of the jaguar, is the title given to the four <i>Bacabs</i> or <i>Chacs</i>, the
+gods of the four cardinal points. In Tro-Cortesianus 64a, two jaguar
+heads are noted as the end of curious bands of <i>Caban</i> signs over a
+flaming pot. The second one is shown as dead. A jaguar head is employed
+in two places in the Tro-Cortesianus, 34a and 36a, as a head-dress for a
+god who is in the act of sowing corn. This animal appears very
+infrequently in the pages of the Tro-Cortesianus given over to the
+hunting scenes, 41c, 40c, 43b, and, even here, it never appears in the
+same way as the deer and peccary, as an animal for sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>The jaguar as a predacious beast is noted in Tro-Cortesianus 28b (<a href="#image44">Pl.
+35</a>, fig. 8), where it is attacking god F in a similar way as the
+vultures in the preceding picture. The jaguar appears in Tro-Cortesianus
+30b (<a href="#image44">Pl. 35</a>, fig. 10) seated on the right hand of the goddess from whose
+breasts water is flowing. The figure in Tro-Cortesianus 12b between the
+various offerings may be a jaguar or a dog, more probably from its
+connection with an offering, the dog. A curious modification of the
+jaguar may be shown in Tro-Cortesianus 20a (<a href="#image43">Pl. 34</a>, fig. 2), where a god
+is seated on the gaping jaws of some animal whose identity is uncertain.
+It may be a serpent, although the black-tipped tail from which the head
+appears to come certainly suggests the jaguar.</p>
+
+<p>There are several carved glyphs in stone that probably represent
+jaguars. Two of these (<a href="#image37">Pl. 28</a>, fig. 4; <a href="#image44">Pl. 35</a>, fig. 9) have the
+characteristic round spots, but others are unmarked, and suggest the
+jaguar by their general character only (<a href="#image44">Pl. 35</a>, fig. 6). This latter
+may, of course, represent the puma quite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span> as well. A realistic jaguar
+head appears as a glyph in Tro-Cortesianus 2a (<a href="#image44">Pl. 35</a>, fig. 13). The
+more usual glyph for the jaguar is more highly conventionalized,
+although the spots and the short rounded ear are still characteristic
+(<a href="#image44">Pl. 35</a>, fig. 11). A slight modification of this glyph appears in
+Dresden 8a in connection with the full drawing of the animal below.</p>
+
+<p>The Nahua day <i>Oceolotl</i>, as already noted, means jaguar, and the jaguar
+glyph is found among the day signs (<a href="#image43">Pl. 34</a>, fig. 3). Seler (1904, p.
+379) associates the jaguar in the Vaticanus and the Bologna with
+<i>Tezcatlipoca</i>. He notes that the second age of the world, in which the
+giants lived and in which <i>Tezcatlipoca</i> shone as the sun, is called the
+&#8220;jaguar sun.&#8221; <i>Tezcatlipoca</i> is supposed to have changed himself into a
+jaguar.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Puma</span> (<i>Felis bangsi costaricensis</i>). As shown by Stempell, there can be
+little doubt that some one of the mainly nominal species of Central
+American puma is represented in Dresden 47 (<a href="#image43">Pl. 34</a>, fig. 7). This animal
+is colored reddish in the original, as is the puma, is without spots,
+although the tip of the tail, as in the pictures of the jaguar, is
+black. The animal is represented as being transfixed with a
+spear.<a name="FNanchor_358-1_35" id="FNanchor_358-1_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_358-1_35" class="fnanchor">358-*</a> Another animal colored red in Dresden 41c seems to
+represent a puma. God B is shown seated upon him. A crude figure from
+the Painted Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers (<a href="#image43">Pl. 34</a>, fig. 5) is
+probably the same species of puma. The cleverly executed head, shown in
+profile in <a href="#image43">Pl. 34</a>, fig. 6, is also perhaps the same animal, although it
+may possibly represent the jaguar. One or the other of these two cats is
+also intended, in <a href="#image43">Pl. 34</a>, fig. 4, a drawing of a piece of pottery.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Coyote</span> (<i>Canis</i>). Two figures from the Nuttall Codex have been included
+as possibly representing coyotes (<a href="#image44">Pl. 35</a>, figs. 1, 2). They are chiefly
+characterized by their prominent ears and bristling hair, and seem to be
+engaged in active combat. Coyotes of several species occur in Mexico and
+though<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span> not generally regarded as aggressive animals are of a predacious
+nature. No drawings of the coyote have been noted in the Maya codices.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dog</span> (<i>Canis</i>). The dog (Maya, <i>peq</i>) evidently played an important part
+in the life of the Mayas as it does with other races of men generally.
+On Pls. 36, 37, we have included certain figures of dogs from several
+manuscripts. These may represent two breeds, for it is well known that
+both a hairy and a hairless variety were found by the early discoverers
+in Mexico.<a name="FNanchor_359-1_36" id="FNanchor_359-1_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_359-1_36" class="fnanchor">359-*</a> Hairiness is more or less clearly indicated in the
+following figures:&mdash;<a href="#image45">Pl. 36</a>, figs. 1-7, 12; <a href="#image46">Pl. 37</a>, figs. 4, 5. The
+figures of dogs usually agree in having a black mark about the eyes that
+frequently is produced as a downward curved tongue from the posterior
+canthus. Sometimes, as in <a href="#image46">Pl. 37</a>, figs. 1-3, 10, this tongue is not
+blackened. Commonly also black patches are elsewhere distributed on the
+body, generally on the back. These markings are probably the patches of
+color separated by white areas that occur frequently in dogs or other
+animals after long domestication.<a name="FNanchor_359-2_37" id="FNanchor_359-2_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_359-2_37" class="fnanchor">359-&#8224;</a> We have included among the
+figures of dogs two in which the eye is differently represented and
+which are unspotted (<a href="#image46">Pl. 37</a>, figs. 4, 6). These modifications may have
+some special significance, but otherwise the animals appear most closely
+to represent dogs.</p>
+
+<p>We have already suggested that the animal attired in man&#8217;s clothing, and
+walking erect in Dresden 25a-28a is likewise a dog, though Stempell
+believes it to represent the opossum in support of which he calls
+attention to its prominent vibrissae and slightly curled tail.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The dog played a large part in the religion both of the Mayas and the
+Mexican peoples. It was connected especially with the idea of death and
+destruction. The Lacandones of the present time make a small figure of a
+dog to place on the grave (Tozzer, 1907, p. 47). This is but one of the
+many survivals of the ancient pre-Columbian religion found among this
+people. The dog was regarded as the messenger to prepare the way to the
+other world. Seler (1900-1901, pp. 82-83) gives an interesting parallel
+of the Nahua idea of the dog and his connection with death. He
+paraphrases Sahagun as follows: &#8220;The native Mexican dogs barked, wagged
+their tails, in a word, behaved in all respects like our own dogs, were
+kept by the Mexicans not only as house companions, but above all, for
+the shambles, and also in Yucatan and on the coast land for sacrifice.
+The importance that the dog had acquired in the funeral rites may
+perhaps have originated in the fact that, as the departed of both sexes
+were accompanied by their effects, the prince by the women and slaves in
+his service, so the dog was assigned to the grave as his master&#8217;s
+associate, friend, and guard, and that the persistence of this custom in
+course of time created the belief that the dog stood in some special
+relation to the kingdom of the dead. It may also be that, simply because
+it was the practice to burn the dead, the dog was looked on as the Fire
+God&#8217;s animal and the emblem of fire, the natives got accustomed to speak
+of him as the messenger to prepare the way in the kingdom of the dead,
+and thus eventually to regard him as such. At the time when the
+Spaniards made their acquaintance, it was the constant practice of the
+Mexicans to commit to the grave with the dead a dog who had to be of a
+red-yellow color, and had a string of unspun cotton round his neck, and
+was first killed by the thrust of a dart in his throat. The Mexicans
+believed that four years after death, when the soul had already passed
+through many dangers on its way to the underworld, it came at last to
+the bank of a great river, the Chicunauhapan, which encircled the
+underworld proper. The souls could get across this river only when they
+were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span> awaited by their little dog, who, recognizing his master on the
+opposite side, rushed into the water to bring him over.&#8221; (Sahagun, 3
+Appendix, Chap. 1.)</p>
+
+<p>As might be expected from the foregoing, there are abundant evidences in
+the manuscripts of the presence of the dog in the various religious
+rites and especially those which have to do with the other world, the
+Kingdom of the Dead. In Tro-Cortesianus 35b, 36b, 37a, 37b, the pages
+showing the rites of the four years, the dog appears in various
+attitudes. In 35b and 36b, it bears on his back the <i>Imix</i> and <i>Kan</i>
+signs, in 37a (<a href="#image46">Pl. 37</a>, fig. 8) it is shown as beating a drum and
+singing, in 37b (<a href="#image45">Pl. 36</a>, fig. 2) it is beside a bowl containing <i>Kan</i>
+signs. In all of these places, the dogs seem to be represented among the
+various birds and animals which are to be sacrificed for the new years.
+Landa (1864, p. 216)<a name="FNanchor_361-1_38" id="FNanchor_361-1_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_361-1_38" class="fnanchor">361-*</a> states that in the <i>Kan</i> year a dog was
+sacrificed. In the <i>Muluc</i> year, Landa (1864, p. 222)<a name="FNanchor_361-2_39" id="FNanchor_361-2_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_361-2_39" class="fnanchor">361-&#8224;</a> records
+that they offered dogs made of clay with bread upon their backs and a
+<i>perrito</i> which had black shoulders and was a virgin. It has already
+been noted that two of the dogs represented in Tro-Cortesianus 35b and
+36b have a <i>Kan</i> and <i>Imix</i> sign fastened to the back. Moreover, we have
+also pointed out that the <i>Kan</i> sign frequently seems to have the
+meaning of maize or bread. It will be noted that in Tro-Cortesianus 36b
+two human feet are shown on each of which is a dog-like
+animal.<a name="FNanchor_361-3_40" id="FNanchor_361-3_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_361-3_40" class="fnanchor">361-&#8225;</a> These may indicate the dance in which dogs were
+carried as noted by Landa. Cogolludo (1688, p. 184)<a name="FNanchor_361-4_41" id="FNanchor_361-4_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_361-4_41" class="fnanchor">361-&sect;</a> also mentions
+a similar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span> dance. Still another reference in Landa (1864, p. 260)<a name="FNanchor_362-1_42" id="FNanchor_362-1_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_362-1_42" class="fnanchor">362-*</a>
+mentions that in the months <i>Muan</i> and <i>Pax</i> dogs were sacrificed to the
+deities.</p>
+
+<p>Reference has already been made to the identification of the four
+priests at the top of Dresden 25-28 as having the heads of dogs rather
+than of opossums. It may be suggested that in the r&ocirc;le of the conductor
+to the other world the dog is represented as carrying on his back in
+each case the year which has just been completed and therefore is dead.
+This, of course, would necessitate the identification of god B, the
+jaguar, god E, and god A as representing in turn the four years.</p>
+
+<p>The dog, according to Sahagun&#8217;s account (p. 360) was looked upon as the
+&#8220;Fire God&#8217;s animal,&#8221; and as an emblem of fire. This idea is seen
+frequently in the Maya manuscripts where the dog with firebrands in his
+paws or attached to his tail is coming head downward from a line of
+constellation signs, as in Dresden 36a (<a href="#image46">Pl. 37</a>, fig. 3), 40b (<a href="#image46">Pl. 37</a>,
+fig. 1) or is standing beneath similar signs as in Dresden 39a (<a href="#image46">Pl. 37</a>,
+fig. 2) and probably in Tro-Cortesianus 13a. His tail alone has the
+firebrand in Tro-Cortesianus 36b. Firebrands are carried by figures
+which have been identified by us as dogs in Tro-Cortesianus 24c (<a href="#image46">Pl. 37</a>,
+fig. 6), 25c, and 90a. Here the animal is represented as in the air
+holding his firebrands over a blazing altar beside which god F is
+seated. In two out of the four cases, F is shown as dead. The dog in
+these latter examples has his eye composed of the <i>Akbal</i> sign. This
+same glyph can also be made out with difficulty on the forehead of the
+dog shown in Dresden 36a (<a href="#image46">Pl. 37</a>, fig. 3). As has been noted, <i>Akbal</i>
+means night and possibly death as well. It is certain that destruction
+is indicated in the preceding examples as well as in Tro-Cortesianus 87a
+and 88a (<a href="#image46">Pl. 37</a>, fig. 4) where the dog is holding four human figures by
+the hair.</p>
+
+<p>Beyer (1908, pp. 419-422) has identified the dog as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span> Pleiades and
+various other suggestions have been made that the dog represents some
+constellation. The more common form of spotted dog is shown as a single
+<i>tonalamatl</i> figure in Tro-Cortesianus 25d and 27d (<a href="#image45">Pl. 36</a>, fig. 14) and
+an unspotted variety in Dresden 7a (<a href="#image46">Pl. 37</a>, fig. 10). The dog is
+frequently shown as copulating with another animal or with a female
+figure. In Dresden 13c (<a href="#image46">Pl. 37</a>, fig. 7) the second figure is a vulture,
+in Dresden 21b (<a href="#image46">Pl. 37</a>, fig. 5) it is a woman and also in
+Tro-Cortesianus 91c (<a href="#image45">Pl. 36</a>, fig. 12).</p>
+
+<p>The same animal appears also in a number of scenes not included in the
+preceding. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c (<a href="#image45">Pl. 36</a>, fig. 1) a dog is seated on a
+crab and seems to be connected with the idea of the north as this sign
+is noted above the figure; in Tro-Cortesianus 66b (<a href="#image45">Pl. 36</a>, fig. 3) a dog
+and another animal (<a href="#image41">Pl. 32</a>, fig. 3) are seated back to back under a
+shelter; in Tro-Cortesianus 30b a dog is seated on the right foot of the
+woman from whose breasts water is streaming; in Dresden 29a (<a href="#image46">Pl. 37</a>,
+fig. 12) god B is shown seated on a dog; and, finally, in Dresden 30a
+(<a href="#image46">Pl. 37</a>, fig. 9) god B holds the bound dog by the tail over an altar.</p>
+
+<p>The dog appears from numerous references to be used in connection with a
+prayer for rain. Comargo (1843) in his history of Tlaxcallan states that
+when rain failed, a procession was held in which a number of hairless
+dogs were carried on decorated litters to a place devoted to their use.
+There they were sacrificed to the god of water and the bodies were
+eaten.</p>
+
+<p>The glyphs associated with the dog are interesting as we have, as in the
+case with the deer, one showing a realistic drawing of a dog&#8217;s head in
+Tro-Cortesianus 91d (<a href="#image46">Pl. 37</a>, fig. 13) and several others far more
+difficult of interpretation. <a href="#image46">Pl. 37</a>, fig. 11, seems to stand for the dog
+as it is found in several places where the dog appears below, Dresden
+21b, 40b. It is thought by some to represent the ribs of a dog which
+appear in somewhat similar fashion in <a href="#image46">Pl. 37</a>, fig. 8. Some of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span>
+glyphs in the codices for the month <i>Kankin</i> show the same element (text
+<a href="#image05">figs. 8-10</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="image05" id="image05"></a><a href="images/image05-full.png"><img src="images/image05.png" width="164" height="48" alt="Figs. 8, 9, 10.
+GLYPHS FOR MAYA MONTH KANKIN (RIBS OF DOG)." title="Figs. 8, 9, 10.
+GLYPHS FOR MAYA MONTH KANKIN (RIBS OF DOG)." /></a><br />
+<span class="caption smcap">Figs. 8, 9, 10.</span><br />
+<span class="caption">GLYPHS FOR MAYA MONTH KANKIN (RIBS OF DOG).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Nahua day sign <i>Itzcuintli</i> signifies dog and corresponds to the
+Maya Oc (<a href="#image45">Pl. 36</a>, figs. 9-11). This in turn is considered by many to
+stand for the dog as the animal of death and signifies the end. The
+sore, cropped ears of the domesticated dog are supposed to be
+represented in this sign, Oc. Nahua and other day signs for <i>Itzcuintli</i>
+(dog) are shown in <a href="#image45">Pl. 36</a>, figs. 4, 6, 13.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bear</span> (<i>Ursus machetes</i>; <i>U. horriaeus</i>). In northern Mexico, in
+Chihuahua and Sonora, occur a black bear (<i>Ursus machetes</i>) and the
+Sonoran grizzly (<i>U. horriaeus</i>). It is unlikely that the Mayas had much
+acquaintance with these animals since they range more to the northward
+than the area of Maya occupation. Stempell has identified as a bear, a
+figure in Dresden 37a (<a href="#image44">Pl. 35</a>, fig. 3). This represents a creature with
+the body of a man walking erect but with the head apparently of some
+carnivorous mammal, as shown by the prominent canine tooth. This appears
+as a <i>tonalamatl</i> figure. The resemblance to a bear is not very clear.
+Less doubt attaches to the figure shown in <a href="#image44">Pl. 35</a>, fig. 4, which seems
+almost certainly to depict a bear. The stout body, absence of a tail,
+the plantigrade hind feet, and stout claws, all seem to proclaim it a
+bear of one of the two species above mentioned. This picture is found in
+connection with one of the warriors shown in the bas-relief of the Lower
+Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza. It seems clearly to
+designate the figure in much the same way as figures are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span> named in the
+Mexican writings, <i>i.e.</i>, by having a glyph showing this nearby.
+Attention has already been called to the fact that here at Chichen Itza,
+and, especially on this bas-relief, there is much which shows a strong
+influence from the north. The two figures in Tro-Cortesianus 43a are
+probably bears. F&ouml;rstemann (1902, p. 68) considers that they are men
+masked as <i>Chacs</i> or <i>Bacabs</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Leaf-nosed Bat</span> (<i>Vampyrus spectrum</i>; <i>Artibeus jamaicensis</i>; or
+<i>Phyllostomus hastatus panamensis</i>). Several remarkably diabolical
+representations of bats (Maya, <i>so&#596;</i>, usually written <i>zotz</i>) occur
+among the Maya remains. These all show the prominent nose leaf
+distinguishing the family <i>Phyllostomatidae</i> and, as the Mayas probably
+used the largest and most conspicuous of the native species for artistic
+representation, it is likely that some one of the three species above
+mentioned is the one here shown.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="image06" id="image06"></a><a href="images/image06-full.png"><img src="images/image06.png" width="215" height="49" alt="Figs. 11, 12, 13, 14.
+
+GLYPHS FOR MAYA MONTH ZOTZ (BATS)." title="Figs. 11, 12, 13, 14.
+
+GLYPHS FOR MAYA MONTH ZOTZ (BATS)." /></a><br />
+<span class="caption smcap">Figs. 11, 12, 13, 14.</span><br />
+<span class="caption">GLYPHS FOR MAYA MONTH ZOTZ (BATS).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The bat had a place in the Maya pantheon. One of the months of the Maya
+year (<i>Zotz</i>) was named after this animal and the glyph for this month
+shows the characteristic nasal appendage. This is to be seen more
+clearly in the glyphs selected from the stone inscriptions (<a href="#image47">Pl. 38</a>,
+figs. 1, 2, 4-6) than in those from the codices (text <a href="#image06">figs. 11-14</a>)
+although the nose leaf is still visible in the latter. The day sign
+<i>Akbal</i> (night) occurs as the eye in the figures from the manuscripts. A
+carving showing the whole body of the bat is used as a glyph in Stela D
+from Copan (<a href="#image47">Pl. 38</a>, fig. 3). This may also represent the Bat god who is
+associated with the underworld, &#8220;the god of the caverns.&#8221; This god is
+pictured on the &#8220;Vase of Chama&#8221; (<a href="#image47">Pl. 38</a>, fig. 7) figured by Dieseldorff
+(1904, pp.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span> 665-666) and by Gordon (1898, Pl. III). Seler (1904a) has
+discussed the presence of this god among the Mayas, the Zapotecs, and
+the Nahuas. The bat does not seem to occur in the Maya manuscripts as a
+god, although there are glyphs which seem to refer to this god (Dresden
+17b), as pointed out by Seler, when there is no other representation of
+this deity.</p>
+
+<p>No doubt in the times of the Maya civilization, these bats haunted the
+temples by day as they do now, and thus became readily endowed with a
+religious significance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="image07" id="image07"></a><a href="images/image07-full.png"><img src="images/image07.png" width="263" height="111" alt="Fig. 15.
+POTTERY WHISTLE, APE. FROM ULOA VALLEY, HONDURAS." title="Fig. 15.
+POTTERY WHISTLE, APE. FROM ULOA VALLEY," /></a><br />
+<span class="caption smcap">Fig. 15.</span><br />
+<span class="caption">POTTERY WHISTLE, APE. FROM ULOA VALLEY, HONDURAS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Capuchin Monkey</span> (<i>Cebus capucinus,&mdash;C. hypoleucus</i> <a name="corr10" id="corr10"></a><ins class="correction" title="Auct.).">Auct.)</ins> With the
+possible exception of one or two figures, monkeys (Maya, <i>maa&#353;</i> or
+<i>baa&#596;</i>) are not represented in the Maya codices examined. In
+Tro-Cortesianus 88c (<a href="#image48">Pl. 39</a>, fig. 4) occurs a curious nondescript animal
+with what seem to be hoofs on the forefeet, a somewhat bushy tail of
+moderate length, and a head that appears to be distinctly bonneted,
+somewhat as in the representations of the capuchin. Stempell regards
+this as a monkey, though recognizing that the short bushy tail is unlike
+that of any Central American species. The figure seems quite as likely a
+peccary or possibly a combination of a deer with some other animal. A
+glyph (<a href="#image48">Pl. 39</a>, fig. 5) found directly above the figure just referred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span>
+to, suggests a monkey, though it cannot be surely identified. A pottery
+whistle from the Uloa Valley (text <a href="#image07">fig. 15</a>) shows two monkeys standing
+side by side with a posterior extension for the mouth piece. Their heads
+are shaped as in other representations of this monkey with a distinct
+cap or bonnet and facial discs. A pottery stamp from the same locality
+shows a monkey with a long tail (Gordon, 1898, Pl. 11, fig. f). It
+recalls the drawings of monkeys given by Strebel (1899, Pls. 1-4).</p>
+
+<p>In the Nuttall Codex are numerous heads and a few other figures of a
+monkey, which from the erect hair of the crown, curling tail, and
+distinctly indicated facial area must be the common bonneted or capuchin
+monkey of Central America. This species does not occur in Yucatan. What
+is undoubtedly the same animal is shown as a head glyph in <a href="#image48">Pl. 39</a>, fig.
+8, from the Aubin manuscript. The identifications of the head-forming
+glyphs in the Nuttall and the Aubin manuscripts are certainly correct as
+the Nahua day sign (<i>O&ccedil;omatli</i>) means ape.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="image08" id="image08"></a><a href="images/image08-full.png"><img src="images/image08.png" width="210" height="47" alt="Figs. 16, 17, 18, 19.
+
+GLYPHS FOR MAYA DAY CHUEN." title="Figs. 16, 17, 18, 19.
+
+GLYPHS FOR MAYA DAY CHUEN." /></a><br />
+<span class="caption smcap">Figs. 16, 17, 18, 19.</span><br />
+<span class="caption">GLYPHS FOR MAYA DAY CHUEN.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Text <a href="#image08">figs. 16-19</a>, show some of the signs for the day <i>Chuen</i> from the
+Maya codices. This is the day corresponding to the day O&ccedil;omatli of the
+Nahuas. There is little resembling an ape in the Maya signs although it
+has been remarked that the sign may show the open jaws and teeth of this
+animal.</p>
+
+<p>F&ouml;rstemann (1897) as noted by Schellhas (1904, p. 21) alludes to the
+fact that the figure of god C, which occurs also in the sign for the
+north, in the <i>tonalamatl</i> in Dresden 4a-10a occurs in the day <i>Chuen</i>
+of the Maya calendar, and this corre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span>sponds to the day <i>O&ccedil;omatli</i>, the
+ape, in the Nahua calendar. This would suggest a connection between god
+C and the ape and this may be seen in the glyphs for god C (text <a href="#image09">figs.
+20-24</a>). F&ouml;rstemann sees &#8220;an ape whose lateral nasal cavity (peculiar to
+the American ape or monkey) is occasionally represented plainly in the
+hieroglyph picture.&#8221; He also associates god C with the constellation of
+Ursa Minor.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="image09" id="image09"></a><a href="images/image09-full.png"><img src="images/image09.png" width="160" height="31" alt="Figs. 20, 21, 22, 23, 24.
+GLYPHS OF GOD C." title="Figs. 20, 21, 22, 23, 24.
+GLYPHS OF GOD C." /></a><br />
+<span class="caption smcap">Figs. 20, 21, 22, 23, 24.</span><br />
+<span class="caption">GLYPHS OF GOD C.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It will be seen from the detailed examination of the fauna shown in the
+codices that after all a comparatively small part of the animal life of
+the country occupied by the Maya speaking peoples is represented. The
+drawings in some cases are fairly accurate, so that there is little
+difficulty in determining the species intended by the artist. At other
+times, it is hazardous to state the exact species to which the animal
+belongs. It is only in a comparatively small number of cases, however,
+that there is any great doubt attached to the identification. It will be
+noted that the drawings of the Dresden manuscript are much more
+carefully and accurately done than those of the Tro-Cortesianus. A
+greater delicacy and a more minute regard for detail characterize the
+Dresden drawings in general.</p>
+
+<p>In the animals selected for reproduction by the Mayas, only those were
+taken which were used either in a purely religious significance for
+their mythological character (and here naturally there is to be noted an
+anthropomorphic tendency) or animals were chosen which were employed as
+offerings to the many different gods of the Maya pantheon. The religious
+character of the whole portrayal of animal life in the codices is
+clearly manifest, and it is this side of the subject which will come out
+more clearly as the manuscripts are better known.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_300-1_6" id="Footnote_300-1_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300-1_6"><span class="label">300-*</span></a> Quoted in Thomas, 1882, pp. 115, 116.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_300-2_7" id="Footnote_300-2_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300-2_7"><span class="label">300-&#8224;</span></a> &#8220;En el mes de <i>Tzoz</i> se aparejavan los se&ntilde;ores de las
+colmenares para celebrar su fiesta en <i>Tzec</i>.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_301-1_8" id="Footnote_301-1_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301-1_8"><span class="label">301-*</span></a> &#8220;En este mes (<i>Mol</i>) tornavan los colmenares a hazer
+otra fiesta como la que hizieron en <i>Tzec</i>, para que los dioses
+proveessen de flores a las avejas.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_303-1_9" id="Footnote_303-1_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_303-1_9"><span class="label">303-*</span></a> Strebel (1899, Pl. 11) gives several realistic
+reproductions of the centipede from pottery fragments.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_309-1_10" id="Footnote_309-1_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_309-1_10"><span class="label">309-*</span></a> Attention is also called to two whistles representing
+frogs in the <i>Memoirs of the Peabody Museum</i>, I, <i>No.</i> 4 (Gordon, 1898),
+Pl. 9, figs, i, j.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_311-1_11" id="Footnote_311-1_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311-1_11"><span class="label">311-*</span></a> We have added here a Spanish description from the
+<i>Relacion de la Ciudad de M&eacute;rida</i> (1900, pp. 66, 67) of the varieties of
+serpent found in the country. &#8220;Ay una suerte de culebra que llaman los
+naturales taxinchan, de una tercia de largo, que para andar hinca la
+cabeza en el suelo y da un salto, y de aquella suerte dando saltos anda,
+la espalda y la cabeza tiene dorada y la punta dela cola este se cria en
+los montes, y quando pica a alguna persona le haze reventar sangre por
+todos los poros del cuerpo que pareze que suda sangre y si no es le haze
+algun rremedio muere dentro de un dia natural y para la mordedura desta
+culebra tienen por rremedio los naturales dar a bever ala tal persona
+chile y hoja de piciete molido junto y desleido en agua, y con esto
+guarecen e sanan&mdash;ay biboras muy grandes y ponzo&ntilde;osas de una vara e mas
+de largo, y tan gruesa como un brazo, que tienen cascabeles en la punta
+de la cola, y si muerden matan sino se rremedio con brebedad, y tienen
+los naturales por rremedio beber chile e piciete como para la mordedura
+del taxinchan&mdash;ay otras suertes de culebras que se llaman cocob, de tres
+y cuatro varas de largo y tan gruesas como una lanza gineta, que tanbien
+son muy ponzo&ntilde;osas, y al que pican haze salir sangre por todo el cuerpo
+y por los ojos, como el taxinchan, ... procuraban guarecerse desta
+ponzo&ntilde;a con juros y encantamentos, que avia grandes en cantadores y
+tenian sus libros para conjurarlas y encantarlas, y estos encantadores,
+con pocas palabras que dezian, encantaban y amansaban las culebras
+ponzo&ntilde;osas, las cojian y tomaban con las manos sin que les hiziese mal
+ninguno&mdash;tanbien ay culebras bobas sin ponzo&ntilde;as, de dos varas y mas de
+largo y tan gruesas como el brazo, y suelen ponerse sobre arboles juntos
+alos caminos, y quando pasa alguna persona se deja caer encima y se le
+enros&ccedil;a y rebuelve al cuerpo y a la garganta, y apretando le procura
+ahogarle y matarle, a sucedido matar algunos yndios ca&ccedil;adores yendo
+descuidados&mdash;tanbien tienen estas culebras distinto natural para comer y
+sustentarse.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_313-1_12" id="Footnote_313-1_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313-1_12"><span class="label">313-*</span></a> <a href="#image18">Pl. 9</a>, figs. 5, 9, show drawings of the rattlesnake
+which occur on the fresco.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_316-1_13" id="Footnote_316-1_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316-1_13"><span class="label">316-*</span></a> The reader is also referred to the bas-relief of the
+Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza where a
+serpent is shown behind a low altar.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_317-1_14" id="Footnote_317-1_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317-1_14"><span class="label">317-*</span></a> F&ouml;rstemann (1906, p. 15) agrees with Schellhas that
+this may be a rebus for the name <i>Quetzalcoatl</i> or <i>Kukulcan</i>. As the
+bird is a vulture rather than a quetzal this could hardly be the case.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_317-2_15" id="Footnote_317-2_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317-2_15"><span class="label">317-&#8224;</span></a> &#8220;Y con isopo en el mano de un palo corto muy labrado,
+y por barbas o pelos del isopo ciertas colas de unas culebras que son
+como caxcavales.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_318-1_16" id="Footnote_318-1_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318-1_16"><span class="label">318-*</span></a> Brinton (1893, p. 25) notes that the equivalent of
+<i>Kan</i> in the Nahuatl of Miztitlan is <i>xilotl</i> which means ear of corn.
+This seems to show the correctness of the usual identification of the
+<i>Kan</i> sign as meaning maize or bread (<i>pan</i>).</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_318-2_17" id="Footnote_318-2_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318-2_17"><span class="label">318-&#8224;</span></a> &#8220;Y les ofrec&iacute;an dos pellas de una leche o resina de
+un arbol que llaman <i>kik</i>, para quemar y ciertas iguanas y pan y una
+mitra y un manojo de flores y una piedra preciosa de las suyas.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_319-1_18" id="Footnote_319-1_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_319-1_18"><span class="label">319-*</span></a> &#8220;Y pintaban un largarto que significaba el Diluvio&mdash;y
+la tierra e sobre este largarto hazian un gran monton de le&ntilde;a y ponianle
+fuego.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_323-1_19" id="Footnote_323-1_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323-1_19"><span class="label">323-*</span></a> See in this connection Seler, 1904.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_327-1_20" id="Footnote_327-1_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327-1_20"><span class="label">327-*</span></a> &#8220;Y ofrecerle cabe&ccedil;as de pavos y pan y bevidas de
+maiz.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_327-2_21" id="Footnote_327-2_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327-2_21"><span class="label">327-&#8224;</span></a> (Kan year) &#8220;Sahumavan la imagen, degollavan una
+gallina y se la presentavan o offrecian ... y assi le hazian muchas
+offrendas de comidas y bevidas de carne y pescado, y estas offrendas
+repartian a los estrangeros que alli se hallavan.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">(Muluc year) &#8220;Y despues degollavanle la gallina como al passado.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">(Ix year) &#8220;Y degollavan la gallina ... a la estatua de <i>Kac-u-Uayeyab</i>
+ofrescian una cabe&ccedil;a de un pavo, y empanados de codornices y otras <a name="corr11" id="corr11"></a><ins class="correction" title="cosas">coasa</ins>
+y su bevida.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">(Cauac year) &#8220;Coma solian y degollavanle la gallina ... un hombre muerto
+y en cima un paxaro cenicero llamad <i>kuch</i>, en se&ntilde;al de mortandad
+grande, ca por muy mal a&ntilde;o tenian este.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_330-1_22" id="Footnote_330-1_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_330-1_22"><span class="label">330-*</span></a> F&ouml;rstemann identifies this bird as a black eagle.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_333-1_23" id="Footnote_333-1_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_333-1_23"><span class="label">333-*</span></a> &#8220;Este a&ntilde;o en que la letra era <i>Cauac</i> y reynava el
+<i>Bacab-Hozanek</i> tenian, allende de la pronosticada mortandad, por ruyn,
+por que dezian les avian los muchos soles de matar los maizales, y comer
+las muchas hormigas lo que sembrassen y los paxaros, y porque esto no
+seria en todas partes avria en algunos comida, la qual avrian con gran
+trabajo.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_338-1_24" id="Footnote_338-1_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_338-1_24"><span class="label">338-*</span></a> Brinton (1895, p. 74), according to our interpretation,
+makes a mistake when he considers the crested falcon as the Moan, &#8220;in
+Maya <i>muan</i> or <i>muyan</i>.&#8221; He adds, &#8220;Some writers have thought the moan
+bird was a mythical animal but Dr. C. H. Berendt found the name still
+applied to the falcon. In the form <i>muyan</i>, it is akin in sound to
+<i>muyal</i>, cloud, <i>muan</i>, cloudy, which may account for its adoption as a
+symbol of the rains, etc.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_341-1_25" id="Footnote_341-1_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341-1_25"><span class="label">341-*</span></a> &#8220;Crian paxaros para su recreacion y para las plumas
+para hazer sus ropas galanas.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_349-1_26" id="Footnote_349-1_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_349-1_26"><span class="label">349-*</span></a> <i>Relacion hecha por el Licenciado Palacio al Rey. D.
+Felipe II</i> (1866, p. 31). &#8220;Lo que hacian en los sacrificios de la pesca
+y caza, era que tomaban un venado vivo y llev&aacute;banlo al patio del cu &eacute;
+iglesia que tenian fuera del pueblo y all&iacute; lo ahogaban y lo desollaban y
+le salaban toda la sangre en una olla, y el h&iacute;gado y bofes y buches los
+hacian pedazos muy peque&ntilde;os y apartaban el corazon, cabeza y pies, y
+mandaban cocer el venado por si, la sangre <a name="corr12" id="corr12"></a><ins class="correction" title="por">for</ins> s&iacute;, y mientras esto se
+cocia, hacian su baile. Tomaban el Papa y s&aacute;bio la cabeza del venado por
+las orejas, y los cuatro sacerdotes los cuatro pies, y el mayordomo
+llevaba un brasero, do se quemaba el corazon con ul&iacute; y copa, &eacute;
+incensaban al &iacute;dolo que tenian puesto y se&ntilde;alado para la caza y pesca.
+Acabado el mitote, ofrecian la cabeza y pi&eacute;s al &iacute;dolo y chamusc&aacute;banla, y
+despues de chamuscada, la llevaban &aacute; casa del Papa y se la comia y el
+venado y su sangre comian los dem&aacute;s sacerdotes delante del &iacute;dolo; &aacute; los
+pescados les sacaban las tripas y los quemaban ante el dicho &iacute;dolo. Lo
+propio era con los dem&aacute;s animales.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><i>Relacion de Cotuta y Tibolon</i> (1898, p. 105). &#8220;Un dios que dezian que
+eran benados en matando un yndio un benado benia luego a su dios y con
+el cora&ccedil;on le untaba la cara de sangre y sino mataba algo aquel dia
+ybase a su casa aquel yndio le quebraba y dabale de cozes diziendo que
+no era buen dios.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Cogolludo (1688, Book I, Chap. VII, p. 43) &#8220;Correan tan poco los
+venados, y tan sin espantarse de la gente, que los soldados de &aacute; cavallo
+del exercito los alcancavan, y alan&ccedil;eavan, muy &aacute; su placer, y de esta
+suerte mataron muchos de ellos, con que comieron algunos dias despues
+... Que en que consistia aquella novedad, de aver tanta maquina de
+venados, y estar tan mansos? Les dieron por respuesta; Que en aquellos
+Pueblos los tenian por sus Dioses &aacute; los venador; porque su Idolo Mayor
+se les avia aparecido en aquella figura.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_350-1_27" id="Footnote_350-1_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_350-1_27"><span class="label">350-*</span></a> &#8220;Y con su devocion invocavan los ca&ccedil;adores a los dioses
+de la ca&ccedil;a, ... sacava cada uno una flecha y una calabera de venado, las
+quales los <i>chaces</i> untavan con el betun azul; y untados, vailavan con
+ellas en las manos unos.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_350-2_28" id="Footnote_350-2_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_350-2_28"><span class="label">350-&#8224;</span></a> In the <i>Muluc</i> years, he states &#8220;davan al sacredote
+una pierna de venado&#8221; and also in the same month, &#8220;Ofrecian a la imagen
+pan hecho como yemas de uevos y otros como cora&ccedil;ones de venados, y otro
+hecho con su pimienta desleida.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_351-1_29" id="Footnote_351-1_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_351-1_29"><span class="label">351-*</span></a> F&ouml;rstemann (1902, p. 20) identifies this animal as a
+rabbit!</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_351-2_30" id="Footnote_351-2_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_351-2_30"><span class="label">351-&#8224;</span></a> F&ouml;rstemann identifies this animal as a dog.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_352-1_31" id="Footnote_352-1_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_352-1_31"><span class="label">352-*</span></a> This animal has been identified by Stempell as an
+agouti notwithstanding the hoofs and tusks.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_352-2_32" id="Footnote_352-2_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_352-2_32"><span class="label">352-&#8224;</span></a> F&ouml;rstemann (1906, p. 228) suggests that this animal
+is a bear.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_353-1_33" id="Footnote_353-1_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_353-1_33"><span class="label">353-*</span></a> Attention is called to the curious half-human,
+half-animal figure in Tro-Cortesianus 2a which may suggest the figures
+in Dresden 44a, 45a and which are here identified as peccaries. Both are
+descending from the band of constellation signs and the heads of each
+are not greatly dissimilar.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_354-1_34" id="Footnote_354-1_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_354-1_34"><span class="label">354-*</span></a> F&ouml;rstemann (1906, p. 229) suggests that fig. 8 is a
+walrus!</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_358-1_35" id="Footnote_358-1_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_358-1_35"><span class="label">358-*</span></a> Seler (1904) gives an interesting explanation of the
+reason why the puma and the other corresponding figures are shown hit
+with a spear.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_359-1_36" id="Footnote_359-1_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_359-1_36"><span class="label">359-*</span></a> <i>Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida</i> (1898, p. 63): &#8220;Ay
+perros naturales dela tierra que no tienen pelo ninguno, y no ladran,
+que tienen los dientes ralos e agudos, las orejas peque&ntilde;as, tiesas y
+levantadas&mdash;a estos engordan los yndios para comer y los tienen por gran
+rregalo&mdash;estos se juntan con los perros de espa&ntilde;a y enjendran y los
+mestizos que dellos proceden ladran y tienen pelo y tambien los comen
+los yndios cano alos demas, y tambien los yndios tienen otra suerte de
+perros que tienen pelo pero tan poco ladran y son del mesmo tama&ntilde;o que
+los demas.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_359-2_37" id="Footnote_359-2_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_359-2_37"><span class="label">359-&#8224;</span></a> Brinton (1895, p. 72) regards these spots as
+representing stars.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_361-1_38" id="Footnote_361-1_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361-1_38"><span class="label">361-*</span></a> &#8220;Y que le sacrificassen un perro o un hombre ... porque
+hazian en el patio del templo un gran monton de piedras y ponian al
+hombre o perro que avian de sacrificiar en alguna cosa mas alta que
+el.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_361-2_39" id="Footnote_361-2_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361-2_39"><span class="label">361-&#8224;</span></a> &#8220;Avian de ofrescerle perros hechos de barro con pan
+en las espaldas, y avian de vailar con ellos en las manos las viejas y
+sacrificarle un perrito que tuviesse las espaldas negras y fuesse
+virgen.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_361-3_40" id="Footnote_361-3_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361-3_40"><span class="label">361-&#8225;</span></a> These might quite as well be rabbits as dogs.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_361-4_41" id="Footnote_361-4_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361-4_41"><span class="label">361-&sect;</span></a> &#8220;De los Indios de Cozum&egrave;l dize, que aun en su tiempo
+eran grandes Idolatras, y usaban un bayle de su gentilidad, en el qual
+flechaban un perro <img src="images/image52.png" width="15" style="vertical-align: middle;" height="19" alt="q with circumflex" title="q with circumflex" /> auian de sacrificar.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_362-1_42" id="Footnote_362-1_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_362-1_42"><span class="label">362-*</span></a> &#8220;Donde sacrificavan un perro, manchado por la color del
+cacao ... y ofrecianles yguanas de las azules y ciertas plumas de un
+paxaro.&#8221;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY"></a>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h2>
+
+
+<p class="author">Aubin Manuscript, See Seler 1900-1901.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Beyer, Herman.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1908, The symbolic meaning of the dog in ancient Mexico; in <i>American
+Anthropologist</i> (N. S.), Vol. X, pp. 419-422, Washington.</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">Bologna Codex, See Cospiano Codex.</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">Borbonicus Codex, See Hamy, 1899.</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">Borgia Codex, See Seler, 1904-1906.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Brasseur de Bourbourg, Charles Etienne.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1869-1870, Manuscrit Troano. Etudes sur le syst&egrave;me graphique et la
+langue des Mayas; 2 vols., 4<sup class="super2">o</sup> Paris.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Brinton, Daniel Garrison.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1893, The native calendar of Central America and Mexico; in
+<i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</i>; Vol. XXXI, pp.
+258-314, Philadelphia.</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1895, A primer of Mayan hieroglyphics; in <i>Publications of the
+University of Pennsylvania, Series in Philosophy, Literature, and
+Archaeology</i>, Vol. III, No. 2, pp. 152, Boston.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Camargo, Domingo Mu&ntilde;oz.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1843, Histoire de la R&eacute;publique de Tlaxcallan; in <i>Nouvelles Annales
+des Voyages et des Sciences G&eacute;ographique</i>; IV S&eacute;rie, Tome 3, Paris.
+(Spanish edition published by Chavero, Mexico, 1892.)</p>
+
+<p class="author">Cogolludo, Diego Lopez.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1688, Historia de Yucatan; 4<sup class="super2">o</sup>, pp. 791, Madrid.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Cortesianus Codex, See Rada y Delgado, 1893.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Cospiano Codex (formerly Bologna).</p>
+<p class="bibref">1899, Published in facsimile, Paris. (Loubat edition.)</p>
+
+<p class="author">Dieseldorff, Erwin P.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1904, A clay vessel with a picture of a vampire-headed deity; in
+<i>Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin 28</i>, pp. 665-666, Washington.
+(Translation of German edition published in <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r
+Ethnologie</i>, 1894, pp. 576-577.)</p>
+
+<p class="author">Dresden Codex, See F&ouml;rstemann, 1880 and 1892.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Fej&eacute;rv&aacute;ry-Mayer Codex, See Seler, 1901.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="author">Fewkes, J. Walter.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1892, The Mam-zra&uacute;-ti; a Tusayan ceremony; in <i>American
+Anthropologist</i>, Vol. V, pp. 217-246.</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1894, A study of certain figures in a Maya codex; in <i>American
+Anthropologist</i>, Vol. VII, pp. 260-274.</p>
+
+<p class="author">F&ouml;rstemann, Ernst.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1880, Die Maya-Handschrift der k&ouml;niglichen &ouml;ffentlichen Bibliothek zu
+Dresden; 4<sup class="super2">o</sup>, Preface pp. xvii, 74 colored plates, Leipzig.</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1892, Second edition of 1880, Dresden.</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1902, Commentar zur Madrider Mayahandschrift (Codex Tro-Cortesianus);
+8<sup class="super2">o</sup>, pp. 160, Danzig.</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1903, Commentar zur Pariser Mayahandschrift (Codex Peresianus); 8<sup class="super2">o</sup>,
+pp. 32, Danzig.</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1904, Tortoise and shell in Maya literature; in <i>Bureau of Ethnology,
+Bulletin</i> 28, pp. 423-430, Washington. (Translation of German
+edition of 1892. Dresden.)</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1904a, The Pleiades among the Mayas; in <i>Bureau of Ethnology,
+Bulletin</i> 28, pp. 523-524, Washington. (Translation of German
+edition published in <i>Globus</i>, Vol. XVI, No. 15, p. 246, 1894.)</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1904b, The Day Gods of the Mayas; in <i>Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin</i>
+28, pp. 557-572, Washington. (Translation of German edition
+published in <i>Globus</i>, Vol. LXIII, Nos. 9, 10, 1898.)</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1906, Commentary of the Maya manuscript in the Royal Public Library of
+Dresden; in <i>Papers of the Peabody Museum</i>, Vol. IV, No. 2, pp.
+48-266. Cambridge. (Translation, revised by the author, of the
+German edition of 1901.)</p>
+
+<p class="author">Gann, Thomas.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1897-1898, Mounds in Northern Honduras; in <i>Bureau of Ethnology</i>, 19th
+annual report, part 2, pp. 661-691, Washington.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Gordon, George Byron.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1898, Researches in the Uloa Valley, Honduras; in <i>Memoirs of the
+Peabody Museum</i>, Vol. I, No. 4, pp. 44, Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Hamy, Ernest T.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1899, Codex Borbonicus. Manuscrit Mexicain de la Biblioth&egrave;que der
+Palais Bourbon; Text and plates, Paris.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Holmes, William Henry.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1895-1897, Archaeological studies among the ancient cities of Mexico;
+<i>Field Museum of Natural History, Publications</i> 8 and 16,
+<i>Anthropological Series</i>, Vol. I, No. I, Chicago.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Hough, Walter.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1908, The pulque of Mexico; in <i>Proceedings of the United States
+National Museum</i>, Vol. XXXIII, pp. 577-592, Washington.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Landa, Diego de.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1864, Relaci&oacute;n de las cosas de Yucatan; Spanish text with French
+trans<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span>lation published by Brasseur de Bourbourg; 8<sup class="super2">o</sup>, pp. 516,
+Paris. (The references in the text are to this edition). Spanish
+edition published by Juan de Dios de la Rada y Delgado, Madrid,
+1884, as an appendix to his translation of Leon de Rosny&#8217;s article,
+Essai sur le d&eacute;chiffrement de l&#8217;&eacute;criture hi&eacute;ratique de l&#8217;Am&eacute;rique
+Centrale. Second Spanish edition in Colecci&oacute;n de Documentos in&eacute;ditos
+(2d Series); Madrid, 1900, Vol. XIII, pp. 265-411.</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1900, See second Spanish edition under 1864. (This contains much that
+is not given in the 1864 edition.)</p>
+
+<p class="author">Maler, Teoberto.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1901-1903, Researches in the Usumatsintla Valley; in <i>Memoirs of the
+Peabody Museum</i>, Vol. II, Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1908, Explorations of the Upper Usumatsintla and adjacent region; in
+<i>Memoirs of the Peabody Museum</i>, Vol. IV, No. 1, Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Maudslay, Alfred P.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1889-1902, Biologia Centrali-Americana, or Contributions to the
+knowledge of the flora and fauna of Mexico and Central America.
+Archaeology; Text and 4 vols. plates, London.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Nuttall Codex.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1902, Reproduced in facsimile by the Peabody Museum, Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Palacio.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1686, Relacion hecha por el Licentiado Palacio al Rey. D. Felipe II en
+la que describe la Provincia de Guatemala, las costumbres de los
+Indios y otras casas notables; in <i>Colecci&oacute;n de Documentos in&eacute;ditos
+relativos al descubrimiento, conquista y organizacion de las
+antiguas posesiones</i> <a name="corr13" id="corr13"></a><ins class="correction" title="Espan&ntilde;oles"><i>Espa&ntilde;ales</i></ins><i> de Am&eacute;rica y Oceania</i>; Tomo VI, pp.
+7-40, Madrid.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Peresianus Codex, See Rosny, 1887.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Perez, Juan Pio.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1866-1877, Diccionario de la lengua Maya; sm. 4<sup class="super2">o</sup>, pp. 437, Merida.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Rada y Delgado, Juan de Dios de la.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1893, Codice Maya denominado Cortesianus que se conserva en el Museo
+Arqueologio Nacional; 42 colored plates, Madrid.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1900, in <i>Colecci&oacute;n de Documentos in&eacute;ditos relativos al
+descubrimiento, conquista y organizacion de las antiguas posesiones
+Espa&ntilde;olas de Ultra mar</i> (<i>Segunda serie</i>), Tomo XI, pp. 37-75,
+Madrid.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Relaci&oacute;n de Cotuta y Tibolon.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1900, in <i>Colecci&oacute;n de Documentos in&eacute;ditos etc.</i>, (<i>Segunda serie</i>),
+Tomo XI, pp. 93-103, Madrid.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Rosny, Leon de.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1876, Essai sur le dechiffrement de l&#8217;&eacute;criture hi&eacute;ratique de
+l&#8217;Am&eacute;rique Centrale, Paris.</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1887, Codex Peresianus, Manuscrit hi&eacute;ratique des anciens Indiens de
+<a name="corr14" id="corr14"></a><ins class="correction" title="l&#8217;Am&eacute;rique">l&#8217;Am&eacute;irque</ins> Centrale conserv&eacute; &agrave; la <a name="corr15" id="corr15"></a><ins class="correction" title="Biblioth&egrave;que">Biblioth&eacute;que</ins> National de
+Paris, Paris.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="author">Schellhas, Paul.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1904, Representations of deities of the Maya manuscripts; in <i>Papers
+of the Peabody Museum</i>, Vol. IV, No. 1, pp. 1-47, Cambridge.
+(Revised translation of second German edition of 1904.)</p>
+
+<p class="author">Seler, Eduard.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1900-1901, The Tonalamatl of the Aubin Collection, (English edition),
+pp. 147, plates 19, Berlin and London. (Loubat edition.)</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1901, Codex Fej&eacute;rv&aacute;ry-Mayer. Manuscrit Mexicain pr&eacute;colombien du Free
+Public Museum de Liverpool (M 12014). Text and plates, Paris.
+(Loubat edition.)</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1902-1903, Codex Vaticanus 3773, Text and plates, Berlin. (Loubat ed.)</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1904, Venus period in the picture writings of the Borgia Codex group;
+in <i>Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin</i> 28, pp. 355-391, Washington.
+(Translation of German edition of 1898.)</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1904a, The Bat god of the Maya race; in <i>Bureau of Ethnology,
+Bulletin</i> 28, pp. 231-242, Washington. (Translation of the German
+edition of 1894.)</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1904b, Antiquities from Guatemala: in <i>Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin</i>
+28, pp. 75-121, Washington. (Translation of the German edition of
+1895. <a name="corr16" id="corr16"></a><ins class="correction" title="Republished">republished</ins> in his collected works, Vol. III, pp.
+578-640.)</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1904-1906, Codex Borgia. Eine altmexikanische Bilderschrift der
+Bibliothek der Congregatio de Propaganda Fide; 4<sup class="super2">o</sup>, 2 vols. plates,
+Berlin (Loubat edition.)</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1909, Die Tierbilder der mexikanischen und <a name="corr17" id="corr17"></a><ins class="correction" title="Maya-Handschriften;">Maya-Handschriften:</ins> in
+<i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1909, pp. 209-257, 381-457 (not
+completed).</p>
+
+<p class="author">Stempell, W.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1908, Die Tierbilder der Mayahandschriften; in <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r
+Ethnologie</i>, 40 Jahrgang, Vol. V, pp. 704-743.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Strebel, Hermann.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1899, Uber Tierornamente auf Thongef&auml;ssen aus Alt-Mexico; in
+<i>Ver&ouml;ffentlichen aus dem Konig. Mus. f&uuml;r V&ouml;lkerkunde</i>, Vol. VI, part
+1, pp. 1-33, Berlin.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Thomas, Cyrus.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1882, A study of the Manuscript Troana; in <i>Contributions to North
+American Ethnology</i>, Vol. V, pp. 234, Washington.</p>
+
+<p class="bibref">1884-1885, Aids to the study of the Maya codices; in <i>Bureau of
+Ethnology</i>, 6th annual report, pp. 253-371, Washington.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Tozzer, Alfred M.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1907, A comparative study of the Mayas and the Lacandones. Report of
+the Fellow in American Archaeology, 1902-1905; Archaeological
+Institute of America, 8<sup class="super2">o</sup>, pp. 195, plates 29, New York.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Troano Codex, See Brasseur de Bourbourg, 1867-1870.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Villagutierre Soto Mayor, Juan.</p>
+<p class="bibref">1701, Historia de la Conquista de la Provincia de el Itza; 4<sup class="super2">o</sup>, pp.
+660, Madrid.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Vaticanus 3773, See Seler, 1902.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image10" id="image10"></a>PLATE 1</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<a href="images/image10-full.png"><img src="images/image10.png" width="250" height="390" alt="Plate 1" title="Plate 1" /></a>
+</div>
+
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 1">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">MOLLUSCA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Fasciolaria gigantea</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Man emerging from shell, Dresden 41b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Same, Borgia 4.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Bologna 4.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 37b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Vaticanus 3773, 66.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 16.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Sign for zero, Dresden 64.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Dresden 41b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 16.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Oliva</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10,&nbsp;11.</td>
+  <td>Sign for zero, Dresden 63.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 55b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Other Mollusca</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">13.</td>
+  <td>Sign for zero, Dresden 54b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">14.</td>
+  <td>Same. Bivalve, Dresden 63.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">15.</td>
+  <td>Bivalve, Nuttall 25.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">16.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 49.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">17.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 23.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">18.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 16.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">19.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 36.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">20.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 75.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">21.</td>
+  <td>Bivalve closed, seen in profile, Nuttall 75.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">22.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 25.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">23.</td>
+  <td>Probably bivalve, Nuttall 16.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">24.</td>
+  <td>Same. Nuttall 36.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image11" id="image11"></a>PLATE 2</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 252px;">
+<a href="images/image11-full.png"><img src="images/image11.png" width="252" height="328" alt="Plate 2" title="Plate 2" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 2">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">INSECTA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Honey bee</span> (<i>Melipona</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Possibly a drone, Tro-Cortesianus 108a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2,&nbsp;3.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 108a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4,&nbsp;<a name="corr18" id="corr18"></a><ins class="correction" title="6.">6</ins></td>
+  <td>Bees more conventionalized, Tro-Cortesianus 80b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Bee and honey comb, Tro-Cortesianus 109c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Honey combs, apparently in a hive, Tro-Cortesianus 11c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Maya day sign, <i>Cauac</i>, possibly representing a honey comb, Tro-Cortesianus 106b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 103c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Honey combs in a hive, Tro-Cortesianus 104a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Bee and honey comb, Tro-Cortesianus 109c.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image12" id="image12"></a>PLATE 3</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 258px;">
+<a href="images/image12-full.png"><img src="images/image12.png" width="258" height="395" alt="Plate 3" title="Plate 3" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 3">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">INSECTA <span class="smcap">and</span> MYRIAPODA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Maggots, probably of Blowfly (<i>Sarcophaga</i>), Tro-Cortesianus 27d.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Same, Tro-Cortesianus 24d.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Larva of <i>Acentrocneme kollari</i>, Tro-Cortesianus 28c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Conventionalized insect, possibly a hornet, Nuttall 3.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Conventionalized insect, unidentified, Nuttall 19.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 55.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 51.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Butterfly or moth, Nuttall 19.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Butterfly, Aubin.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Maya day sign, <i>Akbal</i>, possibly representing the head of a
+centipede.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Glyph belonging to god D, apparently composed of signs for
+centipede, Dresden 7b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Glyph for god D, Dresden 14b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">13.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Dresden 44b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">14.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 27a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">15.</td>
+  <td>Centipede in connection with head-dress of god D, Dresden 15c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">16.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Dresden 9b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">17.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 15c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">18.</td>
+  <td>Centipede in connection with head-dress of god D, Dresden 7c.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image13" id="image13"></a>PLATE 4</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 258px;">
+<a href="images/image13-full.png"><img src="images/image13.png" width="258" height="398" alt="Plate 4" title="Plate 4" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 4">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">ARACHNOIDEA, ARACHNIDA, CRUSTACEA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Scorpion and deer, Tro-Cortesianus 48c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Scorpion with sting conventionalized as a hand, Tro-Cortesianus 44c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Scorpion highly conventionalized, Nuttall 22.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Spider, possibly a tarantula, Borbonicus 9.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Crayfish, Nuttall 16.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Crab, Nuttall 37.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image14" id="image14"></a>PLATE 5</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 252px;">
+<a href="images/image14-full.png"><img src="images/image14.png" width="252" height="375" alt="Plate 5" title="Plate 5" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 5">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">MYRIAPODA, PISCES</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Parts of a conventionalized centipede with quetzal tail, Vaticanus
+3773, 13.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Fish with teeth, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber
+(Maudslay, III, Pl. 48).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Fish captured by heron, Dresden 36b. (Compare <a href="#image24">Pl. 15</a>, fig. 5.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+Pl. 45).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Fish.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Pottery fish, Chajcar (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 93).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Same.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Fish as offering, Tro-Cortesianus 3a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 29b.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image15" id="image15"></a>PLATE 6</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 246px;">
+<a href="images/image15-full.png"><img src="images/image15.png" width="246" height="388" alt="Plate 6" title="Plate 6" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 6">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">PISCES</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Possibly a flying-fish (<i>Exocetus</i>), Nuttall 75.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Palenque, Temple of the Cross (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 68).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 36.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4,&nbsp;5.</td>
+  <td>Glyphs, possibly of a shark, Dresden 40a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Fish as offering, Dresden 27c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Fish without dorsal fins, possibly an eel (<i>Muraena</i>), Dresden 65b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Fish as offering, Dresden 23b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Pottery animal from Santa Rita (Gann, 1897-1898, Pl. 34).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 44c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 16.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Palenque, Palace (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 11).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">13.</td>
+  <td>Fish as offering, Dresden 33a.
+14. Fish as part of the Great Cycle glyph, Copan, Stela C, north
+(Maudslay, I, Pl. 41).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">15.</td>
+  <td>Same, Copan, Stela C, south (Maudslay, I, Pl. 41.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">16.</td>
+  <td>Same, Copan, Stela D (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">17.</td>
+  <td>Same, Copan, Stela C, south (Maudslay, I, Pl. 41).</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image16" id="image16"></a>PLATE 7</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 248px;">
+<a href="images/image16-full.png"><img src="images/image16.png" width="248" height="375" alt="Plate 7" title="Plate 7" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 7">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">AMPHIBIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Frog (<i>Rana</i>), Tro-Cortesianus 31a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2,&nbsp;3.</td>
+  <td>Same, Tro-Cortesianus 101d.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Probably a toad (<i>Bufo</i>), Copan, Oblong altar (Maudslay, I, Pl.
+114).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Frog or toad, Tro-Cortesianus 17b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Frog and fish, Copan, Altar O (Maudslay, I, Pl. 85).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+Pl. 46).</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image17" id="image17"></a>PLATE 8</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 267px;">
+<a href="images/image17-full.png"><img src="images/image17.png" width="267" height="385" alt="Plate 8" title="Plate 8" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 8">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">AMPHIBIA, REPTILIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>God F representing a tree-toad (<i>Hyla eximia</i>), Tro-Cortesianus
+26b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Glyph evidently belonging to fig. 3, Tro-Cortesianus 26a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Same as fig. 1, Tro-Cortesianus 26a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Snake, Nuttall 6.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 45.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 37.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Snake used as head-dress of a woman, Dresden 39b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 23b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 43b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 22b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 9c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 15b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">13.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 18a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">14.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 42a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">15.</td>
+  <td>Same as figs. 7-13, Dresden 20a.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image18" id="image18"></a>PLATE 9</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 261px;">
+<a href="images/image18-full.png"><img src="images/image18.png" width="261" height="394" alt="Plate 9" title="Plate 9" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 9">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">REPTILIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Rattlesnake</span> (<i>Crotalus</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 33b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Nahua day sign, <i>Couatl</i>, Aubin 10.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 52c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 40b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+Pl. 40).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 29.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Glyph representing rattles, Tro-Cortesianus 106c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 100d.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+Pl. 40).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 54.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image19" id="image19"></a>PLATE 10</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 243px;">
+<a href="images/image19-full.png"><img src="images/image19.png" width="243" height="311" alt="Plate 10." title="Plate 10." /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 10">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">REPTILIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Serpents</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Tree snake (possibly <i>Lachesis</i>), Dresden 27c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 37.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 57b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 5.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 37.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Serpent in connection with long number series, Dresden 62.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 37b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 40c.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image20" id="image20"></a>PLATE 11</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<a href="images/image20-full.png"><img src="images/image20.png" width="250" height="403" alt="Plate 11" title="Plate 11" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 11">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">REPTILIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Serpents</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Large snake with conventionalized spots, Tro-Cortesianus 30a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 31b.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image21" id="image21"></a>PLATE 12</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 247px;">
+<a href="images/image21-full.png"><img src="images/image21.png" width="247" height="378" alt="Plate 12" title="Plate 12" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 12">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">REPTILIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Iguana, Lizards</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Iguana as offering, Tro-Cortesianus 105c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Iguana, Tro-Cortesianus 3b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Iguana, as offering with <i>Kan</i>, Dresden 43c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Same, Tro-Cortesianus 6a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 29b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Offering, possibly representing a lizard, Dresden 27b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 34a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Lizard used for <i>Uinal</i> glyph, Copan, Stela D, gl. 4. (Maudslay, I,
+Pl. 48).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Nahua day sign, <i>Cuetzpalin</i> (lizard), Aubin 10.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Lizard, Dresden 3a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 10.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">13.</td>
+  <td>Offering, the portion with serrated margin possibly representing
+an iguana, Tro-Cortesianus 12b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">14.</td>
+  <td>Lizard, Nuttall 2.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image22" id="image22"></a>PLATE 13</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 239px;">
+<a href="images/image22-full.png"><img src="images/image22.png" width="239" height="370" alt="Plate 13." title="Plate 13." /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 13">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">REPTILIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Crocodile</span> (<i>Crocodilus</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Glyph of the Nahua day sign, <i>Cipactli</i>, Nuttall 1.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Crocodile represented by head and limb, Nuttall 36.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 1.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 4.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 9.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 47.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 1.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 75.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Head of lizard or possibly crocodile used as a <i>Uinal</i> glyph,
+Palenque, Temple of the Foliated Cross (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 82,
+gl. 6).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Head of crocodile, Dresden 52b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Head, possibly of a crocodile, Palenque, Temple of the Foliated
+Cross (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 82, gl. <a name="corr19" id="corr19"></a><ins class="correction" title="O">0</ins>, 4).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Conventionalized head of a crocodile, Dresden 53b.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image23" id="image23"></a>PLATE 14</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 249px;">
+<a href="images/image23-full.png"><img src="images/image23.png" width="249" height="401" alt="Plate 14" title="Plate 14" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 14">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">REPTILIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Turtles</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 19b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Same, Tro-Cortesianus 17b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Swimming turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 17a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Possibly representing a turtle, Nuttall 33.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 81c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Freshwater turtle (<i>Chelydra</i>) with leeches attached,
+Tro-Cortesianus 72b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Glyph for fig. 3.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Glyph.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Glyph.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Glyph.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Turtle, Nuttall 43.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Turtle god, <i>Aac</i>, Dresden 49.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image24" id="image24"></a>PLATE 15</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 261px;">
+<a href="images/image24-full.png"><img src="images/image24.png" width="261" height="403" alt="Plate 15" title="Plate 15" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 15">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">AVES</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><a name="corr20" id="corr20"></a><ins class="correction" title="Herons,"><span class="smcap">Herons</span></ins> <span class="smcap">Frigate bird</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Heron, stucco ornament, Palenque, Palace, House B (Maudslay, IV,
+Pl. 18).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Heron head-dress, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber
+(Maudslay, III, Pl. 45).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Head and neck of a heron, Dresden 37b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Heron, Nuttall 74.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Heron with fish, Palenque, Temple of the Cross, West side panel
+(Maudslay, IV, Pl. 71).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td><a name="corr21" id="corr21"></a><ins class="correction" title="Heron.">Heron</ins></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Heron with a fish as a head-dress, Dresden 36a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Fork-tailed bird, probably a Frigate bird (<i>Fregata aquila</i>),
+Tro-Cortesianus 34a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Same, arranged for offering, Dresden 35a.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image25" id="image25"></a>PLATE 16</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 258px;">
+<a href="images/image25-full.png"><img src="images/image25.png" width="258" height="392" alt="Plate 16" title="Plate 16" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 16">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">AVES</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Ocellated Turkey</span> (<i>Agriocharis ocellata</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Turkey in trap, Tro-Cortesianus 93a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Turkey, Tro-Cortesianus 10b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Turkey snared, Tro-Cortesianus 91a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 4a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 95c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 37b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Vaticanus 3773, 14.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 36a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Whole turkey as offering, Dresden 26c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Head of turkey as offering, Dresden 34a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Same, Tro-Cortesianus 12b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Same, Tro-Cortesianus 105b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">13.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 20a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">14.</td>
+  <td>Head of turkey as offering, Dresden 41c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">15.</td>
+  <td>Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">16.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 29c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">17.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 28c.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image26" id="image26"></a>PLATE 17</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 255px;">
+<a href="images/image26-full.png"><img src="images/image26.png" width="255" height="399" alt="Plate 17" title="Plate 17" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 17">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">AVES</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">King Vulture</span> (<i>Sarcorhamphus papa</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 67a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 22c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>God with head of King Vulture, Dresden 19a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>King Vulture and Ocellated Turkey, Tro-Cortesianus 85a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, showing head, Dresden 39c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 38b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Same.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>King Vulture, tearing out entrails of deer, Tro-Cortesianus 40a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td><i>Tun</i> period glyph (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 89).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 94c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 26c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">13.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Chichen Itza, Monjas, east (Maudslay, III, Pl. 13).</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image27" id="image27"></a>PLATE 18</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 251px;">
+<a href="images/image27-full.png"><img src="images/image27.png" width="251" height="396" alt="Plate 18" title="Plate 18" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 18">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">AVES.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">King Vulture</span> (<i>Sarcorhamphus papa</i>), <span class="smcap">Black Vulture</span> (<i>Catharista urubu</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Glyph of head of King Vulture, Dresden 11b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Glyph for Nahua day sign, <i>Cozcaquauhtli</i>, Nuttall 5.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 41.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 5.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 4.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Same as fig. 2, showing considerable conventionalization. Nuttall
+2.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 3.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Same as <a name="corr22" id="corr22"></a><ins class="correction" title="fig.">fig</ins> 2, further reduced, Nuttall 18.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 3.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 20.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Probably a Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 95c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 70a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">13.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 17b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">14.</td>
+  <td>Possibly a Black Vulture, Chichen Itza, Monjas, east (Maudslay,
+III, Pl. 13).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">15.</td>
+  <td>Head of Black Vulture, Nuttall 32.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">16.</td>
+  <td>Glyph of head of same, Dresden 54b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">17.</td>
+  <td>Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 36b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">18.</td>
+  <td>Head of same, Tro-Cortesianus 26c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">19.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 39c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">20.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 19.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">21.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 34.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">22.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 37c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">23.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 27.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">24.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 1.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">25.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 34.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">26.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 9.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">27.</td>
+  <td>Same, Tro-Cortesianus 19b.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image28" id="image28"></a>PLATE 19</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 252px;">
+<a href="images/image28-full.png"><img src="images/image28.png" width="252" height="397" alt="Plate 19" title="Plate 19" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 19">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">AVES.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Vultures</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Vulture (probably a King Vulture) tearing at entrails of an animal,
+Tro-Cortesianus 42a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 69.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 74.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Possibly a Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 35b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 26d.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 26d.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 3a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 16).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Copan, Altar K (Maudslay, I, gl. 73).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Tikal, House 9 (Maudslay, III, Pl. 79).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Black Vulture and snake, Dresden 36b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Probably vultures, Tro-Cortesianus 100b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">13.</td>
+  <td>Probably a vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 18b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">14.</td>
+  <td>Same, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber, Chichen Itza (Maudslay,
+III, Pl. 46).</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image29" id="image29"></a>PLATE 20</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 251px;">
+<a href="images/image29-full.png"><img src="images/image29.png" width="251" height="394" alt="Plate 20" title="Plate 20" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 20">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">AVES</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Harpy Eagle</span> (<i>Thrasaetos harpyia</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 16, gl. 3).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 53.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 16, gl. 13).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 88c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Part of a head-dress, Dresden 14c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Peresianus 2.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 14b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Eagle with crest feathers tipped by flints, <a name="corr23" id="corr23"></a><ins class="correction" title="Nuttall.">Nuttall</ins></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Tro-Cortesianus 107c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Stone carving, Chichen Itza (Maudslay, III, Pl. 52).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 23c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Possibly an eagle&#8217;s head, Dresden 43c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">13.</td>
+  <td>Possibly an eagle, Dresden 74.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">14.</td>
+  <td>Bologna 7.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image30" id="image30"></a>PLATE 21</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 268px;">
+<a href="images/image30-full.png"><img src="images/image30.png" width="268" height="356" alt="Plate 21" title="Plate 21" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 21">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">AVES</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Yucatan Horned Owl</span> (<i>Bubo virginianus mayensis</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Owl in flight, Stucco ornament, Palenque, Palace, House E
+(Maudslay, IV, Pl. 43).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Stone carving of owl, Yaxchilan, Stela 4 (Peabody Museum Memoirs,
+II, Pl. 70).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Owl in flight, carved in wood, Tikal, House C, lintel (Maudslay,
+III, Pl. 78).</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image31" id="image31"></a>PLATE 22</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 247px;">
+<a href="images/image31-full.png"><img src="images/image31.png" width="247" height="383" alt="Plate 22" title="Plate 22" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 22">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">AVES</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Yucatan Horned Owl</span> (<i>Bubo virginianus mayensis</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Bologna 7.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 95c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Borgia 7.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>On end of staff carried by warrior, Chichen Itza, Temple of the
+Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 49).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Aubin 13.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Head highly conventionalized, Palenque, Temple of the Sun
+(Maudslay, IV, Pl. 88).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Screech-owl (<i>chiqu&agrave;tli</i>), Aubin.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image32" id="image32"></a>PLATE 23</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 253px;">
+<a href="images/image32-full.png"><img src="images/image32.png" width="253" height="398" alt="Plate 23" title="Plate 23" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 23">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">AVES</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Yucatan Screech Owl</span> or <i>Moan-bird</i> (<i>Otus choliba thompsoni</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 7c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 66a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 11a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 94c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>As a head-dress, Dresden 18b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Glyph associated with Moan-bird, Dresden 7c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 7c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 10a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Peresianus 10.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Peresianus 5.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Glyph representing head, Dresden 38c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 8b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">13.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 53b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">14.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 16c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">15.</td>
+  <td>Glyph possibly representing Moan-bird, Dresden 38c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">16.</td>
+  <td>Glyph of head, Dresden 53b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">17.</td>
+  <td>Glyph associated with Moan-bird.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">18.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 73b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">19.</td>
+  <td>As a head-dress, Dresden 16c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">20.</td>
+  <td>As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 95c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">21.</td>
+  <td>Glyph associated with Moan-bird, Dresden 7c.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image33" id="image33"></a>PLATE 24</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 247px;">
+<a href="images/image33-full.png"><img src="images/image33.png" width="247" height="389" alt="Plate 24" title="Plate 24" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 24">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">AVES</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Coppery-tailed Trogon</span> or <span class="smcap">Quetzal</span> (<i>Pharomacrus mocinno</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Head-dress with crest feathers shown as knobs, Dresden 7c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Head-dress, Dresden 13b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 16c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 100b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 70a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 94c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 33.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Conventionalized tail as a head ornament, Dresden 20c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Vaticanus 3773, 17.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Palenque, Temple of the Sun (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 89, gl. O,
+9).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Trogon descending on a sacrifice, Bologna 8.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 36b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">13.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 111, gl. 54).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">14.</td>
+  <td>Glyph apparently representing a trogon&#8217;s head, Dresden 20c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">15.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 9b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">16.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 3a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">17.</td>
+  <td>Head, Nuttall 43.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">18.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 26c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">19.</td>
+  <td>Figure with head ornament resembling a trogon glyph, Dresden 20c.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image34" id="image34"></a>PLATE 25</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 263px;">
+<a href="images/image34-full.png"><img src="images/image34.png" width="263" height="389" alt="Plate 25" title="Plate 25" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 25">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">AVES</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Blue Macaw</span> (<i>Ara militaris</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Figure with macaw head and holding firebrands, Dresden 40b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Head-dress, Dresden 16c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 12a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Copan, Stela 11 (Maudslay, I, Pl. 112, gl. 12).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Same, Copan, Stela B (Maudslay, I, Pl. 38).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Glyph used in connection with fig. 1.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Glyph.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Stone carving of upper mandible and head, Copan, Stela B (Maudslay,
+I, Pl. 37).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Head, probably of a turtle, month sign <i>Kayab</i>, Quirigua, Stela A
+(Maudslay, II, Pl. 7, gl. 14).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Head, probably of a macaw, Copan, Altar Q (Maudslay, I, Pl. 93).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 37b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Head, probably of a macaw, Copan, Stela A (Maudslay, I, Pl. 30,
+gl. 19).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">13.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 94c.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image35" id="image35"></a>PLATE 26</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 243px;">
+<a href="images/image35-full.png"><img src="images/image35.png" width="243" height="380" alt="Plate 26" title="Plate 26" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 26">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">AVES</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Parrots, Turkeys</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Macaw as a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 26c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Bird of sacrifice, doubtless an Ocellated Turkey (<i>Agriocharis</i>)
+Dresden 25c. (Compare also Dresden <a name="corr24" id="corr24"></a><ins class="correction" title="26c,">26c</ins> 27c, 28c.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Head-dress, probably a macaw, Copan, Altar Q (Maudslay, I, Pl. 92).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Possibly a parrot (<i>Amazona</i>), Nuttall 4.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Head-dress, head of a macaw, Tro-Cortesianus 89a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Head-dress, possibly representing a parrot, Dresden 12b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Possibly a parrot (<i>Amazona</i>), Nuttall 71.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Glyph representing a macaw&#8217;s head, Tikal, Temple C (Maudslay, III,
+Pl. 78).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 19a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Possibly a macaw, Tro-Cortesianus 37b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 11b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Bird of sacrifice, probably an Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca,
+Nuttall 22.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">13.</td>
+  <td>Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 11a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">14.</td>
+  <td>Head of Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca, Nuttall 5.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image36" id="image36"></a>PLATE 27</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 249px;">
+<a href="images/image36-full.png"><img src="images/image36.png" width="249" height="402" alt="Plate 27" title="Plate 27" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 27">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">AVES</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Miscellaneous</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Bird of sacrifice, an Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca, Nuttall 2.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 16.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 19.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 1.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Woodpecker possibly <i>Campephilus imperialis</i>, Nuttall 74.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 71.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Possibly a Raven (<i>Corvus corax sinuatus</i>), Nuttall 48.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Parrot (<i>cocho</i>), Aubin 11.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Same, Aubin 13.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Turkey-cock (<a name="corr25" id="corr25"></a><ins class="correction" title="uexolotl"><i>uexolot</i></ins>), Aubin 11.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Same, Aubin 13.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image37" id="image37"></a>PLATE 28</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 269px;">
+<a href="images/image37-full.png"><img src="images/image37.png" width="269" height="388" alt="Plate 28" title="Plate 28" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 28">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center"><span class="smcap">Various Animals</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Earthenware vessel representing a tapir (<i>Tapirella</i>) with a
+necklace of Oliva shells (Seler, 1904b, p. 106, fig. 23).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Stone carving, possibly of a King Vulture (<i>Sarcorhamphus papa</i>),
+Copan, Altar T (Maudslay, I, Pl. 96).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Stone carving, possibly a lizard, Copan, Stela 6 (Maudslay I, Pl.
+107).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Stone carving, probably a jaguar (<i>Felis onca hernandezi</i>), Copan,
+Stela 2 (Maudslay, I, Pl. 102).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Stone carving of a Black Vulture (<i>Catharista urubu</i>), Copan, Stela
+D (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Lizard (?) attacked by two birds (?) perhaps vultures, Quirigua,
+Altar B (Maudslay, II, Pl. 15).</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image38" id="image38"></a>PLATE 29</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 255px;">
+<a href="images/image38-full.png"><img src="images/image38.png" width="255" height="393" alt="Plate 29" title="Plate 29" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 29">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">MAMMALIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Armadillo and Miscellaneous</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Nine-banded Armadillo (<i>Tatu novemcinctum</i>), Tro-Cortesianus 103a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Same, Tro-Cortesianus 92d.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Same, Tro-Cortesianus 103a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Armadillo captured in a pitfall, Tro-Cortesianus 48a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Undetermined animal, Dresden 14c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Undetermined animal, possibly a frog or a marsupial,
+Tro-Cortesianus 33a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Rodent, Nuttall 11.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Undetermined animal, Tro-Cortesianus 24d.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image39" id="image39"></a>PLATE 30</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 252px;">
+<a href="images/image39-full.png"><img src="images/image39.png" width="252" height="387" alt="Plate 30" title="Plate 30" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 30">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">MAMMALIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Deer, Hare</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Yucatan deer, caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 48b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Yucatan brocket (<i>Mazama pandora</i>) caught in a pitfall,
+Tro-Cortesianus 92a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Glyph for hare or rabbit, Nuttall 16.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 5.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Yucatan deer, Dresden 60a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Same, Tro-Cortesianus 30b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Hare or rabbit, Nuttall 22.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden <a name="corr26" id="corr26"></a><ins class="correction" title="61.">61</ins></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image40" id="image40"></a>PLATE 31</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 257px;">
+<a href="images/image40-full.png"><img src="images/image40.png" width="257" height="397" alt="Plate 31" title="Plate 31" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 31">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">MAMMALIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Yucatan Deer</span> (<i>Odocoileus yucatanensis</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Doe, Dresden 45c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Same, F&eacute;gerv&aacute;ry-Mayer 26.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Same, Tro-Cortesianus 29c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 50.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Same captured in snare, Tro-Cortesianus 86a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Head-dress of god M, Tro-Cortesianus 50b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Same, Tro-Cortesianus 51c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Doe, Tro-Cortesianus 2b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Head of same, Nuttall 43.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Head of doe as sacrifice, Tro-Cortesianus 77.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Same, Peresianus 10.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Haunch of venison as a sacrifice, Dresden 35a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">13.</td>
+  <td>Same, Tro-Cortesianus 105b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">14.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 28c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">15.</td>
+  <td>Same, Tro-Cortesianus&nbsp; 108a.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image41" id="image41"></a>PLATE 32</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 265px;">
+<a href="images/image41-full.png"><img src="images/image41.png" width="265" height="397" alt="Plate 32" title="Plate 32" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 32">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">MAMMALIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Yucatan Peccary</span> (<i>Tayassu angulatum yucatanense</i>)<br />
+<span class="smcap">Yucatan Deer</span> (<i>Odocoileus yucatanensis</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Peccary, Nuttall 79.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 68a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Combination, a peccary&#8217;s head and forefoot, with long tail and
+hindfoot without hoofs, Tro-Cortesianus <a name="corr27" id="corr27"></a><ins class="correction" title="66a.">66a</ins></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Peccary, Dresden 45b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Man with peccary head, Copan, <a name="corr28" id="corr28"></a><ins class="correction" title="Stela">Sela</ins> D, cast (Maudslay, I, Pl.
+46).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Combination animal, with hoofs and dorsal crest of a peccary and
+scales of a reptile, Dresden 75.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Peccary, Nuttall 9.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Yucatan deer, with conventionalized antler, glyph for Nahua day
+sign, <i>Ma&ccedil;atl</i>, Nuttall 26.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Same, Peresianus 5.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Glyph for Nahua day sign <i>Ma&ccedil;atl</i>, Aubin 10.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 5.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Deer, Copan, Stela N, East (Maudslay, I, Pl. 79).</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image42" id="image42"></a>PLATE 33</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 253px;">
+<a href="images/image42-full.png"><img src="images/image42.png" width="253" height="410" alt="Plate 33" title="Plate 33" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 33">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">MAMMALIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Yucatan Peccary</span> (<i>Tayassu angulatum yucatanense</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 49c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Chichen Itza, Monjas, East (Maudslay, III, Pl. 13).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Head as a head-dress, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower
+Chamber (Maudslay, III).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 93a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 30b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 62.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Glyph representing a peccary&#8217;s head, Dresden 45b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 43b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 49a.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image43" id="image43"></a>PLATE 34</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 260px;">
+<a href="images/image43-full.png"><img src="images/image43.png" width="260" height="391" alt="Plate 34" title="Plate 34" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 34">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">MAMMALIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Jaguar, Puma</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Jaguar (<i>Felis hernandezi</i>), Nuttall 24.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Man seated in the open mouth of an animal, possibly a jaguar,
+Tro-Cortesianus 20a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Nahua day sign, <i>Oceolotl</i>, Aubin 9.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Pot representing a jaguar or puma (Gann, 1897-1898, Pl. 34).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Probably a puma (<i>Felis bangsi costaricensis</i>), Chichen Itza,
+Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 40).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+Pl. 50).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Probably a puma, Dresden 47.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image44" id="image44"></a>PLATE 35</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 259px;">
+<a href="images/image44-full.png"><img src="images/image44.png" width="259" height="389" alt="Plate 35" title="Plate 35" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 35">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">MAMMALIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Coyote, Bear, Jaguar</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Probably a coyote (<i>Canis</i>), Nuttall 6.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 26.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Possibly a bear (<i>Ursus</i>), Dresden 37a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Same, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers (Maudslay, III, 38).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Jaguar (<i>Felis hernandezi</i>), Dresden 8a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, probably of a jaguar head, Copan, Stela 4 (Maudslay, I, Pl.
+104).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Copan, Altar F (Maudslay, I, Pl. 114).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Jaguar, Tro-Cortesianus 28c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Stone carving of jaguar head, Palenque, Palace, House C (Maudslay,
+IV, Pl. 24).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Jaguar, Tro-Cortesianus 30b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, probably of a jaguar.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Head of jaguar in fresco, Santa Rita (Gann, 1897-1898, Pl. 31).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">13.</td>
+  <td>Same, Tro-Cortesianus 2a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">14.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 27.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image45" id="image45"></a>PLATE 36</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 268px;">
+<a href="images/image45-full.png"><img src="images/image45.png" width="268" height="389" alt="Plate 36" title="Plate 36" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 36">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">MAMMALIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Dog</span> (<i>Canis</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Dog and crab, Tro-Cortesianus 88c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 37b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 66b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Head, Nuttall 34.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Nuttall 72.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Head, Nuttall 20.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Probably a dog, Nuttall 3.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Aubin 9.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Glyph for day sign <i>Oc</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Same.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Same.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 91d.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">13.</td>
+  <td>Glyph for Nahua day sign <i>Itzcuintli</i>, Aubin 9.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">14.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 27d.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image46" id="image46"></a>PLATE 37</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 256px;">
+<a href="images/image46-full.png"><img src="images/image46.png" width="256" height="393" alt="Plate 37" title="Plate 37" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 37">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">MAMMALIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Dog</span> (<i>Canis</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Dog bearing firebrands, Dresden 40b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 39a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Same, Dresden 36a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 88a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 21b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 24c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 13c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Tro-Cortesianus 37a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 30a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 7a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">11.</td>
+  <td>Glyph supposed to represent a dog&#8217;s ribs, Dresden 13c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">12.</td>
+  <td>Dresden 29a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">13.</td>
+  <td>Head, Tro-Cortesianus 91d.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image47" id="image47"></a>PLATE 38</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 252px;">
+<a href="images/image47-full.png"><img src="images/image47.png" width="252" height="390" alt="Plate 38" title="Plate 38" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 38">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">MAMMALIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Leaf-nosed Bat</span> (<i>Vampyrus spectrum</i> or <i>Phyllostomus hastatus
+panamensis</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Chichen Itza, Akat &#8217;Cib (Maudslay, III, Pl. <a name="corr29" id="corr29"></a><ins class="correction" title="19).">19.)</ins></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 8).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Bat god, drawn as glyph, Copan, Stela D (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 8).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Palenque, Temple of the Inscriptions (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 60,
+gl. Q 1).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, Tikal (Maudslay III, Pl. 74, gl. 41).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Bat gad used as decoration on pottery, Chama (Dieseldorff, 1904).</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<h2 class="platehead"><a name="image48" id="image48"></a>PLATE 39</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 266px;">
+<a href="images/image48-full.png"><img src="images/image48.png" width="266" height="388" alt="Plate 39" title="Plate 39" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<table class="plates" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate 39">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="center">MAMMALIA</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcpadt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Monkey and Miscellaneous</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">1.</td>
+  <td>Capuchin monkey (<i>Cebus capucinus</i>), Nuttall 1.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">2.</td>
+  <td>Same, Nuttall 5.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">3.</td>
+  <td>Head of same, Nuttall 38.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">4.</td>
+  <td>Nondescript animal, possibly a combination of monkey and peccary,
+Tro-Cortesianus 88c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">5.</td>
+  <td>Glyph, possibly representing a monkey, found in connection with
+fig. 4.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">6.</td>
+  <td>Glyph of head of monkey, Nuttall 1.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">7.</td>
+  <td>Head of long-nosed god, Tro-Cortesianus 30a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">8.</td>
+  <td>Head of monkey, glyph for Nahua day sign, <i>O&ccedil;omatli</i>, Aubin 9.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">9.</td>
+  <td>Long-nosed god, Tro-Cortesianus 30b.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdrpadr">10.</td>
+  <td>God with head-dress, Dresden 5c.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div style="background-color: #EEE; padding: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 1em;">
+<p class="center noindent"><a name="trans_note" id="trans_note"></a><b>Transcriber&rsquo;s&nbsp;Note</b></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following errors and inconsistencies have been maintained.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Misspelled words and typographical errors:</p>
+
+<table style="margin-left: 0%;" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="typos">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr">Page&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>Error</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr1">279</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;Yucatan Horned Ow&#8221; should read &#8220;Yucatan Horned Owl&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr2">281</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;Mandslay&#8221; should read &#8220;Maudslay&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr3">284</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;deRosny&#8221; should read &#8220;de Rosny&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr4">299</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;connnection&#8221; should read &#8220;connection&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr5">299</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;signifiance&#8221; should read &#8220;significance&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr6">299</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;lightening&#8221; should read &#8220;lightning&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr7">340</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;indicatd&#8221; should read &#8220;indicated&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr8">344</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;Kayae&#8221; should read &#8220;Kayab&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr9">353</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;(Dresden 44b, 45b, (Pl. 32, fig. 4)&#8221; Has an extra ( before
+             Pl.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr10">366</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;C. hypoleucus Auct.)&#8221; should read &#8220;Auct.).&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr11">Footnote 327-&#8224;</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;coasa&#8221; should read &#8220;cosas&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr12">Footnote 349-*</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;for&#8221; should read &#8220;por&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr13">371</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;Espa&ntilde;ales&#8221; should read &#8220;Espa&ntilde;oles&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr14">371</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;l&#8217;Am&eacute;irque&#8221; should read &#8220;l&#8217;Am&eacute;rique&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr15">371</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;Biblioth&eacute;que&#8221; should read &#8220;Biblioth&egrave;que&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr16">372</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;1895. republished&#8221; should read &#8220;1895. Republished&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr17">372</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;und Maya-Handschriften:&#8221; colon should be a semi-colon</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr18">Plate 2</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;4, 6&#8221; should have a . following</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr19">Plate 13</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;Pl. 82, gl. 0, 4&#8221; should read &#8220;O, 4&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr20">Plate 15</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;HERONS FRIGATE&#8221; should read &#8220;HERONS, FRIGATE&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr21">Plate 15</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;6. Heron&#8221; should have a . at the end</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr22">Plate 18</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;8. Same as fig&#8221; should read &#8220;fig.&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr23">Plate 20</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;flints, Nuttall&#8221; should end with a .</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr24">Plate 26</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;Dresden 26c 27c,&#8221; should have a , after 26c</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr25">Plate 28</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;uexolot&#8221; should read &#8220;uexolotl&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr26">Plate 29</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;Dresden 61&#8221; was missing the . at the end</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr27">Plate 32</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;Tro-Cortesianus 66a&#8221; was missing the . at the end</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr28">Plate 32</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;Sela&#8221; should read &#8220;Stela&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr29">Plate 38</a></td>
+  <td>&#8220;Pl. 19.)&#8221; should read &#8220;Pl. 19).&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="noindent">The following words had inconsistent hyphenation:</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Blow-fly / Blowfly<br />
+  cross-hatched / crosshatched<br />
+  pit-fall / pitfall</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent">The following words had inconsistent spelling:</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">dechiffrement / d&eacute;chiffrement<br />
+  F&eacute;gerv&aacute;ry-Mayer / Fej&eacute;rv&aacute;ry-Mayer / Fejervary-Mayer<br />
+  R&eacute;lacion / Relacion<br />
+  r&ocirc;le / role</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Animal Figures in the Maya Codices, by 
+Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen
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@@ -0,0 +1,4779 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Animal Figures in the Maya Codices, by
+Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Animal Figures in the Maya Codices
+
+Author: Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen
+
+Release Date: August 14, 2006 [EBook #19042]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+A number of typographical errors and inconsistencies have been
+maintained in this version of this book. They have been marked with a
+[TN-#], which refers to a description in the complete list found at the
+end of the text.
+
+The following codes are used for characters that are not able to be
+represented in the text format used for this version of the book.
+
+[)a]    a with breve
+[c]     open o
+[[c].]  open o with dot under
+[=h]    h with stroke
+[p.]    p with dot under
+[^q]    q with circumflex
+[vs]    s with caron
+[vs.]   s with caron and dot under
+[t.]    t with dot under
+[ts.]   ts with dot under
+[+]     Dagger
+[++]    Double dagger
+
+
+
+
+
+                   PAPERS
+                   OF THE
+  PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND
+        ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY
+
+              VOL. IV.--No. 3.
+
+
+               ANIMAL FIGURES
+                   IN THE
+                MAYA CODICES
+
+                     BY
+
+           ALFRED M. TOZZER, PH.D.
+                     AND
+           GLOVER M. ALLEN, PH.D.
+
+
+              CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
+           PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM
+               FEBRUARY, 1910
+
+
+
+
+Salem Press:
+THE SALEM PRESS CO., SALEM MASS.
+1910.
+
+
+
+
+NOTE
+
+
+It has been thought desirable, for the advancement of the study of Maya
+hieroglyphs, that the interpretation of the conventionalized animal
+figures, which so frequently occur in the Maya codices, should be
+undertaken. The Peabody Museum Committee on Central American Research
+therefore requested Dr. A. M. Tozzer to prepare a paper on the subject,
+and to secure the valuable cooperation of Dr. Glover M. Allen, a
+zoologist familiar with the animals of Mexico and Central America, to
+aid in the identification of the various species of animals which under
+varying forms are used in connection with the glyphs.
+
+While it is possible that some of the determinations given in this paper
+may require further confirmation, it is evident that the combined
+studies of Dr. Tozzer and Dr. Allen cannot fail to be useful to students
+of the Maya hieroglyphic writing.
+
+F. W. PUTNAM.
+HARVARD UNIVERSITY,
+August, 1909.
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO THE PRONUNCIATION OF MAYA WORDS
+
+
+The vowels and consonants have their continental sounds with the
+following exceptions:--
+
+  =[)a]=   like _u_ in hut
+  =ai=     like _i_ in island
+  =k=      (Beltran's _c_) ordinary palatal _k_
+  =q=      (Beltran's _k_) velar _k_
+  =[[c].]= (Beltran's _[c]_) _ts_ explosive or fortis
+  =[c]=    (Beltran's _tz_) _ts_ non-explosive
+  =[vs]=   (Beltran's _x_) like _sh_ in hush
+  =t[vs]=  (Beltran's _ch_) like _ch_ in church
+  =[ts.]=  (Beltran's _c[=h]_) _ch_ explosive
+  =[p.]=   (Beltran's _pp_) _p_ explosive
+  =t=      (Beltran's _t[=h]_) _t_ explosive
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES
+
+
+ Plate.
+   1.  Mollusca: _Fasciolaria gigantea, Oliva_.
+   2.  Insecta: Honey bee (_Melipona_).
+   3.  Insecta and Myriapoda.
+   4.  Arachnoidea, Arachnida, Crustacea.
+   5.  Myriapoda, Pisces.
+   6.  Pisces.
+   7.  Amphibia.
+   8.  Amphibia, Reptilia.
+   9.  Reptilia: Rattlesnake (_Crotalus_).
+  10.  Reptilia: Serpents.
+  11.  Reptilia: Serpents.
+  12.  Reptilia: Iguana, Lizards.
+  13.  Reptilia: Crocodile
+  14.  Reptilia: Turtles.
+  15.  Aves: Herons, Frigate-bird.
+  16.  Aves: Ocellated Turkey (_Agriocharis ocellata_).
+  17.  Aves: King Vulture (_Sarcorhamphus papa_).
+  18.  Aves: King Vulture (_S. papa_), Black Vulture (_Catharista urubu_).
+  19.  Aves: Vultures.
+  20.  Aves: Harpy Eagle (_Thrasaetos harpyia_).
+  21.  Aves: Yucatan Horned Owl (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_).
+  22.  Aves: Yucatan Horned Ow[TN-1] (_B. v. mayensis_).
+  23.  Aves: Yucatan Screech Owl (_Otus choliba thompsoni_).
+  24.  Aves: Quetzal (_Pharomacrus mocinno_).
+  25.  Aves: Blue Macaw (_Ara militaris_).
+  26.  Aves: Parrots, Turkeys.
+  27.  Aves: Miscellaneous.
+  28.  Various animals.
+  29.  Mammalia: Armadillo and miscellaneous.
+  30.  Mammalia: Deer, Hare.
+  31.  Mammalia: Yucatan Deer (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_).
+  32.  Mammalia: Yucatan Peccary (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_),
+                 Yucatan Deer (_O. yucatanensis_).
+  33.  Mammalia: Yucatan Peccary (_T. a. yucatanense_).
+  34.  Mammalia: Jaguar, Puma.
+  35.  Mammalia: Jaguar, Coyote, Bear.
+  36, 37.  Mammalia: Dog (_Canis_).
+  38.  Mammalia: Leaf-nosed Bat (_Vampyrus_ or _Phyllostomus_).
+  39.  Mammalia: Monkey (_Cebus_) and miscellaneous.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT
+
+
+ FIG.
+   1.  Top of Altar T, Copan (Mandslay,[TN-2] I. Pl. 95)             320
+
+   2.  Pottery whistle from Uloa Valley, Honduras, representing a
+       vulture. Peabody Museum Memoirs. I. No. 4, fig. 15            332
+
+   3.  }
+   4.  } Glyphs of Maya month _Moan_ showing moan-bird
+   5.  } characteristics                                             339
+   6.  }
+
+   7.  Quetzal from the bas-relief of the Temple of the Cross,
+       Palenque                                                      341
+
+   8.  }
+   9.  } Glyphs for Maya month _Kankin_ (Ribs of dogs)               364
+  10.  }
+
+  11.  }
+  12.  }
+  13.  } Glyphs for Maya month _Zotz_ (Bats)                         365
+  14.  }
+
+  15.  Pottery whistle from Uloa Valley, Honduras (Peabody Museum
+       Memoirs, I, No. 4, fig. 14), representing an ape              366
+
+  16.  }
+  17.  }
+  18.  } Glyphs for Maya day _Chuen_                                 367
+  19.  }
+
+  20.  }
+  21.  }
+  22.  } Glyphs of God C. (Schellhas, Peabody Museum Papers, IV,     368
+  23.  } No. 1)
+  24.  }
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The various peoples inhabiting Mexico and Central America in early
+pre-Columbian times were accustomed to record various events, especially
+in regard to their calendar and the religious ceremonials in relation to
+it, on long strips of skin or bark. These were usually painted on both
+sides and folded together like a screen. Several of these codices are
+still in existence from the Nahua and Zapotec areas in Mexico, but only
+three have come down to us from the Maya region which is included in the
+peninsula of Yucatan, the states of Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico, and
+portions of Guatemala and Honduras. These three manuscripts are the
+Dresden Codex in the Royal Public Library at Dresden, the
+Tro-Cortesianus (formerly considered to have been two, the Troano and
+the Cortesianus) in the National Archaeological Museum at Madrid, and
+the Peresianus in the National Library at Paris. These pre-Columbian
+manuscripts have all been published in facsimile. (See bibliography.)
+
+These remains of a once extensive literature show evidence not only of
+considerable intellectual attainments on the part of their authors but
+also of a high degree of artistic skill in the drawings and
+hieroglyphics. The frequent occurrence in these manuscripts of
+representations of animals showing various degrees of elaboration and
+conventionalization has led us to undertake the task of identifying
+these figures as far as possible and studying the uses and significance
+of the several species, a field practically untouched.[284-*]
+Foerstemann in his various commentaries on the Maya codices (1902, 1903,
+1906), Brinton (1895), and deRosny[TN-3] (1876) have only commented briefly
+upon this side of the study of the manuscripts. Seler (1904a) and some
+others have written short papers on special animals. During the
+preparation of this paper there has appeared a brief account by Stempell
+(1908) of the animals in the Maya codices. The author has, however,
+omitted a number of species and, as we believe, misidentified others. In
+making our identifications we have given the reasons for our
+determinations in some detail and have stated the characteristics
+employed to denote the several species.
+
+We have not limited ourselves entirely to the Maya manuscripts as we
+have drawn upon the vast amount of material available in the stone
+carvings, the stucco figures, and the frescoes found throughout the Maya
+area. This material has by no means been exhausted in the present paper.
+In addition to the figures from the Maya codices and a comparatively few
+from other sources in the Maya region, we have introduced for comparison
+in a number of cases figures from a few of the ancient manuscripts of
+the Nahuas and the Zapotecs to the north. The calendar of these two
+peoples is fundamentally the same as that of the Mayas. The year is made
+up in the same way being composed of eighteen months of twenty days each
+with five days additional at the end of the year. There is therefore a
+more or less close connection as regards subject matter in all the
+pre-Columbian codices of Mexico and Central America but the manner of
+presentation differs among the different peoples of this region.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[284-*] The first two parts of Dr. Seler's Treatise, "Die Tierbilder der
+mexikanischen und der Maya-Handschriften" published in the _Zeitschrift
+fuer Ethnologie_, Vol. 41, have appeared during the time when this paper
+was passing through the press. The most excellent and exhaustive
+treatment by Dr. Seler would seem to render the present paper
+unnecessary. It has seemed best, however, to continue with its
+publication inasmuch as its field is narrower and more space is devoted
+to the Maya side of the question to the exclusion of the Mexican. Dr.
+Seler, on the other hand, while by no means neglecting the Maya, has
+spent more time in explaining the Mexican figures.
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+SYNOPTIC CONSIDERATION OF THE MEANING AND OCCURRENCE OF ANIMAL FORMS
+
+
+Before taking up the different animals in the codices it may be well to
+consider some of the more common ways in which the figures occur and
+their connection with the surrounding figures.
+
+MANNER OF REPRESENTATION. The entire body of the animal may be
+represented realistically or the head alone may be shown. The animal
+head is frequently attached to a human body. The animal may appear
+conventionalized to a greater or less extent and the head in turn may
+change in the same way until only a single characteristic of the animal
+remains by which to identify it as, for example, the spots of the jaguar
+or the feathering around the eye of the macaw. In the case of the
+glyphs, a term employed to designate the regular and usually square
+characters appearing in lines or columns throughout the codices and
+inscriptions, we find both the realistic drawing and that where
+conventionalism has come in.
+
+THE TONALAMATL. The Maya codices are made up, for the most part, of the
+records of the sacred period of two hundred and sixty days, a period
+called in Nahuatl, _tonalamatl_, and other numerical calculations. The
+_tonalamatl_ was used for purposes of divination in order to find out
+whether good or bad fortune was in store for an individual. It is not
+necessary at this place to go into the different means taken to record
+this period of time or its methods of use. It may be well, however, to
+explain the usual distribution of the pictures in the codices, including
+those of animals, in connection with the representation of the
+_tonalamatl_. A normal period is shown in Dresden 6c-7c. A column of
+five day signs occurs in the middle of 6c with a single red dot over it.
+To the right of this column stretches a horizontal line of numbers
+consisting of alternate groups of black and red lines and dots. Under
+each pair of red and black numbers there is usually a human form and
+over each pair a group of four glyphs belonging to the figure below.
+Schellhas (1904) has classified the various figures of gods appearing in
+these vignettes of the _tonalamatl_ and lettered them. References
+throughout the paper will be made to the gods by letters and the reader
+is referred to Schellhas' paper. Animal figures often take the place of
+these gods as in the second picture in Dresden 7c where the screech owl
+is shown with human body. The greater number of animal figures in the
+codices occur in some connection with these _tonalamatls_.
+
+MYTHOLOGICAL ANIMALS. Where figures are shown with human body and animal
+head standing alone in the place usually occupied by one of the various
+deities in the _tonalamatl_, there can be little doubt that they have a
+mythological meaning and are to be taken, either as gods themselves, or
+as representing certain of the gods. All of the animals are by no means
+shown in this position. The screech owl, or Moan bird (as in Dresden
+10a) appears most frequently in this way. The king vulture (Dresden 8a),
+the dog (Dresden 7a), and the parrot (Dresden 40b) come next in
+descending importance. The animals represented as copulating (as in
+Dresden 13c) might also be considered as mythological animals as well as
+the full drawings of the jaguar (Dresden 8a) and the other animals when
+they occur alone in the regular vignette of the _tonalamatl_. The four
+priests in Dresden 25a-28a should also be regarded as representing, in
+all probability, the dog as a mythological animal. The idea of
+worshipping animals as gods in themselves is strengthened by noting the
+ease with which the Maya people worshipped the horse which was left
+behind by Cortes in his march from Mexico across to Honduras
+(Villagutierre, 1701, pp. 100-101).
+
+ASTRONOMICAL IDEAS. Animals frequently have a part to play in relation
+to the constellations. Throughout the codices and, to a less degree, in
+the stone carvings, we find what have usually been considered to be
+glyphs for several of the constellations. Numerous calculations in the
+codices make it clear that the Mayas had a good knowledge of astronomy.
+These glyphs are usually oblong in shape and three or more are arranged
+together end to end. We have called these the constellation bands.
+Various attempts have been made to identify these signs of the various
+constellations. Animals frequently are pictured below these bands. The
+dog with fire brands in his paws and often attached to his tail is shown
+in several places coming head downward from one of these bands (as in
+Dresden 36a). The peccary is also shown in the same position although
+the fire brands do not appear (Dresden 68a). A figure with macaw head
+occurs once standing beneath one of these bands with fire brands in his
+hands (Dresden 40b). The serpent (as in Dresden 36a), the
+lizard-crocodile-like animal in Dresden 74, the turtle (Tro-Cortesianus
+71a), the vulture (Dresden 38b), the turkey (Tro-Cortesianus 10b), and
+the deer (Tro-Cortesianus 47a) all appear in connection with these
+constellation bands. It is impossible at this time to decide upon the
+part these various animals play in relation to distinct constellations.
+In addition to the animals named, several of the gods, especially god B,
+are found below these bands. One of these signs, the one identified by
+Foerstemann as standing for Saturn, is composed of the head of the
+crocodile more or less conventionalized.
+
+Foerstemann (1902, p. 27) identifies the turtle with the summer solstice
+and the snail as the animal associated with the winter solstice. There
+does not seem to be any one animal used in connection with any one of
+the cardinal points. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c the dog seems to be
+associated with the north as shown by the glyph which is ordinarily
+regarded as connected with that direction, the ape with the west, and an
+unidentifiable bird sitting on a _Cimi_ (death) sign with the south. The
+east is connected in this place with a human figure. It should be
+stated, however, that it is not absolutely certain that the usual
+assignment of the cardinal points, each to its special direction, is
+correct. The signs for the east and west as well as those for the north
+and south may be reversed. With the exception of the assignment of the
+offering-glyphs to the various cardinal points which will be discussed
+later (p. 290) this is almost the only case where a clear relation can
+be made out between the various animals and the signs for the four
+directions. There is no definite relation as is seen, for example, in
+the Vaticanus 3773, 17, 18 where the quetzal is noted perched on the
+tree of the east, the eagle on that of the north, the humming bird on
+that of the west, and the jaguar on the tree of the south.
+
+COPULATION. The conception, the period of pregnancy, the infant baptism,
+and possibly, the naming of children are shown in both the
+Tro-Cortesianus (91-95) and the Dresden (13-23). Animals are frequently
+shown copulating with various gods or with one another. In Dresden 13c,
+the deer and god M and the vulture and the dog; in 19c, the vulture and
+a woman; in Tro-Cortesianus 91d, a god and a woman; and in 92d, an
+armadillo and a deer both with female figures. These animals probably
+represent in some way the totems of the man or woman in question and are
+shown in place of the human figure. The Lacandones, a Maya people, show
+at the present time the remains of a totemic system (Tozzer, 1907, pp.
+40-42). The deer (_Ke_) gens is found at the present time. In the
+greater number of cases where copulation is shown a god and a female
+figure are pictured. The presentation of the new-born children by women
+with bird head-dresses, also occurring in this same section of both
+manuscripts, is discussed later (p. 291).
+
+ANIMAL SACRIFICES. Various ceremonials occurring at intervals throughout
+the Maya year which included sacrifices to the gods, evidently took up a
+large part of the time of the people. Animals composed by far the major
+part of the gifts made to the gods. This was especially true in regard
+to the ceremonies occurring at the beginning of each year. According to
+the Maya calendar there were four days only which could come at the
+beginning of the year and these came in succession. Landa (1864, pp.
+210-233), the first Bishop of Yucatan, gives a minute description of the
+rites of the four years which were named according to the initial day.
+He also relates the manner in which the various animals are employed as
+offerings in these rites and also in others taking place at the
+beginning of the various months.[289-*]
+
+The rites which took place at the beginning and the end of the year are
+shown in Dresden 25-28 and in Tro-Cortesianus 34-37. The dog, the deer,
+and the turkey are the most important of the animals shown as being
+offered to the gods in this connection. It will not be necessary to
+consider these animals in detail at this place as they are each taken up
+later.
+
+OFFERINGS SHOWN BY GLYPHS. It is, however, in another connection than
+that just considered that the animals are shown as offerings far more
+frequently throughout the Maya manuscripts. In the ceremonies of the
+four years, the animals and birds are, for the most part, represented
+entire and purely as pictures. Offerings are also shown in the form of
+glyphs. These may occur in connection with the figures of the gods or in
+the lines of hieroglyphs above the pictures. When they are used in the
+former relation they are usually shown as resting in a bowl or dish
+(Dresden 35a). It frequently happens that when a god is making an
+offering represented by the entire animal or a glyph of the animal in
+the main picture, there is a corresponding glyph of the offering above
+in the line of hieroglyphics (Dresden 23b).
+
+The fish, iguana, turkey, deer and possibly the lizard are the usual
+animals shown as glyphs in this connection. The frigate bird occurs once
+in the Dresden (35a) and once in the Tro-Cortesianus (34a) as an
+offering. The dog, curiously enough, does not seem to be represented by
+an offering-glyph although he has a glyph of his own when appearing in
+other connections. The iguana and fish are shown entire although drawn
+very small; the head is the only part usually shown of the turkey and
+the haunch of venison of the deer. The head and feet of the lizard, as
+has been noted, may also be shown by a glyph. The turkey and iguana
+glyphs are very often found with a _Kan_ sign indicating an offering of
+maize and bread as well as that of the animal. In connection with glyphs
+showing various offerings of food, there is one which occurs especially
+in the Tro-Cortesianus (as in 106a). This shows a row of points
+themselves running to a point over a _Kan_ sign. This, as will be
+pointed out later (p. 318) may also represent an iguana. The jar
+containing a representation of the honey comb (as in Tro-Cortesianus
+107b) might come in here in the consideration of the offering-glyphs.
+
+In many instances the common offerings shown by glyphs are found
+associated with the signs for the four cardinal points but there does
+not seem to be any strict uniformity as to the special offering
+associated with each direction. In Dresden 29b, the lizard glyph is
+found in the same group with the sign commonly assigned to the east, the
+turkey with the south, the iguana with the west, and the fish with the
+north while in Dresden 29c, the deer is associated with the east, the
+fish with the south, the iguana with the west, and the turkey with the
+north. The iguana is usually found with the sign for the west and the
+fish with that of the south. The others vary greatly in the assignment
+of the various directions.
+
+Schellhas (1904, p. 17) considers that the fish, the lizard, "the
+sprouting kernel of maize or (according to Foerstemann, parts of a
+mammal, game)" and a vulture's head are symbols of the four elements.
+The head which Schellhas interprets as that of the vulture is certainly
+the head of a turkey. He remarks that these signs of the four elements
+appear with god B in the Dresden manuscript. Other gods, as he also
+notes, are found with these four offering-glyphs. There seems to be a
+fifth glyph, however, (as in Dresden 29b) which we have interpreted as
+that of a lizard.
+
+ANIMALS AS RAIN BEARERS. Various animals are associated with the rain
+and water. The serpent is most frequently represented in this
+connection. Snails, fish, the turtle, and the frog, as well as the
+lizard-crocodile figure in Dresden 74 are naturally found associated
+with water. The vulture-headed figure in Dresden 38b and the vulture as
+a bird in Tro-Cortesianus 10a both appear in the rain. The peccary
+(Dresden 68a), and the turkey (Tro-Cortesianus 10b) appear associated
+with the rain as well as with the constellation bands. The scorpion
+(Tro-Cortesianus 7a) encloses the rain within its legs.
+
+The connection of an old female figure occurring in many places in the
+codices with the rain will be discussed later (p. 316) when considering
+the serpent. It remains at this place to comment upon the woman in
+Tro-Cortesianus 30b from whose breasts water is flowing. She is
+represented as having animal figures seated on her two outstretched
+hands and on her right foot together with another animal at her side.
+God B sits on her left foot. This picture immediately recalls
+representations in the Mexican codices where the various parts of the
+body of a god are associated with various day signs, ten of which have
+animal names. In the Maya picture, a jaguar is shown on the right hand,
+a peccary on the left, a dog on the right foot, and a rabbit beside the
+body at her right. The peccary is not represented among the Nahua day
+signs but the other three are found, namely the _oceolotl_ (jaguar),
+_itzcuintli_ (dog), and _tochtli_ (rabbit).
+
+ANIMAL HEAD-DRESSES. Animal figures appear perhaps most frequently as
+head-dresses of the various gods in the codices. Here, as elsewhere,
+from all that can be made out, the religious character is uppermost as
+in addition to being a decoration, they undoubtedly have some religious
+signification. Birds occur by far most commonly in this connection. Both
+male and female figures seems to have these head-dresses. The same bird
+is often found as the head-dress of several different gods as, for
+example, the turkey which appears with gods A, B, C, E, and N. The
+vulture, on the other hand, when used as a head-dress for male figures,
+appears exclusively with god F. The whole bird is seldom represented on
+the head-dress of the male figures. It is usually only the head and a
+part of the body of the bird which forms but a portion of the whole
+head-covering. Landa (1864, p. 148)[292-*] notes the dress of the leader
+in the rites. He wears a jacket of red feathers worked with other
+feathers and from it hang long plumes. He also wears a feather
+head-dress.
+
+Entire birds appear as the sole head-covering only in connection with
+female figures and then only in one section of the Dresden (16-18) and a
+parallel passage in the Tro-Cortesianus (94-95). In both these places
+the conception and the bearing of children are shown together with their
+baptism. The bird above the head of each female figure seems to be a
+badge of office, possibly the totems which are held by the women and
+given to the children. The parrot, quetzal, vulture, screech owl and the
+horned owl appear in this connection. It is to be noted that the birds
+associated with these women are not really represented as head-dresses
+at all. They are quite different from the head decoration composed of a
+bird's head and feathers seen in other parts of the manuscripts. In the
+Dresden especially, these birds above the women's heads are shown in
+almost every case standing with the claws clasping the necklace at the
+back of the neck. Landa (1864, pp. 144-154) gives an interesting account
+of the method of baptising children. He also states (p. 304)[292-[+]]
+that in the month _Yaxkin_ an old woman brought the little girls to the
+general feast. This old woman was dressed in a garment of feathers. It
+was understood that this devoted old woman was not permitted to become
+intoxicated[293-*] lest she should lose in the road the plume of her
+office.
+
+The serpent appears as a head-dress exclusively with female figures and
+then usually when the woman is in the act of offering something or is
+associated with water or rain. The centipede occurs only with god D.
+Quadrupeds are employed as head-dresses only very seldom. The head of a
+deer is, in three places, used as a part of the head decoration of god M
+and the head of a jaguar appears in two places only.
+
+SECULAR OCCUPATIONS. Animals appear frequently in scenes showing various
+occupations. These, although appearing at first sight as secular, have
+to do with the religion of the people and they show in every case acts
+undertaken in behalf of the deities. It is almost exclusively in the
+Tro-Cortesianus that these religious-secular occupations are shown.
+
+Hunting scenes occur in one section of this codex (38-49). The whole aim
+of the hunt in these pages is to obtain animals for sacrifice. In almost
+every case the various animals are shown as being captured alive, either
+in a pitfall or a trap of the "jerk-up" type. This was undoubtedly in
+order that the animal might be killed the moment it was offered to the
+gods by having its heart cut out. Deer are most commonly represented in
+this hunting section although peccaries and armadillos also appear.
+Fishing is shown in one place at least (Dresden 33a).
+
+The practice of agriculture is shown in Tro-Cortesianus 24-28. The
+sprouting grain is represented as being eaten by a vulture and a jaguar.
+Certain gods in this section which relates to the planting of maize are
+shown as being attacked by vultures and blow-flies. Another occupation
+of the natives depicted in the Tro-Cortesianus (103-112) is apiculture.
+This, again, has clearly some religious significance. Pottery-making is
+shown in the same manuscript (95-101). It is, however, a purely
+religious ceremony. The renewal of the incense-burners is shown.
+Animals occur very infrequently in this section. The quetzal and two
+vultures are noted seated on top of an oven-like covering under which is
+the head of god C, probably representing the idol. There are several
+other occupations shown in this codex such as weaving (79c) and the
+gathering of the sap of the rubber tree (102b), but as animals do not
+occur in any connection with these operations, it is not necessary to
+dwell upon them.
+
+ANIMAL GLYPHS. It remains finally to speak of the various animals which
+are represented in glyph form as well as drawn in full in the pictures
+proper. The creatures pictured in the codices are often accompanied by
+their glyphs which appear in the lines of signs directly above. In many
+cases, the animal pictured below is not represented by its glyph above
+and, vice versa, the animal glyph may appear without its picture below.
+The same is seen also in connection with the representation of the gods
+and their glyphs. Both the picture and the glyph usually appear but
+either may appear alone. Many times when the glyph, either of a god or
+an animal, is shown with no accompanying picture, the reason seems to be
+that there is no room for the latter on account of the numerical
+calculations which take up all the space.
+
+There are some animals in the codices which are represented by glyphs
+very frequently. Among these are the screech owl (the Moan, the bird of
+death), which has several different glyphs by which it is recognized,
+the dog which, in addition to its own glyph, may be represented by the
+day sign _Oc_, the king vulture, the turtle, the bee (if we consider the
+day sign _Cauac_ stands for this insect), and the centipede. Among the
+animals whose glyphs only seldom appear may be mentioned the macaw, the
+peccary, the tree-toad (god P), the quetzal, and the jaguar. The glyph
+for the black vulture (Tro-Cortesianus 26c), the ape (Tro-Cortesianus
+88c), the deer (Peresianus 10), the eagle (Tro-Cortesianus 107c), and
+the serpent (Tro-Cortesianus 106c) seem to appear but once. It might
+also be well to mention in this place the glyphs for various molluscs
+which are used not to represent the shell but to give the value of zero
+to the numerical calculations.
+
+In the inscriptions glyphs frequently occur which represent animals
+either showing the whole body or simply the head. In the eastern facade
+of the Monjas at Chichen Itza there are glyphs for both the king and the
+black vulture and the peccary. The macaw and the turtle seem also to be
+represented by glyphs in the inscriptions. The _Tun_ period glyph shows
+vulture-like characteristics and the _Uinal_ period glyph certainly
+resembles the lizard. The glyphs representing the various animal
+offerings have already been discussed under a special heading (p. 289).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[289-*] p. 162. "Las mugeres no usavan destos derrammamientos, aunque
+eran harto santeras; mas de todas las cosas que aver podian que son aves
+del cielo, animales de la tierra, o pescados de la agua, siempre les
+embadurnavan los rostros al demonio con la sangre dellos."
+
+p. 164. "Y otras cosas que tenian ofrecian; a algunos animales les
+sacavan el corazon y lo ofrecian, a otros enteros, unos vivos, otros
+muertos, unos crudos, otros guisados.... Que sin las fiestas en las
+quales, para la solemnidad de ellas, se secrificavan animales, tambien
+por alguna tribulacion o necessidad."
+
+p. 254. "Tenian buscados todos animales y savandijas del campo que
+podian aver y en la tierra avia, y con ellos se juntavan en el patio del
+templo en el qual se ponian los _Chaques_.... Sacavan con liberalidad
+los coracones a las aves y animales, y echavanlos a quemar en el fuego;
+y sino podian aver los animales grandes como tigres, leones o largartos,
+hazian los coracones de su encienso, y si los matavan trayanles los
+coracones para aquel fuego."
+
+[292-*] "Vestido salia con un jaco de pluma colorado y labrado de otras
+plumas de colores, y que le cuelgan de los estremos otras plumas largas
+y una como coroza en la cabeca de las mesmas plumas."
+
+[292-[+]] "Y a las ninas se les dava una vieja, vestida de un habito de
+plumas, que las traia alli y por esto la llamavan _Ixmol_, la
+allegadera.... Aquella devota vieja allegaria con que se emborachava en
+casa por no perder la pluma del officio en el camino."
+
+[293-*] "Intoxication was obligatory with the men in many of the
+religious rites. This is reported by the early Spanish historians and is
+the case at the present time among the Lacandones." (See Tozzer, 1907,
+p. 136.)
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+ZOOLOGICAL IDENTIFICATION AND ETHNOLOGICAL EXPLANATION OF ANIMAL FORMS.
+
+
+In the descriptions of the animals which follow the general plan will be
+to consider first the identification purely from a zoological point of
+view, and, secondly, the connection and, wherever possible, the meaning
+of the use of the various animal figures wherever they occur.
+
+
+MOLLUSCA
+
+FASCIOLARIA GIGANTEA. Representations of this marine shell are found in
+several places in the codices. It is the only large _Fusus_-like species
+on the western coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and, indeed, is the largest
+known American shell. It is therefore not strange that it should have
+attracted the attention of the Mayas and found a place in their
+writings. Several figures are shown that represent _Fasciolaria_ (Pl. 1,
+figs. 1-9). One in the Codex Vaticanus 3773 (Pl. 1, fig. 3) in common
+with those shown in Pl. 1, figs. 2, 6, 9, has the spire represented by
+segments of successively smaller size. The species of _Fasciolaria_
+occurring on the Yucatan and adjacent coasts is characterized by
+numerous prominent bosses or projections on its later whorls, and these,
+too, appear in conventionalized form in most of the representations. In
+Pl. 1, fig. 2, the second whorl, and in figs. 6, 9, the third whorl is
+shown with three stout tubercles in side view, corresponding to those
+found in this region of the shell. Figs. 7, 8 (Pl. 1) are glyphs
+representing the same species, but as in fig. 4, the spire is omitted,
+though the knobs are present. Round spots of color are evidently
+intended by the markings on the shells shown in figs. 3, 5, 6 (Pl. 1).
+Fig. 5, shows a further modification of the spire, which here is made
+like the head of a serpent.
+
+The _Mollusca_ in the codices are not always associated with the water
+although this is usually the case. God N (Pl. 1, fig. 1) sitting with
+the shell around his body is represented as in the rain and the shells
+in Pl. 1, figs. 4, 6, appear under water. The snail (Maya, _[vs]ot_) is
+considered by the Nahuas as the symbol of birth and death. The first
+idea is well brought out in Pl. 1, fig. 2, where the human figure is
+emerging from a shell. The same idea among the Mayas is seen in Pl. 1,
+fig. 1, where god N is coming from a shell. As god N is usually
+associated with the end of the year, we may have here the complementary
+idea of death associated with the shell. The same meaning is brought out
+in the Bologna Codex (Pl. 1, fig. 3) where the shell is decorated with
+flint points, the symbol of death. As the tortoise is often identified
+with the summer solstice, as previously pointed out, so the snail is
+associated with the winter solstice.
+
+Foerstemann's identification of the head-dress of god D (Dresden 5c), god
+A (Dresden 9c, 13a), and god E (Dresden 11c) as representing snails is
+not clear. Stempell (1908, p. 739) also follows the same course thinking
+that the knob-like prominences represent the stalked eyes of snails.
+This seems quite unlikely as such representations are usually short and
+occur in too widely dissimilar connections. Moreover, there are
+sometimes three of these instead of but a single pair (Dresden 14a). A
+similar attempt has been made by Brinton to identify the head-dress of
+the death god (god A) as the snail. The head-dress in Dresden 13a and
+13b associated with god A looks far more like the head and upper jaw of
+some mammal.
+
+OLIVA. A univalve shell frequently represented is of an oval shape,
+pointed at each end, with a longitudinal lip and a short spire at one
+extremity. This is doubtless a species of _Oliva_, a marine shell. Mr.
+Charles W. Johnson informs us that _O. reticulata_ is the species
+occurring on the Yucatan shores, while _O. splendidula_ is found in
+other parts of the Gulf of Mexico. Representations of this shell are
+shown in Pl. 1, figs. 10-12. In figs. 10, 11, the lip and spire are
+apparent but in fig. 12 the lip only is seen as a white fissure against
+the general dark background. An earthenware vessel representing a tapir
+(Pl. 28, fig. 1) shows a string of _Oliva_ shells about the animal's
+neck and similar strings very often decorate the belts worn by the
+personages represented on the stelae of Copan.
+
+The shell in the codices is found in most cases to represent zero in the
+Maya numerical calculations. Just as a bar has the meaning five, and a
+dot one, so the shell often has the signification of zero. This is seen
+especially in the numeration by position in the codices (Pl. 1, figs. 7,
+8, 10-14).
+
+OTHER MOLLUSCA. In addition to the species just described at least two
+or three others occur in the Nuttall Codex, but so conventionalized that
+it is out of the question to hazard a guess at their identity. One (Pl.
+1, figs. 16, 17) is a bivalve with long pointed shell, another (Pl. 1,
+figs. 18-20) is rounder with conventionalized scroll-like markings.
+Figs. 21, 22 (Pl. 1) may be a side view of the closed bivalve shown in
+figs. 16, 17, or possibly a species of cowry. In like manner, fig. 13 is
+probably a side view of the mollusc shown in fig. 14, for it is seen
+that in each case the figure showing the two opened valves has a
+bipartite extended foot, whereas that of the single valve is simple.
+This doubling of the single median foot of the bivalve may be an
+artistic necessity for the sake of balance, or perhaps represents both
+foot and siphon at the same end. Figs. 23, 24 (Pl. 1) seem to represent
+molluscs still further reduced and conventionalized. These molluscs from
+the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 1, figs. 15-24) are almost all found represented
+in the blue water, whereas those which stand for zero in the Maya
+codices have no immediate association with either water or rain.
+
+
+INSECTA
+
+THE HONEY BEE (_Melipona_). A portion of the Tro-Cortesianus appears to
+treat of apiculture, as previously noted, or, at all events, contains
+numerous figures of bees, some of which are shown in Pl. 2. As stated by
+Stempell (1908, p. 735) this is doubtless a species of _Melipona_,
+probably _M. fulvipes_ or _domestica_. It is well known that this bee
+was kept by the ancient Mexicans, and what appear to be improvised hives
+are shown in Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10, where the combs are noted depending
+from the ceiling or walls. These combs are seen to be composed of cells
+roughly four-sided for the most part, though in fig. 11 several
+hexagonal cells are present in the mass of comb held by the black god,
+M. Darwin, in his _Origin of Species_, has called attention to the form
+of the comb built by this bee, and considers its irregular cells of from
+three to six sides intermediate in their degree of perfection between
+those of the bumble bee (_Bombus_) and the honey bee of Europe (_Apis
+mellifica_). The _Caban_ form in connnection[TN-4] with the hive in fig.
+10 may have some phonetic signifiance[TN-5] as _kab_ is honey in Maya.
+This sign occurs very frequently in the pages devoted to apiculture.
+
+The figures of the bees in the codex show a number of interesting
+variations. In figs. 1-3, 5, 11, the insect is less conventionalized
+than in figs. 4, 6 (Pl. 2). The hairy feet are well indicated as well as
+the segmented body and a single pair of wings. All the figures show an
+anterodorsal view so that, on account of the size of the first pair of
+legs, only the tops of the second pair appear in Pl. 2, figs. 1, 3, 5.
+In fig. 2, however, two pairs are seen, and in figs. 4, 6, the
+anthropomorphic tendency is further shown by providing the insect with
+two pairs of limbs each with four or five digits, and a conventionalized
+face, eyes and mouth. In Pl. 2, fig. 1, the bee is represented without
+mouthparts but antennae only. This may indicate a drone or a queen bee
+that takes no active part in the work of gathering honey or making comb.
+Fig. 2 is perhaps the least reduced of any of the figures and shows the
+worker bee with antennae and mouthparts.
+
+The so-called "cloud balls" of the day sign _Cauac_ (Pl. 2, fig. 8) may
+represent the honey comb. _Cauac_ is usually supposed to have some
+connection with lightening[TN-6] and thunder although Valentini agrees with
+the authors in associating _Cauac_ with the bees and honey. The
+_Cauac_-like forms in Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10, have been described above as
+hives. The representation of legs in the full drawing of a bee as four
+large limbs, an anterior and a posterior pair, coupled with the method
+of drawing the insect as seen from above and in front, may have led to
+its final expression by an X-shaped mark shown in connection with the
+hives (Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10). The X is also seen in the day sign _Cauac_.
+
+Apiculture was common among the various peoples of Central America and
+Mexico. Las Casas speaks of hives of bees and Gomara states that the
+bees were small and the honey rather bitter. Clavigero (Vol. 1, p.
+68)[300-*] mentions six varieties of bees which were found in
+Mexico;--the first is the same as the common bee of Europe, the second
+differs from the first only in having no sting and is the bee of Yucatan
+and Chiapas which makes the fine clear honey of aromatic flavor. The
+third species resembles in its form the winged ants but is smaller than
+the common bee and without a sting. The fourth is a yellow bee, smaller
+than the common one but, like it, furnished with a sting. The fifth is a
+small bee without a sting which constructs hives of an orbicular form in
+subterranean cavities and the honey is sour and somewhat bitter. The
+_Tlalpipiolli_, which is the sixth species, is black and yellow, of the
+size of the common bee, but has no sting.
+
+The natives of the country at the present time often cultivate hives of
+bees in logs which they hollow out for this purpose and keep in a
+specially constructed shelter. It is, however, rather the ceremonial
+side of apiculture that is the interesting feature and this is clearly
+emphasized in the Tro-Cortesianus. The section in this manuscript (80b,
+103-112), as has been noted, is taken up almost exclusively with the
+culture of the bee and in all probability represents a definite
+religious ceremony or series of rites which are connected intimately
+with bees and honey. Landa (1864, p. 292)[300-[+]] states that in the
+month _Tzoz_ the natives prepare for a ceremony in behalf of the bees
+which takes place in the following month, _Tzec_. In the month _Mol_
+another fiesta is undertaken in behalf of these insects so that the
+gods may provide an abundance of flowers for the bees (Landa, 1864, p.
+306).[301-*]
+
+It seems clear therefore that we have represented in the pages of the
+Tro-Cortesianus referred to, the rites carried out in this connection.
+The more or less realistic drawings of the bees (Pl. 2, figs. 1-6, 9)
+represent the god of the bees and to him offerings of food and incense
+are being made. Pl. 2, fig. 11, shows the war god (M) with his eagle
+head-dress offering a mass of honey in the comb to the god of the bees.
+
+Curiously enough the bee does not seem to be represented in the Dresden
+Codex. Foerstemann's identification of the head-dress of the goddess in
+Dresden 9a as a bee does not seem to us to be correct.
+
+In addition to the bees, there occurs in the Nuttall Codex 4 (Pl. 3,
+fig. 4) a curious representation of an insect with a pointed beak-like
+structure and a spine at the posterior extremity of its human-like body.
+It is engaged in apparent conflict with a man and may represent a
+hornet.
+
+BLOW-FLY (_Sarcophaga_). Two figures in the Tro-Cortesianus (Pl. 3,
+figs. 1, 2) are of special interest since they appear to have been
+frequently regarded as picturing snakes attacking men. These are
+thick-bodied sinuous creatures distinguished by the curious conformation
+of the mouth and by a lateral row of dots that may represent the
+metameric spiracles or, as commonly, a demarcation between dorsal and
+ventral surfaces. That these are maggots of a blow-fly (_Sarcophaga_)
+there can be little doubt, not only on account of their mouth parts
+which are similar to those of the agave maggot (see later) but also
+because of their relation to God F whom they are devouring. The latter
+in fig. 1 is doubtless dead as shown by the closed eye and it is the
+habit of the blow-fly to deposit its eggs in the nasal cavity of dead
+animals as well as elsewhere on the body. The fact that in each case a
+maggot is attacking the god's nose may indicate that this habit was
+known to the artist who, consequently, shows the larvae in this
+position. In Pl. 3, fig. 2, the god's eye is not closed but his passive
+attitude while the maggot devours his hand and nose does not indicate
+that he is in full possession of his strength. In addition to the
+blow-fly, a screw-fly (_Chrysomyia_) lays its eggs on the bodies of
+animals, often on persons sleeping, and these may hatch almost at once
+into small maggots that penetrate the skin. It may be, therefore, that
+the larvae here considered belong to this genus.
+
+In addition to god F, in Tro-Cortesianus 24d, there is another
+representation of the same god being attacked by a vulture. This bird is
+evidently eating his nose. In this case the god is shown with the closed
+eye as in 27d. In Tro-Cortesianus 25d the fly seems to be attacking the
+mouth of god F. From the fact that no other god is ever found in this
+connection it may be suggested that there may be some relation between
+god F as a god of human sacrifice and the fact that his dead body is
+being eaten by blow-flies and vultures. A portion of the body of the
+person sacrificed was usually eaten by those taking part in the
+ceremony.
+
+LEPIDOPTEROUS INSECTS. In Tro-Cortesianus 28c (Pl. 3, fig. 3) is shown a
+second insect larva with curiously formed mouth parts. It is represented
+as attacking agave which is springing from the ground as shown by the
+_Caban_ signs in the codex. Hough (1908, p. 591) has shown this to be
+the larva of _Acentrocneme kollari_ Felder, "called by the Mexicans
+_guson_, and in Nahuatl _mescuillin_." This grub, he says, is white,
+about an inch long, and tunnels the fleshy leaves of the agave. It is
+greatly prized as an article of food for "_gusones_ to this day are
+collected in April, boiled, wrapped in the epidermis of the agave, sold
+on the streets of Mexico, and are eaten with avidity. To all appearances
+they are nourishing and palatable, and it is said that connoisseurs
+prefer them to oysters or swallows' nests." Hough believes "that the
+discovery of the sap-yielding quality of the agave was through search
+for these larvae."
+
+In the Nuttall Codex occur numerous representations of insects, some of
+which appear to represent butterflies or moths (Pl. 3, figs. 5-8) but
+these are quite unidentifiable. That shown in fig. 6 is colored blue in
+the original, while the others are of various colors. Possibly the round
+markings on the wings in figs. 5, 8, represent the ocelli on the wings
+of certain species of moths. In this connection, too, it is interesting
+to compare the conventionalized butterfly with its single eye and
+pointed antennae from the Aubin manuscript (Pl. 3, fig. 9) with one
+drawn on the same plan from the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 3, fig. 8).
+
+
+MYRIAPODA
+
+Representations of a centipede (probably a species of _Scolopendra_)
+occur in the Dresden Codex and in several others examined. That shown in
+Pl. 5, fig. 1, from the Vaticanus 3773, is perhaps the least
+conventionalized.[303-*] This figure appears partly to encircle a
+temple, behind which the major portion of its length is hidden and hence
+is not here shown. The bipartite structure coming from the animal's head
+doubtless represents the mouthparts, and at its base on either side
+arise antennae. The first pair only of legs is shown with a pinching
+claw, possibly intended as a conventionalized hand, while the rest are
+simple. The plumes decorating the posterior extremity are of course
+extraneous and represent the tail of the quetzal or trogon.
+
+In the Dresden Codex, god D constantly appears in connection with a
+head-dress from which depends a centipede, greatly reduced and
+conventionalized. Two forms of this centipede are shown in Pl. 3, figs.
+15, 18. The body appears to consist of four or five segments each with
+its pair of ambulatory appendages (though there may not always be the
+same number of each) terminated by a circular segment with a
+conventionalized three-knobbed structure, apparently corresponding to
+the portion that bears the quetzal plume in Pl. 5, fig. 1. The outline
+of the head in Pl. 3, fig. 15, is shown in dotted line but by solid line
+in fig. 18. One of the antennae appears to be omitted from the former
+figure, also, but both are present in the latter. The insect-like head
+is made on much the same plan as that of the bee (Pl. 2, fig. 11), the
+facial portion divided by a median line into a right and a left half
+with a small triangle below for a mouth. The eyes, however, instead of
+being circular like those of the bee are made as narrow elongated
+projections extending inward from the dorsal margin of the facial disc.
+
+The glyphs for god D in Dresden 7b (Pl. 3, fig. 11), Dresden 7c, and
+Dresden 14b (Pl. 3, fig. 12) undoubtedly show three forms of the sign
+for god D, only one of which (fig. 12) is given by Schellhas (1904, p.
+22) among the signs of this god. In each of these cases the centipede
+head surrounded by dots is shown in connection with the main part of the
+glyph. In Dresden 44b (Pl. 3, fig. 13) there is a glyph which seems to
+show the same centipede head although it has no connection with god D in
+the place where it is found. In Dresden 27 (Pl. 3, fig. 14), moreover,
+still another variant of the glyph for god D seems to occur. This shows
+a prefix clearly representing the centipede and the "moon sign" is the
+main part of the glyph. Directly beside this in the codex is found the
+_Ahau_-like sign for god D and god D himself is represented in the
+middle section of the page.
+
+The association of god D with the centipede may be explained by the fact
+that as this god is regarded as the Moon or Night god, so the centipede
+is an animal which frequents dark places. Another point in this
+connection may be made if we consider the head of the centipede in the
+head-dress and in the glyphs as representing the day sign _Akbal_ (Pl.
+3, fig. 10) as _Akbal_ in Maya means night. It must be admitted,
+however, that the head might represent the day sign _Chuen_ almost as
+well as _Akbal_. The centipede is connected with death and destruction
+in the same way as the owl. Both are shown in Vaticanus 3773, 13,
+associated with the "house of drought."
+
+
+CRUSTACEA
+
+With one possible exception no crustaceans were found depicted in the
+Maya codices, but we have introduced figures of two from the Nuttall
+Codex. The first of these (Pl. 4, fig. 5) is probably a crayfish,
+perhaps _Cambarus montezumae_. It seems unlikely that the so-called
+Spanish lobster (_Palinurus_) can be intended or the powerful spined
+antennae would have been shown. It is interesting to note that the
+stalked eyes are clearly pictured. The second example seems to be a crab
+(Pl. 4, fig. 6). Two large chelae of nearly equal size are simply drawn
+and four rounded projections at the top of the figure appear to
+represent the walking legs. Its rotund form and subequal chelae suggest
+the land crab, _Geocarcinus_, but exact determination is of course
+impossible. What is certainly a large crab, perhaps of the same species,
+is shown in Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 36, fig. 1) in connection with a
+dog whose feet it seems about to pinch with its two large chelae. The
+shell is ornamented in a conventionalized way as if with scales.
+
+
+ARACHNIDA
+
+In Codex Borbonicus 9 (Pl. 4, fig. 4) there is represented a
+stout-bodied form of spider with two sharply pointed chelicerae
+projecting from the conventionalized mouth. These characteristics
+together with the absence of any web, suggest a large predacious
+species, probably the tarantula (_Tarantula_ sp.) which is common in
+Mexico. The acute powers of observation shown by the artist are evinced
+in this figure since he draws the spider correctly with eight legs
+instead of the six or ten sometimes seen in drawings by our own
+illustrators.
+
+
+ARACHNOIDEA
+
+The scorpion (Maya, _sinaan_) figures prominently in the
+Tro-Cortesianus, two drawings from which are shown (Pl. 4, figs. 1, 2).
+As here conventionalized, the jointed appendages are represented as
+composed of an indefinite number of round segments. The large chelate
+pedipalps are also prominently figured but the smaller walking legs are
+commonly omitted. In Pl. 4, fig. 1, however, there is a pair of
+posterior chelate appendages which are probably added to give a more
+anthropoid cast to the figure. The slight projections along the sides of
+the body in Pl. 4, fig. 2, probably do not represent the legs. In
+another drawing (Tro-Cortesianus 44b) these are also present but further
+reduced so as not to exceed the heavy fringe of spines surrounding the
+body. In Pl. 4, fig. 1, the fringe alone appears. The formidable nature
+of the scorpion is of course due to the poisonous sting at the tip of
+the attenuated abdomen or "tail." In the Maya pictures this portion is
+usually shown as a grasping organ. Thus in fig. 1 it is similar to the
+chela and holds a cord by which a deer has been caught. In fig. 2 the
+"tail" is terminated by a hand. The same thing is seen in
+Tro-Cortesianus 44b where the hand seizes a cord by which a deer is
+snared. The scorpion is represented in the drawings with a
+conventionalized face that is very characteristic. The facial disc is
+divided into three parts by a median area of straight or irregular
+lateral boundaries ending anteriorly in two in-turned scrolls suggesting
+the alae of the nose. A circular eye is present in each of the lateral
+divisions of the face while from the oral region projects a forked
+tongue.
+
+It is of course hazardous to attempt a specific identification of these
+figures but, as pointed out by Stempell (1908, p. 739), there are two
+large scorpions in Yucatan (_Centruroides margaritatus_ and _C.
+gracilis_) which are probably the species pictured in the codices.
+
+The representations of the scorpion in the Tro-Cortesianus are almost
+always associated with scenes of the hunt. As the deer is caught in a
+trap so Foerstemann considers that Pl. 4, fig. 1, shows a trap with five
+appliances, the "tail" one alone being effective. Brinton (1895, p. 75)
+notes that the Mayas applied the term _sinaan ek_, "scorpion stars" to a
+certain constellation and suggests that it was derived from the
+Spaniards. There is certainly some association between the scorpion and
+water as, in Tro-Cortesianus 7a, the fore and hind legs of the animal
+enclose a body of water. The scorpion "tail" alone appears in
+Tro-Cortesianus 31a and 82a as the tail of a god. Its significance is
+difficult to make out. Destruction is indicated by the scorpion in the
+Aubin manuscript as suggested by Seler (1900-1901, p. 71).
+
+In the Nuttall Codex there is a remarkably beautiful conventionalization
+of a scorpion (Pl. 4, fig. 3) in which the tripartite nature of the head
+is still preserved though it is so reduced as to resemble the calyx of a
+flower. The "tail", as elsewhere, and the legs are present.
+
+
+PISCES
+
+Figures of fish (Maya _kai_) occur commonly in the Maya codices in
+various connections as well as in the stone carvings, but none of these
+seems certainly identifiable. Among the representations, however, there
+are clearly several species. One (Pl. 5, figs. 2, 6, 7-9; Pl. 6, fig. 9)
+has a single dorsal fin, powerful teeth, and a generally ferocious
+aspect and may represent some large predacious variety, perhaps a tunny.
+The distinct operculum in most of the figures would preclude their
+representing a shark. Other figures picture similar fish without the
+prominent teeth (Pl. 5, fig. 4, 5; Pl. 6, figs. 2, 6, 10, 13). In two
+cases the scales are diagramatically shown by straight or crescentric
+lines (Pl. 5, fig. 4, 8). A third species of fish is shown provided with
+two dorsal fins (Pl. 6, figs. 3, 11; Pl. 7, fig. 6, the last an
+excellent stone carving). Others (Pl. 6, figs. 7, 14-17) represent
+fishes without dorsal fins, one of which (fig. 7) from its length may be
+an eel, possibly _Muraena_.
+
+In the Nuttall Codex occurs a remarkable fish with an unmistakable wing
+arising just behind the head nearly at the dorsal line. While this may
+represent a flying fish (_Exocetus_), the head is so bird-like that the
+whole may be merely a combination figure.
+
+Of frequent occurrence in the Dresden is a glyph, two modifications of
+which are here shown (Pl. 6, figs. 4, 5). Stempell suggests that the
+vertical lines on the posterior portion of such figures may be gill
+slits and that hence they may represent sharks in which these orifices
+are without an operculum.
+
+As with the molluscs, so with the fish, we naturally find them usually
+associated with the water. This may be seen especially well in the
+Nuttall Codex. In Dresden 33a (Pl. 6, fig. 13) the fish is clearly
+associated with the operation of fishing as two figures are seated on
+the edge of a body of water in the act of casting a net. An eel is shown
+in the water under god B in Dresden 65b (Pl. 6, fig. 7) and fish are
+shown just below the claws of a crocodile in text figure 1. In Dresden
+44a god B holds a fish in his hands. As will be pointed out later (p.
+314) this god is frequently associated with water. In Dresden 44c a fish
+appears between god B and an unidentifiable deity. In the Maya codices
+the greater number of representations of fish are in connection with
+sacrifice. In Dresden 27 (Pl. 6, fig. 6) the fish is pictured resting on
+two _Kan_ signs, the symbol of maize or bread, and these in turn on a
+flat bowl. In Dresden 29b (Pl. 5, fig. 9) the fish is represented
+between the red and black numbers of the _tonalamatl_. Here again the
+fish is shown as an offering.
+
+In two cases only do we find the fish used as a part of the head-dress
+and in each case the fish is graphically shown as held in the mouth of a
+heron. One of these is in the Dresden Codex 36b (Pl. 5, fig. 3) and one
+in the stone carving of the Temple of the Cross at Palenque (Pl. 15,
+fig. 5). Fish are often represented on the stone carvings as feeding
+upon a water plant. This is seen in the border at the bottom of the
+Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza (Pl. 5, figs.
+2, 4; Pl. 6, fig. 2). In several instances at Copan fish are shown as
+forming the sides of the Great Cycle glyph at the beginning of an
+Initial Series (Pl. 6, figs. 14-17). It has often been suggested that as
+the word fish in Maya is _kai_ (usually written _cay_), there may be
+some phonetic significance here, combining the fish, _kai_, with the
+usually drum-like sign for stone, _tun_, making _kai tun_ or _katun_.
+This is the term usually given not to the Great Cycle but to the period
+composed of twenty _tuns_ and is probably derived from _kal_ meaning
+twenty and _tun_, a stone.
+
+
+AMPHIBIA
+
+FROGS. Figures undoubtedly representing frogs (Maya _mut[vs]_ or _uo_)
+or toads are found in several places in the codices and in the stone
+carvings, but it is quite impossible to refer them definitely to any of
+the numerous species occurring in Central America, if, indeed, the
+artists had any one species in mind. In the Tro-Cortesianus frogs are
+not uncommon. In 31a there are four (Pl. 7, fig. 1) with water coming
+from their mouths. They are characterized by their stout tailless
+bodies, flattened heads and toothless mouths. In 101d (Pl. 7, figs. 2,
+3) there are two, the first painted blue with spots of darker blue and
+the second white and represented as broken in two in the middle. The
+signs of death above the latter clearly show that a dead animal is
+indicated. Pl. 7, fig. 6, shows the end of Altar O from Copan on which a
+frog and a fish are pictured, the former in dorsal view, the latter in
+lateral aspect. The peculiar pointed snout of this frog is similar to
+that of the frog shown in Pl. 7, fig. 7, also in dorsal view. A somewhat
+similar creature (Pl. 29, fig. 6) we have included and though it may
+represent an opossum it has little to distinguish it from the figures of
+frogs.[309-*]
+
+God B in Tro-Cortesianus 12b should be associated with the frog. His
+legs are those of a frog and he appears as if swimming in the water.
+Frog in Maya is _Uo_ which is also the name of the second month of the
+Maya year. The first day of this month, according to Landa, corresponds
+to August 5 of our year and this is the height of the rainy season in
+the Maya region. The sign for _Uo_ does not, however, resemble a frog in
+any way. The frog above one of the figures in the Lower Chamber of the
+Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza (Pl. 7, fig. 7) has clearly some
+relation to the name or totem of the warrior. The Nahua custom is seen
+here.
+
+Toads are probably intended in Pl. 7, figs. 4, 5. In these the great
+breadth of the head and mouth together with the short inflated body
+combine to produce a very toad-like appearance. It is not unlikely that
+they represent the huge marine toad, _Bufo marinus_, common from
+southern Mexico to Brazil and in the West Indies. There seems to be no
+distinction in the treatment of frogs and toads in the codices.
+
+TREE-TOAD (_Hyla eximia_). Of great interest are the figures in
+Tro-Cortesianus 26a and b (Pl. 8, figs. 1, 3), showing a god with
+expanded finger tips and characterized further by the presence of two
+parallel black stripes from the hinder and lower margins of the eye
+respectively. The knob-like finger tips at once suggest one of the
+tree-toads, and the presence of the two lines seems to indicate _Hyla
+eximia_ as the species represented. In this tree-toad there is a long
+black lateral line running posteriorly from the tympanum and above it a
+shorter line just as in the drawings. It appears to be a common species
+in the valley of Mexico though but little seems to have been written of
+its habits. At the beginning of the rainy season it repairs to pools of
+water to breed and is then very noticeable from its loud voice. No doubt
+its importance in the Maya economy was from its conspicuousness at the
+beginning of the rainy period. This fact is brought out more strongly
+when we consider that these gods representing the tree-toad are
+associated with agriculture and the sowing of grain at the beginning of
+the rainy season. Foerstemann (1902, p. 35) identifies these figures as
+god F. They are quite unlike the usual representation of this god and
+are clearly god P as Schellhas (1904, p. 39) indicates. It is
+interesting to note that the two black lines behind the eye are also
+seen in the other gods shown in Tro-Cortesianus 26a and b although the
+knob-like finger tips are lacking. The glyph for this tree-toad god is
+recognized in the fifth place at the top of the same page (Pl. 8, fig.
+2) by the same two black lines under and behind the eye.
+
+
+REPTILIA
+
+SERPENT. It would be impossible in the present paper to enter into any
+lengthy discussion of the use of the serpent (Maya _kan_) in Mexico and
+Central America. It seems to be one of the main elements in the religion
+and consequently in the art of the Mayas and Mexican peoples. It is
+represented again and again in many forms and varied combinations. It
+underlies the whole general trend of Maya art. The serpent is often
+associated with feathers. The culture hero of the Nahuas,
+_Quetzalcoatl_ (feathered serpent) corresponds to a similar god among
+the Mayas, _Kukulcan_ (also meaning feathered serpent). The feathers of
+the quetzal are the ones commonly used in connection with the serpent.
+
+Any attempt at identification of the species represented is beset by
+grave difficulties for so conventionalized have the figures often become
+that, except in the case of the rattlesnake with its rattles, there are
+no characteristic marks by which the species may be known. It is natural
+to suppose that the species used for artistic purposes would be those
+that are most noteworthy because of their size, coloring, or venomous
+qualities. No doubt a number of harmless species were also used in the
+religious ceremonies.[311-*] Such may be those used as hair ornaments in
+many of the figures (Pl. 8, figs. 7-13, 15) and in which no indication
+of a rattle is to be seen. The fierce eye of these reptiles is shown by
+means of an exaggerated overhanging brow occasionally embellished by
+recurved crests (Pl. 8, figs. 10, 11, 13, 15). These crests are
+sometimes shown as two or three stalked knobs (Pl. 10, fig. 7) that
+Stempell was misled into identifying as the eyes of snails. Various
+heads of snakes usually with fangs exposed and tongue protruding are
+pictured in Pl. 8, figs. 4, 6; Pl. 9, figs. 2, 4-6: one snake with a
+spiny back is shown in Pl. 8, fig. 5, but obviously it represents merely
+the artist's endeavor to present as terrifying a creature as possible.
+
+Various types of rattlesnakes are shown in Pl. 9. The presence of the
+rattle is of course the characteristic, and this portion alone is
+likewise used, in one case, at least, as a glyph (Pl. 9, fig. 7). It
+cannot be denied, however, that some or most of the snakes in which no
+rattles appear, are nevertheless intended for rattlers. It may have been
+that the figures were so well understood that the addition of rattles in
+the drawings was quite unnecessary. This, however, is quite conjectural.
+The species of rattlesnake is probably _Crotalus basiliscus_ or _C.
+terrificus_ of southern Mexico and adjacent regions, not _C. horridus_
+or _adamanteus_ as supposed by Stempell since these two species are
+confined to the United States. Among the figures shown on Pl. 9, it is
+noteworthy that five of the rattlesnakes show no fangs. Some are
+spotted, but in a wholly arbitrary manner. Three are unmarked. One is
+shown coiled about the base of a tree (Pl. 9, fig. 5), another coiled
+ready to strike though the rattle is pictured trailing on the ground
+instead of being held erect in the center of the coil as usually is done
+(Pl. 9, fig. 9). A rattlesnake is shown held in the hand of a man in Pl.
+9, fig. 8.
+
+In Pl. 10, fig. 1, is shown a rattle-less snake with prominent fang,
+coiled about the top of an altar which may represent a tree or bush.
+From the latter fact, it might be concluded that it was a tree or
+bush-inhabiting species, possibly the deadly "bush-master" (_Lachesis
+lanceolatus_). Other figures (Pl. 10, figs. 3, 7; Pl. 11, figs. 1, 2)
+are introduced here as examples of the curious head ornamentation
+frequently found in the drawings. The two first are merely serpents with
+the jaws extended to the utmost, and with a characteristic head
+decoration. The last is provided with an elaborate crest. The size and
+markings of the two serpents shown in Pl. 11, as well as their want of
+rattles suggest that they may represent some species of large _Boidae_
+as _Loxocemus bicolor_ or _Boa_ (sp?).
+
+After having commented upon the various serpents occurring in the
+codices and in several other places, we will now take up the manner and
+connection in which the various figures occur. We shall pass over
+completely the use of the "serpent column" at Chichen Itza, the
+importance of the serpent motive in the development of the masked panel
+as worked out by Spinden, and the countless representations of the
+plumed serpent in the whole field of Maya design and decoration. In the
+single Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza, the feathered serpent
+occurs in the round as a column decoration supporting the portico, as
+carved on the wooden lintel at the entrance to the Painted Chamber,
+again and again on the frescoes of this room,[313-*] in the Lower
+Chamber as dividing the bas-relief into zones or panels, and, finally,
+as the center of the whole composition of this bas-relief. It will be
+seen, therefore, that it will be necessary in a short paper, to limit
+ourselves to the representations of the serpent in the Maya codices.
+
+The serpent is most frequently associated with god B. Schellhas (1904,
+p. 17), Fewkes (1894), Foerstemann (1906), and Thomas (1882), seem to
+agree that god B is to be identified as _Kukulcan_, the most important
+of the deities of the Mayas and, as pointed out before, appearing in the
+Nahua mythology, as _Quetzalcoatl_, and in the Quiche myths as
+_Gucumatz_. It was also noted that the name means both in Maya and in
+Nahuatl, the "feathered serpent" or the "bird serpent." Other
+authorities consider god B as _Itzamna_, another of the main gods of the
+Mayas. Seler interprets god B as the counterpart of the Nahua rain god,
+_Tlaloc_. It is certain that when god B and the serpent are associated
+together water and rain are usually indicated. God H, "the _Chicchan_
+god," also has some relation to the serpent. As pointed out by Schellhas
+(1904, pp. 28-30), this god often appears characterized by a skin-spot
+or a scale of the serpent on his temple of the same shape as the
+hieroglyph of the day _Chicchan_ (serpent). The glyph belonging to this
+deity also shows the _Chicchan_ sign as its distinguishing mark. Similar
+signs appear on the body of the serpent in many places, as in
+Tro-Cortesianus 30a (Pl. 11, fig. 1).
+
+We have already noted that the serpent, god B, and water are frequently
+shown together, so the serpent also appears associated with water and
+rain, when no figure of god B is present. From this connection, it can
+be argued that there is some relation between the serpent and the coming
+of the rains. These facts would give strength to the theory that god B
+is to be identified as a rain god. In Dresden 33a, 35a, god B is seated
+on the open jaws of a serpent, while the body of the reptile encloses a
+blue field evidently signifying water. The number nineteen appears on
+this blue color. It will be noted that there are nineteen spots on the
+serpents in Pl. 11, figs. 1, 2. In Tro-Cortesianus 3a-6a, corresponding
+scenes seem to be shown. The body of the serpent encloses water, and
+here the number eighteen appears in each case. God B occurs always in
+front of the serpent and his head appears as the head of the reptile in
+the first instance. In Dresden 35a, 36a, the head of god B is pictured
+as the head of the serpent in the midst of the water. In Dresden 37b
+(Pl. 10, fig. 8), B is holding a snake in the water.
+
+Water appears in connection with the serpent and god B in many places in
+the Tro-Cortesianus. In 9, god B is pictured pouring water from a jar, a
+common method of showing the idea of rain in the codices. In 12b, B
+again is shown perhaps representing a frog, and behind him a serpent.
+The reptiles in 13b-18b, are all associated with the idea of rain, the
+turtle and frog also appearing in this section. In 30a (Pl. 11, fig. 1),
+god B and a female figure are both pouring water from a jar, as they
+stand on the body of a serpent. In 32a, the black god (L) is seen in the
+rain, and a serpent is near, while in 32b and 33b (Pl. 9, fig. 1), the
+serpent forms the belt of god L, and a female figure and water are seen
+in both cases. The blue color of the snake and of god B in 31b (Pl. 11,
+fig. 2) may also suggest water.
+
+God B also occurs in connection with the serpent in Dresden 42a (Pl. 8,
+fig. 14), where the god is seated on the reptile, in Tro-Cortesianus,
+10b, where the head of the same god is the head of the snake, and in
+Tro-Cortesianus 19a, where god B again and god A are each seated on the
+open jaws of a serpent.
+
+The astronomical role of the serpent is noted in Dresden 56b, 57b (Pl.
+10, fig. 3), Tro-Cortesianus 5b, 12b, 15b, and 67b, where the snake is
+shown in connection with a line of constellation signs, the _kin_ or sun
+sign prominent in most of the drawings. In the "battle of the
+constellations" in Dresden 60, the serpent appears forming a sort of
+altar, the seat of a figure which is supported by another figure. A
+serpent head also appears at the foot of the latter figure.
+
+That the serpent appears associated with the idea of time seems clear
+from the fact of the long number series in Dresden 61, 62 (Pl. 10, fig.
+7), and 69, which are shown in the spaces made by the winding of the
+serpents' bodies. In Tro-Cortesianus 13a-16a, four large reptiles appear
+in connection with the lines of day signs.
+
+The study of the serpent used as a head-dress is interesting. As noted
+previously, quite a different kind of snake seems to be represented when
+used in this connection. Two other points come out in this
+investigation, namely, that it is only with female figures that the
+serpent is employed as a head-dress, and in far the greater number of
+cases the women are shown, either in the act of offering something, or
+of pouring water from a jar. The usual type of serpent head-dress is
+seen in Dresden 9c (Pl. 8, fig. 11), 15b (Pl. 8, fig. 12), 18a (Pl. 8,
+fig. 13), 22b (Pl. 8, fig. 10), and 23b (Pl. 8, fig. 8). In the first
+case, the offering is a jicara or gourd of some sacred drink
+(_balt[vs]e_?), in the second and third examples, the dish is clearly
+shown, but the offering is unidentifiable, in the fourth case, maize (a
+_Kan_ sign), and in the last, a fish resting on a dish. In Dresden 20a
+(Pl. 8, fig. 15), a woman with serpent head-dress is seen associated
+with the Moan-headed figure, possibly in the act of offering it as a
+sacrifice.
+
+In Dresden 39b (Pl. 8, fig. 7), 43b (Pl. 8, fig. 9), and 70, a similar
+serpent head-dress is shown on a female figure in the act of pouring
+water from a jar. In Tro-Cortesianus, the serpent head-dresses differ in
+type only, and in two out of the four cases where they appear, water is
+shown flowing from the breasts (30b) of the female figure or from the
+mouth (32b). The woman thus represented in connection with the water is
+god I, the water goddess of Schellhas. She is, as he notes (1904, p. 31)
+usually the figure of an old woman. "Evidently, we have here the
+personification of water in its quality of destroyer, a goddess of
+floods and cloud-bursts." We are not at all sure that we have here a
+distinct god as similar female figures with serpent head-dresses occur
+frequently in the Dresden Codex with no suggestion of water. The failure
+to find any distinct glyph for this goddess seems to strengthen the view
+of not considering her as a separate deity. Finally, in our
+consideration of head-dresses, the serpent is to be seen in
+Tro-Cortesianus 79c on the head of the first woman who is weaving.
+Possibly, a conventionalized serpent forms the head covering of the
+second figure who is represented as dead.
+
+The serpent in Dresden 26c-28c (Pl. 10, fig. 1) coiled around the altar
+which rises from a _Tun_ sign is not easily explained. In 25c, the altar
+is replaced by god B and in the former cases, the reptiles may stand for
+this god with whom they are often associated.[316-*] The serpent seems
+closely connected with the idea of offerings as the body of a snake is
+shown in several instances as the support of the jar containing the
+various gifts in Tro-Cortesianus 34a, 34b, 35a, 35b, 36a, 36b, and
+possibly 52c (Pl. 9, fig. 3).
+
+Finally the serpent is to be noted in a number of miscellaneous
+connections:--in Dresden 36b (Pl. 19, fig. 11), as being attacked by a
+black vulture,[317-*] in Tro-Cortesianus 40b (Pl. 9, fig. 4) a
+rattlesnake is biting the foot of one of the hunters, and in
+Tro-Cortesianus 66b, where the serpent has a human head and arm coming
+from its open jaws. This is a very frequent method of representing the
+serpent in the Maya stone carvings. In Tro-Cortesianus 60c, 100d (Pl. 9,
+fig. 8), twice, 106a, and 111b, the rattlesnake is shown as a sprinkler
+for the holy water in the hand (in the first, second and fourth
+examples) of god D. Landa (1864, p. 150)[317-[+]] describes in the
+ceremony of the baptism of children, that the leader of the rite wore on
+his head a kind of mitre embroidered with plumage in some manner and in
+his hand a small holy-water sprinkler of wood, carved skillfully, of
+which the filaments were the tails of serpents, similar to serpents with
+rattles.
+
+In spite of the importance of the serpent in the manuscripts and stone
+carvings, it never seems to appear as a separate deity. With one
+exception, no glyph is to be found representing this reptile as is the
+case with many of the animals. Tro-Cortesianus 106c (Pl. 9, fig. 7) is
+this exception showing the rattles of a snake which are found in the
+line of glyphs above two of the bees. No serpent appears in the picture.
+
+The Nahuatl day, _Couatl_, has the signification serpent, as suggested
+before, in discussing the meaning of the name _Quetzalcoatl_ or
+_Quetzalcouatl_. This day sign occurs throughout the Mexican
+manuscripts as the head of a serpent (Pl. 8, figs. 4, 6; Pl. 9, fig. 2;
+Pl. 10, figs. 2, 4-6).
+
+IGUANA. Of the lizards represented, the iguana (Maya _hu_) is the most
+striking, and is readily identified on account of the prominent spines
+along the back. As noted by Stempell, there are two or three species of
+large lizards in Central America commonly called iguana, and it is
+probable that the one here considered is the _Ctenosaura acanthura_ of
+Yucatan or _Iguana tuberculata_ of South and Central America.
+
+In the manuscripts the iguana is almost exclusively represented as an
+offering (Pl. 12, figs. 1-6). It is usually found on top of the _Kan_
+sign, meaning maize or bread,[318-*] and this, in turn, resting in a
+bowl (Pl. 12, figs. 3, 4, 6). Landa (1864, p. 230)[318-[+]] gives a
+pleasing confirmation of this offering of an iguana with bread. It is
+possible that the object shown in Tro-Cortesianus 12b (Pl. 12, fig. 13)
+may be the conventionalized representation of this lizard. It must be
+admitted that this interpretation is very doubtful. The triangular
+points suggest the lizard, but the pointed character of the sign as a
+whole in no way resembles the back of this reptile. It is found
+associated with three _Kan_ signs. In Cakchiquel, a dialect of the Maya
+stock, _K'an_, according to Guzman and Brinton (1893, p. 24) is the name
+applied to the female of the iguana or the lizard, and this is believed
+to be the original sense of the Maya term. It may also be noted that the
+Nahua day sign _Cuetzpalin_, meaning lizard, is the one which
+corresponds with the Maya day _Kan_. Pl. 12, figs. 10, 12, 14, show
+representations of the day corresponding to _Cuetzpalin_ in the Aubin
+and Nuttall codices. These show a stout spineless species with a short
+thick tail and may be the Gila monster (_Heloderma horridum_), a large
+and somewhat poisonous species having much these proportions.
+
+Further offerings are shown in Pl. 12, figs. 7, 8. These seem to be the
+heads and forefeet of lizards, but, from the shape of the head, perhaps
+not of iguanas.
+
+In Stela D of Copan, the _Uinal_ period glyph seems to be represented by
+a spineless lizard covered with scales (Pl. 12, fig. 9). Frog-like
+characteristics also appear. This stone monument is remarkable from the
+fact that the glyphs are all more or less realistic representations of
+human and animal forms. It should be noted that there certainly seems to
+be some connection between the _Uinal_ period glyph and the lizard. Pl.
+13, fig. 9, represents a _Uinal_ glyph from the Temple of the Foliated
+Cross at Palenque and the lizard form is clearly seen in the eyebrow and
+the upper jaw. Compare also Pl. 13, fig. 11, and Pl. 28, fig. 3. A
+collection of glyphs of this period shows clearly the lizard-like
+character of the face.
+
+That some connection existed between the lizard and the idea of rain
+seems clear from a reference in the _Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida_
+(1900, p. 51).[319-*] Finally the lizard is shown in Dresden 3a (Pl. 12,
+fig. 11) directly in front of god H beside the scene of human sacrifice.
+
+CROCODILE. The text figure (1) shows a dorsal view of a crocodile (Maya,
+_ayin_) carved on the top of Altar T at Copan. The general form is
+considerably conventionalized with limbs elongated and provided with
+human hands and long toes. The protuberances of the back are roughly
+shown by oval markings, which are here continued on the legs. The large
+scales of the ventral surfaces also appear at the sides of the body, and
+along the posterior edges of the limbs. The tail is shortened and
+bifurcate. The most interesting portion, however, is the head. The snout
+is distinctly pinched in at the base, though broadened again distally.
+In the alligator the snout is broad and tapers but little. As in other
+representations of the crocodile, the lower jaw does not appear, and
+even in this dorsal view the artist seems to have deemed it necessary to
+show the row of teeth as if in side view, or as though they projected
+laterally from the mouth. What may represent ears or ear plugs are shown
+one on each side behind the eyes. There are few other examples of full
+drawings of the crocodile in the Maya writings. Dresden 74 shows an
+animal which has been considered to represent a crocodile or alligator
+but it seems to have more of the characteristics of a lizard.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.
+TOP OF ALTAR. T. COPAN.]
+
+Figures of a crocodile (_Crocodilus americanus_) are frequent in the
+Nuttall Codex, where there is one large figure of the entire animal (Pl.
+13, fig. 8), making its way along under water. It is shown with numerous
+dorsal spines, a long tail, and powerful claws. Curiously, however, it
+has no lower jaw and the same is true of the numerous glyphs
+representing the head of the animal. This is so pronounced a
+characteristic, that it may be doubted if the open-mouthed head and the
+single limb shown in Pl. 13, fig. 2, really picture the same animal,
+though otherwise apparently referable to the crocodile. In the various
+glyphs showing the head of this species, the prominent, elongate eyebrow
+and the absence of the lower jaw are noteworthy points, while the teeth
+may vary in number from three to six.
+
+The glyphs (Pl. 13, figs. 1, 3-7) represent the Nahua day sign
+_Cipactli_ corresponding to the Maya day _Imix_. In the band of
+constellation signs in Dresden 52b (Pl. 13, fig. 10), there occurs a
+single figure with a long curled eyebrow and lacking the lower jaw. In
+the upper jaw three teeth are indicated. A comparison of this figure
+with the glyphs in the Nuttall Codex seems to leave little doubt that it
+represents a crocodile. This is the sign which Foerstemann (1906, p. 206)
+interprets as standing for Saturn. Pl. 13, fig. 12, is certainly the
+same sign as it stands in relatively the same position in the
+constellation band on Dresden 53a. It represents the highly
+conventionalized head of a crocodile. On Stela 10 from Piedras Negras
+(Maler, 1901-1903, Pl. 19) the same glyph is seen.
+
+The range of the alligator in North America does not extend to Yucatan,
+hence the crocodile, which does occur there, is taken as the original of
+all these figures. There is nothing in the latter that would distinguish
+it from the alligator.
+
+TURTLES. Representations of the turtle (Maya, _ak_) are not uncommon
+among the Mayas. At Uxmal there is a ruined building called _Casa de las
+Tortugas_ on which at intervals around the cornice there are carvings of
+turtles. Turtles of at least two species occur in the Tro-Cortesianus.
+With one exception, they seem to be limited to this codex. That shown on
+Pl. 14, figs. 1-3, 5, is a large species with the dorsal scutes
+represented by large diamond-shaped pieces. There is little that might
+be considered distinctive about these turtles, although one (Pl. 14,
+fig. 5) has the anterior paddles much larger than the posterior,
+indicating a sea turtle. What is doubtless the same turtle is pictured
+in several places in the Nuttall Codex. In one of the figures in the
+latter manuscript, the shell is shown apparently in use as a shield (Pl.
+14, fig. 4). This would indicate one of the large sea turtles, and there
+is not much doubt that either the Loggerhead turtle (_Thalassochelys
+cephalo_) or the Hawksbill (_Chelone imbricata_) is here intended.
+
+Quite another species is that shown in Pl. 14, fig. 6. That this is a
+freshwater turtle is plainly indicated by the parasitic leeches that are
+noted fastened by their round sucking-discs to the sides of its body.
+The long neck, pointed snout, and apparent limitation of the dorsal
+spinous scutes to the central area of the back may indicate the snapping
+turtle (_Chelydra serpentina_) or possibly a species of the genus
+_Cinosternum_ (probably _C. leucostomum_). It is hardly likely that it
+is one of the true soft-shelled turtles (_Trionyx_), as the range of
+that genus is not known to include Mexico. The turtle from Nuttall 43
+(Pl. 14, fig. 11) may belong to the same species as its scutes seem
+rather few, or it may be that the view shown here is of the ventral side
+and that the scales indicate the small plastron of one of the sea
+turtles.
+
+The turtle appears alone as one of the figures in the _tonalamatl_ in
+several cases in the Tro-Cortesianus, 13a, 17a (Pl. 14, fig. 3), 72b
+(Pl. 14, fig. 6). It is found associated with the toad appearing in the
+rain in Tro-Cortesianus 17b (Pl. 14, fig. 2) and alone in the rain in
+13a. In Tro-Cortesianus 81c (Pl. 14, fig. 5), it appears in front of an
+unidentifiable god.
+
+Schellhas has called the turtle an animal symbolical of the lightning
+basing his opinion, as Brinton (1895, p. 74) tells us, on Dresden 40b
+where a human figure with animal head is holding two torches in his
+hands. This figure does not seem to us to represent a turtle, as is
+commonly supposed, but a parrot, as will be pointed out later (p. 343).
+Foerstemann (1902, p. 27) identifies the turtle with the summer
+solstice, as has been noted before, explaining that the animal is slow
+of motion, and is taken to represent the time when the sun seems to
+stand still. He bases his theory (1904, p. 423) in part on the fact that
+the sign for the Maya month _Kayab_, which is the month in which the
+summer solstice occurs, shows the face of the turtle (Pl. 14, fig. 10).
+This undoubtedly is correct, but he seems to us wrong in classing as
+turtles the figure in Dresden 40b (Pl. 25, fig. 1) with its accompanying
+glyph (Pl. 25, fig. 6).
+
+The turtle is found in connection with two sun (_kin_) signs beneath a
+constellation band in Tro-Cortesianus 71a. Resting upon his body are
+three _Cauac_ signs. The single representation of the turtle in the
+Dresden Codex is on page 49 (Pl. 14, fig. 12) where a god is pictured
+with a turtle's head. The heavy sharp beak indicates that he represents
+one of the sea turtles previously mentioned. He is shown transfixed by a
+spear and corresponds to the other figures in the lower parts of pp.
+46-50. These all have some connection with the Venus period which is
+considered in these pages.[323-*]
+
+A number of glyphs representing the turtle are found throughout the
+codices (Pl. 14, figs. 7-10). They are all characterized by the heavy
+beak. It may be noted that these glyphs are virtually the same as the
+sign for the first _a_ in Landa's alphabet. As the turtle is called _ak_
+or _aak_ in Maya, the reason is clear for the selection of this sign for
+an _a_ sound. These turtle glyphs often occur alone; one, however, (Pl.
+14, fig. 7) is found in connection with the swimming turtle in
+Tro-Cortesianus 17a (Pl. 14, fig. 3). Figs. 7-9 agree in having the
+small scrolls at the posterior end of the eye. The head shown in Pl. 14,
+fig. 10, has quite a different eye, though otherwise similar. Its
+resemblance to the glyph on Pl. 25, fig. 9, is marked and suggests the
+parrot. Schellhas (1904, p. 44) gives in his fig. 64, a glyph for the
+turtle which seems clearly to be a glyph for the parrot (Pl. 25, fig.
+7).
+
+
+AVES
+
+HERONS (_Ardea herodias_; _Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis_). Only a few
+water birds are shown in the Maya works. Several are found, however,
+that seem to picture herons (Pl. 15, figs. 1-7). The best of these (fig.
+5), a carving from the west side panel of the Temple of the Cross at
+Palenque shows a crested heron standing on one foot and holding in its
+bill a fish. A second figure (Pl. 15, fig. 1) is from the stucco
+ornament from the Palace, House B, at Palenque. It is less carefully
+executed, but seems to be a long-necked bird with a crest and outspread
+wings curiously conventionalized. In the Nuttall Codex there is another
+unmistakable heron (Pl. 15, fig. 4) with the same general
+characteristics, though the crest is less prominent, here represented as
+a series of erectile feathers separated at their tips. This elongation
+of the crest seems to be carried still farther in what seems to be the
+head and neck of a heron from Dresden 37b (Pl. 15, fig. 3) with erectile
+feathers at intervals along its length.
+
+The heron is seldom employed as a head-dress. In the Lower Chamber of
+the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza, one of the warriors wears a
+bird head-dress (Pl. 15, fig. 2), which from the length of the bill is
+probably made from a heron's head, though the crest seems greatly
+exaggerated. The bas-relief on which this is found is strongly Nahua in
+feeling and execution. This head covering may indicate, according to the
+Nahua fashion, the tribe to which the warrior belongs. Again in Dresden
+36a (Pl. 15, fig. 7), a man is shown wearing as a head-dress the head
+and neck of a heron that holds in its bill a fish. This head resembles
+very closely that of the heron in fig. 1. What appears to be a similar
+head is shown in Pl. 15, fig. 6. It is interesting to note that the
+heron with a fish (Pl. 15, fig. 5) from Palenque also forms a part of a
+complicated head-dress.
+
+It is, of course, uncertain to which of the several herons occurring in
+Central America these representations refer. Possibly the Great Blue
+heron (_Ardea herodias_) or the Louisiana heron (_Hydranassa tricolor
+ruficollis_) is intended. It seems not unlikely also, that one of the
+white egrets may be shown as their crests are fairly conspicuous.
+
+FRIGATE-BIRD (_Fregata aquila_). We have included here two figures (Pl.
+15, figs. 8, 9) that undoubtedly represent a single species of bird. It
+is characterized by a deeply forked tail and long beak, which has part
+way on its length, a circular object surrounded by a circle of dots. It
+seems still problematical what this object may be. In one figure (fig.
+9), the beak is strongly hooked, in the other (fig. 8) it is straight,
+but as the latter is plainly a much more carelessly made drawing, we may
+infer that the hooked bill is more nearly correct. This would exclude
+the Terns (_Sterna_), to which Stempell has referred the figures. It
+seems probable that the frigate-bird (_Fregata aquila_) is the species
+intended, as this is not only a large conspicuous form on these coasts,
+but it has a long and strongly hooked beak and forked tail. The length
+of the beak would probably exclude from consideration, the
+swallow-tailed kite that also occurs in the region.
+
+Both these birds are pictured, evidently as an offering or sacrifice. It
+is very seldom that the whole bird is represented in this connection,
+and still more infrequent to find anything but the turkey, which is the
+usual bird of sacrifice. The figure from the Dresden Codex (Pl. 15, fig.
+9) rests upon the usual bowl or jar, that from the Tro-Cortesianus (Pl.
+15, fig. 8) is pictured upon a grotesque animal head, three _Kan_ signs
+and these upon the jar.
+
+In the Tro-Cortesianus 20c, 21c, there occur several representations of
+man-like forms with very peculiar heads. The latter are each provided
+with a beak-like projection, on which appears the circle surrounded by
+dots noted above in connection with the frigate-bird. Brinton concludes
+that this mystic symbol is a representation of the curious knob on the
+bill of the male white pelican, and therefore identifies these curious
+figures as pelicans. Stempell follows Brinton in this, but considers
+that they are the brown pelican (_P. fuscus_), since the white pelican
+is rare or casual, as far south as Yucatan. Unfortunately, however, for
+this supposition, the brown pelican lacks the curious knob that Brinton
+believed to be represented by the circle of dots. Moreover, this same
+sign occurs on the drawings of the bills of the frigate-bird and the
+ocellated turkey, and is evidently not of specific significance. To our
+minds it is doubtful if the figures under discussion are birds at all,
+and we are unable to assign them a name with any degree of confidence. A
+peculiar glyph occurs in connection with them which may be an aid to
+their ultimate identification. Brinton calls the glyph the "fish and
+oyster sign."
+
+OCELLATED TURKEY (_Agriocharis ocellata_). This turkey (Maya _ku[[c].]_)
+is an important species in the Maya economy, and is seen frequently in
+the manuscripts. This is a smaller bird than the more northern true
+turkey (_Meleagris_) and is characterized by the presence of curious
+erect knobs on the top of the naked head. These are shown in
+conventionalized form in the various figures (Pl. 16), and afford a
+ready means of identification. On the bill of the bird shown in
+Tro-Cortesianus 10b (Pl. 16, fig. 2) occurs again the curious symbol, a
+circle surrounded by dots, previously noted under the frigate-bird and
+pelican. It probably has some special significance. Other figures of
+ocellated turkeys show but little in addition to the points just
+discussed. One shown in Pl. 16, fig. 7, from Codex Vaticanus 3773,
+however, has a circular ring about the eye and the wattles are indicated
+as projections merely. In fig. 13, they are apparently shown as stalked
+knobs found elsewhere in connection with serpent head ornaments. It is
+only the head in this latter figure, which is considered in this
+interpretation.
+
+In the Nuttall Codex, there frequently occur representations of a bird
+that was evidently used for sacrificial purposes. It is shown with
+erectile head feathers and a ring of circular marks about the eye (Pl.
+26, figs. 12, 14; Pl. 27, figs. 2-3) or with concentric circles (Pl. 27,
+fig. 1). These figures are not surely identifiable, but probably
+represent this turkey. Possibly they are the chachalaca (_Ortalis vetula
+pallidiventris_), a gallinaceous bird, commonly kept in
+semi-domestication in Mexico, whose bare eye ring and slightly erectile
+head feathers may be represented by the drawings. It is probable that
+this turkey is the bird represented frequently in the Maya codices as a
+bird of sacrifice. The head alone usually appears in this connection,
+among other places, in Dresden 34a (Pl. 16, fig. 10), 41c (fig. 14), 29c
+(fig. 16), 28c (fig. 17), and in Tro-Cortesianus 12b (Pl. 16, fig. 11),
+105b (fig. 12), 107b (fig. 15). In several of these places the head is
+represented as resting on one or more _Kan_ signs, again meaning bread,
+as well as on the vessel or jar. In Dresden 26c (Pl. 16, fig. 9), the
+whole turkey is pictured as an offering, as in the preceding case noted
+in Dresden 35a (Pl. 15, fig. 9). The whole bird as an offering may also
+appear in Tro-Cortesianus 4a (Pl. 16, fig. 4) corresponding to the
+offering of venison and iguana on the following pages. This
+representation of the entire bird is very rare although the fish, when
+used as an offering, is always represented as a whole and the iguana is
+in most cases when used in the same connection. Landa (1864, p.
+222)[327-*] confirms the offering of the heads of birds with bread.
+
+It is, however, the sacrifice of a bird, probably a turkey, by
+decapitating, that is especially interesting, as the operation as shown
+in the Dresden Codex 25c (Pl. 26, fig. 2), 26c, 27c, 28c, in the rites
+of the four years, is described in full by Landa. In the codex, a priest
+is represented as holding in his hand before an altar, a headless bird.
+Landa (1864, pp. 212, 218, 224, 228)[327-[+]] tells us that in the
+_Kan_, the _Muluc_, the _Ix_, and the _Cauac_ years, the priests burnt
+incense to the idol, decapitated a "_gallina_" (undoubtedly a turkey),
+and presented it to the god.
+
+The turkey is also used as a head-dress. Only in one case, however,
+Tro-Cortesianus 95c (Pl. 16, fig. 5), is the whole bird represented in
+this connection. This is clearly of totemic significance here, as it
+occurs in that part of the codex where birth and infant baptism are
+shown. In many other places there are curious partial representations of
+bird heads in the front of head-dresses which may or may not be
+identified as heads of turkeys. Among these are the head-dress of god H
+in Dresden 7c, of god E in Dresden 11e, of god C in Dresden 13b, of god
+A in Dresden 23c, and a female divinity in Dresden 20a (Pl. 16, fig.
+13). Schellhas (1904, p. 43) identifies these birds as vultures.
+
+That the turkey is connected with the rain seems clear. This is
+especially the case among the Nahuas. In the Aubin manuscript the rain
+god, _Tlaloc_, often appears in the disguise of the turkey-cock
+(_uexolotl_), and in the Vaticanus 3773, 14, the turkey (Pl. 16, fig. 7)
+is represented in the "House of Rain," in contrast to the owl shown in
+the "House of Drought" (Seler, 1902-1903, p. 75). It might be noted also
+that Fewkes (1892, p. 228) shows that the turkey is emblematic of the
+rain among the pueblo peoples. The same idea seems to be present among
+the Mayas, as we note in the Tro-Cortesianus 10b (Pl. 16, fig. 2) the
+turkey is pictured in the rain and surrounded on three sides by bands of
+constellation signs.
+
+Two methods of capturing the turkey are shown in the Tro-Cortesianus 93a
+and 91a (Pl. 16, figs. 1, 3). By the first, the bird is captured alive
+in a sort of wicker basket, which drops over it at the proper moment.
+The second method is by the "twich-up" or snare, which consists of a
+noose tied to a bent sapling and properly baited. In connection with Pl.
+16, fig. 1, it may be suggested that possibly this represents a cage
+rather than a trap, in which the bird is confined. The Lacandones at the
+present time often keep their totem animals in captivity (Tozzer, 1907,
+p. 40).
+
+KING VULTURE (_Sarcorhamphus papa_). Numerous figures of vultures appear
+in the codices and elsewhere. Indeed, they are among the most common of
+the birds depicted. Two species only seem to occur in the writings, the
+king vulture and the black vulture. The former is a large black and
+white bird with the head and the upper part of the neck unfeathered,
+except for numerous short, almost bristle-like plumules. These naked
+portions are often colored red and there is a large more or less
+squarish fleshy knob at the base of the upper ramus of the beak. This
+conspicuous protuberance has been seized upon as a characteristic in the
+conventionalized figures, and serves to identify the king from the black
+vulture. In addition, a series of concentric circles about the eye seems
+to be a rather constant mark of the king vulture, though they are also
+sometimes found in connection with figures which, from the absence of
+the rostral knob, must represent black vultures (Pl. 18, figs. 18, 27;
+Pl. 19, figs. 7, 10, 11). In the case of the bird shown in Pl. 19, fig.
+1, the knob is hardly apparent, and the same is true of Pl. 19, fig. 13.
+Both these may represent king vultures. A remarkable figure is that
+shown in Pl. 17, fig. 4, in which an ocellated turkey and a king vulture
+confront each other with necks intertwined. The short hair-like black
+feathers of the head are represented in this as well as in Pl. 17, fig.
+11, and in the glyph carved in stone (Pl. 17, fig. 10), which from the
+presence of the knob is probably a king vulture. The characteristic knob
+is shown in a variety of ways. Thus, in Pl. 17, fig. 1, it is greatly
+developed and resembles a large horn with a falcate tip. In Pl. 17, fig.
+4, it is sharply angular and nearly square. Frequently, it is a circle
+with a centered ring surmounted by one or two additional rings or
+terminated by a mitre-shaped structure (Pl. 17, figs. 2, 5-7, 8-12). A
+very simple form was found in the carving shown in Pl. 17, fig. 13,
+where a long projecting knob is seen at the base of the culmen.
+
+The king vulture seems to have a part to play as a mythological being,
+as it is pictured as a god with human body and bird head in the act of
+cohabiting with a woman in Dresden 19a, and with a dog in Dresden 13c
+(Pl. 17, fig. 3). Moreover, the same vulture god is represented on a
+blue background and under a band of constellation signs in Dresden 38b,
+and is also to be noted in Dresden 8a. Foerstemann (1906, p. 66) shows
+that the thirteenth day of the Maya month is reached in the _tonalamatl_
+reckoning at this place. This day is _Cib_, which corresponds to the
+Nahua day _Cozcaquauhtli_, which has the meaning vulture, and here, as
+previously noted, the vulture god is represented. In Tro-Cortesianus 22c
+(Pl. 17, fig. 2) and 10a,[330-*] the king vulture appears alone, in the
+first instance with a blue background, and in the second with a
+background representing rain. Rain is also shown in connection with the
+vulture god in Dresden 38b, and the black vulture in Tro-Cortesianus 18b
+(Pl. 19, fig. 13).
+
+The king vulture is found employed as a head-dress twice out of the
+three times it appears in any connection with female figures,
+Tro-Cortesianus 26c (Pl. 17, fig. 12) with male figure, and 94c (Pl. 17,
+fig. 11) and 95c with female figures. The last two clearly have to do
+with the baptism and naming of infants, as previously explained.
+
+The study of the glyph used to indicate the vulture is interesting, for
+we find it recurring again and again throughout the Maya codices and
+often when there is no other drawing of the animal, as in Dresden 39c
+(Pl. 17, fig. 5; Pl. 18, fig. 19). The first example (glyph 6) is
+clearly the head of the king vulture, whereas the second (glyph 3) is
+probably the head of the black vulture. The glyph in Dresden 38b (Pl.
+17, fig. 7) appears in connection with the vulture god directly below
+it. In Dresden 11b (Pl. 18, fig. 1), it occurs alone and no figure
+appears in the usual place below. The _Tun_ period glyph (Pl. 17, fig.
+10) frequently shows vulture characteristics especially in the nostril
+of the face. The teeth, however, often appearing in the _Tun_ glyph
+would be against this theory. The blending of bird and mammal
+characteristics is not uncommon in the Maya drawings, however.
+
+The Nahua day sign, _Cozcaquauhtli_, as previously noted, has the
+meaning vulture, and we naturally find this bird frequently represented
+in the Mexican codices. In the Nuttall Codex, the head of the king
+vulture occurs repeatedly as a glyph for this day. In its less modified
+forms (Pl. 18, figs. 2-4), the beak is merely a pair of flattened rami,
+surmounted proximally by the conspicuous quadrangular knob. The minute
+hair-like feathers on the otherwise naked head are shown as a fringe at
+the throat and crown, while a conventionalized ear is represented
+posteriorly. A series of interesting figures (Pl. 18, figs. 5-10)
+illustrates steps in the further reduction of this head to a small glyph
+in which only the beak with its large squarish knob remains (Pl. 18,
+fig. 10).
+
+BLACK VULTURE (_Catharista urubu_). It is difficult to assign any single
+characteristic to the figures representing the black vulture (Maya,
+_t[vs.]om_) other than the long raptorial beak. A number of drawings
+probably depict black vultures, though this cannot be certainly
+affirmed. Such are those shown in Pl. 18, figs. 11, 12, 14, 17; Pl. 19,
+figs. 2-4, 13, 14. Stempell considers the vulture shown in Pl. 18, fig.
+13, to be a king vulture, but it has no knob on the beak, and thus is
+quite likely the black vulture. The fact that its head is shaped much
+like that of the god with the king vulture head (Pl. 17, fig. 3) would
+indicate merely the individuality of the artist. The coloring of the
+species under discussion is uniformly black in the Dresden and
+Tro-Cortesianus, except in certain cases where the birds are shown in
+outline only, as in Pl. 19, fig. 12. It is not certain, however, that
+these two last are black vultures, though they suggest the species. The
+two birds shown in Pl. 19, figs. 5, 6, are almost surely black vultures,
+and, as represented in the manuscript, are descending upon a man.
+Stempell thinks they may be ravens, but this is very doubtful, for the
+raven probably was unknown to the Mayas, since its range is to the
+northward. What appears to be a crest is seen on the head of the bird in
+Pl. 19, fig. 4. The black coloring and the shape of the bill otherwise
+suggest the black vulture, though perhaps the crest would indicate the
+harpy eagle. Similarly, Pl. 19, fig. 14, is provided with a sort of tuft
+or crest, but its general appearance is suggestive of the vulture. A
+pottery whistle (text fig. 2) from the Uloa Valley evidently represents
+a black vulture. The head of the bird shows the characteristic wrinkled
+appearance seen in the drawings, with the heavy beak. The absence of the
+rostral knob would preclude its being a king vulture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.
+POTTERY WHISTLE, VULTURE. ULOA VALLEY, HONDURAS.]
+
+It is natural that this bird should find an important place in the Maya
+writing, as it is an abundant species in the region considered, and of
+great importance as a scavenger. The black vulture seems to lack the
+mythological character associated with the king vulture. It appears
+usually in connection with death and in the role of a bird of prey. This
+is especially true in the Tro-Cortesianus where in 24d, 26d (Pl. 19,
+figs. 5, 6) and 28c, it is attacking a human being, in the first and
+last cases represented as dead. In 86a and 87a, the bird is shown
+plucking out the eye of a man. In Dresden 3a (Pl. 19, fig. 7), it
+appears at the top of the tree above the human sacrifice and seems to be
+in the act of consuming the victim. In Tro-Cortesianus 91c, it also
+appears in a tree. In Tro-Cortesianus 40a (Pl. 17, fig. 9), and 42a (Pl.
+19, fig. 1), it is shown as eating the entrails of a deer. In the first
+case, the bird looks like a king vulture, although this is the only
+instance where this species is shown as a bird of prey. In
+Tro-Cortesianus 28b and 36b (Pl. 18, fig. 17), the black vulture appears
+eating the Kan sign. In the first example, the _Kan_ represents the
+newly sowed corn, in the second, the _Kan_ is held by god F. Landa
+(1864, p. 230)[333-*] records that in the _Cauac_ year there was a
+ceremony to prevent the ants and the birds devouring the corn. In
+Dresden 34b and 35b, the vulture is shown on top of the head-dress of
+god F, evidently the enemy of the harvest and, again, on 35b (Pl. 19,
+fig. 4) on top of the _Cauac_ sign. Its role as a bird of prey is
+further shown in Dresden 36b (Pl. 19, fig. 11), where it is shown
+attacking a serpent.
+
+This vulture is associated with god B in Dresden 69b, with god M in
+Tro-Cortesianus 70a (Pl. 18, fig. 12), and with god D in Tro-Cortesianus
+67a (Pl. 17, fig. 1). The last may be the king rather than the black
+vulture, as suggested above. The black vulture occurs only once as the
+usual head-dress, in Dresden 17b (Pl. 18, fig. 13), and here in
+connection with a female figure and the idea of birth. Two birds,
+probably vultures, appear over the enclosure around the head of god C in
+Tro-Cortesianus 100b (Pl. 19, fig. 12). In the Lower Chamber of the
+Temple of the Tigers occurs a black vulture in bas-relief with a
+necklace represented (Pl. 19, fig. 14).
+
+The glyph of the king vulture has already been discussed. There are
+other glyphs which seem to show the black vulture, although it is quite
+possible that no sharp distinction was made between the two in regard
+to the glyphs at least. In one case (Pl. 18, fig. 18), the wrinkled skin
+of the head and neck is indicated much as in the case of the king
+vulture. A few other glyphs are shown (Pl. 18, figs. 16, 19, 22, 27), as
+well as a variety from the Nuttall Codex in which the minute hair-like
+feathers of the head are variously represented, usually much exaggerated
+as a sort of crest or comb. Pl. 18, fig. 22, is interesting as being the
+only case in the Maya codices where the whole figure is shown in the
+glyph. As noted in the case of the glyphs of the king vulture, the
+greater number of these occur quite alone. They seem to indicate that a
+full drawing of the bird is meant to be understood as occurring below.
+
+Several of the carved glyphs (Pl. 19, figs. 8-10) show the black vulture
+heads in some detail with the conspicuously open nostril and hooked
+beak. A carving of the entire bird may be shown on Stela D from Copan
+(Pl. 28, fig. 5), where the naked head and neck are marked off by lines
+indicating wrinkled skin. The same lines on the neck of the bird
+depicted on Pl. 28, fig. 2, will probably identify it as a vulture, and,
+if the square ornament above the beak certainly is part of the figure,
+it is unquestionably the king vulture. The knob is not, however, clearly
+on the bird's beak. There are two interesting glyphs which occur on the
+eastern facade of the Monjas at Chichen Itza. The glyphs in this
+inscription are unlike the usual Maya hieroglyphs, although several of
+the so-called constellation signs can be made out. The two glyphs in
+question represent the entire body possibly of a vulture, that on Pl.
+17, fig. 13, probably the king vulture, and that on Pl. 18, fig. 14, the
+black vulture.
+
+HARPY EAGLE (_Thrasaetos harpyia_). In the Nuttall Codex, what is
+undoubtedly the harpy eagle is of frequent occurrence. This great bird
+is not uncommon in the forests of southern Mexico and Central America,
+and must have attracted the notice of the people from its size. The
+elongated feathers at the back of the head form a conspicuous crest, a
+feature that characterizes this species in most of the representations.
+A stone carving from Chichen Itza (Pl. 20, fig. 10) pictures a harpy
+eagle eating an egg-shaped object, and another similarly engaged is
+copied from the Codex Vaticanus 3773 (Pl. 20, fig. 14). The former is
+considered to be a vulture by Maudslay, but the presence of feathers
+covering the head excludes this interpretation. In two stone glyphs (Pl.
+20, fig. 1, 3), occurs a large bird apparently devouring something held
+in its talons, as in Pl. 20, fig. 10. From this general resemblance, it
+seems probable that both represent the harpy, although no crests are
+shown on the glyphs. In the Dresden and the Tro-Cortesianus occur a few
+figures of crested birds that probably are the same species. The crest
+feathers are reduced to two, however, or, in some cases, what may be a
+third projecting forward from the base of the bill (Pl. 20, figs. 5, 7,
+12, 13). The last two figures are not certainly identifiable, though it
+is probable that they represent the harpy.
+
+The eagle seems to be the bird associated with warriors in the codices.
+Seler (1900-1901, p. 89) notes that the eagle and the jaguar are both
+the mark of brave warriors among the Nahuas. In the Aubin manuscript,
+the warrior god, _Yaotl_, is always associated with the eagle
+(_quauhtli_). In the Maya pantheon, god M is usually considered the war
+god, as he is almost always armed with a spear. He is seen in Dresden 74
+(Pl. 20, fig. 13), and in Tro-Cortesianus 109c with an eagle as a
+head-dress. There are other gods, however, who wear a similar head
+covering. God L appears in Dresden 14b (Pl. 20, fig. 7) and again in 14c
+(Pl. 20, fig. 5) with an eagle head-dress. God D in Dresden 23c (Pl. 20,
+fig. 11) has an eagle coming from a _Tun_ sign on top of his head. The
+eagle is probably represented at the prow of a boat in Dresden 43c (Pl.
+20, fig. 12) in which god B is rowing. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 20,
+fig. 4), a bird which may represent the eagle appears sitting on a
+_Cimi_ (death) sign. Above in the glyphs the character for the south is
+shown. Here, clearly, there is some connection between the signs of the
+cardinal points in the line of glyphs and the various creatures pictured
+below.
+
+There seems to be only one glyph which can in any way be taken for that
+of the eagle in the Maya manuscripts and this appears only once, in
+Tro-Cortesianus 107c (Pl. 20, fig. 9). This identification may be
+questioned, as there is no drawing of an eagle associated with the
+glyph. Attention has already been called to the two stone glyphs in Pl.
+20, figs. 1, 3. There are various drawings of the glyph for the eagle in
+the Nahua and Zapotecan codices (Pl. 20, fig. 8), as the Nahua day,
+_Quauhtli_, has the meaning eagle. It is interesting to note in the
+glyph from the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 20, fig. 8) the tips of the feathers
+are crowned with stone points, a frequent way of representing birds of
+prey among the Mexican peoples.
+
+YUCATAN HORNED OWL (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_). Stempell makes a
+serious mistake by confusing the eared owl shown in full face with that
+shown in profile in the drawings, for he considers both to represent the
+great horned owl. The figures are, however, quite different in every
+way. The owl in full face view is unquestionably the great horned owl
+(Maya, _ikim_), the Yucatan form of which is recognized by the
+subspecific title _mayensis_. This is the bird opposed to the
+"Moan-bird" which, as will be shown later, is associated with death. In
+Pl. 21 are some truly remarkable figures which seem to represent this
+horned owl, the first modelled in stucco from Palenque, the second
+carved in stone from Yaxchilan, and the third carved in wood from Tikal.
+Figs. 1 and 3 show the bird in flight with extended wings. The two
+erectile tufts of feathers or "horns" are conspicuously represented in
+fig. 3, at either side of the bird's head and between them the flat top
+of the crown is secondarily divided in like manner into three parts,
+representing the "horns" and the top of the head. The beetling brows,
+heavy hooked beak, and spread talons combine to give a fierce and
+spirited mien to the great bird. Pl. 21, fig. 2, may be a greatly
+conventionalized owl in which the essential characteristics of the bird
+are reproduced in a rectangular design. The large bill is conspicuous in
+the center, and in each upper corner terminates one of the ears. The
+eyes are represented by rectangular areas at the base of the bill, each
+with three vertical bars across it. Below the beak, or at either side of
+the tip, are the feet, each with the claw cross-hatched. What seem to be
+the reduced and highly conventionalized wings fill the lower corner of
+each side of the figure.
+
+The shield in the center of the Tablet of the Sun at Palenque (Pl. 22,
+fig. 6) shows a face in which the motif seems to be the full-face view
+of the horned owl. The hooked bill curves over the mouth at each side of
+which is the curious scroll seen in the same connection in the figures
+of Pl. 21. The ears are somewhat shorter in proportion than usual and
+below each, at the sides of the face, is a large ear-plug, similar to
+that elsewhere found. The eyes are still further conventionalized with a
+decorative scroll surrounding each. Another example of the
+conventionalized owl's head is on Stela 1 from Cankuan (Maler, 1908, Pl.
+13). We are not yet ready to advance an explanation of the reason why
+the owl should occupy such a prominent position in the art of the Mayas.
+
+In only one case is the horned owl found in the Maya manuscripts. In
+Tro-Cortesianus 95c (Pl. 22, fig. 2), this owl appears as the head-dress
+of a woman in that portion of the codex where baptism and naming are
+shown. An owl's head seems to be shown on the end of a warrior's staff
+in the bas-relief of the Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at
+Chichen Itza (Pl. 22, fig. 4). Pl. 22, figs. 5, 7, show two owls from
+the Aubin manuscript; the first is considered to be the screech owl
+(_chiqualli_) and the second the horned owl (_tecolotl_, in Nahuatl).
+Pl. 22, figs. 1, 3, show two drawings of owls from Nahua manuscripts.
+
+YUCATAN SCREECH OWL or MOAN BIRD (_Otus choliba thompsoni_). A second
+species of owl is represented by the figures on Pl. 23. This has
+likewise two feathered tufts or "ears" on its head and is always shown
+with the head, at least, in profile, but the tufts one in front, the
+other at the back of the head. The facial disc is not very prominent the
+beak rather long, the tail short, and the plumage somewhat mottled. A
+dark ring usually surrounds the eye. It is, with little doubt, the
+screech owl, the only other form of eared owl commonly met with in the
+Central American region, and in Yucatan is represented by the race above
+indicated. This owl, under the name of the Moan bird,[338-*] is always
+associated with the idea of death among the Mayas. The familiarity of
+this species and its mournful quavering cry uttered at night have no
+doubt led to its association with death and mystery as with owls in
+other parts of the world.
+
+This Moan bird has an important place in the Maya pantheon, as it is the
+representative in many places of god A, the Death god. It appears with a
+human body in Dresden 7c (Pl. 23, fig. 1), 10a (Pl. 23, fig. 8), and 11a
+(Pl. 23, fig. 3) and in Tro-Cortesianus 66a (Pl. 23, fig. 2). In each of
+these places, it occupies the space in which one of the regular gods is
+usually found. In Dresden 10a, the day reached in the _tonalamatl_
+reckoning is _Cimi_, meaning death, and here, as has been noted, is
+found the Moan bird, the symbol of death, with another sign of death in
+the circle just above the head of the bird (Pl. 23, fig. 8).
+
+This owl is used as a head-dress itself, but always for women, Dresden
+16a (Pl. 23, fig. 19), 18b (Pl. 23, fig. 5), Tro-Cortesianus 94c (Pl.
+23, fig. 4), and 95c (Pl. 23, fig. 20). It occurs in both manuscripts in
+the pages mentioned several times before, where birth, baptism, and the
+naming of children are shown. The curious figure, with a head similar to
+Pl. 23, fig. 21, carried on the back of some of the women, is the Moan
+sign, referring to the idea of death, possibly to still-birth, as
+copulation and birth are shown in this section of the codex (Dresden
+18c, 19c). The Moan is found associated with man only once in the
+manuscripts. In Tro-Cortesianus 73b (Pl. 23, fig. 18), he is found
+perching on a curious frame-like structure in which god B is sitting.
+
+There are several glyphs representing the Moan bird or screech owl; the
+first type is easily identifiable, as the head of the bird is clearly
+pictured (Pl. 23, figs. 11-14, 16). This head is frequently associated
+with the number thirteen (Dresden 8b). It may occur in the line of
+glyphs (Dresden 16c), and refer to the Moan pictured below, or it may
+occur in the line of glyphs with no picture corresponding to it below
+(Dresden 53b). Pl. 23, fig. 15, from Dresden 38c has been placed with
+these drawings, although the identification is not certain. It may
+refer, however, to the large Moan head below, on which god B is sitting
+(Pl. 23, fig. 11). The second type of glyph does not resemble in any way
+the Moan, but they are clearly signs for it, as they are often found in
+connection with the picture of the Moan, Dresden 7c (Pl. 23, figs. 6, 7,
+21) and 10a. In both places fig. 7 is associated with the number
+thirteen. Schellhas also places Pl. 23, fig. 17, among the Moan signs.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 3, 4, 5, 6.
+GLYPHS OF MONTH MUAN SHOWING MOAN-BIRD CHARACTERISTICS.]
+
+One of the eighteen Maya months is named Muan, and some of the glyphs
+appearing for this month in the codices certainly represent the Moan or
+screech owl. This is especially so with text figs. 3-6. Foerstemann
+(1904a) considers that the month Muan and, consequently, the sign as
+well, refer to the Pleiades.
+
+In connection with the screech owl referring to death, it is interesting
+to note that among the Nahuas the owl is considered of unlucky augury
+and is usually found in the "House of Death" and "of Drought", as
+contrasted with the turkey, considered as a bird of good fortune, and
+found in the "House of Rain."
+
+COPPERY-TAILED TROGAN or QUETZAL (_Pharomacrus mocinno_). The quetzal is
+common locally in certain parts of southern Mexico. Its brilliant
+metallic green plumage and the greatly elongated tail feathers make it a
+very notable bird. The feathers of the head are erect and stand out as a
+light crest, those of the anterior portion being slightly recurved. The
+delicate erect feathers of the head are well indicated in Vaticanus
+3773, 17 (Pl. 24, fig. 9) and the tail, also, in this figure, is only
+slightly conventionalized with an upward instead of the natural downward
+sweep. In most of the representations, the crest feathers are
+indicatd[TN-7] by large plumes, the most anterior of which project
+forward. They may be even further modified into three knobs shown in
+Dresden 7c (Pl. 24, fig. 1). The two characteristics of the quetzal,
+namely its erect head feathers and its extraordinarily long tail
+feathers, are often used separately. Thus the tail, which is commonly
+drawn with the outer feather of each side strongly curled forward,
+appears by itself in Pl. 24, fig. 8, or it may be seen as a plume in the
+head-dress of a priest or warrior and in other connections as an
+ornament. A greatly conventionalized drawing of the bird is also shown
+in Pl. 24, fig. 11, in which the head bears a curious knob and the
+dorsal feather of the tail is upcurled in the manner of the other
+drawings. It is not at once apparent why the long drooping tail feathers
+should be shown thus recurved. Possibly these feathers, when used by the
+Mayas for plumes, curled over by their own weight, if held erect, so
+that the representations are a compromise between the natural appearance
+and that when used as ornament in the head decoration.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.
+QUETZAL, TEMPLE OF THE CROSS, PALENQUE.]
+
+The color of the bird and the very long tail feathers have already been
+mentioned, and these explain the reason of the importance of this bird
+among the Mayas. It is claimed by several old authorities that the
+quetzal was reserved for the rulers, and that it was death for any
+common person to kill this bird for his own use. It seems from a
+statement in Landa (1864, p. 190)[341-*] that birds were domesticated
+for the feathers. This bird occurs again and again in various
+modifications throughout the Maya art. The feathers of the quetzal are
+the ones usually associated with the serpent, making the rebus,
+_Quetzalcoatl_, the feathered serpent, the culture hero of the Nahuas,
+or _Kukulcan_, which has the same signification among the Mayas. It is
+impossible to mention here all the various connections in which the
+quetzal appears. The feathers play an important part in the composition
+of the head-dresses of the priests and warriors, especially those in the
+stone carvings. A quotation has already been given from Landa, showing
+the use made of feathers in the dress of the people. Text fig. 7 shows
+perhaps the most elaborate representation of this bird. It is found on
+the sculptured tablet of the Temple of the Cross at Palenque. The
+quetzal is shown seated on top of a branching tree which was long taken
+to represent a cross. A similar representation is seen on the tablet of
+the Temple of the Foliated Cross from the same ruined city. In the Codex
+Fejervary-Mayer, there are four trees in each of which there is a bird.
+A quetzal is perched in the one corresponding to the east, which is
+regarded as the region of opulence and moisture. Seler (1901, p. 17)
+suggests that the quetzal in the tree on the two bas-reliefs at Palenque
+may represent a similar idea and that temples which would show the other
+three trees and their respective birds had not been built in that
+center.
+
+The representation of the quetzal as an entire bird is, after all,
+comparatively rare. The most realistic drawing is seen on a jar from
+Copan in the collections of the Peabody Museum. The whole body of the
+bird is shown as a head-dress in a few places in the codices where birth
+and the naming of children are pictured. In Dresden 16c (Pl. 24, fig. 3)
+and Tro-Cortesianus 94c (Pl. 24, fig. 6), the quetzal is the head-dress
+of women. In Dresden 13b (Pl. 24, fig. 2), a partial drawing of the bird
+is shown as a part of the head-dress of god E, in Dresden 7c (Pl. 24,
+fig. 1) of god H, and in Tro-Cortesianus 110c of god F. The feathers
+alone appear as a female head decoration in Dresden 20c (Pl. 24, fig.
+8). It occurs as a sacrifice among the rites of the four years in
+Tro-Cortesianus 36b (Pl. 24, fig. 12). In Tro-Cortesianus 70a (Pl. 24,
+fig. 5), it is found in the act of eating fruit growing over the "young
+god." In Tro-Cortesianus 100b (Pl. 24, fig. 4), the bird is perched over
+the encased head of god C.
+
+There seems to be a glyph used for the quetzal. In those drawn in Pl.
+24, figs. 10, 17, it is noticeable that the anterior part only of the
+head is shown. The first is a glyph from the tablet of the Temple of the
+Sun at Palenque, and at least suggests the quetzal by the feathers on
+the top of the head, as also Pl. 24, fig. 13, a glyph from Copan, Stela
+10, where the entire head appears in a much conventionalized form. Other
+glyphs are shown in Pl. 24, figs. 14-16, in which there is a single
+prominent recurved feather shown over the eye, succeeded by a few
+conventionalized feathers, then one or more directed posteriorly. It is
+to be noted that whereas in many previous examples of glyphs the full
+drawing of the animal or bird has been found in connection with them,
+here with the quetzal glyphs there is no instance where a drawing of the
+bird occurs with them. A curious human figure (Pl. 24, fig. 19), with a
+head decoration similar to the frontal curve and markings on the quetzal
+glyphs (fig. 14-16), may possibly represent this bird in some relation.
+
+BLUE MACAW (_Ara militaris_). A large macaw (Maya, _mox_ or _[t.]u[t.]_)
+is undoubtedly pictured in the figures in Pl. 25. The least
+conventionalized drawing found is that shown in Dresden 16c (Pl. 25,
+fig. 2), a bird characterized by long narrow tail feathers, a heavy
+bill, and a series of scale-like markings on the face and about the eye.
+Further conventionalized drawings are found in Pl. 25, figs. 3, 10, 13,
+and Pl. 26, fig. 1. In all these the tail is less characteristic, though
+composed of long, narrow feathers, and the facial markings are reduced
+to a ring of circular marks about the eye. These last undoubtedly
+represent, as supposed by Stempell, the bare space about the eye found
+in certain of these large parrots. In addition, the space between the
+eye and the base of the bill is partially bare with small patches of
+feathers scattered at somewhat regular intervals in rows. It is probable
+that this appearance is represented by the additional round marks about
+the base of the bill in Pl. 25, figs. 1, 2, 5, 8, the last two of which
+show the head only. There has hitherto been some question as to the
+identity of certain stone carvings, similar to that on Stela B from
+Copan, of which a portion is shown in Pl. 25, fig. 8. This has even been
+interpreted as the trunk of an elephant or a mastodon, but is
+unquestionably a macaw's beak. In addition to the ornamental
+crosshatching on the beak, which is also seen on the glyph from the same
+stela (Pl. 25, fig. 5), there is an ornamental scroll beneath the eye
+which likewise is crosshatched and surrounded by a ring of subcircular
+marks that continue to the base of the beak. The nostril is the large
+oval marking directly in front of the eye.
+
+The animal in Dresden 40b (Pl. 25, fig. 1) has always been considered
+to be a tortoise (Schellhas, 1904, p. 44, and Foerstemann, 1904). This
+animal, together with the dog, is found beneath the constellation signs
+carrying firebrands; both are regarded as lightning beasts. By comparing
+the head of the figure shown in Pl. 25, fig. 1, with figs. 2, 4, 5, of
+the same plate, the reasonableness of the identification of this head as
+that of a macaw and not that of a tortoise appears clear. The same
+figure occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 12a (Pl. 25, fig. 3) carrying a torch.
+
+In order to make this point clearer, we will take up the consideration
+of the glyphs at this place, rather than at the end of the section as
+usual. As the macaw in Pl. 25, fig. 1, has been hitherto identified as a
+turtle, so the glyph found in connection with it (Pl. 25, fig. 6) has
+been considered to stand for the turtle. Pl. 25, fig. 7, is another
+drawing of the same glyph. By comparing the markings on the face of fig.
+1, it is seen that a similar ring surrounds the eye shown on the glyph.
+The second glyph (Pl. 25, fig. 7) is better drawn and shows, in addition
+to the eye ring, the slightly erectile feathers at the back of the head.
+Comparison with the glyphs representing turtles (Pl. 14, figs. 7-10)
+hitherto confused with these macaw glyphs shows differences, the most
+important of which are of course the eye ring and the feathers at the
+back of the head.
+
+Various other glyphs occur which undoubtedly represent the heads either
+of macaws or smaller parrots. They are, for the most part, glyphs from
+the stone inscriptions. A crest, resembling that depicted on the head of
+the quetzal, is found on a glyph on Altar Q from Copan (Pl. 25, fig.
+10). The eye ring, however, seems to indicate the macaw which also has
+slightly erectile feathers on the head. Much doubt is attached to the
+identification of the glyph of the month _Kayae_[TN-8] from Stela A,
+Quirigua (Pl. 25, fig. 9). It resembles closely the glyphs of the turtle
+(Pl. 14, figs. 7-9) and especially that on Pl. 14, fig. 10. The Quirigua
+glyph has a prominent fleshy tongue, however, like the parrot. From the
+fact that the glyph is certainly that for the month _Kayab_ and the
+_Kayab_ glyphs in the codices (Pl. 14, fig. 10) resemble the sign for
+_a_, in the Landa alphabet which seems to stand for _ak_ (turtle), we
+are led to identify this as a turtle rather than a parrot.
+
+The use of the macaw as a lightning beast has already been commented
+upon. The parrot is also used in the codices as a head-dress. As with
+several other birds the only places in the manuscripts where the whole
+bird is shown is in connection with the bearing of children and the
+baptism. Here the parrot head-dress is seen on women, Dresden 16c (Pl.
+25, fig. 2) and Tro-Cortesianus 94c (Pl. 25, fig. 13). There seems to be
+an exception to the whole bird appearing as a head-dress exclusively
+with women in Tro-Cortesianus 26c (Pl. 26, fig. 1), where god F appears
+with a head-dress composed of the whole bird. The bird is also seen as a
+head-dress on Altar Q from Copan (Pl. 26, fig. 3). The head of the macaw
+appears as part of the head-dress of god H in Dresden 11a (Pl. 26, fig.
+13), god E in Dresden 11b (Pl. 26, fig. 11), god F in Dresden 14b, god D
+in Tro-Cortesianus 89a (Pl. 26, fig. 5) and of women in Dresden 12b (Pl.
+26, fig. 6) and 19a (Pl. 26, fig. 9). In the rites of the four years in
+Tro-Cortesianus 37b, there are two birds which are quite different from
+those we have been considering, but which may represent macaws (Pl. 25,
+fig. 12; Pl. 26, fig. 10).
+
+In the Nuttall Codex, occur several figures of heavy-billed birds that
+may be macaws or other smaller parrots of the genera _Amazona_ or
+_Pachyrhynchus_. They are not, however, certainly identifiable (Pl. 26,
+figs. 4, 7).
+
+IMPERIAL WOODPECKER (_Campephilus imperialis_). We have here introduced
+two drawings from the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 27, figs. 5, 6) which seem to
+represent the Imperial ivory-billed woodpecker, a large species that
+occurs in the forests of certain parts of Mexico. The figures show a
+long-billed bird with acutely pointed tail feathers, a red crest, and
+otherwise black and white plumage. The red crest of the woodpecker is of
+course highly conventionalized in the drawings where it is shown as of a
+number of erect feathers instead of the prominent occipital tuft of
+this bird. The crest and particularly the pointed tail feathers and long
+beak combined with the characteristic coloring seem to leave little
+doubt as to the identity of the species figured. This bird does not seem
+to appear in the Maya drawings.
+
+RAVEN (_Corvus corax sinuatus_) (?). There occurs in the Nuttall Codex a
+figure of a large black bird (Pl. 27, fig. 7), which may be a black
+vulture, but which, from the presence of what appear as prominent
+bristles over the nostril, may also be a raven. These bristles are
+rather prominent in ravens and quite lacking in the vulture, so that we
+are led to identify the drawing as representing the former bird. We have
+found no other figures that suggest ravens.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS BIRDS. Four drawings of birds from the Aubin manuscript are
+shown here (Pl. 27, figs. 8-11), in order that the conventionalization of
+the bird form may be seen. The first two are supposed to represent the
+parrot (_cocho_) and the last two the turkey cock (_uexolotl_). There is
+little in the drawings by which they can be differentiated. In the codex,
+the heads of the parrots are colored red. There is no doubt, however,
+about the identification, as they occur in the same relative position on
+every page of the manuscript and are two of the thirteen birds associated
+with the thirteen gods, the "Lords of the House of Day" (Seler,
+1900-1901, pp. 31-35). From the foregoing, it may be seen that where
+there is no question about the identification, the drawing of the bird
+form is rather carelessly done and no great attempt is made to indicate
+the special characteristics of the different birds.
+
+As has been shown previously, it is not always possible to identify
+without question many of the forms appearing in the manuscripts. This is
+especially true with birds. In Tro-Cortesianus 20c, an unidentifiable
+bird, painted blue, appears on the top of the staff carried by god F.
+The head-dress of this same god in Tro-Cortesianus 27c is a bird form
+and in Tro-Cortesianus 55b, the _tonalamatl_ figure is a bird whose
+identity cannot be made out with certainty.
+
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+OPOSSUM (_Didelphis yucatanensis_, _D. mesamericana_). Figures
+representing opossums are not with certainty identifiable in the Maya
+writings. We have provisionally identified as a frog the animal shown in
+Pl. 29, fig. 6, although at first sight the two median round markings
+might be taken to represent a marsupial pouch. Stempell considers the
+animals found in the upper division of Dresden 25-28 as opossums of one
+of the above species, and this seems very possible. They are shown with
+long tails, slightly curved at the tips, and with long head and
+prominent vibrissae. A rather similar figure is found in the Nuttall
+Codex (Pl. 34, fig. 7). There is nothing, however, that seems to
+preclude their being dogs and, in our opinion, they represent this
+animal.
+
+NINE-BANDED ARMADILLO (_Tatu novemcinctum_). This is the common species
+of armadillo (Maya, _wet[vs]_) found throughout the warmer portion of
+Mexico and Central America, where it is frequently used as an article of
+food, and its shell-like covering is utilized in various ways. Several
+representations of it occur in the Tro-Cortesianus (Pl. 29, figs. 1-4),
+where it is characterized by its scaly covering, long ears and tail, and
+the moveable bands about the body.
+
+This animal is associated with the bee culture, as it is represented
+twice in Tro-Cortesianus 103a (Pl. 29, figs. 1, 3) seated below a bee
+under an overhanging roof. The hunting scenes in the Tro-Cortesianus
+also show the armadillo; in 48a (Pl. 29, fig. 4) and in 91a it is shown
+in a pit-fall. In the last case the _Cauac_ signs are clearly seen on
+top of the trap, whereas in the former case the same signs seem to be
+indicated by the crosses. Finally, this same animal occurs seated in
+Tro-Cortesianus 92d (Pl. 29, fig. 2) facing a female figure. There seems
+to be no glyph used in connection with this animal.
+
+YUCATAN BROCKET (_Mazama pandora_). Among the numerous representations
+of deer in the Maya writings, there is but one that appears to show the
+brocket. This occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 92a (Pl. 30, fig. 2), where a
+hoofed animal with a single spike-like horn is shown, seemingly impaled
+on a stake set in the bottom of a pit-fall. As stated by Stempell, this
+animal from the character of its horns is probably to be identified as a
+brocket, though there is nothing to preclude its being a young spike
+buck of some species of _Odocoileus._
+
+YUCATAN DEER (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_; _O. thomasi_). Several species
+of small deer (Maya, _ke_) occur in Mexico and Central America whose
+relationships are not yet thoroughly understood (Pls. 30-32). The
+species of Yucatan and southern Mexico have small lyrate antlers with
+few, short tines, rather different from the broader type of the more
+northern species with well developed secondary tines. The former type of
+antlers seems to be indicated by the conventionalized structure shown in
+Pl. 32, figs. 8-12. These probably represent the Yucatan deer or its
+ally Thomas's deer of southern Mexico. Two of the figures, both from the
+Nuttall Codex, show the lower incisor teeth (Pl. 32, figs. 8, 11),
+though in other cases these are omitted. The larger part of the figures
+of deer represent the does which have no antlers. For this reason it is
+impossible to distinguish females of the brocket from those of the other
+species of deer, if indeed, the Mayas themselves made such a
+distinction. The characteristics of deer drawings are the long head and
+ears, the prominently elevated tail with the hair bristling from its
+posterior side (the characteristic position of the tail when the deer is
+running), the hoofs, and less often the presence of incisors in the
+lower jaw only and of a curious oblong mark at each end of the eye,
+possibly representing the large tear gland.
+
+The deer plays a large part in the Maya ceremonials. It is an important,
+perhaps the most important animal offering as a sacrifice to the gods.
+Several pages of the Tro-Cortesianus (38-49) are given over to the hunt
+and the animal usually represented is the deer, the hunters are shown,
+the methods of trapping, the return from the chase, and the rites in
+connection with the animals slain. Tro-Cortesianus 48b (Pl. 30, fig. 1)
+shows the usual method of trapping where the deer is caught by a cord
+around one of the fore legs. Tro-Cortesianus 91a pictures the same
+method and 92a (Pl. 30, figs. 2) shows where the deer is caught on a
+spike in another type of trap. In Tro-Cortesianus 86a (Pl. 31, fig. 5)
+the deer appears with a rope around his body held by a god who is not
+easily identified.
+
+Interesting descriptions of the hunt are given in several of the early
+accounts.[349-*] It will be noted that the hunt was usually connected
+with the religious rites and the offering of deer meat and various parts
+of the body of the deer had a ceremonial importance. Attention is called
+to similar practices among the Lacandones, the inhabitants of the
+region of the Usumacinta at the present time (Tozzer, 1907), where the
+greater part of the food of the people must, first of all, be offered to
+the gods before it may be eaten by the natives.
+
+The figures of the deer in the codices are clearly associated with god
+M, and the latter may be considered a god of the hunt as well as a god
+of war. It is very unusual to find a quadruped used as a head-dress in
+any way, and yet in several cases we find god M has the head of a deer
+as a sort of head covering, Tro-Cortesianus 50b (Pl. 31, fig. 6), 51c
+(Pl. 31, fig. 7) and 68b. In the first two cases, the god seems to be
+supplied with a bow and arrow. In a passage in Landa (1864, p.
+290)[350-*] there is a description of this very scene.
+
+In the month _Zip_, the hunters each took an arrow and a deer's head
+which was painted blue; thus adorned they danced. God M is found in one
+case in the Dresden in connection with the deer. In Dresden 13c the
+animal is represented as female and is shown in intercourse with god M.
+
+An offering of venison is frequently pictured in the manuscripts. Landa
+(1864, p. 220)[350-[+]] also furnishes a parallel for this. The haunches
+of venison arranged as offerings in dishes are realistically seen in a
+number of representations of religious rites, as in Dresden 28c (Pl. 31,
+fig. 14) in the last of the rites of the dominical days, 35a (Pl. 31,
+fig. 12) and in Tro-Cortesianus 5a above the serpent enclosing the body
+of water, 65a in front of god B or D and 105b (Pl. 31, fig. 13) and 108a
+(Pl. 31, fig. 15), both of which are in connection with the bee
+ceremonies.
+
+The head of the deer, rather than the legs, is also shown as an
+offering, in Tro-Cortesianus 69b with god B and Tro-Cortesianus 78 (Pl.
+31, fig. 10) in the line of glyphs. The whole deer may be represented as
+an offering in Tro-Cortesianus 2b (Pl. 31, fig. 8).[351-*]
+
+There are some examples in the manuscripts where the deer is pictured
+quite apart from any idea of the hunt or an offering. In Tro-Cortesianus
+14b, it is shown on top of the body of one of the large snakes and in
+Tro-Cortesianus 29c (Pl. 31, fig. 3), it appears seated on the end of a
+snake-like curve. The deer occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 30b (Pl. 30, fig.
+6) in connection with the goddess from whose breasts water is flowing.
+God B appears in Dresden 41c (Pl. 31, fig. 1) seated on a red deer. The
+same animal is also to be noted in Dresden 60a (Pl. 30, fig. 5) in
+connection with the combat of the planets.[351-[+]] A deer is seen in
+Tro-Cortesianus 92d seated on a mat opposite a female figure in the same
+manner as the armadillo on the same page and a dog on the preceding
+page. These, as previously noted, probably refer to cohabitation. On Pl.
+32, fig. 9, is a deer from the Peresianus and Pl. 32, fig. 12, shows
+another from Stela N, east, from Copan.
+
+The Nahua day _Macatl_ signifies deer and we naturally find a large
+number of glyphs representing this animal among the day signs in the
+Mexican manuscripts (Pl. 31, fig. 9; Pl. 32, figs. 8, 10, 11).
+
+YUCATAN PECCARY (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_; _T. ringens_).
+Peccaries (Maya, _qeqem_) of the _T. angulatum_ group are common in
+Mexico and Yucatan, and a number of local forms have been named. The
+white-lipped peccaries also occur, but in the figures it is impossible
+to distinguish the species. These animals are characterized by their
+prominent snout, curly tail, bristling dorsal crest, and rather
+formidable tusks, as well as by the possession of hoofs. By these marks
+most of the figures are readily identifiable (Pl. 32, fig. 1; Pl. 33,
+figs. 1, 2, 4-6, 9). The tail is, however, often omitted as well as the
+erect line of bristles down the back. The presence of hoofs and the
+possession of a truncated pig-like snout are sufficiently
+characteristic. In the Dresden Codex occur several figures of undoubted
+peccaries. Two of these are pictured in Pl. 32, figs. 2, 4. In each the
+hoofs and curly tail appear, and in the latter figure the bristling back
+is conventionally drawn by a series of serrations. These marks are
+sufficient to identify the animals. Their heads are further
+conventionalized, however, by a great exaggeration of the snout beyond
+that slightly indicated in Pl. 32, fig. 1, and Pl. 33, figs. 6, 9. Other
+representations of the peccary, are shown in Pl. 32, fig. 5, a man with
+a peccary's head, and fig. 7 in which the animal's hoofs are replaced by
+human hands and feet. In both cases the form of the head remains
+characteristic. A curious combination is shown in Pl. 32, fig. 3, an
+animal whose head and fore feet are those of a peccary, while the hind
+feet have five toes, and there is a long tail. The addition of what look
+like scales is found in a figure from the Dresden (Pl. 32, fig. 6).
+
+The peccary is found in several different connections in the
+manuscripts. As deer are found associated with the hunt, so, but to a
+much more limited extent, the peccary. It is represented pictured as
+being captured in snares of the familiar "jerk-up" type. Similar
+drawings show this animal caught by the foreleg and held partially
+suspended, Tro-Cortesianus 49a (Pl. 33, fig. 9),[352-*] 49c (Pl. 33,
+fig. 1), and 93a (Pl. 33, fig. 4). Tro-Cortesianus 41b also shows the
+peccary associated with hunting scenes. Another realistic drawing of
+this animal in Dresden 62 (Pl. 33, fig. 6)[352-[+]] represents him as
+seated on the open jaws of a serpent connected with a long number
+series. We are unable to explain the signification of the appearance of
+the animal in this connection. The peccary is pictured in
+Tro-Cortesianus 27b (Pl. 33, fig. 5) seated on the left hand of the
+goddess from whose breasts water is flowing.
+
+The peccary seems to be associated with the sky, as it is seen in a
+conventionalized form in four instances (Dresden 44b, 45b, (Pl. 32, fig.
+4)[TN-9] coming from a band of constellation signs and in Dresden 68a (Pl.
+32, fig. 2) coming from a similar band with god E sitting
+underneath.[353-*] Above each of these conventionalized figures occur
+the corresponding glyph forms (Pl. 33, figs. 7, 8), which show merely
+the head with the exaggerated upturned snout. There is a striking
+resemblance between these snouts and those of the stone mask-like
+figures so frequently represented as a facade decoration in northern
+Yucatan. The presence in the mouths of the faces there represented of a
+recurved tusk in addition to other teeth is a further resemblance to the
+drawings of peccaries. Stempell (1908, p. 718) has reproduced a
+photograph of these extraordinary carvings and considers them the heads
+of mastodons, apparently solely on account of the shape of the upturned
+snout, whose tip in many of the carvings turns forward. They certainly
+do not represent the heads of mastodons, but we are not ready to say
+that the peccary is the prototype of these carvings, although the
+similarity between the glyphs (Pl. 33, figs. 7, 8) and the masks is
+worthy of note. One point which does not favor this explanation is the
+fact that on the eastern facade of the Monjas at Chichen Itza where the
+mask-like panel is seen at its best, we find a realistic drawing of a
+peccary (Pl. 33, fig. 2) on the band of glyphs over the doorway, and it
+in no way suggests the head on the panel and is quite different from the
+head already noted as the glyph of the peccary in the codices.
+
+BAIRD'S TAPIR (_Tapirella bairdi_). No undoubted representations of
+tapirs occur in the manuscripts here considered. Possibly tapirs did
+not live in the country occupied by the Maya peoples. At the present
+time they are found only to the south of Yucatan. In Central America
+Baird's and Dow's tapirs are native, the latter, however, more on the
+Pacific coast. We have included a drawing of an earthenware vessel (Pl.
+28, fig. 1) that represents a tapir, about whose neck is a string of
+Oliva shells. The short prehensile trunk of the tapir is well made and
+the hoofs are likewise shown. A greatly elongated nose is found in many
+of the drawings of the deities, but it does not seem clear that these
+represent trunks of tapirs, or, as suggested by Stempell, mastodons! Two
+such heads are shown in Pl. 39, figs. 7, 9. These offer a considerable
+superficial resemblance to that of a tapir, but as no other drawings
+that might be considered to represent this animal are found, it seems
+very questionable if the long noses are other than parts of grotesque
+masks. The superficial resemblance of the curious nose pieces of the
+masks on the panel of the Maya facades to elephants' trunks does not
+seem to us especially significant, as otherwise the carvings are quite
+unlike elephants. They have no great tusks as an elephant should, but,
+instead, short recurved teeth similar to those representing peccary
+tusks, as already pointed out.
+
+RABBIT (_Sylvilagus_ or _Lepus_). Rabbits and hares from their
+familiarity, their long ears, and their peculiar method of locomotion,
+seem always to attract the notice of primitive peoples. Several species
+occur in Mexico, including the Marsh rabbit (_Sylvilagus truei_; _S.
+insonus_), various races of the Cottontail rabbit (_S. floridanus
+connectens_; _S. f. chiapensis_, _S. f. yucatanicus_; _S. aztecus_; _S.
+orizabae_, etc.) and several Jack rabbits (_Lepus alleni pallitans_; _L.
+callotis flavigularis_, _L. asellus_). It is, of course, quite
+impossible to determine to which of these species belong the few
+representations found. Several drawings, shown in Pl. 30, figs. 3, 4, 7,
+8, are at once identifiable as rabbits from their long ears, round
+heads, and the presence of the prominent gnawing teeth.[354-*] In two
+of the figures (Pl. 30, figs. 7, 8), the entire animal is shown, sitting
+erect on its haunches, the first with one ear in advance of the other, a
+trait more characteristic of the jack rabbit than of the short-eared
+rabbits. For convenience of comparison, we have placed beside these two
+figures one of a deer in much the same position. It is at once
+distinguished, however, by its long head, longer bushy tail, and by the
+marks at each end of the eye. What at first sight appear to be two
+gnawing teeth of the rabbit seem to be the incisors of the lower jaw.
+This is the animal identified by Stempell as a dog.
+
+The animal shown to be a rabbit in Dresden 61 (Pl. 30, fig. 8) is
+pictured seated on the open jaws of a serpent in the same way as the
+peccary on the following page. These two animals, together with two
+representations of god B and the black god (Dresden 61), are each
+clearly connected with the serpents on which they are sitting.
+
+The Nahua day _Tochtli_ signifies rabbit and naturally the animal occurs
+throughout the Mexican manuscripts as representing this day (Pl. 30,
+figs. 3, 4).
+
+OTHER RODENTS. We have included in Pl. 29, figs. 5, 7, 8, three
+undetermined mammals. The second of these is characterized by the two
+prominent gnawing teeth of a rodent and by its long tail. It may
+represent a pack rat (_Neotoma_) of which many species are described
+from Mexico. In its rounded ears and long tail, fig. 5 somewhat
+resembles fig. 7, but it lacks the gnawing incisors. Still less
+satisfactory is fig. 8 from Tro-Cortesianus 24d, at whose identity it
+seems unsafe to hazard a guess. It is shown as eating the corn being
+sowed by god D.
+
+JAGUAR (_Felis hernandezi_; _F. h. goldmani_). Throughout its range, the
+jaguar (Maya, _balam_ or _t[vs]akmul_) is the most dreaded of the
+carnivorous mammals. It is, therefore, natural that the Mayas held it in
+great awe and used it as a symbol of strength and courage. A few
+characteristic figures are shown in Pl. 34, figs. 1-3; Pl. 35, figs.
+5-14. The species represented is probably _Felis hernandezi_, the
+Mexican race of jaguar, or one or the other of the more or less nominal
+varieties named from Central America. The distinguishing mark of the
+jaguar, in addition to the general form with the long tail, short ears
+and claws, is the presence of the rosette-like spots. These are
+variously conventionalized as solid black markings, as small circles, or
+as a central spot ringed by a circle of dots (Pl. 35, fig. 12).
+Frequently the solid black spots are used, either in a line down the
+back and tail or scattered over the body. The tip of the tail is
+characteristically black, and the teeth are often prominent. Such a
+figure as this (Pl. 35, fig. 10) Stempell considers to be a water
+opossum (_Chironectes_), for the reason that it is held by the goddess
+from whose breast water is flowing. This can hardly be, however, for not
+only are the markings unlike those of the water opossum, but the large
+canine tooth indicates a large carnivore. Moreover, the water opossum is
+a small animal, hardly as big as a rat, of shy and retiring habits, and
+so is unlikely to figure in the drawings of the Mayas.
+
+As for the significance of the jaguar in the life of the Mayas, it may
+be said that this animal seems to have played a most prominent part. At
+Chichen Itza, the building on top of the southern end of the eastern
+wall of the Ball Court, usually called the Temple of the Tigers, has a
+line of jaguars carved in stone as frieze around the outside of the
+building, and in the Lower Chamber of the same structure, the figure of
+a jaguar (Maudslay, III, Pl. 43) serves as an altar. The front legs and
+the head of a jaguar often are seen as the support of a seat or altar on
+which a god is represented as at Palenque in the Palace, House E
+(Maudslay, IV, Pl. 44) and in the Temple of the Beau Relief (Holmes,
+1895-1897, Pl. 20). Altar F at Copan (Pl. 35, fig. 7) shows the same
+idea. The head of a puma or jaguar (Pl. 34, fig. 6) appears in the
+bas-relief of the Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers, evidently
+representing a part of an altar. A realistic carving of a jaguar was
+found on a stone near the Temple of the Cones at Chichen Itza (Maudslay,
+III, Pl. 52, fig. a), and another occurs near the present hacienda of
+Chichen Itza carved in relief on a ledge of rock.
+
+In the Maya manuscripts the jaguar appears in a number of connections.
+Its mythological character is shown in Dresden 8a (Pl. 35, fig. 5),
+where it is pictured as the _tonalamatl_ figure. The day reached here in
+the reckoning is _Ix_, and this corresponds to the Nahua _Oceolotl_,
+which means jaguar. In Dresden 26, in the pages showing the ceremonies
+of the years, the jaguar is carried on the back of the priest, evidently
+representing one of the year bearers (_Ti cuch haab_). Balam, the name
+of the jaguar, is the title given to the four _Bacabs_ or _Chacs_, the
+gods of the four cardinal points. In Tro-Cortesianus 64a, two jaguar
+heads are noted as the end of curious bands of _Caban_ signs over a
+flaming pot. The second one is shown as dead. A jaguar head is employed
+in two places in the Tro-Cortesianus, 34a and 36a, as a head-dress for a
+god who is in the act of sowing corn. This animal appears very
+infrequently in the pages of the Tro-Cortesianus given over to the
+hunting scenes, 41c, 40c, 43b, and, even here, it never appears in the
+same way as the deer and peccary, as an animal for sacrifice.
+
+The jaguar as a predacious beast is noted in Tro-Cortesianus 28b (Pl.
+35, fig. 8), where it is attacking god F in a similar way as the
+vultures in the preceding picture. The jaguar appears in Tro-Cortesianus
+30b (Pl. 35, fig. 10) seated on the right hand of the goddess from whose
+breasts water is flowing. The figure in Tro-Cortesianus 12b between the
+various offerings may be a jaguar or a dog, more probably from its
+connection with an offering, the dog. A curious modification of the
+jaguar may be shown in Tro-Cortesianus 20a (Pl. 34, fig. 2), where a god
+is seated on the gaping jaws of some animal whose identity is uncertain.
+It may be a serpent, although the black-tipped tail from which the head
+appears to come certainly suggests the jaguar.
+
+There are several carved glyphs in stone that probably represent
+jaguars. Two of these (Pl. 28, fig. 4; Pl. 35, fig. 9) have the
+characteristic round spots, but others are unmarked, and suggest the
+jaguar by their general character only (Pl. 35, fig. 6). This latter
+may, of course, represent the puma quite as well. A realistic jaguar
+head appears as a glyph in Tro-Cortesianus 2a (Pl. 35, fig. 13). The
+more usual glyph for the jaguar is more highly conventionalized,
+although the spots and the short rounded ear are still characteristic
+(Pl. 35, fig. 11). A slight modification of this glyph appears in
+Dresden 8a in connection with the full drawing of the animal below.
+
+The Nahua day _Oceolotl_, as already noted, means jaguar, and the jaguar
+glyph is found among the day signs (Pl. 34, fig. 3). Seler (1904, p.
+379) associates the jaguar in the Vaticanus and the Bologna with
+_Tezcatlipoca_. He notes that the second age of the world, in which the
+giants lived and in which _Tezcatlipoca_ shone as the sun, is called the
+"jaguar sun." _Tezcatlipoca_ is supposed to have changed himself into a
+jaguar.
+
+PUMA (_Felis bangsi costaricensis_). As shown by Stempell, there can be
+little doubt that some one of the mainly nominal species of Central
+American puma is represented in Dresden 47 (Pl. 34, fig. 7). This animal
+is colored reddish in the original, as is the puma, is without spots,
+although the tip of the tail, as in the pictures of the jaguar, is
+black. The animal is represented as being transfixed with a
+spear.[358-*] Another animal colored red in Dresden 41c seems to
+represent a puma. God B is shown seated upon him. A crude figure from
+the Painted Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers (Pl. 34, fig. 5) is
+probably the same species of puma. The cleverly executed head, shown in
+profile in Pl. 34, fig. 6, is also perhaps the same animal, although it
+may possibly represent the jaguar. One or the other of these two cats is
+also intended, in Pl. 34, fig. 4, a drawing of a piece of pottery.
+
+COYOTE (_Canis_). Two figures from the Nuttall Codex have been included
+as possibly representing coyotes (Pl. 35, figs. 1, 2). They are chiefly
+characterized by their prominent ears and bristling hair, and seem to be
+engaged in active combat. Coyotes of several species occur in Mexico and
+though not generally regarded as aggressive animals are of a predacious
+nature. No drawings of the coyote have been noted in the Maya codices.
+
+DOG (_Canis_). The dog (Maya, _peq_) evidently played an important part
+in the life of the Mayas as it does with other races of men generally.
+On Pls. 36, 37, we have included certain figures of dogs from several
+manuscripts. These may represent two breeds, for it is well known that
+both a hairy and a hairless variety were found by the early discoverers
+in Mexico.[359-*] Hairiness is more or less clearly indicated in the
+following figures:--Pl. 36, figs. 1-7, 12; Pl. 37, figs. 4, 5. The
+figures of dogs usually agree in having a black mark about the eyes that
+frequently is produced as a downward curved tongue from the posterior
+canthus. Sometimes, as in Pl. 37, figs. 1-3, 10, this tongue is not
+blackened. Commonly also black patches are elsewhere distributed on the
+body, generally on the back. These markings are probably the patches of
+color separated by white areas that occur frequently in dogs or other
+animals after long domestication.[359-[+]] We have included among the
+figures of dogs two in which the eye is differently represented and
+which are unspotted (Pl. 37, figs. 4, 6). These modifications may have
+some special significance, but otherwise the animals appear most closely
+to represent dogs.
+
+We have already suggested that the animal attired in man's clothing, and
+walking erect in Dresden 25a-28a is likewise a dog, though Stempell
+believes it to represent the opossum in support of which he calls
+attention to its prominent vibrissae and slightly curled tail.
+
+The dog played a large part in the religion both of the Mayas and the
+Mexican peoples. It was connected especially with the idea of death and
+destruction. The Lacandones of the present time make a small figure of a
+dog to place on the grave (Tozzer, 1907, p. 47). This is but one of the
+many survivals of the ancient pre-Columbian religion found among this
+people. The dog was regarded as the messenger to prepare the way to the
+other world. Seler (1900-1901, pp. 82-83) gives an interesting parallel
+of the Nahua idea of the dog and his connection with death. He
+paraphrases Sahagun as follows: "The native Mexican dogs barked, wagged
+their tails, in a word, behaved in all respects like our own dogs, were
+kept by the Mexicans not only as house companions, but above all, for
+the shambles, and also in Yucatan and on the coast land for sacrifice.
+The importance that the dog had acquired in the funeral rites may
+perhaps have originated in the fact that, as the departed of both sexes
+were accompanied by their effects, the prince by the women and slaves in
+his service, so the dog was assigned to the grave as his master's
+associate, friend, and guard, and that the persistence of this custom in
+course of time created the belief that the dog stood in some special
+relation to the kingdom of the dead. It may also be that, simply because
+it was the practice to burn the dead, the dog was looked on as the Fire
+God's animal and the emblem of fire, the natives got accustomed to speak
+of him as the messenger to prepare the way in the kingdom of the dead,
+and thus eventually to regard him as such. At the time when the
+Spaniards made their acquaintance, it was the constant practice of the
+Mexicans to commit to the grave with the dead a dog who had to be of a
+red-yellow color, and had a string of unspun cotton round his neck, and
+was first killed by the thrust of a dart in his throat. The Mexicans
+believed that four years after death, when the soul had already passed
+through many dangers on its way to the underworld, it came at last to
+the bank of a great river, the Chicunauhapan, which encircled the
+underworld proper. The souls could get across this river only when they
+were awaited by their little dog, who, recognizing his master on the
+opposite side, rushed into the water to bring him over." (Sahagun, 3
+Appendix, Chap. 1.)
+
+As might be expected from the foregoing, there are abundant evidences in
+the manuscripts of the presence of the dog in the various religious
+rites and especially those which have to do with the other world, the
+Kingdom of the Dead. In Tro-Cortesianus 35b, 36b, 37a, 37b, the pages
+showing the rites of the four years, the dog appears in various
+attitudes. In 35b and 36b, it bears on his back the _Imix_ and _Kan_
+signs, in 37a (Pl. 37, fig. 8) it is shown as beating a drum and
+singing, in 37b (Pl. 36, fig. 2) it is beside a bowl containing _Kan_
+signs. In all of these places, the dogs seem to be represented among the
+various birds and animals which are to be sacrificed for the new years.
+Landa (1864, p. 216)[361-*] states that in the _Kan_ year a dog was
+sacrificed. In the _Muluc_ year, Landa (1864, p. 222)[361-[+]] records
+that they offered dogs made of clay with bread upon their backs and a
+_perrito_ which had black shoulders and was a virgin. It has already
+been noted that two of the dogs represented in Tro-Cortesianus 35b and
+36b have a _Kan_ and _Imix_ sign fastened to the back. Moreover, we have
+also pointed out that the _Kan_ sign frequently seems to have the
+meaning of maize or bread. It will be noted that in Tro-Cortesianus 36b
+two human feet are shown on each of which is a dog-like
+animal.[361-[++]] These may indicate the dance in which dogs were
+carried as noted by Landa. Cogolludo (1688, p. 184)[361-Sec.] also mentions
+a similar dance. Still another reference in Landa (1864, p. 260)[362-*]
+mentions that in the months _Muan_ and _Pax_ dogs were sacrificed to the
+deities.
+
+Reference has already been made to the identification of the four
+priests at the top of Dresden 25-28 as having the heads of dogs rather
+than of opossums. It may be suggested that in the role of the conductor
+to the other world the dog is represented as carrying on his back in
+each case the year which has just been completed and therefore is dead.
+This, of course, would necessitate the identification of god B, the
+jaguar, god E, and god A as representing in turn the four years.
+
+The dog, according to Sahagun's account (p. 360) was looked upon as the
+"Fire God's animal," and as an emblem of fire. This idea is seen
+frequently in the Maya manuscripts where the dog with firebrands in his
+paws or attached to his tail is coming head downward from a line of
+constellation signs, as in Dresden 36a (Pl. 37, fig. 3), 40b (Pl. 37,
+fig. 1) or is standing beneath similar signs as in Dresden 39a (Pl. 37,
+fig. 2) and probably in Tro-Cortesianus 13a. His tail alone has the
+firebrand in Tro-Cortesianus 36b. Firebrands are carried by figures
+which have been identified by us as dogs in Tro-Cortesianus 24c (Pl. 37,
+fig. 6), 25c, and 90a. Here the animal is represented as in the air
+holding his firebrands over a blazing altar beside which god F is
+seated. In two out of the four cases, F is shown as dead. The dog in
+these latter examples has his eye composed of the _Akbal_ sign. This
+same glyph can also be made out with difficulty on the forehead of the
+dog shown in Dresden 36a (Pl. 37, fig. 3). As has been noted, _Akbal_
+means night and possibly death as well. It is certain that destruction
+is indicated in the preceding examples as well as in Tro-Cortesianus 87a
+and 88a (Pl. 37, fig. 4) where the dog is holding four human figures by
+the hair.
+
+Beyer (1908, pp. 419-422) has identified the dog as the Pleiades and
+various other suggestions have been made that the dog represents some
+constellation. The more common form of spotted dog is shown as a single
+_tonalamatl_ figure in Tro-Cortesianus 25d and 27d (Pl. 36, fig. 14) and
+an unspotted variety in Dresden 7a (Pl. 37, fig. 10). The dog is
+frequently shown as copulating with another animal or with a female
+figure. In Dresden 13c (Pl. 37, fig. 7) the second figure is a vulture,
+in Dresden 21b (Pl. 37, fig. 5) it is a woman and also in
+Tro-Cortesianus 91c (Pl. 36, fig. 12).
+
+The same animal appears also in a number of scenes not included in the
+preceding. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 36, fig. 1) a dog is seated on a
+crab and seems to be connected with the idea of the north as this sign
+is noted above the figure; in Tro-Cortesianus 66b (Pl. 36, fig. 3) a dog
+and another animal (Pl. 32, fig. 3) are seated back to back under a
+shelter; in Tro-Cortesianus 30b a dog is seated on the right foot of the
+woman from whose breasts water is streaming; in Dresden 29a (Pl. 37,
+fig. 12) god B is shown seated on a dog; and, finally, in Dresden 30a
+(Pl. 37, fig. 9) god B holds the bound dog by the tail over an altar.
+
+The dog appears from numerous references to be used in connection with a
+prayer for rain. Comargo (1843) in his history of Tlaxcallan states that
+when rain failed, a procession was held in which a number of hairless
+dogs were carried on decorated litters to a place devoted to their use.
+There they were sacrificed to the god of water and the bodies were
+eaten.
+
+The glyphs associated with the dog are interesting as we have, as in the
+case with the deer, one showing a realistic drawing of a dog's head in
+Tro-Cortesianus 91d (Pl. 37, fig. 13) and several others far more
+difficult of interpretation. Pl. 37, fig. 11, seems to stand for the dog
+as it is found in several places where the dog appears below, Dresden
+21b, 40b. It is thought by some to represent the ribs of a dog which
+appear in somewhat similar fashion in Pl. 37, fig. 8. Some of the
+glyphs in the codices for the month _Kankin_ show the same element (text
+figs. 8-10).
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 8, 9, 10.
+GLYPHS FOR MAYA MONTH KANKIN (RIBS OF DOG).]
+
+The Nahua day sign _Itzcuintli_ signifies dog and corresponds to the
+Maya Oc (Pl. 36, figs. 9-11). This in turn is considered by many to
+stand for the dog as the animal of death and signifies the end. The
+sore, cropped ears of the domesticated dog are supposed to be
+represented in this sign, Oc. Nahua and other day signs for _Itzcuintli_
+(dog) are shown in Pl. 36, figs. 4, 6, 13.
+
+BEAR (_Ursus machetes_; _U. horriaeus_). In northern Mexico, in
+Chihuahua and Sonora, occur a black bear (_Ursus machetes_) and the
+Sonoran grizzly (_U. horriaeus_). It is unlikely that the Mayas had much
+acquaintance with these animals since they range more to the northward
+than the area of Maya occupation. Stempell has identified as a bear, a
+figure in Dresden 37a (Pl. 35, fig. 3). This represents a creature with
+the body of a man walking erect but with the head apparently of some
+carnivorous mammal, as shown by the prominent canine tooth. This appears
+as a _tonalamatl_ figure. The resemblance to a bear is not very clear.
+Less doubt attaches to the figure shown in Pl. 35, fig. 4, which seems
+almost certainly to depict a bear. The stout body, absence of a tail,
+the plantigrade hind feet, and stout claws, all seem to proclaim it a
+bear of one of the two species above mentioned. This picture is found in
+connection with one of the warriors shown in the bas-relief of the Lower
+Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza. It seems clearly to
+designate the figure in much the same way as figures are named in the
+Mexican writings, _i.e._, by having a glyph showing this nearby.
+Attention has already been called to the fact that here at Chichen Itza,
+and, especially on this bas-relief, there is much which shows a strong
+influence from the north. The two figures in Tro-Cortesianus 43a are
+probably bears. Foerstemann (1902, p. 68) considers that they are men
+masked as _Chacs_ or _Bacabs_.
+
+LEAF-NOSED BAT (_Vampyrus spectrum_; _Artibeus jamaicensis_; or
+_Phyllostomus hastatus panamensis_). Several remarkably diabolical
+representations of bats (Maya, _so[c]_, usually written _zotz_) occur
+among the Maya remains. These all show the prominent nose leaf
+distinguishing the family _Phyllostomatidae_ and, as the Mayas probably
+used the largest and most conspicuous of the native species for artistic
+representation, it is likely that some one of the three species above
+mentioned is the one here shown.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 11, 12, 13, 14.
+GLYPHS FOR MAYA MONTH ZOTZ (BATS).]
+
+The bat had a place in the Maya pantheon. One of the months of the Maya
+year (_Zotz_) was named after this animal and the glyph for this month
+shows the characteristic nasal appendage. This is to be seen more
+clearly in the glyphs selected from the stone inscriptions (Pl. 38,
+figs. 1, 2, 4-6) than in those from the codices (text figs. 11-14)
+although the nose leaf is still visible in the latter. The day sign
+_Akbal_ (night) occurs as the eye in the figures from the manuscripts. A
+carving showing the whole body of the bat is used as a glyph in Stela D
+from Copan (Pl. 38, fig. 3). This may also represent the Bat god who is
+associated with the underworld, "the god of the caverns." This god is
+pictured on the "Vase of Chama" (Pl. 38, fig. 7) figured by Dieseldorff
+(1904, pp. 665-666) and by Gordon (1898, Pl. III). Seler (1904a) has
+discussed the presence of this god among the Mayas, the Zapotecs, and
+the Nahuas. The bat does not seem to occur in the Maya manuscripts as a
+god, although there are glyphs which seem to refer to this god (Dresden
+17b), as pointed out by Seler, when there is no other representation of
+this deity.
+
+No doubt in the times of the Maya civilization, these bats haunted the
+temples by day as they do now, and thus became readily endowed with a
+religious significance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.
+POTTERY WHISTLE, APE. FROM ULOA VALLEY, HONDURAS.]
+
+CAPUCHIN MONKEY (_Cebus capucinus,--C. hypoleucus_ Auct.)[TN-10] With the
+possible exception of one or two figures, monkeys (Maya, _maa[vs]_ or
+_baa[c]_) are not represented in the Maya codices examined. In
+Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 39, fig. 4) occurs a curious nondescript animal
+with what seem to be hoofs on the forefeet, a somewhat bushy tail of
+moderate length, and a head that appears to be distinctly bonneted,
+somewhat as in the representations of the capuchin. Stempell regards
+this as a monkey, though recognizing that the short bushy tail is unlike
+that of any Central American species. The figure seems quite as likely a
+peccary or possibly a combination of a deer with some other animal. A
+glyph (Pl. 39, fig. 5) found directly above the figure just referred
+to, suggests a monkey, though it cannot be surely identified. A pottery
+whistle from the Uloa Valley (text fig. 15) shows two monkeys standing
+side by side with a posterior extension for the mouth piece. Their heads
+are shaped as in other representations of this monkey with a distinct
+cap or bonnet and facial discs. A pottery stamp from the same locality
+shows a monkey with a long tail (Gordon, 1898, Pl. 11, fig. f). It
+recalls the drawings of monkeys given by Strebel (1899, Pls. 1-4).
+
+In the Nuttall Codex are numerous heads and a few other figures of a
+monkey, which from the erect hair of the crown, curling tail, and
+distinctly indicated facial area must be the common bonneted or capuchin
+monkey of Central America. This species does not occur in Yucatan. What
+is undoubtedly the same animal is shown as a head glyph in Pl. 39, fig.
+8, from the Aubin manuscript. The identifications of the head-forming
+glyphs in the Nuttall and the Aubin manuscripts are certainly correct as
+the Nahua day sign (_Ocomatli_) means ape.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 16, 17, 18, 19.
+GLYPHS FOR MAYA DAY CHUEN.]
+
+Text figs. 16-19, show some of the signs for the day _Chuen_ from the
+Maya codices. This is the day corresponding to the day Ocomatli of the
+Nahuas. There is little resembling an ape in the Maya signs although it
+has been remarked that the sign may show the open jaws and teeth of this
+animal.
+
+Foerstemann (1897) as noted by Schellhas (1904, p. 21) alludes to the
+fact that the figure of god C, which occurs also in the sign for the
+north, in the _tonalamatl_ in Dresden 4a-10a occurs in the day _Chuen_
+of the Maya calendar, and this corresponds to the day _Ocomatli_, the
+ape, in the Nahua calendar. This would suggest a connection between god
+C and the ape and this may be seen in the glyphs for god C (text figs.
+20-24). Foerstemann sees "an ape whose lateral nasal cavity (peculiar to
+the American ape or monkey) is occasionally represented plainly in the
+hieroglyph picture." He also associates god C with the constellation of
+Ursa Minor.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 20, 21, 22, 23, 24.
+GLYPHS OF GOD C.]
+
+It will be seen from the detailed examination of the fauna shown in the
+codices that after all a comparatively small part of the animal life of
+the country occupied by the Maya speaking peoples is represented. The
+drawings in some cases are fairly accurate, so that there is little
+difficulty in determining the species intended by the artist. At other
+times, it is hazardous to state the exact species to which the animal
+belongs. It is only in a comparatively small number of cases, however,
+that there is any great doubt attached to the identification. It will be
+noted that the drawings of the Dresden manuscript are much more
+carefully and accurately done than those of the Tro-Cortesianus. A
+greater delicacy and a more minute regard for detail characterize the
+Dresden drawings in general.
+
+In the animals selected for reproduction by the Mayas, only those were
+taken which were used either in a purely religious significance for
+their mythological character (and here naturally there is to be noted an
+anthropomorphic tendency) or animals were chosen which were employed as
+offerings to the many different gods of the Maya pantheon. The religious
+character of the whole portrayal of animal life in the codices is
+clearly manifest, and it is this side of the subject which will come out
+more clearly as the manuscripts are better known.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[300-*] Quoted in Thomas, 1882, pp. 115, 116.
+
+[300-[+]] "En el mes de _Tzoz_ se aparejavan los senores de las
+colmenares para celebrar su fiesta en _Tzec_."
+
+[301-*] "En este mes (_Mol_) tornavan los colmenares a hazer otra fiesta
+como la que hizieron en _Tzec_, para que los dioses proveessen de flores
+a las avejas."
+
+[303-*] Strebel (1899, Pl. 11) gives several realistic reproductions of
+the centipede from pottery fragments.
+
+[309-*] Attention is also called to two whistles representing frogs in
+the _Memoirs of the Peabody Museum_, I, _No._ 4 (Gordon, 1898), Pl. 9,
+figs, i, j.
+
+[311-*] We have added here a Spanish description from the _Relacion de
+la Ciudad de Merida_ (1900, pp. 66, 67) of the varieties of serpent
+found in the country. "Ay una suerte de culebra que llaman los naturales
+taxinchan, de una tercia de largo, que para andar hinca la cabeza en el
+suelo y da un salto, y de aquella suerte dando saltos anda, la espalda y
+la cabeza tiene dorada y la punta dela cola este se cria en los montes,
+y quando pica a alguna persona le haze reventar sangre por todos los
+poros del cuerpo que pareze que suda sangre y si no es le haze algun
+rremedio muere dentro de un dia natural y para la mordedura desta
+culebra tienen por rremedio los naturales dar a bever ala tal persona
+chile y hoja de piciete molido junto y desleido en agua, y con esto
+guarecen e sanan--ay biboras muy grandes y ponzonosas de una vara e mas
+de largo, y tan gruesa como un brazo, que tienen cascabeles en la punta
+de la cola, y si muerden matan sino se rremedio con brebedad, y tienen
+los naturales por rremedio beber chile e piciete como para la mordedura
+del taxinchan--ay otras suertes de culebras que se llaman cocob, de tres
+y cuatro varas de largo y tan gruesas como una lanza gineta, que tanbien
+son muy ponzonosas, y al que pican haze salir sangre por todo el cuerpo
+y por los ojos, como el taxinchan, ... procuraban guarecerse desta
+ponzona con juros y encantamentos, que avia grandes en cantadores y
+tenian sus libros para conjurarlas y encantarlas, y estos encantadores,
+con pocas palabras que dezian, encantaban y amansaban las culebras
+ponzonosas, las cojian y tomaban con las manos sin que les hiziese mal
+ninguno--tanbien ay culebras bobas sin ponzonas, de dos varas y mas de
+largo y tan gruesas como el brazo, y suelen ponerse sobre arboles juntos
+alos caminos, y quando pasa alguna persona se deja caer encima y se le
+enrosca y rebuelve al cuerpo y a la garganta, y apretando le procura
+ahogarle y matarle, a sucedido matar algunos yndios cacadores yendo
+descuidados--tanbien tienen estas culebras distinto natural para comer y
+sustentarse."
+
+[313-*] Pl. 9, figs. 5, 9, show drawings of the rattlesnake which occur
+on the fresco.
+
+[316-*] The reader is also referred to the bas-relief of the Lower
+Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza where a serpent is
+shown behind a low altar.
+
+[317-*] Foerstemann (1906, p. 15) agrees with Schellhas that this may be
+a rebus for the name _Quetzalcoatl_ or _Kukulcan_. As the bird is a
+vulture rather than a quetzal this could hardly be the case.
+
+[317-[+]] "Y con isopo en el mano de un palo corto muy labrado, y por
+barbas o pelos del isopo ciertas colas de unas culebras que son como
+caxcavales."
+
+[318-*] Brinton (1893, p. 25) notes that the equivalent of _Kan_ in the
+Nahuatl of Miztitlan is _xilotl_ which means ear of corn. This seems to
+show the correctness of the usual identification of the _Kan_ sign as
+meaning maize or bread (_pan_).
+
+[318-[+]] "Y les ofrecian dos pellas de una leche o resina de un arbol
+que llaman _kik_, para quemar y ciertas iguanas y pan y una mitra y un
+manojo de flores y una piedra preciosa de las suyas."
+
+[319-*] "Y pintaban un largarto que significaba el Diluvio--y la tierra
+e sobre este largarto hazian un gran monton de lena y ponianle fuego."
+
+[323-*] See in this connection Seler, 1904.
+
+[327-*] "Y ofrecerle cabecas de pavos y pan y bevidas de maiz."
+
+[327-[+]] (Kan year) "Sahumavan la imagen, degollavan una gallina y se
+la presentavan o offrecian ... y assi le hazian muchas offrendas de
+comidas y bevidas de carne y pescado, y estas offrendas repartian a los
+estrangeros que alli se hallavan."
+
+(Muluc year) "Y despues degollavanle la gallina como al passado."
+
+(Ix year) "Y degollavan la gallina ... a la estatua de _Kac-u-Uayeyab_
+ofrescian una cabeca de un pavo, y empanados de codornices y otras
+coasa[TN-11] y su bevida."
+
+(Cauac year) "Coma solian y degollavanle la gallina ... un hombre muerto
+y en cima un paxaro cenicero llamad _kuch_, en senal de mortandad
+grande, ca por muy mal ano tenian este."
+
+[330-*] Foerstemann identifies this bird as a black eagle.
+
+[333-*] "Este ano en que la letra era _Cauac_ y reynava el
+_Bacab-Hozanek_ tenian, allende de la pronosticada mortandad, por ruyn,
+por que dezian les avian los muchos soles de matar los maizales, y comer
+las muchas hormigas lo que sembrassen y los paxaros, y porque esto no
+seria en todas partes avria en algunos comida, la qual avrian con gran
+trabajo."
+
+[338-*] Brinton (1895, p. 74), according to our interpretation, makes a
+mistake when he considers the crested falcon as the Moan, "in Maya
+_muan_ or _muyan_." He adds, "Some writers have thought the moan bird
+was a mythical animal but Dr. C. H. Berendt found the name still applied
+to the falcon. In the form _muyan_, it is akin in sound to _muyal_,
+cloud, _muan_, cloudy, which may account for its adoption as a symbol of
+the rains, etc."
+
+[341-*] "Crian paxaros para su recreacion y para las plumas para hazer
+sus ropas galanas."
+
+[349-*] _Relacion hecha por el Licenciado Palacio al Rey. D. Felipe II_
+(1866, p. 31). "Lo que hacian en los sacrificios de la pesca y caza, era
+que tomaban un venado vivo y llevabanlo al patio del cu e iglesia que
+tenian fuera del pueblo y alli lo ahogaban y lo desollaban y le salaban
+toda la sangre en una olla, y el higado y bofes y buches los hacian
+pedazos muy pequenos y apartaban el corazon, cabeza y pies, y mandaban
+cocer el venado por si, la sangre for[TN-12] si, y mientras esto se
+cocia, hacian su baile. Tomaban el Papa y sabio la cabeza del venado por
+las orejas, y los cuatro sacerdotes los cuatro pies, y el mayordomo
+llevaba un brasero, do se quemaba el corazon con uli y copa, e incensaban
+al idolo que tenian puesto y senalado para la caza y pesca. Acabado el
+mitote, ofrecian la cabeza y pies al idolo y chamuscabanla, y despues de
+chamuscada, la llevaban a casa del Papa y se la comia y el venado y su
+sangre comian los demas sacerdotes delante del idolo; a los pescados les
+sacaban las tripas y los quemaban ante el dicho idolo. Lo propio era con
+los demas animales."
+
+_Relacion de Cotuta y Tibolon_ (1898, p. 105). "Un dios que dezian que
+eran benados en matando un yndio un benado benia luego a su dios y con
+el coracon le untaba la cara de sangre y sino mataba algo aquel dia
+ybase a su casa aquel yndio le quebraba y dabale de cozes diziendo que
+no era buen dios."
+
+Cogolludo (1688, Book I, Chap. VII, p. 43) "Correan tan poco los
+venados, y tan sin espantarse de la gente, que los soldados de a cavallo
+del exercito los alcancavan, y alanceavan, muy a su placer, y de esta
+suerte mataron muchos de ellos, con que comieron algunos dias despues
+... Que en que consistia aquella novedad, de aver tanta maquina de
+venados, y estar tan mansos? Les dieron por respuesta; Que en aquellos
+Pueblos los tenian por sus Dioses a los venador; porque su Idolo Mayor
+se les avia aparecido en aquella figura."
+
+[350-*] "Y con su devocion invocavan los cacadores a los dioses de la
+caca, ... sacava cada uno una flecha y una calabera de venado, las
+quales los _chaces_ untavan con el betun azul; y untados, vailavan con
+ellas en las manos unos."
+
+[350-[+]] In the _Muluc_ years, he states "davan al sacredote una pierna
+de venado" and also in the same month, "Ofrecian a la imagen pan hecho
+como yemas de uevos y otros como coracones de venados, y otro hecho con
+su pimienta desleida."
+
+[351-*] Foerstemann (1902, p. 20) identifies this animal as a rabbit!
+
+[351-[+]] Foerstemann identifies this animal as a dog.
+
+[352-*] This animal has been identified by Stempell as an agouti
+notwithstanding the hoofs and tusks.
+
+[352-[+]] Foerstemann (1906, p. 228) suggests that this animal is a bear.
+
+[353-*] Attention is called to the curious half-human, half-animal
+figure in Tro-Cortesianus 2a which may suggest the figures in Dresden
+44a, 45a and which are here identified as peccaries. Both are descending
+from the band of constellation signs and the heads of each are not
+greatly dissimilar.
+
+[354-*] Foerstemann (1906, p. 229) suggests that fig. 8 is a walrus!
+
+[358-*] Seler (1904) gives an interesting explanation of the reason why
+the puma and the other corresponding figures are shown hit with a spear.
+
+[359-*] _Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida_ (1898, p. 63): "Ay perros
+naturales dela tierra que no tienen pelo ninguno, y no ladran, que
+tienen los dientes ralos e agudos, las orejas pequenas, tiesas y
+levantadas--a estos engordan los yndios para comer y los tienen por gran
+rregalo--estos se juntan con los perros de espana y enjendran y los
+mestizos que dellos proceden ladran y tienen pelo y tambien los comen
+los yndios cano alos demas, y tambien los yndios tienen otra suerte de
+perros que tienen pelo pero tan poco ladran y son del mesmo tamano que
+los demas."
+
+[359-[+]] Brinton (1895, p. 72) regards these spots as representing
+stars.
+
+[361-*] "Y que le sacrificassen un perro o un hombre ... porque hazian
+en el patio del templo un gran monton de piedras y ponian al hombre o
+perro que avian de sacrificiar en alguna cosa mas alta que el."
+
+[361-[+]] "Avian de ofrescerle perros hechos de barro con pan en las
+espaldas, y avian de vailar con ellos en las manos las viejas y
+sacrificarle un perrito que tuviesse las espaldas negras y fuesse
+virgen."
+
+[361-[++]] These might quite as well be rabbits as dogs.
+
+[361-Sec.] "De los Indios de Cozumel dize, que aun en su tiempo eran
+grandes Idolatras, y usaban un bayle de su gentilidad, en el qual
+flechaban un perro [^q] auian de sacrificar."
+
+[362-*] "Donde sacrificavan un perro, manchado por la color del cacao
+... y ofrecianles yguanas de las azules y ciertas plumas de un paxaro."
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+
+Aubin Manuscript, See Seler 1900-1901.
+
+Beyer, Herman.
+  1908, The symbolic meaning of the dog in ancient Mexico; in _American
+    Anthropologist_ (N. S.), Vol. X, pp. 419-422, Washington.
+
+Bologna Codex, See Cospiano Codex.
+
+Borbonicus Codex, See Hamy, 1899.
+
+Borgia Codex, See Seler, 1904-1906.
+
+Brasseur de Bourbourg, Charles Etienne.
+  1869-1870, Manuscrit Troano. Etudes sur le systeme graphique et la
+    langue des Mayas; 2 vols., 4^o Paris.
+
+Brinton, Daniel Garrison.
+  1893, The native calendar of Central America and Mexico; in
+    _Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society_; Vol. XXXI, pp.
+    258-314, Philadelphia.
+
+1895, A primer of Mayan hieroglyphics; in _Publications of the
+University of Pennsylvania, Series in Philosophy, Literature, and
+Archaeology_, Vol. III, No. 2, pp. 152, Boston.
+
+Camargo, Domingo Munoz.
+  1843, Histoire de la Republique de Tlaxcallan; in _Nouvelles Annales
+    des Voyages et des Sciences Geographique_; IV Serie, Tome 3, Paris.
+    (Spanish edition published by Chavero, Mexico, 1892.)
+
+Cogolludo, Diego Lopez.
+  1688, Historia de Yucatan; 4^o, pp. 791, Madrid.
+
+Cortesianus Codex, See Rada y Delgado, 1893.
+
+Cospiano Codex (formerly Bologna).
+  1899, Published in facsimile, Paris. (Loubat edition.)
+
+Dieseldorff, Erwin P.
+  1904, A clay vessel with a picture of a vampire-headed deity; in
+    _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin 28_, pp. 665-666, Washington.
+    (Translation of German edition published in _Zeitschrift fuer
+    Ethnologie_, 1894, pp. 576-577.)
+
+Dresden Codex, See Foerstemann, 1880 and 1892.
+
+Fejervary-Mayer Codex, See Seler, 1901.
+
+Fewkes, J. Walter.
+  1892, The Mam-zrau-ti; a Tusayan ceremony; in _American Anthropologist_,
+     Vol. V, pp. 217-246.
+
+  1894, A study of certain figures in a Maya codex; in _American
+     Anthropologist_, Vol. VII, pp. 260-274.
+
+Foerstemann, Ernst.
+  1880, Die Maya-Handschrift der koeniglichen oeffentlichen Bibliothek zu
+    Dresden; 4^o, Preface pp. xvii, 74 colored plates, Leipzig.
+
+  1892, Second edition of 1880, Dresden.
+
+  1902, Commentar zur Madrider Mayahandschrift (Codex Tro-Cortesianus);
+    8^o, pp. 160, Danzig.
+
+  1903, Commentar zur Pariser Mayahandschrift (Codex Peresianus); 8^o,
+    pp. 32, Danzig.
+
+  1904, Tortoise and shell in Maya literature; in _Bureau of Ethnology,
+    Bulletin_ 28, pp. 423-430, Washington. (Translation of German
+    edition of 1892. Dresden.)
+
+  1904a, The Pleiades among the Mayas; in _Bureau of Ethnology,
+    Bulletin_ 28, pp. 523-524, Washington. (Translation of German
+    edition published in _Globus_, Vol. XVI, No. 15, p. 246, 1894.)
+
+  1904b, The Day Gods of the Mayas; in _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin_
+    28, pp. 557-572, Washington. (Translation of German edition
+    published in _Globus_, Vol. LXIII, Nos. 9, 10, 1898.)
+
+  1906, Commentary of the Maya manuscript in the Royal Public Library of
+    Dresden; in _Papers of the Peabody Museum_, Vol. IV, No. 2, pp.
+    48-266. Cambridge. (Translation, revised by the author, of the
+    German edition of 1901.)
+
+Gann, Thomas.
+  1897-1898, Mounds in Northern Honduras; in _Bureau of Ethnology_, 19th
+    annual report, part 2, pp. 661-691, Washington.
+
+Gordon, George Byron.
+  1898, Researches in the Uloa Valley, Honduras; in _Memoirs of the
+    Peabody Museum_, Vol. I, No. 4, pp. 44, Cambridge.
+
+Hamy, Ernest T.
+  1899, Codex Borbonicus. Manuscrit Mexicain de la Bibliotheque der
+    Palais Bourbon; Text and plates, Paris.
+
+Holmes, William Henry.
+  1895-1897, Archaeological studies among the ancient cities of Mexico;
+    _Field Museum of Natural History, Publications_ 8 and 16,
+    _Anthropological Series_, Vol. I, No. I, Chicago.
+
+Hough, Walter.
+  1908, The pulque of Mexico; in _Proceedings of the United States
+    National Museum_, Vol. XXXIII, pp. 577-592, Washington.
+
+Landa, Diego de.
+  1864, Relacion de las cosas de Yucatan; Spanish text with French
+    translation published by Brasseur de Bourbourg; 8^o, pp. 516,
+    Paris. (The references in the text are to this edition). Spanish
+    edition published by Juan de Dios de la Rada y Delgado, Madrid,
+    1884, as an appendix to his translation of Leon de Rosny's article,
+    Essai sur le dechiffrement de l'ecriture hieratique de l'Amerique
+    Centrale. Second Spanish edition in Coleccion de Documentos ineditos
+    (2d Series); Madrid, 1900, Vol. XIII, pp. 265-411.
+
+  1900, See second Spanish edition under 1864. (This contains much that
+    is not given in the 1864 edition.)
+
+Maler, Teoberto.
+  1901-1903, Researches in the Usumatsintla Valley; in _Memoirs of the
+    Peabody Museum_, Vol. II, Cambridge.
+
+  1908, Explorations of the Upper Usumatsintla and adjacent region; in
+    _Memoirs of the Peabody Museum_, Vol. IV, No. 1, Cambridge.
+
+Maudslay, Alfred P.
+  1889-1902, Biologia Centrali-Americana, or Contributions to the
+    knowledge of the flora and fauna of Mexico and Central America.
+    Archaeology; Text and 4 vols. plates, London.
+
+Nuttall Codex.
+  1902, Reproduced in facsimile by the Peabody Museum, Cambridge.
+
+Palacio.
+  1686, Relacion hecha por el Licentiado Palacio al Rey. D. Felipe II en
+    la que describe la Provincia de Guatemala, las costumbres de los
+    Indios y otras casas notables; in _Coleccion de Documentos ineditos
+    relativos al descubrimiento, conquista y organizacion de las
+    antiguas posesiones Espanales[TN-13] de America y Oceania_; Tomo VI,
+    pp. 7-40, Madrid.
+
+Peresianus Codex, See Rosny, 1887.
+
+Perez, Juan Pio.
+  1866-1877, Diccionario de la lengua Maya; sm. 4^o, pp. 437, Merida.
+
+Rada y Delgado, Juan de Dios de la.
+  1893, Codice Maya denominado Cortesianus que se conserva en el Museo
+    Arqueologio Nacional; 42 colored plates, Madrid.
+
+Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida.
+  1900, in _Coleccion de Documentos ineditos relativos al
+    descubrimiento, conquista y organizacion de las antiguas posesiones
+    Espanolas de Ultra mar_ (_Segunda serie_), Tomo XI, pp. 37-75,
+    Madrid.
+
+Relacion de Cotuta y Tibolon.
+  1900, in _Coleccion de Documentos ineditos etc._, (_Segunda serie_),
+    Tomo XI, pp. 93-103, Madrid.
+
+Rosny, Leon de.
+  1876, Essai sur le dechiffrement de l'ecriture hieratique de
+    l'Amerique Centrale, Paris.
+
+  1887, Codex Peresianus, Manuscrit hieratique des anciens Indiens de
+    l'Ameirque[TN-14] Centrale conserve a la Bibliotheque[TN-15] National
+    de Paris, Paris.
+
+Schellhas, Paul.
+  1904, Representations of deities of the Maya manuscripts; in _Papers
+    of the Peabody Museum_, Vol. IV, No. 1, pp. 1-47, Cambridge.
+    (Revised translation of second German edition of 1904.)
+
+Seler, Eduard.
+  1900-1901, The Tonalamatl of the Aubin Collection, (English edition),
+    pp. 147, plates 19, Berlin and London. (Loubat edition.)
+
+  1901, Codex Fejervary-Mayer. Manuscrit Mexicain precolombien du Free
+    Public Museum de Liverpool (M 12014). Text and plates, Paris.
+    (Loubat edition.)
+
+  1902-1903, Codex Vaticanus 3773, Text and plates, Berlin. (Loubat ed.)
+
+  1904, Venus period in the picture writings of the Borgia Codex group;
+    in _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin_ 28, pp. 355-391, Washington.
+    (Translation of German edition of 1898.)
+
+  1904a, The Bat god of the Maya race; in _Bureau of Ethnology,
+    Bulletin_ 28, pp. 231-242, Washington. (Translation of the German
+    edition of 1894.)
+
+  1904b, Antiquities from Guatemala: in _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin_
+    28, pp. 75-121, Washington. (Translation of the German edition of
+    1895. republished[TN-16] in his collected works, Vol. III, pp.
+    578-640.)
+
+  1904-1906, Codex Borgia. Eine altmexikanische Bilderschrift der
+    Bibliothek der Congregatio de Propaganda Fide; 4^o, 2 vols. plates,
+    Berlin (Loubat edition.)
+
+  1909, Die Tierbilder der mexikanischen und Maya-Handschriften:[TN-17] in
+    _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1909, pp. 209-257, 381-457 (not
+    completed).
+
+Stempell, W.
+  1908, Die Tierbilder der Mayahandschriften; in _Zeitschrift fuer
+    Ethnologie_, 40 Jahrgang, Vol. V, pp. 704-743.
+
+Strebel, Hermann.
+  1899, Uber Tierornamente auf Thongefaessen aus Alt-Mexico; in
+    _Veroeffentlichen aus dem Konig. Mus. fuer Voelkerkunde_, Vol. VI, part
+    1, pp. 1-33, Berlin.
+
+Thomas, Cyrus.
+  1882, A study of the Manuscript Troana; in _Contributions to North
+    American Ethnology_, Vol. V, pp. 234, Washington.
+
+  1884-1885, Aids to the study of the Maya codices; in _Bureau of
+    Ethnology_, 6th annual report, pp. 253-371, Washington.
+
+Tozzer, Alfred M.
+  1907, A comparative study of the Mayas and the Lacandones. Report of
+    the Fellow in American Archaeology, 1902-1905; Archaeological
+    Institute of America, 8^o, pp. 195, plates 29, New York.
+
+Troano Codex, See Brasseur de Bourbourg, 1867-1870.
+
+Villagutierre Soto Mayor, Juan.
+  1701, Historia de la Conquista de la Provincia de el Itza; 4^o, pp.
+    660, Madrid.
+
+Vaticanus 3773, See Seler, 1902.
+
+
+
+
+PLATE 1
+
+MOLLUSCA
+
+
+FASCIOLARIA GIGANTEA
+
+   1. Man emerging from shell, Dresden 41b.
+   2. Same, Borgia 4.
+   3. Bologna 4.
+   4. Dresden 37b.
+   5. Vaticanus 3773, 66.
+   6. Nuttall 16.
+   7. Sign for zero, Dresden 64.
+   8. Glyph, Dresden 41b.
+   9. Nuttall 16.
+
+OLIVA
+
+  10, 11. Sign for zero, Dresden 63.
+  12. Same, Dresden 55b.
+
+OTHER MOLLUSCA
+
+  13. Sign for zero, Dresden 54b.
+  14. Same. Bivalve, Dresden 63.
+  15. Bivalve, Nuttall 25.
+  16. Nuttall 49.
+  17. Nuttall 23.
+  18. Nuttall 16.
+  19. Nuttall 36.
+  20. Nuttall 75.
+  21. Bivalve closed, seen in profile, Nuttall 75.
+  22. Same, Nuttall 25.
+  23. Probably bivalve, Nuttall 16.
+  24. Same. Nuttall 36.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 1]
+
+
+PLATE 2
+
+INSECTA
+
+HONEY BEE (_Melipona_)
+
+   1. Possibly a drone, Tro-Cortesianus 108a.
+   2, 3. Tro-Cortesianus 108a.
+   4, 6[TN-18] Bees more conventionalized, Tro-Cortesianus 80b.
+   5. Bee and honey comb, Tro-Cortesianus 109c.
+   7. Honey combs, apparently in a hive, Tro-Cortesianus 11c.
+   8. Maya day sign, _Cauac_, possibly representing a honey comb,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 106b.
+   9. Tro-Cortesianus 103c.
+  10. Honey combs in a hive, Tro-Cortesianus 104a.
+  11. Bee and honey comb, Tro-Cortesianus 109c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 2]
+
+
+PLATE 3
+
+INSECTA AND MYRIAPODA
+
+   1. Maggots, probably of Blowfly (_Sarcophaga_), Tro-Cortesianus 27d.
+   2. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 24d.
+   3. Larva of _Acentrocneme kollari_, Tro-Cortesianus 28c.
+   4. Conventionalized insect, possibly a hornet, Nuttall 3.
+   5. Conventionalized insect, unidentified, Nuttall 19.
+   6. Same, Nuttall 55.
+   7. Same, Nuttall 51.
+   8. Butterfly or moth, Nuttall 19.
+   9. Butterfly, Aubin.
+  10. Maya day sign, _Akbal_, possibly representing the head of a
+        centipede.
+  11. Glyph belonging to god D, apparently composed of signs for
+        centipede, Dresden 7b.
+  12. Glyph for god D, Dresden 14b.
+  13. Glyph, Dresden 44b.
+  14. Same, Dresden 27a.
+  15. Centipede in connection with head-dress of god D, Dresden 15c.
+  16. Glyph, Dresden 9b.
+  17. Same, Dresden 15c.
+  18. Centipede in connection with head-dress of god D, Dresden 7c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 3]
+
+
+PLATE 4
+
+ARACHNOIDEA, ARACHNIDA, CRUSTACEA
+
+   1. Scorpion and deer, Tro-Cortesianus 48c.
+   2. Scorpion with sting conventionalized as a hand, Tro-Cortesianus 44c.
+   3. Scorpion highly conventionalized, Nuttall 22.
+   4. Spider, possibly a tarantula, Borbonicus 9.
+   5. Crayfish, Nuttall 16.
+   6. Crab, Nuttall 37.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 4]
+
+
+PLATE 5
+
+MYRIAPODA, PISCES
+
+   1. Parts of a conventionalized centipede with quetzal tail, Vaticanus
+        3773, 13.
+   2. Fish with teeth, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber
+        (Maudslay, III, Pl. 48).
+   3. Fish captured by heron, Dresden 36b. (Compare Pl. 15, fig. 5.)
+   4. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+        Pl. 45).
+   5. Fish.
+   6. Pottery fish, Chajcar (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 93).
+   7. Same.
+   8. Fish as offering, Tro-Cortesianus 3a.
+   9. Same, Dresden 29b.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 5]
+
+
+PLATE 6
+
+PISCES
+
+   1. Possibly a flying-fish (_Exocetus_), Nuttall 75.
+   2. Palenque, Temple of the Cross (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 68).
+   3. Nuttall 36.
+   4, 5. Glyphs, possibly of a shark, Dresden 40a.
+   6. Fish as offering, Dresden 27c.
+   7. Fish without dorsal fins, possibly an eel (_Muraena_), Dresden 65b.
+   8. Fish as offering, Dresden 23b.
+   9. Pottery animal from Santa Rita (Gann, 1897-1898, Pl. 34).
+  10. Dresden 44c.
+  11. Nuttall 16.
+  12. Palenque, Palace (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 11).
+  13. Fish as offering, Dresden 33a.
+  14. Fish as part of the Great Cycle glyph, Copan, Stela C, north
+        (Maudslay, I, Pl. 41).
+  15. Same, Copan, Stela C, south (Maudslay, I, Pl. 41.)
+  16. Same, Copan, Stela D (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48).
+  17. Same, Copan, Stela C, south (Maudslay, I, Pl. 41).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 6]
+
+
+PLATE 7
+
+AMPHIBIA
+
+   1. Frog (_Rana_), Tro-Cortesianus 31a.
+   2, 3. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 101d.
+   4. Probably a toad (_Bufo_), Copan, Oblong altar (Maudslay, I, Pl.
+        114).
+   5. Frog or toad, Tro-Cortesianus 17b.
+   6. Frog and fish, Copan, Altar O (Maudslay, I, Pl. 85).
+   7. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+        Pl. 46).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 7]
+
+
+PLATE 8
+
+AMPHIBIA, REPTILIA
+
+   1. God F representing a tree-toad (_Hyla eximia_), Tro-Cortesianus
+        26b.
+   2. Glyph evidently belonging to fig. 3, Tro-Cortesianus 26a.
+   3. Same as fig. 1, Tro-Cortesianus 26a.
+   4. Snake, Nuttall 6.
+   5. Same, Nuttall 45.
+   6. Same, Nuttall 37.
+   7. Snake used as head-dress of a woman, Dresden 39b.
+   8. Same, Dresden 23b.
+   9. Same, Dresden 43b.
+  10. Same, Dresden 22b.
+  11. Same, Dresden 9c.
+  12. Same, Dresden 15b.
+  13. Same, Dresden 18a.
+  14. Dresden 42a.
+  15. Same as figs. 7-13, Dresden 20a.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE [8][TN-19]]
+
+
+PLATE 9
+
+REPTILIA
+
+RATTLESNAKE (_Crotalus_)
+
+   1. Tro-Cortesianus 33b.
+   2. Nahua day sign, _Couatl_, Aubin 10.
+   3. Tro-Cortesianus 52c.
+   4. Tro-Cortesianus 40b.
+   5. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+        Pl. 40).
+   6. Nuttall 29.
+   7. Glyph representing rattles, Tro-Cortesianus 106c.
+   8. Tro-Cortesianus 100d.
+   9. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+        Pl. 40).
+  10. Nuttall 54.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 9]
+
+
+PLATE 10
+
+REPTILIA
+
+SERPENTS
+
+   1. Tree snake (possibly _Lachesis_), Dresden 27c.
+   2. Nuttall 37.
+   3. Dresden 57b.
+   4. Nuttall 5.
+   5. Nuttall 37.
+   6. Nuttall.
+   7. Serpent in connection with long number series, Dresden 62.
+   8. Dresden 37b.
+   9. Dresden 40c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 10.]
+
+
+PLATE 11
+
+REPTILIA
+
+SERPENTS
+
+   1. Large snake with conventionalized spots, Tro-Cortesianus 30a.
+   2. Tro-Cortesianus 31b.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 11]
+
+
+PLATE 12
+
+REPTILIA
+
+IGUANA, LIZARDS
+
+   1. Iguana as offering, Tro-Cortesianus 105c.
+   2. Iguana, Tro-Cortesianus 3b.
+   3. Iguana, as offering with _Kan_, Dresden 43c.
+   4. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107b.
+   5. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 6a.
+   6. Same, Dresden 29b.
+   7. Offering, possibly representing a lizard, Dresden 27b.
+   8. Same, Dresden 34a.
+   9. Lizard used for _Uinal_ glyph, Copan, Stela D, gl. 4. (Maudslay, I,
+        Pl. 48).
+  10. Nahua day sign, _Cuetzpalin_ (lizard), Aubin 10.
+  11. Lizard, Dresden 3a.
+  12. Nuttall 10.
+  13. Offering, the portion with serrated margin possibly representing
+        an iguana, Tro-Cortesianus 12b.
+  14. Lizard, Nuttall 2.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 12]
+
+
+PLATE 13
+
+REPTILIA
+
+CROCODILE (_Crocodilus_)
+
+   1. Glyph of the Nahua day sign, _Cipactli_, Nuttall 1.
+   2. Crocodile represented by head and limb, Nuttall 36.
+   3. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 1.
+   4. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 4.
+   5. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 9.
+   6. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 47.
+   7. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 1.
+   8. Nuttall 75.
+   9. Head of lizard or possibly crocodile used as a _Uinal_ glyph,
+        Palenque, Temple of the Foliated Cross (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 82,
+        gl. 6).
+  10. Head of crocodile, Dresden 52b.
+  11. Head, possibly of a crocodile, Palenque, Temple of the Foliated
+        Cross (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 82, gl. 0,[TN-20] 4).
+  12. Conventionalized head of a crocodile, Dresden 53b.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 13.]
+
+
+PLATE 14
+
+REPTILIA
+
+TURTLES
+
+   1. Turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 19b.
+   2. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 17b.
+   3. Swimming turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 17a.
+   4. Possibly representing a turtle, Nuttall 33.
+   5. Turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 81c.
+   6. Freshwater turtle (_Chelydra_) with leeches attached,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 72b.
+   7. Glyph for fig. 3.
+   8. Glyph.
+   9. Glyph.
+  10. Glyph.
+  11. Turtle, Nuttall 43.
+  12. Turtle god, _Aac_, Dresden 49.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 14]
+
+
+PLATE 15
+
+AVES
+
+HERONS[TN-21] FRIGATE BIRD
+
+   1. Heron, stucco ornament, Palenque, Palace, House B (Maudslay, IV,
+        Pl. 18).
+   2. Heron head-dress, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber
+        (Maudslay, III, Pl. 45).
+   3. Head and neck of a heron, Dresden 37b.
+   4. Heron, Nuttall 74.
+   5. Heron with fish, Palenque, Temple of the Cross, West side panel
+        (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 71).
+   6. Heron[TN-22]
+   7. Heron with a fish as a head-dress, Dresden 36a.
+   8. Fork-tailed bird, probably a Frigate bird (_Fregata aquila_),
+        Tro-Cortesianus 34a.
+   9. Same, arranged for offering, Dresden 35a.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 15]
+
+
+PLATE 16
+
+AVES
+
+OCELLATED TURKEY (_Agriocharis ocellata_)
+
+   1. Turkey in trap, Tro-Cortesianus 93a.
+   2. Turkey, Tro-Cortesianus 10b.
+   3. Turkey snared, Tro-Cortesianus 91a.
+   4. Tro-Cortesianus 4a.
+   5. Tro-Cortesianus 95c.
+   6. Tro-Cortesianus 37b.
+   7. Vaticanus 3773, 14.
+   8. Tro-Cortesianus 36a.
+   9. Whole turkey as offering, Dresden 26c.
+  10. Head of turkey as offering, Dresden 34a.
+  11. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 12b.
+  12. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 105b.
+  13. Dresden 20a.
+  14. Head of turkey as offering, Dresden 41c.
+  15. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107b.
+  16. Same, Dresden 29c.
+  17. Same, Dresden 28c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 16]
+
+
+PLATE 17
+
+AVES
+
+KING VULTURE (_Sarcorhamphus papa_)
+
+   1. Tro-Cortesianus 67a.
+   2. Tro-Cortesianus 22c.
+   3. God with head of King Vulture, Dresden 19a.
+   4. King Vulture and Ocellated Turkey, Tro-Cortesianus 85a.
+   5. Glyph, showing head, Dresden 39c.
+   6. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107c.
+   7. Same, Dresden 38b.
+   8. Same.
+   9. King Vulture, tearing out entrails of deer, Tro-Cortesianus 40a.
+  10. _Tun_ period glyph (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 89).
+  11. Tro-Cortesianus 94c.
+  12. Tro-Cortesianus 26c.
+  13. Glyph, Chichen Itza, Monjas, east (Maudslay, III, Pl. 13).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 17]
+
+
+PLATE 18
+
+AVES.
+
+KING VULTURE (_Sarcorhamphus papa_), BLACK VULTURE (_Catharista urubu_)
+
+   1. Glyph of head of King Vulture, Dresden 11b.
+   2. Glyph for Nahua day sign, _Cozcaquauhtli_, Nuttall 5.
+   3. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 41.
+   4. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 5.
+   5. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 4.
+   6. Same as fig. 2, showing considerable conventionalization. Nuttall
+        2.
+   7. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 3.
+   8. Same as fig[TN-23] 2, further reduced, Nuttall 18.
+   9. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 3.
+  10. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 20.
+  11. Probably a Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 95c.
+  12. Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 70a.
+  13. Same, Dresden 17b.
+  14. Possibly a Black Vulture, Chichen Itza, Monjas, east (Maudslay,
+        III, Pl. 13).
+  15. Head of Black Vulture, Nuttall 32.
+  16. Glyph of head of same, Dresden 54b.
+  17. Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 36b.
+  18. Head of same, Tro-Cortesianus 26c.
+  19. Same, Dresden 39c.
+  20. Same, Nuttall 19.
+  21. Same, Nuttall 34.
+  22. Same, Dresden 37c.
+  23. Same, Nuttall 27.
+  24. Same, Nuttall 1.
+  25. Same, Nuttall 34.
+  26. Same, Nuttall 9.
+  27. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 19b.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 18]
+
+
+PLATE 19
+
+AVES.
+
+VULTURES
+
+   1. Vulture (probably a King Vulture) tearing at entrails of an animal,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 42a.
+   2. Nuttall 69.
+   3. Nuttall 74.
+   4. Possibly a Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 35b.
+   5. Tro-Cortesianus 26d.
+   6. Tro-Cortesianus 26d.
+   7. Dresden 3a.
+   8. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 16).
+   9. Glyph, Copan, Altar K (Maudslay, I, gl. 73).
+  10. Glyph, Tikal, House 9 (Maudslay, III, Pl. 79).
+  11. Black Vulture and snake, Dresden 36b.
+  12. Probably vultures, Tro-Cortesianus 100b.
+  13. Probably a vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 18b.
+  14. Same, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber, Chichen Itza (Maudslay,
+        III, Pl. 46).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 19]
+
+
+PLATE 20
+
+AVES
+
+HARPY EAGLE (_Thrasaetos harpyia_)
+
+   1. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 16, gl. 3).
+   2. Nuttall 53.
+   3. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 16, gl. 13).
+   4. Tro-Cortesianus 88c.
+   5. Part of a head-dress, Dresden 14c.
+   6. Peresianus 2.
+   7. Dresden 14b.
+   8. Eagle with crest feathers tipped by flints, Nuttall[TN-24]
+   9. Glyph, Tro-Cortesianus 107c.
+  10. Stone carving, Chichen Itza (Maudslay, III, Pl. 52).
+  11. Dresden 23c.
+  12. Possibly an eagle's head, Dresden 43c.
+  13. Possibly an eagle, Dresden 74.
+  14. Bologna 7.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 20]
+
+
+PLATE 21
+
+AVES
+
+YUCATAN HORNED OWL (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_)
+
+   1. Owl in flight, Stucco ornament, Palenque, Palace, House E
+        (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 43).
+   2. Stone carving of owl, Yaxchilan, Stela 4 (Peabody Museum Memoirs,
+        II, Pl. 70).
+   3. Owl in flight, carved in wood, Tikal, House C, lintel (Maudslay,
+        III, Pl. 78).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 21]
+
+
+PLATE 22
+
+AVES
+
+YUCATAN HORNED OWL (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_)
+
+   1. Bologna 7.
+   2. As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 95c.
+   3. Borgia 7.
+   4. On end of staff carried by warrior, Chichen Itza, Temple of the
+        Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 49).
+   5. Aubin 13.
+   6. Head highly conventionalized, Palenque, Temple of the Sun
+        (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 88).
+   7. Screech-owl (_chiquatli_), Aubin.
+
+[Illustration: [PLATE] 22[TN-25]]
+
+
+PLATE 23
+
+AVES
+
+YUCATAN SCREECH OWL or _Moan-bird_ (_Otus choliba thompsoni_)
+
+   1. Dresden 7c.
+   2. Tro-Cortesianus 66a.
+   3. Dresden 11a.
+   4. As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 94c.
+   5. As a head-dress, Dresden 18b.
+   6. Glyph associated with Moan-bird, Dresden 7c.
+   7. Same, Dresden 7c.
+   8. Dresden 10a.
+   9. Peresianus 10.
+  10. Peresianus 5.
+  11. Glyph representing head, Dresden 38c.
+  12. Same, Dresden 8b.
+  13. Same, Dresden 53b.
+  14. Same, Dresden 16c.
+  15. Glyph possibly representing Moan-bird, Dresden 38c.
+  16. Glyph of head, Dresden 53b.
+  17. Glyph associated with Moan-bird.
+  18. Tro-Cortesianus 73b.
+  19. As a head-dress, Dresden 16c.
+  20. As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 95c.
+  21. Glyph associated with Moan-bird, Dresden 7c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 2[3][TN-26]]
+
+
+PLATE 24
+
+AVES
+
+COPPERY-TAILED TROGON or QUETZAL (_Pharomacrus mocinno_)
+
+   1. Head-dress with crest feathers shown as knobs, Dresden 7c.
+   2. Head-dress, Dresden 13b.
+   3. Same, Dresden 16c.
+   4. Tro-Cortesianus 100b.
+   5. Tro-Cortesianus 70a.
+   6. Head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 94c.
+   7. Nuttall 33.
+   8. Conventionalized tail as a head ornament, Dresden 20c.
+   9. Vaticanus 3773, 17.
+  10. Glyph, Palenque, Temple of the Sun (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 89, gl. O,
+        9).
+  11. Trogon descending on a sacrifice, Bologna 8.
+  12. Tro-Cortesianus 36b.
+  13. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 111, gl. 54).
+  14. Glyph apparently representing a trogon's head, Dresden 20c.
+  15. Same, Dresden 9b.
+  16. Same, Dresden 3a.
+  17. Head, Nuttall 43.
+  18. Tro-Cortesianus 26c.
+  19. Figure with head ornament resembling a trogon glyph, Dresden 20c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 24]
+
+
+PLATE 25
+
+AVES
+
+BLUE MACAW (_Ara militaris_)
+
+   1. Figure with macaw head and holding firebrands, Dresden 40b.
+   2. Head-dress, Dresden 16c.
+   3. Tro-Cortesianus 12a.
+   4. Glyph, Copan, Stela 11 (Maudslay, I, Pl. 112, gl. 12).
+   5. Same, Copan, Stela B (Maudslay, I, Pl. 38).
+   6. Glyph used in connection with fig. 1.
+   7. Glyph.
+   8. Stone carving of upper mandible and head, Copan, Stela B (Maudslay,
+        I, Pl. 37).
+   9. Head, probably of a turtle, month sign _Kayab_, Quirigua, Stela A
+        (Maudslay, II, Pl. 7, gl. 14).
+  10. Head, probably of a macaw, Copan, Altar Q (Maudslay, I, Pl. 93).
+  11. Tro-Cortesianus 37b.
+  12. Head, probably of a macaw, Copan, Stela A (Maudslay, I, Pl. 30,
+        gl. 19).
+  13. Tro-Cortesianus 94c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 25]
+
+
+PLATE 26
+
+AVES
+
+PARROTS, TURKEYS
+
+   1. Macaw as a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 26c.
+   2. Bird of sacrifice, doubtless an Ocellated Turkey (_Agriocharis_)
+        Dresden 25c. (Compare also Dresden 26c[TN-27] 27c, 28c.)
+   3. Head-dress, probably a macaw, Copan, Altar Q (Maudslay, I, Pl. 92).
+   4. Possibly a parrot (_Amazona_), Nuttall 4.
+   5. Head-dress, head of a macaw, Tro-Cortesianus 89a.
+   6. Head-dress, possibly representing a parrot, Dresden 12b.
+   7. Possibly a parrot (_Amazona_), Nuttall 71.
+   8. Glyph representing a macaw's head, Tikal, Temple C (Maudslay, III,
+        Pl. 78).
+   9. Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 19a.
+  10. Possibly a macaw, Tro-Cortesianus 37b.
+  11. Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 11b.
+  12. Bird of sacrifice, probably an Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca,
+        Nuttall 22.
+  13. Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 11a.
+  14. Head of Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca, Nuttall 5.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 26]
+
+
+PLATE 27
+
+AVES
+
+MISCELLANEOUS
+
+   1. Bird of sacrifice, an Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca, Nuttall 2.
+   2. Same, Nuttall 16.
+   3. Same, Nuttall 19.
+   4. Same, Nuttall 1.
+   5. Woodpecker possibly _Campephilus imperialis_, Nuttall 74.
+   6. Same, Nuttall 71.
+   7. Possibly a Raven (_Corvus corax sinuatus_), Nuttall 48.
+   8. Parrot (_cocho_), Aubin 11.
+   9. Same, Aubin 13.
+  10. Turkey-cock (_uexolot_),[TN-28] Aubin 11.
+  11. Same, Aubin 13.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 27]
+
+
+PLATE 28
+
+VARIOUS ANIMALS
+
+   1. Earthenware vessel representing a tapir (_Tapirella_) with a
+        necklace of Oliva shells (Seler, 1904b, p. 106, fig. 23).
+   2. Stone carving, possibly of a King Vulture (_Sarcorhamphus papa_),
+        Copan, Altar T (Maudslay, I, Pl. 96).
+   3. Stone carving, possibly a lizard, Copan, Stela 6 (Maudslay I, Pl.
+        107).
+   4. Stone carving, probably a jaguar (_Felis onca hernandezi_), Copan,
+        Stela 2 (Maudslay, I, Pl. 102).
+   5. Stone carving of a Black Vulture (_Catharista urubu_), Copan, Stela
+        D (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48).
+   6. Lizard (?) attacked by two birds (?) perhaps vultures, Quirigua,
+        Altar B (Maudslay, II, Pl. 15).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 28]
+
+
+PLATE 29
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+ARMADILLO AND MISCELLANEOUS
+
+   1. Nine-banded Armadillo (_Tatu novemcinctum_), Tro-Cortesianus 103a.
+   2. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 92d.
+   3. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 103a.
+   4. Armadillo captured in a pitfall, Tro-Cortesianus 48a.
+   5. Undetermined animal, Dresden 14c.
+   6. Undetermined animal, possibly a frog or a marsupial,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 33a.
+   7. Rodent, Nuttall 11.
+   8. Undetermined animal, Tro-Cortesianus 24d.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 29]
+
+
+PLATE 30
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+DEER, HARE
+
+   1. Yucatan deer, caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 48b.
+   2. Yucatan brocket (_Mazama pandora_) caught in a pitfall,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 92a.
+   3. Glyph for hare or rabbit, Nuttall 16.
+   4. Same, Nuttall 5.
+   5. Yucatan deer, Dresden 60a.
+   6. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 30b.
+   7. Hare or rabbit, Nuttall 22.
+   8. Same, Dresden 61[TN-29]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 30]
+
+
+PLATE 31
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+YUCATAN DEER (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_)
+
+   1. Doe, Dresden 45c.
+   2. Same, Fegervary-Mayer 26.
+   3. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 29c.
+   4. Same, Nuttall 50.
+   5. Same captured in snare, Tro-Cortesianus 86a.
+   6. Head-dress of god M, Tro-Cortesianus 50b.
+   7. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 51c.
+   8. Doe, Tro-Cortesianus 2b.
+   9. Head of same, Nuttall 43.
+  10. Head of doe as sacrifice, Tro-Cortesianus 77.
+  11. Same, Peresianus 10.
+  12. Haunch of venison as a sacrifice, Dresden 35a.
+  13. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 105b.
+  14. Same, Dresden 28c.
+  15. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 108a.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 31]
+
+
+PLATE 32
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+YUCATAN PECCARY (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_)
+YUCATAN DEER (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_)
+
+   1. Peccary, Nuttall 79.
+   2. Same, Dresden 68a.
+   3. Combination, a peccary's head and forefoot, with long tail and
+        hindfoot without hoofs, Tro-Cortesianus 66a[TN-30]
+   4. Peccary, Dresden 45b.
+   5. Man with peccary head, Copan, Sela[TN-31] D, cast (Maudslay, I, Pl.
+        46).
+   6. Combination animal, with hoofs and dorsal crest of a peccary and
+        scales of a reptile, Dresden 75.
+   7. Peccary, Nuttall 9.
+   8. Yucatan deer, with conventionalized antler, glyph for Nahua day
+        sign, _Macatl_, Nuttall 26.
+   9. Same, Peresianus 5.
+  10. Glyph for Nahua day sign _Macatl_, Aubin 10.
+  11. Same, Nuttall 5.
+  12. Deer, Copan, Stela N, East (Maudslay, I, Pl. 79).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 32]
+
+
+PLATE 33
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+YUCATAN PECCARY (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_)
+
+   1. Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 49c.
+   2. Glyph, Chichen Itza, Monjas, East (Maudslay, III, Pl. 13).
+   3. Head as a head-dress, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower
+        Chamber (Maudslay, III).
+   4. Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 93a.
+   5. Tro-Cortesianus 30b.
+   6. Dresden 62.
+   7. Glyph representing a peccary's head, Dresden 45b.
+   8. Same, Dresden 43b.
+   9. Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 49a.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 33]
+
+
+PLATE 34
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+JAGUAR, PUMA
+
+   1. Jaguar (_Felis hernandezi_), Nuttall 24.
+   2. Man seated in the open mouth of an animal, possibly a jaguar,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 20a.
+   3. Nahua day sign, _Oceolotl_, Aubin 9.
+   4. Pot representing a jaguar or puma (Gann, 1897-1898, Pl. 34).
+   5. Probably a puma (_Felis bangsi costaricensis_), Chichen Itza,
+        Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 40).
+   6. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III,
+        Pl. 50).
+   7. Probably a puma, Dresden 47.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 34,[TN-32]]
+
+
+PLATE 35
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+COYOTE, BEAR, JAGUAR
+
+   1. Probably a coyote (_Canis_), Nuttall 6.
+   2. Same, Nuttall 26.
+   3. Possibly a bear (_Ursus_), Dresden 37a.
+   4. Same, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers (Maudslay, III, 38).
+   5. Jaguar (_Felis hernandezi_), Dresden 8a.
+   6. Glyph, probably of a jaguar head, Copan, Stela 4 (Maudslay, I, Pl.
+        104).
+   7. Copan, Altar F (Maudslay, I, Pl. 114).
+   8. Jaguar, Tro-Cortesianus 28c.
+   9. Stone carving of jaguar head, Palenque, Palace, House C (Maudslay,
+        IV, Pl. 24).
+  10. Jaguar, Tro-Cortesianus 30b.
+  11. Glyph, probably of a jaguar.
+  12. Head of jaguar in fresco, Santa Rita (Gann, 1897-1898, Pl. 31).
+  13. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 2a.
+  14. Same, Nuttall 27.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 35]
+
+
+PLATE 36
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+DOG (_Canis_)
+
+   1. Dog and crab, Tro-Cortesianus 88c.
+   2. Tro-Cortesianus 37b.
+   3. Tro-Cortesianus 66b.
+   4. Head, Nuttall 34.
+   5. Nuttall 72.
+   6. Head, Nuttall 20.
+   7. Probably a dog, Nuttall 3.
+   8. Aubin 9.
+   9. Glyph for day sign _Oc_.
+  10. Same.
+  11. Same.
+  12. Tro-Cortesianus 91d.
+  13. Glyph for Nahua day sign _Itzcuintli_, Aubin 9.
+  14. Tro-Cortesianus 27d.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 36]
+
+
+PLATE 37
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+DOG (_Canis_)
+
+   1. Dog bearing firebrands, Dresden 40b.
+   2. Same, Dresden 39a.
+   3. Same, Dresden 36a.
+   4. Tro-Cortesianus 88a.
+   5. Dresden 21b.
+   6. Tro-Cortesianus 24c.
+   7. Dresden 13c.
+   8. Tro-Cortesianus 37a.
+   9. Dresden 30a.
+  10. Dresden 7a.
+  11. Glyph supposed to represent a dog's ribs, Dresden 13c.
+  12. Dresden 29a.
+  13. Head, Tro-Cortesianus 91d.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 37]
+
+
+PLATE 38
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+LEAF-NOSED BAT (_Vampyrus spectrum_ or _Phyllostomus hastatus
+panamensis_)
+
+   1. Glyph, Chichen Itza, Akat 'Cib (Maudslay, III, Pl. 19.)[TN-33]
+   2. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 8).
+   3. Bat god, drawn as glyph, Copan, Stela D (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48).
+   4. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 8).
+   5. Glyph, Palenque, Temple of the Inscriptions (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 60,
+        gl. Q 1).
+   6. Glyph, Tikal (Maudslay III, Pl. 74, gl. 41).
+   7. Bat gad used as decoration on pottery, Chama (Dieseldorff, 1904).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 38]
+
+
+PLATE 39
+
+MAMMALIA
+
+MONKEY AND MISCELLANEOUS
+
+   1. Capuchin monkey (_Cebus capucinus_), Nuttall 1.
+   2. Same, Nuttall 5.
+   3. Head of same, Nuttall 38.
+   4. Nondescript animal, possibly a combination of monkey and peccary,
+        Tro-Cortesianus 88c.
+   5. Glyph, possibly representing a monkey, found in connection with
+        fig. 4.
+   6. Glyph of head of monkey, Nuttall 1.
+   7. Head of long-nosed god, Tro-Cortesianus 30a.
+   8. Head of monkey, glyph for Nahua day sign, _Ocomatli_, Aubin 9.
+   9. Long-nosed god, Tro-Cortesianus 30b.
+  10. God with head-dress, Dresden 5c.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 39]
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+The following typographical errors were noted in the original text:
+
+  TN-1  279  "Yucatan Horned Ow" should read "Yucatan Horned Owl"
+  TN-2  281  "Mandslay" should read "Maudslay"
+  TN-3  284  "deRosny" should read "de Rosny"
+  TN-4  299  "connnection" should read "connection"
+  TN-5  299  "signifiance" should read "significance"
+  TN-6  299  "lightening" should read "lightning"
+  TN-7  340  "indicatd" should read "indicated"
+  TN-8  344  "Kayae" should read "Kayab"
+  TN-9  353  "(Dresden 44b, 45b, (Pl. 32, fig. 4)" Has an extra ( before
+             Pl.
+  TN-10 366  "C. hypoleucus Auct.)" should read "Auct.)."
+  TN-11 Footnote 327-[+]  "coasa" should read "cosas"
+  TN-12 Footnote 349-*    "for" should read "por"
+  TN-13 371  "Espanales" should read "Espanoles"
+  TN-14 371  "l'Ameirque" should read "l'Amerique"
+  TN-15 371  "Bibliotheque" should read "Bibliotheque"
+  TN-16 372  "1895. republished" should read "1895. Republished"
+  TN-17 372  "und Maya-Handschriften:" colon should be a semi-colon
+  TN-18 Plate 2 caption  "4, 6" should have a . following
+  TN-19 Plate 8  Plate number was not printed on the page
+  TN-20 Plate 13 caption  "Pl. 82, gl. 0, 4" should read "O, 4"
+  TN-21 Plate 15 caption  "HERONS FRIGATE" should read "HERONS, FRIGATE"
+  TN-22 Plate 15 caption  "6. Heron" should have a . at the end
+  TN-23 Plate 18 caption  "8. Same as fig" should read "fig."
+  TN-24 Plate 20 caption  "flints, Nuttall" should end with a .
+  TN-25 Plate 22  The word "Plate" was incompletely printed
+  TN-26 Plate 23  "23" was missing the second digit
+  TN-27 Plate 26 caption  "Dresden 26c 27c," should have a , after 26c
+  TN-28 Plate 28 caption  "uexolot" should read "uexolotl"
+  TN-29 Plate 29 caption  "Dresden 61" was missing the . at the end
+  TN-30 Plate 32 caption  "Tro-Cortesianus 66a" was missing the . at the
+                          end
+  TN-31 Plate 32 caption  "Sela" should read "Stela"
+  TN-32 Plate 34  "PLATE 34," should not end with a comma
+  TN-33 Plate 38  "Pl. 19.)" should read "Pl. 19)."
+
+
+The following words had inconsistent hyphenation:
+
+  Blow-fly / Blowfly
+  cross-hatched / crosshatched
+  pit-fall / pitfall
+
+
+The following words had inconsistent spelling:
+
+  dechiffrement / dechiffrement
+  Fegervary-Mayer / Fejervary-Mayer / Fejervary-Mayer
+  Relacion / Relacion
+  role / role
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Animal Figures in the Maya Codices, by
+Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES ***
+
+***** This file should be named 19042.txt or 19042.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
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