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diff --git a/18050-8.txt b/18050-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..50c6485 --- /dev/null +++ b/18050-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1310 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The House Fly and How to Suppress It, by +L. O. Howard and F. C. Bishopp + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The House Fly and How to Suppress It + U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin No. 1408 + +Author: L. O. Howard and F. C. Bishopp + +Release Date: March 26, 2006 [EBook #18050] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HOUSE FLY AND HOW TO *** + + + + +Produced by K.D. Thornton and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE + +FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 1408 + +_The_ HOUSE FLY AND HOW TO SUPPRESS IT + +[Illustration: fly] + +[Illustration: USDA seal] + + + + +The presence of flies is an indication of uncleanliness, insanitary +conditions, and improper disposal of substances in which they breed. +They are not only annoying; they are actually dangerous to health, +because they may carry disease germs to exposed foods. + +It is therefore important to know where and how they breed, and to apply +such knowledge in combating them. This bulletin gives information on +this subject. Besides giving directions for ridding the house of flies +by the use of screens, fly papers, poisons, and flytraps, it lays +especial emphasis on the explanation of methods of eliminating breeding +places and preventing the breeding of flies. + +This bulletin supersedes Farmers' Bulletin 851. + +Washington, D. C. Issued April, 1925; revised November, 1926 + + + + +THE HOUSE FLY[1] AND HOW TO SUPPRESS IT. + +By L. O. HOWARD, _Chief of the Bureau of Entomology_, and F. C. BISHOPP, +_Entomologist_. + + * * * * * + + + CONTENTS. + Page. + Kinds of flies found in houses 1 + Where the true house fly lays its eggs 2 + How the house fly passes the winter 6 + Carriage of disease by the house fly 6 + Excluding and capturing flies 7 + The use of screens 7 + Fly papers and poisons 8 + Fly sprays 8 + Flytraps 9 + Preventing the breeding of flies 9 + Construction and care of stables 9 + Fly-tight manure pits 10 + Frequency with which manure should be removed in cities and towns 10 + Health office regulations for control of house flies in cities 10 + Disposal of manure in rural and suburban districts 11 + Chemical treatment of manure to destroy fly maggots 12 + Maggot trap for destruction of fly larvæ from horse manure 13 + Compact heaping of manure 15 + Garbage disposal and treatment of miscellaneous breeding places 15 + Sewage disposal in relation to the prevention of fly-borne diseases 15 + What communities can do to eliminate the house fly 16 + + + * * * * * + + +KINDS OF FLIES FOUND IN HOUSES. + + +Several species of flies are found commonly in houses. Some of them so +closely resemble the true house fly that it requires very careful +observation to distinguish them from it. + +One of these is the biting stable fly[2] (fig. 1). It occurs frequently +in houses and differs from the house fly in the important particular +that its mouth parts are formed for piercing the skin. This fly is so +often mistaken for the house fly that most people think that the house +fly can bite. + +Another frequent visitant of houses, particularly in the spring and +fall, is the cluster fly.[3] It is somewhat larger than the house fly, +and is distinguished by its covering of fine yellowish hairs. +Occasionally this fly occurs in houses in such numbers as to cause great +annoyance. It gets its name of "cluster fly" from its habit of +collecting in compact groups or clusters in protected corners during +cold periods. + +Several species of metallic greenish or bluish flies also are found +occasionally in houses. These include a blue-bottle fly,[4] the black +blowflies,[5] and the green-bottle (fig. 2) flies.[6] They breed in +decaying animal matter. + +[Footnote 1: _Musca domestica_ L.] +[Footnote 2: _Stomoxys calcitrans_ L.] +[Footnote 3: _Pollenia rudis_ Fab.] +[Footnote 4: _Calliphora erythrocephala_ Meig.] +[Footnote 5: _Phormia regina_ Meig. and _P. terrae-novae_ Desv.] +[Footnote 6: _Lucilia caesar_ L., _L. sericata_ Meig., and other species +of the genus.] + +There is still another species, smaller than any of those so far +mentioned, which is sometimes called the "lesser house fly."[7] This +insect is distinguished from the ordinary house fly by its paler and +more pointed body. The male, which is commoner than the female, has +large pale patches at the base of the abdomen, which are translucent +when the fly is seen on the window pane. These little flies are not the +young of the larger flies. Flies do not grow after the wings have once +expanded and dried. + +[Footnote 7: _Fannia canicularis_ L.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The stable fly. Much enlarged.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--One of the green-bottle flies (_Lucilia +caesar_). Much enlarged.] + +In late summer and autumn many specimens of a small fruit fly, known as +the "vinegar fly,"[8] make their appearance, attracted by the odor of +overripe fruit. + +All of these species, however, are greatly dwarfed in numbers by the +common house fly. In 1900 the senior author made collections of the +flies in dining rooms in different parts of the country, and found that +the true house fly made up 98.8 per cent of the whole number captured. +The remainder comprised various species, including those mentioned +above. + +[Footnote 8: _Drosophila ampelophila_ Loew.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.--The true house fly. Enlarged.] + + + + +WHERE THE TRUE HOUSE FLY LAYS ITS EGGS. + + +The true house fly (fig. 3), which is found in nearly all parts of the +world, is a medium-sized fly with four black stripes on the back and a +sharp elbow in one of the veins of the wings. The house fly can not +bite, its mouth parts being spread out at the tip for sucking up liquid +substances. + +The eggs (figs. 4, 5) are laid upon horse manure. This substance seems +to be its favorite larval food. It will breed also in human excrement, +and because of this habit it is very dangerous to the health of human +beings, carrying as it does the germs of intestinal diseases, such as +typhoid fever and cholera, from the excreta to food supplies. It has +also been found to breed freely in hog manure, in considerable numbers +in chicken dung, and to some extent in cow manure. Indeed, it will lay +its eggs on a great variety of decaying vegetable and animal materials, +but of the flies that infest dwelling houses, both in cities and on +farms, a vast proportion come from horse manure. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Eggs of the house fly. About natural size. +(Newstead.)] + +It often happens, however, that this fly is very abundant in localities +where little or no horse manure is found, and in such cases it breeds in +other manure, such as chicken manure in backyard poultry lots, or in +slops or fermenting vegetable material, such as spent hops, moist bran, +ensilage, or rotting potatoes. Accumulations of organic material on the +dumping grounds of towns and cities often produce flies in great +numbers. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Eggs of the house fly. Highly magnified. +(Newstead.)] + +The house fly begins laying eggs in from 2 1/2 to 20 days after +emerging, the time interval depending to a large extent upon +temperature, humidity, and character and abundance of food. The number +of eggs laid by an individual fly at one time ranges from 120 to 159 and +a single female will usually lay two and sometimes four such batches. +Dunn has recently reported that in Panama a fly may deposit as many as +2,367 eggs in 21 batches, and sometimes an interval of only 36 hours may +occur between the deposition of large batches of eggs. The enormous +numbers in which the insects occur are thus plainly accounted for, +especially when the abundance and universal occurrence of appropriate +larval food is considered. The eggs are deposited below the surface in +the cracks and interstices of the manure, several females usually +depositing in one spot, so that the eggs commonly are found in large +clusters (fig. 4) in selected places near the top of the pile, where a +high degree of heat is maintained by the fermentation below. The second +batch of eggs is laid from 8 to 10 days after the first. The eggs +usually hatch in less than 24 hours. Under the most favorable conditions +of temperature and moisture the egg state may last hardly more than 8 +hours. The maggots which issue from the eggs are very small and +transparent. They grow rapidly, completing the growth of the larva stage +in three days under the most favorable conditions, although this stage +usually lasts from 4 to 7 days. The larval period may be prolonged +greatly by low temperature or by dryness or scarcity of the larval food. +As the larvæ (fig. 6) attain full size they gradually assume a creamy +white color. A few hours before pupation they become very restless and +migrate from their feeding ground in search of a favorable place in +which to pass the pupa stage. They will often congregate at the edges of +manure piles near the ground or burrow into the soil beneath, or they +may crawl considerable distances away from the pile to pupate in the +ground or in loose material under the edges of stones, boards, etc. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Larvæ, or maggots, of the house fly. About +natural size. (Newstead.)] + +The pupæ (fig 7), or "sleepers," are more or less barrel shaped and dark +brown in color. In midsummer this stage usually lasts from 3 to 6 days. +The pupa stage is easily affected by temperature changes and may be +prolonged during hibernation for as long as 4 or 5 months. Numerous +rearing experiments in various parts of the country have shown that the +shortest time between the deposition of eggs and the emergence of the +adult fly is 8 days, and 10 and 12 day records were very common. + +The adult fly, upon emerging from the puparium, works its way upward +through the soil or manure and upon reaching the air it crawls about +while its wings expand and the body hardens and assumes its normal +coloration. In from 2 1/2 to 20 days, as previously stated, the female +is ready to deposit eggs. As in the case of other periods of its life +history, so the preoviposition period is prolonged considerably by the +lower temperatures of spring and fall. In midsummer, with a +developmental period of from 8 to 10 days from egg to adult, and a +preoviposition period of from 3 to 4 days, a new generation would be +started every 11 to 14 days. Thus the climate of the District of +Columbia allows abundance of time for the development of from 10 to 12 +generations every season. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Pupæ of the house fly. About natural size. +(Newstead.)] + +Flies usually remain near their breeding places if they have plenty of +food, but experiments recently made at Dallas, Tex., show that they may +migrate considerable distances; in fact, house flies, so marked that the +particular individuals could be identified, have been recaptured in +traps as far as 13 miles from the place where they were liberated. + + + + +HOW THE HOUSE FLY PASSES THE WINTER. + + +The prevailing opinion that the house fly lives through the winter as an +adult, hiding in cracks and crevices of buildings, etc., appears to be +erroneous. Under outdoor conditions house flies are killed during the +first really cold nights, that is, when the temperature falls to about +15° or 10° F. In rooms and similar places protected from winds and +partially heated during the winter flies have been kept alive in cages +for long periods, but they never lived through the entire winter. In +longevity experiments one record of 70 days and another of 91 days was +obtained. No uncaged house flies were found during three seasons' +observations in unheated and only partially heated attics, stables, +unused rooms, etc., where favorable temperature conditions prevailed. +The common occurrence in such places of the cluster fly and a few other +species, which may be easily mistaken for the house fly, is responsible +for the prevailing belief as to the way the house fly overwinters. There +is therefore no reliable evidence whatever that adult house flies +emerging during October and November pass the winter and are able to +deposit their eggs the following spring, although they may continue +active in heated buildings until nearly the end of January. On the other +hand, there is evidence that house flies pass the winter as larvæ and +pupæ, and that they sometimes breed continuously throughout the winter. +In experiments at both Dallas, Tex., and Bethesda, Md., house flies have +been found emerging during April from heavily infested manure heaps +which had been set out and covered with cages during the preceding +autumn. In the Southern States, during warm periods in midwinter, house +flies may emerge and become somewhat troublesome; they frequently lay +eggs on warm days. + +The second way in which the house fly may pass the winter is by +continuous breeding. House flies congregate in heated rooms with the +approach of the winter season. If no food or breeding materials are +present they eventually die. However, where they have access to both +food and suitable substances for egg laying they will continue breeding +just as they do outdoors during the summer. Even in very cold climates +there are undoubtedly many places, especially in cities, where house +flies would have opportunity to pass the winter in this manner. + + + + +CARRIAGE OF DISEASE BY THE HOUSE FLY. + + +The body of the house fly is covered thickly with hairs and bristles of +varying lengths, and this is especially true of the legs. Thus, when it +crawls over infected material it readily becomes loaded with germs, and +subsequent visits to human foods result in their contamination. Even +more dangerous than the transference of germs on the legs and body of +the fly is the fact that bacteria are found in greater numbers and live +longer in its alimentary canal. These germs are voided, not only in the +excrement of the fly, but also in small droplets of regurgitated matter +which have been called "vomit spots." When we realize that flies +frequent and feed upon the most filthy substances (it may be the excreta +of typhoid or dysentery patients or the discharges of one suffering from +tuberculosis), and that subsequently they may contaminate human foods +with their feet or excreta or vomit spots, the necessity and importance +of house-fly control is clear. + +In army camps, in mining camps, and in great public works, where large +numbers of men are brought together for a longer or shorter time, there +is seldom the proper care of excreta, and the carriage of typhoid germs +from the latrines and privies to food by flies is common and often +results in epidemics of typhoid fever. + +And such carriage of typhoid is by no means confined to great temporary +camps. In farmhouses in small communities, and even in badly cared for +portions of large cities, typhoid germs are carried from excrement to +food by flies, and the proper supervision and treatment of the breeding +places of the house fly become most important elements in the prevention +of typhoid. + +In the same way other intestinal germ diseases, such as Asiatic cholera, +dysentery, enteritis (inflammation of the intestine), and infantile +diarrhea, are all so carried. There is strong circumstantial evidence +also that tuberculosis, anthrax, yaws, ophthalmia, smallpox, tropical +sore, and the eggs of parasitic worms may be and are carried in this +way. In the case of over 30 different disease organisms and parasitic +worms, actual laboratory proof exists, and where lacking is replaced by +circumstantial evidence amounting almost to certainty. + + + + +EXCLUDING AND CAPTURING FLIES. + + +The principal effort to control this dangerous insect must be made at +the source of supply--its breeding places. Absolute cleanliness and the +removal or destruction of anything in which flies may breed are +essential; and this is something that can be done even in cities. +Perhaps it can be done more easily in the cities than in villages, on +account of their greater police power and the lesser insistence on the +rights of the individual. Once people are educated to the danger and +learn to find the breeding places, the rest will be easy. + +In spite of what has just been said, it is often necessary to catch or +otherwise destroy adult flies, or to protect food materials from +contamination and persons from annoyance or danger; hence the value of +fly papers and poisons, flytraps, and insect screens. + + +THE USE OF INSECT SCREENS. + +A careful screening of windows and doors during the summer months, with +the supplementary use of sticky fly papers, is a protective measure +against house flies known to everyone. As regards screening, it is only +necessary here to emphasize the importance of keeping food supplies +screened or otherwise covered so that flies can gain no access to them. +This applies not only to homes but also to stores, restaurants, milk +shops, and the like. Screening, of course, will have no effect in +decreasing the number of flies, but at least it has the virtue of +lessening the danger of contamination of food. + +Insect screens for doors and windows should be well made and must fit +tightly, otherwise they will not keep insects out. It is equally +important that they be made of good and durable screen cloth. Copper +insect screen cloth, although a little higher in price, will prove more +economical in the long run, as it lasts many years. If, however, the +cost of copper screen cloth is objectionable, steel screen cloth, either +painted or galvanized, can be used. Painted steel screen cloth will last +one or more years without repainting, its durability depending upon the +climate. In humid regions, of course, it will rust more quickly than it +will where the climate is dry. The same may be said of galvanized steel +insect screen cloth. + +Insect screen cloth made with 16 meshes to the inch is recommended, for +16-mesh screen cloth will keep out flies and most mosquitoes[9] and +other small insects which at times are found almost everywhere. + +[Footnote 9: Where the yellow fever or dengue fever mosquito occurs, +18-mesh screen cloth (or 16-mesh screen cloth made from extra heavy +wire) should be used.] + + +FLY PAPERS AND POISONS. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Conical hoop flytrap side view. _A_, Hoops +forming frame at bottom. _B_, Hoops forming frame at top. _C_, Top of +trap made of barrel head. _D_, Strips around door. _E_, Door frame. _F_, +Screen on door. _G_, Buttons holding door. _H_, Screen on outside of +trap. _I_, Strips on side of trap between hoops. _J_, Tips of these +strips projecting to form legs. _K_, Cone. _L_, United edges of screen +forming cone. _M_, Aperture at apex of cone. (Bishopp.)] + +The use of sticky fly papers to destroy flies that have gained access to +houses is well known. Fly-poison preparations also are common. Many of +the commercial fly poisons contain arsenic, and their use in the +household is attended with considerable danger, especially to children. +This danger is less with the use of a weak solution of formalin. A very +effective fly poison is made by adding 3 teaspoonfuls of the commercial +formalin to a pint of milk or water sweetened with a little brown sugar. +A convenient way of exposing this poison is by partly filling an +ordinary drinking glass with the solution. A saucer or plate is then +lined with white blotting paper cut the size of the dish and placed +bottom up over the glass. The whole is then quickly inverted and a small +match stick placed under the edge of the glass. As the solution +evaporates from the paper more flows out from the glass and thus the +supply is automatically renewed. + + +FLY SPRAYS. + +Sprays designed to destroy or repel house flies fill a certain need in +connection with the house-fly problem. No very satisfactory repellent +substances for this insect have been found which are at the same time +adaptable to general use about the home, or places where foods are +handled. Extracts of pyrethrum flowers are now generally available +commercially, and these give fairly good results in the destruction of +house flies in buildings. Most of the sprays of pyrethrum extract +contain kerosene oil as a carrier, and undoubtedly the kerosene has much +to do with the toxicity of the spray. Such materials are most applicable +to buildings which become infested with flies and which can be readily +closed up at night and the air within thoroughly saturated with the +spray by means of an atomizer. Under such conditions the flies are +rather quickly overcome by the spray and if a sufficient quantity is +used they will not revive. + + +FLYTRAPS. + +Flytraps may be used to advantage in decreasing the number of flies. +Their use has been advocated not only because of the immediate results, +but because of the chances that the flies may be caught before they lay +eggs, and the number of future generations will be reduced greatly. + +Many types of flytraps are on the market. As a rule the larger ones are +the more effective. Anyone with a few tools can construct flytraps for a +small part of the price of the ready-made ones. A trap (fig. 8) which is +very effective in catching flies and is easily made, durable, and cheap, +may be made of four barrel hoops, four laths, a few strips of boxing, +and 8 1/2 lineal feet of screening, 24 inches wide. (For greater details +see Farmers' Bulletin 734.) + +The effectiveness of the traps will depend on the selection of baits. A +good bait for catching house flies is 1 part of blackstrap molasses to 3 +parts of water, after the mixture has been allowed to ferment for a day +or two. Overripe or fermenting bananas crushed and placed in the bait +pans give good results, especially with milk added to them. A mixture of +equal parts brown sugar and curd of sour milk, thoroughly moistened, +gives good results after it has been allowed to stand for three or four +days. + + + + +PREVENTING THE BREEDING OF FLIES. + + +As previously stated, fly papers, poisons, and traps are at best only +temporary expedients. The most logical method of abating the fly +nuisance is the elimination or treatment of all breeding places. It +would appear from what is known of the life history and habits of the +common house fly that it is perfectly feasible for cities and towns to +reduce the numbers of this annoying and dangerous insect so greatly as +to render it of comparatively slight account. On farms also, in dairies, +and under rural conditions generally, much can and should be done to +control the fly, which here, as elsewhere, constitutes a very serious +menace to health. + + +CONSTRUCTION AND CARE OF STABLES. + +In formulating rules for the construction and care of stables and the +disposal of manure the following points must be taken into +consideration. In the first place, the ground of soil-floor stables may +offer a suitable place for the development of fly larvæ. The larvæ will +migrate from the manure to the soil and continue their growth in the +moist ground. This takes place to some extent even when the manure is +removed from the stables every day. Even wooden floors are not entirely +satisfactory unless they are perfectly water-tight, since larvæ will +crawl through the cracks and continue their development in the moist +ground below. Water-tight floors of concrete or masonry, therefore, are +desirable. Flies have been found to breed in surprising numbers in small +accumulations of material in the corners of feed troughs and mangers, +and it is important that such places be kept clean. + + +FLY-TIGHT MANURE PITS. + +The Bureau of Entomology for a number of years has advised that manure +from horse stables be kept in fly-tight pits or bins. Such pits can be +built in or attached to the stable so that manure can be easily thrown +in at the time of cleaning and so constructed that the manure can be +readily removed. It is desirable that the manure be placed in these +fly-proof receptacles as soon as possible after it is voided. The +essential point is that flies be prevented from reaching the manure, and +for this reason the pit or bin must be tightly constructed, preferably +of concrete, and the lid kept closed except when the manure is being +thrown in or removed. The difficulty has been that manure often becomes +infested before it is put into the container, and flies frequently breed +out before it is emptied and often escape through the cracks. To obviate +these difficulties a manure box or pit with a modified tent trap or cone +trap attached is desirable. + +In order to retain the fertilizing value of manure to the greatest +extent it is advisable that air be excluded from it as much as possible +and that it be protected from the leaching action of rains. This being +the case, there is really no necessity for covering a large portion of +the top of the box with a trap, but merely to have holes large enough to +attract flies to the light, and to cover these holes with ordinary +conical traps, with the legs cut off, so, that the bottoms of the traps +will fit closely to the box. The same arrangement can be made where +manure is kept in a pit. If manure boxes or pits are kept fly tight they +are satisfactory under farm or dairy conditions for the storage of +manure during the busy season when it can not be hauled out daily. + + +FREQUENCY WITH WHICH MANURE SHOULD BE REMOVED IN CITIES AND TOWNS. + +In deciding the question as to how often manure should be removed in +cities and towns, it should be borne in mind that when the larvæ have +finished feeding they will often leave the manure and pupate in the +ground below or crawl some distance away to pupate in débris under +boards or stones and the like. Hence the manure should be removed before +the larvæ reach the migratory stage; that is to say, removal is +necessary every three days, and certainly not less frequently than twice +a week during the summer months. A series of orders issued in 1906 by +the health department of the District of Columbia, on the authority of +the Commissioners of the District, covers most of these points, and +these orders, which may well serve as a model to other communities +desiring to undertake similar measures, may be briefly condensed as +follows: + + + HEALTH OFFICE REGULATIONS FOR CONTROL OF HOUSE FLIES IN CITIES. + + All stalls in which animals are kept shall have the surface of the + ground covered with a water-tight floor. Every person occupying a + building where domestic animals are kept shall maintain in + connection therewith a bin or pit for the reception of manure and, + pending the removal from the premises of the manure from the animal + or animals, shall place such manure in said bin or pit. This bin + shall be so constructed as to exclude rain water and shall in all + other respects be water-tight, except as it may be connected with + the public sewer. It shall be provided with a suitable cover and + constructed so as to prevent the ingress and egress of flies. No + person owning a stable shall keep any manure or permit any manure + to be kept in or upon any portion of the premises other than the + bin or pit described, nor shall he allow any such bin or pit to be + overfilled or needlessly uncovered. Horse manure may be kept + tightly rammed into well-covered barrels for the purpose of removal + in such barrels. Every person keeping manure in the more densely + populated parts of the District shall cause all such manure to be + removed from the premises at least twice every week between June 1 + and October 31, and at least once every week between November 1 and + May 31 of the following year. No person shall remove or transport + any manure over any public highway in any of the more densely + populated parts of the District except in a tight vehicle, which, + if not inclosed, must be effectually covered with canvas, so as to + prevent the manure from being dropped. No person shall deposit + manure removed from the bins or pits within any of the more densely + populated parts of the District without a permit from the health + officer. Any person violating any of the provisions shall, upon + conviction thereof, be punished by a fine of not more than $40 for + each offense. + +Not only must horse stables be cared for, but chicken yards, piggeries, +and garbage receptacles as well. In cities, with better methods of +disposal of garbage and with the lessening of the number of horses and +horse stables consequent upon electric street railways, bicycles, and +automobiles, the time may come, and before very long, when window +screens may be discarded. + + +DISPOSAL OF MANURE IN RURAL AND SUBURBAN DISTRICTS. + +The control of flies in rural and suburban districts offers a much more +difficult problem. Here it is often out of the question to remove all +manure from the premises twice a week, and the problem is to find some +method of disposal or storage which will conserve the fertilizing value +of the manure and at the same time prevent all flies from breeding, or +destroy such as do breed there. + +With this idea in mind, it has been recommended that stable manure be +collected every morning and hauled out at once and spread rather thinly +on the fields. This procedure is advisable from the point of view of +getting the maximum fertilizing value from the manure. Immediate +spreading on the fields is said largely to prevent the loss of plant +food which occurs when manure is allowed to stand in heaps for a long +time. This method will be effective in preventing the breeding of flies +only if the manure is hauled out promptly every morning and spread +thinly so that it will dry, since it is unfavorable for fly development +in desiccated condition. The proper scattering of the manure on the +fields is best and most easily and quickly accomplished by the use of a +manure spreader, and many dairies, and even farms, are practicing the +daily distribution of manure in this way. Removal every three or four +days will not be sufficient. Observations have shown that if manure +becomes flyblown and the maggots attain a fairly good size before the +manure is scattered on the fields, they can continue their development +and will pupate in the ground. + + +CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF MANURE TO DESTROY FLY MAGGOTS. + +During the summer months, when fly breeding is going on most actively, +the farmer is also busy and often can not spare the time to remove +manure regularly. The general practice, therefore, has been to keep the +manure in heaps located, as a rule, very near the stables. How can fly +breeding be prevented in such accumulations? As a result of recent +investigations, it is now possible to point out two methods which are +practical and effective. + +The first is the treatment of the manure pile with chemical substances +which will kill the eggs and maggots of the house fly. The Bureau of +Entomology, in cooperation with the Bureau of Chemistry and the Bureau +of Plant Industry, has conducted a series of experiments in which a +large number of chemicals were applied to infested manure and +observations made, not only on their efficiency in killing the maggots +but also as to their effect on the chemical composition and bacterial +flora of the manure. The object was to find some cheap chemical which +would be effective in destroying the fly larvæ and at the same time +would not reduce the fertilizing value of the manure. + + +TREATMENT WITH HELLEBORE. + +Of the numerous substances tried, the one which seems best to fulfill +these conditions is powdered hellebore.[10] For the treatment of manure a +water extract of the hellebore is prepared by adding 1/2 pound of the +powder to every 10 gallons of water, and after stirring it is allowed to +stand 24 hours. The mixture thus prepared is sprinkled over the manure +at the rate of 10 gallons to every 8 bushels (10 cubic feet) of manure. +From the result of 12 experiments with manure piles treated under +natural conditions it appears that such treatment results in the +destruction of from 88 to 99 per cent of the fly larvæ. + +Studies of treated manure indicated that its composition and rotting +were not interfered with. Furthermore, several field tests showed that +there was no apparent injury to growing crops when fertilized with +treated manure. + +Since the solution is somewhat poisonous it should not be left exposed +where it might be drunk by livestock. It is quite safe to say that +chickens will not be injured by pecking at hellebore-treated manure. +This has been tested carefully. Hellebore can be obtained both in ground +and powdered form, but the powder gives the best results in the +destruction of fly larvæ. + +[Footnote 10: _Veratrum viride_ or _V. aloum_.] + + +TREATMENT WITH POWDERED BORAX. + +Another chemical found to be even more effective as a larvicide is +powdered borax. This substance is available in commercial form in all +parts of the country. It has the advantage of being comparatively +nonpoisonous and noninflammable and is easily transported and handled. +The minimum amount necessary to kill fly larvæ was found to be 0.62 +pound per 8 bushels of manure, or about 1 pound per 16 cubic feet. Best +results were obtained when the borax was applied in solution, or when +water was sprinkled on after the borax had been scattered evenly over +the pile. Borax is not only effective in killing the larvæ, but when it +comes in contact with the eggs it prevents them from hatching. When +applied at the rate of 1 pound to 16 cubic feet it was found to kill +about 90 per cent of the larvæ, heavier applications killing from 98 to +99 per cent. + +Borax has no injurious effect on the chemical composition or rotting of +the manure. However, when added in large quantities with manure to the +soil it will cause considerable injury to growing plants. A number of +experiments have been conducted to determine the effect on crops of the +use of manure treated with borax as herein recommended. When applied at +the rate of 15 tons per acre it appears that no injury as a rule will +follow. Some crops are more sensitive to borax than others, and also the +tendency to injury appears to vary on different soils. It is necessary, +therefore, to repeat the warning issued in connection with a previous +bulletin[11] on this subject, that great care be exercised, in the +application of borax, that the manure does not receive more than 1 pound +for every 16 cubic feet, and that not more than 15 tons of manure so +treated are applied to the acre. + +In view of the possible injury from the borax treatment as a result of +carelessness in applying it, or from other unforeseen conditions, it is +recommended that horse manure and other farmyard manures which are to be +used as fertilizer be treated with hellebore. Borax, on the other hand, +is such a good larvicide that it call be used with advantage on the +ground of soil-floor stables, in privies, on refuse piles, and on any +accumulations of fermenting organic matter which are not to be used for +fertilizing purposes. + +[Footnote 11: Department Bulletin 118, U. S. Department of Agriculture, +p. 25.] + + +TREATMENT WITH CALCIUM CYANAMID AND ACID PHOSPHATE. + +Many experiments with mixtures of commercial fertilizers were tried to +determine whether fly larvæ would be killed by any substance the +addition of which would increase the fertilizing value of the manure. A +mixture of calcium cyanamid and acid phosphate was found to possess +considerable larvicidal action. Several experiments showed that 1/2 +pound of calcium cyanamid plus 1/2 pound of acid phosphate to each +bushel of manure give an apparent larvicidal action of 98 per cent. The +mixture in the form of a powder was scattered evenly over the surface +and then wet down with water. The use of this mixture adds to the manure +two important elements, nitrogen and phosphorus. + + +MAGGOT TRAP FOR DESTRUCTION OF FLY LARVÆ FROM HORSE MANURE. + +The second method of handling manure is one which does not require the +application of chemicals. It is based on the fact, mentioned on page 4, +that the larvæ of the house fly, a few hours before they are ready to +pupate, show a strong tendency to migrate. This migration takes place +mostly at night, and the larvæ sometimes crawl considerable distances +from the manure pile. Now it is possible by means of a very simple +arrangement called a maggot trap to destroy fully 99 per cent of all +maggots breeding in a given lot of manure. A successful maggot trap +which the Maryland Agricultural College constructed at the college barn +is shown in Figure 9. The trap was designed by R. H. Hutchison and +constructed under his supervision. The manure, instead of being thrown +on the ground, is heaped carefully on a slatted platform, which stands +about 1 foot high. This particular platform measures 10 by 20 feet. +There are six 2 by 4 pieces running lengthwise 2 feet apart. Across +these are nailed 1-inch strips with 1/2 to 1 inch spaces between them. +The wooden platform stands on a concrete floor, and a rim or wall of +concrete 4 inches high surrounds the floor. The floor slopes a little +toward one corner from which a pipe leads to a small cistern near by. +This pipe is plugged with a stopper of soft wood, and the concrete floor +is filled with water to a depth of 1 inch in the shallowest part. Flies +will lay their eggs on the manure as usual, but the maggots, when they +have finished feeding and begin to migrate, crawl out of the manure, +drop into the water below, and are drowned. Each week the plug is +removed from the pipe, and all the maggots are washed into the cistern. +The floor is then cleaned of any solid particles by means of a +long-handled stable broom or by a strong stream of water from a hose. +The pipe being again plugged, the floor is again partly filled with +water and the trap is ready for another week's catch. A platform of this +size will hold the manure accumulating from four horses during the +period of four months, or about 20 days' accumulation from 25 horses, if +the heap is well built and made at least 5 feet high. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9. A maggot trap for house-fly control. View showing +the concrete basin containing water in which larvæ are drowned, and the +wooden platform on which manure is heaped. (Hutchison.)] + +Experience with this maggot trap clearly indicates that best results can +be secured if the manure is compactly heaped on the platform and kept +thoroughly moistened. It is best to apply a small amount of water each +morning after the stable cleanings have been added to the pile. It +should be borne in mind that in order to make this trap a success the +platform beneath the pile must be kept comparatively free of +accumulations of manure, and moisture applied regularly to drive the +maggots out. + + +COMPACT HEAPING OF MANURE. + +Another method of disposing of manure has been recommended by English +writers. The manure is built up in a compact rectangular heap, the sides +of which are beaten hard with shovels. The ground around the edges of +the heap is made smooth and hard and loose straw is placed in small +windrows around the manure pile about 1 foot from the edge. The +exclusion of the air, together with the high temperature and gases +formed by fermentation, tends to make the heap unfavorable for the +development of fly larvæ. Those which do happen to develop in the +surface layers will migrate and pupate in the ring of straw around the +heap, where they are destroyed by burning. + + +GARBAGE DISPOSAL AND TREATMENT OF MISCELLANEOUS BREEDING PLACES. + +It is just as true under farm conditions as in cities that breeding +places other than horse manure must be attended to. Garbage must be +disposed of, hog and poultry manure must be cared for, and especially on +dairy farms it is extremely important that every precaution be taken to +prevent the contamination of milk by flies. + +It is very desirable that all refuse possible, accumulated from cities +and towns, be burned. Incineration has been practiced successfully by a +number of towns and cities with populations of from 10,000 to 15,000 and +over. In larger cities provision should be made for burning carcasses as +well as garbage and other refuse. If city and town garbage is sold to +hog feeders the municipal authorities should have control of the +sanitary conditions about the feeding yards, as there is great danger +from fly breeding in such places if not kept clean. + + +SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN RELATION TO THE PREVENTION OF FLY-BORNE DISEASES. + +In the consideration of these measures we have not touched upon the +remedies for house flies breeding in human excrement. On account of the +danger of the carriage of typhoid fever, the dropping of human excrement +in the open in cities or towns, either in vacant lots or in dark +alleyways, should be made a misdemeanor, and the same care should be +taken by the sanitary authorities to remove or cover up such depositions +as is taken in the removal of the bodies of dead animals. For modern +methods of sewage disposal adapted for farm use one should consult +Department of Agriculture Department Bulletin No. 57. In the absence of +modern methods of sewage disposal, absolutely sanitary privies are prime +necessities, whether in towns or on farms. Directions for building and +caring for such privies will be found in Farmers' Bulletin 463 and in +Yearbook Separate 712, "Sewage Disposal on the Farm." The box privy is +always a nuisance from many points of view, and is undoubtedly dangerous +as a breeder of flies which may carry the germs of intestinal diseases. +The dry-earth treatment of privies is unsatisfactory. No box privy +should be permitted to exist unless it is thoroughly and regularly +treated with some effective larvicide. Since the fecal matter in such +privies is seldom used for fertilizing purposes it may well be treated +liberally with borax. The powdered borax may be scattered two or three +times a week over the exposed surface so as to whiten it. + + + + +WHAT COMMUNITIES CAN DO TO ELIMINATE THE HOUSE FLY. + + +Antifly crusades have been very numerous in recent years, and some have +been noteworthy both in methods and in results. However, it will not be +amiss here to emphasize the importance of concerted, organized effort on +the part of whole communities, not only cities, but suburban and rural +neighborhoods as well. By the most painstaking care one may prevent all +fly breeding on his premises, but it will avail him little if his +neighbors are not equally careful. Some sort of cooperation is +necessary. One of the first and most important elements in any antifly +crusade is a vigorous and continued educational campaign. It has been +the experience of those who have undertaken such crusades that people +generally regard the fly as a somewhat harmless nuisance and that the +first work of the campaign was to bring the people to a realization of +the dangers from flies and the possibility of getting rid of them. In +the educational campaign every possible means of publicity can be +employed, including newspapers, lectures, moving pictures, posters, +handbills, cartoons, instruction in schools, etc. + +The antifly crusade is a matter of public interest and should be +supported by the community as a whole and engineered by the health +officers. But health officers can do little toward the necessary work of +inspection and elimination without funds, and therefore the support of +the campaign must manifest itself in increased appropriations for +public-health work. Very often it is lack of funds which prevents the +health officers from taking the initiative in the antifly crusades, and +there must necessarily be much agitation and education before they can +profitably take up the work. Right here lies a field for civic +associations, women's clubs, boards of trade, etc., to exercise their +best energy, initiative, and leadership. + + + + +ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE WHEN THIS +PUBLICATION WAS LAST PRINTED + + _Secretary of Agriculture_ ARTHUR M. HYDE. + + _Assistant Secretary_ R. W. DUNLAP. + + _Director of Scientific Work_ A. F. WOODS. + + _Director of Regulatory Work_ WALTER G. CAMPBELL. + + _Director of Extension Work_ C. W. WARBURTON. + + _Director of Personnel and Business + Administration_ W. W. STOCKBERGER. + + _Director of Information_ M. S. EISENHOWER. + + _Solicitor_ E. L. MARSHALL. + + _Bureau of Agricultural Economics_ NILS A. OLSEN, _Chief_. + + _Bureau of Agricultural Engineering_ S. H. MCCRORY, _Chief_. + + _Bureau of Animal Industry_ JOHN R. MOHLER, _Chief_. + + _Bureau of Biological Survey_ PAUL G. REDINGTON, _Chief_. + + _Bureau of Chemistry and Soils_ H. G. KNIGHT, _Chief_. + + _Office of Cooperative Extension Work_ C. B. SMITH, _Chief_. + + _Bureau of Dairy Industry_ O. E. REED, _Chief_. + + _Bureau of Entomology_ C. L. MARLATT, _Chief_. + + _Office of Experiment Stations_ JAMES T. JARDINE, _Chief_. + + _Food and Drug Administration_ WALTER G. CAMPBELL, _Director_ + _of Regulatory Work, in Charge._ + + _Forest Service_ R. Y. STUART, _Chief_. + + _Grain Futures Administration_ J. W. T. DUVEL, _Chief_. + + _Bureau of Home Economics_ LOUISE STANLEY, _Chief_. + + _Library_ CLARIBEL R. BARNETT, _Librarian_. + + _Bureau of Plant Industry_ WILLIAM A. TAYLOR, _Chief_. + + _Bureau of Plant Quarantine_ LEE A. STRONG, _Chief_. + + _Bureau of Public Roads_ THOMAS H. MACDONALD, _Chief_. + + _Weather Bureau_ CHARLES F. MARVIN, _Chief_. + + +U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1938 + + +For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. +Price 5 cents + + +[Transcriber's Note: +Footnotes 10 & 11 renumbered to avoid the confusion generated +by two footnote 9's.] + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The House Fly and How to Suppress It, by +L. O. Howard and F. C. Bishopp + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HOUSE FLY AND HOW TO *** + +***** This file should be named 18050-8.txt or 18050-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/0/5/18050/ + +Produced by K.D. 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