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+Project Gutenberg's Homer and Classical Philology, by Friedrich Nietzsche
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Homer and Classical Philology
+
+Author: Friedrich Nietzsche
+
+Editor: Oscar Levy
+
+Translator: J. M. Kennedy
+
+Release Date: April 17, 2006 [EBook #18188]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOMER AND CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Thierry Alberto, Robert Ledger and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note:
+
+This lecture was taken from Volume III of _The Complete Works of
+Friedrich Nietzsche_, Dr. Oscar Levy, Ed., J. M. Kennedy,
+Translator, 1910]
+
+
+
+
+HOMER AND CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY.
+
+(_Inaugural Address delivered at Bâle University, 28th of May 1869._)
+
+
+At the present day no clear and consistent opinion seems to be held
+regarding Classical Philology. We are conscious of this in the circles
+of the learned just as much as among the followers of that science
+itself. The cause of this lies in its many-sided character, in the lack
+of an abstract unity, and in the inorganic aggregation of heterogeneous
+scientific activities which are connected with one another only by the
+name "Philology." It must be freely admitted that philology is to some
+extent borrowed from several other sciences, and is mixed together like
+a magic potion from the most outlandish liquors, ores, and bones. It may
+even be added that it likewise conceals within itself an artistic
+element, one which, on æsthetic and ethical grounds, may be called
+imperatival--an element that acts in opposition to its purely scientific
+behaviour. Philology is composed of history just as much as of natural
+science or æsthetics: history, in so far as it endeavours to comprehend
+the manifestations of the individualities of peoples in ever new
+images, and the prevailing law in the disappearance of phenomena;
+natural science, in so far as it strives to fathom the deepest instinct
+of man, that of speech; æsthetics, finally, because from various
+antiquities at our disposal it endeavours to pick out the so-called
+"classical" antiquity, with the view and pretension of excavating the
+ideal world buried under it, and to hold up to the present the mirror of
+the classical and everlasting standards. That these wholly different
+scientific and æsthetico-ethical impulses have been associated under a
+common name, a kind of sham monarchy, is shown especially by the fact
+that philology at every period from its origin onwards was at the same
+time pedagogical. From the standpoint of the pedagogue, a choice was
+offered of those elements which were of the greatest educational value;
+and thus that science, or at least that scientific aim, which we call
+philology, gradually developed out of the practical calling originated
+by the exigencies of that science itself.
+
+These philological aims were pursued sometimes with greater ardour and
+sometimes with less, in accordance with the degree of culture and the
+development of the taste of a particular period; but, on the other hand,
+the followers of this science are in the habit of regarding the aims
+which correspond to their several abilities as _the_ aims of philology;
+whence it comes about that the estimation of philology in public opinion
+depends upon the weight of the personalities of the philologists!
+
+At the present time--that is to say, in a period which has seen men
+distinguished in almost every department of philology--a general
+uncertainty of judgment has increased more and more, and likewise a
+general relaxation of interest and participation in philological
+problems. Such an undecided and imperfect state of public opinion is
+damaging to a science in that its hidden and open enemies can work with
+much better prospects of success. And philology has a great many such
+enemies. Where do we not meet with them, these mockers, always ready to
+aim a blow at the philological "moles," the animals that practise
+dust-eating _ex professo_, and that grub up and eat for the eleventh
+time what they have already eaten ten times before. For opponents of
+this sort, however, philology is merely a useless, harmless, and
+inoffensive pastime, an object of laughter and not of hate. But, on the
+other hand, there is a boundless and infuriated hatred of philology
+wherever an ideal, as such, is feared, where the modern man falls down
+to worship himself, and where Hellenism is looked upon as a superseded
+and hence very insignificant point of view. Against these enemies, we
+philologists must always count upon the assistance of artists and men of
+artistic minds; for they alone can judge how the sword of barbarism
+sweeps over the head of every one who loses sight of the unutterable
+simplicity and noble dignity of the Hellene; and how no progress in
+commerce or technical industries, however brilliant, no school
+regulations, no political education of the masses, however widespread
+and complete, can protect us from the curse of ridiculous and barbaric
+offences against good taste, or from annihilation by the Gorgon head of
+the classicist.
+
+Whilst philology as a whole is looked on with jealous eyes by these two
+classes of opponents, there are numerous and varied hostilities in other
+directions of philology; philologists themselves are quarrelling with
+one another; internal dissensions are caused by useless disputes about
+precedence and mutual jealousies, but especially by the
+differences--even enmities--comprised in the name of philology, which
+are not, however, by any means naturally harmonised instincts.
+
+Science has this in common with art, that the most ordinary, everyday
+thing appears to it as something entirely new and attractive, as if
+metamorphosed by witchcraft and now seen for the first time. Life is
+worth living, says art, the beautiful temptress; life is worth knowing,
+says science. With this contrast the so heartrending and dogmatic
+tradition follows in a _theory_, and consequently in the practice of
+classical philology derived from this theory. We may consider antiquity
+from a scientific point of view; we may try to look at what has happened
+with the eye of a historian, or to arrange and compare the linguistic
+forms of ancient masterpieces, to bring them at all events under a
+morphological law; but we always lose the wonderful creative force, the
+real fragrance, of the atmosphere of antiquity; we forget that
+passionate emotion which instinctively drove our meditation and
+enjoyment back to the Greeks. From this point onwards we must take
+notice of a clearly determined and very surprising antagonism which
+philology has great cause to regret. From the circles upon whose help we
+must place the most implicit reliance--the artistic friends of
+antiquity, the warm supporters of Hellenic beauty and noble
+simplicity--we hear harsh voices crying out that it is precisely the
+philologists themselves who are the real opponents and destroyers of the
+ideals of antiquity. Schiller upbraided the philologists with having
+scattered Homer's laurel crown to the winds. It was none other than
+Goethe who, in early life a supporter of Wolf's theories regarding
+Homer, recanted in the verses--
+
+     With subtle wit you took away
+       Our former adoration:
+     The Iliad, you may us say,
+       Was mere conglomeration.
+     Think it not crime in any way:
+       Youth's fervent adoration
+     Leads us to know the verity,
+       And feel the poet's unity.
+
+The reason of this want of piety and reverence must lie deeper; and many
+are in doubt as to whether philologists are lacking in artistic capacity
+and impressions, so that they are unable to do justice to the ideal, or
+whether the spirit of negation has become a destructive and iconoclastic
+principle of theirs. When, however, even the friends of antiquity,
+possessed of such doubts and hesitations, point to our present classical
+philology as something questionable, what influence may we not ascribe
+to the outbursts of the "realists" and the claptrap of the heroes of the
+passing hour? To answer the latter on this occasion, especially when we
+consider the nature of the present assembly, would be highly
+injudicious; at any rate, if I do not wish to meet with the fate of
+that sophist who, when in Sparta, publicly undertook to praise and
+defend Herakles, when he was interrupted with the query: "But who then
+has found fault with him?" I cannot help thinking, however, that some of
+these scruples are still sounding in the ears of not a few in this
+gathering; for they may still be frequently heard from the lips of noble
+and artistically gifted men--as even an upright philologist must feel
+them, and feel them most painfully, at moments when his spirits are
+downcast. For the single individual there is no deliverance from the
+dissensions referred to; but what we contend and inscribe on our banner
+is the fact that classical philology, as a whole, has nothing whatsoever
+to do with the quarrels and bickerings of its individual disciples. The
+entire scientific and artistic movement of this peculiar centaur is
+bent, though with cyclopic slowness, upon bridging over the gulf between
+the ideal antiquity--which is perhaps only the magnificent blossoming of
+the Teutonic longing for the south--and the real antiquity; and thus
+classical philology pursues only the final end of its own being, which
+is the fusing together of primarily hostile impulses that have only
+forcibly been brought together. Let us talk as we will about the
+unattainability of this goal, and even designate the goal itself as an
+illogical pretension--the aspiration for it is very real; and I should
+like to try to make it clear by an example that the most significant
+steps of classical philology never lead away from the ideal antiquity,
+but to it; and that, just when people are speaking unwarrantably of the
+overthrow of sacred shrines, new and more worthy altars are being
+erected. Let us then examine the so-called _Homeric question_ from this
+standpoint, a question the most important problem of which Schiller
+called a scholastic barbarism.
+
+The important problem referred to is _the question of the personality of
+Homer_.
+
+We now meet everywhere with the firm opinion that the question of
+Homer's personality is no longer timely, and that it is quite a
+different thing from the real "Homeric question." It may be added that,
+for a given period--such as our present philological period, for
+example--the centre of discussion may be removed from the problem of the
+poet's personality; for even now a painstaking experiment is being made
+to reconstruct the Homeric poems without the aid of personality,
+treating them as the work of several different persons. But if the
+centre of a scientific question is rightly seen to be where the swelling
+tide of new views has risen up, i.e. where individual scientific
+investigation comes into contact with the whole life of science and
+culture--if any one, in other words, indicates a historico-cultural
+valuation as the central point of the question, he must also, in the
+province of Homeric criticism, take his stand upon the question of
+personality as being the really fruitful oasis in the desert of the
+whole argument. For in Homer the modern world, I will not say has
+learnt, but has examined, a great historical point of view; and, even
+without now putting forward my own opinion as to whether this
+examination has been or can be happily carried out, it was at all
+events the first example of the application of that productive point of
+view. By it scholars learnt to recognise condensed beliefs in the
+apparently firm, immobile figures of the life of ancient peoples; by it
+they for the first time perceived the wonderful capability of the soul
+of a people to represent the conditions of its morals and beliefs in the
+form of a personality. When historical criticism has confidently seized
+upon this method of evaporating apparently concrete personalities, it is
+permissible to point to the first experiment as an important event in
+the history of sciences, without considering whether it was successful
+in this instance or not.
+
+It is a common occurrence for a series of striking signs and wonderful
+emotions to precede an epoch-making discovery. Even the experiment I
+have just referred to has its own attractive history; but it goes back
+to a surprisingly ancient era. Friedrich August Wolf has exactly
+indicated the spot where Greek antiquity dropped the question. The
+zenith of the historico-literary studies of the Greeks, and hence also
+of their point of greatest importance--the Homeric question--was reached
+in the age of the Alexandrian grammarians. Up to this time the Homeric
+question had run through the long chain of a uniform process of
+development, of which the standpoint of those grammarians seemed to be
+the last link, the last, indeed, which was attainable by antiquity. They
+conceived the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ as the creations of _one single_
+Homer; they declared it to be psychologically possible for two such
+different works to have sprung from the brain of _one_ genius, in
+contradiction to the Chorizontes, who represented the extreme limit of
+the scepticism of a few detached individuals of antiquity rather than
+antiquity itself considered as a whole. To explain the different general
+impression of the two books on the assumption that _one_ poet composed
+them both, scholars sought assistance by referring to the seasons of the
+poet's life, and compared the poet of the _Odyssey_ to the setting sun.
+The eyes of those critics were tirelessly on the lookout for
+discrepancies in the language and thoughts of the two poems; but at this
+time also a history of the Homeric poem and its tradition was prepared,
+according to which these discrepancies were not due to Homer, but
+to those who committed his words to writing and those who sang them. It
+was believed that Homer's poem was passed from one generation to another
+_viva voce_, and faults were attributed to the improvising and at times
+forgetful bards. At a certain given date, about the time of Pisistratus,
+the poems which had been repeated orally were said to have been
+collected in manuscript form; but the scribes, it is added, allowed
+themselves to take some liberties with the text by transposing some
+lines and adding extraneous matter here and there. This entire
+hypothesis is the most important in the domain of literary studies that
+antiquity has exhibited; and the acknowledgment of the dissemination of
+the Homeric poems by word of mouth, as opposed to the habits of a
+book-learned age, shows in particular a depth of ancient sagacity worthy
+of our admiration. From those times until the generation that produced
+Friedrich August Wolf we must take a jump over a long historical vacuum;
+but in our own age we find the argument left just as it was at the time
+when the power of controversy departed from antiquity, and it is a
+matter of indifference to us that Wolf accepted as certain tradition
+what antiquity itself had set up only as a hypothesis. It may be
+remarked as most characteristic of this hypothesis that, in the
+strictest sense, the personality of Homer is treated seriously; that a
+certain standard of inner harmony is everywhere presupposed in the
+manifestations of the personality; and that, with these two excellent
+auxiliary hypotheses, whatever is seen to be below this standard and
+opposed to this inner harmony is at once swept aside as un-Homeric. But
+even this distinguishing characteristic, in place of wishing to
+recognise the supernatural existence of a tangible personality, ascends
+likewise through all the stages that lead to that zenith, with
+ever-increasing energy and clearness. Individuality is ever more
+strongly felt and accentuated; the psychological possibility of a
+_single_ Homer is ever more forcibly demanded. If we descend backwards
+from this zenith, step by step, we find a guide to the understanding of
+the Homeric problem in the person of Aristotle. Homer was for him the
+flawless and untiring artist who knew his end and the means to attain
+it; but there is still a trace of infantile criticism to be found in
+Aristotle--i.e., in the naive concession he made to the public opinion
+that considered Homer as the author of the original of all comic epics,
+the _Margites_. If we go still further backwards from Aristotle, the
+inability to create a personality is seen to increase; more and more
+poems are attributed to Homer; and every period lets us see its degree
+of criticism by how much and what it considers as Homeric. In this
+backward examination, we instinctively feel that away beyond Herodotus
+there lies a period in which an immense flood of great epics has been
+identified with the name of Homer.
+
+Let us imagine ourselves as living in the time of Pisistratus: the word
+"Homer" then comprehended an abundance of dissimilarities. What was
+meant by "Homer" at that time? It is evident that that generation found
+itself unable to grasp a personality and the limits of its
+manifestations. Homer had now become of small consequence. And then we
+meet with the weighty question: What lies before this period? Has
+Homer's personality, because it cannot be grasped, gradually faded away
+into an empty name? Or had all the Homeric poems been gathered together
+in a body, the nation naively representing itself by the figure of
+Homer? _Was the person created out of a conception, or the conception
+out of a person?_ This is the real "Homeric question," the central
+problem of the personality.
+
+The difficulty of answering this question, however, is increased when we
+seek a reply in another direction, from the standpoint of the poems
+themselves which have come down to us. As it is difficult for us at the
+present day, and necessitates a serious effort on our part, to
+understand the law of gravitation clearly--that the earth alters its
+form of motion when another heavenly body changes its position in space,
+although no material connection unites one to the other--it likewise
+costs us some trouble to obtain a clear impression of that wonderful
+problem which, like a coin long passed from hand to hand, has lost its
+original and highly conspicuous stamp. Poetical works, which cause the
+hearts of even the greatest geniuses to fail when they endeavour to vie
+with them, and in which unsurpassable images are held up for the
+admiration of posterity--and yet the poet who wrote them with only a
+hollow, shaky name, whenever we do lay hold on him; nowhere the solid
+kernel of a powerful personality. "For who would wage war with the gods:
+who, even with the one god?" asks Goethe even, who, though a genius,
+strove in vain to solve that mysterious problem of the Homeric
+inaccessibility.
+
+The conception of popular poetry seemed to lead like a bridge over this
+problem--a deeper and more original power than that of every single
+creative individual was said to have become active; the happiest people,
+in the happiest period of its existence, in the highest activity of
+fantasy and formative power, was said to have created those immeasurable
+poems. In this universality there is something almost intoxicating in
+the thought of a popular poem: we feel, with artistic pleasure, the
+broad, overpowering liberation of a popular gift, and we delight in this
+natural phenomenon as we do in an uncontrollable cataract. But as soon
+as we examine this thought at close quarters, we involuntarily put a
+poetic _mass of people_ in the place of the poetising _soul of the
+people_: a long row of popular poets in whom individuality has no
+meaning, and in whom the tumultuous movement of a people's soul, the
+intuitive strength of a people's eye, and the unabated profusion of a
+people's fantasy, were once powerful: a row of original geniuses,
+attached to a time, to a poetic genus, to a subject-matter.
+
+Such a conception justly made people suspicious. Could it be possible
+that that same Nature who so sparingly distributed her rarest and most
+precious production--genius--should suddenly take the notion of
+lavishing her gifts in one sole direction? And here the thorny question
+again made its appearance: Could we not get along with one genius only,
+and explain the present existence of that unattainable excellence? And
+now eyes were keenly on the lookout for whatever that excellence and
+singularity might consist of. Impossible for it to be in the
+construction of the complete works, said one party, for this is far from
+faultless; but doubtless to be found in single songs: in the single
+pieces above all; not in the whole. A second party, on the other hand,
+sheltered themselves beneath the authority of Aristotle, who especially
+admired Homer's "divine" nature in the choice of his entire subject, and
+the manner in which he planned and carried it out. If, however, this
+construction was not clearly seen, this fault was due to the way the
+poems were handed down to posterity and not to the poet himself--it was
+the result of retouchings and interpolations, owing to which the
+original setting of the work gradually became obscured. The more the
+first school looked for inequalities, contradictions, perplexities, the
+more energetically did the other school brush aside what in their
+opinion obscured the original plan, in order, if possible, that nothing
+might be left remaining but the actual words of the original epic
+itself. The second school of thought of course held fast by the
+conception of an epoch-making genius as the composer of the great works.
+The first school, on the other hand, wavered between the supposition of
+one genius plus a number of minor poets, and another hypothesis which
+assumed only a number of superior and even mediocre individual bards,
+but also postulated a mysterious discharging, a deep, national, artistic
+impulse, which shows itself in individual minstrels as an almost
+indifferent medium. It is to this latter school that we must attribute
+the representation of the Homeric poems as the expression of that
+mysterious impulse.
+
+All these schools of thought start from the assumption that the problem
+of the present form of these epics can be solved from the standpoint of
+an æsthetic judgment--but we must await the decision as to the
+authorised line of demarcation between the man of genius and the
+poetical soul of the people. Are there characteristic differences
+between the utterances of the _man of genius_ and the _poetical soul of
+the people_?
+
+This whole contrast, however, is unjust and misleading. There is no
+more dangerous assumption in modern æsthetics than that of _popular
+poetry_ and _individual poetry_, or, as it is usually called, _artistic
+poetry_. This is the reaction, or, if you will, the superstition, which
+followed upon the most momentous discovery of historico-philological
+science, the discovery and appreciation of the _soul of the people_. For
+this discovery prepared the way for a coming scientific view of history,
+which was until then, and in many respects is even now, a mere
+collection of materials, with the prospect that new materials would
+continue to be added, and that the huge, overflowing pile would never be
+systematically arranged. The people now understood for the first time
+that the long-felt power of greater individualities and wills was larger
+than the pitifully small will of an individual man;[1] they now saw that
+everything truly great in the kingdom of the will could not have its
+deepest root in the inefficacious and ephemeral individual will; and,
+finally, they now discovered the powerful instincts of the masses, and
+diagnosed those unconscious impulses to be the foundations and supports
+of the so-called universal history. But the newly-lighted flame also
+cast its shadow: and this shadow was none other than that superstition
+already referred to, which popular poetry set up in opposition to
+individual poetry, and thus enlarged the comprehension of the people's
+soul to that of the people's mind. By the misapplication of a tempting
+analogical inference, people had reached the point of applying in the
+domain of the intellect and artistic ideas that principle of greater
+individuality which is truly applicable only in the domain of the will.
+The masses have never experienced more flattering treatment than in thus
+having the laurel of genius set upon their empty heads. It was imagined
+that new shells were forming round a small kernel, so to speak, and that
+those pieces of popular poetry originated like avalanches, in the drift
+and flow of tradition. They were, however, ready to consider that kernel
+as being of the smallest possible dimensions, so that they might
+occasionally get rid of it altogether without losing anything of the
+mass of the avalanche. According to this view, the text itself and the
+stories built round it are one and the same thing.
+
+[1] Of course Nietzsche saw afterwards that this was not so.--TR.
+
+Now, however, such a contrast between popular poetry and individual
+poetry does not exist at all; on the contrary, all poetry, and of course
+popular poetry also, requires an intermediary individuality. This
+much-abused contrast, therefore, is necessary only when the term
+_individual poem_ is understood to mean a poem which has not grown out
+of the soil of popular feeling, but which has been composed by a
+non-popular poet in a non-popular atmosphere--something which has come
+to maturity in the study of a learned man, for example.
+
+With the superstition which presupposes poetising masses is connected
+another: that popular poetry is limited to one particular period of a
+people's history and afterwards dies out--which indeed follows as a
+consequence of the first superstition I have mentioned. According to
+this school, in the place of the gradually decaying popular poetry we
+have artistic poetry, the work of individual minds, not of masses of
+people. But the same powers which were once active are still so; and the
+form in which they act has remained exactly the same. The great poet of
+a literary period is still a popular poet in no narrower sense than the
+popular poet of an illiterate age. The difference between them is not in
+the way they originate, but it is their diffusion and propagation, in
+short, _tradition_. This tradition is exposed to eternal danger without
+the help of handwriting, and runs the risk of including in the poems the
+remains of those individualities through whose oral tradition they were
+handed down.
+
+If we apply all these principles to the Homeric poems, it follows that
+we gain nothing with our theory of the poetising soul of the people, and
+that we are always referred back to the poetical individual. We are thus
+confronted with the task of distinguishing that which can have
+originated only in a single poetical mind from that which is, so to
+speak, swept up by the tide of oral tradition, and which is a highly
+important constituent part of the Homeric poems.
+
+Since literary history first ceased to be a mere collection of names,
+people have attempted to grasp and formulate the individualities of the
+poets. A certain mechanism forms part of the method: it must be
+explained--i.e., it must be deduced from principles--why this or that
+individuality appears in this way and not in that. People now study
+biographical details, environment, acquaintances, contemporary events,
+and believe that by mixing all these ingredients together they will be
+able to manufacture the wished-for individuality. But they forget that
+the _punctum saliens_, the indefinable individual characteristics, can
+never be obtained from a compound of this nature. The less there is
+known about the life and times of the poet, the less applicable is this
+mechanism. When, however, we have merely the works and the name of the
+writer, it is almost impossible to detect the individuality, at all
+events, for those who put their faith in the mechanism in question; and
+particularly when the works are perfect, when they are pieces of popular
+poetry. For the best way for these mechanicians to grasp individual
+characteristics is by perceiving deviations from the genius of the
+people; the aberrations and hidden allusions: and the fewer
+discrepancies to be found in a poem the fainter will be the traces of
+the individual poet who composed it.
+
+All those deviations, everything dull and below the ordinary standard
+which scholars think they perceive in the Homeric poems, were attributed
+to tradition, which thus became the scapegoat. What was left of Homer's
+own individual work? Nothing but a series of beautiful and prominent
+passages chosen in accordance with subjective taste. The sum total of
+æsthetic singularity which every individual scholar perceived with his
+own artistic gifts, he now called Homer.
+
+This is the central point of the Homeric errors. The name of Homer, from
+the very beginning, has no connection either with the conception of
+æsthetic perfection or yet with the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_. Homer as
+the composer of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ is not a historical
+tradition, but an _æsthetic judgment_.
+
+The only path which leads back beyond the time of Pisistratus and helps
+us to elucidate the meaning of the name Homer, takes its way on the one
+hand through the reports which have reached us concerning Homer's
+birthplace: from which we see that, although his name is always
+associated with heroic epic poems, he is on the other hand no more
+referred to as the composer of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ than as the
+author of the _Thebais_ or any other cyclical epic. On the other hand,
+again, an old tradition tells of the contest between Homer and Hesiod,
+which proves that when these two names were mentioned people
+instinctively thought of two epic tendencies, the heroic and the
+didactic; and that the signification of the name "Homer" was included in
+the material category and not in the formal. This imaginary contest with
+Hesiod did not even yet show the faintest presentiment of individuality.
+From the time of Pisistratus onwards, however, with the surprisingly
+rapid development of the Greek feeling for beauty, the differences in
+the æsthetic value of those epics continued to be felt more and more:
+the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ arose from the depths of the flood and
+have remained on the surface ever since. With this process of æsthetic
+separation, the conception of Homer gradually became narrower: the old
+material meaning of the name "Homer" as the father of the heroic epic
+poem, was changed into the æsthetic meaning of Homer, the father of
+poetry in general, and likewise its original prototype. This
+transformation was contemporary with the rationalistic criticism which
+made Homer the magician out to be a possible poet, which vindicated the
+material and formal traditions of those numerous epics as against the
+unity of the poet, and gradually removed that heavy load of cyclical
+epics from Homer's shoulders.
+
+So Homer, the poet of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_, is an æsthetic
+judgment. It is, however, by no means affirmed against the poet of these
+epics that he was merely the imaginary being of an æsthetic
+impossibility, which can be the opinion of only very few philologists
+indeed. The majority contend that a single individual was responsible
+for the general design of a poem such as the _Iliad_, and further that
+this individual was Homer. The first part of this contention may be
+admitted; but, in accordance with what I have said, the latter part must
+be denied. And I very much doubt whether the majority of those who adopt
+the first part of the contention have taken the following considerations
+into account.
+
+The design of an epic such as the _Iliad_ is not an entire _whole_, not
+an organism; but a number of pieces strung together, a collection of
+reflections arranged in accordance with æsthetic rules. It is certainly
+the standard of an artist's greatness to note what he can take in with a
+single glance and set out in rhythmical form. The infinite profusion of
+images and incidents in the Homeric epic must force us to admit that
+such a wide range of vision is next to impossible. Where, however, a
+poet is unable to observe artistically with a single glance, he usually
+piles conception on conception, and endeavours to adjust his characters
+according to a comprehensive scheme.
+
+He will succeed in this all the better the more he is familiar with the
+fundamental principles of æsthetics: he will even make some believe
+that he made himself master of the entire subject by a single powerful
+glance.
+
+The _Iliad_ is not a garland, but a bunch of flowers. As many pictures
+as possible are crowded on one canvas; but the man who placed them there
+was indifferent as to whether the grouping of the collected pictures was
+invariably suitable and rhythmically beautiful. He well knew that no one
+would ever consider the collection as a whole; but would merely look at
+the individual parts. But that stringing together of some pieces as the
+manifestations of a grasp of art which was not yet highly developed,
+still less thoroughly comprehended and generally esteemed, cannot have
+been the real Homeric deed, the real Homeric epoch-making event. On the
+contrary, this design is a later product, far later than Homer's
+celebrity. Those, therefore, who look for the "original and perfect
+design" are looking for a mere phantom; for the dangerous path of oral
+tradition had reached its end just as the systematic arrangement
+appeared on the scene; the disfigurements which were caused on the way
+could not have affected the design, for this did not form part of the
+material handed down from generation to generation.
+
+The relative imperfection of the design must not, however, prevent us
+from seeing in the designer a different personality from the real poet.
+It is not only probable that everything which was created in those times
+with conscious æsthetic insight, was infinitely inferior to the songs
+that sprang up naturally in the poet's mind and were written down with
+instinctive power: we can even take a step further. If we include the
+so-called cyclic poems in this comparison, there remains for the
+designer of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ the indisputable merit of
+having done something relatively great in this conscious technical
+composing: a merit which we might have been prepared to recognise from
+the beginning, and which is in my opinion of the very first order in the
+domain of instinctive creation. We may even be ready to pronounce this
+synthetisation of great importance. All those dull passages and
+discrepancies--deemed of such importance, but really only subjective,
+which we usually look upon as the petrified remains of the period of
+tradition--are not these perhaps merely the almost necessary evils which
+must fall to the lot of the poet of genius who undertakes a composition
+virtually without a parallel, and, further, one which proves to be of
+incalculable difficulty?
+
+Let it be noted that the insight into the most diverse operations of the
+instinctive and the conscious changes the position of the Homeric
+problem; and in my opinion throws light upon it.
+
+We believe in a great poet as the author of the _Iliad_ and the
+_Odyssey--but not that Homer was this poet_.
+
+The decision on this point has already been given. The generation that
+invented those numerous Homeric fables, that poetised the myth of the
+contest between Homer and Hesiod, and looked upon all the poems of the
+epic cycle as Homeric, did not feel an æsthetic but a material
+singularity when it pronounced the name "Homer." This period regards
+Homer as belonging to the ranks of artists like Orpheus, Eumolpus,
+Dædalus, and Olympus, the mythical discoverers of a new branch of art,
+to whom, therefore, all the later fruits which grew from the new branch
+were thankfully dedicated.
+
+And that wonderful genius to whom we owe the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_
+belongs to this thankful posterity: he, too, sacrificed his name on the
+altar of the primeval father of the Homeric epic, Homeros.
+
+Up to this point, gentlemen, I think I have been able to put before you
+the fundamental philosophical and æsthetic characteristics of the
+problem of the personality of Homer, keeping all minor details
+rigorously at a distance, on the supposition that the primary form of
+this widespread and honeycombed mountain known as the Homeric question
+can be most clearly observed by looking down at it from a far-off
+height. But I have also, I imagine, recalled two facts to those friends
+of antiquity who take such delight in accusing us philologists of lack
+of piety for great conceptions and an unproductive zeal for
+destruction. In the first place, those "great" conceptions--such, for
+example, as that of the indivisible and inviolable poetic genius,
+Homer--were during the pre-Wolfian period only too great, and hence
+inwardly altogether empty and elusive when we now try to grasp them. If
+classical philology goes back again to the same conceptions, and once
+more tries to pour new wine into old bottles, it is only on the surface
+that the conceptions are the same: everything has really become new;
+bottle and mind, wine and word. We everywhere find traces of the fact
+that philology has lived in company with poets, thinkers, and artists
+for the last hundred years: whence it has now come about that the heap
+of ashes formerly pointed to as classical philology is now turned into
+fruitful and even rich soil.[2]
+
+[2] Nietzsche perceived later on that this statement was,
+unfortunately, not justified.--TR.
+
+And there is a second fact which I should like to recall to the memory
+of those friends of antiquity who turn their dissatisfied backs on
+classical philology. You honour the immortal masterpieces of the
+Hellenic mind in poetry and sculpture, and think yourselves so much more
+fortunate than preceding generations, which had to do without them; but
+you must not forget that this whole fairyland once lay buried under
+mountains of prejudice, and that the blood and sweat and arduous labour
+of innumerable followers of our science were all necessary to lift up
+that world from the chasm into which it had sunk. We grant that
+philology is not the creator of this world, not the composer of that
+immortal music; but is it not a merit, and a great merit, to be a mere
+virtuoso, and let the world for the first time hear that music which lay
+so long in obscurity, despised and undecipherable? Who was Homer
+previously to Wolf's brilliant investigations? A good old man, known at
+best as a "natural genius," at all events the child of a barbaric age,
+replete with faults against good taste and good morals. Let us hear how
+a learned man of the first rank writes about Homer even so late as 1783:
+"Where does the good man live? Why did he remain so long incognito?
+Apropos, can't you get me a silhouette of him?"
+
+We demand _thanks_--not in our own name, for we are but atoms--but in
+the name of philology itself, which is indeed neither a Muse nor a
+Grace, but a messenger of the gods: and just as the Muses descended upon
+the dull and tormented Boeotian peasants, so Philology comes into a
+world full of gloomy colours and pictures, full of the deepest, most
+incurable woes; and speaks to men comfortingly of the beautiful and
+godlike figure of a distant, rosy, and happy fairyland.
+
+It is time to close; yet before I do so a few words of a personal
+character must be added, justified, I hope, by the occasion of this
+lecture.
+
+It is but right that a philologist should describe his end and the means
+to it in the short formula of a confession of faith; and let this be
+done in the saying of Seneca which I thus reverse--
+
+     "Philosophia facta est quæ philologia fuit."
+
+By this I wish to signify that all philological activities should be
+enclosed and surrounded by a philosophical view of things, in which
+everything individual and isolated is evaporated as something
+detestable, and in which great homogeneous views alone remain. Now,
+therefore, that I have enunciated my philological creed, I trust you
+will give me cause to hope that I shall no longer be a stranger among
+you: give me the assurance that in working with you towards this end I
+am worthily fulfilling the confidence with which the highest authorities
+of this community have honoured me.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Homer and Classical Philology, by 
+Friedrich Nietzsche
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+Project Gutenberg's Homer and Classical Philology, by Friedrich Nietzsche
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Homer and Classical Philology
+
+Author: Friedrich Nietzsche
+
+Editor: Oscar Levy
+
+Translator: J. M. Kennedy
+
+Release Date: April 17, 2006 [EBook #18188]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOMER AND CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY ***
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+</pre>
+
+
+
+<p><b>Transcriber's Note:</b>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This lecture was taken from Volume III of <i>The Complete Works of
+Friedrich Nietzsche</i>, Dr. Oscar Levy, Ed., J. M. Kennedy,
+Translator, 1910
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="HOMER_AND_CLASSICAL_PHILOLOGY" id="HOMER_AND_CLASSICAL_PHILOLOGY"></a>HOMER AND CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY.</h2>
+
+<h3>(<i>Inaugural Address delivered at B&acirc;le University, 28th of May 1869.</i>)</h3>
+
+
+<p>At the present day no clear and consistent opinion seems to be held
+regarding Classical Philology. We are conscious of this in the circles
+of the learned just as much as among the followers of that science
+itself. The cause of this lies in its many-sided character, in the lack
+of an abstract unity, and in the inorganic aggregation of heterogeneous
+scientific activities which are connected with one another only by the
+name "Philology." It must be freely admitted that philology is to some
+extent borrowed from several other sciences, and is mixed together like
+a magic potion from the most outlandish liquors, ores, and bones. It may
+even be added that it likewise conceals within itself an artistic
+element, one which, on &aelig;sthetic and ethical grounds, may be called
+imperatival&mdash;an element that acts in opposition to its purely scientific
+behaviour. Philology is composed of history just as much as of natural
+science or &aelig;sthetics: history, in so far as it endeavours to comprehend
+the manifestations of the individualities of peoples in ever new
+images, and the prevailing law in the disappearance of phenomena;
+natural science, in so far as it strives to fathom the deepest instinct
+of man, that of speech; &aelig;sthetics, finally, because from various
+antiquities at our disposal it endeavours to pick out the so-called
+"classical" antiquity, with the view and pretension of excavating the
+ideal world buried under it, and to hold up to the present the mirror of
+the classical and everlasting standards. That these wholly different
+scientific and &aelig;sthetico-ethical impulses have been associated under a
+common name, a kind of sham monarchy, is shown especially by the fact
+that philology at every period from its origin onwards was at the same
+time pedagogical. From the standpoint of the pedagogue, a choice was
+offered of those elements which were of the greatest educational value;
+and thus that science, or at least that scientific aim, which we call
+philology, gradually developed out of the practical calling originated
+by the exigencies of that science itself.</p>
+
+<p>These philological aims were pursued sometimes with greater ardour and
+sometimes with less, in accordance with the degree of culture and the
+development of the taste of a particular period; but, on the other hand,
+the followers of this science are in the habit of regarding the aims
+which correspond to their several abilities as <i>the</i> aims of philology;
+whence it comes about that the estimation of philology in public opinion
+depends upon the weight of the personalities of the philologists!</p>
+
+<p>At the present time&mdash;that is to say, in a period which has seen men
+distinguished in almost every department of philology&mdash;a general
+uncertainty of judgment has increased more and more, and likewise a
+general relaxation of interest and participation in philological
+problems. Such an undecided and imperfect state of public opinion is
+damaging to a science in that its hidden and open enemies can work with
+much better prospects of success. And philology has a great many such
+enemies. Where do we not meet with them, these mockers, always ready to
+aim a blow at the philological "moles," the animals that practise
+dust-eating <i>ex professo</i>, and that grub up and eat for the eleventh
+time what they have already eaten ten times before. For opponents of
+this sort, however, philology is merely a useless, harmless, and
+inoffensive pastime, an object of laughter and not of hate. But, on the
+other hand, there is a boundless and infuriated hatred of philology
+wherever an ideal, as such, is feared, where the modern man falls down
+to worship himself, and where Hellenism is looked upon as a superseded
+and hence very insignificant point of view. Against these enemies, we
+philologists must always count upon the assistance of artists and men of
+artistic minds; for they alone can judge how the sword of barbarism
+sweeps over the head of every one who loses sight of the unutterable
+simplicity and noble dignity of the Hellene; and how no progress in
+commerce or technical industries, however brilliant, no school
+regulations, no political education of the masses, however widespread
+and complete, can protect us from the curse of ridiculous and barbaric
+offences against good taste, or from annihilation by the Gorgon head of
+the classicist. </p>
+
+<p>Whilst philology as a whole is looked on with jealous eyes by these two
+classes of opponents, there are numerous and varied hostilities in other
+directions of philology; philologists themselves are quarrelling with
+one another; internal dissensions are caused by useless disputes about
+precedence and mutual jealousies, but especially by the
+differences&mdash;even enmities&mdash;comprised in the name of philology, which
+are not, however, by any means naturally harmonised instincts.</p>
+
+<p>Science has this in common with art, that the most ordinary, everyday
+thing appears to it as something entirely new and attractive, as if
+metamorphosed by witchcraft and now seen for the first time. Life is
+worth living, says art, the beautiful temptress; life is worth knowing,
+says science. With this contrast the so heartrending and dogmatic
+tradition follows in a <i>theory</i>, and consequently in the practice of
+classical philology derived from this theory. We may consider antiquity
+from a scientific point of view; we may try to look at what has happened
+with the eye of a historian, or to arrange and compare the linguistic
+forms of ancient masterpieces, to bring them at all events under a
+morphological law; but we always lose the wonderful creative force, the
+real fragrance, of the atmosphere of antiquity; we forget that
+passionate emotion which instinctively drove our meditation and
+enjoyment back to the Greeks. From this point onwards we must take
+notice of a clearly determined and very surprising antagonism which
+philology has great cause to regret. From the circles upon whose help we
+must place the most implicit reliance&mdash;the artistic friends of
+antiquity, the warm supporters of Hellenic beauty and noble
+simplicity&mdash;we hear harsh voices crying out that it is precisely the
+philologists themselves who are the real opponents and destroyers of the
+ideals of antiquity. Schiller upbraided the philologists with having
+scattered Homer's laurel crown to the winds. It was none other than
+Goethe who, in early life a supporter of Wolf's theories regarding
+Homer, recanted in the verses&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">With subtle wit you took away</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">Our former adoration:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">The Iliad, you may us say,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">Was mere conglomeration.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Think it not crime in any way:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">Youth's fervent adoration</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Leads us to know the verity,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">And feel the poet's unity.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The reason of this want of piety and reverence must lie deeper; and many
+are in doubt as to whether philologists are lacking in artistic capacity
+and impressions, so that they are unable to do justice to the ideal, or
+whether the spirit of negation has become a destructive and iconoclastic
+principle of theirs. When, however, even the friends of antiquity,
+possessed of such doubts and hesitations, point to our present classical
+philology as something questionable, what influence may we not ascribe
+to the outbursts of the "realists" and the claptrap of the heroes of the
+passing hour? To answer the latter on this occasion, especially when we
+consider the nature of the present assembly, would be highly
+injudicious; at any rate, if I do not wish to meet with the fate of
+that sophist who, when in Sparta, publicly undertook to praise and
+defend Herakles, when he was interrupted with the query: "But who then
+has found fault with him?" I cannot help thinking, however, that some of
+these scruples are still sounding in the ears of not a few in this
+gathering; for they may still be frequently heard from the lips of noble
+and artistically gifted men&mdash;as even an upright philologist must feel
+them, and feel them most painfully, at moments when his spirits are
+downcast. For the single individual there is no deliverance from the
+dissensions referred to; but what we contend and inscribe on our banner
+is the fact that classical philology, as a whole, has nothing whatsoever
+to do with the quarrels and bickerings of its individual disciples. The
+entire scientific and artistic movement of this peculiar centaur is
+bent, though with cyclopic slowness, upon bridging over the gulf between
+the ideal antiquity&mdash;which is perhaps only the magnificent blossoming of
+the Teutonic longing for the south&mdash;and the real antiquity; and thus
+classical philology pursues only the final end of its own being, which
+is the fusing together of primarily hostile impulses that have only
+forcibly been brought together. Let us talk as we will about the
+unattainability of this goal, and even designate the goal itself as an
+illogical pretension&mdash;the aspiration for it is very real; and I should
+like to try to make it clear by an example that the most significant
+steps of classical philology never lead away from the ideal antiquity,
+but to it; and that, just when people are speaking unwarrantably of the
+overthrow of sacred shrines, new and more worthy altars are being
+erected. Let us then examine the so-called <i>Homeric question</i> from this
+standpoint, a question the most important problem of which Schiller
+called a scholastic barbarism.</p>
+
+<p>The important problem referred to is <i>the question of the personality of
+Homer</i>.</p>
+
+<p>We now meet everywhere with the firm opinion that the question of
+Homer's personality is no longer timely, and that it is quite a
+different thing from the real "Homeric question." It may be added that,
+for a given period&mdash;such as our present philological period, for
+example&mdash;the centre of discussion may be removed from the problem of the
+poet's personality; for even now a painstaking experiment is being made
+to reconstruct the Homeric poems without the aid of personality,
+treating them as the work of several different persons. But if the
+centre of a scientific question is rightly seen to be where the swelling
+tide of new views has risen up, <i>i.e.</i> where individual scientific
+investigation comes into contact with the whole life of science and
+culture&mdash;if any one, in other words, indicates a historico-cultural
+valuation as the central point of the question, he must also, in the
+province of Homeric criticism, take his stand upon the question of
+personality as being the really fruitful oasis in the desert of the
+whole argument. For in Homer the modern world, I will not say has
+learnt, but has examined, a great historical point of view; and, even
+without now putting forward my own opinion as to whether this
+examination has been or can be happily carried out, it was at all
+events the first example of the application of that productive point of
+view. By it scholars learnt to recognise condensed beliefs in the
+apparently firm, immobile figures of the life of ancient peoples; by it
+they for the first time perceived the wonderful capability of the soul
+of a people to represent the conditions of its morals and beliefs in the
+form of a personality. When historical criticism has confidently seized
+upon this method of evaporating apparently concrete personalities, it is
+permissible to point to the first experiment as an important event in
+the history of sciences, without considering whether it was successful
+in this instance or not.</p>
+
+<p>It is a common occurrence for a series of striking signs and wonderful
+emotions to precede an epoch-making discovery. Even the experiment I
+have just referred to has its own attractive history; but it goes back
+to a surprisingly ancient era. Friedrich August Wolf has exactly
+indicated the spot where Greek antiquity dropped the question. The
+zenith of the historico-literary studies of the Greeks, and hence also
+of their point of greatest importance&mdash;the Homeric question&mdash;was reached
+in the age of the Alexandrian grammarians. Up to this time the Homeric
+question had run through the long chain of a uniform process of
+development, of which the standpoint of those grammarians seemed to be
+the last link, the last, indeed, which was attainable by antiquity. They
+conceived the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> as the creations of <i>one
+single</i> Homer; they declared it to be psychologically possible for two such
+different works to have sprung from the brain of <i>one</i> genius, in
+contradiction to the Chorizontes, who represented the extreme limit of
+the scepticism of a few detached individuals of antiquity rather than
+antiquity itself considered as a whole. To explain the different general
+impression of the two books on the assumption that <i>one</i> poet composed
+them both, scholars sought assistance by referring to the seasons of the
+poet's life, and compared the poet of the <i>Odyssey</i> to the setting sun.
+The eyes of those critics were tirelessly on the lookout for
+discrepancies in the language and thoughts of the two poems; but at this
+time also a history of the Homeric poem and its tradition was prepared,
+according to which these discrepancies were not due to Homer, but to
+those who committed his words to writing and those who sang them. It was
+believed that Homer's poem was passed from one generation to another
+<i>viva voce</i>, and faults were attributed to the improvising and at times
+forgetful bards. At a certain given date, about the time of Pisistratus,
+the poems which had been repeated orally were said to have been
+collected in manuscript form; but the scribes, it is added, allowed
+themselves to take some liberties with the text by transposing some
+lines and adding extraneous matter here and there. This entire
+hypothesis is the most important in the domain of literary studies that
+antiquity has exhibited; and the acknowledgment of the dissemination of
+the Homeric poems by word of mouth, as opposed to the habits of a
+book-learned age, shows in particular a depth of ancient sagacity worthy
+of our admiration. From those times until the generation that produced
+Friedrich August Wolf we must take a jump over a long historical vacuum;
+but in our own age we find the argument left just as it was at the time
+when the power of controversy departed from antiquity, and it is a
+matter of indifference to us that Wolf accepted as certain tradition
+what antiquity itself had set up only as a hypothesis. It may be
+remarked as most characteristic of this hypothesis that, in the
+strictest sense, the personality of Homer is treated seriously; that a
+certain standard of inner harmony is everywhere presupposed in the
+manifestations of the personality; and that, with these two excellent
+auxiliary hypotheses, whatever is seen to be below this standard and
+opposed to this inner harmony is at once swept aside as un-Homeric. But
+even this distinguishing characteristic, in place of wishing to
+recognise the supernatural existence of a tangible personality, ascends
+likewise through all the stages that lead to that zenith, with
+ever-increasing energy and clearness. Individuality is ever more
+strongly felt and accentuated; the psychological possibility of a
+<i>single</i> Homer is ever more forcibly demanded. If we descend backwards
+from this zenith, step by step, we find a guide to the understanding of
+the Homeric problem in the person of Aristotle. Homer was for him the
+flawless and untiring artist who knew his end and the means to attain
+it; but there is still a trace of infantile criticism to be found in
+Aristotle&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, in the naive concession he made to the public opinion
+that considered Homer as the author of the original of all comic epics,
+the <i>Margites</i>. If we go still further backwards from Aristotle, the
+inability to create a personality is seen to increase; more and more
+poems are attributed to Homer; and every period lets us see its degree
+of criticism by how much and what it considers as Homeric. In this
+backward examination, we instinctively feel that away beyond Herodotus
+there lies a period in which an immense flood of great epics has been
+identified with the name of Homer.</p>
+
+<p>Let us imagine ourselves as living in the time of Pisistratus: the word
+"Homer" then comprehended an abundance of dissimilarities. What was
+meant by "Homer" at that time? It is evident that that generation found
+itself unable to grasp a personality and the limits of its
+manifestations. Homer had now become of small consequence. And then we
+meet with the weighty question: What lies before this period? Has
+Homer's personality, because it cannot be grasped, gradually faded away
+into an empty name? Or had all the Homeric poems been gathered together
+in a body, the nation naively representing itself by the figure of
+Homer? <i>Was the person created out of a conception, or the conception
+out of a person?</i> This is the real "Homeric question," the central
+problem of the personality.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty of answering this question, however, is increased when we
+seek a reply in another direction, from the standpoint of the poems
+themselves which have come down to us. As it is difficult for us at the
+present day, and necessitates a serious effort on our part, to
+understand the law of gravitation clearly&mdash;that the earth alters its
+form of motion when another heavenly body changes its position in space,
+although no material connection unites one to the other&mdash;it likewise
+costs us some trouble to obtain a clear impression of that wonderful
+problem which, like a coin long passed from hand to hand, has lost its
+original and highly conspicuous stamp. Poetical works, which cause the
+hearts of even the greatest geniuses to fail when they endeavour to vie
+with them, and in which unsurpassable images are held up for the
+admiration of posterity&mdash;and yet the poet who wrote them with only a
+hollow, shaky name, whenever we do lay hold on him; nowhere the solid
+kernel of a powerful personality. "For who would wage war with the gods:
+who, even with the one god?" asks Goethe even, who, though a genius,
+strove in vain to solve that mysterious problem of the Homeric
+inaccessibility.</p>
+
+<p>The conception of popular poetry seemed to lead like a bridge over this
+problem&mdash;a deeper and more original power than that of every single
+creative individual was said to have become active; the happiest people,
+in the happiest period of its existence, in the highest activity of
+fantasy and formative power, was said to have created those immeasurable
+poems. In this universality there is something almost intoxicating in
+the thought of a popular poem: we feel, with artistic pleasure, the
+broad, overpowering liberation of a popular gift, and we delight in this
+natural phenomenon as we do in an uncontrollable cataract. But as soon
+as we examine this thought at close quarters, we involuntarily put a
+poetic <i>mass of people</i> in the place of the poetising <i>soul of the
+people</i>: a long row of popular poets in whom individuality has no
+meaning, and in whom the tumultuous movement of a people's soul, the
+intuitive strength of a people's eye, and the unabated profusion of a
+people's fantasy, were once powerful: a row of original geniuses,
+attached to a time, to a poetic genus, to a subject-matter.</p>
+
+<p>Such a conception justly made people suspicious. Could it be possible
+that that same Nature who so sparingly distributed her rarest and most
+precious production&mdash;genius&mdash;should suddenly take the notion of
+lavishing her gifts in one sole direction? And here the thorny question
+again made its appearance: Could we not get along with one genius only,
+and explain the present existence of that unattainable excellence? And
+now eyes were keenly on the lookout for whatever that excellence and
+singularity might consist of. Impossible for it to be in the
+construction of the complete works, said one party, for this is far from
+faultless; but doubtless to be found in single songs: in the single
+pieces above all; not in the whole. A second party, on the other hand,
+sheltered themselves beneath the authority of Aristotle, who especially
+admired Homer's "divine" nature in the choice of his entire subject, and
+the manner in which he planned and carried it out. If, however, this
+construction was not clearly seen, this fault was due to the way the
+poems were handed down to posterity and not to the poet himself&mdash;it was
+the result of retouchings and interpolations, owing to which the
+original setting of the work gradually became obscured. The more the
+first school looked for inequalities, contradictions, perplexities, the
+more energetically did the other school brush aside what in their
+opinion obscured the original plan, in order, if possible, that nothing
+might be left remaining but the actual words of the original epic
+itself. The second school of thought of course held fast by the
+conception of an epoch-making genius as the composer of the great works.
+The first school, on the other hand, wavered between the supposition of
+one genius plus a number of minor poets, and another hypothesis which
+assumed only a number of superior and even mediocre individual bards,
+but also postulated a mysterious discharging, a deep, national, artistic
+impulse, which shows itself in individual minstrels as an almost
+indifferent medium. It is to this latter school that we must attribute
+the representation of the Homeric poems as the expression of that
+mysterious impulse.</p>
+
+<p>All these schools of thought start from the assumption that the problem
+of the present form of these epics can be solved from the standpoint of
+an &aelig;sthetic judgment&mdash;but we must await the decision as to the
+authorised line of demarcation between the man of genius and the
+poetical soul of the people. Are there characteristic differences
+between the utterances of the <i>man of genius</i> and the <i>poetical soul of
+the people</i>?</p>
+
+<p>This whole contrast, however, is unjust and misleading. There is no
+more dangerous assumption in modern &aelig;sthetics than that of <i>popular
+poetry</i> and <i>individual poetry</i>, or, as it is usually called, <i>artistic
+poetry</i>. This is the reaction, or, if you will, the superstition, which
+followed upon the most momentous discovery of historico-philological
+science, the discovery and appreciation of the <i>soul of the people</i>. For
+this discovery prepared the way for a coming scientific view of history,
+which was until then, and in many respects is even now, a mere
+collection of materials, with the prospect that new materials would
+continue to be added, and that the huge, overflowing pile would never be
+systematically arranged. The people now understood for the first time
+that the long-felt power of greater individualities and wills was larger
+than the pitifully small will of an individual man;<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> they now saw that
+everything truly great in the kingdom of the will could not have its
+deepest root in the inefficacious and ephemeral individual will; and,
+finally, they now discovered the powerful instincts of the masses, and
+diagnosed those unconscious impulses to be the foundations and supports
+of the so-called universal history. But the newly-lighted flame also
+cast its shadow: and this shadow was none other than that superstition
+already referred to, which popular poetry set up in opposition to
+individual poetry, and thus enlarged the comprehension of the people's
+soul to that of the people's mind. By the misapplication of a tempting
+analogical inference, people had reached the point of applying in the
+domain of the intellect and artistic ideas that principle of greater
+individuality which is truly applicable only in the domain of the will.
+The masses have never experienced more flattering treatment than in thus
+having the laurel of genius set upon their empty heads. It was imagined
+that new shells were forming round a small kernel, so to speak, and that
+those pieces of popular poetry originated like avalanches, in the drift
+and flow of tradition. They were, however, ready to consider that kernel
+as being of the smallest possible dimensions, so that they might
+occasionally get rid of it altogether without losing anything of the
+mass of the avalanche. According to this view, the text itself and the
+stories built round it are one and the same thing.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_1_1">
+<span class="label">[1]</span></a> Of course Nietzsche saw afterwards that this was not
+so.&mdash;TR.</p></div>
+
+<p>Now, however, such a contrast between popular poetry and individual
+poetry does not exist at all; on the contrary, all poetry, and of course
+popular poetry also, requires an intermediary individuality. This
+much-abused contrast, therefore, is necessary only when the term
+<i>individual poem</i> is understood to mean a poem which has not grown out
+of the soil of popular feeling, but which has been composed by a
+non-popular poet in a non-popular atmosphere&mdash;something which has come
+to maturity in the study of a learned man, for example.</p>
+
+<p>With the superstition which presupposes poetising masses is connected
+another: that popular poetry is limited to one particular period of a
+people's history and afterwards dies out&mdash;which indeed follows as a
+consequence of the first superstition I have mentioned. According to
+this school, in the place of the gradually decaying popular poetry we
+have artistic poetry, the work of individual minds, not of masses of
+people. But the same powers which were once active are still so; and the
+form in which they act has remained exactly the same. The great poet of
+a literary period is still a popular poet in no narrower sense than the
+popular poet of an illiterate age. The difference between them is not in
+the way they originate, but it is their diffusion and propagation, in
+short, <i>tradition</i>. This tradition is exposed to eternal danger without
+the help of handwriting, and runs the risk of including in the poems the
+remains of those individualities through whose oral tradition they were
+handed down.</p>
+
+<p>If we apply all these principles to the Homeric poems, it follows that
+we gain nothing with our theory of the poetising soul of the people, and
+that we are always referred back to the poetical individual. We are thus
+confronted with the task of distinguishing that which can have
+originated only in a single poetical mind from that which is, so to
+speak, swept up by the tide of oral tradition, and which is a highly
+important constituent part of the Homeric poems.</p>
+
+<p>Since literary history first ceased to be a mere collection of names,
+people have attempted to grasp and formulate the individualities of the
+poets. A certain mechanism forms part of the method: it must be
+explained&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, it must be deduced from principles&mdash;why this or that
+individuality appears in this way and not in that. People now study
+biographical details, environment, acquaintances, contemporary events,
+and believe that by mixing all these ingredients together they will be
+able to manufacture the wished-for individuality. But they forget that
+the <i>punctum saliens</i>, the indefinable individual characteristics, can
+never be obtained from a compound of this nature. The less there is
+known about the life and times of the poet, the less applicable is this
+mechanism. When, however, we have merely the works and the name of the
+writer, it is almost impossible to detect the individuality, at all
+events, for those who put their faith in the mechanism in question; and
+particularly when the works are perfect, when they are pieces of popular
+poetry. For the best way for these mechanicians to grasp individual
+characteristics is by perceiving deviations from the genius of the
+people; the aberrations and hidden allusions: and the fewer
+discrepancies to be found in a poem the fainter will be the traces of
+the individual poet who composed it.</p>
+
+<p>All those deviations, everything dull and below the ordinary standard
+which scholars think they perceive in the Homeric poems, were attributed
+to tradition, which thus became the scapegoat. What was left of Homer's
+own individual work? Nothing but a series of beautiful and prominent
+passages chosen in accordance with subjective taste. The sum total of
+&aelig;sthetic singularity which every individual scholar perceived with his
+own artistic gifts, he now called Homer.</p>
+
+<p>This is the central point of the Homeric errors. The name of Homer, from
+the very beginning, has no connection either with the conception of
+&aelig;sthetic perfection or yet with the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i>. Homer as
+the composer of the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> is not a historical
+tradition, but an <i>&aelig;sthetic judgment</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The only path which leads back beyond the time of Pisistratus and helps
+us to elucidate the meaning of the name Homer, takes its way on the one
+hand through the reports which have reached us concerning Homer's
+birthplace: from which we see that, although his name is always
+associated with heroic epic poems, he is on the other hand no more
+referred to as the composer of the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> than as the
+author of the <i>Thebais</i> or any other cyclical epic. On the other hand,
+again, an old tradition tells of the contest between Homer and Hesiod,
+which proves that when these two names were mentioned people
+instinctively thought of two epic tendencies, the heroic and the
+didactic; and that the signification of the name "Homer" was included in
+the material category and not in the formal. This imaginary contest with
+Hesiod did not even yet show the faintest presentiment of individuality.
+From the time of Pisistratus onwards, however, with the surprisingly
+rapid development of the Greek feeling for beauty, the differences in
+the &aelig;sthetic value of those epics continued to be felt more and more:
+the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> arose from the depths of the flood and
+have remained on the surface ever since. With this process of &aelig;sthetic
+separation, the conception of Homer gradually became narrower: the old
+material meaning of the name "Homer" as the father of the heroic epic
+poem, was changed into the &aelig;sthetic meaning of Homer, the father of
+poetry in general, and likewise its original prototype. This
+transformation was contemporary with the rationalistic criticism which
+made Homer the magician out to be a possible poet, which vindicated the
+material and formal traditions of those numerous epics as against the
+unity of the poet, and gradually removed that heavy load of cyclical
+epics from Homer's shoulders.</p>
+
+<p>So Homer, the poet of the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i>, is an &aelig;sthetic
+judgment. It is, however, by no means affirmed against the poet of these
+epics that he was merely the imaginary being of an &aelig;sthetic
+impossibility, which can be the opinion of only very few philologists
+indeed. The majority contend that a single individual was responsible
+for the general design of a poem such as the <i>Iliad</i>, and further that
+this individual was Homer. The first part of this contention may be
+admitted; but, in accordance with what I have said, the latter part must
+be denied. And I very much doubt whether the majority of those who adopt
+the first part of the contention have taken the following considerations
+into account.</p>
+
+<p>The design of an epic such as the <i>Iliad</i> is not an entire <i>whole</i>, not
+an organism; but a number of pieces strung together, a collection of
+reflections arranged in accordance with &aelig;sthetic rules. It is certainly
+the standard of an artist's greatness to note what he can take in with a
+single glance and set out in rhythmical form. The infinite profusion of
+images and incidents in the Homeric epic must force us to admit that
+such a wide range of vision is next to impossible. Where, however, a
+poet is unable to observe artistically with a single glance, he usually
+piles conception on conception, and endeavours to adjust his characters
+according to a comprehensive scheme.</p>
+
+<p>He will succeed in this all the better the more he is familiar with the
+fundamental principles of &aelig;sthetics: he will even make some believe
+that he made himself master of the entire subject by a single powerful
+glance.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Iliad</i> is not a garland, but a bunch of flowers. As many pictures
+as possible are crowded on one canvas; but the man who placed them there
+was indifferent as to whether the grouping of the collected pictures was
+invariably suitable and rhythmically beautiful. He well knew that no one
+would ever consider the collection as a whole; but would merely look at
+the individual parts. But that stringing together of some pieces as the
+manifestations of a grasp of art which was not yet highly developed,
+still less thoroughly comprehended and generally esteemed, cannot have
+been the real Homeric deed, the real Homeric epoch-making event. On the
+contrary, this design is a later product, far later than Homer's
+celebrity. Those, therefore, who look for the "original and perfect
+design" are looking for a mere phantom; for the dangerous path of oral
+tradition had reached its end just as the systematic arrangement
+appeared on the scene; the disfigurements which were caused on the way
+could not have affected the design, for this did not form part of the
+material handed down from generation to generation.</p>
+
+<p>The relative imperfection of the design must not, however, prevent us
+from seeing in the designer a different personality from the real poet.
+It is not only probable that everything which was created in those times
+with conscious &aelig;sthetic insight, was infinitely inferior to the songs
+that sprang up naturally in the poet's mind and were written down with
+instinctive power: we can even take a step further. If we include the
+so-called cyclic poems in this comparison, there remains for the
+designer of the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> the indisputable merit of
+having done something relatively great in this conscious technical
+composing: a merit which we might have been prepared to recognise from
+the beginning, and which is in my opinion of the very first order in the
+domain of instinctive creation. We may even be ready to pronounce this
+synthetisation of great importance. All those dull passages and
+discrepancies&mdash;deemed of such importance, but really only subjective,
+which we usually look upon as the petrified remains of the period of
+tradition&mdash;are not these perhaps merely the almost necessary evils which
+must fall to the lot of the poet of genius who undertakes a composition
+virtually without a parallel, and, further, one which proves to be of
+incalculable difficulty?</p>
+
+<p>Let it be noted that the insight into the most diverse operations of the
+instinctive and the conscious changes the position of the Homeric
+problem; and in my opinion throws light upon it.</p>
+
+<p>We believe in a great poet as the author of the <i>Iliad</i> and the
+<i>Odyssey&mdash;but not that Homer was this poet</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The decision on this point has already been given. The generation that
+invented those numerous Homeric fables, that poetised the myth of the
+contest between Homer and Hesiod, and looked upon all the poems of the
+epic cycle as Homeric, did not feel an &aelig;sthetic but a material
+singularity when it pronounced the name "Homer." This period regards
+Homer as belonging to the ranks of artists like Orpheus, Eumolpus,
+D&aelig;dalus, and Olympus, the mythical discoverers of a new branch of art,
+to whom, therefore, all the later fruits which grew from the new branch
+were thankfully dedicated.</p>
+
+<p>And that wonderful genius to whom we owe the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i>
+belongs to this thankful posterity: he, too, sacrificed his name on the
+altar of the primeval father of the Homeric epic, Homeros.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this point, gentlemen, I think I have been able to put before you
+the fundamental philosophical and &aelig;sthetic characteristics of the
+problem of the personality of Homer, keeping all minor details
+rigorously at a distance, on the supposition that the primary form of
+this widespread and honeycombed mountain known as the Homeric question
+can be most clearly observed by looking down at it from a far-off
+height. But I have also, I imagine, recalled two facts to those friends
+of antiquity who take such delight in accusing us philologists of lack
+of piety for great conceptions and an unproductive zeal for
+destruction. In the first place, those "great" conceptions&mdash;such, for
+example, as that of the indivisible and inviolable poetic genius,
+Homer&mdash;were during the pre-Wolfian period only too great, and hence
+inwardly altogether empty and elusive when we now try to grasp them. If
+classical philology goes back again to the same conceptions, and once
+more tries to pour new wine into old bottles, it is only on the surface
+that the conceptions are the same: everything has really become new;
+bottle and mind, wine and word. We everywhere find traces of the fact
+that philology has lived in company with poets, thinkers, and artists
+for the last hundred years: whence it has now come about that the heap
+of ashes formerly pointed to as classical philology is now turned into
+fruitful and even rich soil.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Nietzsche perceived later on that this statement was,
+unfortunately, not justified.&mdash;TR.</p></div>
+
+<p>And there is a second fact which I should like to recall to the memory
+of those friends of antiquity who turn their dissatisfied backs on
+classical philology. You honour the immortal masterpieces of the
+Hellenic mind in poetry and sculpture, and think yourselves so much more
+fortunate than preceding generations, which had to do without them; but
+you must not forget that this whole fairyland once lay buried under
+mountains of prejudice, and that the blood and sweat and arduous labour
+of innumerable followers of our science were all necessary to lift up
+that world from the chasm into which it had sunk. We grant that
+philology is not the creator of this world, not the composer of that
+immortal music; but is it not a merit, and a great merit, to be a mere
+virtuoso, and let the world for the first time hear that music which lay
+so long in obscurity, despised and undecipherable? Who was Homer
+previously to Wolf's brilliant investigations? A good old man, known at
+best as a "natural genius," at all events the child of a barbaric age,
+replete with faults against good taste and good morals. Let us hear how
+a learned man of the first rank writes about Homer even so late as 1783:
+"Where does the good man live? Why did he remain so long incognito?
+Apropos, can't you get me a silhouette of him?"</p>
+
+<p>We demand <i>thanks</i>&mdash;not in our own name, for we are but atoms&mdash;but in
+the name of philology itself, which is indeed neither a Muse nor a
+Grace, but a messenger of the gods: and just as the Muses descended upon
+the dull and tormented B&oelig;otian peasants, so Philology comes into a
+world full of gloomy colours and pictures, full of the deepest, most
+incurable woes; and speaks to men comfortingly of the beautiful and
+godlike figure of a distant, rosy, and happy fairyland.</p>
+
+<p>It is time to close; yet before I do so a few words of a personal
+character must be added, justified, I hope, by the occasion of this
+lecture.</p>
+
+<p>It is but right that a philologist should describe his end and the means
+to it in the short formula of a confession of faith; and let this be
+done in the saying of Seneca which I thus reverse&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"Philosophia facta est qu&aelig; philologia fuit."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>By this I wish to signify that all philological activities should be
+enclosed and surrounded by a philosophical view of things, in which
+everything individual and isolated is evaporated as something
+detestable, and in which great homogeneous views alone remain. Now,
+therefore, that I have enunciated my philological creed, I trust you
+will give me cause to hope that I shall no longer be a stranger among
+you: give me the assurance that in working with you towards this end I
+am worthily fulfilling the confidence with which the highest authorities
+of this community have honoured me.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Homer and Classical Philology, by 
+Friedrich Nietzsche
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+Project Gutenberg's Homer and Classical Philology, by Friedrich Nietzsche
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Homer and Classical Philology
+
+Author: Friedrich Nietzsche
+
+Editor: Oscar Levy
+
+Translator: J. M. Kennedy
+
+Release Date: April 17, 2006 [EBook #18188]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOMER AND CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Thierry Alberto, Robert Ledger and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note:
+
+This lecture was taken from Volume III of _The Complete Works of
+Friedrich Nietzsche_, Dr. Oscar Levy, Ed., J. M. Kennedy,
+Translator, 1910]
+
+
+
+
+HOMER AND CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY.
+
+(_Inaugural Address delivered at Bale University, 28th of May 1869._)
+
+
+At the present day no clear and consistent opinion seems to be held
+regarding Classical Philology. We are conscious of this in the circles
+of the learned just as much as among the followers of that science
+itself. The cause of this lies in its many-sided character, in the lack
+of an abstract unity, and in the inorganic aggregation of heterogeneous
+scientific activities which are connected with one another only by the
+name "Philology." It must be freely admitted that philology is to some
+extent borrowed from several other sciences, and is mixed together like
+a magic potion from the most outlandish liquors, ores, and bones. It may
+even be added that it likewise conceals within itself an artistic
+element, one which, on aesthetic and ethical grounds, may be called
+imperatival--an element that acts in opposition to its purely scientific
+behaviour. Philology is composed of history just as much as of natural
+science or aesthetics: history, in so far as it endeavours to comprehend
+the manifestations of the individualities of peoples in ever new
+images, and the prevailing law in the disappearance of phenomena;
+natural science, in so far as it strives to fathom the deepest instinct
+of man, that of speech; aesthetics, finally, because from various
+antiquities at our disposal it endeavours to pick out the so-called
+"classical" antiquity, with the view and pretension of excavating the
+ideal world buried under it, and to hold up to the present the mirror of
+the classical and everlasting standards. That these wholly different
+scientific and aesthetico-ethical impulses have been associated under a
+common name, a kind of sham monarchy, is shown especially by the fact
+that philology at every period from its origin onwards was at the same
+time pedagogical. From the standpoint of the pedagogue, a choice was
+offered of those elements which were of the greatest educational value;
+and thus that science, or at least that scientific aim, which we call
+philology, gradually developed out of the practical calling originated
+by the exigencies of that science itself.
+
+These philological aims were pursued sometimes with greater ardour and
+sometimes with less, in accordance with the degree of culture and the
+development of the taste of a particular period; but, on the other hand,
+the followers of this science are in the habit of regarding the aims
+which correspond to their several abilities as _the_ aims of philology;
+whence it comes about that the estimation of philology in public opinion
+depends upon the weight of the personalities of the philologists!
+
+At the present time--that is to say, in a period which has seen men
+distinguished in almost every department of philology--a general
+uncertainty of judgment has increased more and more, and likewise a
+general relaxation of interest and participation in philological
+problems. Such an undecided and imperfect state of public opinion is
+damaging to a science in that its hidden and open enemies can work with
+much better prospects of success. And philology has a great many such
+enemies. Where do we not meet with them, these mockers, always ready to
+aim a blow at the philological "moles," the animals that practise
+dust-eating _ex professo_, and that grub up and eat for the eleventh
+time what they have already eaten ten times before. For opponents of
+this sort, however, philology is merely a useless, harmless, and
+inoffensive pastime, an object of laughter and not of hate. But, on the
+other hand, there is a boundless and infuriated hatred of philology
+wherever an ideal, as such, is feared, where the modern man falls down
+to worship himself, and where Hellenism is looked upon as a superseded
+and hence very insignificant point of view. Against these enemies, we
+philologists must always count upon the assistance of artists and men of
+artistic minds; for they alone can judge how the sword of barbarism
+sweeps over the head of every one who loses sight of the unutterable
+simplicity and noble dignity of the Hellene; and how no progress in
+commerce or technical industries, however brilliant, no school
+regulations, no political education of the masses, however widespread
+and complete, can protect us from the curse of ridiculous and barbaric
+offences against good taste, or from annihilation by the Gorgon head of
+the classicist.
+
+Whilst philology as a whole is looked on with jealous eyes by these two
+classes of opponents, there are numerous and varied hostilities in other
+directions of philology; philologists themselves are quarrelling with
+one another; internal dissensions are caused by useless disputes about
+precedence and mutual jealousies, but especially by the
+differences--even enmities--comprised in the name of philology, which
+are not, however, by any means naturally harmonised instincts.
+
+Science has this in common with art, that the most ordinary, everyday
+thing appears to it as something entirely new and attractive, as if
+metamorphosed by witchcraft and now seen for the first time. Life is
+worth living, says art, the beautiful temptress; life is worth knowing,
+says science. With this contrast the so heartrending and dogmatic
+tradition follows in a _theory_, and consequently in the practice of
+classical philology derived from this theory. We may consider antiquity
+from a scientific point of view; we may try to look at what has happened
+with the eye of a historian, or to arrange and compare the linguistic
+forms of ancient masterpieces, to bring them at all events under a
+morphological law; but we always lose the wonderful creative force, the
+real fragrance, of the atmosphere of antiquity; we forget that
+passionate emotion which instinctively drove our meditation and
+enjoyment back to the Greeks. From this point onwards we must take
+notice of a clearly determined and very surprising antagonism which
+philology has great cause to regret. From the circles upon whose help we
+must place the most implicit reliance--the artistic friends of
+antiquity, the warm supporters of Hellenic beauty and noble
+simplicity--we hear harsh voices crying out that it is precisely the
+philologists themselves who are the real opponents and destroyers of the
+ideals of antiquity. Schiller upbraided the philologists with having
+scattered Homer's laurel crown to the winds. It was none other than
+Goethe who, in early life a supporter of Wolf's theories regarding
+Homer, recanted in the verses--
+
+     With subtle wit you took away
+       Our former adoration:
+     The Iliad, you may us say,
+       Was mere conglomeration.
+     Think it not crime in any way:
+       Youth's fervent adoration
+     Leads us to know the verity,
+       And feel the poet's unity.
+
+The reason of this want of piety and reverence must lie deeper; and many
+are in doubt as to whether philologists are lacking in artistic capacity
+and impressions, so that they are unable to do justice to the ideal, or
+whether the spirit of negation has become a destructive and iconoclastic
+principle of theirs. When, however, even the friends of antiquity,
+possessed of such doubts and hesitations, point to our present classical
+philology as something questionable, what influence may we not ascribe
+to the outbursts of the "realists" and the claptrap of the heroes of the
+passing hour? To answer the latter on this occasion, especially when we
+consider the nature of the present assembly, would be highly
+injudicious; at any rate, if I do not wish to meet with the fate of
+that sophist who, when in Sparta, publicly undertook to praise and
+defend Herakles, when he was interrupted with the query: "But who then
+has found fault with him?" I cannot help thinking, however, that some of
+these scruples are still sounding in the ears of not a few in this
+gathering; for they may still be frequently heard from the lips of noble
+and artistically gifted men--as even an upright philologist must feel
+them, and feel them most painfully, at moments when his spirits are
+downcast. For the single individual there is no deliverance from the
+dissensions referred to; but what we contend and inscribe on our banner
+is the fact that classical philology, as a whole, has nothing whatsoever
+to do with the quarrels and bickerings of its individual disciples. The
+entire scientific and artistic movement of this peculiar centaur is
+bent, though with cyclopic slowness, upon bridging over the gulf between
+the ideal antiquity--which is perhaps only the magnificent blossoming of
+the Teutonic longing for the south--and the real antiquity; and thus
+classical philology pursues only the final end of its own being, which
+is the fusing together of primarily hostile impulses that have only
+forcibly been brought together. Let us talk as we will about the
+unattainability of this goal, and even designate the goal itself as an
+illogical pretension--the aspiration for it is very real; and I should
+like to try to make it clear by an example that the most significant
+steps of classical philology never lead away from the ideal antiquity,
+but to it; and that, just when people are speaking unwarrantably of the
+overthrow of sacred shrines, new and more worthy altars are being
+erected. Let us then examine the so-called _Homeric question_ from this
+standpoint, a question the most important problem of which Schiller
+called a scholastic barbarism.
+
+The important problem referred to is _the question of the personality of
+Homer_.
+
+We now meet everywhere with the firm opinion that the question of
+Homer's personality is no longer timely, and that it is quite a
+different thing from the real "Homeric question." It may be added that,
+for a given period--such as our present philological period, for
+example--the centre of discussion may be removed from the problem of the
+poet's personality; for even now a painstaking experiment is being made
+to reconstruct the Homeric poems without the aid of personality,
+treating them as the work of several different persons. But if the
+centre of a scientific question is rightly seen to be where the swelling
+tide of new views has risen up, i.e. where individual scientific
+investigation comes into contact with the whole life of science and
+culture--if any one, in other words, indicates a historico-cultural
+valuation as the central point of the question, he must also, in the
+province of Homeric criticism, take his stand upon the question of
+personality as being the really fruitful oasis in the desert of the
+whole argument. For in Homer the modern world, I will not say has
+learnt, but has examined, a great historical point of view; and, even
+without now putting forward my own opinion as to whether this
+examination has been or can be happily carried out, it was at all
+events the first example of the application of that productive point of
+view. By it scholars learnt to recognise condensed beliefs in the
+apparently firm, immobile figures of the life of ancient peoples; by it
+they for the first time perceived the wonderful capability of the soul
+of a people to represent the conditions of its morals and beliefs in the
+form of a personality. When historical criticism has confidently seized
+upon this method of evaporating apparently concrete personalities, it is
+permissible to point to the first experiment as an important event in
+the history of sciences, without considering whether it was successful
+in this instance or not.
+
+It is a common occurrence for a series of striking signs and wonderful
+emotions to precede an epoch-making discovery. Even the experiment I
+have just referred to has its own attractive history; but it goes back
+to a surprisingly ancient era. Friedrich August Wolf has exactly
+indicated the spot where Greek antiquity dropped the question. The
+zenith of the historico-literary studies of the Greeks, and hence also
+of their point of greatest importance--the Homeric question--was reached
+in the age of the Alexandrian grammarians. Up to this time the Homeric
+question had run through the long chain of a uniform process of
+development, of which the standpoint of those grammarians seemed to be
+the last link, the last, indeed, which was attainable by antiquity. They
+conceived the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ as the creations of _one single_
+Homer; they declared it to be psychologically possible for two such
+different works to have sprung from the brain of _one_ genius, in
+contradiction to the Chorizontes, who represented the extreme limit of
+the scepticism of a few detached individuals of antiquity rather than
+antiquity itself considered as a whole. To explain the different general
+impression of the two books on the assumption that _one_ poet composed
+them both, scholars sought assistance by referring to the seasons of the
+poet's life, and compared the poet of the _Odyssey_ to the setting sun.
+The eyes of those critics were tirelessly on the lookout for
+discrepancies in the language and thoughts of the two poems; but at this
+time also a history of the Homeric poem and its tradition was prepared,
+according to which these discrepancies were not due to Homer, but
+to those who committed his words to writing and those who sang them. It
+was believed that Homer's poem was passed from one generation to another
+_viva voce_, and faults were attributed to the improvising and at times
+forgetful bards. At a certain given date, about the time of Pisistratus,
+the poems which had been repeated orally were said to have been
+collected in manuscript form; but the scribes, it is added, allowed
+themselves to take some liberties with the text by transposing some
+lines and adding extraneous matter here and there. This entire
+hypothesis is the most important in the domain of literary studies that
+antiquity has exhibited; and the acknowledgment of the dissemination of
+the Homeric poems by word of mouth, as opposed to the habits of a
+book-learned age, shows in particular a depth of ancient sagacity worthy
+of our admiration. From those times until the generation that produced
+Friedrich August Wolf we must take a jump over a long historical vacuum;
+but in our own age we find the argument left just as it was at the time
+when the power of controversy departed from antiquity, and it is a
+matter of indifference to us that Wolf accepted as certain tradition
+what antiquity itself had set up only as a hypothesis. It may be
+remarked as most characteristic of this hypothesis that, in the
+strictest sense, the personality of Homer is treated seriously; that a
+certain standard of inner harmony is everywhere presupposed in the
+manifestations of the personality; and that, with these two excellent
+auxiliary hypotheses, whatever is seen to be below this standard and
+opposed to this inner harmony is at once swept aside as un-Homeric. But
+even this distinguishing characteristic, in place of wishing to
+recognise the supernatural existence of a tangible personality, ascends
+likewise through all the stages that lead to that zenith, with
+ever-increasing energy and clearness. Individuality is ever more
+strongly felt and accentuated; the psychological possibility of a
+_single_ Homer is ever more forcibly demanded. If we descend backwards
+from this zenith, step by step, we find a guide to the understanding of
+the Homeric problem in the person of Aristotle. Homer was for him the
+flawless and untiring artist who knew his end and the means to attain
+it; but there is still a trace of infantile criticism to be found in
+Aristotle--i.e., in the naive concession he made to the public opinion
+that considered Homer as the author of the original of all comic epics,
+the _Margites_. If we go still further backwards from Aristotle, the
+inability to create a personality is seen to increase; more and more
+poems are attributed to Homer; and every period lets us see its degree
+of criticism by how much and what it considers as Homeric. In this
+backward examination, we instinctively feel that away beyond Herodotus
+there lies a period in which an immense flood of great epics has been
+identified with the name of Homer.
+
+Let us imagine ourselves as living in the time of Pisistratus: the word
+"Homer" then comprehended an abundance of dissimilarities. What was
+meant by "Homer" at that time? It is evident that that generation found
+itself unable to grasp a personality and the limits of its
+manifestations. Homer had now become of small consequence. And then we
+meet with the weighty question: What lies before this period? Has
+Homer's personality, because it cannot be grasped, gradually faded away
+into an empty name? Or had all the Homeric poems been gathered together
+in a body, the nation naively representing itself by the figure of
+Homer? _Was the person created out of a conception, or the conception
+out of a person?_ This is the real "Homeric question," the central
+problem of the personality.
+
+The difficulty of answering this question, however, is increased when we
+seek a reply in another direction, from the standpoint of the poems
+themselves which have come down to us. As it is difficult for us at the
+present day, and necessitates a serious effort on our part, to
+understand the law of gravitation clearly--that the earth alters its
+form of motion when another heavenly body changes its position in space,
+although no material connection unites one to the other--it likewise
+costs us some trouble to obtain a clear impression of that wonderful
+problem which, like a coin long passed from hand to hand, has lost its
+original and highly conspicuous stamp. Poetical works, which cause the
+hearts of even the greatest geniuses to fail when they endeavour to vie
+with them, and in which unsurpassable images are held up for the
+admiration of posterity--and yet the poet who wrote them with only a
+hollow, shaky name, whenever we do lay hold on him; nowhere the solid
+kernel of a powerful personality. "For who would wage war with the gods:
+who, even with the one god?" asks Goethe even, who, though a genius,
+strove in vain to solve that mysterious problem of the Homeric
+inaccessibility.
+
+The conception of popular poetry seemed to lead like a bridge over this
+problem--a deeper and more original power than that of every single
+creative individual was said to have become active; the happiest people,
+in the happiest period of its existence, in the highest activity of
+fantasy and formative power, was said to have created those immeasurable
+poems. In this universality there is something almost intoxicating in
+the thought of a popular poem: we feel, with artistic pleasure, the
+broad, overpowering liberation of a popular gift, and we delight in this
+natural phenomenon as we do in an uncontrollable cataract. But as soon
+as we examine this thought at close quarters, we involuntarily put a
+poetic _mass of people_ in the place of the poetising _soul of the
+people_: a long row of popular poets in whom individuality has no
+meaning, and in whom the tumultuous movement of a people's soul, the
+intuitive strength of a people's eye, and the unabated profusion of a
+people's fantasy, were once powerful: a row of original geniuses,
+attached to a time, to a poetic genus, to a subject-matter.
+
+Such a conception justly made people suspicious. Could it be possible
+that that same Nature who so sparingly distributed her rarest and most
+precious production--genius--should suddenly take the notion of
+lavishing her gifts in one sole direction? And here the thorny question
+again made its appearance: Could we not get along with one genius only,
+and explain the present existence of that unattainable excellence? And
+now eyes were keenly on the lookout for whatever that excellence and
+singularity might consist of. Impossible for it to be in the
+construction of the complete works, said one party, for this is far from
+faultless; but doubtless to be found in single songs: in the single
+pieces above all; not in the whole. A second party, on the other hand,
+sheltered themselves beneath the authority of Aristotle, who especially
+admired Homer's "divine" nature in the choice of his entire subject, and
+the manner in which he planned and carried it out. If, however, this
+construction was not clearly seen, this fault was due to the way the
+poems were handed down to posterity and not to the poet himself--it was
+the result of retouchings and interpolations, owing to which the
+original setting of the work gradually became obscured. The more the
+first school looked for inequalities, contradictions, perplexities, the
+more energetically did the other school brush aside what in their
+opinion obscured the original plan, in order, if possible, that nothing
+might be left remaining but the actual words of the original epic
+itself. The second school of thought of course held fast by the
+conception of an epoch-making genius as the composer of the great works.
+The first school, on the other hand, wavered between the supposition of
+one genius plus a number of minor poets, and another hypothesis which
+assumed only a number of superior and even mediocre individual bards,
+but also postulated a mysterious discharging, a deep, national, artistic
+impulse, which shows itself in individual minstrels as an almost
+indifferent medium. It is to this latter school that we must attribute
+the representation of the Homeric poems as the expression of that
+mysterious impulse.
+
+All these schools of thought start from the assumption that the problem
+of the present form of these epics can be solved from the standpoint of
+an aesthetic judgment--but we must await the decision as to the
+authorised line of demarcation between the man of genius and the
+poetical soul of the people. Are there characteristic differences
+between the utterances of the _man of genius_ and the _poetical soul of
+the people_?
+
+This whole contrast, however, is unjust and misleading. There is no
+more dangerous assumption in modern aesthetics than that of _popular
+poetry_ and _individual poetry_, or, as it is usually called, _artistic
+poetry_. This is the reaction, or, if you will, the superstition, which
+followed upon the most momentous discovery of historico-philological
+science, the discovery and appreciation of the _soul of the people_. For
+this discovery prepared the way for a coming scientific view of history,
+which was until then, and in many respects is even now, a mere
+collection of materials, with the prospect that new materials would
+continue to be added, and that the huge, overflowing pile would never be
+systematically arranged. The people now understood for the first time
+that the long-felt power of greater individualities and wills was larger
+than the pitifully small will of an individual man;[1] they now saw that
+everything truly great in the kingdom of the will could not have its
+deepest root in the inefficacious and ephemeral individual will; and,
+finally, they now discovered the powerful instincts of the masses, and
+diagnosed those unconscious impulses to be the foundations and supports
+of the so-called universal history. But the newly-lighted flame also
+cast its shadow: and this shadow was none other than that superstition
+already referred to, which popular poetry set up in opposition to
+individual poetry, and thus enlarged the comprehension of the people's
+soul to that of the people's mind. By the misapplication of a tempting
+analogical inference, people had reached the point of applying in the
+domain of the intellect and artistic ideas that principle of greater
+individuality which is truly applicable only in the domain of the will.
+The masses have never experienced more flattering treatment than in thus
+having the laurel of genius set upon their empty heads. It was imagined
+that new shells were forming round a small kernel, so to speak, and that
+those pieces of popular poetry originated like avalanches, in the drift
+and flow of tradition. They were, however, ready to consider that kernel
+as being of the smallest possible dimensions, so that they might
+occasionally get rid of it altogether without losing anything of the
+mass of the avalanche. According to this view, the text itself and the
+stories built round it are one and the same thing.
+
+[1] Of course Nietzsche saw afterwards that this was not so.--TR.
+
+Now, however, such a contrast between popular poetry and individual
+poetry does not exist at all; on the contrary, all poetry, and of course
+popular poetry also, requires an intermediary individuality. This
+much-abused contrast, therefore, is necessary only when the term
+_individual poem_ is understood to mean a poem which has not grown out
+of the soil of popular feeling, but which has been composed by a
+non-popular poet in a non-popular atmosphere--something which has come
+to maturity in the study of a learned man, for example.
+
+With the superstition which presupposes poetising masses is connected
+another: that popular poetry is limited to one particular period of a
+people's history and afterwards dies out--which indeed follows as a
+consequence of the first superstition I have mentioned. According to
+this school, in the place of the gradually decaying popular poetry we
+have artistic poetry, the work of individual minds, not of masses of
+people. But the same powers which were once active are still so; and the
+form in which they act has remained exactly the same. The great poet of
+a literary period is still a popular poet in no narrower sense than the
+popular poet of an illiterate age. The difference between them is not in
+the way they originate, but it is their diffusion and propagation, in
+short, _tradition_. This tradition is exposed to eternal danger without
+the help of handwriting, and runs the risk of including in the poems the
+remains of those individualities through whose oral tradition they were
+handed down.
+
+If we apply all these principles to the Homeric poems, it follows that
+we gain nothing with our theory of the poetising soul of the people, and
+that we are always referred back to the poetical individual. We are thus
+confronted with the task of distinguishing that which can have
+originated only in a single poetical mind from that which is, so to
+speak, swept up by the tide of oral tradition, and which is a highly
+important constituent part of the Homeric poems.
+
+Since literary history first ceased to be a mere collection of names,
+people have attempted to grasp and formulate the individualities of the
+poets. A certain mechanism forms part of the method: it must be
+explained--i.e., it must be deduced from principles--why this or that
+individuality appears in this way and not in that. People now study
+biographical details, environment, acquaintances, contemporary events,
+and believe that by mixing all these ingredients together they will be
+able to manufacture the wished-for individuality. But they forget that
+the _punctum saliens_, the indefinable individual characteristics, can
+never be obtained from a compound of this nature. The less there is
+known about the life and times of the poet, the less applicable is this
+mechanism. When, however, we have merely the works and the name of the
+writer, it is almost impossible to detect the individuality, at all
+events, for those who put their faith in the mechanism in question; and
+particularly when the works are perfect, when they are pieces of popular
+poetry. For the best way for these mechanicians to grasp individual
+characteristics is by perceiving deviations from the genius of the
+people; the aberrations and hidden allusions: and the fewer
+discrepancies to be found in a poem the fainter will be the traces of
+the individual poet who composed it.
+
+All those deviations, everything dull and below the ordinary standard
+which scholars think they perceive in the Homeric poems, were attributed
+to tradition, which thus became the scapegoat. What was left of Homer's
+own individual work? Nothing but a series of beautiful and prominent
+passages chosen in accordance with subjective taste. The sum total of
+aesthetic singularity which every individual scholar perceived with his
+own artistic gifts, he now called Homer.
+
+This is the central point of the Homeric errors. The name of Homer, from
+the very beginning, has no connection either with the conception of
+aesthetic perfection or yet with the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_. Homer as
+the composer of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ is not a historical
+tradition, but an _aesthetic judgment_.
+
+The only path which leads back beyond the time of Pisistratus and helps
+us to elucidate the meaning of the name Homer, takes its way on the one
+hand through the reports which have reached us concerning Homer's
+birthplace: from which we see that, although his name is always
+associated with heroic epic poems, he is on the other hand no more
+referred to as the composer of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ than as the
+author of the _Thebais_ or any other cyclical epic. On the other hand,
+again, an old tradition tells of the contest between Homer and Hesiod,
+which proves that when these two names were mentioned people
+instinctively thought of two epic tendencies, the heroic and the
+didactic; and that the signification of the name "Homer" was included in
+the material category and not in the formal. This imaginary contest with
+Hesiod did not even yet show the faintest presentiment of individuality.
+From the time of Pisistratus onwards, however, with the surprisingly
+rapid development of the Greek feeling for beauty, the differences in
+the aesthetic value of those epics continued to be felt more and more:
+the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ arose from the depths of the flood and
+have remained on the surface ever since. With this process of aesthetic
+separation, the conception of Homer gradually became narrower: the old
+material meaning of the name "Homer" as the father of the heroic epic
+poem, was changed into the aesthetic meaning of Homer, the father of
+poetry in general, and likewise its original prototype. This
+transformation was contemporary with the rationalistic criticism which
+made Homer the magician out to be a possible poet, which vindicated the
+material and formal traditions of those numerous epics as against the
+unity of the poet, and gradually removed that heavy load of cyclical
+epics from Homer's shoulders.
+
+So Homer, the poet of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_, is an aesthetic
+judgment. It is, however, by no means affirmed against the poet of these
+epics that he was merely the imaginary being of an aesthetic
+impossibility, which can be the opinion of only very few philologists
+indeed. The majority contend that a single individual was responsible
+for the general design of a poem such as the _Iliad_, and further that
+this individual was Homer. The first part of this contention may be
+admitted; but, in accordance with what I have said, the latter part must
+be denied. And I very much doubt whether the majority of those who adopt
+the first part of the contention have taken the following considerations
+into account.
+
+The design of an epic such as the _Iliad_ is not an entire _whole_, not
+an organism; but a number of pieces strung together, a collection of
+reflections arranged in accordance with aesthetic rules. It is certainly
+the standard of an artist's greatness to note what he can take in with a
+single glance and set out in rhythmical form. The infinite profusion of
+images and incidents in the Homeric epic must force us to admit that
+such a wide range of vision is next to impossible. Where, however, a
+poet is unable to observe artistically with a single glance, he usually
+piles conception on conception, and endeavours to adjust his characters
+according to a comprehensive scheme.
+
+He will succeed in this all the better the more he is familiar with the
+fundamental principles of aesthetics: he will even make some believe
+that he made himself master of the entire subject by a single powerful
+glance.
+
+The _Iliad_ is not a garland, but a bunch of flowers. As many pictures
+as possible are crowded on one canvas; but the man who placed them there
+was indifferent as to whether the grouping of the collected pictures was
+invariably suitable and rhythmically beautiful. He well knew that no one
+would ever consider the collection as a whole; but would merely look at
+the individual parts. But that stringing together of some pieces as the
+manifestations of a grasp of art which was not yet highly developed,
+still less thoroughly comprehended and generally esteemed, cannot have
+been the real Homeric deed, the real Homeric epoch-making event. On the
+contrary, this design is a later product, far later than Homer's
+celebrity. Those, therefore, who look for the "original and perfect
+design" are looking for a mere phantom; for the dangerous path of oral
+tradition had reached its end just as the systematic arrangement
+appeared on the scene; the disfigurements which were caused on the way
+could not have affected the design, for this did not form part of the
+material handed down from generation to generation.
+
+The relative imperfection of the design must not, however, prevent us
+from seeing in the designer a different personality from the real poet.
+It is not only probable that everything which was created in those times
+with conscious aesthetic insight, was infinitely inferior to the songs
+that sprang up naturally in the poet's mind and were written down with
+instinctive power: we can even take a step further. If we include the
+so-called cyclic poems in this comparison, there remains for the
+designer of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ the indisputable merit of
+having done something relatively great in this conscious technical
+composing: a merit which we might have been prepared to recognise from
+the beginning, and which is in my opinion of the very first order in the
+domain of instinctive creation. We may even be ready to pronounce this
+synthetisation of great importance. All those dull passages and
+discrepancies--deemed of such importance, but really only subjective,
+which we usually look upon as the petrified remains of the period of
+tradition--are not these perhaps merely the almost necessary evils which
+must fall to the lot of the poet of genius who undertakes a composition
+virtually without a parallel, and, further, one which proves to be of
+incalculable difficulty?
+
+Let it be noted that the insight into the most diverse operations of the
+instinctive and the conscious changes the position of the Homeric
+problem; and in my opinion throws light upon it.
+
+We believe in a great poet as the author of the _Iliad_ and the
+_Odyssey--but not that Homer was this poet_.
+
+The decision on this point has already been given. The generation that
+invented those numerous Homeric fables, that poetised the myth of the
+contest between Homer and Hesiod, and looked upon all the poems of the
+epic cycle as Homeric, did not feel an aesthetic but a material
+singularity when it pronounced the name "Homer." This period regards
+Homer as belonging to the ranks of artists like Orpheus, Eumolpus,
+Daedalus, and Olympus, the mythical discoverers of a new branch of art,
+to whom, therefore, all the later fruits which grew from the new branch
+were thankfully dedicated.
+
+And that wonderful genius to whom we owe the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_
+belongs to this thankful posterity: he, too, sacrificed his name on the
+altar of the primeval father of the Homeric epic, Homeros.
+
+Up to this point, gentlemen, I think I have been able to put before you
+the fundamental philosophical and aesthetic characteristics of the
+problem of the personality of Homer, keeping all minor details
+rigorously at a distance, on the supposition that the primary form of
+this widespread and honeycombed mountain known as the Homeric question
+can be most clearly observed by looking down at it from a far-off
+height. But I have also, I imagine, recalled two facts to those friends
+of antiquity who take such delight in accusing us philologists of lack
+of piety for great conceptions and an unproductive zeal for
+destruction. In the first place, those "great" conceptions--such, for
+example, as that of the indivisible and inviolable poetic genius,
+Homer--were during the pre-Wolfian period only too great, and hence
+inwardly altogether empty and elusive when we now try to grasp them. If
+classical philology goes back again to the same conceptions, and once
+more tries to pour new wine into old bottles, it is only on the surface
+that the conceptions are the same: everything has really become new;
+bottle and mind, wine and word. We everywhere find traces of the fact
+that philology has lived in company with poets, thinkers, and artists
+for the last hundred years: whence it has now come about that the heap
+of ashes formerly pointed to as classical philology is now turned into
+fruitful and even rich soil.[2]
+
+[2] Nietzsche perceived later on that this statement was,
+unfortunately, not justified.--TR.
+
+And there is a second fact which I should like to recall to the memory
+of those friends of antiquity who turn their dissatisfied backs on
+classical philology. You honour the immortal masterpieces of the
+Hellenic mind in poetry and sculpture, and think yourselves so much more
+fortunate than preceding generations, which had to do without them; but
+you must not forget that this whole fairyland once lay buried under
+mountains of prejudice, and that the blood and sweat and arduous labour
+of innumerable followers of our science were all necessary to lift up
+that world from the chasm into which it had sunk. We grant that
+philology is not the creator of this world, not the composer of that
+immortal music; but is it not a merit, and a great merit, to be a mere
+virtuoso, and let the world for the first time hear that music which lay
+so long in obscurity, despised and undecipherable? Who was Homer
+previously to Wolf's brilliant investigations? A good old man, known at
+best as a "natural genius," at all events the child of a barbaric age,
+replete with faults against good taste and good morals. Let us hear how
+a learned man of the first rank writes about Homer even so late as 1783:
+"Where does the good man live? Why did he remain so long incognito?
+Apropos, can't you get me a silhouette of him?"
+
+We demand _thanks_--not in our own name, for we are but atoms--but in
+the name of philology itself, which is indeed neither a Muse nor a
+Grace, but a messenger of the gods: and just as the Muses descended upon
+the dull and tormented Boeotian peasants, so Philology comes into a
+world full of gloomy colours and pictures, full of the deepest, most
+incurable woes; and speaks to men comfortingly of the beautiful and
+godlike figure of a distant, rosy, and happy fairyland.
+
+It is time to close; yet before I do so a few words of a personal
+character must be added, justified, I hope, by the occasion of this
+lecture.
+
+It is but right that a philologist should describe his end and the means
+to it in the short formula of a confession of faith; and let this be
+done in the saying of Seneca which I thus reverse--
+
+     "Philosophia facta est quae philologia fuit."
+
+By this I wish to signify that all philological activities should be
+enclosed and surrounded by a philosophical view of things, in which
+everything individual and isolated is evaporated as something
+detestable, and in which great homogeneous views alone remain. Now,
+therefore, that I have enunciated my philological creed, I trust you
+will give me cause to hope that I shall no longer be a stranger among
+you: give me the assurance that in working with you towards this end I
+am worthily fulfilling the confidence with which the highest authorities
+of this community have honoured me.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Homer and Classical Philology, by
+Friedrich Nietzsche
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