diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18188-8.txt | 1047 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18188-8.zip | bin | 0 -> 22903 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18188-h.zip | bin | 0 -> 24100 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18188-h/18188-h.htm | 1141 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18188.txt | 1047 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 18188.zip | bin | 0 -> 22883 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 |
9 files changed, 3251 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/18188-8.txt b/18188-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..269d91d --- /dev/null +++ b/18188-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1047 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Homer and Classical Philology, by Friedrich Nietzsche + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Homer and Classical Philology + +Author: Friedrich Nietzsche + +Editor: Oscar Levy + +Translator: J. M. Kennedy + +Release Date: April 17, 2006 [EBook #18188] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOMER AND CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY *** + + + + +Produced by Thierry Alberto, Robert Ledger and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +[Transcriber's Note: + +This lecture was taken from Volume III of _The Complete Works of +Friedrich Nietzsche_, Dr. Oscar Levy, Ed., J. M. Kennedy, +Translator, 1910] + + + + +HOMER AND CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY. + +(_Inaugural Address delivered at Bâle University, 28th of May 1869._) + + +At the present day no clear and consistent opinion seems to be held +regarding Classical Philology. We are conscious of this in the circles +of the learned just as much as among the followers of that science +itself. The cause of this lies in its many-sided character, in the lack +of an abstract unity, and in the inorganic aggregation of heterogeneous +scientific activities which are connected with one another only by the +name "Philology." It must be freely admitted that philology is to some +extent borrowed from several other sciences, and is mixed together like +a magic potion from the most outlandish liquors, ores, and bones. It may +even be added that it likewise conceals within itself an artistic +element, one which, on æsthetic and ethical grounds, may be called +imperatival--an element that acts in opposition to its purely scientific +behaviour. Philology is composed of history just as much as of natural +science or æsthetics: history, in so far as it endeavours to comprehend +the manifestations of the individualities of peoples in ever new +images, and the prevailing law in the disappearance of phenomena; +natural science, in so far as it strives to fathom the deepest instinct +of man, that of speech; æsthetics, finally, because from various +antiquities at our disposal it endeavours to pick out the so-called +"classical" antiquity, with the view and pretension of excavating the +ideal world buried under it, and to hold up to the present the mirror of +the classical and everlasting standards. That these wholly different +scientific and æsthetico-ethical impulses have been associated under a +common name, a kind of sham monarchy, is shown especially by the fact +that philology at every period from its origin onwards was at the same +time pedagogical. From the standpoint of the pedagogue, a choice was +offered of those elements which were of the greatest educational value; +and thus that science, or at least that scientific aim, which we call +philology, gradually developed out of the practical calling originated +by the exigencies of that science itself. + +These philological aims were pursued sometimes with greater ardour and +sometimes with less, in accordance with the degree of culture and the +development of the taste of a particular period; but, on the other hand, +the followers of this science are in the habit of regarding the aims +which correspond to their several abilities as _the_ aims of philology; +whence it comes about that the estimation of philology in public opinion +depends upon the weight of the personalities of the philologists! + +At the present time--that is to say, in a period which has seen men +distinguished in almost every department of philology--a general +uncertainty of judgment has increased more and more, and likewise a +general relaxation of interest and participation in philological +problems. Such an undecided and imperfect state of public opinion is +damaging to a science in that its hidden and open enemies can work with +much better prospects of success. And philology has a great many such +enemies. Where do we not meet with them, these mockers, always ready to +aim a blow at the philological "moles," the animals that practise +dust-eating _ex professo_, and that grub up and eat for the eleventh +time what they have already eaten ten times before. For opponents of +this sort, however, philology is merely a useless, harmless, and +inoffensive pastime, an object of laughter and not of hate. But, on the +other hand, there is a boundless and infuriated hatred of philology +wherever an ideal, as such, is feared, where the modern man falls down +to worship himself, and where Hellenism is looked upon as a superseded +and hence very insignificant point of view. Against these enemies, we +philologists must always count upon the assistance of artists and men of +artistic minds; for they alone can judge how the sword of barbarism +sweeps over the head of every one who loses sight of the unutterable +simplicity and noble dignity of the Hellene; and how no progress in +commerce or technical industries, however brilliant, no school +regulations, no political education of the masses, however widespread +and complete, can protect us from the curse of ridiculous and barbaric +offences against good taste, or from annihilation by the Gorgon head of +the classicist. + +Whilst philology as a whole is looked on with jealous eyes by these two +classes of opponents, there are numerous and varied hostilities in other +directions of philology; philologists themselves are quarrelling with +one another; internal dissensions are caused by useless disputes about +precedence and mutual jealousies, but especially by the +differences--even enmities--comprised in the name of philology, which +are not, however, by any means naturally harmonised instincts. + +Science has this in common with art, that the most ordinary, everyday +thing appears to it as something entirely new and attractive, as if +metamorphosed by witchcraft and now seen for the first time. Life is +worth living, says art, the beautiful temptress; life is worth knowing, +says science. With this contrast the so heartrending and dogmatic +tradition follows in a _theory_, and consequently in the practice of +classical philology derived from this theory. We may consider antiquity +from a scientific point of view; we may try to look at what has happened +with the eye of a historian, or to arrange and compare the linguistic +forms of ancient masterpieces, to bring them at all events under a +morphological law; but we always lose the wonderful creative force, the +real fragrance, of the atmosphere of antiquity; we forget that +passionate emotion which instinctively drove our meditation and +enjoyment back to the Greeks. From this point onwards we must take +notice of a clearly determined and very surprising antagonism which +philology has great cause to regret. From the circles upon whose help we +must place the most implicit reliance--the artistic friends of +antiquity, the warm supporters of Hellenic beauty and noble +simplicity--we hear harsh voices crying out that it is precisely the +philologists themselves who are the real opponents and destroyers of the +ideals of antiquity. Schiller upbraided the philologists with having +scattered Homer's laurel crown to the winds. It was none other than +Goethe who, in early life a supporter of Wolf's theories regarding +Homer, recanted in the verses-- + + With subtle wit you took away + Our former adoration: + The Iliad, you may us say, + Was mere conglomeration. + Think it not crime in any way: + Youth's fervent adoration + Leads us to know the verity, + And feel the poet's unity. + +The reason of this want of piety and reverence must lie deeper; and many +are in doubt as to whether philologists are lacking in artistic capacity +and impressions, so that they are unable to do justice to the ideal, or +whether the spirit of negation has become a destructive and iconoclastic +principle of theirs. When, however, even the friends of antiquity, +possessed of such doubts and hesitations, point to our present classical +philology as something questionable, what influence may we not ascribe +to the outbursts of the "realists" and the claptrap of the heroes of the +passing hour? To answer the latter on this occasion, especially when we +consider the nature of the present assembly, would be highly +injudicious; at any rate, if I do not wish to meet with the fate of +that sophist who, when in Sparta, publicly undertook to praise and +defend Herakles, when he was interrupted with the query: "But who then +has found fault with him?" I cannot help thinking, however, that some of +these scruples are still sounding in the ears of not a few in this +gathering; for they may still be frequently heard from the lips of noble +and artistically gifted men--as even an upright philologist must feel +them, and feel them most painfully, at moments when his spirits are +downcast. For the single individual there is no deliverance from the +dissensions referred to; but what we contend and inscribe on our banner +is the fact that classical philology, as a whole, has nothing whatsoever +to do with the quarrels and bickerings of its individual disciples. The +entire scientific and artistic movement of this peculiar centaur is +bent, though with cyclopic slowness, upon bridging over the gulf between +the ideal antiquity--which is perhaps only the magnificent blossoming of +the Teutonic longing for the south--and the real antiquity; and thus +classical philology pursues only the final end of its own being, which +is the fusing together of primarily hostile impulses that have only +forcibly been brought together. Let us talk as we will about the +unattainability of this goal, and even designate the goal itself as an +illogical pretension--the aspiration for it is very real; and I should +like to try to make it clear by an example that the most significant +steps of classical philology never lead away from the ideal antiquity, +but to it; and that, just when people are speaking unwarrantably of the +overthrow of sacred shrines, new and more worthy altars are being +erected. Let us then examine the so-called _Homeric question_ from this +standpoint, a question the most important problem of which Schiller +called a scholastic barbarism. + +The important problem referred to is _the question of the personality of +Homer_. + +We now meet everywhere with the firm opinion that the question of +Homer's personality is no longer timely, and that it is quite a +different thing from the real "Homeric question." It may be added that, +for a given period--such as our present philological period, for +example--the centre of discussion may be removed from the problem of the +poet's personality; for even now a painstaking experiment is being made +to reconstruct the Homeric poems without the aid of personality, +treating them as the work of several different persons. But if the +centre of a scientific question is rightly seen to be where the swelling +tide of new views has risen up, i.e. where individual scientific +investigation comes into contact with the whole life of science and +culture--if any one, in other words, indicates a historico-cultural +valuation as the central point of the question, he must also, in the +province of Homeric criticism, take his stand upon the question of +personality as being the really fruitful oasis in the desert of the +whole argument. For in Homer the modern world, I will not say has +learnt, but has examined, a great historical point of view; and, even +without now putting forward my own opinion as to whether this +examination has been or can be happily carried out, it was at all +events the first example of the application of that productive point of +view. By it scholars learnt to recognise condensed beliefs in the +apparently firm, immobile figures of the life of ancient peoples; by it +they for the first time perceived the wonderful capability of the soul +of a people to represent the conditions of its morals and beliefs in the +form of a personality. When historical criticism has confidently seized +upon this method of evaporating apparently concrete personalities, it is +permissible to point to the first experiment as an important event in +the history of sciences, without considering whether it was successful +in this instance or not. + +It is a common occurrence for a series of striking signs and wonderful +emotions to precede an epoch-making discovery. Even the experiment I +have just referred to has its own attractive history; but it goes back +to a surprisingly ancient era. Friedrich August Wolf has exactly +indicated the spot where Greek antiquity dropped the question. The +zenith of the historico-literary studies of the Greeks, and hence also +of their point of greatest importance--the Homeric question--was reached +in the age of the Alexandrian grammarians. Up to this time the Homeric +question had run through the long chain of a uniform process of +development, of which the standpoint of those grammarians seemed to be +the last link, the last, indeed, which was attainable by antiquity. They +conceived the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ as the creations of _one single_ +Homer; they declared it to be psychologically possible for two such +different works to have sprung from the brain of _one_ genius, in +contradiction to the Chorizontes, who represented the extreme limit of +the scepticism of a few detached individuals of antiquity rather than +antiquity itself considered as a whole. To explain the different general +impression of the two books on the assumption that _one_ poet composed +them both, scholars sought assistance by referring to the seasons of the +poet's life, and compared the poet of the _Odyssey_ to the setting sun. +The eyes of those critics were tirelessly on the lookout for +discrepancies in the language and thoughts of the two poems; but at this +time also a history of the Homeric poem and its tradition was prepared, +according to which these discrepancies were not due to Homer, but +to those who committed his words to writing and those who sang them. It +was believed that Homer's poem was passed from one generation to another +_viva voce_, and faults were attributed to the improvising and at times +forgetful bards. At a certain given date, about the time of Pisistratus, +the poems which had been repeated orally were said to have been +collected in manuscript form; but the scribes, it is added, allowed +themselves to take some liberties with the text by transposing some +lines and adding extraneous matter here and there. This entire +hypothesis is the most important in the domain of literary studies that +antiquity has exhibited; and the acknowledgment of the dissemination of +the Homeric poems by word of mouth, as opposed to the habits of a +book-learned age, shows in particular a depth of ancient sagacity worthy +of our admiration. From those times until the generation that produced +Friedrich August Wolf we must take a jump over a long historical vacuum; +but in our own age we find the argument left just as it was at the time +when the power of controversy departed from antiquity, and it is a +matter of indifference to us that Wolf accepted as certain tradition +what antiquity itself had set up only as a hypothesis. It may be +remarked as most characteristic of this hypothesis that, in the +strictest sense, the personality of Homer is treated seriously; that a +certain standard of inner harmony is everywhere presupposed in the +manifestations of the personality; and that, with these two excellent +auxiliary hypotheses, whatever is seen to be below this standard and +opposed to this inner harmony is at once swept aside as un-Homeric. But +even this distinguishing characteristic, in place of wishing to +recognise the supernatural existence of a tangible personality, ascends +likewise through all the stages that lead to that zenith, with +ever-increasing energy and clearness. Individuality is ever more +strongly felt and accentuated; the psychological possibility of a +_single_ Homer is ever more forcibly demanded. If we descend backwards +from this zenith, step by step, we find a guide to the understanding of +the Homeric problem in the person of Aristotle. Homer was for him the +flawless and untiring artist who knew his end and the means to attain +it; but there is still a trace of infantile criticism to be found in +Aristotle--i.e., in the naive concession he made to the public opinion +that considered Homer as the author of the original of all comic epics, +the _Margites_. If we go still further backwards from Aristotle, the +inability to create a personality is seen to increase; more and more +poems are attributed to Homer; and every period lets us see its degree +of criticism by how much and what it considers as Homeric. In this +backward examination, we instinctively feel that away beyond Herodotus +there lies a period in which an immense flood of great epics has been +identified with the name of Homer. + +Let us imagine ourselves as living in the time of Pisistratus: the word +"Homer" then comprehended an abundance of dissimilarities. What was +meant by "Homer" at that time? It is evident that that generation found +itself unable to grasp a personality and the limits of its +manifestations. Homer had now become of small consequence. And then we +meet with the weighty question: What lies before this period? Has +Homer's personality, because it cannot be grasped, gradually faded away +into an empty name? Or had all the Homeric poems been gathered together +in a body, the nation naively representing itself by the figure of +Homer? _Was the person created out of a conception, or the conception +out of a person?_ This is the real "Homeric question," the central +problem of the personality. + +The difficulty of answering this question, however, is increased when we +seek a reply in another direction, from the standpoint of the poems +themselves which have come down to us. As it is difficult for us at the +present day, and necessitates a serious effort on our part, to +understand the law of gravitation clearly--that the earth alters its +form of motion when another heavenly body changes its position in space, +although no material connection unites one to the other--it likewise +costs us some trouble to obtain a clear impression of that wonderful +problem which, like a coin long passed from hand to hand, has lost its +original and highly conspicuous stamp. Poetical works, which cause the +hearts of even the greatest geniuses to fail when they endeavour to vie +with them, and in which unsurpassable images are held up for the +admiration of posterity--and yet the poet who wrote them with only a +hollow, shaky name, whenever we do lay hold on him; nowhere the solid +kernel of a powerful personality. "For who would wage war with the gods: +who, even with the one god?" asks Goethe even, who, though a genius, +strove in vain to solve that mysterious problem of the Homeric +inaccessibility. + +The conception of popular poetry seemed to lead like a bridge over this +problem--a deeper and more original power than that of every single +creative individual was said to have become active; the happiest people, +in the happiest period of its existence, in the highest activity of +fantasy and formative power, was said to have created those immeasurable +poems. In this universality there is something almost intoxicating in +the thought of a popular poem: we feel, with artistic pleasure, the +broad, overpowering liberation of a popular gift, and we delight in this +natural phenomenon as we do in an uncontrollable cataract. But as soon +as we examine this thought at close quarters, we involuntarily put a +poetic _mass of people_ in the place of the poetising _soul of the +people_: a long row of popular poets in whom individuality has no +meaning, and in whom the tumultuous movement of a people's soul, the +intuitive strength of a people's eye, and the unabated profusion of a +people's fantasy, were once powerful: a row of original geniuses, +attached to a time, to a poetic genus, to a subject-matter. + +Such a conception justly made people suspicious. Could it be possible +that that same Nature who so sparingly distributed her rarest and most +precious production--genius--should suddenly take the notion of +lavishing her gifts in one sole direction? And here the thorny question +again made its appearance: Could we not get along with one genius only, +and explain the present existence of that unattainable excellence? And +now eyes were keenly on the lookout for whatever that excellence and +singularity might consist of. Impossible for it to be in the +construction of the complete works, said one party, for this is far from +faultless; but doubtless to be found in single songs: in the single +pieces above all; not in the whole. A second party, on the other hand, +sheltered themselves beneath the authority of Aristotle, who especially +admired Homer's "divine" nature in the choice of his entire subject, and +the manner in which he planned and carried it out. If, however, this +construction was not clearly seen, this fault was due to the way the +poems were handed down to posterity and not to the poet himself--it was +the result of retouchings and interpolations, owing to which the +original setting of the work gradually became obscured. The more the +first school looked for inequalities, contradictions, perplexities, the +more energetically did the other school brush aside what in their +opinion obscured the original plan, in order, if possible, that nothing +might be left remaining but the actual words of the original epic +itself. The second school of thought of course held fast by the +conception of an epoch-making genius as the composer of the great works. +The first school, on the other hand, wavered between the supposition of +one genius plus a number of minor poets, and another hypothesis which +assumed only a number of superior and even mediocre individual bards, +but also postulated a mysterious discharging, a deep, national, artistic +impulse, which shows itself in individual minstrels as an almost +indifferent medium. It is to this latter school that we must attribute +the representation of the Homeric poems as the expression of that +mysterious impulse. + +All these schools of thought start from the assumption that the problem +of the present form of these epics can be solved from the standpoint of +an æsthetic judgment--but we must await the decision as to the +authorised line of demarcation between the man of genius and the +poetical soul of the people. Are there characteristic differences +between the utterances of the _man of genius_ and the _poetical soul of +the people_? + +This whole contrast, however, is unjust and misleading. There is no +more dangerous assumption in modern æsthetics than that of _popular +poetry_ and _individual poetry_, or, as it is usually called, _artistic +poetry_. This is the reaction, or, if you will, the superstition, which +followed upon the most momentous discovery of historico-philological +science, the discovery and appreciation of the _soul of the people_. For +this discovery prepared the way for a coming scientific view of history, +which was until then, and in many respects is even now, a mere +collection of materials, with the prospect that new materials would +continue to be added, and that the huge, overflowing pile would never be +systematically arranged. The people now understood for the first time +that the long-felt power of greater individualities and wills was larger +than the pitifully small will of an individual man;[1] they now saw that +everything truly great in the kingdom of the will could not have its +deepest root in the inefficacious and ephemeral individual will; and, +finally, they now discovered the powerful instincts of the masses, and +diagnosed those unconscious impulses to be the foundations and supports +of the so-called universal history. But the newly-lighted flame also +cast its shadow: and this shadow was none other than that superstition +already referred to, which popular poetry set up in opposition to +individual poetry, and thus enlarged the comprehension of the people's +soul to that of the people's mind. By the misapplication of a tempting +analogical inference, people had reached the point of applying in the +domain of the intellect and artistic ideas that principle of greater +individuality which is truly applicable only in the domain of the will. +The masses have never experienced more flattering treatment than in thus +having the laurel of genius set upon their empty heads. It was imagined +that new shells were forming round a small kernel, so to speak, and that +those pieces of popular poetry originated like avalanches, in the drift +and flow of tradition. They were, however, ready to consider that kernel +as being of the smallest possible dimensions, so that they might +occasionally get rid of it altogether without losing anything of the +mass of the avalanche. According to this view, the text itself and the +stories built round it are one and the same thing. + +[1] Of course Nietzsche saw afterwards that this was not so.--TR. + +Now, however, such a contrast between popular poetry and individual +poetry does not exist at all; on the contrary, all poetry, and of course +popular poetry also, requires an intermediary individuality. This +much-abused contrast, therefore, is necessary only when the term +_individual poem_ is understood to mean a poem which has not grown out +of the soil of popular feeling, but which has been composed by a +non-popular poet in a non-popular atmosphere--something which has come +to maturity in the study of a learned man, for example. + +With the superstition which presupposes poetising masses is connected +another: that popular poetry is limited to one particular period of a +people's history and afterwards dies out--which indeed follows as a +consequence of the first superstition I have mentioned. According to +this school, in the place of the gradually decaying popular poetry we +have artistic poetry, the work of individual minds, not of masses of +people. But the same powers which were once active are still so; and the +form in which they act has remained exactly the same. The great poet of +a literary period is still a popular poet in no narrower sense than the +popular poet of an illiterate age. The difference between them is not in +the way they originate, but it is their diffusion and propagation, in +short, _tradition_. This tradition is exposed to eternal danger without +the help of handwriting, and runs the risk of including in the poems the +remains of those individualities through whose oral tradition they were +handed down. + +If we apply all these principles to the Homeric poems, it follows that +we gain nothing with our theory of the poetising soul of the people, and +that we are always referred back to the poetical individual. We are thus +confronted with the task of distinguishing that which can have +originated only in a single poetical mind from that which is, so to +speak, swept up by the tide of oral tradition, and which is a highly +important constituent part of the Homeric poems. + +Since literary history first ceased to be a mere collection of names, +people have attempted to grasp and formulate the individualities of the +poets. A certain mechanism forms part of the method: it must be +explained--i.e., it must be deduced from principles--why this or that +individuality appears in this way and not in that. People now study +biographical details, environment, acquaintances, contemporary events, +and believe that by mixing all these ingredients together they will be +able to manufacture the wished-for individuality. But they forget that +the _punctum saliens_, the indefinable individual characteristics, can +never be obtained from a compound of this nature. The less there is +known about the life and times of the poet, the less applicable is this +mechanism. When, however, we have merely the works and the name of the +writer, it is almost impossible to detect the individuality, at all +events, for those who put their faith in the mechanism in question; and +particularly when the works are perfect, when they are pieces of popular +poetry. For the best way for these mechanicians to grasp individual +characteristics is by perceiving deviations from the genius of the +people; the aberrations and hidden allusions: and the fewer +discrepancies to be found in a poem the fainter will be the traces of +the individual poet who composed it. + +All those deviations, everything dull and below the ordinary standard +which scholars think they perceive in the Homeric poems, were attributed +to tradition, which thus became the scapegoat. What was left of Homer's +own individual work? Nothing but a series of beautiful and prominent +passages chosen in accordance with subjective taste. The sum total of +æsthetic singularity which every individual scholar perceived with his +own artistic gifts, he now called Homer. + +This is the central point of the Homeric errors. The name of Homer, from +the very beginning, has no connection either with the conception of +æsthetic perfection or yet with the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_. Homer as +the composer of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ is not a historical +tradition, but an _æsthetic judgment_. + +The only path which leads back beyond the time of Pisistratus and helps +us to elucidate the meaning of the name Homer, takes its way on the one +hand through the reports which have reached us concerning Homer's +birthplace: from which we see that, although his name is always +associated with heroic epic poems, he is on the other hand no more +referred to as the composer of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ than as the +author of the _Thebais_ or any other cyclical epic. On the other hand, +again, an old tradition tells of the contest between Homer and Hesiod, +which proves that when these two names were mentioned people +instinctively thought of two epic tendencies, the heroic and the +didactic; and that the signification of the name "Homer" was included in +the material category and not in the formal. This imaginary contest with +Hesiod did not even yet show the faintest presentiment of individuality. +From the time of Pisistratus onwards, however, with the surprisingly +rapid development of the Greek feeling for beauty, the differences in +the æsthetic value of those epics continued to be felt more and more: +the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ arose from the depths of the flood and +have remained on the surface ever since. With this process of æsthetic +separation, the conception of Homer gradually became narrower: the old +material meaning of the name "Homer" as the father of the heroic epic +poem, was changed into the æsthetic meaning of Homer, the father of +poetry in general, and likewise its original prototype. This +transformation was contemporary with the rationalistic criticism which +made Homer the magician out to be a possible poet, which vindicated the +material and formal traditions of those numerous epics as against the +unity of the poet, and gradually removed that heavy load of cyclical +epics from Homer's shoulders. + +So Homer, the poet of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_, is an æsthetic +judgment. It is, however, by no means affirmed against the poet of these +epics that he was merely the imaginary being of an æsthetic +impossibility, which can be the opinion of only very few philologists +indeed. The majority contend that a single individual was responsible +for the general design of a poem such as the _Iliad_, and further that +this individual was Homer. The first part of this contention may be +admitted; but, in accordance with what I have said, the latter part must +be denied. And I very much doubt whether the majority of those who adopt +the first part of the contention have taken the following considerations +into account. + +The design of an epic such as the _Iliad_ is not an entire _whole_, not +an organism; but a number of pieces strung together, a collection of +reflections arranged in accordance with æsthetic rules. It is certainly +the standard of an artist's greatness to note what he can take in with a +single glance and set out in rhythmical form. The infinite profusion of +images and incidents in the Homeric epic must force us to admit that +such a wide range of vision is next to impossible. Where, however, a +poet is unable to observe artistically with a single glance, he usually +piles conception on conception, and endeavours to adjust his characters +according to a comprehensive scheme. + +He will succeed in this all the better the more he is familiar with the +fundamental principles of æsthetics: he will even make some believe +that he made himself master of the entire subject by a single powerful +glance. + +The _Iliad_ is not a garland, but a bunch of flowers. As many pictures +as possible are crowded on one canvas; but the man who placed them there +was indifferent as to whether the grouping of the collected pictures was +invariably suitable and rhythmically beautiful. He well knew that no one +would ever consider the collection as a whole; but would merely look at +the individual parts. But that stringing together of some pieces as the +manifestations of a grasp of art which was not yet highly developed, +still less thoroughly comprehended and generally esteemed, cannot have +been the real Homeric deed, the real Homeric epoch-making event. On the +contrary, this design is a later product, far later than Homer's +celebrity. Those, therefore, who look for the "original and perfect +design" are looking for a mere phantom; for the dangerous path of oral +tradition had reached its end just as the systematic arrangement +appeared on the scene; the disfigurements which were caused on the way +could not have affected the design, for this did not form part of the +material handed down from generation to generation. + +The relative imperfection of the design must not, however, prevent us +from seeing in the designer a different personality from the real poet. +It is not only probable that everything which was created in those times +with conscious æsthetic insight, was infinitely inferior to the songs +that sprang up naturally in the poet's mind and were written down with +instinctive power: we can even take a step further. If we include the +so-called cyclic poems in this comparison, there remains for the +designer of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ the indisputable merit of +having done something relatively great in this conscious technical +composing: a merit which we might have been prepared to recognise from +the beginning, and which is in my opinion of the very first order in the +domain of instinctive creation. We may even be ready to pronounce this +synthetisation of great importance. All those dull passages and +discrepancies--deemed of such importance, but really only subjective, +which we usually look upon as the petrified remains of the period of +tradition--are not these perhaps merely the almost necessary evils which +must fall to the lot of the poet of genius who undertakes a composition +virtually without a parallel, and, further, one which proves to be of +incalculable difficulty? + +Let it be noted that the insight into the most diverse operations of the +instinctive and the conscious changes the position of the Homeric +problem; and in my opinion throws light upon it. + +We believe in a great poet as the author of the _Iliad_ and the +_Odyssey--but not that Homer was this poet_. + +The decision on this point has already been given. The generation that +invented those numerous Homeric fables, that poetised the myth of the +contest between Homer and Hesiod, and looked upon all the poems of the +epic cycle as Homeric, did not feel an æsthetic but a material +singularity when it pronounced the name "Homer." This period regards +Homer as belonging to the ranks of artists like Orpheus, Eumolpus, +Dædalus, and Olympus, the mythical discoverers of a new branch of art, +to whom, therefore, all the later fruits which grew from the new branch +were thankfully dedicated. + +And that wonderful genius to whom we owe the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ +belongs to this thankful posterity: he, too, sacrificed his name on the +altar of the primeval father of the Homeric epic, Homeros. + +Up to this point, gentlemen, I think I have been able to put before you +the fundamental philosophical and æsthetic characteristics of the +problem of the personality of Homer, keeping all minor details +rigorously at a distance, on the supposition that the primary form of +this widespread and honeycombed mountain known as the Homeric question +can be most clearly observed by looking down at it from a far-off +height. But I have also, I imagine, recalled two facts to those friends +of antiquity who take such delight in accusing us philologists of lack +of piety for great conceptions and an unproductive zeal for +destruction. In the first place, those "great" conceptions--such, for +example, as that of the indivisible and inviolable poetic genius, +Homer--were during the pre-Wolfian period only too great, and hence +inwardly altogether empty and elusive when we now try to grasp them. If +classical philology goes back again to the same conceptions, and once +more tries to pour new wine into old bottles, it is only on the surface +that the conceptions are the same: everything has really become new; +bottle and mind, wine and word. We everywhere find traces of the fact +that philology has lived in company with poets, thinkers, and artists +for the last hundred years: whence it has now come about that the heap +of ashes formerly pointed to as classical philology is now turned into +fruitful and even rich soil.[2] + +[2] Nietzsche perceived later on that this statement was, +unfortunately, not justified.--TR. + +And there is a second fact which I should like to recall to the memory +of those friends of antiquity who turn their dissatisfied backs on +classical philology. You honour the immortal masterpieces of the +Hellenic mind in poetry and sculpture, and think yourselves so much more +fortunate than preceding generations, which had to do without them; but +you must not forget that this whole fairyland once lay buried under +mountains of prejudice, and that the blood and sweat and arduous labour +of innumerable followers of our science were all necessary to lift up +that world from the chasm into which it had sunk. We grant that +philology is not the creator of this world, not the composer of that +immortal music; but is it not a merit, and a great merit, to be a mere +virtuoso, and let the world for the first time hear that music which lay +so long in obscurity, despised and undecipherable? Who was Homer +previously to Wolf's brilliant investigations? A good old man, known at +best as a "natural genius," at all events the child of a barbaric age, +replete with faults against good taste and good morals. Let us hear how +a learned man of the first rank writes about Homer even so late as 1783: +"Where does the good man live? Why did he remain so long incognito? +Apropos, can't you get me a silhouette of him?" + +We demand _thanks_--not in our own name, for we are but atoms--but in +the name of philology itself, which is indeed neither a Muse nor a +Grace, but a messenger of the gods: and just as the Muses descended upon +the dull and tormented Boeotian peasants, so Philology comes into a +world full of gloomy colours and pictures, full of the deepest, most +incurable woes; and speaks to men comfortingly of the beautiful and +godlike figure of a distant, rosy, and happy fairyland. + +It is time to close; yet before I do so a few words of a personal +character must be added, justified, I hope, by the occasion of this +lecture. + +It is but right that a philologist should describe his end and the means +to it in the short formula of a confession of faith; and let this be +done in the saying of Seneca which I thus reverse-- + + "Philosophia facta est quæ philologia fuit." + +By this I wish to signify that all philological activities should be +enclosed and surrounded by a philosophical view of things, in which +everything individual and isolated is evaporated as something +detestable, and in which great homogeneous views alone remain. Now, +therefore, that I have enunciated my philological creed, I trust you +will give me cause to hope that I shall no longer be a stranger among +you: give me the assurance that in working with you towards this end I +am worthily fulfilling the confidence with which the highest authorities +of this community have honoured me. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Homer and Classical Philology, by +Friedrich Nietzsche + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOMER AND CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY *** + +***** This file should be named 18188-8.txt or 18188-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/1/8/18188/ + +Produced by Thierry Alberto, Robert Ledger and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + +*** END: FULL LICENSE *** + diff --git a/18188-8.zip b/18188-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0564323 --- /dev/null +++ b/18188-8.zip diff --git a/18188-h.zip b/18188-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b604257 --- /dev/null +++ b/18188-h.zip diff --git a/18188-h/18188-h.htm b/18188-h/18188-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7dd5dd --- /dev/null +++ b/18188-h/18188-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1141 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Homer and Classical Philology, by Friedrich Nietzsche + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size:80%;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: 70%; text-decoration: none;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Homer and Classical Philology, by Friedrich Nietzsche + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Homer and Classical Philology + +Author: Friedrich Nietzsche + +Editor: Oscar Levy + +Translator: J. M. Kennedy + +Release Date: April 17, 2006 [EBook #18188] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOMER AND CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY *** + + + + +Produced by Thierry Alberto, Robert Ledger and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<p><b>Transcriber's Note:</b> +</p> + +<p> +This lecture was taken from Volume III of <i>The Complete Works of +Friedrich Nietzsche</i>, Dr. Oscar Levy, Ed., J. M. Kennedy, +Translator, 1910 +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="HOMER_AND_CLASSICAL_PHILOLOGY" id="HOMER_AND_CLASSICAL_PHILOLOGY"></a>HOMER AND CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY.</h2> + +<h3>(<i>Inaugural Address delivered at Bâle University, 28th of May 1869.</i>)</h3> + + +<p>At the present day no clear and consistent opinion seems to be held +regarding Classical Philology. We are conscious of this in the circles +of the learned just as much as among the followers of that science +itself. The cause of this lies in its many-sided character, in the lack +of an abstract unity, and in the inorganic aggregation of heterogeneous +scientific activities which are connected with one another only by the +name "Philology." It must be freely admitted that philology is to some +extent borrowed from several other sciences, and is mixed together like +a magic potion from the most outlandish liquors, ores, and bones. It may +even be added that it likewise conceals within itself an artistic +element, one which, on æsthetic and ethical grounds, may be called +imperatival—an element that acts in opposition to its purely scientific +behaviour. Philology is composed of history just as much as of natural +science or æsthetics: history, in so far as it endeavours to comprehend +the manifestations of the individualities of peoples in ever new +images, and the prevailing law in the disappearance of phenomena; +natural science, in so far as it strives to fathom the deepest instinct +of man, that of speech; æsthetics, finally, because from various +antiquities at our disposal it endeavours to pick out the so-called +"classical" antiquity, with the view and pretension of excavating the +ideal world buried under it, and to hold up to the present the mirror of +the classical and everlasting standards. That these wholly different +scientific and æsthetico-ethical impulses have been associated under a +common name, a kind of sham monarchy, is shown especially by the fact +that philology at every period from its origin onwards was at the same +time pedagogical. From the standpoint of the pedagogue, a choice was +offered of those elements which were of the greatest educational value; +and thus that science, or at least that scientific aim, which we call +philology, gradually developed out of the practical calling originated +by the exigencies of that science itself.</p> + +<p>These philological aims were pursued sometimes with greater ardour and +sometimes with less, in accordance with the degree of culture and the +development of the taste of a particular period; but, on the other hand, +the followers of this science are in the habit of regarding the aims +which correspond to their several abilities as <i>the</i> aims of philology; +whence it comes about that the estimation of philology in public opinion +depends upon the weight of the personalities of the philologists!</p> + +<p>At the present time—that is to say, in a period which has seen men +distinguished in almost every department of philology—a general +uncertainty of judgment has increased more and more, and likewise a +general relaxation of interest and participation in philological +problems. Such an undecided and imperfect state of public opinion is +damaging to a science in that its hidden and open enemies can work with +much better prospects of success. And philology has a great many such +enemies. Where do we not meet with them, these mockers, always ready to +aim a blow at the philological "moles," the animals that practise +dust-eating <i>ex professo</i>, and that grub up and eat for the eleventh +time what they have already eaten ten times before. For opponents of +this sort, however, philology is merely a useless, harmless, and +inoffensive pastime, an object of laughter and not of hate. But, on the +other hand, there is a boundless and infuriated hatred of philology +wherever an ideal, as such, is feared, where the modern man falls down +to worship himself, and where Hellenism is looked upon as a superseded +and hence very insignificant point of view. Against these enemies, we +philologists must always count upon the assistance of artists and men of +artistic minds; for they alone can judge how the sword of barbarism +sweeps over the head of every one who loses sight of the unutterable +simplicity and noble dignity of the Hellene; and how no progress in +commerce or technical industries, however brilliant, no school +regulations, no political education of the masses, however widespread +and complete, can protect us from the curse of ridiculous and barbaric +offences against good taste, or from annihilation by the Gorgon head of +the classicist. </p> + +<p>Whilst philology as a whole is looked on with jealous eyes by these two +classes of opponents, there are numerous and varied hostilities in other +directions of philology; philologists themselves are quarrelling with +one another; internal dissensions are caused by useless disputes about +precedence and mutual jealousies, but especially by the +differences—even enmities—comprised in the name of philology, which +are not, however, by any means naturally harmonised instincts.</p> + +<p>Science has this in common with art, that the most ordinary, everyday +thing appears to it as something entirely new and attractive, as if +metamorphosed by witchcraft and now seen for the first time. Life is +worth living, says art, the beautiful temptress; life is worth knowing, +says science. With this contrast the so heartrending and dogmatic +tradition follows in a <i>theory</i>, and consequently in the practice of +classical philology derived from this theory. We may consider antiquity +from a scientific point of view; we may try to look at what has happened +with the eye of a historian, or to arrange and compare the linguistic +forms of ancient masterpieces, to bring them at all events under a +morphological law; but we always lose the wonderful creative force, the +real fragrance, of the atmosphere of antiquity; we forget that +passionate emotion which instinctively drove our meditation and +enjoyment back to the Greeks. From this point onwards we must take +notice of a clearly determined and very surprising antagonism which +philology has great cause to regret. From the circles upon whose help we +must place the most implicit reliance—the artistic friends of +antiquity, the warm supporters of Hellenic beauty and noble +simplicity—we hear harsh voices crying out that it is precisely the +philologists themselves who are the real opponents and destroyers of the +ideals of antiquity. Schiller upbraided the philologists with having +scattered Homer's laurel crown to the winds. It was none other than +Goethe who, in early life a supporter of Wolf's theories regarding +Homer, recanted in the verses—</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">With subtle wit you took away</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">Our former adoration:</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">The Iliad, you may us say,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">Was mere conglomeration.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Think it not crime in any way:</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">Youth's fervent adoration</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Leads us to know the verity,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">And feel the poet's unity.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>The reason of this want of piety and reverence must lie deeper; and many +are in doubt as to whether philologists are lacking in artistic capacity +and impressions, so that they are unable to do justice to the ideal, or +whether the spirit of negation has become a destructive and iconoclastic +principle of theirs. When, however, even the friends of antiquity, +possessed of such doubts and hesitations, point to our present classical +philology as something questionable, what influence may we not ascribe +to the outbursts of the "realists" and the claptrap of the heroes of the +passing hour? To answer the latter on this occasion, especially when we +consider the nature of the present assembly, would be highly +injudicious; at any rate, if I do not wish to meet with the fate of +that sophist who, when in Sparta, publicly undertook to praise and +defend Herakles, when he was interrupted with the query: "But who then +has found fault with him?" I cannot help thinking, however, that some of +these scruples are still sounding in the ears of not a few in this +gathering; for they may still be frequently heard from the lips of noble +and artistically gifted men—as even an upright philologist must feel +them, and feel them most painfully, at moments when his spirits are +downcast. For the single individual there is no deliverance from the +dissensions referred to; but what we contend and inscribe on our banner +is the fact that classical philology, as a whole, has nothing whatsoever +to do with the quarrels and bickerings of its individual disciples. The +entire scientific and artistic movement of this peculiar centaur is +bent, though with cyclopic slowness, upon bridging over the gulf between +the ideal antiquity—which is perhaps only the magnificent blossoming of +the Teutonic longing for the south—and the real antiquity; and thus +classical philology pursues only the final end of its own being, which +is the fusing together of primarily hostile impulses that have only +forcibly been brought together. Let us talk as we will about the +unattainability of this goal, and even designate the goal itself as an +illogical pretension—the aspiration for it is very real; and I should +like to try to make it clear by an example that the most significant +steps of classical philology never lead away from the ideal antiquity, +but to it; and that, just when people are speaking unwarrantably of the +overthrow of sacred shrines, new and more worthy altars are being +erected. Let us then examine the so-called <i>Homeric question</i> from this +standpoint, a question the most important problem of which Schiller +called a scholastic barbarism.</p> + +<p>The important problem referred to is <i>the question of the personality of +Homer</i>.</p> + +<p>We now meet everywhere with the firm opinion that the question of +Homer's personality is no longer timely, and that it is quite a +different thing from the real "Homeric question." It may be added that, +for a given period—such as our present philological period, for +example—the centre of discussion may be removed from the problem of the +poet's personality; for even now a painstaking experiment is being made +to reconstruct the Homeric poems without the aid of personality, +treating them as the work of several different persons. But if the +centre of a scientific question is rightly seen to be where the swelling +tide of new views has risen up, <i>i.e.</i> where individual scientific +investigation comes into contact with the whole life of science and +culture—if any one, in other words, indicates a historico-cultural +valuation as the central point of the question, he must also, in the +province of Homeric criticism, take his stand upon the question of +personality as being the really fruitful oasis in the desert of the +whole argument. For in Homer the modern world, I will not say has +learnt, but has examined, a great historical point of view; and, even +without now putting forward my own opinion as to whether this +examination has been or can be happily carried out, it was at all +events the first example of the application of that productive point of +view. By it scholars learnt to recognise condensed beliefs in the +apparently firm, immobile figures of the life of ancient peoples; by it +they for the first time perceived the wonderful capability of the soul +of a people to represent the conditions of its morals and beliefs in the +form of a personality. When historical criticism has confidently seized +upon this method of evaporating apparently concrete personalities, it is +permissible to point to the first experiment as an important event in +the history of sciences, without considering whether it was successful +in this instance or not.</p> + +<p>It is a common occurrence for a series of striking signs and wonderful +emotions to precede an epoch-making discovery. Even the experiment I +have just referred to has its own attractive history; but it goes back +to a surprisingly ancient era. Friedrich August Wolf has exactly +indicated the spot where Greek antiquity dropped the question. The +zenith of the historico-literary studies of the Greeks, and hence also +of their point of greatest importance—the Homeric question—was reached +in the age of the Alexandrian grammarians. Up to this time the Homeric +question had run through the long chain of a uniform process of +development, of which the standpoint of those grammarians seemed to be +the last link, the last, indeed, which was attainable by antiquity. They +conceived the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> as the creations of <i>one +single</i> Homer; they declared it to be psychologically possible for two such +different works to have sprung from the brain of <i>one</i> genius, in +contradiction to the Chorizontes, who represented the extreme limit of +the scepticism of a few detached individuals of antiquity rather than +antiquity itself considered as a whole. To explain the different general +impression of the two books on the assumption that <i>one</i> poet composed +them both, scholars sought assistance by referring to the seasons of the +poet's life, and compared the poet of the <i>Odyssey</i> to the setting sun. +The eyes of those critics were tirelessly on the lookout for +discrepancies in the language and thoughts of the two poems; but at this +time also a history of the Homeric poem and its tradition was prepared, +according to which these discrepancies were not due to Homer, but to +those who committed his words to writing and those who sang them. It was +believed that Homer's poem was passed from one generation to another +<i>viva voce</i>, and faults were attributed to the improvising and at times +forgetful bards. At a certain given date, about the time of Pisistratus, +the poems which had been repeated orally were said to have been +collected in manuscript form; but the scribes, it is added, allowed +themselves to take some liberties with the text by transposing some +lines and adding extraneous matter here and there. This entire +hypothesis is the most important in the domain of literary studies that +antiquity has exhibited; and the acknowledgment of the dissemination of +the Homeric poems by word of mouth, as opposed to the habits of a +book-learned age, shows in particular a depth of ancient sagacity worthy +of our admiration. From those times until the generation that produced +Friedrich August Wolf we must take a jump over a long historical vacuum; +but in our own age we find the argument left just as it was at the time +when the power of controversy departed from antiquity, and it is a +matter of indifference to us that Wolf accepted as certain tradition +what antiquity itself had set up only as a hypothesis. It may be +remarked as most characteristic of this hypothesis that, in the +strictest sense, the personality of Homer is treated seriously; that a +certain standard of inner harmony is everywhere presupposed in the +manifestations of the personality; and that, with these two excellent +auxiliary hypotheses, whatever is seen to be below this standard and +opposed to this inner harmony is at once swept aside as un-Homeric. But +even this distinguishing characteristic, in place of wishing to +recognise the supernatural existence of a tangible personality, ascends +likewise through all the stages that lead to that zenith, with +ever-increasing energy and clearness. Individuality is ever more +strongly felt and accentuated; the psychological possibility of a +<i>single</i> Homer is ever more forcibly demanded. If we descend backwards +from this zenith, step by step, we find a guide to the understanding of +the Homeric problem in the person of Aristotle. Homer was for him the +flawless and untiring artist who knew his end and the means to attain +it; but there is still a trace of infantile criticism to be found in +Aristotle—<i>i.e.</i>, in the naive concession he made to the public opinion +that considered Homer as the author of the original of all comic epics, +the <i>Margites</i>. If we go still further backwards from Aristotle, the +inability to create a personality is seen to increase; more and more +poems are attributed to Homer; and every period lets us see its degree +of criticism by how much and what it considers as Homeric. In this +backward examination, we instinctively feel that away beyond Herodotus +there lies a period in which an immense flood of great epics has been +identified with the name of Homer.</p> + +<p>Let us imagine ourselves as living in the time of Pisistratus: the word +"Homer" then comprehended an abundance of dissimilarities. What was +meant by "Homer" at that time? It is evident that that generation found +itself unable to grasp a personality and the limits of its +manifestations. Homer had now become of small consequence. And then we +meet with the weighty question: What lies before this period? Has +Homer's personality, because it cannot be grasped, gradually faded away +into an empty name? Or had all the Homeric poems been gathered together +in a body, the nation naively representing itself by the figure of +Homer? <i>Was the person created out of a conception, or the conception +out of a person?</i> This is the real "Homeric question," the central +problem of the personality.</p> + +<p>The difficulty of answering this question, however, is increased when we +seek a reply in another direction, from the standpoint of the poems +themselves which have come down to us. As it is difficult for us at the +present day, and necessitates a serious effort on our part, to +understand the law of gravitation clearly—that the earth alters its +form of motion when another heavenly body changes its position in space, +although no material connection unites one to the other—it likewise +costs us some trouble to obtain a clear impression of that wonderful +problem which, like a coin long passed from hand to hand, has lost its +original and highly conspicuous stamp. Poetical works, which cause the +hearts of even the greatest geniuses to fail when they endeavour to vie +with them, and in which unsurpassable images are held up for the +admiration of posterity—and yet the poet who wrote them with only a +hollow, shaky name, whenever we do lay hold on him; nowhere the solid +kernel of a powerful personality. "For who would wage war with the gods: +who, even with the one god?" asks Goethe even, who, though a genius, +strove in vain to solve that mysterious problem of the Homeric +inaccessibility.</p> + +<p>The conception of popular poetry seemed to lead like a bridge over this +problem—a deeper and more original power than that of every single +creative individual was said to have become active; the happiest people, +in the happiest period of its existence, in the highest activity of +fantasy and formative power, was said to have created those immeasurable +poems. In this universality there is something almost intoxicating in +the thought of a popular poem: we feel, with artistic pleasure, the +broad, overpowering liberation of a popular gift, and we delight in this +natural phenomenon as we do in an uncontrollable cataract. But as soon +as we examine this thought at close quarters, we involuntarily put a +poetic <i>mass of people</i> in the place of the poetising <i>soul of the +people</i>: a long row of popular poets in whom individuality has no +meaning, and in whom the tumultuous movement of a people's soul, the +intuitive strength of a people's eye, and the unabated profusion of a +people's fantasy, were once powerful: a row of original geniuses, +attached to a time, to a poetic genus, to a subject-matter.</p> + +<p>Such a conception justly made people suspicious. Could it be possible +that that same Nature who so sparingly distributed her rarest and most +precious production—genius—should suddenly take the notion of +lavishing her gifts in one sole direction? And here the thorny question +again made its appearance: Could we not get along with one genius only, +and explain the present existence of that unattainable excellence? And +now eyes were keenly on the lookout for whatever that excellence and +singularity might consist of. Impossible for it to be in the +construction of the complete works, said one party, for this is far from +faultless; but doubtless to be found in single songs: in the single +pieces above all; not in the whole. A second party, on the other hand, +sheltered themselves beneath the authority of Aristotle, who especially +admired Homer's "divine" nature in the choice of his entire subject, and +the manner in which he planned and carried it out. If, however, this +construction was not clearly seen, this fault was due to the way the +poems were handed down to posterity and not to the poet himself—it was +the result of retouchings and interpolations, owing to which the +original setting of the work gradually became obscured. The more the +first school looked for inequalities, contradictions, perplexities, the +more energetically did the other school brush aside what in their +opinion obscured the original plan, in order, if possible, that nothing +might be left remaining but the actual words of the original epic +itself. The second school of thought of course held fast by the +conception of an epoch-making genius as the composer of the great works. +The first school, on the other hand, wavered between the supposition of +one genius plus a number of minor poets, and another hypothesis which +assumed only a number of superior and even mediocre individual bards, +but also postulated a mysterious discharging, a deep, national, artistic +impulse, which shows itself in individual minstrels as an almost +indifferent medium. It is to this latter school that we must attribute +the representation of the Homeric poems as the expression of that +mysterious impulse.</p> + +<p>All these schools of thought start from the assumption that the problem +of the present form of these epics can be solved from the standpoint of +an æsthetic judgment—but we must await the decision as to the +authorised line of demarcation between the man of genius and the +poetical soul of the people. Are there characteristic differences +between the utterances of the <i>man of genius</i> and the <i>poetical soul of +the people</i>?</p> + +<p>This whole contrast, however, is unjust and misleading. There is no +more dangerous assumption in modern æsthetics than that of <i>popular +poetry</i> and <i>individual poetry</i>, or, as it is usually called, <i>artistic +poetry</i>. This is the reaction, or, if you will, the superstition, which +followed upon the most momentous discovery of historico-philological +science, the discovery and appreciation of the <i>soul of the people</i>. For +this discovery prepared the way for a coming scientific view of history, +which was until then, and in many respects is even now, a mere +collection of materials, with the prospect that new materials would +continue to be added, and that the huge, overflowing pile would never be +systematically arranged. The people now understood for the first time +that the long-felt power of greater individualities and wills was larger +than the pitifully small will of an individual man;<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> they now saw that +everything truly great in the kingdom of the will could not have its +deepest root in the inefficacious and ephemeral individual will; and, +finally, they now discovered the powerful instincts of the masses, and +diagnosed those unconscious impulses to be the foundations and supports +of the so-called universal history. But the newly-lighted flame also +cast its shadow: and this shadow was none other than that superstition +already referred to, which popular poetry set up in opposition to +individual poetry, and thus enlarged the comprehension of the people's +soul to that of the people's mind. By the misapplication of a tempting +analogical inference, people had reached the point of applying in the +domain of the intellect and artistic ideas that principle of greater +individuality which is truly applicable only in the domain of the will. +The masses have never experienced more flattering treatment than in thus +having the laurel of genius set upon their empty heads. It was imagined +that new shells were forming round a small kernel, so to speak, and that +those pieces of popular poetry originated like avalanches, in the drift +and flow of tradition. They were, however, ready to consider that kernel +as being of the smallest possible dimensions, so that they might +occasionally get rid of it altogether without losing anything of the +mass of the avalanche. According to this view, the text itself and the +stories built round it are one and the same thing.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_1_1"> +<span class="label">[1]</span></a> Of course Nietzsche saw afterwards that this was not +so.—TR.</p></div> + +<p>Now, however, such a contrast between popular poetry and individual +poetry does not exist at all; on the contrary, all poetry, and of course +popular poetry also, requires an intermediary individuality. This +much-abused contrast, therefore, is necessary only when the term +<i>individual poem</i> is understood to mean a poem which has not grown out +of the soil of popular feeling, but which has been composed by a +non-popular poet in a non-popular atmosphere—something which has come +to maturity in the study of a learned man, for example.</p> + +<p>With the superstition which presupposes poetising masses is connected +another: that popular poetry is limited to one particular period of a +people's history and afterwards dies out—which indeed follows as a +consequence of the first superstition I have mentioned. According to +this school, in the place of the gradually decaying popular poetry we +have artistic poetry, the work of individual minds, not of masses of +people. But the same powers which were once active are still so; and the +form in which they act has remained exactly the same. The great poet of +a literary period is still a popular poet in no narrower sense than the +popular poet of an illiterate age. The difference between them is not in +the way they originate, but it is their diffusion and propagation, in +short, <i>tradition</i>. This tradition is exposed to eternal danger without +the help of handwriting, and runs the risk of including in the poems the +remains of those individualities through whose oral tradition they were +handed down.</p> + +<p>If we apply all these principles to the Homeric poems, it follows that +we gain nothing with our theory of the poetising soul of the people, and +that we are always referred back to the poetical individual. We are thus +confronted with the task of distinguishing that which can have +originated only in a single poetical mind from that which is, so to +speak, swept up by the tide of oral tradition, and which is a highly +important constituent part of the Homeric poems.</p> + +<p>Since literary history first ceased to be a mere collection of names, +people have attempted to grasp and formulate the individualities of the +poets. A certain mechanism forms part of the method: it must be +explained—<i>i.e.</i>, it must be deduced from principles—why this or that +individuality appears in this way and not in that. People now study +biographical details, environment, acquaintances, contemporary events, +and believe that by mixing all these ingredients together they will be +able to manufacture the wished-for individuality. But they forget that +the <i>punctum saliens</i>, the indefinable individual characteristics, can +never be obtained from a compound of this nature. The less there is +known about the life and times of the poet, the less applicable is this +mechanism. When, however, we have merely the works and the name of the +writer, it is almost impossible to detect the individuality, at all +events, for those who put their faith in the mechanism in question; and +particularly when the works are perfect, when they are pieces of popular +poetry. For the best way for these mechanicians to grasp individual +characteristics is by perceiving deviations from the genius of the +people; the aberrations and hidden allusions: and the fewer +discrepancies to be found in a poem the fainter will be the traces of +the individual poet who composed it.</p> + +<p>All those deviations, everything dull and below the ordinary standard +which scholars think they perceive in the Homeric poems, were attributed +to tradition, which thus became the scapegoat. What was left of Homer's +own individual work? Nothing but a series of beautiful and prominent +passages chosen in accordance with subjective taste. The sum total of +æsthetic singularity which every individual scholar perceived with his +own artistic gifts, he now called Homer.</p> + +<p>This is the central point of the Homeric errors. The name of Homer, from +the very beginning, has no connection either with the conception of +æsthetic perfection or yet with the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i>. Homer as +the composer of the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> is not a historical +tradition, but an <i>æsthetic judgment</i>.</p> + +<p>The only path which leads back beyond the time of Pisistratus and helps +us to elucidate the meaning of the name Homer, takes its way on the one +hand through the reports which have reached us concerning Homer's +birthplace: from which we see that, although his name is always +associated with heroic epic poems, he is on the other hand no more +referred to as the composer of the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> than as the +author of the <i>Thebais</i> or any other cyclical epic. On the other hand, +again, an old tradition tells of the contest between Homer and Hesiod, +which proves that when these two names were mentioned people +instinctively thought of two epic tendencies, the heroic and the +didactic; and that the signification of the name "Homer" was included in +the material category and not in the formal. This imaginary contest with +Hesiod did not even yet show the faintest presentiment of individuality. +From the time of Pisistratus onwards, however, with the surprisingly +rapid development of the Greek feeling for beauty, the differences in +the æsthetic value of those epics continued to be felt more and more: +the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> arose from the depths of the flood and +have remained on the surface ever since. With this process of æsthetic +separation, the conception of Homer gradually became narrower: the old +material meaning of the name "Homer" as the father of the heroic epic +poem, was changed into the æsthetic meaning of Homer, the father of +poetry in general, and likewise its original prototype. This +transformation was contemporary with the rationalistic criticism which +made Homer the magician out to be a possible poet, which vindicated the +material and formal traditions of those numerous epics as against the +unity of the poet, and gradually removed that heavy load of cyclical +epics from Homer's shoulders.</p> + +<p>So Homer, the poet of the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i>, is an æsthetic +judgment. It is, however, by no means affirmed against the poet of these +epics that he was merely the imaginary being of an æsthetic +impossibility, which can be the opinion of only very few philologists +indeed. The majority contend that a single individual was responsible +for the general design of a poem such as the <i>Iliad</i>, and further that +this individual was Homer. The first part of this contention may be +admitted; but, in accordance with what I have said, the latter part must +be denied. And I very much doubt whether the majority of those who adopt +the first part of the contention have taken the following considerations +into account.</p> + +<p>The design of an epic such as the <i>Iliad</i> is not an entire <i>whole</i>, not +an organism; but a number of pieces strung together, a collection of +reflections arranged in accordance with æsthetic rules. It is certainly +the standard of an artist's greatness to note what he can take in with a +single glance and set out in rhythmical form. The infinite profusion of +images and incidents in the Homeric epic must force us to admit that +such a wide range of vision is next to impossible. Where, however, a +poet is unable to observe artistically with a single glance, he usually +piles conception on conception, and endeavours to adjust his characters +according to a comprehensive scheme.</p> + +<p>He will succeed in this all the better the more he is familiar with the +fundamental principles of æsthetics: he will even make some believe +that he made himself master of the entire subject by a single powerful +glance.</p> + +<p>The <i>Iliad</i> is not a garland, but a bunch of flowers. As many pictures +as possible are crowded on one canvas; but the man who placed them there +was indifferent as to whether the grouping of the collected pictures was +invariably suitable and rhythmically beautiful. He well knew that no one +would ever consider the collection as a whole; but would merely look at +the individual parts. But that stringing together of some pieces as the +manifestations of a grasp of art which was not yet highly developed, +still less thoroughly comprehended and generally esteemed, cannot have +been the real Homeric deed, the real Homeric epoch-making event. On the +contrary, this design is a later product, far later than Homer's +celebrity. Those, therefore, who look for the "original and perfect +design" are looking for a mere phantom; for the dangerous path of oral +tradition had reached its end just as the systematic arrangement +appeared on the scene; the disfigurements which were caused on the way +could not have affected the design, for this did not form part of the +material handed down from generation to generation.</p> + +<p>The relative imperfection of the design must not, however, prevent us +from seeing in the designer a different personality from the real poet. +It is not only probable that everything which was created in those times +with conscious æsthetic insight, was infinitely inferior to the songs +that sprang up naturally in the poet's mind and were written down with +instinctive power: we can even take a step further. If we include the +so-called cyclic poems in this comparison, there remains for the +designer of the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> the indisputable merit of +having done something relatively great in this conscious technical +composing: a merit which we might have been prepared to recognise from +the beginning, and which is in my opinion of the very first order in the +domain of instinctive creation. We may even be ready to pronounce this +synthetisation of great importance. All those dull passages and +discrepancies—deemed of such importance, but really only subjective, +which we usually look upon as the petrified remains of the period of +tradition—are not these perhaps merely the almost necessary evils which +must fall to the lot of the poet of genius who undertakes a composition +virtually without a parallel, and, further, one which proves to be of +incalculable difficulty?</p> + +<p>Let it be noted that the insight into the most diverse operations of the +instinctive and the conscious changes the position of the Homeric +problem; and in my opinion throws light upon it.</p> + +<p>We believe in a great poet as the author of the <i>Iliad</i> and the +<i>Odyssey—but not that Homer was this poet</i>.</p> + +<p>The decision on this point has already been given. The generation that +invented those numerous Homeric fables, that poetised the myth of the +contest between Homer and Hesiod, and looked upon all the poems of the +epic cycle as Homeric, did not feel an æsthetic but a material +singularity when it pronounced the name "Homer." This period regards +Homer as belonging to the ranks of artists like Orpheus, Eumolpus, +Dædalus, and Olympus, the mythical discoverers of a new branch of art, +to whom, therefore, all the later fruits which grew from the new branch +were thankfully dedicated.</p> + +<p>And that wonderful genius to whom we owe the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> +belongs to this thankful posterity: he, too, sacrificed his name on the +altar of the primeval father of the Homeric epic, Homeros.</p> + +<p>Up to this point, gentlemen, I think I have been able to put before you +the fundamental philosophical and æsthetic characteristics of the +problem of the personality of Homer, keeping all minor details +rigorously at a distance, on the supposition that the primary form of +this widespread and honeycombed mountain known as the Homeric question +can be most clearly observed by looking down at it from a far-off +height. But I have also, I imagine, recalled two facts to those friends +of antiquity who take such delight in accusing us philologists of lack +of piety for great conceptions and an unproductive zeal for +destruction. In the first place, those "great" conceptions—such, for +example, as that of the indivisible and inviolable poetic genius, +Homer—were during the pre-Wolfian period only too great, and hence +inwardly altogether empty and elusive when we now try to grasp them. If +classical philology goes back again to the same conceptions, and once +more tries to pour new wine into old bottles, it is only on the surface +that the conceptions are the same: everything has really become new; +bottle and mind, wine and word. We everywhere find traces of the fact +that philology has lived in company with poets, thinkers, and artists +for the last hundred years: whence it has now come about that the heap +of ashes formerly pointed to as classical philology is now turned into +fruitful and even rich soil.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Nietzsche perceived later on that this statement was, +unfortunately, not justified.—TR.</p></div> + +<p>And there is a second fact which I should like to recall to the memory +of those friends of antiquity who turn their dissatisfied backs on +classical philology. You honour the immortal masterpieces of the +Hellenic mind in poetry and sculpture, and think yourselves so much more +fortunate than preceding generations, which had to do without them; but +you must not forget that this whole fairyland once lay buried under +mountains of prejudice, and that the blood and sweat and arduous labour +of innumerable followers of our science were all necessary to lift up +that world from the chasm into which it had sunk. We grant that +philology is not the creator of this world, not the composer of that +immortal music; but is it not a merit, and a great merit, to be a mere +virtuoso, and let the world for the first time hear that music which lay +so long in obscurity, despised and undecipherable? Who was Homer +previously to Wolf's brilliant investigations? A good old man, known at +best as a "natural genius," at all events the child of a barbaric age, +replete with faults against good taste and good morals. Let us hear how +a learned man of the first rank writes about Homer even so late as 1783: +"Where does the good man live? Why did he remain so long incognito? +Apropos, can't you get me a silhouette of him?"</p> + +<p>We demand <i>thanks</i>—not in our own name, for we are but atoms—but in +the name of philology itself, which is indeed neither a Muse nor a +Grace, but a messenger of the gods: and just as the Muses descended upon +the dull and tormented Bœotian peasants, so Philology comes into a +world full of gloomy colours and pictures, full of the deepest, most +incurable woes; and speaks to men comfortingly of the beautiful and +godlike figure of a distant, rosy, and happy fairyland.</p> + +<p>It is time to close; yet before I do so a few words of a personal +character must be added, justified, I hope, by the occasion of this +lecture.</p> + +<p>It is but right that a philologist should describe his end and the means +to it in the short formula of a confession of faith; and let this be +done in the saying of Seneca which I thus reverse—</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"Philosophia facta est quæ philologia fuit."</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>By this I wish to signify that all philological activities should be +enclosed and surrounded by a philosophical view of things, in which +everything individual and isolated is evaporated as something +detestable, and in which great homogeneous views alone remain. Now, +therefore, that I have enunciated my philological creed, I trust you +will give me cause to hope that I shall no longer be a stranger among +you: give me the assurance that in working with you towards this end I +am worthily fulfilling the confidence with which the highest authorities +of this community have honoured me.</p> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Homer and Classical Philology, by +Friedrich Nietzsche + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOMER AND CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY *** + +***** This file should be named 18188-h.htm or 18188-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/1/8/18188/ + +Produced by Thierry Alberto, Robert Ledger and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + +*** END: FULL LICENSE *** + + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/18188.txt b/18188.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..992c128 --- /dev/null +++ b/18188.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1047 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Homer and Classical Philology, by Friedrich Nietzsche + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Homer and Classical Philology + +Author: Friedrich Nietzsche + +Editor: Oscar Levy + +Translator: J. M. Kennedy + +Release Date: April 17, 2006 [EBook #18188] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOMER AND CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY *** + + + + +Produced by Thierry Alberto, Robert Ledger and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +[Transcriber's Note: + +This lecture was taken from Volume III of _The Complete Works of +Friedrich Nietzsche_, Dr. Oscar Levy, Ed., J. M. Kennedy, +Translator, 1910] + + + + +HOMER AND CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY. + +(_Inaugural Address delivered at Bale University, 28th of May 1869._) + + +At the present day no clear and consistent opinion seems to be held +regarding Classical Philology. We are conscious of this in the circles +of the learned just as much as among the followers of that science +itself. The cause of this lies in its many-sided character, in the lack +of an abstract unity, and in the inorganic aggregation of heterogeneous +scientific activities which are connected with one another only by the +name "Philology." It must be freely admitted that philology is to some +extent borrowed from several other sciences, and is mixed together like +a magic potion from the most outlandish liquors, ores, and bones. It may +even be added that it likewise conceals within itself an artistic +element, one which, on aesthetic and ethical grounds, may be called +imperatival--an element that acts in opposition to its purely scientific +behaviour. Philology is composed of history just as much as of natural +science or aesthetics: history, in so far as it endeavours to comprehend +the manifestations of the individualities of peoples in ever new +images, and the prevailing law in the disappearance of phenomena; +natural science, in so far as it strives to fathom the deepest instinct +of man, that of speech; aesthetics, finally, because from various +antiquities at our disposal it endeavours to pick out the so-called +"classical" antiquity, with the view and pretension of excavating the +ideal world buried under it, and to hold up to the present the mirror of +the classical and everlasting standards. That these wholly different +scientific and aesthetico-ethical impulses have been associated under a +common name, a kind of sham monarchy, is shown especially by the fact +that philology at every period from its origin onwards was at the same +time pedagogical. From the standpoint of the pedagogue, a choice was +offered of those elements which were of the greatest educational value; +and thus that science, or at least that scientific aim, which we call +philology, gradually developed out of the practical calling originated +by the exigencies of that science itself. + +These philological aims were pursued sometimes with greater ardour and +sometimes with less, in accordance with the degree of culture and the +development of the taste of a particular period; but, on the other hand, +the followers of this science are in the habit of regarding the aims +which correspond to their several abilities as _the_ aims of philology; +whence it comes about that the estimation of philology in public opinion +depends upon the weight of the personalities of the philologists! + +At the present time--that is to say, in a period which has seen men +distinguished in almost every department of philology--a general +uncertainty of judgment has increased more and more, and likewise a +general relaxation of interest and participation in philological +problems. Such an undecided and imperfect state of public opinion is +damaging to a science in that its hidden and open enemies can work with +much better prospects of success. And philology has a great many such +enemies. Where do we not meet with them, these mockers, always ready to +aim a blow at the philological "moles," the animals that practise +dust-eating _ex professo_, and that grub up and eat for the eleventh +time what they have already eaten ten times before. For opponents of +this sort, however, philology is merely a useless, harmless, and +inoffensive pastime, an object of laughter and not of hate. But, on the +other hand, there is a boundless and infuriated hatred of philology +wherever an ideal, as such, is feared, where the modern man falls down +to worship himself, and where Hellenism is looked upon as a superseded +and hence very insignificant point of view. Against these enemies, we +philologists must always count upon the assistance of artists and men of +artistic minds; for they alone can judge how the sword of barbarism +sweeps over the head of every one who loses sight of the unutterable +simplicity and noble dignity of the Hellene; and how no progress in +commerce or technical industries, however brilliant, no school +regulations, no political education of the masses, however widespread +and complete, can protect us from the curse of ridiculous and barbaric +offences against good taste, or from annihilation by the Gorgon head of +the classicist. + +Whilst philology as a whole is looked on with jealous eyes by these two +classes of opponents, there are numerous and varied hostilities in other +directions of philology; philologists themselves are quarrelling with +one another; internal dissensions are caused by useless disputes about +precedence and mutual jealousies, but especially by the +differences--even enmities--comprised in the name of philology, which +are not, however, by any means naturally harmonised instincts. + +Science has this in common with art, that the most ordinary, everyday +thing appears to it as something entirely new and attractive, as if +metamorphosed by witchcraft and now seen for the first time. Life is +worth living, says art, the beautiful temptress; life is worth knowing, +says science. With this contrast the so heartrending and dogmatic +tradition follows in a _theory_, and consequently in the practice of +classical philology derived from this theory. We may consider antiquity +from a scientific point of view; we may try to look at what has happened +with the eye of a historian, or to arrange and compare the linguistic +forms of ancient masterpieces, to bring them at all events under a +morphological law; but we always lose the wonderful creative force, the +real fragrance, of the atmosphere of antiquity; we forget that +passionate emotion which instinctively drove our meditation and +enjoyment back to the Greeks. From this point onwards we must take +notice of a clearly determined and very surprising antagonism which +philology has great cause to regret. From the circles upon whose help we +must place the most implicit reliance--the artistic friends of +antiquity, the warm supporters of Hellenic beauty and noble +simplicity--we hear harsh voices crying out that it is precisely the +philologists themselves who are the real opponents and destroyers of the +ideals of antiquity. Schiller upbraided the philologists with having +scattered Homer's laurel crown to the winds. It was none other than +Goethe who, in early life a supporter of Wolf's theories regarding +Homer, recanted in the verses-- + + With subtle wit you took away + Our former adoration: + The Iliad, you may us say, + Was mere conglomeration. + Think it not crime in any way: + Youth's fervent adoration + Leads us to know the verity, + And feel the poet's unity. + +The reason of this want of piety and reverence must lie deeper; and many +are in doubt as to whether philologists are lacking in artistic capacity +and impressions, so that they are unable to do justice to the ideal, or +whether the spirit of negation has become a destructive and iconoclastic +principle of theirs. When, however, even the friends of antiquity, +possessed of such doubts and hesitations, point to our present classical +philology as something questionable, what influence may we not ascribe +to the outbursts of the "realists" and the claptrap of the heroes of the +passing hour? To answer the latter on this occasion, especially when we +consider the nature of the present assembly, would be highly +injudicious; at any rate, if I do not wish to meet with the fate of +that sophist who, when in Sparta, publicly undertook to praise and +defend Herakles, when he was interrupted with the query: "But who then +has found fault with him?" I cannot help thinking, however, that some of +these scruples are still sounding in the ears of not a few in this +gathering; for they may still be frequently heard from the lips of noble +and artistically gifted men--as even an upright philologist must feel +them, and feel them most painfully, at moments when his spirits are +downcast. For the single individual there is no deliverance from the +dissensions referred to; but what we contend and inscribe on our banner +is the fact that classical philology, as a whole, has nothing whatsoever +to do with the quarrels and bickerings of its individual disciples. The +entire scientific and artistic movement of this peculiar centaur is +bent, though with cyclopic slowness, upon bridging over the gulf between +the ideal antiquity--which is perhaps only the magnificent blossoming of +the Teutonic longing for the south--and the real antiquity; and thus +classical philology pursues only the final end of its own being, which +is the fusing together of primarily hostile impulses that have only +forcibly been brought together. Let us talk as we will about the +unattainability of this goal, and even designate the goal itself as an +illogical pretension--the aspiration for it is very real; and I should +like to try to make it clear by an example that the most significant +steps of classical philology never lead away from the ideal antiquity, +but to it; and that, just when people are speaking unwarrantably of the +overthrow of sacred shrines, new and more worthy altars are being +erected. Let us then examine the so-called _Homeric question_ from this +standpoint, a question the most important problem of which Schiller +called a scholastic barbarism. + +The important problem referred to is _the question of the personality of +Homer_. + +We now meet everywhere with the firm opinion that the question of +Homer's personality is no longer timely, and that it is quite a +different thing from the real "Homeric question." It may be added that, +for a given period--such as our present philological period, for +example--the centre of discussion may be removed from the problem of the +poet's personality; for even now a painstaking experiment is being made +to reconstruct the Homeric poems without the aid of personality, +treating them as the work of several different persons. But if the +centre of a scientific question is rightly seen to be where the swelling +tide of new views has risen up, i.e. where individual scientific +investigation comes into contact with the whole life of science and +culture--if any one, in other words, indicates a historico-cultural +valuation as the central point of the question, he must also, in the +province of Homeric criticism, take his stand upon the question of +personality as being the really fruitful oasis in the desert of the +whole argument. For in Homer the modern world, I will not say has +learnt, but has examined, a great historical point of view; and, even +without now putting forward my own opinion as to whether this +examination has been or can be happily carried out, it was at all +events the first example of the application of that productive point of +view. By it scholars learnt to recognise condensed beliefs in the +apparently firm, immobile figures of the life of ancient peoples; by it +they for the first time perceived the wonderful capability of the soul +of a people to represent the conditions of its morals and beliefs in the +form of a personality. When historical criticism has confidently seized +upon this method of evaporating apparently concrete personalities, it is +permissible to point to the first experiment as an important event in +the history of sciences, without considering whether it was successful +in this instance or not. + +It is a common occurrence for a series of striking signs and wonderful +emotions to precede an epoch-making discovery. Even the experiment I +have just referred to has its own attractive history; but it goes back +to a surprisingly ancient era. Friedrich August Wolf has exactly +indicated the spot where Greek antiquity dropped the question. The +zenith of the historico-literary studies of the Greeks, and hence also +of their point of greatest importance--the Homeric question--was reached +in the age of the Alexandrian grammarians. Up to this time the Homeric +question had run through the long chain of a uniform process of +development, of which the standpoint of those grammarians seemed to be +the last link, the last, indeed, which was attainable by antiquity. They +conceived the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ as the creations of _one single_ +Homer; they declared it to be psychologically possible for two such +different works to have sprung from the brain of _one_ genius, in +contradiction to the Chorizontes, who represented the extreme limit of +the scepticism of a few detached individuals of antiquity rather than +antiquity itself considered as a whole. To explain the different general +impression of the two books on the assumption that _one_ poet composed +them both, scholars sought assistance by referring to the seasons of the +poet's life, and compared the poet of the _Odyssey_ to the setting sun. +The eyes of those critics were tirelessly on the lookout for +discrepancies in the language and thoughts of the two poems; but at this +time also a history of the Homeric poem and its tradition was prepared, +according to which these discrepancies were not due to Homer, but +to those who committed his words to writing and those who sang them. It +was believed that Homer's poem was passed from one generation to another +_viva voce_, and faults were attributed to the improvising and at times +forgetful bards. At a certain given date, about the time of Pisistratus, +the poems which had been repeated orally were said to have been +collected in manuscript form; but the scribes, it is added, allowed +themselves to take some liberties with the text by transposing some +lines and adding extraneous matter here and there. This entire +hypothesis is the most important in the domain of literary studies that +antiquity has exhibited; and the acknowledgment of the dissemination of +the Homeric poems by word of mouth, as opposed to the habits of a +book-learned age, shows in particular a depth of ancient sagacity worthy +of our admiration. From those times until the generation that produced +Friedrich August Wolf we must take a jump over a long historical vacuum; +but in our own age we find the argument left just as it was at the time +when the power of controversy departed from antiquity, and it is a +matter of indifference to us that Wolf accepted as certain tradition +what antiquity itself had set up only as a hypothesis. It may be +remarked as most characteristic of this hypothesis that, in the +strictest sense, the personality of Homer is treated seriously; that a +certain standard of inner harmony is everywhere presupposed in the +manifestations of the personality; and that, with these two excellent +auxiliary hypotheses, whatever is seen to be below this standard and +opposed to this inner harmony is at once swept aside as un-Homeric. But +even this distinguishing characteristic, in place of wishing to +recognise the supernatural existence of a tangible personality, ascends +likewise through all the stages that lead to that zenith, with +ever-increasing energy and clearness. Individuality is ever more +strongly felt and accentuated; the psychological possibility of a +_single_ Homer is ever more forcibly demanded. If we descend backwards +from this zenith, step by step, we find a guide to the understanding of +the Homeric problem in the person of Aristotle. Homer was for him the +flawless and untiring artist who knew his end and the means to attain +it; but there is still a trace of infantile criticism to be found in +Aristotle--i.e., in the naive concession he made to the public opinion +that considered Homer as the author of the original of all comic epics, +the _Margites_. If we go still further backwards from Aristotle, the +inability to create a personality is seen to increase; more and more +poems are attributed to Homer; and every period lets us see its degree +of criticism by how much and what it considers as Homeric. In this +backward examination, we instinctively feel that away beyond Herodotus +there lies a period in which an immense flood of great epics has been +identified with the name of Homer. + +Let us imagine ourselves as living in the time of Pisistratus: the word +"Homer" then comprehended an abundance of dissimilarities. What was +meant by "Homer" at that time? It is evident that that generation found +itself unable to grasp a personality and the limits of its +manifestations. Homer had now become of small consequence. And then we +meet with the weighty question: What lies before this period? Has +Homer's personality, because it cannot be grasped, gradually faded away +into an empty name? Or had all the Homeric poems been gathered together +in a body, the nation naively representing itself by the figure of +Homer? _Was the person created out of a conception, or the conception +out of a person?_ This is the real "Homeric question," the central +problem of the personality. + +The difficulty of answering this question, however, is increased when we +seek a reply in another direction, from the standpoint of the poems +themselves which have come down to us. As it is difficult for us at the +present day, and necessitates a serious effort on our part, to +understand the law of gravitation clearly--that the earth alters its +form of motion when another heavenly body changes its position in space, +although no material connection unites one to the other--it likewise +costs us some trouble to obtain a clear impression of that wonderful +problem which, like a coin long passed from hand to hand, has lost its +original and highly conspicuous stamp. Poetical works, which cause the +hearts of even the greatest geniuses to fail when they endeavour to vie +with them, and in which unsurpassable images are held up for the +admiration of posterity--and yet the poet who wrote them with only a +hollow, shaky name, whenever we do lay hold on him; nowhere the solid +kernel of a powerful personality. "For who would wage war with the gods: +who, even with the one god?" asks Goethe even, who, though a genius, +strove in vain to solve that mysterious problem of the Homeric +inaccessibility. + +The conception of popular poetry seemed to lead like a bridge over this +problem--a deeper and more original power than that of every single +creative individual was said to have become active; the happiest people, +in the happiest period of its existence, in the highest activity of +fantasy and formative power, was said to have created those immeasurable +poems. In this universality there is something almost intoxicating in +the thought of a popular poem: we feel, with artistic pleasure, the +broad, overpowering liberation of a popular gift, and we delight in this +natural phenomenon as we do in an uncontrollable cataract. But as soon +as we examine this thought at close quarters, we involuntarily put a +poetic _mass of people_ in the place of the poetising _soul of the +people_: a long row of popular poets in whom individuality has no +meaning, and in whom the tumultuous movement of a people's soul, the +intuitive strength of a people's eye, and the unabated profusion of a +people's fantasy, were once powerful: a row of original geniuses, +attached to a time, to a poetic genus, to a subject-matter. + +Such a conception justly made people suspicious. Could it be possible +that that same Nature who so sparingly distributed her rarest and most +precious production--genius--should suddenly take the notion of +lavishing her gifts in one sole direction? And here the thorny question +again made its appearance: Could we not get along with one genius only, +and explain the present existence of that unattainable excellence? And +now eyes were keenly on the lookout for whatever that excellence and +singularity might consist of. Impossible for it to be in the +construction of the complete works, said one party, for this is far from +faultless; but doubtless to be found in single songs: in the single +pieces above all; not in the whole. A second party, on the other hand, +sheltered themselves beneath the authority of Aristotle, who especially +admired Homer's "divine" nature in the choice of his entire subject, and +the manner in which he planned and carried it out. If, however, this +construction was not clearly seen, this fault was due to the way the +poems were handed down to posterity and not to the poet himself--it was +the result of retouchings and interpolations, owing to which the +original setting of the work gradually became obscured. The more the +first school looked for inequalities, contradictions, perplexities, the +more energetically did the other school brush aside what in their +opinion obscured the original plan, in order, if possible, that nothing +might be left remaining but the actual words of the original epic +itself. The second school of thought of course held fast by the +conception of an epoch-making genius as the composer of the great works. +The first school, on the other hand, wavered between the supposition of +one genius plus a number of minor poets, and another hypothesis which +assumed only a number of superior and even mediocre individual bards, +but also postulated a mysterious discharging, a deep, national, artistic +impulse, which shows itself in individual minstrels as an almost +indifferent medium. It is to this latter school that we must attribute +the representation of the Homeric poems as the expression of that +mysterious impulse. + +All these schools of thought start from the assumption that the problem +of the present form of these epics can be solved from the standpoint of +an aesthetic judgment--but we must await the decision as to the +authorised line of demarcation between the man of genius and the +poetical soul of the people. Are there characteristic differences +between the utterances of the _man of genius_ and the _poetical soul of +the people_? + +This whole contrast, however, is unjust and misleading. There is no +more dangerous assumption in modern aesthetics than that of _popular +poetry_ and _individual poetry_, or, as it is usually called, _artistic +poetry_. This is the reaction, or, if you will, the superstition, which +followed upon the most momentous discovery of historico-philological +science, the discovery and appreciation of the _soul of the people_. For +this discovery prepared the way for a coming scientific view of history, +which was until then, and in many respects is even now, a mere +collection of materials, with the prospect that new materials would +continue to be added, and that the huge, overflowing pile would never be +systematically arranged. The people now understood for the first time +that the long-felt power of greater individualities and wills was larger +than the pitifully small will of an individual man;[1] they now saw that +everything truly great in the kingdom of the will could not have its +deepest root in the inefficacious and ephemeral individual will; and, +finally, they now discovered the powerful instincts of the masses, and +diagnosed those unconscious impulses to be the foundations and supports +of the so-called universal history. But the newly-lighted flame also +cast its shadow: and this shadow was none other than that superstition +already referred to, which popular poetry set up in opposition to +individual poetry, and thus enlarged the comprehension of the people's +soul to that of the people's mind. By the misapplication of a tempting +analogical inference, people had reached the point of applying in the +domain of the intellect and artistic ideas that principle of greater +individuality which is truly applicable only in the domain of the will. +The masses have never experienced more flattering treatment than in thus +having the laurel of genius set upon their empty heads. It was imagined +that new shells were forming round a small kernel, so to speak, and that +those pieces of popular poetry originated like avalanches, in the drift +and flow of tradition. They were, however, ready to consider that kernel +as being of the smallest possible dimensions, so that they might +occasionally get rid of it altogether without losing anything of the +mass of the avalanche. According to this view, the text itself and the +stories built round it are one and the same thing. + +[1] Of course Nietzsche saw afterwards that this was not so.--TR. + +Now, however, such a contrast between popular poetry and individual +poetry does not exist at all; on the contrary, all poetry, and of course +popular poetry also, requires an intermediary individuality. This +much-abused contrast, therefore, is necessary only when the term +_individual poem_ is understood to mean a poem which has not grown out +of the soil of popular feeling, but which has been composed by a +non-popular poet in a non-popular atmosphere--something which has come +to maturity in the study of a learned man, for example. + +With the superstition which presupposes poetising masses is connected +another: that popular poetry is limited to one particular period of a +people's history and afterwards dies out--which indeed follows as a +consequence of the first superstition I have mentioned. According to +this school, in the place of the gradually decaying popular poetry we +have artistic poetry, the work of individual minds, not of masses of +people. But the same powers which were once active are still so; and the +form in which they act has remained exactly the same. The great poet of +a literary period is still a popular poet in no narrower sense than the +popular poet of an illiterate age. The difference between them is not in +the way they originate, but it is their diffusion and propagation, in +short, _tradition_. This tradition is exposed to eternal danger without +the help of handwriting, and runs the risk of including in the poems the +remains of those individualities through whose oral tradition they were +handed down. + +If we apply all these principles to the Homeric poems, it follows that +we gain nothing with our theory of the poetising soul of the people, and +that we are always referred back to the poetical individual. We are thus +confronted with the task of distinguishing that which can have +originated only in a single poetical mind from that which is, so to +speak, swept up by the tide of oral tradition, and which is a highly +important constituent part of the Homeric poems. + +Since literary history first ceased to be a mere collection of names, +people have attempted to grasp and formulate the individualities of the +poets. A certain mechanism forms part of the method: it must be +explained--i.e., it must be deduced from principles--why this or that +individuality appears in this way and not in that. People now study +biographical details, environment, acquaintances, contemporary events, +and believe that by mixing all these ingredients together they will be +able to manufacture the wished-for individuality. But they forget that +the _punctum saliens_, the indefinable individual characteristics, can +never be obtained from a compound of this nature. The less there is +known about the life and times of the poet, the less applicable is this +mechanism. When, however, we have merely the works and the name of the +writer, it is almost impossible to detect the individuality, at all +events, for those who put their faith in the mechanism in question; and +particularly when the works are perfect, when they are pieces of popular +poetry. For the best way for these mechanicians to grasp individual +characteristics is by perceiving deviations from the genius of the +people; the aberrations and hidden allusions: and the fewer +discrepancies to be found in a poem the fainter will be the traces of +the individual poet who composed it. + +All those deviations, everything dull and below the ordinary standard +which scholars think they perceive in the Homeric poems, were attributed +to tradition, which thus became the scapegoat. What was left of Homer's +own individual work? Nothing but a series of beautiful and prominent +passages chosen in accordance with subjective taste. The sum total of +aesthetic singularity which every individual scholar perceived with his +own artistic gifts, he now called Homer. + +This is the central point of the Homeric errors. The name of Homer, from +the very beginning, has no connection either with the conception of +aesthetic perfection or yet with the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_. Homer as +the composer of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ is not a historical +tradition, but an _aesthetic judgment_. + +The only path which leads back beyond the time of Pisistratus and helps +us to elucidate the meaning of the name Homer, takes its way on the one +hand through the reports which have reached us concerning Homer's +birthplace: from which we see that, although his name is always +associated with heroic epic poems, he is on the other hand no more +referred to as the composer of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ than as the +author of the _Thebais_ or any other cyclical epic. On the other hand, +again, an old tradition tells of the contest between Homer and Hesiod, +which proves that when these two names were mentioned people +instinctively thought of two epic tendencies, the heroic and the +didactic; and that the signification of the name "Homer" was included in +the material category and not in the formal. This imaginary contest with +Hesiod did not even yet show the faintest presentiment of individuality. +From the time of Pisistratus onwards, however, with the surprisingly +rapid development of the Greek feeling for beauty, the differences in +the aesthetic value of those epics continued to be felt more and more: +the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ arose from the depths of the flood and +have remained on the surface ever since. With this process of aesthetic +separation, the conception of Homer gradually became narrower: the old +material meaning of the name "Homer" as the father of the heroic epic +poem, was changed into the aesthetic meaning of Homer, the father of +poetry in general, and likewise its original prototype. This +transformation was contemporary with the rationalistic criticism which +made Homer the magician out to be a possible poet, which vindicated the +material and formal traditions of those numerous epics as against the +unity of the poet, and gradually removed that heavy load of cyclical +epics from Homer's shoulders. + +So Homer, the poet of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_, is an aesthetic +judgment. It is, however, by no means affirmed against the poet of these +epics that he was merely the imaginary being of an aesthetic +impossibility, which can be the opinion of only very few philologists +indeed. The majority contend that a single individual was responsible +for the general design of a poem such as the _Iliad_, and further that +this individual was Homer. The first part of this contention may be +admitted; but, in accordance with what I have said, the latter part must +be denied. And I very much doubt whether the majority of those who adopt +the first part of the contention have taken the following considerations +into account. + +The design of an epic such as the _Iliad_ is not an entire _whole_, not +an organism; but a number of pieces strung together, a collection of +reflections arranged in accordance with aesthetic rules. It is certainly +the standard of an artist's greatness to note what he can take in with a +single glance and set out in rhythmical form. The infinite profusion of +images and incidents in the Homeric epic must force us to admit that +such a wide range of vision is next to impossible. Where, however, a +poet is unable to observe artistically with a single glance, he usually +piles conception on conception, and endeavours to adjust his characters +according to a comprehensive scheme. + +He will succeed in this all the better the more he is familiar with the +fundamental principles of aesthetics: he will even make some believe +that he made himself master of the entire subject by a single powerful +glance. + +The _Iliad_ is not a garland, but a bunch of flowers. As many pictures +as possible are crowded on one canvas; but the man who placed them there +was indifferent as to whether the grouping of the collected pictures was +invariably suitable and rhythmically beautiful. He well knew that no one +would ever consider the collection as a whole; but would merely look at +the individual parts. But that stringing together of some pieces as the +manifestations of a grasp of art which was not yet highly developed, +still less thoroughly comprehended and generally esteemed, cannot have +been the real Homeric deed, the real Homeric epoch-making event. On the +contrary, this design is a later product, far later than Homer's +celebrity. Those, therefore, who look for the "original and perfect +design" are looking for a mere phantom; for the dangerous path of oral +tradition had reached its end just as the systematic arrangement +appeared on the scene; the disfigurements which were caused on the way +could not have affected the design, for this did not form part of the +material handed down from generation to generation. + +The relative imperfection of the design must not, however, prevent us +from seeing in the designer a different personality from the real poet. +It is not only probable that everything which was created in those times +with conscious aesthetic insight, was infinitely inferior to the songs +that sprang up naturally in the poet's mind and were written down with +instinctive power: we can even take a step further. If we include the +so-called cyclic poems in this comparison, there remains for the +designer of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ the indisputable merit of +having done something relatively great in this conscious technical +composing: a merit which we might have been prepared to recognise from +the beginning, and which is in my opinion of the very first order in the +domain of instinctive creation. We may even be ready to pronounce this +synthetisation of great importance. All those dull passages and +discrepancies--deemed of such importance, but really only subjective, +which we usually look upon as the petrified remains of the period of +tradition--are not these perhaps merely the almost necessary evils which +must fall to the lot of the poet of genius who undertakes a composition +virtually without a parallel, and, further, one which proves to be of +incalculable difficulty? + +Let it be noted that the insight into the most diverse operations of the +instinctive and the conscious changes the position of the Homeric +problem; and in my opinion throws light upon it. + +We believe in a great poet as the author of the _Iliad_ and the +_Odyssey--but not that Homer was this poet_. + +The decision on this point has already been given. The generation that +invented those numerous Homeric fables, that poetised the myth of the +contest between Homer and Hesiod, and looked upon all the poems of the +epic cycle as Homeric, did not feel an aesthetic but a material +singularity when it pronounced the name "Homer." This period regards +Homer as belonging to the ranks of artists like Orpheus, Eumolpus, +Daedalus, and Olympus, the mythical discoverers of a new branch of art, +to whom, therefore, all the later fruits which grew from the new branch +were thankfully dedicated. + +And that wonderful genius to whom we owe the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ +belongs to this thankful posterity: he, too, sacrificed his name on the +altar of the primeval father of the Homeric epic, Homeros. + +Up to this point, gentlemen, I think I have been able to put before you +the fundamental philosophical and aesthetic characteristics of the +problem of the personality of Homer, keeping all minor details +rigorously at a distance, on the supposition that the primary form of +this widespread and honeycombed mountain known as the Homeric question +can be most clearly observed by looking down at it from a far-off +height. But I have also, I imagine, recalled two facts to those friends +of antiquity who take such delight in accusing us philologists of lack +of piety for great conceptions and an unproductive zeal for +destruction. In the first place, those "great" conceptions--such, for +example, as that of the indivisible and inviolable poetic genius, +Homer--were during the pre-Wolfian period only too great, and hence +inwardly altogether empty and elusive when we now try to grasp them. If +classical philology goes back again to the same conceptions, and once +more tries to pour new wine into old bottles, it is only on the surface +that the conceptions are the same: everything has really become new; +bottle and mind, wine and word. We everywhere find traces of the fact +that philology has lived in company with poets, thinkers, and artists +for the last hundred years: whence it has now come about that the heap +of ashes formerly pointed to as classical philology is now turned into +fruitful and even rich soil.[2] + +[2] Nietzsche perceived later on that this statement was, +unfortunately, not justified.--TR. + +And there is a second fact which I should like to recall to the memory +of those friends of antiquity who turn their dissatisfied backs on +classical philology. You honour the immortal masterpieces of the +Hellenic mind in poetry and sculpture, and think yourselves so much more +fortunate than preceding generations, which had to do without them; but +you must not forget that this whole fairyland once lay buried under +mountains of prejudice, and that the blood and sweat and arduous labour +of innumerable followers of our science were all necessary to lift up +that world from the chasm into which it had sunk. We grant that +philology is not the creator of this world, not the composer of that +immortal music; but is it not a merit, and a great merit, to be a mere +virtuoso, and let the world for the first time hear that music which lay +so long in obscurity, despised and undecipherable? Who was Homer +previously to Wolf's brilliant investigations? A good old man, known at +best as a "natural genius," at all events the child of a barbaric age, +replete with faults against good taste and good morals. Let us hear how +a learned man of the first rank writes about Homer even so late as 1783: +"Where does the good man live? Why did he remain so long incognito? +Apropos, can't you get me a silhouette of him?" + +We demand _thanks_--not in our own name, for we are but atoms--but in +the name of philology itself, which is indeed neither a Muse nor a +Grace, but a messenger of the gods: and just as the Muses descended upon +the dull and tormented Boeotian peasants, so Philology comes into a +world full of gloomy colours and pictures, full of the deepest, most +incurable woes; and speaks to men comfortingly of the beautiful and +godlike figure of a distant, rosy, and happy fairyland. + +It is time to close; yet before I do so a few words of a personal +character must be added, justified, I hope, by the occasion of this +lecture. + +It is but right that a philologist should describe his end and the means +to it in the short formula of a confession of faith; and let this be +done in the saying of Seneca which I thus reverse-- + + "Philosophia facta est quae philologia fuit." + +By this I wish to signify that all philological activities should be +enclosed and surrounded by a philosophical view of things, in which +everything individual and isolated is evaporated as something +detestable, and in which great homogeneous views alone remain. Now, +therefore, that I have enunciated my philological creed, I trust you +will give me cause to hope that I shall no longer be a stranger among +you: give me the assurance that in working with you towards this end I +am worthily fulfilling the confidence with which the highest authorities +of this community have honoured me. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Homer and Classical Philology, by +Friedrich Nietzsche + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOMER AND CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY *** + +***** This file should be named 18188.txt or 18188.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/1/8/18188/ + +Produced by Thierry Alberto, Robert Ledger and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + +*** END: FULL LICENSE *** + diff --git a/18188.zip b/18188.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5b0da4e --- /dev/null +++ b/18188.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cc0b073 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #18188 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/18188) |