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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The House Fly and How to Suppress It, by 
+L. O. Howard and F. C. Bishopp
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The House Fly and How to Suppress It
+       U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin No. 1408
+
+Author: L. O. Howard and F. C. Bishopp
+
+Release Date: March 26, 2006 [EBook #18050]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HOUSE FLY AND HOW TO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by K.D. Thornton and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
+
+FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 1408
+
+_The_ HOUSE FLY AND HOW TO SUPPRESS IT
+
+[Illustration: fly]
+
+[Illustration: USDA seal]
+
+
+
+
+The presence of flies is an indication of uncleanliness, insanitary
+conditions, and improper disposal of substances in which they breed.
+They are not only annoying; they are actually dangerous to health,
+because they may carry disease germs to exposed foods.
+
+It is therefore important to know where and how they breed, and to apply
+such knowledge in combating them. This bulletin gives information on
+this subject. Besides giving directions for ridding the house of flies
+by the use of screens, fly papers, poisons, and flytraps, it lays
+especial emphasis on the explanation of methods of eliminating breeding
+places and preventing the breeding of flies.
+
+This bulletin supersedes Farmers' Bulletin 851.
+
+Washington, D. C. Issued April, 1925; revised November, 1926
+
+
+
+
+THE HOUSE FLY[1] AND HOW TO SUPPRESS IT.
+
+By L. O. HOWARD, _Chief of the Bureau of Entomology_, and F. C. BISHOPP,
+_Entomologist_.
+
+       *       *       *        *       *
+
+
+                                    CONTENTS.
+                                                                      Page.
+  Kinds of flies found in houses                                         1
+  Where the true house fly lays its eggs                                 2
+  How the house fly passes the winter                                    6
+  Carriage of disease by the house fly                                   6
+  Excluding and capturing flies                                          7
+    The use of screens                                                   7
+    Fly papers and poisons                                               8
+    Fly sprays                                                           8
+    Flytraps                                                             9
+  Preventing the breeding of flies                                       9
+    Construction and care of stables                                     9
+    Fly-tight manure pits                                               10
+    Frequency with which manure should be removed in cities and towns   10
+    Health office regulations for control of house flies in cities      10
+    Disposal of manure in rural and suburban districts                  11
+    Chemical treatment of manure to destroy fly maggots                 12
+    Maggot trap for destruction of fly larvæ from horse manure          13
+    Compact heaping of manure                                           15
+    Garbage disposal and treatment of miscellaneous breeding places     15
+    Sewage disposal in relation to the prevention of fly-borne diseases 15
+  What communities can do to eliminate the house fly                    16
+
+
+       *       *       *        *       *
+
+
+KINDS OF FLIES FOUND IN HOUSES.
+
+
+Several species of flies are found commonly in houses. Some of them so
+closely resemble the true house fly that it requires very careful
+observation to distinguish them from it.
+
+One of these is the biting stable fly[2] (fig. 1). It occurs frequently
+in houses and differs from the house fly in the important particular
+that its mouth parts are formed for piercing the skin. This fly is so
+often mistaken for the house fly that most people think that the house
+fly can bite.
+
+Another frequent visitant of houses, particularly in the spring and
+fall, is the cluster fly.[3] It is somewhat larger than the house fly,
+and is distinguished by its covering of fine yellowish hairs.
+Occasionally this fly occurs in houses in such numbers as to cause great
+annoyance. It gets its name of "cluster fly" from its habit of
+collecting in compact groups or clusters in protected corners during
+cold periods.
+
+Several species of metallic greenish or bluish flies also are found
+occasionally in houses. These include a blue-bottle fly,[4] the black
+blowflies,[5] and the green-bottle (fig. 2) flies.[6] They breed in
+decaying animal matter.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Musca domestica_ L.]
+[Footnote 2: _Stomoxys calcitrans_ L.]
+[Footnote 3: _Pollenia rudis_ Fab.]
+[Footnote 4: _Calliphora erythrocephala_ Meig.]
+[Footnote 5: _Phormia regina_ Meig. and _P. terrae-novae_ Desv.]
+[Footnote 6: _Lucilia caesar_ L., _L. sericata_ Meig., and other species
+of the genus.]
+
+There is still another species, smaller than any of those so far
+mentioned, which is sometimes called the "lesser house fly."[7] This
+insect is distinguished from the ordinary house fly by its paler and
+more pointed body. The male, which is commoner than the female, has
+large pale patches at the base of the abdomen, which are translucent
+when the fly is seen on the window pane. These little flies are not the
+young of the larger flies. Flies do not grow after the wings have once
+expanded and dried.
+
+[Footnote 7: _Fannia canicularis_ L.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The stable fly. Much enlarged.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--One of the green-bottle flies (_Lucilia
+caesar_). Much enlarged.]
+
+In late summer and autumn many specimens of a small fruit fly, known as
+the "vinegar fly,"[8] make their appearance, attracted by the odor of
+overripe fruit.
+
+All of these species, however, are greatly dwarfed in numbers by the
+common house fly. In 1900 the senior author made collections of the
+flies in dining rooms in different parts of the country, and found that
+the true house fly made up 98.8 per cent of the whole number captured.
+The remainder comprised various species, including those mentioned
+above.
+
+[Footnote 8: _Drosophila ampelophila_ Loew.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--The true house fly. Enlarged.]
+
+
+
+
+WHERE THE TRUE HOUSE FLY LAYS ITS EGGS.
+
+
+The true house fly (fig. 3), which is found in nearly all parts of the
+world, is a medium-sized fly with four black stripes on the back and a
+sharp elbow in one of the veins of the wings. The house fly can not
+bite, its mouth parts being spread out at the tip for sucking up liquid
+substances.
+
+The eggs (figs. 4, 5) are laid upon horse manure. This substance seems
+to be its favorite larval food. It will breed also in human excrement,
+and because of this habit it is very dangerous to the health of human
+beings, carrying as it does the germs of intestinal diseases, such as
+typhoid fever and cholera, from the excreta to food supplies. It has
+also been found to breed freely in hog manure, in considerable numbers
+in chicken dung, and to some extent in cow manure. Indeed, it will lay
+its eggs on a great variety of decaying vegetable and animal materials,
+but of the flies that infest dwelling houses, both in cities and on
+farms, a vast proportion come from horse manure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Eggs of the house fly. About natural size.
+(Newstead.)]
+
+It often happens, however, that this fly is very abundant in localities
+where little or no horse manure is found, and in such cases it breeds in
+other manure, such as chicken manure in backyard poultry lots, or in
+slops or fermenting vegetable material, such as spent hops, moist bran,
+ensilage, or rotting potatoes. Accumulations of organic material on the
+dumping grounds of towns and cities often produce flies in great
+numbers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Eggs of the house fly. Highly magnified.
+(Newstead.)]
+
+The house fly begins laying eggs in from 2 1/2 to 20 days after
+emerging, the time interval depending to a large extent upon
+temperature, humidity, and character and abundance of food. The number
+of eggs laid by an individual fly at one time ranges from 120 to 159 and
+a single female will usually lay two and sometimes four such batches.
+Dunn has recently reported that in Panama a fly may deposit as many as
+2,367 eggs in 21 batches, and sometimes an interval of only 36 hours may
+occur between the deposition of large batches of eggs. The enormous
+numbers in which the insects occur are thus plainly accounted for,
+especially when the abundance and universal occurrence of appropriate
+larval food is considered. The eggs are deposited below the surface in
+the cracks and interstices of the manure, several females usually
+depositing in one spot, so that the eggs commonly are found in large
+clusters (fig. 4) in selected places near the top of the pile, where a
+high degree of heat is maintained by the fermentation below. The second
+batch of eggs is laid from 8 to 10 days after the first. The eggs
+usually hatch in less than 24 hours. Under the most favorable conditions
+of temperature and moisture the egg state may last hardly more than 8
+hours. The maggots which issue from the eggs are very small and
+transparent. They grow rapidly, completing the growth of the larva stage
+in three days under the most favorable conditions, although this stage
+usually lasts from 4 to 7 days. The larval period may be prolonged
+greatly by low temperature or by dryness or scarcity of the larval food.
+As the larvæ (fig. 6) attain full size they gradually assume a creamy
+white color. A few hours before pupation they become very restless and
+migrate from their feeding ground in search of a favorable place in
+which to pass the pupa stage. They will often congregate at the edges of
+manure piles near the ground or burrow into the soil beneath, or they
+may crawl considerable distances away from the pile to pupate in the
+ground or in loose material under the edges of stones, boards, etc.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Larvæ, or maggots, of the house fly. About
+natural size. (Newstead.)]
+
+The pupæ (fig 7), or "sleepers," are more or less barrel shaped and dark
+brown in color. In midsummer this stage usually lasts from 3 to 6 days.
+The pupa stage is easily affected by temperature changes and may be
+prolonged during hibernation for as long as 4 or 5 months. Numerous
+rearing experiments in various parts of the country have shown that the
+shortest time between the deposition of eggs and the emergence of the
+adult fly is 8 days, and 10 and 12 day records were very common.
+
+The adult fly, upon emerging from the puparium, works its way upward
+through the soil or manure and upon reaching the air it crawls about
+while its wings expand and the body hardens and assumes its normal
+coloration. In from 2 1/2 to 20 days, as previously stated, the female
+is ready to deposit eggs. As in the case of other periods of its life
+history, so the preoviposition period is prolonged considerably by the
+lower temperatures of spring and fall. In midsummer, with a
+developmental period of from 8 to 10 days from egg to adult, and a
+preoviposition period of from 3 to 4 days, a new generation would be
+started every 11 to 14 days. Thus the climate of the District of
+Columbia allows abundance of time for the development of from 10 to 12
+generations every season.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Pupæ of the house fly. About natural size.
+(Newstead.)]
+
+Flies usually remain near their breeding places if they have plenty of
+food, but experiments recently made at Dallas, Tex., show that they may
+migrate considerable distances; in fact, house flies, so marked that the
+particular individuals could be identified, have been recaptured in
+traps as far as 13 miles from the place where they were liberated.
+
+
+
+
+HOW THE HOUSE FLY PASSES THE WINTER.
+
+
+The prevailing opinion that the house fly lives through the winter as an
+adult, hiding in cracks and crevices of buildings, etc., appears to be
+erroneous. Under outdoor conditions house flies are killed during the
+first really cold nights, that is, when the temperature falls to about
+15° or 10° F. In rooms and similar places protected from winds and
+partially heated during the winter flies have been kept alive in cages
+for long periods, but they never lived through the entire winter. In
+longevity experiments one record of 70 days and another of 91 days was
+obtained. No uncaged house flies were found during three seasons'
+observations in unheated and only partially heated attics, stables,
+unused rooms, etc., where favorable temperature conditions prevailed.
+The common occurrence in such places of the cluster fly and a few other
+species, which may be easily mistaken for the house fly, is responsible
+for the prevailing belief as to the way the house fly overwinters. There
+is therefore no reliable evidence whatever that adult house flies
+emerging during October and November pass the winter and are able to
+deposit their eggs the following spring, although they may continue
+active in heated buildings until nearly the end of January. On the other
+hand, there is evidence that house flies pass the winter as larvæ and
+pupæ, and that they sometimes breed continuously throughout the winter.
+In experiments at both Dallas, Tex., and Bethesda, Md., house flies have
+been found emerging during April from heavily infested manure heaps
+which had been set out and covered with cages during the preceding
+autumn. In the Southern States, during warm periods in midwinter, house
+flies may emerge and become somewhat troublesome; they frequently lay
+eggs on warm days.
+
+The second way in which the house fly may pass the winter is by
+continuous breeding. House flies congregate in heated rooms with the
+approach of the winter season. If no food or breeding materials are
+present they eventually die. However, where they have access to both
+food and suitable substances for egg laying they will continue breeding
+just as they do outdoors during the summer. Even in very cold climates
+there are undoubtedly many places, especially in cities, where house
+flies would have opportunity to pass the winter in this manner.
+
+
+
+
+CARRIAGE OF DISEASE BY THE HOUSE FLY.
+
+
+The body of the house fly is covered thickly with hairs and bristles of
+varying lengths, and this is especially true of the legs. Thus, when it
+crawls over infected material it readily becomes loaded with germs, and
+subsequent visits to human foods result in their contamination. Even
+more dangerous than the transference of germs on the legs and body of
+the fly is the fact that bacteria are found in greater numbers and live
+longer in its alimentary canal. These germs are voided, not only in the
+excrement of the fly, but also in small droplets of regurgitated matter
+which have been called "vomit spots." When we realize that flies
+frequent and feed upon the most filthy substances (it may be the excreta
+of typhoid or dysentery patients or the discharges of one suffering from
+tuberculosis), and that subsequently they may contaminate human foods
+with their feet or excreta or vomit spots, the necessity and importance
+of house-fly control is clear.
+
+In army camps, in mining camps, and in great public works, where large
+numbers of men are brought together for a longer or shorter time, there
+is seldom the proper care of excreta, and the carriage of typhoid germs
+from the latrines and privies to food by flies is common and often
+results in epidemics of typhoid fever.
+
+And such carriage of typhoid is by no means confined to great temporary
+camps. In farmhouses in small communities, and even in badly cared for
+portions of large cities, typhoid germs are carried from excrement to
+food by flies, and the proper supervision and treatment of the breeding
+places of the house fly become most important elements in the prevention
+of typhoid.
+
+In the same way other intestinal germ diseases, such as Asiatic cholera,
+dysentery, enteritis (inflammation of the intestine), and infantile
+diarrhea, are all so carried. There is strong circumstantial evidence
+also that tuberculosis, anthrax, yaws, ophthalmia, smallpox, tropical
+sore, and the eggs of parasitic worms may be and are carried in this
+way. In the case of over 30 different disease organisms and parasitic
+worms, actual laboratory proof exists, and where lacking is replaced by
+circumstantial evidence amounting almost to certainty.
+
+
+
+
+EXCLUDING AND CAPTURING FLIES.
+
+
+The principal effort to control this dangerous insect must be made at
+the source of supply--its breeding places. Absolute cleanliness and the
+removal or destruction of anything in which flies may breed are
+essential; and this is something that can be done even in cities.
+Perhaps it can be done more easily in the cities than in villages, on
+account of their greater police power and the lesser insistence on the
+rights of the individual. Once people are educated to the danger and
+learn to find the breeding places, the rest will be easy.
+
+In spite of what has just been said, it is often necessary to catch or
+otherwise destroy adult flies, or to protect food materials from
+contamination and persons from annoyance or danger; hence the value of
+fly papers and poisons, flytraps, and insect screens.
+
+
+THE USE OF INSECT SCREENS.
+
+A careful screening of windows and doors during the summer months, with
+the supplementary use of sticky fly papers, is a protective measure
+against house flies known to everyone. As regards screening, it is only
+necessary here to emphasize the importance of keeping food supplies
+screened or otherwise covered so that flies can gain no access to them.
+This applies not only to homes but also to stores, restaurants, milk
+shops, and the like. Screening, of course, will have no effect in
+decreasing the number of flies, but at least it has the virtue of
+lessening the danger of contamination of food.
+
+Insect screens for doors and windows should be well made and must fit
+tightly, otherwise they will not keep insects out. It is equally
+important that they be made of good and durable screen cloth. Copper
+insect screen cloth, although a little higher in price, will prove more
+economical in the long run, as it lasts many years. If, however, the
+cost of copper screen cloth is objectionable, steel screen cloth, either
+painted or galvanized, can be used. Painted steel screen cloth will last
+one or more years without repainting, its durability depending upon the
+climate. In humid regions, of course, it will rust more quickly than it
+will where the climate is dry. The same may be said of galvanized steel
+insect screen cloth.
+
+Insect screen cloth made with 16 meshes to the inch is recommended, for
+16-mesh screen cloth will keep out flies and most mosquitoes[9] and
+other small insects which at times are found almost everywhere.
+
+[Footnote 9: Where the yellow fever or dengue fever mosquito occurs,
+18-mesh screen cloth (or 16-mesh screen cloth made from extra heavy
+wire) should be used.]
+
+
+FLY PAPERS AND POISONS.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Conical hoop flytrap side view. _A_, Hoops
+forming frame at bottom. _B_, Hoops forming frame at top. _C_, Top of
+trap made of barrel head. _D_, Strips around door. _E_, Door frame. _F_,
+Screen on door. _G_, Buttons holding door. _H_, Screen on outside of
+trap. _I_, Strips on side of trap between hoops. _J_, Tips of these
+strips projecting to form legs. _K_, Cone. _L_, United edges of screen
+forming cone. _M_, Aperture at apex of cone. (Bishopp.)]
+
+The use of sticky fly papers to destroy flies that have gained access to
+houses is well known. Fly-poison preparations also are common. Many of
+the commercial fly poisons contain arsenic, and their use in the
+household is attended with considerable danger, especially to children.
+This danger is less with the use of a weak solution of formalin. A very
+effective fly poison is made by adding 3 teaspoonfuls of the commercial
+formalin to a pint of milk or water sweetened with a little brown sugar.
+A convenient way of exposing this poison is by partly filling an
+ordinary drinking glass with the solution. A saucer or plate is then
+lined with white blotting paper cut the size of the dish and placed
+bottom up over the glass. The whole is then quickly inverted and a small
+match stick placed under the edge of the glass. As the solution
+evaporates from the paper more flows out from the glass and thus the
+supply is automatically renewed.
+
+
+FLY SPRAYS.
+
+Sprays designed to destroy or repel house flies fill a certain need in
+connection with the house-fly problem. No very satisfactory repellent
+substances for this insect have been found which are at the same time
+adaptable to general use about the home, or places where foods are
+handled. Extracts of pyrethrum flowers are now generally available
+commercially, and these give fairly good results in the destruction of
+house flies in buildings. Most of the sprays of pyrethrum extract
+contain kerosene oil as a carrier, and undoubtedly the kerosene has much
+to do with the toxicity of the spray. Such materials are most applicable
+to buildings which become infested with flies and which can be readily
+closed up at night and the air within thoroughly saturated with the
+spray by means of an atomizer. Under such conditions the flies are
+rather quickly overcome by the spray and if a sufficient quantity is
+used they will not revive.
+
+
+FLYTRAPS.
+
+Flytraps may be used to advantage in decreasing the number of flies.
+Their use has been advocated not only because of the immediate results,
+but because of the chances that the flies may be caught before they lay
+eggs, and the number of future generations will be reduced greatly.
+
+Many types of flytraps are on the market. As a rule the larger ones are
+the more effective. Anyone with a few tools can construct flytraps for a
+small part of the price of the ready-made ones. A trap (fig. 8) which is
+very effective in catching flies and is easily made, durable, and cheap,
+may be made of four barrel hoops, four laths, a few strips of boxing,
+and 8 1/2 lineal feet of screening, 24 inches wide. (For greater details
+see Farmers' Bulletin 734.)
+
+The effectiveness of the traps will depend on the selection of baits. A
+good bait for catching house flies is 1 part of blackstrap molasses to 3
+parts of water, after the mixture has been allowed to ferment for a day
+or two. Overripe or fermenting bananas crushed and placed in the bait
+pans give good results, especially with milk added to them. A mixture of
+equal parts brown sugar and curd of sour milk, thoroughly moistened,
+gives good results after it has been allowed to stand for three or four
+days.
+
+
+
+
+PREVENTING THE BREEDING OF FLIES.
+
+
+As previously stated, fly papers, poisons, and traps are at best only
+temporary expedients. The most logical method of abating the fly
+nuisance is the elimination or treatment of all breeding places. It
+would appear from what is known of the life history and habits of the
+common house fly that it is perfectly feasible for cities and towns to
+reduce the numbers of this annoying and dangerous insect so greatly as
+to render it of comparatively slight account. On farms also, in dairies,
+and under rural conditions generally, much can and should be done to
+control the fly, which here, as elsewhere, constitutes a very serious
+menace to health.
+
+
+CONSTRUCTION AND CARE OF STABLES.
+
+In formulating rules for the construction and care of stables and the
+disposal of manure the following points must be taken into
+consideration. In the first place, the ground of soil-floor stables may
+offer a suitable place for the development of fly larvæ. The larvæ will
+migrate from the manure to the soil and continue their growth in the
+moist ground. This takes place to some extent even when the manure is
+removed from the stables every day. Even wooden floors are not entirely
+satisfactory unless they are perfectly water-tight, since larvæ will
+crawl through the cracks and continue their development in the moist
+ground below. Water-tight floors of concrete or masonry, therefore, are
+desirable. Flies have been found to breed in surprising numbers in small
+accumulations of material in the corners of feed troughs and mangers,
+and it is important that such places be kept clean.
+
+
+FLY-TIGHT MANURE PITS.
+
+The Bureau of Entomology for a number of years has advised that manure
+from horse stables be kept in fly-tight pits or bins. Such pits can be
+built in or attached to the stable so that manure can be easily thrown
+in at the time of cleaning and so constructed that the manure can be
+readily removed. It is desirable that the manure be placed in these
+fly-proof receptacles as soon as possible after it is voided. The
+essential point is that flies be prevented from reaching the manure, and
+for this reason the pit or bin must be tightly constructed, preferably
+of concrete, and the lid kept closed except when the manure is being
+thrown in or removed. The difficulty has been that manure often becomes
+infested before it is put into the container, and flies frequently breed
+out before it is emptied and often escape through the cracks. To obviate
+these difficulties a manure box or pit with a modified tent trap or cone
+trap attached is desirable.
+
+In order to retain the fertilizing value of manure to the greatest
+extent it is advisable that air be excluded from it as much as possible
+and that it be protected from the leaching action of rains. This being
+the case, there is really no necessity for covering a large portion of
+the top of the box with a trap, but merely to have holes large enough to
+attract flies to the light, and to cover these holes with ordinary
+conical traps, with the legs cut off, so, that the bottoms of the traps
+will fit closely to the box. The same arrangement can be made where
+manure is kept in a pit. If manure boxes or pits are kept fly tight they
+are satisfactory under farm or dairy conditions for the storage of
+manure during the busy season when it can not be hauled out daily.
+
+
+FREQUENCY WITH WHICH MANURE SHOULD BE REMOVED IN CITIES AND TOWNS.
+
+In deciding the question as to how often manure should be removed in
+cities and towns, it should be borne in mind that when the larvæ have
+finished feeding they will often leave the manure and pupate in the
+ground below or crawl some distance away to pupate in débris under
+boards or stones and the like. Hence the manure should be removed before
+the larvæ reach the migratory stage; that is to say, removal is
+necessary every three days, and certainly not less frequently than twice
+a week during the summer months. A series of orders issued in 1906 by
+the health department of the District of Columbia, on the authority of
+the Commissioners of the District, covers most of these points, and
+these orders, which may well serve as a model to other communities
+desiring to undertake similar measures, may be briefly condensed as
+follows:
+
+
+   HEALTH OFFICE REGULATIONS FOR CONTROL OF HOUSE FLIES IN CITIES.
+
+     All stalls in which animals are kept shall have the surface of the
+     ground covered with a water-tight floor. Every person occupying a
+     building where domestic animals are kept shall maintain in
+     connection therewith a bin or pit for the reception of manure and,
+     pending the removal from the premises of the manure from the animal
+     or animals, shall place such manure in said bin or pit. This bin
+     shall be so constructed as to exclude rain water and shall in all
+     other respects be water-tight, except as it may be connected with
+     the public sewer. It shall be provided with a suitable cover and
+     constructed so as to prevent the ingress and egress of flies. No
+     person owning a stable shall keep any manure or permit any manure
+     to be kept in or upon any portion of the premises other than the
+     bin or pit described, nor shall he allow any such bin or pit to be
+     overfilled or needlessly uncovered. Horse manure may be kept
+     tightly rammed into well-covered barrels for the purpose of removal
+     in such barrels. Every person keeping manure in the more densely
+     populated parts of the District shall cause all such manure to be
+     removed from the premises at least twice every week between June 1
+     and October 31, and at least once every week between November 1 and
+     May 31 of the following year. No person shall remove or transport
+     any manure over any public highway in any of the more densely
+     populated parts of the District except in a tight vehicle, which,
+     if not inclosed, must be effectually covered with canvas, so as to
+     prevent the manure from being dropped. No person shall deposit
+     manure removed from the bins or pits within any of the more densely
+     populated parts of the District without a permit from the health
+     officer. Any person violating any of the provisions shall, upon
+     conviction thereof, be punished by a fine of not more than $40 for
+     each offense.
+
+Not only must horse stables be cared for, but chicken yards, piggeries,
+and garbage receptacles as well. In cities, with better methods of
+disposal of garbage and with the lessening of the number of horses and
+horse stables consequent upon electric street railways, bicycles, and
+automobiles, the time may come, and before very long, when window
+screens may be discarded.
+
+
+DISPOSAL OF MANURE IN RURAL AND SUBURBAN DISTRICTS.
+
+The control of flies in rural and suburban districts offers a much more
+difficult problem. Here it is often out of the question to remove all
+manure from the premises twice a week, and the problem is to find some
+method of disposal or storage which will conserve the fertilizing value
+of the manure and at the same time prevent all flies from breeding, or
+destroy such as do breed there.
+
+With this idea in mind, it has been recommended that stable manure be
+collected every morning and hauled out at once and spread rather thinly
+on the fields. This procedure is advisable from the point of view of
+getting the maximum fertilizing value from the manure. Immediate
+spreading on the fields is said largely to prevent the loss of plant
+food which occurs when manure is allowed to stand in heaps for a long
+time. This method will be effective in preventing the breeding of flies
+only if the manure is hauled out promptly every morning and spread
+thinly so that it will dry, since it is unfavorable for fly development
+in desiccated condition. The proper scattering of the manure on the
+fields is best and most easily and quickly accomplished by the use of a
+manure spreader, and many dairies, and even farms, are practicing the
+daily distribution of manure in this way. Removal every three or four
+days will not be sufficient. Observations have shown that if manure
+becomes flyblown and the maggots attain a fairly good size before the
+manure is scattered on the fields, they can continue their development
+and will pupate in the ground.
+
+
+CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF MANURE TO DESTROY FLY MAGGOTS.
+
+During the summer months, when fly breeding is going on most actively,
+the farmer is also busy and often can not spare the time to remove
+manure regularly. The general practice, therefore, has been to keep the
+manure in heaps located, as a rule, very near the stables. How can fly
+breeding be prevented in such accumulations? As a result of recent
+investigations, it is now possible to point out two methods which are
+practical and effective.
+
+The first is the treatment of the manure pile with chemical substances
+which will kill the eggs and maggots of the house fly. The Bureau of
+Entomology, in cooperation with the Bureau of Chemistry and the Bureau
+of Plant Industry, has conducted a series of experiments in which a
+large number of chemicals were applied to infested manure and
+observations made, not only on their efficiency in killing the maggots
+but also as to their effect on the chemical composition and bacterial
+flora of the manure. The object was to find some cheap chemical which
+would be effective in destroying the fly larvæ and at the same time
+would not reduce the fertilizing value of the manure.
+
+
+TREATMENT WITH HELLEBORE.
+
+Of the numerous substances tried, the one which seems best to fulfill
+these conditions is powdered hellebore.[10] For the treatment of manure a
+water extract of the hellebore is prepared by adding 1/2 pound of the
+powder to every 10 gallons of water, and after stirring it is allowed to
+stand 24 hours. The mixture thus prepared is sprinkled over the manure
+at the rate of 10 gallons to every 8 bushels (10 cubic feet) of manure.
+From the result of 12 experiments with manure piles treated under
+natural conditions it appears that such treatment results in the
+destruction of from 88 to 99 per cent of the fly larvæ.
+
+Studies of treated manure indicated that its composition and rotting
+were not interfered with. Furthermore, several field tests showed that
+there was no apparent injury to growing crops when fertilized with
+treated manure.
+
+Since the solution is somewhat poisonous it should not be left exposed
+where it might be drunk by livestock. It is quite safe to say that
+chickens will not be injured by pecking at hellebore-treated manure.
+This has been tested carefully. Hellebore can be obtained both in ground
+and powdered form, but the powder gives the best results in the
+destruction of fly larvæ.
+
+[Footnote 10: _Veratrum viride_ or _V. aloum_.]
+
+
+TREATMENT WITH POWDERED BORAX.
+
+Another chemical found to be even more effective as a larvicide is
+powdered borax. This substance is available in commercial form in all
+parts of the country. It has the advantage of being comparatively
+nonpoisonous and noninflammable and is easily transported and handled.
+The minimum amount necessary to kill fly larvæ was found to be 0.62
+pound per 8 bushels of manure, or about 1 pound per 16 cubic feet. Best
+results were obtained when the borax was applied in solution, or when
+water was sprinkled on after the borax had been scattered evenly over
+the pile. Borax is not only effective in killing the larvæ, but when it
+comes in contact with the eggs it prevents them from hatching. When
+applied at the rate of 1 pound to 16 cubic feet it was found to kill
+about 90 per cent of the larvæ, heavier applications killing from 98 to
+99 per cent.
+
+Borax has no injurious effect on the chemical composition or rotting of
+the manure. However, when added in large quantities with manure to the
+soil it will cause considerable injury to growing plants. A number of
+experiments have been conducted to determine the effect on crops of the
+use of manure treated with borax as herein recommended. When applied at
+the rate of 15 tons per acre it appears that no injury as a rule will
+follow. Some crops are more sensitive to borax than others, and also the
+tendency to injury appears to vary on different soils. It is necessary,
+therefore, to repeat the warning issued in connection with a previous
+bulletin[11] on this subject, that great care be exercised, in the
+application of borax, that the manure does not receive more than 1 pound
+for every 16 cubic feet, and that not more than 15 tons of manure so
+treated are applied to the acre.
+
+In view of the possible injury from the borax treatment as a result of
+carelessness in applying it, or from other unforeseen conditions, it is
+recommended that horse manure and other farmyard manures which are to be
+used as fertilizer be treated with hellebore. Borax, on the other hand,
+is such a good larvicide that it call be used with advantage on the
+ground of soil-floor stables, in privies, on refuse piles, and on any
+accumulations of fermenting organic matter which are not to be used for
+fertilizing purposes.
+
+[Footnote 11: Department Bulletin 118, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
+p. 25.]
+
+
+TREATMENT WITH CALCIUM CYANAMID AND ACID PHOSPHATE.
+
+Many experiments with mixtures of commercial fertilizers were tried to
+determine whether fly larvæ would be killed by any substance the
+addition of which would increase the fertilizing value of the manure. A
+mixture of calcium cyanamid and acid phosphate was found to possess
+considerable larvicidal action. Several experiments showed that 1/2
+pound of calcium cyanamid plus 1/2 pound of acid phosphate to each
+bushel of manure give an apparent larvicidal action of 98 per cent. The
+mixture in the form of a powder was scattered evenly over the surface
+and then wet down with water. The use of this mixture adds to the manure
+two important elements, nitrogen and phosphorus.
+
+
+MAGGOT TRAP FOR DESTRUCTION OF FLY LARVÆ FROM HORSE MANURE.
+
+The second method of handling manure is one which does not require the
+application of chemicals. It is based on the fact, mentioned on page 4,
+that the larvæ of the house fly, a few hours before they are ready to
+pupate, show a strong tendency to migrate. This migration takes place
+mostly at night, and the larvæ sometimes crawl considerable distances
+from the manure pile. Now it is possible by means of a very simple
+arrangement called a maggot trap to destroy fully 99 per cent of all
+maggots breeding in a given lot of manure. A successful maggot trap
+which the Maryland Agricultural College constructed at the college barn
+is shown in Figure 9. The trap was designed by R. H. Hutchison and
+constructed under his supervision. The manure, instead of being thrown
+on the ground, is heaped carefully on a slatted platform, which stands
+about 1 foot high. This particular platform measures 10 by 20 feet.
+There are six 2 by 4 pieces running lengthwise 2 feet apart. Across
+these are nailed 1-inch strips with 1/2 to 1 inch spaces between them.
+The wooden platform stands on a concrete floor, and a rim or wall of
+concrete 4 inches high surrounds the floor. The floor slopes a little
+toward one corner from which a pipe leads to a small cistern near by.
+This pipe is plugged with a stopper of soft wood, and the concrete floor
+is filled with water to a depth of 1 inch in the shallowest part. Flies
+will lay their eggs on the manure as usual, but the maggots, when they
+have finished feeding and begin to migrate, crawl out of the manure,
+drop into the water below, and are drowned. Each week the plug is
+removed from the pipe, and all the maggots are washed into the cistern.
+The floor is then cleaned of any solid particles by means of a
+long-handled stable broom or by a strong stream of water from a hose.
+The pipe being again plugged, the floor is again partly filled with
+water and the trap is ready for another week's catch. A platform of this
+size will hold the manure accumulating from four horses during the
+period of four months, or about 20 days' accumulation from 25 horses, if
+the heap is well built and made at least 5 feet high.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9. A maggot trap for house-fly control. View showing
+the concrete basin containing water in which larvæ are drowned, and the
+wooden platform on which manure is heaped. (Hutchison.)]
+
+Experience with this maggot trap clearly indicates that best results can
+be secured if the manure is compactly heaped on the platform and kept
+thoroughly moistened. It is best to apply a small amount of water each
+morning after the stable cleanings have been added to the pile. It
+should be borne in mind that in order to make this trap a success the
+platform beneath the pile must be kept comparatively free of
+accumulations of manure, and moisture applied regularly to drive the
+maggots out.
+
+
+COMPACT HEAPING OF MANURE.
+
+Another method of disposing of manure has been recommended by English
+writers. The manure is built up in a compact rectangular heap, the sides
+of which are beaten hard with shovels. The ground around the edges of
+the heap is made smooth and hard and loose straw is placed in small
+windrows around the manure pile about 1 foot from the edge. The
+exclusion of the air, together with the high temperature and gases
+formed by fermentation, tends to make the heap unfavorable for the
+development of fly larvæ. Those which do happen to develop in the
+surface layers will migrate and pupate in the ring of straw around the
+heap, where they are destroyed by burning.
+
+
+GARBAGE DISPOSAL AND TREATMENT OF MISCELLANEOUS BREEDING PLACES.
+
+It is just as true under farm conditions as in cities that breeding
+places other than horse manure must be attended to. Garbage must be
+disposed of, hog and poultry manure must be cared for, and especially on
+dairy farms it is extremely important that every precaution be taken to
+prevent the contamination of milk by flies.
+
+It is very desirable that all refuse possible, accumulated from cities
+and towns, be burned. Incineration has been practiced successfully by a
+number of towns and cities with populations of from 10,000 to 15,000 and
+over. In larger cities provision should be made for burning carcasses as
+well as garbage and other refuse. If city and town garbage is sold to
+hog feeders the municipal authorities should have control of the
+sanitary conditions about the feeding yards, as there is great danger
+from fly breeding in such places if not kept clean.
+
+
+SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN RELATION TO THE PREVENTION OF FLY-BORNE DISEASES.
+
+In the consideration of these measures we have not touched upon the
+remedies for house flies breeding in human excrement. On account of the
+danger of the carriage of typhoid fever, the dropping of human excrement
+in the open in cities or towns, either in vacant lots or in dark
+alleyways, should be made a misdemeanor, and the same care should be
+taken by the sanitary authorities to remove or cover up such depositions
+as is taken in the removal of the bodies of dead animals. For modern
+methods of sewage disposal adapted for farm use one should consult
+Department of Agriculture Department Bulletin No. 57. In the absence of
+modern methods of sewage disposal, absolutely sanitary privies are prime
+necessities, whether in towns or on farms. Directions for building and
+caring for such privies will be found in Farmers' Bulletin 463 and in
+Yearbook Separate 712, "Sewage Disposal on the Farm." The box privy is
+always a nuisance from many points of view, and is undoubtedly dangerous
+as a breeder of flies which may carry the germs of intestinal diseases.
+The dry-earth treatment of privies is unsatisfactory. No box privy
+should be permitted to exist unless it is thoroughly and regularly
+treated with some effective larvicide. Since the fecal matter in such
+privies is seldom used for fertilizing purposes it may well be treated
+liberally with borax. The powdered borax may be scattered two or three
+times a week over the exposed surface so as to whiten it.
+
+
+
+
+WHAT COMMUNITIES CAN DO TO ELIMINATE THE HOUSE FLY.
+
+
+Antifly crusades have been very numerous in recent years, and some have
+been noteworthy both in methods and in results. However, it will not be
+amiss here to emphasize the importance of concerted, organized effort on
+the part of whole communities, not only cities, but suburban and rural
+neighborhoods as well. By the most painstaking care one may prevent all
+fly breeding on his premises, but it will avail him little if his
+neighbors are not equally careful. Some sort of cooperation is
+necessary. One of the first and most important elements in any antifly
+crusade is a vigorous and continued educational campaign. It has been
+the experience of those who have undertaken such crusades that people
+generally regard the fly as a somewhat harmless nuisance and that the
+first work of the campaign was to bring the people to a realization of
+the dangers from flies and the possibility of getting rid of them. In
+the educational campaign every possible means of publicity can be
+employed, including newspapers, lectures, moving pictures, posters,
+handbills, cartoons, instruction in schools, etc.
+
+The antifly crusade is a matter of public interest and should be
+supported by the community as a whole and engineered by the health
+officers. But health officers can do little toward the necessary work of
+inspection and elimination without funds, and therefore the support of
+the campaign must manifest itself in increased appropriations for
+public-health work. Very often it is lack of funds which prevents the
+health officers from taking the initiative in the antifly crusades, and
+there must necessarily be much agitation and education before they can
+profitably take up the work. Right here lies a field for civic
+associations, women's clubs, boards of trade, etc., to exercise their
+best energy, initiative, and leadership.
+
+
+
+
+ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE WHEN THIS
+PUBLICATION WAS LAST PRINTED
+
+  _Secretary of Agriculture_              ARTHUR M. HYDE.
+
+  _Assistant Secretary_                   R. W. DUNLAP.
+
+  _Director of Scientific Work_           A. F. WOODS.
+
+  _Director of Regulatory Work_           WALTER G. CAMPBELL.
+
+  _Director of Extension Work_            C. W. WARBURTON.
+
+  _Director of Personnel and Business
+       Administration_                    W. W. STOCKBERGER.
+
+  _Director of Information_               M. S. EISENHOWER.
+
+  _Solicitor_                             E. L. MARSHALL.
+
+  _Bureau of Agricultural Economics_      NILS A. OLSEN, _Chief_.
+
+  _Bureau of Agricultural Engineering_    S. H. MCCRORY, _Chief_.
+
+  _Bureau of Animal Industry_             JOHN R. MOHLER, _Chief_.
+
+  _Bureau of Biological Survey_           PAUL G. REDINGTON, _Chief_.
+
+  _Bureau of Chemistry and Soils_         H. G. KNIGHT, _Chief_.
+
+  _Office of Cooperative Extension Work_  C. B. SMITH, _Chief_.
+
+  _Bureau of Dairy Industry_              O. E. REED, _Chief_.
+
+  _Bureau of Entomology_                  C. L. MARLATT, _Chief_.
+
+  _Office of Experiment Stations_         JAMES T. JARDINE, _Chief_.
+
+  _Food and Drug Administration_          WALTER G. CAMPBELL, _Director_
+                                          _of Regulatory Work, in Charge._
+
+  _Forest Service_                        R. Y. STUART, _Chief_.
+
+  _Grain Futures Administration_          J. W. T. DUVEL, _Chief_.
+
+  _Bureau of Home Economics_              LOUISE STANLEY, _Chief_.
+
+  _Library_                               CLARIBEL R. BARNETT, _Librarian_.
+
+  _Bureau of Plant Industry_              WILLIAM A. TAYLOR, _Chief_.
+
+  _Bureau of Plant Quarantine_            LEE A. STRONG, _Chief_.
+
+  _Bureau of Public Roads_                THOMAS H. MACDONALD, _Chief_.
+
+  _Weather Bureau_                        CHARLES F. MARVIN, _Chief_.
+
+
+U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1938
+
+
+For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.
+Price 5 cents
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note:
+Footnotes 10 & 11 renumbered to avoid the confusion generated
+by two footnote 9's.]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The House Fly and How to Suppress It, by 
+L. O. Howard and F. C. Bishopp
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HOUSE FLY AND HOW TO ***
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+ <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
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+ The Project Gutenberg eBook of The House Fly and How to Suppress It, by L. O. Howard and F. C. Bishopp.
+ </title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The House Fly and How to Suppress It, by 
+L. O. Howard and F. C. Bishopp
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The House Fly and How to Suppress It
+       U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin No. 1408
+
+Author: L. O. Howard and F. C. Bishopp
+
+Release Date: March 26, 2006 [EBook #18050]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HOUSE FLY AND HOW TO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by K.D. Thornton and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
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+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<div style="width:36em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_0" id="Page_0"> </a></span></div>
+<div class="bbbox" style="width:34em; height:56em; background-color:#cccccc; background:url(images/tile.gif); color:#000000;" >
+<p style="text-align:center; margin-top:0em; padding-top:.5em; font-size:2.5em; margin-bottom:0; background-color:#ffffff; color:#000000;"   >U. S. DEPARTMENT OF<br />AGRICULTURE</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:1.5em; margin-bottom:0em; margin-top:0; padding-bottom:.5em; background-color:#ffffff; color:#000000;" class="center bb">
+FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 1408</p>
+
+<p style="margin-bottom:0; padding-top:1em; margin-top:0; font-size:2.5em; font-weight:bold; text-align:center;" ><i>The</i><br />
+HOUSE FLY AND HOW<br />
+TO SUPPRESS IT</p>
+
+<img src="images/0.gif" style="width:20em; margin-left:7em; margin-right:7em; padding-top: 2em; text-align:center; z-index:1; clear:both;" class="center" alt="cover image" title="cover image" /><br />
+<img src="images/usda.gif" style="width:9em; position:relative; float:left; z-index:2; margin-left:-1em; margin-top:-1em; clear:both;" alt="USDA logo" title="USDA logo" /><br /></div>
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"> -1- </a></span></p>
+
+<div class="bbox" style="width:30em; padding-left:2em; padding-right:2em;"><p class="dropcap">The presence of flies is an indication of uncleanliness,
+insanitary conditions, and improper
+disposal of substances in which they breed. They
+are not only annoying; they are actually dangerous
+to health, because they may carry disease germs to
+exposed foods.</p>
+
+<p>It is therefore important to know where and how
+they breed, and to apply such knowledge in combating
+them. This bulletin gives information on this
+subject. Besides giving directions for ridding the
+house of flies by the use of screens, fly papers, poisons,
+and flytraps, it lays especial emphasis on the
+explanation of methods of eliminating breeding
+places and preventing the breeding of flies.</p>
+
+<p>This bulletin supersedes Farmers' Bulletin 851.</p>
+
+<p class="bt"><br />Washington, D. C. Issued April, 1925; revised November, 1926</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"> -2- </a></span></p><h1>
+THE HOUSE FLY<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor" style="font-size:.5em;" >[1]</a> AND HOW<br />
+TO SUPPRESS IT.</h1>
+
+<p class="center">By <span class="smcap">L. O. Howard</span>, <i>Chief of the Bureau of Entomology</i>, and <span class="smcap">F. C. Bishopp</span>,
+<i>Entomologist</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<table class="toc" summary="table of contents">
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="right"><span>Page.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Kinds of flies found in houses </td><td> &nbsp;<a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Where the true house fly lays its eggs </td><td> &nbsp;<a href="#Page_2">2</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>How the house fly passes the winter </td><td> &nbsp;<a href="#Page_6">6</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Carriage of disease by the house fly </td><td> &nbsp;<a href="#Page_6">6</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Excluding and capturing flies </td><td> &nbsp;<a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;" >The use of screens </span></td><td> &nbsp;<a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;" >Fly papers and poisons </span></td><td> &nbsp;<a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;" >Fly sprays </span></td><td> &nbsp;<a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;" >Flytraps </span></td><td> &nbsp;<a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Preventing the breeding of flies </td><td> &nbsp;<a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;" >Construction and care of stables </span></td><td> &nbsp;<a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;" >Fly-tight manure pits </span></td><td><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;" >Frequency with which manure should be removed in cities and towns </span></td><td><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;" >Health office regulations for control of house flies in cities </span></td><td><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;" >Disposal of manure in rural and suburban districts </span></td><td><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;" >Chemical treatment of manure to destroy fly maggots </span></td><td><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;" >Maggot trap for destruction of fly larv&aelig; from horse manure </span></td><td><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;" >Compact heaping of manure </span></td><td><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;" >Garbage disposal and treatment of miscellaneous breeding places </span></td><td><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;" >Sewage disposal in relation to the prevention of fly-borne diseases </span></td><td><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>What communities can do to eliminate the house fly </td><td><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>KINDS OF FLIES FOUND IN HOUSES.</h2>
+
+
+<p class="dropcap">Several species of flies are found commonly in houses. Some
+of them so closely resemble the true house fly that it requires
+very careful observation to distinguish them from it.</p>
+
+<p>One of these is the biting stable fly<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> (fig. 1). It occurs frequently
+in houses and differs from the house fly in the important
+particular that its mouth parts are formed for piercing the skin.
+This fly is so often mistaken for the house fly that most people think
+that the house fly can bite.</p>
+
+<p>Another frequent visitant of houses, particularly in the spring and
+fall, is the cluster fly.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> It is somewhat larger than the house fly,
+and is distinguished by its covering of fine yellowish hairs. Occasionally
+this fly occurs in houses in such numbers as to cause great
+annoyance. It gets its name of "cluster fly" from its habit of collecting
+in compact groups or clusters in protected corners during
+cold periods.</p>
+
+<p>Several species of metallic greenish or bluish flies also are found
+occasionally in houses. These include a blue-bottle fly,<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> the black
+blowflies,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> and the green-bottle (fig. 2) flies.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> They breed in decaying
+animal matter.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"> -3- </a></span>There is still another species, smaller than any of those so far mentioned,
+which is sometimes called the "lesser house fly."<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> This
+insect is distinguished from the ordinary house fly by its paler and
+more pointed body. The male, which is commoner than the female,
+has large pale patches at the base of the abdomen, which are
+translucent when the fly is seen on the window pane. These little
+flies are not the young of the larger flies. Flies do not grow after
+the wings have once expanded and dried.</p>
+
+<div class="twofly"><div class="figleft" style="clear:left;"><a href="images/1.gif"><img src="images/t1.jpg" class="smimg" alt="Fig. 1.--The stable fly. Much enlarged."
+title="Fig. 1.--The stable fly. Much enlarged." /></a><p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash; The stable fly. Much enlarged.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft"><a href="images/2.gif"><img src="images/t2.jpg" class="smimg" alt="Fig. 2.--One of the green-bottle flies (Lucilia caesar). Much enlarged."
+title="Fig. 2.--One of the green-bottle flies (Lucilia caesar). Much enlarged." /></a>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 2.&mdash; One of the green-bottle flies<br /> (<i>Lucilia caesar</i>). Much enlarged.</p></div></div>
+
+<p style="clear:left;">In late summer and autumn many specimens of a small fruit fly,
+known as the "vinegar fly,"<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> make their appearance, attracted by the
+odor of overripe fruit.</p>
+
+<p>All of these species, however, are greatly dwarfed in numbers by
+the common house fly. In 1900 the senior author made collections of
+the flies in dining rooms in different parts
+of the country, and found that the true
+house fly made up 98.8 per cent of the whole
+number captured. The remainder comprised
+various species, including those mentioned above.</p>
+
+
+<h2>WHERE THE TRUE HOUSE FLY LAYS ITS EGGS.</h2>
+
+<div class="figleft"><a href="images/3.gif"><img src="images/t3.jpg" class="smimg" alt="Fig. 3.--The true house fly.
+Enlarged." title="Fig. 3.--The true house fly.
+Enlarged." /></a><p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. </span>3.&mdash; The true house fly.<br /> Enlarged.</p></div>
+<p>The true house fly (fig. 3), which is found
+in nearly all parts of the world, is a medium-sized
+fly with four black stripes on the back
+and a sharp elbow in one of the veins of the
+wings. The house fly can not bite, its mouth parts being spread out
+at the tip for sucking up liquid substances.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs (figs. 4, 5) are laid upon horse manure. This substance
+seems to be its favorite larval food. It will breed also in
+human excrement, and because of this habit it is very dangerous
+to the health of human beings, carrying as it does the germs of
+intestinal diseases, such as typhoid fever and cholera, from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"> -4- </a></span>excreta to food supplies. It has also been found to breed freely
+in hog manure, in considerable numbers in chicken dung, and to
+some extent in cow manure. Indeed, it will lay its eggs on a great
+variety of decaying vegetable and animal materials, but of the
+flies that infest dwelling houses, both in cities and on farms, a
+vast proportion come from horse
+manure.</p>
+
+<div class="center caption"><a href="images/4.jpg"><img src="images/t4.jpg" class="bimg" alt="Fig. 4.--Eggs of the house fly.
+About natural size. (Newstead.)" title="Fig. 4.--Eggs of the house fly. About natural size. (Newstead.)" /></a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 4.&mdash; Eggs of the house fly. About natural size. (Newstead.)</div>
+
+<p>It often happens, however, that
+this fly is very abundant in localities
+where little or no horse
+manure is found, and in such cases
+it breeds in other manure, such
+as chicken manure in backyard
+poultry lots, or in slops or fermenting
+vegetable material, such
+as spent hops, moist bran, ensilage,
+or rotting potatoes. Accumulations
+of organic material
+on the dumping grounds of towns
+and cities often produce flies in
+great numbers.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><a href="images/5.jpg"><img src="images/t5.jpg" class="smimg" alt="Fig. 5.--Eggs of the house fly. Highly
+magnified. (Newstead.)" title="Fig. 5.--Eggs of the house fly. Highly
+magnified. (Newstead.)" /></a><p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash; Eggs of the house fly. <br />Highly
+magnified. (Newstead.)</p></div>
+
+<p>The house fly begins laying eggs
+in from 2&#189; to 20 days after emerging,
+the time interval depending to a large extent upon temperature,
+humidity, and character and abundance of food. The number of
+eggs laid by an individual fly at one time ranges from 120 to 159
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"> -5- </a></span>and a single female will usually lay two and sometimes four such
+batches. Dunn has recently reported that in Panama a fly may
+deposit as many as 2,367 eggs in 21 batches, and sometimes an interval
+of only 36 hours may occur between the deposition of large
+batches of eggs. The enormous numbers in which the insects occur
+are thus plainly accounted for, especially when the abundance and
+universal occurrence of appropriate larval food is considered. The
+eggs are deposited below the surface in the cracks and interstices of
+the manure, several females usually depositing in one spot, so that
+the eggs commonly are found in large clusters (fig. 4) in selected
+places near the top of the pile, where a high degree of heat is maintained
+by the fermentation below. The second batch of eggs is laid
+from 8 to 10 days after the first. The eggs usually hatch in less than
+24 hours. Under the most favorable conditions of temperature and
+moisture the egg state may last hardly more than 8 hours. The maggots
+which issue from the eggs are very small and transparent. They
+grow rapidly, completing the growth of the larva stage in three
+days under the most favorable conditions, although this stage usually
+lasts from 4 to 7 days. The larval period may be prolonged greatly
+by low temperature or by dryness or scarcity of the larval food.
+As the larv&aelig; (fig. 6) attain full size they gradually assume a creamy
+white color. A few hours before pupation they become very restless
+and migrate from their feeding ground in search of a favorable
+place in which to pass the pupa stage. They will often congregate at
+the edges of manure piles near the ground or burrow into the soil
+beneath, or they may crawl considerable distances away from the pile
+to pupate in the ground or in loose material under the edges of
+stones, boards, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="caption center"><a href="images/6.jpg"><img src="images/t6.jpg" class="bimg" alt="Fig. 6.--Larv&aelig; , or maggots, of the house fly.
+ About natural size. (Newstead.)" title="Fig. 6.--Larv&aelig; , or maggots, of the house fly. About natural size. (Newstead.)" /></a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 6.&mdash; Larv&aelig; , or maggots, of the house fly. About natural size. (Newstead.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"> -6- </a></span>The pup&aelig; (fig. 7), or "sleepers," are more or less barrel shaped
+and dark brown in color. In midsummer this stage usually lasts
+from 3 to 6 days. The pupa stage is easily affected by temperature
+changes and may be prolonged during hibernation for as long as 4
+or 5 months. Numerous rearing experiments in various parts of
+the country have shown that the shortest time between the deposition
+of eggs and the emergence of the adult fly is 8 days, and 10 and 12
+day records were very common.</p>
+
+<p>The adult fly, upon emerging from the puparium, works its way
+upward through the soil or manure and upon reaching the air it
+crawls about while its wings expand and the body hardens and
+assumes its normal coloration. In from 2&#189; to 20 days, as previously
+stated, the female is ready to deposit eggs. As in the case of other
+periods of its life history, so the preoviposition period is prolonged
+considerably by the lower temperatures of spring and fall. In midsummer,
+with a developmental period of from 8 to 10 days from egg
+to adult, and a preoviposition period of from 3 to 4 days, a new
+generation would be started every 11 to 14 days. Thus the climate
+of the District of Columbia allows abundance of time for the development
+of from 10 to 12 generations every season.</p>
+
+<div class="caption center"><a href="images/7.jpg">
+<img src="images/t7.jpg" class="bimg" title="Fig. 7.--Pup&aelig; of the house fly. About natural size. (Newstead.)"
+ alt="Fig. 7.--Pup&aelig; of the house fly. About natural size. (Newstead.)" /></a><br />
+ <span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 7.&mdash; Pup&aelig; of the house fly. About natural size. (Newstead.)</div>
+
+<p>Flies usually remain near their breeding places if they have plenty
+of food, but experiments recently made at Dallas, Tex., show that
+they may migrate considerable distances; in fact, house flies, so
+marked that the particular individuals could be identified, have been
+recaptured in traps as far as 13 miles from the place where they
+were liberated.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"> -7- </a></span></p>
+<h2>HOW THE HOUSE FLY PASSES THE WINTER.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The prevailing opinion that the house fly lives through the winter
+as an adult, hiding in cracks and crevices of buildings, etc., appears
+to be erroneous. Under outdoor conditions house flies are killed
+during the first really cold nights, that is, when the temperature
+falls to about 15&deg; or 10&deg; F. In rooms and similar places protected
+from winds and partially heated during the winter flies have been
+kept alive in cages for long periods, but they never lived through
+the entire winter. In longevity experiments one record of 70 days
+and another of 91 days was obtained. No uncaged house flies were
+found during three seasons' observations in unheated and only partially
+heated attics, stables, unused rooms, etc., where favorable
+temperature conditions prevailed. The common occurrence in such
+places of the cluster fly and a few other species, which may be easily
+mistaken for the house fly, is responsible for the prevailing belief
+as to the way the house fly overwinters. There is therefore no reliable
+evidence whatever that adult house flies emerging during October
+and November pass the winter and are able to deposit their eggs
+the following spring, although they may continue active in heated
+buildings until nearly the end of January. On the other hand, there
+is evidence that house flies pass the winter as larv&aelig; and pup&aelig; , and
+that they sometimes breed continuously throughout the winter. In
+experiments at both Dallas, Tex., and Bethesda, Md., house flies have
+been found emerging during April from heavily infested manure
+heaps which had been set out and covered with cages during the preceding
+autumn. In the Southern States, during warm periods in
+midwinter, house flies may emerge and become somewhat troublesome;
+they frequently lay eggs on warm days.</p>
+
+<p>The second way in which the house fly may pass the winter is by
+continuous breeding. House flies congregate in heated rooms with
+the approach of the winter season. If no food or breeding materials
+are present they eventually die. However, where they have access to
+both food and suitable substances for egg laying they will continue
+breeding just as they do outdoors during the summer. Even in very
+cold climates there are undoubtedly many places, especially in cities,
+where house flies would have opportunity to pass the winter in this
+manner.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CARRIAGE OF DISEASE BY THE HOUSE FLY.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The body of the house fly is covered thickly with hairs and bristles
+of varying lengths, and this is especially true of the legs. Thus,
+when it crawls over infected material it readily becomes loaded with
+germs, and subsequent visits to human foods result in their contamination.
+Even more dangerous than the transference of germs on the
+legs and body of the fly is the fact that bacteria are found in greater
+numbers and live longer in its alimentary canal. These germs are
+voided, not only in the excrement of the fly, but also in small droplets
+of regurgitated matter which have been called "vomit spots." When
+we realize that flies frequent and feed upon the most filthy substances
+(it may be the excreta of typhoid or dysentery patients or
+the discharges of one suffering from tuberculosis), and that subsequently
+they may contaminate human foods with their feet or excreta
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"> -8- </a></span>or vomit spots, the necessity and importance of house-fly control is
+clear.</p>
+
+<p>In army camps, in mining camps, and in great public works, where
+large numbers of men are brought together for a longer or shorter
+time, there is seldom the proper care of excreta, and the carriage of
+typhoid germs from the latrines and privies to food by flies is common
+and often results in epidemics of typhoid fever.</p>
+
+<p>And such carriage of typhoid is by no means confined to great
+temporary camps. In farmhouses in small communities, and even in
+badly cared for portions of large cities, typhoid germs are carried
+from excrement to food by flies, and the proper supervision and
+treatment of the breeding places of the house fly become most important
+elements in the prevention of typhoid.</p>
+
+<p>In the same way other intestinal germ diseases, such as Asiatic
+cholera, dysentery, enteritis (inflammation of the intestine), and
+infantile diarrhea, are all so carried. There is strong circumstantial
+evidence also that tuberculosis, anthrax, yaws, ophthalmia, smallpox,
+tropical sore, and the eggs of parasitic worms may be and are carried
+in this way. In the case of over 30 different disease organisms and
+parasitic worms, actual laboratory proof exists, and where lacking
+is replaced by circumstantial evidence amounting almost to certainty.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2>EXCLUDING AND CAPTURING FLIES.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The principal effort to control this dangerous insect must be made
+at the source of supply&mdash; its breeding places. Absolute cleanliness
+and the removal or destruction of anything in which flies may breed
+are essential; and this is something that can be done even in cities.
+Perhaps it can be done more easily in the cities than in villages, on
+account of their greater police power and the lesser insistence on the
+rights of the individual. Once people are educated to the danger
+and learn to find the breeding places, the rest will be easy.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of what has just been said, it is often necessary to catch or
+otherwise destroy adult flies, or to protect food materials from
+contamination and persons from annoyance or danger; hence the value
+of fly papers and poisons, flytraps, and insect screens.</p>
+
+
+<p class="bcenter"><b>THE USE OF INSECT SCREENS.</b></p>
+
+<p>A careful screening of windows and doors during the summer
+months, with the supplementary use of sticky fly papers, is a
+protective measure against house flies known to everyone. As regards
+screening, it is only necessary here to emphasize the importance of
+keeping food supplies screened or otherwise covered so that flies can
+gain no access to them. This applies not only to homes but also to
+stores, restaurants, milk shops, and the like. Screening, of course,
+will have no effect in decreasing the number of flies, but at least it
+has the virtue of lessening the danger of contamination of food.</p>
+
+<p>Insect screens for doors and windows should be well made and must
+fit tightly, otherwise they will not keep insects out. It is equally
+important that they be made of good and durable screen cloth.
+Copper insect screen cloth, although a little higher in price, will prove
+more economical in the long run, as it lasts many years. If, however,
+the cost of copper screen cloth is objectionable, steel screen cloth,
+either painted or galvanized, can be used. Painted steel screen cloth
+will last one or more years without repainting, its durability depend<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"> -9- </a></span>ing
+upon the climate. In humid regions, of course, it will rust more
+quickly than it will where the climate is dry. The same may be said
+of galvanized steel insect screen cloth.</p>
+
+<p>Insect screen cloth made with 16 meshes to the inch is recommended,
+for 16-mesh screen cloth will keep out flies and most mosquitoes<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> and
+other small insects which at times are found almost everywhere.</p>
+
+
+<p class="bcenter"><b>FLY PAPERS AND POISONS.</b></p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><a href="images/8.gif"><img src="images/t8.jpg" class="smimg" alt="Fig. 8.--Conical hoop flytrap side view. A, Hoops forming
+frame at bottom. B, Hoops forming frame at top.
+C, Top of trap made of barrel head. D, Strips around
+door. E, Door frame. F, Screen on door. G, Buttons
+holding door. H, Screen on outside of trap. I, Strips
+on side of trap between hoops. J, Tips of these strips
+projecting to form legs. K, Cone. L, United edges of
+screen forming cone. M, Aperture at apex of cone.
+(Bishopp.)" title="Fig. 8.--Conical hoop flytrap side view. A, Hoops forming
+frame at bottom. B, Hoops forming frame at top.
+C, Top of trap made of barrel head. D, Strips around
+door. E, Door frame. F, Screen on door. G, Buttons
+holding door. H, Screen on outside of trap. I, Strips
+on side of trap between hoops. J, Tips of these strips
+projecting to form legs. K, Cone. L, United edges of
+screen forming cone. M, Aperture at apex of cone.
+(Bishopp.)" /></a><br /><p class="caption" style="text-align:left;"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 8.&mdash; Conical hoop flytrap side view. <i>A</i>, Hoops forming
+frame at bottom. <i>B</i>, Hoops forming frame at top.
+<i>C</i>, Top of trap made of barrel head. <i>D</i>, Strips around
+door. <i>E</i>, Door frame. <i>F</i>, Screen on door. <i>G</i>, Buttons
+holding door. <i>H</i>, Screen on outside of trap. <i>I</i>, Strips
+on side of trap between hoops. <i>J</i>, Tips of these strips
+projecting to form legs. <i>K</i>, Cone. <i>L</i>, United edges of
+screen forming cone. <i>M</i>, Aperture at apex of cone.
+(Bishopp.)</p></div>
+
+<p>The use of sticky fly papers to destroy flies that have gained access to
+houses is well known. Fly-poison preparations also are common. Many of
+the commercial fly poisons contain arsenic, and their use in the
+household is attended with considerable danger, especially to children.
+This danger is less with the use of a weak solution of formalin. A very
+effective fly poison is made by adding 3 teaspoonfuls of the commercial
+formalin to a pint of milk or water sweetened with a little brown sugar.
+A convenient way of exposing this poison is by partly filling an
+ordinary drinking glass with the solution. A saucer or plate is then
+lined with white blotting paper cut the size of the dish and placed
+bottom up over the glass. The whole is then quickly inverted and a small
+match stick placed under the edge of the glass. As the solution
+evaporates from the paper more flows out from the glass and thus the
+supply is automatically renewed.</p>
+
+
+<p class="bcenter"><b>FLY SPRAYS.</b></p>
+
+<p>Sprays designed to destroy or repel house flies fill a certain need
+in connection with the house-fly problem. No very satisfactory repellent
+substances for this insect have been found which are at the
+same time adaptable to general use about the home, or places where
+foods are handled. Extracts of pyrethrum flowers are now generally
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"> -10- </a></span>available commercially, and these give fairly good results in the
+destruction of house flies in buildings. Most of the sprays of pyrethrum
+extract contain kerosene oil as a carrier, and undoubtedly
+the kerosene has much to do with the toxicity of the spray. Such
+materials are most applicable to buildings which become infested
+with flies and which can be readily closed up at night and the air
+within thoroughly saturated with the spray by means of an atomizer.
+Under such conditions the flies are rather quickly overcome by the
+spray and if a sufficient quantity is used they will not revive.</p>
+
+
+<p class="bcenter"><b>FLYTRAPS.</b></p>
+
+<p>Flytraps may be used to advantage in decreasing the number of
+flies. Their use has been advocated not only because of the immediate
+results, but because of the chances that the flies may be caught
+before they lay eggs, and the number of future generations will be
+reduced greatly.</p>
+
+<p>Many types of flytraps are on the market. As a rule the larger
+ones are the more effective. Anyone with a few tools can construct
+flytraps for a small part of the price of the ready-made ones.
+A trap (fig. 8) which is very effective in catching flies and is easily
+made, durable, and cheap, may be made of four barrel hoops, four
+laths, a few strips of boxing, and 8&#189; lineal feet of screening, 24
+inches wide. (For greater details see Farmers' Bulletin 734.)</p>
+
+<p>The effectiveness of the traps will depend on the selection of baits.
+A good bait for catching house flies is 1 part of blackstrap molasses
+to 3 parts of water, after the mixture has been allowed to ferment
+for a day or two. Overripe or fermenting bananas crushed and
+placed in the bait pans give good results, especially with milk
+added to them. A mixture of equal parts brown sugar and curd of
+sour milk, thoroughly moistened, gives good results after it has
+been allowed to stand for three or four days.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>PREVENTING THE BREEDING OF FLIES.</h2>
+
+
+<p>As previously stated, fly papers, poisons, and traps are at best
+only temporary expedients. The most logical method of abating
+the fly nuisance is the elimination or treatment of all breeding
+places. It would appear from what is known of the life history
+and habits of the common house fly that it is perfectly feasible for
+cities and towns to reduce the numbers of this annoying and dangerous
+insect so greatly as to render it of comparatively slight account.
+On farms also, in dairies, and under rural conditions generally,
+much can and should be done to control the fly, which here,
+as elsewhere, constitutes a very serious menace to health.</p>
+
+
+<p class="bcenter"><b>CONSTRUCTION AND CARE OF STABLES.</b></p>
+
+<p>In formulating rules for the construction and care of stables and
+the disposal of manure the following points must be taken into consideration.
+In the first place, the ground of soil-floor stables may
+offer a suitable place for the development of fly larv&aelig; . The larv&aelig;
+will migrate from the manure to the soil and continue their growth
+in the moist ground. This takes place to some extent even when the
+manure is removed from the stables every day. Even wooden floors
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"> -11- </a></span>are not entirely satisfactory unless they are perfectly water-tight,
+since larv&aelig; will crawl through the cracks and continue their development
+in the moist ground below. Water-tight floors of concrete or
+masonry, therefore, are desirable. Flies have been found to breed
+in surprising numbers in small accumulations of material in the
+corners of feed troughs and mangers, and it is important that such
+places be kept clean.</p>
+
+
+<p class="bcenter"><b>FLY-TIGHT MANURE PITS.</b></p>
+
+<p>The Bureau of Entomology for a number of years has advised
+that manure from horse stables be kept in fly-tight pits or bins.
+Such pits can be built in or attached to the stable so that manure
+can be easily thrown in at the time of cleaning and so constructed
+that the manure can be readily removed. It is desirable that the
+manure be placed in these fly-proof receptacles as soon as possible
+after it is voided. The essential point is that flies be prevented
+from reaching the manure, and for this reason the pit or bin must
+be tightly constructed, preferably of concrete, and the lid kept closed
+except when the manure is being thrown in or removed. The difficulty
+has been that manure often becomes infested before it is put
+into the container, and flies frequently breed out before it is emptied
+and often escape through the cracks. To obviate these difficulties
+a manure box or pit with a modified tent trap or cone trap attached
+is desirable.</p>
+
+<p>In order to retain the fertilizing value of manure to the greatest
+extent it is advisable that air be excluded from it as much as possible
+and that it be protected from the leaching action of rains. This
+being the case, there is really no necessity for covering a large portion
+of the top of the box with a trap, but merely to have holes large
+enough to attract flies to the light, and to cover these holes with ordinary
+conical traps, with the legs cut off, so, that the bottoms of the
+traps will fit closely to the box. The same arrangement can be made
+where manure is kept in a pit. If manure boxes or pits are kept
+fly tight they are satisfactory under farm or dairy conditions for
+the storage of manure during the busy season when it can not be
+hauled out daily.</p>
+
+
+<p class="bcenter"><b>FREQUENCY WITH WHICH MANURE SHOULD BE REMOVED IN CITIES AND TOWNS.</b></p>
+
+<p>In deciding the question as to how often manure should be removed
+in cities and towns, it should be borne in mind that when the
+larv&aelig; have finished feeding they will often leave the manure and
+pupate in the ground below or crawl some distance away to pupate
+in d&eacute; bris under boards or stones and the like. Hence the manure
+should be removed before the larv&aelig; reach the migratory stage; that
+is to say, removal is necessary every three days, and certainly not less
+frequently than twice a week during the summer months. A series
+of orders issued in 1906 by the health department of the District of
+Columbia, on the authority of the Commissioners of the District,
+covers most of these points, and these orders, which may well serve
+as a model to other communities desiring to undertake similar
+measures, may be briefly condensed as follows:</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"> -12- </a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><b>HEALTH OFFICE REGULATIONS FOR CONTROL OF HOUSE FLIES IN CITIES.</b><br />
+<p style="position:relative; text-indent:1.6em; margin-top:0;" >All stalls in which animals are kept shall have the surface of the ground
+covered with a water-tight floor. Every person occupying a building where
+domestic animals are kept shall maintain in connection therewith a bin or pit
+for the reception of manure and, pending the removal from the premises of
+the manure from the animal or animals, shall place such manure in said bin
+or pit. This bin shall be so constructed as to exclude rain water and shall
+in all other respects be water-tight, except as it may be connected with the
+public sewer. It shall be provided with a suitable cover and constructed so
+as to prevent the ingress and egress of flies. No person owning a stable shall
+keep any manure or permit any manure to be kept in or upon any portion of
+the premises other than the bin or pit described, nor shall he allow any such
+bin or pit to be overfilled or needlessly uncovered. Horse manure may be kept
+tightly rammed into well-covered barrels for the purpose of removal in such
+barrels. Every person keeping manure in the more densely populated parts
+of the District shall cause all such manure to be removed from the premises
+at least twice every week between June 1 and October 31, and at least once
+every week between November 1 and May 31 of the following year. No person
+shall remove or transport any manure over any public highway in any of the
+more densely populated parts of the District except in a tight vehicle, which, if
+not inclosed, must be effectually covered with canvas, so as to prevent the
+manure from being dropped. No person shall deposit manure removed from
+the bins or pits within any of the more densely populated parts of the District
+without a permit from the health officer. Any person violating any of the provisions
+shall, upon conviction thereof, be punished by a fine of not more than
+$40 for each offense.</p></div>
+
+<p>Not only must horse stables be cared for, but chicken yards, piggeries,
+and garbage receptacles as well. In cities, with better methods
+of disposal of garbage and with the lessening of the number of
+horses and horse stables consequent upon electric street railways,
+bicycles, and automobiles, the time may come, and before very long,
+when window screens may be discarded.</p>
+
+
+<p class="bcenter"><b>DISPOSAL OF MANURE IN RURAL AND SUBURBAN DISTRICTS.</b></p>
+
+<p>The control of flies in rural and suburban districts offers a much
+more difficult problem. Here it is often out of the question to remove
+all manure from the premises twice a week, and the problem is to
+find some method of disposal or storage which will conserve the
+fertilizing value of the manure and at the same time prevent all
+flies from breeding, or destroy such as do breed there.</p>
+
+<p>With this idea in mind, it has been recommended that stable
+manure be collected every morning and hauled out at once and spread
+rather thinly on the fields. This procedure is advisable from the
+point of view of getting the maximum fertilizing value from the
+manure. Immediate spreading on the fields is said largely to prevent
+the loss of plant food which occurs when manure is allowed to stand
+in heaps for a long time. This method will be effective in preventing
+the breeding of flies only if the manure is hauled out promptly every
+morning and spread thinly so that it will dry, since it is unfavorable
+for fly development in desiccated condition. The proper scattering
+of the manure on the fields is best and most easily and quickly accomplished
+by the use of a manure spreader, and many dairies, and
+even farms, are practicing the daily distribution of manure in this
+way. Removal every three or four days will not be sufficient. Observations
+have shown that if manure becomes flyblown and the
+maggots attain a fairly good size before the manure is scattered on
+the fields, they can continue their development and will pupate in the
+ground.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"> -13- </a></span></p>
+<p class="bcenter"><b>CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF MANURE TO DESTROY FLY MAGGOTS.</b></p>
+
+<p>During the summer months, when fly breeding is going on most
+actively, the farmer is also busy and often can not spare the time to
+remove manure regularly. The general practice, therefore, has been
+to keep the manure in heaps located, as a rule, very near the stables.
+How can fly breeding be prevented in such accumulations? As a
+result of recent investigations, it is now possible to point out two
+methods which are practical and effective.</p>
+
+<p>The first is the treatment of the manure pile with chemical substances
+which will kill the eggs and maggots of the house fly. The
+Bureau of Entomology, in cooperation with the Bureau of Chemistry
+and the Bureau of Plant Industry, has conducted a series of experiments
+in which a large number of chemicals were applied to infested
+manure and observations made, not only on their efficiency in killing
+the maggots but also as to their effect on the chemical composition and
+bacterial flora of the manure. The object was to find some cheap
+chemical which would be effective in destroying the fly larv&aelig; and at
+the same time would not reduce the fertilizing value of the manure.</p>
+
+
+<p class="bcenter"><b>TREATMENT WITH HELLEBORE.</b></p>
+
+<p>Of the numerous substances tried, the one which seems best to
+fulfill these conditions is powdered hellebore.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> For the treatment of
+manure a water extract of the hellebore is prepared by adding &#189;
+pound of the powder to every 10 gallons of water, and after stirring
+it is allowed to stand 24 hours. The mixture thus prepared is
+sprinkled over the manure at the rate of 10 gallons to every 8 bushels
+(10 cubic feet) of manure. From the result of 12 experiments with
+manure piles treated under natural conditions it appears that such
+treatment results in the destruction of from 88 to 99 per cent of the
+fly larv&aelig; .</p>
+
+<p>Studies of treated manure indicated that its composition and
+rotting were not interfered with. Furthermore, several field tests
+showed that there was no apparent injury to growing crops when
+fertilized with treated manure.</p>
+
+<p>Since the solution is somewhat poisonous it should not be left
+exposed where it might be drunk by livestock. It is quite safe to
+say that chickens will not be injured by pecking at hellebore-treated
+manure. This has been tested carefully. Hellebore can be obtained
+both in ground and powdered form, but the powder gives the best
+results in the destruction of fly larv&aelig; .</p>
+
+
+<p class="bcenter"><b>TREATMENT WITH POWDERED BORAX.</b></p>
+
+<p>Another chemical found to be even more effective as a larvicide is
+powdered borax. This substance is available in commercial form in
+all parts of the country. It has the advantage of being comparatively
+nonpoisonous and noninflammable and is easily transported
+and handled. The minimum amount necessary to kill fly larv&aelig; was
+found to be 0.62 pound per 8 bushels of manure, or about 1 pound per
+16 cubic feet. Best results were obtained when the borax was applied
+in solution, or when water was sprinkled on after the borax had been
+scattered evenly over the pile. Borax is not only effective in killing
+the larv&aelig; , but when it comes in contact with the eggs it prevents them
+from hatching. When applied at the rate of 1 pound to 16 cubic feet
+it was found to kill about 90 per cent of the larv&aelig; , heavier applications
+killing from 98 to 99 per cent.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"> -14- </a></span>Borax has no injurious effect on the chemical composition or rotting
+of the manure. However, when added in large quantities with manure
+to the soil it will cause considerable injury to growing plants.
+A number of experiments have been conducted to determine the effect
+on crops of the use of manure treated with borax as herein recommended.
+When applied at the rate of 15 tons per acre it appears
+that no injury as a rule will follow. Some crops are more sensitive
+to borax than others, and also the tendency to injury appears to vary
+on different soils. It is necessary, therefore, to repeat the warning
+issued in connection with a previous bulletin<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> on this subject, that
+great care be exercised, in the application of borax, that the manure
+does not receive more than 1 pound for every 16 cubic feet, and that
+not more than 15 tons of manure so treated are applied to the acre.</p>
+
+<p>In view of the possible injury from the borax treatment as a result
+of carelessness in applying it, or from other unforeseen conditions, it
+is recommended that horse manure and other farmyard manures
+which are to be used as fertilizer be treated with hellebore. Borax,
+on the other hand, is such a good larvicide that it call be used with
+advantage on the ground of soil-floor stables, in privies, on refuse
+piles, and on any accumulations of fermenting organic matter which
+are not to be used for fertilizing purposes.</p>
+
+
+<p class="bcenter"><b>TREATMENT WITH CALCIUM CYANAMID AND ACID PHOSPHATE.</b></p>
+
+<p>Many experiments with mixtures of commercial fertilizers were
+tried to determine whether fly larv&aelig; would be killed by any substance
+the addition of which would increase the fertilizing value of
+the manure. A mixture of calcium cyanamid and acid phosphate
+was found to possess considerable larvicidal action. Several experiments
+showed that &#189; pound of calcium cyanamid plus &#189; pound of
+acid phosphate to each bushel of manure give an apparent larvicidal
+action of 98 per cent. The mixture in the form of a powder was
+scattered evenly over the surface and then wet down with water.
+The use of this mixture adds to the manure two important elements,
+nitrogen and phosphorus.</p>
+
+
+<p class="bcenter"><b>MAGGOT TRAP FOR DESTRUCTION OF FLY LARV&AElig; FROM HORSE MANURE.</b></p>
+
+<p>The second method of handling manure is one which does not require
+the application of chemicals. It is based on the fact, mentioned
+on page 4, that the larv&aelig; of the house fly, a few hours before they
+are ready to pupate, show a strong tendency to migrate. This migration
+takes place mostly at night, and the larv&aelig; sometimes crawl considerable
+distances from the manure pile. Now it is possible by
+means of a very simple arrangement called a maggot trap to destroy
+fully 99 per cent of all maggots breeding in a given lot of manure.
+A successful maggot trap which the Maryland Agricultural College
+constructed at the college barn is shown in Figure 9. The trap was
+designed by R. H. Hutchison and constructed under his supervision.
+The manure, instead of being thrown on the ground, is heaped carefully
+on a slatted platform, which stands about 1 foot high. This
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"> -15- </a></span>particular platform measures 10 by 20 feet. There are six 2 by 4
+pieces running lengthwise 2 feet apart. Across these are nailed
+1-inch strips with &#189; to 1 inch spaces between them. The wooden
+platform stands on a concrete floor, and a rim or wall of concrete
+4 inches high surrounds the floor. The floor slopes a little toward
+one corner from which a pipe leads to a small cistern near by. This
+pipe is plugged with a stopper of soft wood, and the concrete floor
+is filled with water to a depth of 1 inch in the shallowest part. Flies
+will lay their eggs on the manure as usual, but the maggots, when
+they have finished feeding and begin to migrate, crawl out of the
+manure, drop into the water below, and are drowned. Each week
+the plug is removed from the pipe, and all the maggots are washed
+into the cistern. The floor is then cleaned of any solid particles by
+means of a long-handled stable broom or by a strong stream of water
+from a hose. The pipe being again plugged, the floor is again partly
+filled with water and the trap is ready for another week's catch. A
+platform of this size will hold the manure accumulating from four
+horses during the period of four months, or about 20 days' accumulation
+from 25 horses, if the heap is well built and made at least 5 feet
+high.</p>
+
+
+<div class="caption center"><a href="images/9.jpg"><img src="images/t9.jpg" class="bimg"
+alt="Fig. 9.--A maggot trap for house-fly control. View showing the concrete basin containing
+water in which larv&aelig; are drowned, and the wooden platform on which manure is
+heaped. (Hutchison.)" title="Fig. 9.--A maggot trap for house-fly control. View showing the concrete basin containing
+water in which larv&aelig; are drowned, and the wooden platform on which manure is
+heaped. (Hutchison.)" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 9.
+A maggot trap for house-fly control. View showing the concrete basin containing
+water in which larv&aelig; are drowned, and the wooden platform on which manure is
+heaped. (Hutchison.)</div>
+
+<p>Experience with this maggot trap clearly indicates that best results
+can be secured if the manure is compactly heaped on the platform
+and kept thoroughly moistened. It is best to apply a small amount
+of water each morning after the stable cleanings have been added
+to the pile.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"> -16- </a></span>It should be borne in mind that in order to make this trap a success
+the platform beneath the pile must be kept comparatively free
+of accumulations of manure, and moisture applied regularly to drive
+the maggots out.</p>
+
+
+<p class="bcenter"><b>COMPACT HEAPING OF MANURE.</b></p>
+
+<p>Another method of disposing of manure has been recommended
+by English writers. The manure is built up in a compact rectangular
+heap, the sides of which are beaten hard with shovels. The
+ground around the edges of the heap is made smooth and hard and
+loose straw is placed in small windrows around the manure pile
+about 1 foot from the edge. The exclusion of the air, together
+with the high temperature and gases formed by fermentation, tends
+to make the heap unfavorable for the development of fly larv&aelig; .
+Those which do happen to develop in the surface layers will migrate
+and pupate in the ring of straw around the heap, where they are
+destroyed by burning.</p>
+
+
+<p class="bcenter"><b>GARBAGE DISPOSAL AND TREATMENT OF MISCELLANEOUS BREEDING PLACES.</b></p>
+
+<p>It is just as true under farm conditions as in cities that breeding
+places other than horse manure must be attended to. Garbage must
+be disposed of, hog and poultry manure must be cared for, and especially
+on dairy farms it is extremely important that every precaution
+be taken to prevent the contamination of milk by flies.</p>
+
+<p>It is very desirable that all refuse possible, accumulated from
+cities and towns, be burned. Incineration has been practiced successfully
+by a number of towns and cities with populations of from
+10,000 to 15,000 and over. In larger cities provision should be
+made for burning carcasses as well as garbage and other refuse. If
+city and town garbage is sold to hog feeders the municipal authorities
+should have control of the sanitary conditions about the feeding
+yards, as there is great danger from fly breeding in such places if
+not kept clean.</p>
+
+
+<p class="bcenter"><b>SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN RELATION TO THE PREVENTION OF FLY-BORNE DISEASES.</b></p>
+
+<p>In the consideration of these measures we have not touched upon
+the remedies for house flies breeding in human excrement. On
+account of the danger of the carriage of typhoid fever, the dropping
+of human excrement in the open in cities or towns, either in vacant
+lots or in dark alleyways, should be made a misdemeanor, and the
+same care should be taken by the sanitary authorities to remove or
+cover up such depositions as is taken in the removal of the bodies of
+dead animals. For modern methods of sewage disposal adapted for
+farm use one should consult Department of Agriculture Department
+Bulletin No. 57. In the absence of modern methods of sewage disposal,
+absolutely sanitary privies are prime necessities, whether in
+towns or on farms. Directions for building and caring for such
+privies will be found in Farmers' Bulletin 463 and in Yearbook
+Separate 712, "Sewage Disposal on the Farm." The box privy is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"> -17- </a></span>always a nuisance from many points of view, and is undoubtedly
+dangerous as a breeder of flies which may carry the germs of intestinal
+diseases. The dry-earth treatment of privies is unsatisfactory.
+No box privy should be permitted to exist unless it is thoroughly
+and regularly treated with some effective larvicide. Since
+the fecal matter in such privies is seldom used for fertilizing purposes
+it may well be treated liberally with borax. The powdered
+borax may be scattered two or three times a week over the exposed
+surface so as to whiten it.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>WHAT COMMUNITIES CAN DO TO ELIMINATE THE HOUSE FLY.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Antifly crusades have been very numerous in recent years, and
+some have been noteworthy both in methods and in results. However,
+it will not be amiss here to emphasize the importance of concerted,
+organized effort on the part of whole communities, not only
+cities, but suburban and rural neighborhoods as well. By the most
+painstaking care one may prevent all fly breeding on his premises,
+but it will avail him little if his neighbors are not equally careful.
+Some sort of cooperation is necessary. One of the first and most
+important elements in any antifly crusade is a vigorous and continued
+educational campaign. It has been the experience of those
+who have undertaken such crusades that people generally regard
+the fly as a somewhat harmless nuisance and that the first work of
+the campaign was to bring the people to a realization of the dangers
+from flies and the possibility of getting rid of them. In the educational
+campaign every possible means of publicity can be employed,
+including newspapers, lectures, moving pictures, posters, handbills,
+cartoons, instruction in schools, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The antifly crusade is a matter of public interest and should be
+supported by the community as a whole and engineered by the health
+officers. But health officers can do little toward the necessary work
+of inspection and elimination without funds, and therefore the support
+of the campaign must manifest itself in increased appropriations
+for public-health work. Very often it is lack of funds which
+prevents the health officers from taking the initiative in the antifly
+crusades, and there must necessarily be much agitation and education
+before they can profitably take up the work. Right here lies
+a field for civic associations, women's clubs, boards of trade, etc.,
+to exercise their best energy, initiative, and leadership.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"> -18- </a></span></p>
+<h2>ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE WHEN THIS PUBLICATION WAS LAST PRINTED</h2>
+
+<table summary="ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE WHEN THIS PUBLICATION WAS LAST PRINTED">
+<tr><td class="roles">Secretary of Agriculture</td><td> <span class="smcap">Arthur M. Hyde.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Assistant Secretary</td><td> <span class="smcap">R. W. Dunlap.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Director of Scientific Work</td><td> <span class="smcap">A. F. Woods.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Director of Regulatory Work</td><td> <span class="smcap">Walter G. Campbell.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Director of Extension Work</td><td> <span class="smcap">C. W. Warburton.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Director of Personnel and Business Administration</td><td> <span class="smcap">W. W. Stockberger.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Director of Information</td><td> <span class="smcap">M. S. Eisenhower.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Solicitor</td><td> <span class="smcap">E. L. Marshall.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bureau of Agricultural Economics</td><td> <span class="smcap">Nils A. Olsen</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bureau of Agricultural Engineering</td><td> <span class="smcap">S. H. McCrory</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bureau of Animal Industry</td><td> <span class="smcap">John R. Mohler</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bureau of Biological Survey</td><td> <span class="smcap">Paul G. Redington</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bureau of Chemistry and Soils</td><td> <span class="smcap">H. G. Knight</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Office of Cooperative Extension Work</td><td> <span class="smcap">C. B. Smith</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bureau of Dairy Industry</td><td> <span class="smcap">O. E. Reed</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bureau of Entomology</td><td> <span class="smcap">C. L. Marlatt</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Office of Experiment Stations</td><td> <span class="smcap">James T. Jardine</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Food and Drug Administration</td><td> <span class="smcap">Walter G. Campbell</span>, <i>Director of Regulatory Work, in Charge.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Forest Service</td><td> <span class="smcap">R. Y. Stuart</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Grain Futures Administration</td><td> <span class="smcap">J. W. T. Duvel</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bureau of Home Economics</td><td> <span class="smcap">Louise Stanley</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Library</td><td> <span class="smcap">Claribel R. Barnett</span>, <i>Librarian</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bureau of Plant Industry</td><td> <span class="smcap">William A. Taylor</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bureau of Plant Quarantine</td><td> <span class="smcap">Lee A. Strong</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bureau of Public Roads</td><td> <span class="smcap">Thomas H. MacDonald</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weather Bureau</td><td> <span class="smcap">Charles F. Marvin</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center">U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1938<br />
+For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price 5 cents</p>
+<hr />
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1] </span></a> <i>Musca domestica</i> L.</p></div>
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2] </span></a> <i>Stomoxys calcitrans</i> L.</p></div>
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3] </span></a> <i>Pollenia rudis</i> Fab.</p></div>
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4] </span></a> <i>Calliphora erythrocephala</i> Meig.</p></div>
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5] </span></a> <i>Phormia regina</i> Meig. and <i>P. terrae-novae</i> Desv.</p></div>
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6] </span></a> <i>Lucilia caesar</i> L., <i>L. sericata</i> Meig., and other species of the genus.</p></div>
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7] </span></a> <i>Fannia canicularis</i> L.</p></div>
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8] </span></a> <i>Drosophila ampelophila</i> Loew.</p></div>
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9] </span></a> Where the yellow fever or dengue fever mosquito occurs, 18-mesh screen cloth (or 16-mesh screen cloth made from extra heavy wire) should be used.</p></div>
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10] </span></a> <i>Veratrum viride</i> or <i>V. aloum.</i></p></div>
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11] </span></a> Department Bulletin 118, U. S. Department of Agriculture, p. 25.</p></div>
+
+
+<div style="border:dashed 1px; padding:2em; margin:3em;">Transcriber's note:
+footnotes 10 &amp; 11 renumbered to avoid the confusion generated by two footnote 9's.
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The House Fly and How to Suppress It, by 
+L. O. Howard and F. C. Bishopp
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The House Fly and How to Suppress It, by
+L. O. Howard and F. C. Bishopp
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The House Fly and How to Suppress It
+       U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin No. 1408
+
+Author: L. O. Howard and F. C. Bishopp
+
+Release Date: March 26, 2006 [EBook #18050]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HOUSE FLY AND HOW TO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by K.D. Thornton and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
+
+FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 1408
+
+_The_ HOUSE FLY AND HOW TO SUPPRESS IT
+
+[Illustration: fly]
+
+[Illustration: USDA seal]
+
+
+
+
+The presence of flies is an indication of uncleanliness, insanitary
+conditions, and improper disposal of substances in which they breed.
+They are not only annoying; they are actually dangerous to health,
+because they may carry disease germs to exposed foods.
+
+It is therefore important to know where and how they breed, and to apply
+such knowledge in combating them. This bulletin gives information on
+this subject. Besides giving directions for ridding the house of flies
+by the use of screens, fly papers, poisons, and flytraps, it lays
+especial emphasis on the explanation of methods of eliminating breeding
+places and preventing the breeding of flies.
+
+This bulletin supersedes Farmers' Bulletin 851.
+
+Washington, D. C. Issued April, 1925; revised November, 1926
+
+
+
+
+THE HOUSE FLY[1] AND HOW TO SUPPRESS IT.
+
+By L. O. HOWARD, _Chief of the Bureau of Entomology_, and F. C. BISHOPP,
+_Entomologist_.
+
+       *       *       *        *       *
+
+
+                                    CONTENTS.
+                                                                      Page.
+  Kinds of flies found in houses                                         1
+  Where the true house fly lays its eggs                                 2
+  How the house fly passes the winter                                    6
+  Carriage of disease by the house fly                                   6
+  Excluding and capturing flies                                          7
+    The use of screens                                                   7
+    Fly papers and poisons                                               8
+    Fly sprays                                                           8
+    Flytraps                                                             9
+  Preventing the breeding of flies                                       9
+    Construction and care of stables                                     9
+    Fly-tight manure pits                                               10
+    Frequency with which manure should be removed in cities and towns   10
+    Health office regulations for control of house flies in cities      10
+    Disposal of manure in rural and suburban districts                  11
+    Chemical treatment of manure to destroy fly maggots                 12
+    Maggot trap for destruction of fly larvae from horse manure          13
+    Compact heaping of manure                                           15
+    Garbage disposal and treatment of miscellaneous breeding places     15
+    Sewage disposal in relation to the prevention of fly-borne diseases 15
+  What communities can do to eliminate the house fly                    16
+
+
+       *       *       *        *       *
+
+
+KINDS OF FLIES FOUND IN HOUSES.
+
+
+Several species of flies are found commonly in houses. Some of them so
+closely resemble the true house fly that it requires very careful
+observation to distinguish them from it.
+
+One of these is the biting stable fly[2] (fig. 1). It occurs frequently
+in houses and differs from the house fly in the important particular
+that its mouth parts are formed for piercing the skin. This fly is so
+often mistaken for the house fly that most people think that the house
+fly can bite.
+
+Another frequent visitant of houses, particularly in the spring and
+fall, is the cluster fly.[3] It is somewhat larger than the house fly,
+and is distinguished by its covering of fine yellowish hairs.
+Occasionally this fly occurs in houses in such numbers as to cause great
+annoyance. It gets its name of "cluster fly" from its habit of
+collecting in compact groups or clusters in protected corners during
+cold periods.
+
+Several species of metallic greenish or bluish flies also are found
+occasionally in houses. These include a blue-bottle fly,[4] the black
+blowflies,[5] and the green-bottle (fig. 2) flies.[6] They breed in
+decaying animal matter.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Musca domestica_ L.]
+[Footnote 2: _Stomoxys calcitrans_ L.]
+[Footnote 3: _Pollenia rudis_ Fab.]
+[Footnote 4: _Calliphora erythrocephala_ Meig.]
+[Footnote 5: _Phormia regina_ Meig. and _P. terrae-novae_ Desv.]
+[Footnote 6: _Lucilia caesar_ L., _L. sericata_ Meig., and other species
+of the genus.]
+
+There is still another species, smaller than any of those so far
+mentioned, which is sometimes called the "lesser house fly."[7] This
+insect is distinguished from the ordinary house fly by its paler and
+more pointed body. The male, which is commoner than the female, has
+large pale patches at the base of the abdomen, which are translucent
+when the fly is seen on the window pane. These little flies are not the
+young of the larger flies. Flies do not grow after the wings have once
+expanded and dried.
+
+[Footnote 7: _Fannia canicularis_ L.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The stable fly. Much enlarged.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--One of the green-bottle flies (_Lucilia
+caesar_). Much enlarged.]
+
+In late summer and autumn many specimens of a small fruit fly, known as
+the "vinegar fly,"[8] make their appearance, attracted by the odor of
+overripe fruit.
+
+All of these species, however, are greatly dwarfed in numbers by the
+common house fly. In 1900 the senior author made collections of the
+flies in dining rooms in different parts of the country, and found that
+the true house fly made up 98.8 per cent of the whole number captured.
+The remainder comprised various species, including those mentioned
+above.
+
+[Footnote 8: _Drosophila ampelophila_ Loew.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--The true house fly. Enlarged.]
+
+
+
+
+WHERE THE TRUE HOUSE FLY LAYS ITS EGGS.
+
+
+The true house fly (fig. 3), which is found in nearly all parts of the
+world, is a medium-sized fly with four black stripes on the back and a
+sharp elbow in one of the veins of the wings. The house fly can not
+bite, its mouth parts being spread out at the tip for sucking up liquid
+substances.
+
+The eggs (figs. 4, 5) are laid upon horse manure. This substance seems
+to be its favorite larval food. It will breed also in human excrement,
+and because of this habit it is very dangerous to the health of human
+beings, carrying as it does the germs of intestinal diseases, such as
+typhoid fever and cholera, from the excreta to food supplies. It has
+also been found to breed freely in hog manure, in considerable numbers
+in chicken dung, and to some extent in cow manure. Indeed, it will lay
+its eggs on a great variety of decaying vegetable and animal materials,
+but of the flies that infest dwelling houses, both in cities and on
+farms, a vast proportion come from horse manure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Eggs of the house fly. About natural size.
+(Newstead.)]
+
+It often happens, however, that this fly is very abundant in localities
+where little or no horse manure is found, and in such cases it breeds in
+other manure, such as chicken manure in backyard poultry lots, or in
+slops or fermenting vegetable material, such as spent hops, moist bran,
+ensilage, or rotting potatoes. Accumulations of organic material on the
+dumping grounds of towns and cities often produce flies in great
+numbers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Eggs of the house fly. Highly magnified.
+(Newstead.)]
+
+The house fly begins laying eggs in from 2 1/2 to 20 days after
+emerging, the time interval depending to a large extent upon
+temperature, humidity, and character and abundance of food. The number
+of eggs laid by an individual fly at one time ranges from 120 to 159 and
+a single female will usually lay two and sometimes four such batches.
+Dunn has recently reported that in Panama a fly may deposit as many as
+2,367 eggs in 21 batches, and sometimes an interval of only 36 hours may
+occur between the deposition of large batches of eggs. The enormous
+numbers in which the insects occur are thus plainly accounted for,
+especially when the abundance and universal occurrence of appropriate
+larval food is considered. The eggs are deposited below the surface in
+the cracks and interstices of the manure, several females usually
+depositing in one spot, so that the eggs commonly are found in large
+clusters (fig. 4) in selected places near the top of the pile, where a
+high degree of heat is maintained by the fermentation below. The second
+batch of eggs is laid from 8 to 10 days after the first. The eggs
+usually hatch in less than 24 hours. Under the most favorable conditions
+of temperature and moisture the egg state may last hardly more than 8
+hours. The maggots which issue from the eggs are very small and
+transparent. They grow rapidly, completing the growth of the larva stage
+in three days under the most favorable conditions, although this stage
+usually lasts from 4 to 7 days. The larval period may be prolonged
+greatly by low temperature or by dryness or scarcity of the larval food.
+As the larvae (fig. 6) attain full size they gradually assume a creamy
+white color. A few hours before pupation they become very restless and
+migrate from their feeding ground in search of a favorable place in
+which to pass the pupa stage. They will often congregate at the edges of
+manure piles near the ground or burrow into the soil beneath, or they
+may crawl considerable distances away from the pile to pupate in the
+ground or in loose material under the edges of stones, boards, etc.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Larvae, or maggots, of the house fly. About
+natural size. (Newstead.)]
+
+The pupae (fig 7), or "sleepers," are more or less barrel shaped and dark
+brown in color. In midsummer this stage usually lasts from 3 to 6 days.
+The pupa stage is easily affected by temperature changes and may be
+prolonged during hibernation for as long as 4 or 5 months. Numerous
+rearing experiments in various parts of the country have shown that the
+shortest time between the deposition of eggs and the emergence of the
+adult fly is 8 days, and 10 and 12 day records were very common.
+
+The adult fly, upon emerging from the puparium, works its way upward
+through the soil or manure and upon reaching the air it crawls about
+while its wings expand and the body hardens and assumes its normal
+coloration. In from 2 1/2 to 20 days, as previously stated, the female
+is ready to deposit eggs. As in the case of other periods of its life
+history, so the preoviposition period is prolonged considerably by the
+lower temperatures of spring and fall. In midsummer, with a
+developmental period of from 8 to 10 days from egg to adult, and a
+preoviposition period of from 3 to 4 days, a new generation would be
+started every 11 to 14 days. Thus the climate of the District of
+Columbia allows abundance of time for the development of from 10 to 12
+generations every season.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Pupae of the house fly. About natural size.
+(Newstead.)]
+
+Flies usually remain near their breeding places if they have plenty of
+food, but experiments recently made at Dallas, Tex., show that they may
+migrate considerable distances; in fact, house flies, so marked that the
+particular individuals could be identified, have been recaptured in
+traps as far as 13 miles from the place where they were liberated.
+
+
+
+
+HOW THE HOUSE FLY PASSES THE WINTER.
+
+
+The prevailing opinion that the house fly lives through the winter as an
+adult, hiding in cracks and crevices of buildings, etc., appears to be
+erroneous. Under outdoor conditions house flies are killed during the
+first really cold nights, that is, when the temperature falls to about
+15 deg. or 10 deg. F. In rooms and similar places protected from winds and
+partially heated during the winter flies have been kept alive in cages
+for long periods, but they never lived through the entire winter. In
+longevity experiments one record of 70 days and another of 91 days was
+obtained. No uncaged house flies were found during three seasons'
+observations in unheated and only partially heated attics, stables,
+unused rooms, etc., where favorable temperature conditions prevailed.
+The common occurrence in such places of the cluster fly and a few other
+species, which may be easily mistaken for the house fly, is responsible
+for the prevailing belief as to the way the house fly overwinters. There
+is therefore no reliable evidence whatever that adult house flies
+emerging during October and November pass the winter and are able to
+deposit their eggs the following spring, although they may continue
+active in heated buildings until nearly the end of January. On the other
+hand, there is evidence that house flies pass the winter as larvae and
+pupae, and that they sometimes breed continuously throughout the winter.
+In experiments at both Dallas, Tex., and Bethesda, Md., house flies have
+been found emerging during April from heavily infested manure heaps
+which had been set out and covered with cages during the preceding
+autumn. In the Southern States, during warm periods in midwinter, house
+flies may emerge and become somewhat troublesome; they frequently lay
+eggs on warm days.
+
+The second way in which the house fly may pass the winter is by
+continuous breeding. House flies congregate in heated rooms with the
+approach of the winter season. If no food or breeding materials are
+present they eventually die. However, where they have access to both
+food and suitable substances for egg laying they will continue breeding
+just as they do outdoors during the summer. Even in very cold climates
+there are undoubtedly many places, especially in cities, where house
+flies would have opportunity to pass the winter in this manner.
+
+
+
+
+CARRIAGE OF DISEASE BY THE HOUSE FLY.
+
+
+The body of the house fly is covered thickly with hairs and bristles of
+varying lengths, and this is especially true of the legs. Thus, when it
+crawls over infected material it readily becomes loaded with germs, and
+subsequent visits to human foods result in their contamination. Even
+more dangerous than the transference of germs on the legs and body of
+the fly is the fact that bacteria are found in greater numbers and live
+longer in its alimentary canal. These germs are voided, not only in the
+excrement of the fly, but also in small droplets of regurgitated matter
+which have been called "vomit spots." When we realize that flies
+frequent and feed upon the most filthy substances (it may be the excreta
+of typhoid or dysentery patients or the discharges of one suffering from
+tuberculosis), and that subsequently they may contaminate human foods
+with their feet or excreta or vomit spots, the necessity and importance
+of house-fly control is clear.
+
+In army camps, in mining camps, and in great public works, where large
+numbers of men are brought together for a longer or shorter time, there
+is seldom the proper care of excreta, and the carriage of typhoid germs
+from the latrines and privies to food by flies is common and often
+results in epidemics of typhoid fever.
+
+And such carriage of typhoid is by no means confined to great temporary
+camps. In farmhouses in small communities, and even in badly cared for
+portions of large cities, typhoid germs are carried from excrement to
+food by flies, and the proper supervision and treatment of the breeding
+places of the house fly become most important elements in the prevention
+of typhoid.
+
+In the same way other intestinal germ diseases, such as Asiatic cholera,
+dysentery, enteritis (inflammation of the intestine), and infantile
+diarrhea, are all so carried. There is strong circumstantial evidence
+also that tuberculosis, anthrax, yaws, ophthalmia, smallpox, tropical
+sore, and the eggs of parasitic worms may be and are carried in this
+way. In the case of over 30 different disease organisms and parasitic
+worms, actual laboratory proof exists, and where lacking is replaced by
+circumstantial evidence amounting almost to certainty.
+
+
+
+
+EXCLUDING AND CAPTURING FLIES.
+
+
+The principal effort to control this dangerous insect must be made at
+the source of supply--its breeding places. Absolute cleanliness and the
+removal or destruction of anything in which flies may breed are
+essential; and this is something that can be done even in cities.
+Perhaps it can be done more easily in the cities than in villages, on
+account of their greater police power and the lesser insistence on the
+rights of the individual. Once people are educated to the danger and
+learn to find the breeding places, the rest will be easy.
+
+In spite of what has just been said, it is often necessary to catch or
+otherwise destroy adult flies, or to protect food materials from
+contamination and persons from annoyance or danger; hence the value of
+fly papers and poisons, flytraps, and insect screens.
+
+
+THE USE OF INSECT SCREENS.
+
+A careful screening of windows and doors during the summer months, with
+the supplementary use of sticky fly papers, is a protective measure
+against house flies known to everyone. As regards screening, it is only
+necessary here to emphasize the importance of keeping food supplies
+screened or otherwise covered so that flies can gain no access to them.
+This applies not only to homes but also to stores, restaurants, milk
+shops, and the like. Screening, of course, will have no effect in
+decreasing the number of flies, but at least it has the virtue of
+lessening the danger of contamination of food.
+
+Insect screens for doors and windows should be well made and must fit
+tightly, otherwise they will not keep insects out. It is equally
+important that they be made of good and durable screen cloth. Copper
+insect screen cloth, although a little higher in price, will prove more
+economical in the long run, as it lasts many years. If, however, the
+cost of copper screen cloth is objectionable, steel screen cloth, either
+painted or galvanized, can be used. Painted steel screen cloth will last
+one or more years without repainting, its durability depending upon the
+climate. In humid regions, of course, it will rust more quickly than it
+will where the climate is dry. The same may be said of galvanized steel
+insect screen cloth.
+
+Insect screen cloth made with 16 meshes to the inch is recommended, for
+16-mesh screen cloth will keep out flies and most mosquitoes[9] and
+other small insects which at times are found almost everywhere.
+
+[Footnote 9: Where the yellow fever or dengue fever mosquito occurs,
+18-mesh screen cloth (or 16-mesh screen cloth made from extra heavy
+wire) should be used.]
+
+
+FLY PAPERS AND POISONS.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Conical hoop flytrap side view. _A_, Hoops
+forming frame at bottom. _B_, Hoops forming frame at top. _C_, Top of
+trap made of barrel head. _D_, Strips around door. _E_, Door frame. _F_,
+Screen on door. _G_, Buttons holding door. _H_, Screen on outside of
+trap. _I_, Strips on side of trap between hoops. _J_, Tips of these
+strips projecting to form legs. _K_, Cone. _L_, United edges of screen
+forming cone. _M_, Aperture at apex of cone. (Bishopp.)]
+
+The use of sticky fly papers to destroy flies that have gained access to
+houses is well known. Fly-poison preparations also are common. Many of
+the commercial fly poisons contain arsenic, and their use in the
+household is attended with considerable danger, especially to children.
+This danger is less with the use of a weak solution of formalin. A very
+effective fly poison is made by adding 3 teaspoonfuls of the commercial
+formalin to a pint of milk or water sweetened with a little brown sugar.
+A convenient way of exposing this poison is by partly filling an
+ordinary drinking glass with the solution. A saucer or plate is then
+lined with white blotting paper cut the size of the dish and placed
+bottom up over the glass. The whole is then quickly inverted and a small
+match stick placed under the edge of the glass. As the solution
+evaporates from the paper more flows out from the glass and thus the
+supply is automatically renewed.
+
+
+FLY SPRAYS.
+
+Sprays designed to destroy or repel house flies fill a certain need in
+connection with the house-fly problem. No very satisfactory repellent
+substances for this insect have been found which are at the same time
+adaptable to general use about the home, or places where foods are
+handled. Extracts of pyrethrum flowers are now generally available
+commercially, and these give fairly good results in the destruction of
+house flies in buildings. Most of the sprays of pyrethrum extract
+contain kerosene oil as a carrier, and undoubtedly the kerosene has much
+to do with the toxicity of the spray. Such materials are most applicable
+to buildings which become infested with flies and which can be readily
+closed up at night and the air within thoroughly saturated with the
+spray by means of an atomizer. Under such conditions the flies are
+rather quickly overcome by the spray and if a sufficient quantity is
+used they will not revive.
+
+
+FLYTRAPS.
+
+Flytraps may be used to advantage in decreasing the number of flies.
+Their use has been advocated not only because of the immediate results,
+but because of the chances that the flies may be caught before they lay
+eggs, and the number of future generations will be reduced greatly.
+
+Many types of flytraps are on the market. As a rule the larger ones are
+the more effective. Anyone with a few tools can construct flytraps for a
+small part of the price of the ready-made ones. A trap (fig. 8) which is
+very effective in catching flies and is easily made, durable, and cheap,
+may be made of four barrel hoops, four laths, a few strips of boxing,
+and 8 1/2 lineal feet of screening, 24 inches wide. (For greater details
+see Farmers' Bulletin 734.)
+
+The effectiveness of the traps will depend on the selection of baits. A
+good bait for catching house flies is 1 part of blackstrap molasses to 3
+parts of water, after the mixture has been allowed to ferment for a day
+or two. Overripe or fermenting bananas crushed and placed in the bait
+pans give good results, especially with milk added to them. A mixture of
+equal parts brown sugar and curd of sour milk, thoroughly moistened,
+gives good results after it has been allowed to stand for three or four
+days.
+
+
+
+
+PREVENTING THE BREEDING OF FLIES.
+
+
+As previously stated, fly papers, poisons, and traps are at best only
+temporary expedients. The most logical method of abating the fly
+nuisance is the elimination or treatment of all breeding places. It
+would appear from what is known of the life history and habits of the
+common house fly that it is perfectly feasible for cities and towns to
+reduce the numbers of this annoying and dangerous insect so greatly as
+to render it of comparatively slight account. On farms also, in dairies,
+and under rural conditions generally, much can and should be done to
+control the fly, which here, as elsewhere, constitutes a very serious
+menace to health.
+
+
+CONSTRUCTION AND CARE OF STABLES.
+
+In formulating rules for the construction and care of stables and the
+disposal of manure the following points must be taken into
+consideration. In the first place, the ground of soil-floor stables may
+offer a suitable place for the development of fly larvae. The larvae will
+migrate from the manure to the soil and continue their growth in the
+moist ground. This takes place to some extent even when the manure is
+removed from the stables every day. Even wooden floors are not entirely
+satisfactory unless they are perfectly water-tight, since larvae will
+crawl through the cracks and continue their development in the moist
+ground below. Water-tight floors of concrete or masonry, therefore, are
+desirable. Flies have been found to breed in surprising numbers in small
+accumulations of material in the corners of feed troughs and mangers,
+and it is important that such places be kept clean.
+
+
+FLY-TIGHT MANURE PITS.
+
+The Bureau of Entomology for a number of years has advised that manure
+from horse stables be kept in fly-tight pits or bins. Such pits can be
+built in or attached to the stable so that manure can be easily thrown
+in at the time of cleaning and so constructed that the manure can be
+readily removed. It is desirable that the manure be placed in these
+fly-proof receptacles as soon as possible after it is voided. The
+essential point is that flies be prevented from reaching the manure, and
+for this reason the pit or bin must be tightly constructed, preferably
+of concrete, and the lid kept closed except when the manure is being
+thrown in or removed. The difficulty has been that manure often becomes
+infested before it is put into the container, and flies frequently breed
+out before it is emptied and often escape through the cracks. To obviate
+these difficulties a manure box or pit with a modified tent trap or cone
+trap attached is desirable.
+
+In order to retain the fertilizing value of manure to the greatest
+extent it is advisable that air be excluded from it as much as possible
+and that it be protected from the leaching action of rains. This being
+the case, there is really no necessity for covering a large portion of
+the top of the box with a trap, but merely to have holes large enough to
+attract flies to the light, and to cover these holes with ordinary
+conical traps, with the legs cut off, so, that the bottoms of the traps
+will fit closely to the box. The same arrangement can be made where
+manure is kept in a pit. If manure boxes or pits are kept fly tight they
+are satisfactory under farm or dairy conditions for the storage of
+manure during the busy season when it can not be hauled out daily.
+
+
+FREQUENCY WITH WHICH MANURE SHOULD BE REMOVED IN CITIES AND TOWNS.
+
+In deciding the question as to how often manure should be removed in
+cities and towns, it should be borne in mind that when the larvae have
+finished feeding they will often leave the manure and pupate in the
+ground below or crawl some distance away to pupate in debris under
+boards or stones and the like. Hence the manure should be removed before
+the larvae reach the migratory stage; that is to say, removal is
+necessary every three days, and certainly not less frequently than twice
+a week during the summer months. A series of orders issued in 1906 by
+the health department of the District of Columbia, on the authority of
+the Commissioners of the District, covers most of these points, and
+these orders, which may well serve as a model to other communities
+desiring to undertake similar measures, may be briefly condensed as
+follows:
+
+
+   HEALTH OFFICE REGULATIONS FOR CONTROL OF HOUSE FLIES IN CITIES.
+
+     All stalls in which animals are kept shall have the surface of the
+     ground covered with a water-tight floor. Every person occupying a
+     building where domestic animals are kept shall maintain in
+     connection therewith a bin or pit for the reception of manure and,
+     pending the removal from the premises of the manure from the animal
+     or animals, shall place such manure in said bin or pit. This bin
+     shall be so constructed as to exclude rain water and shall in all
+     other respects be water-tight, except as it may be connected with
+     the public sewer. It shall be provided with a suitable cover and
+     constructed so as to prevent the ingress and egress of flies. No
+     person owning a stable shall keep any manure or permit any manure
+     to be kept in or upon any portion of the premises other than the
+     bin or pit described, nor shall he allow any such bin or pit to be
+     overfilled or needlessly uncovered. Horse manure may be kept
+     tightly rammed into well-covered barrels for the purpose of removal
+     in such barrels. Every person keeping manure in the more densely
+     populated parts of the District shall cause all such manure to be
+     removed from the premises at least twice every week between June 1
+     and October 31, and at least once every week between November 1 and
+     May 31 of the following year. No person shall remove or transport
+     any manure over any public highway in any of the more densely
+     populated parts of the District except in a tight vehicle, which,
+     if not inclosed, must be effectually covered with canvas, so as to
+     prevent the manure from being dropped. No person shall deposit
+     manure removed from the bins or pits within any of the more densely
+     populated parts of the District without a permit from the health
+     officer. Any person violating any of the provisions shall, upon
+     conviction thereof, be punished by a fine of not more than $40 for
+     each offense.
+
+Not only must horse stables be cared for, but chicken yards, piggeries,
+and garbage receptacles as well. In cities, with better methods of
+disposal of garbage and with the lessening of the number of horses and
+horse stables consequent upon electric street railways, bicycles, and
+automobiles, the time may come, and before very long, when window
+screens may be discarded.
+
+
+DISPOSAL OF MANURE IN RURAL AND SUBURBAN DISTRICTS.
+
+The control of flies in rural and suburban districts offers a much more
+difficult problem. Here it is often out of the question to remove all
+manure from the premises twice a week, and the problem is to find some
+method of disposal or storage which will conserve the fertilizing value
+of the manure and at the same time prevent all flies from breeding, or
+destroy such as do breed there.
+
+With this idea in mind, it has been recommended that stable manure be
+collected every morning and hauled out at once and spread rather thinly
+on the fields. This procedure is advisable from the point of view of
+getting the maximum fertilizing value from the manure. Immediate
+spreading on the fields is said largely to prevent the loss of plant
+food which occurs when manure is allowed to stand in heaps for a long
+time. This method will be effective in preventing the breeding of flies
+only if the manure is hauled out promptly every morning and spread
+thinly so that it will dry, since it is unfavorable for fly development
+in desiccated condition. The proper scattering of the manure on the
+fields is best and most easily and quickly accomplished by the use of a
+manure spreader, and many dairies, and even farms, are practicing the
+daily distribution of manure in this way. Removal every three or four
+days will not be sufficient. Observations have shown that if manure
+becomes flyblown and the maggots attain a fairly good size before the
+manure is scattered on the fields, they can continue their development
+and will pupate in the ground.
+
+
+CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF MANURE TO DESTROY FLY MAGGOTS.
+
+During the summer months, when fly breeding is going on most actively,
+the farmer is also busy and often can not spare the time to remove
+manure regularly. The general practice, therefore, has been to keep the
+manure in heaps located, as a rule, very near the stables. How can fly
+breeding be prevented in such accumulations? As a result of recent
+investigations, it is now possible to point out two methods which are
+practical and effective.
+
+The first is the treatment of the manure pile with chemical substances
+which will kill the eggs and maggots of the house fly. The Bureau of
+Entomology, in cooperation with the Bureau of Chemistry and the Bureau
+of Plant Industry, has conducted a series of experiments in which a
+large number of chemicals were applied to infested manure and
+observations made, not only on their efficiency in killing the maggots
+but also as to their effect on the chemical composition and bacterial
+flora of the manure. The object was to find some cheap chemical which
+would be effective in destroying the fly larvae and at the same time
+would not reduce the fertilizing value of the manure.
+
+
+TREATMENT WITH HELLEBORE.
+
+Of the numerous substances tried, the one which seems best to fulfill
+these conditions is powdered hellebore.[10] For the treatment of manure a
+water extract of the hellebore is prepared by adding 1/2 pound of the
+powder to every 10 gallons of water, and after stirring it is allowed to
+stand 24 hours. The mixture thus prepared is sprinkled over the manure
+at the rate of 10 gallons to every 8 bushels (10 cubic feet) of manure.
+From the result of 12 experiments with manure piles treated under
+natural conditions it appears that such treatment results in the
+destruction of from 88 to 99 per cent of the fly larvae.
+
+Studies of treated manure indicated that its composition and rotting
+were not interfered with. Furthermore, several field tests showed that
+there was no apparent injury to growing crops when fertilized with
+treated manure.
+
+Since the solution is somewhat poisonous it should not be left exposed
+where it might be drunk by livestock. It is quite safe to say that
+chickens will not be injured by pecking at hellebore-treated manure.
+This has been tested carefully. Hellebore can be obtained both in ground
+and powdered form, but the powder gives the best results in the
+destruction of fly larvae.
+
+[Footnote 10: _Veratrum viride_ or _V. aloum_.]
+
+
+TREATMENT WITH POWDERED BORAX.
+
+Another chemical found to be even more effective as a larvicide is
+powdered borax. This substance is available in commercial form in all
+parts of the country. It has the advantage of being comparatively
+nonpoisonous and noninflammable and is easily transported and handled.
+The minimum amount necessary to kill fly larvae was found to be 0.62
+pound per 8 bushels of manure, or about 1 pound per 16 cubic feet. Best
+results were obtained when the borax was applied in solution, or when
+water was sprinkled on after the borax had been scattered evenly over
+the pile. Borax is not only effective in killing the larvae, but when it
+comes in contact with the eggs it prevents them from hatching. When
+applied at the rate of 1 pound to 16 cubic feet it was found to kill
+about 90 per cent of the larvae, heavier applications killing from 98 to
+99 per cent.
+
+Borax has no injurious effect on the chemical composition or rotting of
+the manure. However, when added in large quantities with manure to the
+soil it will cause considerable injury to growing plants. A number of
+experiments have been conducted to determine the effect on crops of the
+use of manure treated with borax as herein recommended. When applied at
+the rate of 15 tons per acre it appears that no injury as a rule will
+follow. Some crops are more sensitive to borax than others, and also the
+tendency to injury appears to vary on different soils. It is necessary,
+therefore, to repeat the warning issued in connection with a previous
+bulletin[11] on this subject, that great care be exercised, in the
+application of borax, that the manure does not receive more than 1 pound
+for every 16 cubic feet, and that not more than 15 tons of manure so
+treated are applied to the acre.
+
+In view of the possible injury from the borax treatment as a result of
+carelessness in applying it, or from other unforeseen conditions, it is
+recommended that horse manure and other farmyard manures which are to be
+used as fertilizer be treated with hellebore. Borax, on the other hand,
+is such a good larvicide that it call be used with advantage on the
+ground of soil-floor stables, in privies, on refuse piles, and on any
+accumulations of fermenting organic matter which are not to be used for
+fertilizing purposes.
+
+[Footnote 11: Department Bulletin 118, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
+p. 25.]
+
+
+TREATMENT WITH CALCIUM CYANAMID AND ACID PHOSPHATE.
+
+Many experiments with mixtures of commercial fertilizers were tried to
+determine whether fly larvae would be killed by any substance the
+addition of which would increase the fertilizing value of the manure. A
+mixture of calcium cyanamid and acid phosphate was found to possess
+considerable larvicidal action. Several experiments showed that 1/2
+pound of calcium cyanamid plus 1/2 pound of acid phosphate to each
+bushel of manure give an apparent larvicidal action of 98 per cent. The
+mixture in the form of a powder was scattered evenly over the surface
+and then wet down with water. The use of this mixture adds to the manure
+two important elements, nitrogen and phosphorus.
+
+
+MAGGOT TRAP FOR DESTRUCTION OF FLY LARVAE FROM HORSE MANURE.
+
+The second method of handling manure is one which does not require the
+application of chemicals. It is based on the fact, mentioned on page 4,
+that the larvae of the house fly, a few hours before they are ready to
+pupate, show a strong tendency to migrate. This migration takes place
+mostly at night, and the larvae sometimes crawl considerable distances
+from the manure pile. Now it is possible by means of a very simple
+arrangement called a maggot trap to destroy fully 99 per cent of all
+maggots breeding in a given lot of manure. A successful maggot trap
+which the Maryland Agricultural College constructed at the college barn
+is shown in Figure 9. The trap was designed by R. H. Hutchison and
+constructed under his supervision. The manure, instead of being thrown
+on the ground, is heaped carefully on a slatted platform, which stands
+about 1 foot high. This particular platform measures 10 by 20 feet.
+There are six 2 by 4 pieces running lengthwise 2 feet apart. Across
+these are nailed 1-inch strips with 1/2 to 1 inch spaces between them.
+The wooden platform stands on a concrete floor, and a rim or wall of
+concrete 4 inches high surrounds the floor. The floor slopes a little
+toward one corner from which a pipe leads to a small cistern near by.
+This pipe is plugged with a stopper of soft wood, and the concrete floor
+is filled with water to a depth of 1 inch in the shallowest part. Flies
+will lay their eggs on the manure as usual, but the maggots, when they
+have finished feeding and begin to migrate, crawl out of the manure,
+drop into the water below, and are drowned. Each week the plug is
+removed from the pipe, and all the maggots are washed into the cistern.
+The floor is then cleaned of any solid particles by means of a
+long-handled stable broom or by a strong stream of water from a hose.
+The pipe being again plugged, the floor is again partly filled with
+water and the trap is ready for another week's catch. A platform of this
+size will hold the manure accumulating from four horses during the
+period of four months, or about 20 days' accumulation from 25 horses, if
+the heap is well built and made at least 5 feet high.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9. A maggot trap for house-fly control. View showing
+the concrete basin containing water in which larvae are drowned, and the
+wooden platform on which manure is heaped. (Hutchison.)]
+
+Experience with this maggot trap clearly indicates that best results can
+be secured if the manure is compactly heaped on the platform and kept
+thoroughly moistened. It is best to apply a small amount of water each
+morning after the stable cleanings have been added to the pile. It
+should be borne in mind that in order to make this trap a success the
+platform beneath the pile must be kept comparatively free of
+accumulations of manure, and moisture applied regularly to drive the
+maggots out.
+
+
+COMPACT HEAPING OF MANURE.
+
+Another method of disposing of manure has been recommended by English
+writers. The manure is built up in a compact rectangular heap, the sides
+of which are beaten hard with shovels. The ground around the edges of
+the heap is made smooth and hard and loose straw is placed in small
+windrows around the manure pile about 1 foot from the edge. The
+exclusion of the air, together with the high temperature and gases
+formed by fermentation, tends to make the heap unfavorable for the
+development of fly larvae. Those which do happen to develop in the
+surface layers will migrate and pupate in the ring of straw around the
+heap, where they are destroyed by burning.
+
+
+GARBAGE DISPOSAL AND TREATMENT OF MISCELLANEOUS BREEDING PLACES.
+
+It is just as true under farm conditions as in cities that breeding
+places other than horse manure must be attended to. Garbage must be
+disposed of, hog and poultry manure must be cared for, and especially on
+dairy farms it is extremely important that every precaution be taken to
+prevent the contamination of milk by flies.
+
+It is very desirable that all refuse possible, accumulated from cities
+and towns, be burned. Incineration has been practiced successfully by a
+number of towns and cities with populations of from 10,000 to 15,000 and
+over. In larger cities provision should be made for burning carcasses as
+well as garbage and other refuse. If city and town garbage is sold to
+hog feeders the municipal authorities should have control of the
+sanitary conditions about the feeding yards, as there is great danger
+from fly breeding in such places if not kept clean.
+
+
+SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN RELATION TO THE PREVENTION OF FLY-BORNE DISEASES.
+
+In the consideration of these measures we have not touched upon the
+remedies for house flies breeding in human excrement. On account of the
+danger of the carriage of typhoid fever, the dropping of human excrement
+in the open in cities or towns, either in vacant lots or in dark
+alleyways, should be made a misdemeanor, and the same care should be
+taken by the sanitary authorities to remove or cover up such depositions
+as is taken in the removal of the bodies of dead animals. For modern
+methods of sewage disposal adapted for farm use one should consult
+Department of Agriculture Department Bulletin No. 57. In the absence of
+modern methods of sewage disposal, absolutely sanitary privies are prime
+necessities, whether in towns or on farms. Directions for building and
+caring for such privies will be found in Farmers' Bulletin 463 and in
+Yearbook Separate 712, "Sewage Disposal on the Farm." The box privy is
+always a nuisance from many points of view, and is undoubtedly dangerous
+as a breeder of flies which may carry the germs of intestinal diseases.
+The dry-earth treatment of privies is unsatisfactory. No box privy
+should be permitted to exist unless it is thoroughly and regularly
+treated with some effective larvicide. Since the fecal matter in such
+privies is seldom used for fertilizing purposes it may well be treated
+liberally with borax. The powdered borax may be scattered two or three
+times a week over the exposed surface so as to whiten it.
+
+
+
+
+WHAT COMMUNITIES CAN DO TO ELIMINATE THE HOUSE FLY.
+
+
+Antifly crusades have been very numerous in recent years, and some have
+been noteworthy both in methods and in results. However, it will not be
+amiss here to emphasize the importance of concerted, organized effort on
+the part of whole communities, not only cities, but suburban and rural
+neighborhoods as well. By the most painstaking care one may prevent all
+fly breeding on his premises, but it will avail him little if his
+neighbors are not equally careful. Some sort of cooperation is
+necessary. One of the first and most important elements in any antifly
+crusade is a vigorous and continued educational campaign. It has been
+the experience of those who have undertaken such crusades that people
+generally regard the fly as a somewhat harmless nuisance and that the
+first work of the campaign was to bring the people to a realization of
+the dangers from flies and the possibility of getting rid of them. In
+the educational campaign every possible means of publicity can be
+employed, including newspapers, lectures, moving pictures, posters,
+handbills, cartoons, instruction in schools, etc.
+
+The antifly crusade is a matter of public interest and should be
+supported by the community as a whole and engineered by the health
+officers. But health officers can do little toward the necessary work of
+inspection and elimination without funds, and therefore the support of
+the campaign must manifest itself in increased appropriations for
+public-health work. Very often it is lack of funds which prevents the
+health officers from taking the initiative in the antifly crusades, and
+there must necessarily be much agitation and education before they can
+profitably take up the work. Right here lies a field for civic
+associations, women's clubs, boards of trade, etc., to exercise their
+best energy, initiative, and leadership.
+
+
+
+
+ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE WHEN THIS
+PUBLICATION WAS LAST PRINTED
+
+  _Secretary of Agriculture_              ARTHUR M. HYDE.
+
+  _Assistant Secretary_                   R. W. DUNLAP.
+
+  _Director of Scientific Work_           A. F. WOODS.
+
+  _Director of Regulatory Work_           WALTER G. CAMPBELL.
+
+  _Director of Extension Work_            C. W. WARBURTON.
+
+  _Director of Personnel and Business
+       Administration_                    W. W. STOCKBERGER.
+
+  _Director of Information_               M. S. EISENHOWER.
+
+  _Solicitor_                             E. L. MARSHALL.
+
+  _Bureau of Agricultural Economics_      NILS A. OLSEN, _Chief_.
+
+  _Bureau of Agricultural Engineering_    S. H. MCCRORY, _Chief_.
+
+  _Bureau of Animal Industry_             JOHN R. MOHLER, _Chief_.
+
+  _Bureau of Biological Survey_           PAUL G. REDINGTON, _Chief_.
+
+  _Bureau of Chemistry and Soils_         H. G. KNIGHT, _Chief_.
+
+  _Office of Cooperative Extension Work_  C. B. SMITH, _Chief_.
+
+  _Bureau of Dairy Industry_              O. E. REED, _Chief_.
+
+  _Bureau of Entomology_                  C. L. MARLATT, _Chief_.
+
+  _Office of Experiment Stations_         JAMES T. JARDINE, _Chief_.
+
+  _Food and Drug Administration_          WALTER G. CAMPBELL, _Director_
+                                          _of Regulatory Work, in Charge._
+
+  _Forest Service_                        R. Y. STUART, _Chief_.
+
+  _Grain Futures Administration_          J. W. T. DUVEL, _Chief_.
+
+  _Bureau of Home Economics_              LOUISE STANLEY, _Chief_.
+
+  _Library_                               CLARIBEL R. BARNETT, _Librarian_.
+
+  _Bureau of Plant Industry_              WILLIAM A. TAYLOR, _Chief_.
+
+  _Bureau of Plant Quarantine_            LEE A. STRONG, _Chief_.
+
+  _Bureau of Public Roads_                THOMAS H. MACDONALD, _Chief_.
+
+  _Weather Bureau_                        CHARLES F. MARVIN, _Chief_.
+
+
+U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1938
+
+
+For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.
+Price 5 cents
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note:
+Footnotes 10 & 11 renumbered to avoid the confusion generated
+by two footnote 9's.]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The House Fly and How to Suppress It, by
+L. O. Howard and F. C. Bishopp
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HOUSE FLY AND HOW TO ***
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