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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Representation of Deities of the Maya
+Manuscripts, by Paul Schellhas, Translated by Selma Wesselhoeft and A. M.
+Parker
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts
+       Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Vol. 4, No. 1
+
+
+Author: Paul Schellhas
+
+
+
+Release Date: March 18, 2006  [eBook #18013]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REPRESENTATION OF DEITIES OF THE
+MAYA MANUSCRIPTS***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Julia Miller and the Project Gutenberg Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net/)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 18013-h.htm or 18013-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/0/1/18013/18013-h/18013-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/0/1/18013/18013-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+      A number of typographical errors have been maintained in
+      this version of this book. A complete list is found at
+      the end of the text.
+
+
+
+
+
+Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology,
+Harvard University
+Vol. IV.--No. 1
+
+REPRESENTATION OF DEITIES OF THE MAYA MANUSCRIPTS
+
+by
+
+DR. PAUL SCHELLHAS
+
+Second Edition, Revised
+With 1 Plate of Figures and 65 Text Illustrations
+
+Translated by Miss Selma Wesselhoeft and Miss A. M. Parker
+
+Translation revised by the Author
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Cambridge, Mass.
+Published by the Museum
+December, 1904.
+
+
+
+
+NOTE.
+
+
+In order to make more widely known and more easily accessible to American
+students the results of important researches on the Maya hieroglyphs,
+printed in the German language, the Peabody Museum Committee on Central
+American Research proposes to publish translations of certain papers
+which are not too lengthy or too extensively illustrated. The present
+paper by one of the most distinguished scholars in this field is the
+first of the series.
+
+                                         F. W. PUTNAM.
+Harvard University
+           September, 1904.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Since the first edition of this pamphlet appeared in the year 1897,
+investigation in this department of science has made such marked
+progress, notwithstanding the slight amount of material, that a revision
+has now become desirable. It can be readily understood, that a new
+science, an investigation on virgin soil, such as the Maya study is,
+makes more rapid progress and develops more quickly than one pertaining
+to some old, much explored territory.
+
+In addition to numerous separate treatises, special mention should be
+made of Ernst Förstemann's commentaries on the three Maya manuscripts
+(Kommentar zur Mayahandschrift der Königlichen öffentlichen Bibliothek zu
+Dresden, Dresden 1901, Kommentar zur Madrider Mayahandschrift, Danzig
+1902, and Kommentar zur Pariser Mayahandschrift, Danzig 1903) which
+constitute a summary of the entire results of investigation in this field
+up to the present time.
+
+The proposal made in the first edition of this pamphlet, that the Maya
+deities be designated by letters of the alphabet, has been very generally
+adopted by Americanists, especially by those in the United States of
+America. This circumstance, in particular, has seemed to make it
+desirable to prepare for publication a new edition, improved to accord
+with the present state of the science.
+
+Warmest thanks are above all due to Mr. Bowditch, of Boston, who in the
+most disinterested manner, for the good of science, has made possible the
+publication of this new edition.
+
+January, 1904.                             P. SCHELLHAS.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE MATERIAL OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
+
+
+The three manuscripts which we possess of the ancient Maya peoples of
+Central America, the Dresden (Dr.), the Madrid (Tro.-Cort.) and the Paris
+(Per.) manuscripts, all contain a series of pictorial representations of
+human figures, which, beyond question, should be regarded as figures of
+gods. Together with these are a number of animal figures, some with human
+bodies, dress and armor, which likewise have a mythologic significance.
+
+The contents of the three manuscripts, which undoubtedly pertain to the
+calendar system and to the computation of time in their relation to the
+Maya pantheon and to certain religious and domestic functions, admit of
+the conclusion, that these figures of gods embody the essential part of
+the religious conceptions of the Maya peoples in a tolerably complete
+form. For here we have the entire ritual year, the whole chronology with
+its mythological relations and all accessories. In addition to this,
+essentially the same figures recur in all three manuscripts. Their number
+is not especially large. There are about fifteen figures of gods in human
+form and about half as many in animal form. At first we were inclined to
+believe that further researches would considerably increase the number of
+deities, but this assumption was incorrect. After years of study of the
+subject and repeated examination of the results of research, it may be
+regarded as positively proved, that the number of deities represented in
+the Maya manuscripts does not exceed substantially the limits mentioned
+above. The principal deities are determined beyond question.
+
+The way in which this was accomplished is strikingly simple. It amounts
+essentially to that which in ordinary life we call "memory of persons" and
+follows almost naturally from a careful study of the manuscripts. For, by
+frequently looking attentively at the representations, one learns by
+degrees to recognize promptly similar and familiar figures of gods, by
+the characteristic impression they make as a whole, or by certain details,
+even when the pictures are partly obliterated or exhibit variations, and
+the same is true of the accompanying hieroglyphs. A purely inductive,
+natural science-method has thus been followed, and hence this pamphlet is
+devoted simply to descriptions and to the amassing of material. These
+figures have been taken separately out of the manuscripts alone,
+identified and described with the studious avoidance of all unreliable,
+misleading accounts and of all presumptive analogies with supposedly
+allied mythologies.
+
+Whatever cannot be derived from the manuscripts themselves has been wholly
+ignored. Hypotheses and deductions have been avoided as far as possible.
+Only where the interpretation, or the resemblance and the relations to
+kindred mythologic domains were obvious, and where the accounts agreed
+beyond question, has notice been taken of the fact so that the imposed
+limitations of this work should not result in one-sidedness.
+
+Since, for the most part, the accounts of Spanish authors regarding the
+mythology of the Mayas correspond only slightly or not at all with these
+figures of gods, and all other conjectures respecting their significance
+are very dubious, the alphabetic designation of the deities, which was
+tentatively introduced in the first edition of this work, has been
+preserved. This designation has proved to be practical. For the plate at
+the end of this pamphlet, examples as characteristic as possible of the
+individual figures of gods have been selected from the manuscripts.
+
+It is a well known fact that we possess no definite knowledge either of
+the time of the composition or of the local origin of the Maya
+manuscripts. The objection might, therefore, be raised that it is a
+hazardous proceeding to treat the material derived from these three
+manuscripts in common, as if it were homogeneous. But these researches
+themselves have proved beyond a doubt, that the mythologic import of the
+manuscripts belongs to one and the same sphere of thought. Essentially
+the same deities and the same mythologic ideas are, without question, to
+be found in all the manuscripts.
+
+The material of the inscriptions has been set entirely at one side,
+because the style of representation contained in them, both of the
+mythologic forms and of the hieroglyphs, renders comparison exceedingly
+difficult. In this field especial credit is due to Förstemann and Seler,
+for the work they have done in furtherance of interpretation, and mention
+should not be omitted of the generosity with which the well known
+promoter of Americanist investigations, the Duke of Loubat, has presented
+to the Berlin Museum of Ethnology costly originals of reliefs and
+inscriptions for direct study. The representations on the reliefs from
+the Maya region, it is true, give evidence of dealing with kindred
+mythologic conceptions. Figures and hieroglyphs of gods, made familiar by
+the manuscripts, can also be found here and there. But on the whole so
+little appears in support of instituting a comparison with the
+manuscripts, that it seems expedient to leave the inscriptions for
+independent and special study.
+
+
+
+
+I. REPRESENTATIONS OF GODS.
+
+
+A. The Death-God.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 1-6]
+
+God A is represented as a figure with an exposed, bony spine, truncated
+nose and grinning teeth.[10-1] It is plainly to be seen that the head of
+this god represents a skull and that the spine is that of a skeleton. The
+pictures of the death-god are so characteristic in the Maya manuscripts
+that the deity is always easily recognized. He is almost always
+distinguished by the skeleton face and the bony spine. Several times in
+the Dresden manuscript the death-god is pictured with large black spots
+on his body and in Dr. 19b a woman with closed eyes, whose body also
+displays the black spots, is sitting opposite the god. While the Aztecs
+had a male and a female death-deity, in the Maya manuscripts we find the
+death-deity only once represented as feminine, namely on p. 9c of the
+Dresden manuscript. Moreover the Dresden manuscript contains several
+different types of the death-god, having invariably the fleshless skull
+and (with the exception of Dr. 9c) the visible vertebrae of the spine.
+Several times (Dr. 12b and 13b) he is represented apparently with
+distended abdomen. A distinguishing article of his costume is the stiff
+feather collar, which is worn only by this god, his companion, the
+war-god F, and by his animal symbol, the owl, which will both be
+discussed farther on. His head ornament varies in the Dresden Codex; in
+the first portion of the manuscript, relating in part to pregnancy and
+child-birth (see the pictures of women on p. 16, et seq.), he wears on
+his head several times a figure occurring very frequently just in this
+part of the Dresden Codex and apparently representing a snail (compare
+Dr. 12b and 13b), which among the Aztecs is likewise a symbol of
+parturition. In view of these variations in the pictures of the Dresden
+Codex, it is very striking that in the Codex Tro.-Cortesianus, there is
+only one invariable type of the death-god.
+
+    [10-1] See Plate for representations of the gods, A-P
+
+A distinguishing ornament of the death-god consists of globular bells or
+rattles, which he wears on his hands and feet, on his collar and as a
+head ornament. As can be distinctly seen in Dr. 11a, they are fastened
+with bands wound around the forearm and around the leg; in Dr. 15c these
+bells are black.
+
+Among the symbols of the death-god a cross of two bones should be
+mentioned, which is also found in the Mexican manuscripts. This cross of
+bones seems to occur once among the written characters as a hieroglyph
+and then in combination with a number: Tro. 10.* The figure [Death-god
+symbol] is also a frequent symbol of the death-god. Its significance is
+still uncertain, but it also occurs among the hieroglyphs as a death-sign
+and as a sign for the day Cimi (death).
+
+The hieroglyphs of the death-god have been positively determined (see
+Figs. 1 to 4). Figs. 1 and 2 are the forms of the Dresden manuscript and
+Figs. 3 and 4 are those of the Madrid manuscript. God A is almost always
+distinguished by two hieroglyphs, namely Figs. 1 and 2 or 3 and 4.
+Moreover the hieroglyphs are always the same, have scarcely any variants.
+Even in Dr. 9c, where the deity is represented as feminine, there are no
+variations which might denote the change of sex. The hieroglyphs consist
+chiefly of the head of a corpse with closed eyes, and of a skull. The
+design in front of the skull in Figs. 2 and 4 and under it in Fig. 3 is a
+sacrificial knife of flint, which was used in slaying the sacrifices, and
+is also frequently pictured in the Aztec manuscripts. The dots under Fig.
+1 are probably intended to represent blood.
+
+The death-god is represented with extraordinary frequency in all the Maya
+manuscripts. Not only does the figure of the god itself occur, but his
+attributes are found in many places where his picture is missing. Death
+evidently had an important significance in the mythologic conceptions of
+the Mayas. It is connected with sacrifice, especially with human
+sacrifices performed in connection with the captive enemy. Just as we find
+a personification of death in the manuscripts of the Mayas, we also find
+it in the picture-writings of the ancient Mexicans, often surprisingly
+like the pictures of the Maya codices. The Aztec death-god and his myth
+are known through the accounts of Spanish writers; regarding the death-god
+of the Mayas we have less accurate information. Some mention occurs in
+Landa's Relacion de las cosas de Yucatan, §XXIII, but unfortunately
+nothing is said of the manner of representing the death-god. He seems to
+be related to the Aztec Mictlantecutli, of whom Sahagun, Appendix to Book
+III, "De los que iban al infierno y de sus obsequias," treats as the god
+of the dead and of the underworld, Mictlan. When the representations of
+the latter, for example in the Codex Borgia, and in the Codex Vaticanus
+No. 3773, are compared with those of the Maya manuscripts, there can be
+hardly a doubt of the correspondence of the two god figures. In the Codex
+Borgia, p. 37, he is represented once with the same characteristic head
+ornament, which the death-god usually wears in the Maya manuscripts, and
+in the Codex Fejervary, p. 8, the death-god wears a kind of breeches on
+which cross-bones are depicted, exactly as in Dr. 9 (bottom).
+
+Bishop Landa informs us that the Mayas "had great and immoderate dread of
+death." This explains the frequency of the representations of the
+death-god, from whom, as Landa states, "all evil and especially death"
+emanated. Among the Aztecs we find a male and a female death-deity,
+Mictlantecutli and Mictlancihuatl. They were the rulers of the realm of
+the dead, Mictlan, which, according to the Aztec conception, lay in the
+north; hence the death-god was at the same time the god of the north.
+
+It agrees with the calendric and astronomic character of the Maya deities
+in the manuscripts, that a number of the figures of the gods are used in
+connection with specified cardinal points. Since, according to the Aztec
+conception, the death-god was the god of the north, we might expect that
+in the Maya manuscripts also, the death-god would be always considered
+as the deity of the north. Nevertheless this happens only _once_, namely
+in the picture at the end of Codex Cort., pp. 41 and 42. Elsewhere, on
+the other hand, this god is connected with other cardinal points, thus
+Dr. 14a with the west or east (the hieroglyph is illegible, but it can
+be only west or east), and in Dr. 27c with the west. It is interesting
+to note that once, however, in a series of cardinal points, the
+hieroglyph of the death-god connected with the numeral 10 stands just in
+the place of the sign of the north; this is on Tro. 24* (bottom).
+
+In regard to the name of the death-god in the Maya language, Landa tells
+us that the wicked after death were banished to an underworld, the name
+of which was "Mitnal", a word which is defined as "Hell" in the Maya
+lexicon of Pio Perez and which has a striking resemblance to Mictlan, the
+Aztec name for the lower regions. The death-god Hunhau reigned in this
+underworld. According to other accounts (Hernandez), however, the
+death-god is called Ahpuch. These names can in no wise serve as aids to
+the explanation of the hieroglyphs of the death-god, since they have no
+etymologic connection with death or the heads of corpses and skulls,
+which form the main parts of the hieroglyph. Furthermore, the hieroglyphs
+of the gods certainly have a purely ideographic significance as already
+mentioned above, so that any relation between the names of the deities
+and their hieroglyphs cannot exist from the very nature of the case.
+
+The day of the death-god is the day Cimi, death. The day-sign Cimi
+corresponds almost perfectly with the heads of corpses contained in the
+hieroglyphs of the death-god.
+
+A hieroglyphic sign, which relates to death and the death-deity and
+occurs very frequently, is the sign Fig. 5, which is probably to be
+regarded as the ideogram of the owl. It represents the head of an owl,
+while the figure in front of it signifies the owl's ear and the one
+below, its teeth, as distinguishing marks of a bird of prey furnished
+with ears and a powerful beak. The head of the owl appears on a human
+body several times in the Dresden manuscript as a substitute for the
+death-deity, thus Dr. 18c, 19c, 20a and 20c and in other places, and
+the hieroglyphic group (Fig. 5) is almost a regular attendant hieroglyph
+of the death-god.
+
+A series of other figures of the Maya mythology is connected with the
+death-god. This is evident from the fact that his hieroglyphs or his
+symbols occur with certain other figures, which are thus brought into
+connection with death and the death-deity.
+
+These figures are as follows:
+
+1. His companion, god F, the god of war, of human sacrifice and of
+violent death in battle, apparently a counterpart of the Aztec Xipe, who
+will be discussed farther on.
+
+2. The moan bird. See beyond under Mythological Animals, No. 1.
+
+3. The dog. See the same, No. 3.
+
+4. A human figure, possibly representing the priest of the death-god (see
+Dr. 28, centre, Dr. 5b and 9a). The last figure is a little doubtful.
+It is blindfolded and thus recalls the Aztec deity of frost and sin,
+Itztlacoliuhqui. A similar form with eyes bound occurs only once again in
+the Maya manuscripts, namely Dr. 50 (centre). That this figure is related
+to the death-god is proved by the fact that on Dr. 9a it wears the
+Cimi-sign on the middle piece of the chain around its neck. Furthermore
+it should be emphasized that the Aztec sin-god, Itztlacoliuhqui, likewise
+appears with symbols of death.
+
+5. An isolated figure, Dr. 50a (the sitting figure at the right). This
+wears the skull as head ornament, which is represented in exactly the
+same way as in the Aztec manuscripts (see Fig. 6).
+
+6. Another isolated figure is twice represented combined with the
+death-god in Dr. 22c. This picture is so effaced that it is impossible
+to tell what it means. The hieroglyph represents a variant of the
+death's-head, Cimi. It seems to signify an ape, which also in the
+pictures of the Mexican codices was sometimes used in relation to the
+death-god.
+
+The symbols of the death-god are also found with the figure without a
+head on Dr. 2 (45)a, clearly the picture of a beheaded prisoner. Death
+symbols occur, too, with the curious picture of a hanged woman on Dr.
+53b, a picture which is interesting from the fact that it recalls
+vividly a communication of Bishop Landa. Landa tells us, the Mayas
+believed that whoever hanged himself did not go to the underworld, but to
+"paradise," and as a result of this belief, suicide by hanging was very
+common and was chosen on the slightest pretext. Such suicides were
+received in paradise by the goddess of the hanged, Ixtab. Ix is the
+feminine prefix; tab, taab, tabil mean, according to Perez' Lexicon of
+the Maya Language, "cuerda destinada para algun uso exclusivo". The name
+of this strange goddess is, therefore, the "Goddess of the Halter" or, as
+Landa says, "The Goddess of the Gallows". Now compare Dr. 53. On the
+upper half of the page is the death-god represented with hand raised
+threateningly, on the lower half is seen the form of a woman suspended by
+a rope placed around her neck. The closed eye, the open mouth and the
+convulsively outspread fingers, show that she is dead, in fact,
+strangled. It is, in all probability, the goddess of the gallows and
+halter, Ixtab, the patroness of the hanged, who is pictured here in
+company with the death-god; or else it is a victim of this goddess, and
+page 53 of the manuscript very probably refers, therefore (even though
+the two halves do not belong directly together), to the mythologic
+conceptions of death and the lower regions to which Landa alludes.
+
+7. Lastly the owl is to be mentioned as belonging to the death-god,
+which, strange to say, is represented nowhere in the pictures
+realistically and so that it can be recognized, although other mythologic
+animals, as the dog or the moan bird, occur plainly as animals in the
+pictures. On the other hand, the owl's head appears on a human body in
+the Dresden manuscript as a substitute for the death-deity itself, for
+example on Dr. 18c, 19c, 20a and 20c and elsewhere, and forms a
+regular attendant hieroglyph of the death-god in the group of three signs
+already mentioned (Fig. 5).
+
+Among the antiquities from the Maya region of Central America, there are
+many objects and representations, which have reference to the cultus of
+the death-god, and show resemblances to the pictures of the manuscripts.
+The death-god also plays a role, even today, in the popular superstitions
+of the natives of Yucatan, as a kind of spectre that prowls around the
+houses of the sick. His name is Yum Cimil, the lord of death.
+
+
+B. The God With the Large Nose and Lolling Tongue.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 7-10]
+
+The deity, represented most frequently in all the manuscripts, is a
+figure with a long, proboscis-like, pendent nose and a tongue (or teeth,
+fangs) hanging out in front and at the sides of the mouth, also with a
+characteristic head ornament resembling a knotted bow and with a peculiar
+rim to the eye. Fig. 7 is the hieroglyph of this deity. In Codex
+Tro.-Cortesianus it usually has the form of Fig. 8.
+
+God B is evidently one of the most important of the Maya pantheon. He
+must be a universal deity, to whom the most varied elements, natural
+phenomena and activities are subject. He is represented with different
+attributes and symbols of power, with torches in his hands as symbols of
+fire, sitting in the water and on the water, standing in the rain, riding
+in a canoe, enthroned on the clouds of heaven and on the cross-shaped
+tree of the four points of the compass, which, on account of its likeness
+to the Christian emblem, has many times been the subject of fantastic
+hypotheses. We see the god again on the Cab-sign, the symbol of the
+earth, with weapons, axe and spears, in his hands, planting kernels of
+maize, on a journey (Dr. 65b) staff in hand and a bundle on his back,
+and fettered (Dr. 37a) with arms bound behind his back. His entire myth
+seems to be recorded in the manuscripts. The great abundance of symbolism
+renders difficult the characterization of the deity, and it is well-nigh
+impossible to discover that a single mythologic idea underlies the whole.
+God B is quite often connected with the serpent, without exhibiting
+affinity with the Chicchan-god H (see p. 28). In Dr. 33b, 34b and 35b,
+the serpent is in the act of devouring him, or he is rising up out of the
+serpent's jaws, as is plainly indicated also by the hieroglyphs, for they
+contain the group given in Fig. 10, which is composed of the rattle of
+the rattlesnake and the opened hand as a symbol of seizing and
+absorption. God B himself is pictured with the body of a serpent in Dr.
+35b and 36a (compare No. 2 of the Mythological Animals). He likewise
+occurs sitting on the serpent and in Dr. 66a he is twice (1st and 3d
+figures) pictured with a snake in his hand.
+
+God B sits on the moan head in Dr. 38c, on a head with the Cauac-sign in
+Dr. 39c, 66c, and on the dog in Dr. 29a. All these pictures are meant
+to typify his abode in the air, above rain, storm and death-bringing
+clouds, from which the lightning falls. The object with the cross-bones
+of the death-god, on which he sits in Dr. 66c, can perhaps be explained
+in the same manner. As the fish belongs to god B in a symbolic sense, so
+the god is represented fishing in Dr. 44 (1). His face with the large
+nose and the tongue (or fangs) hanging out on the side in Dr. 44 (1)a
+(1st figure) is supposed to be a mask which the priest, representing the
+god, assumes during the religious ceremony.
+
+Furthermore the following four well-known symbols of sacrificial gifts
+appear in connection with god B in the Dresden manuscript; a sprouting
+kernel of maize (or, according to Förstemann, parts of a mammal, game), a
+fish, a lizard and a vulture's head, as symbols of the four elements.
+They seem to occur, however, in relation also to other deities and
+evidently are general symbols of sacrificial gifts. Thus they occur on
+the two companion initial pages of the Codex Tro.-Cortesianus, on which
+the hieroglyphs of gods C and K are repeated in rows (Tro. 36-Cort. 22.
+Compare Förstemann, Kommentar zur Madrider Handschrift, pp. 102, 103).
+God B is also connected with the four colors--yellow, red, white and
+black--which, according to the conception of the Mayas, correspond to the
+cardinal points (yellow, air; red, fire; white, water; black, earth) and
+the god himself is occasionally represented with a black body, for
+example on Dr. 29c, 31c and 69. This is expressed in the hieroglyphs by
+the sign, Fig. 9, which signifies black and is one of the four signs of
+the symbolic colors for the cardinal points.
+
+God B is represented with all the _four cardinal points_, a
+characteristic, which he shares only with god C, god K, and, in one
+instance, with god F (see Tro. 29*c); he appears as ruler of all the
+points of the compass; north, south, east and west as well as air, fire,
+water and earth are subject to him.
+
+Opinions concerning the significance of this deity are much divided. It
+is most probable that he is Kukulcan, a figure occurring repeatedly in
+the mythology of the Central American peoples and whose name, like that
+of the kindred deity Quetzalcoatl among the Aztecs and Gucumatz among the
+Quiches, means the "feathered serpent", "the bird serpent". Kukulcan and
+Gucumatz are those figures of Central American mythology, to which belong
+the legends of the creation of the world and of mankind. Furthermore
+Kukulcan is considered as the founder of civilization, as the builder of
+cities, as hero-god, and appears in another conception as the rain-deity,
+and--since the serpent has a mythologic relation to water--as serpent
+deity. J. Walter Fewkes, who has made this god-figure of the Maya
+manuscripts the subject of a monograph (A Study of Certain Figures in a
+Maya Codex, in American Anthropologist, Vol. VII, No. 3, Washington,
+1894), also inclines to the belief that B is the god Kukulcan, whom he
+conceives of as a serpent-and rain-deity. This view has been accepted by
+Förstemann (Die Tagegötter der Mayas, Globus, Vol. 73, No. 10) and also
+by Cyrus Thomas (Aids to the Study of the Maya Codices, Washington,
+1888). The same opinion is held also by E. P. Dieseldorff, who, a
+resident of Guatemala, the region of the ancient Maya civilization, has
+instituted excavations which have been successful in furnishing most
+satisfactory material for these researches (see Dieseldorff: Kukulcan,
+Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1895, p. 780). Others have considered god B
+as the first parent and lord of the heavens, Itzamná who has a mythologic
+importance analogous to that of Kukulcan. Itzamná is also held to be the
+god of creation and founder of civilization and accordingly seems to be
+not very remotely allied to the god Kukulcan. Others again, for example
+Brasseur de Bourbourg and Seler, have interpreted the figure of god B to
+represent the fourfold god of the cardinal points and rain-god Chac, a
+counterpart of the Aztec rain-god Tlaloc. The fact that this god-figure
+is so frequently connected with the serpent and the bird is strongly in
+favor of the correctness of the supposition, that we should see in god B
+a figure corresponding to the Kukulcan of tradition. Thus we see the god
+represented once with the body of a serpent and with a bird near by
+(Cort. 10b), while B's hieroglyph appears both times in the text. God B
+is also pictured elsewhere repeatedly with a serpent body, thus for
+example on Dr. 35b, 36a. On pages 4-6 of the Codex Cortesianus he is
+pictured six times and each time in connection with a serpent.
+
+The accounts we have received concerning the mythology of the Maya
+peoples are very meagre and owing to the uncertainty respecting the
+origin of the Maya manuscripts, it cannot even be determined which of
+these accounts are applicable to the Maya manuscripts, or, indeed,
+whether they are applicable at all. For it is by no means positively
+proved that these manuscripts did not originate in regions of Maya
+culture, regarding which we have received no accounts at all. As our
+present purpose is purely that of description and determination, it
+remains quite unimportant which of these recorded figures of gods shall
+be regarded as god B.
+
+God B is nearly allied to, but in no wise identical with, the deity with
+the large ornamented nose, designated by K, who will be discussed farther
+on. God K is an independent deity designated by a special hieroglyph, but
+like C he stands in an unknown relation to God B (for details see K).
+
+Finally it should be mentioned, that god B never appears with death
+symbols. He is clearly a deity of life and creation, in contrast to the
+powers of death and destruction.
+
+His day seems to be Ik (aspiration, breath, life). (Compare Förstemann,
+Die Tagegötter der Mayas, Globus, Vol. 73, No. 10).
+
+
+C. The God with the Ornamented Face.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 11-16]
+
+This is one of the most remarkable and most difficult figures of the Maya
+manuscripts, and shows, at the same time, how imperfect must be the
+information we have received in regard to the Maya mythology, since from
+the frequency of his representations he is obviously one of the most
+important deities and yet can be identified with none of the
+representations of gods handed down to us. His hieroglyph is definitely
+determined (Figs. 11, 12). The circular design in front of the forehead
+of the hieroglyph head seems, as a variant from the Codex Tro. (Fig. 12)
+leads us to suppose, to denote the ideographic representation of pouring
+out or emptying a vessel, the contents of which flow into the mouth of
+the god. Another variant of this prefix occurs in Tro. 13*b; Fig. 15,
+the symbol of the sacrificial knife, and instead of the prefix the
+numeral 13 occurs in one instance! (Tro. 12*c). The head alone, without
+any accessory symbol whatever, is also found a few times, not in the
+text, however, but only in the pictures, for example Cort. 10 (bottom)
+and Tro. 13* (bottom). This deity does not occur very often in the
+Dresden manuscript, the places where it is depicted are: Dr. 5a, 6c,
+13b, 35a, 68a, and as a subordinate figure on 8c, 42a. His
+hieroglyph occurs alone a few times, as in Dr. 4; it is more frequent in
+the Madrid manuscript. It appears on pp. 15 to 18 of the Paris
+manuscript.
+
+In regard to the significance of this deity, he doubtless represents the
+personification of a heavenly body of astronomic importance, probably the
+polar star. In Codex Cort. 10 (bottom), his head is represented
+surrounded by a nimbus of rays, which can only mean a star (see Fig. 13).
+On the lower part of the same page, the third picture from the left, we
+again see the deity hanging from the sky in a kind of rope. Furthermore
+it appears in Codex Tro. 20, 22 and 23 (centre) Fig. 14, in the familiar
+rectangular planet signs. Tro. 17* (at the top) the head surmounts the
+cross-shaped tree of god B, which denotes the lofty, celestial abode.
+Indeed, these passages prove positively that a heavenly body underlies
+the idea of this deity.
+
+Furthermore, the head of this god recurs in entire rows in the calendric
+group of tabular form on the so-called initial page of the Codex Tro. 36,
+with its continuation in the Cort. p. 22, and in exactly the same manner
+in the allied passage of Tro. 14 (middle and bottom). In addition, his
+head is contained in the symbol for the north (Fig. 16); the head
+contained in this sign is in fact nothing else than the head of god C.
+
+Brinton also accepts this interpretation of god C. According to
+Förstemann (Die Mayahieroglyphen, Globus, Vol. 71, No. 5), the fact that
+the figure of god C in the Tonalamatl in Dr. 4a-10a occurs on the day
+Chuen of the Maya calendar, which corresponds to the day Ozomatli, the
+ape, in the Aztec calendar, seems to indicate that the singular head of C
+is that of an _ape_, whose lateral nasal cavity (peculiar to the American
+ape or monkey) is occasionally represented plainly in the hieroglyph
+picture. Hence it might further be assumed that god C symbolizes not the
+polar star alone, but rather the entire _constellation of the Little
+Bear_. And, in fact, the figure of a long-tailed ape is quite appropriate
+to the constellation, at any rate decidedly more so than the Bear;
+indeed, it suggests the prehensile tail by means of which the ape could
+attach himself to the pole and in the form of the constellation swing
+around the pole as around a fixed point.
+
+These astronomical surmises seem to be contradicted by the fact that god
+C, as already stated, is represented with all the four cardinal points
+(compare for example Cort. 10 and 11, bottom), which would certainly seem
+to harmonize ill with his personification of the north star, unless we
+assume, that in a different conception of the polar star he is ruler of
+the cardinal points, which are determined from him as a centre.
+
+It has already been remarked of B, that the deity C appears to stand in
+some sort of relation to him. In fact, we find on those pages of the
+Dresden manuscript, where B is represented with the four cardinal points,
+that the hieroglyph of C almost always occurs in the text also (for
+example Dr. 29, et seq., especially Dr. 32c). Indeed, C's hieroglyph is
+connected even with the signs of the symbolic colors of the cardinal
+points, already mentioned in connection with B.
+
+Finally, it should be borne in mind, that god C also seems to be
+connected in some way with the serpent (compare Dr. 36b, 1st and 3d
+pictures).
+
+According to Förstemann, the day ruled by C seems to be Chuen.
+
+
+D. The Moon- and Night-God.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 17-20]
+
+This is a deity who is pictured in the form of an old man with an aged
+face and sunken, toothless mouth. He is frequently characterized by a
+long, pendent head ornament, in which is the sign Akbal, darkness, night,
+which also appears in his hieroglyph before the forehead of the deity,
+surrounded by dots as an indication of the starry sky. His name-hieroglyph
+is Fig. 17, and a second sign almost always follows (Fig. 18) which
+evidently serves likewise as a designation of the god, just as god A also
+is always designated by _two_ hieroglyphs. The second sign consists of
+two sacrificial knives and the sign of the day Ahau, which is equivalent
+to "king".
+
+The head of this deity appears in reduced, cursive form as the sign of
+the moon (Fig. 20). This character also has the significance of 20 as a
+number sign in the calendar. The association of these ideas probably
+rests upon the ancient conceptions, according to which the moon
+appearing, waxing, waning and again disappearing, was compared to man,
+and man in primeval ages was the most primitive calculating machine,
+being equivalent, from the sum of his fingers and toes, to the number 20.
+Twenty days is also the duration of that period during which the moon
+(aside from the new moon) is really _alive_. Moreover the sign (Fig. 20)
+appears in many places as a counterpart of the sign for the sun.
+
+God D occurs once as feminine in the same passage mentioned above, in
+which the death-deity is also pictured as feminine (Dr. 9c). In a few
+other places the god is, curiously enough, depicted with a short beard,
+as Dr. 4c, 7a, 27b. He seems to stand in an unknown relation to the
+water-goddess I (see this deity) with the serpent as a head ornament,
+compare Dr. 9c, where apparently this goddess is represented, though the
+text has D's sign; still it is possible that god D is pictured here with
+the attributes of goddess I.
+
+God D is not connected with the grim powers of destruction; he never
+appears with death symbols. In Dr. 5c and 9a he wears the snail on his
+head. He seems, therefore, like god A to be connected with birth. In Dr.
+8c he is connected with god C, and this is quite appropriate, if we look
+upon these gods as heavenly bodies. The aged face, the sunken, toothless
+mouth are his distinguishing marks. In the Madrid manuscript, where god D
+occurs with special frequency, his chief characteristic, by which he is
+always easily recognized, is the single tooth in his under-jaw (see Fig.
+19), compare too Dr. 8c, where the solitary tooth is also to be seen. In
+Dr. 9a (1st figure) the god holds in his hand a kind of sprinkler with
+the rattles of the rattlesnake, as Landa (Cap. 26) describes the god in
+connection with the rite of infant baptism (see also Cort. 26, Tro. 7*a
+and 13*c)
+
+A very remarkable passage is Tro. 15*; there a figure is pictured carving
+with a hatchet a head, which it holds in its hand. Above it are four
+hieroglyphs. The first shows a hatchet and the moon; the second probably
+represents simply a head, while the third and fourth are those of god D,
+the moon-god. This passage, the meaning of which is unfortunately still
+obscure seems to contain a definite explanation of god D.
+
+J. Walter Fewkes has made god D the subject of a special, very detailed
+monograph (The God "D" in the Codex Cortesianus, Washington, 1895) in
+which he has treated also of gods B and G, whom he considers allied to D.
+He believes D to be the god Itzamná, as do also Förstemann, Cyrus Thomas
+and Seler, and sees sun-gods in all three of these deities. Whether god D
+is to be separated from G and B as an independent deity, Fewkes thinks is
+doubtful. Brinton again holds that god D is Kukulcan. These different
+opinions show, at all events, on what uncertain grounds such attempts at
+interpretation stand, and that it is best to be satisfied with
+designating the deities by letters and collecting material for their
+purely descriptive designation.
+
+According to Förstemann the calendar day devoted to D is Ahau.
+
+
+E. The Maize-God.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 21-27]
+
+This god bears on his head the Kan-sign and above it the ear of maize
+with leaves (Fig. 23); compare Dr. 9b (left figure), 11b, 12a, etc.
+The hieroglyph is definitely determined (Fig. 21). The god is identical
+with the figures recurring with especial frequency in the Madrid
+manuscript, the heads of which are prolonged upward and curved backward
+in a peculiar manner; compare Cort. 15a, 20c, 40 (bottom), Tro. 32*b
+(Figs. 25-27) and especially the representation in Dr. 50a (Fig. 24),
+which is very distinct. This head was evolved out of the conventional
+drawing of the ear of maize; compare the pictures of the maize plant in
+the Codex Tro., p. 29b (Fig. 22) with the head ornament of the god in
+Dr. 9b (Fig. 23), 9a, 12a; what was originally a head ornament finally
+passed into the form of the head itself, so that the latter appears now
+as an ear of maize surrounded by leaves. Compare the pictures, Figs.
+25-27. That these gods with elongated heads are, in point of fact,
+identical with E is plainly seen from the passage in Dr. 2 (45)c (first
+figure). There the figure represented, which is exactly like the pictures
+in the Madrid manuscript, is designated explicitly as god E by the third
+hieroglyph in the accompanying writing.
+
+The hieroglyph of this deity is thus explained; it is the head of the god
+merged into the conventionalized form of the ear of maize surrounded by
+leaves. When we remember that the Maya nations practised the custom of
+artificially deforming the skull, as is seen in particular on the reliefs
+at Palenque, we may also regard the heads of these deities as
+representations of such artificially flattened skulls.
+
+God E occurs frequently as the god of husbandry, especially in the Madrid
+manuscript, which devotes much attention to agriculture. He seems to be a
+counterpart of the Mexican maize-god Centeotl. The passages in the Madrid
+manuscript (Tro. 29a and Cort. 39a, 40a) are very remarkable, where
+the deity E is represented in the position of a woman in labor with
+numerals on the abdomen; perhaps the underlying idea is that of
+fruitfulness.
+
+In the Codex Cort., p. 40, this grain-deity is pictured with a tall and
+slender vessel before him, which he holds in his hands. It is possible
+that this is meant to suggest a grain receptacle; to be sure, in the same
+place, other figures of gods likewise have such vessels in their hands.
+At any rate, it is interesting to note that in the passage already
+mentioned (Dr. 50a) god E also holds a similar tall and slender vessel
+in his hands.
+
+According to all appearances the scene pictured in Dr. 50a has reference
+to the conflict of the grain-god with a death-deity. The latter, the
+figure sitting on the right, is characterized by a skull as a head
+ornament (see Fig. 6) and seems to address threats or commands to god E,
+who stands before him in the attitude of a terrified and cowed
+individual.
+
+Furthermore god E has nothing to do with the powers of the underworld; he
+is a god of life, of prosperity and fruitfulness; symbols of death are
+never found in connection with him. Brinton calls this god Ghanan,
+equivalent to Kan; it is possible, too, that he is identical with a deity
+Yum Kaax who has been handed down to us and whose name means "Lord of the
+harvest fields".
+
+According to Förstemann the day dedicated to this god is Kan.
+
+
+F. The God of War and of Human Sacrifices.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 28-34]
+
+This is a deity closely related to the death-god A, resembling the Aztec
+Xipe, and may, I think, without hesitation be regarded simply as the god
+of human sacrifice, perhaps, even more generally, as the god of death by
+violence. His hieroglyph is Figs. 28-30; it contains the number 11. A
+variant of this occurs on Dr. 7b, where instead of the 11 there is the
+following sign: [Hieroglyph]
+
+The characteristic mark of god F is a single black line usually running
+perpendicularly down the face in the vicinity of the eye. This line
+should be distinguished from the parallel lines of C's face and from the
+line, which, as a continuation of god E's head resembling an ear of
+maize, frequently appears on his face, especially as in the variants of
+the Madrid manuscript (compare Figs. 25-27). These pictures of E can
+always be unfailingly recognized by the peculiar shape of the head and
+should be distinguished from those representing F. The black face-line is
+the distinguishing mark of god F, just as it is of the Aztec Xipe. It
+sometimes runs in a curve over the cheek as a thick, black stripe, as
+Cort. 42. Sometimes it encircles the eye only (Dr. 6a) and again it is a
+dotted double line (Dr. 6b). The hieroglyph of god F likewise exhibits
+this line and with the very same variants as the god himself. See the
+hieroglyphs of the god belonging to the pictures in Dr. 6a, 1st and 3d
+figures, in which the line likewise differs from the other forms (Figs.
+30-34).
+
+In a few places god F is pictured with the same black lines _on his
+entire body_, which elsewhere he has only on his face, the lines being
+like those in Fig. 31, namely Tro. 27*c. Indeed, in Tro. 28*c, the
+death-god A likewise has these black lines on his body and also F's line
+on his face; a clear proof of the close relationship of the two deities.
+These lines probably signify gaping death-wounds and the accompanying
+rows of dots are intended to represent the blood.
+
+Since god F is a death-deity the familiar sign (Fig. 5), which occurs so
+frequently with the hieroglyphs of A, also belongs to his symbols. F is
+pictured in company with the death-god in connection with human sacrifice
+(Cort. 42); an exactly similar picture of the two gods of human sacrifice
+is given in Codex Tro. 30d; here, too, they sit opposite one another.
+The identity of this attendant of death with the deity, designated by the
+hieroglyph with the numeral 11, is proved by the following passages:
+Tro. 19, bottom (on the extreme right hand without picture, only
+hieroglyph, see Fig. 29), Dr. 5b, 6a, b, and c and many others. In
+some of the passages cited (Dr. 5a and b) he is distinguished by an
+unusually large ear-peg. His hieroglyph occurs with the hieroglyph of the
+death-god in Dr. 6c, where he is himself not pictured.
+
+As war-god, god F occurs combined with the death-god in the passages
+mentioned above (Tro. 27*-29*c), where he sets the houses on fire with
+his torch and demolishes them with his spear.
+
+God F occurs quite frequently in the manuscripts and must therefore be
+considered as one of the more important deities.
+
+According to Förstemann his day is Manik, the seizing, grasping hand,
+symbolizing the capturing of an enemy in war for sacrificial purposes.
+
+F's sign occurs once, as mentioned above, in fourfold repetition with all
+the four cardinal points, namely in Tro. 29*c. In ancient Central
+America the captured enemy was sacrificed and thus the conceptions of the
+war-god and of the god of death by violence and by human sacrifice are
+united in the figure of god F. In this character god F occurs several
+times in the Madrid manuscript in combat with M, the god of travelling
+merchants (see page 35). Spanish writers do not mention a deity of the
+kind described here as belonging to the Maya pantheon.
+
+
+G. The Sun-God.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 35-36]
+
+God G's hieroglyph (Fig. 35) contains as its chief factor the sun-sign
+Kin. It is one of the signs (of which there are about 12 in the
+manuscripts), which has the Ben-ik prefix and doubtless denotes a month
+dedicated to the sun. There is, I think, no difference of opinion
+regarding the significance of this deity, although Fewkes, as already
+stated, is inclined to identify G with B, whom, it is true, the former
+resembles. It is surprising that a deity who from his nature must be
+considered as very important, is represented with such comparative
+infrequency. He occurs only a few times in the Dresden manuscript, for
+example 22b, 11c, and in the Codex Tro.-Cortesianus none can be found
+among the figures which could be safely regarded as the sun-god; in no
+manuscript except the Dresden does a deity occur wearing the sun-sign Kin
+on his body. But once in the Codex Cort. the figure of D appears with the
+sun-sign on his head, as pointed out by Fewkes in his article entitled
+"The God 'D' in the Codex Cortesianus". G's hieroglyph, to be sure, is
+found repeatedly in the Madrid manuscript, for example Codex Tro. 31c.
+
+God G seems to be not wholly without relation to the powers of death; the
+owl-sign (Fig. 5) occurs once in connection with him (Dr. 11c). Besides
+the sun-sign Kin, which the god bears on his body, his representations
+are distinguished by a peculiar nose ornament (Fig. 36) which, as may be
+seen by comparison with other similar pictures in the Dresden manuscript,
+is nothing but a large and especially elaborate nose-peg. Similar
+ornaments are rather common just here in the carefully drawn first part
+of the Dresden manuscript. Compare Dr. 22b (middle figure), 21 (centre),
+17b, 14a, b; occasionally they also have the shape of a flower, for
+example 12b (centre), 11c (left), 19a. Lastly it is worthy of note,
+that god G is sometimes represented with a snake-like tongue protruding
+from his mouth, as in Dr. 11b and c.
+
+
+H. The Chicchan-God.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 37-40]
+
+The figure of a deity of frequent occurrence in the Dresden manuscript is
+a god, who is characterized by a skin-spot or a scale of a serpent on his
+temple of the same shape as the hieroglyph of the day Chicchan (serpent).
+Moreover the representations of the god himself differ very much, so that
+there are almost no other positive, unvarying characteristic marks to be
+specified. His picture is plainly recognizable and has the Chicchan-mark
+on the temple in Dr. 11a, 12b and 20b.
+
+The hieroglyph belonging to this deity likewise displays the
+Chicchan-sign as its distinguishing mark. Furthermore several variants
+occur. The Chicchan-sign has sometimes the form of Fig. 37 and again that
+of Fig. 38. The prefix likewise differs very much, having sometimes the
+form of Fig. 37, and again that of Fig. 38 or of Figs. 39 and 40. Thus
+there are, in all, four different forms of the prefix. It is to be
+assumed that all these hieroglyphs have the same meaning, notwithstanding
+their variations. Taking into consideration the frequency of the
+variations of other hieroglyphs of gods and of the hieroglyphs in the
+Maya manuscripts in general, it is quite improbable from the nature of
+the case, that a hieroglyph, which displays so great an agreement in its
+essential and characteristic elements, should denote several different
+gods. The dissimilarity which Seler thinks he finds between the forms of
+the Chicchan-sign in Figs. 37 and 38 and which leads him to assume that
+Fig. 37 is not a Chicchan-sign at all, but that it denotes another face
+ornament, cannot be satisfactorily proved, and must be regarded as an
+arbitrary assumption. The Chicchan-mark in the sign of the day Chicchan
+also differs very much from that on the bodies of the serpents pictured
+in the manuuscripts, so that variations of this kind by no means make it
+necessary to assume that the hieroglyphs actually denote different
+things. Observe, for example, the different Chicchan-spots on the
+serpent's body in Tro. 27a. The crenelated, black border of the
+Chicchan-spot in Fig. 38 passes in rapid cursive drawing almost of itself
+into the scallops of Fig. 37, a transition to which there are distinct
+tendencies on the serpent's body in Tro. 27a. Nor does the fact, that
+under H's hieroglyph different personages are very often pictured, whom
+we cannot positively identify, compel the assumption that we have here
+not _one_, but two or more mythical figures, for the same is true of
+other hieroglyphs of gods. There are many places in the manuscripts where
+the text contains a definite well-known hieroglyph of a god, while the
+accompanying picture represents some other deity or some other figure not
+definitely characterized, perhaps merely a human form (priest, warrior,
+woman and the like). Thus in Dr. 4a we see H's hieroglyph in the text,
+but the picture is the figure of god P while in other places we miss the
+characteristic Chicchan-spot on the figure represented, for example Dr.
+4c, 6a, 7b, 7c, 14a, 21c. In the Madrid manuscript, it is true, H's
+hieroglyph also occurs often enough, but _not in a single instance_ is a
+deity represented displaying the Chicchan-spot. This fact is, I think, to
+be explained by the coarser style of the drawing, which does not admit of
+representing such fine details as in the Dresden manuscript. In the Paris
+manuscript H's hieroglyph occurs but once (p. 8, bottom).
+
+Seler thinks he recognizes in some of the figures represented under H's
+hieroglyph in the manuscripts, a so-called "young god". Such a deity is
+unknown and the assumption is entirely arbitrary. Apparently this "young
+god" is an invention of Brinton. The purely inductive and descriptive
+study of the manuscripts does not prove the existence of such a
+personage, and we must decline to admit him as the result of deductive
+reasoning. In this so-called "young god", we miss, first of all, a
+characteristic mark, a distinct peculiarity such as belongs to all the
+figures of gods in the manuscripts without exception and by which he
+could be recognized. Except his so-called youthfulness, however, no such
+definite marks are to be found. Furthermore there is no figure of a god
+in the manuscripts which would not be designated by a definite
+characteristic hieroglyph. No such hieroglyph can be proved as belonging
+to the "young god". The figures, which are supposed to have a "youthful
+appearance" in the Madrid manuscript, often convey this impression merely
+in consequence of their smallness and of the pitiful, squatting attitude
+in which they are represented. Furthermore real _children_ do occur here
+and there, thus, for example, in the Dresden manuscript in connection
+with the pictures of women in the first part and in Tro. 20*c in the
+representation of the so-called "infant baptism."
+
+That god H has some relation to the serpent must be conjectured from what
+has been said. Thus, for example, on Dr. 15b, we see his hieroglyph
+belonging to the figure of a woman with the knotted serpent on her head,
+in Dr. 4a to the god P, who there bears a serpent in his hand, and in
+Dr. 35b in connection with a serpent with B's head. What this relation
+is, cannot now be stated.
+
+The day dedicated to god H is Chicchan, and the sign for this day is his
+distinguishing hieroglyph.
+
+
+I. The Water-Goddess.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41]
+
+In the Dresden manuscript the figure of an old woman, with the body
+stained brown and claws in place of feet, occurs repeatedly. She wears on
+her head a knotted serpent and with her hands pours water from a vessel.
+Evidently we have here a personification of water in its quality of
+destroyer, a goddess of floods and cloud-bursts, which, as we know, play
+an important part in Central America. Page 27, of the Codex Troano
+contains a picture, in which this character of goddess I may be
+distinctly recognized. In accordance with this character, also on Dr. 74,
+where something resembling a flood is represented, she wears the
+cross-bones of the death-god.
+
+The goddess is pictured in the manner described in the following places:
+Dr. 39b, 43b, 67a and 74. The figure corresponding to her in the
+Madrid manuscript, in Tro. 27 and 34*c, displays some variations, in
+particular the tiger claws on the feet and the red-brown color of the
+body are lacking. But the agreement cannot be questioned, I think, when
+we recall that the Maya manuscripts doubtless originated in different
+ages and different areas of civilization, circumstances which readily
+explain such variations. The goddess distinguished in the Madrid
+manuscript by symbols of flood and water is doubtless the same as goddess
+I of the Dresden manuscript described above; her unmistakable character
+of water-goddess in both manuscripts is in favor of this. In both
+manuscripts she is invariably distinguished by the serpent on her head,
+which, as we know, is a symbol of the water flowing along and forming
+waves.
+
+Strange to say, a fixed hieroglyph of this goddess cannot be proved with
+certainty. There is some probability in favor of the sign given in Fig.
+41. The well-known oblong signs, which Förstemann (Drei Mayahieroglyphen,
+published in the Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1901, pp. 215-221) interprets
+as the sign for evil days, frequently occur with her. This would be
+appropriate for the goddess of floods.
+
+In the Dresden manuscript a few similar figures of women are found, who,
+like goddess I, wear a knotted serpent on the head. Representations of
+this kind occur in Dr. 9c, 15b, 18a, 20a, 22b and 23b. Whether they
+are identical with goddess I is doubtful, since there is no symbolic
+reference to water in these passages. Besides, the hieroglyphs of other
+known deities occur each time in the above-mentioned places, so that
+definite mythologic relations must be assumed to exist here between the
+women repsented and the deities in question. Thus in Dr. 9c we find D's
+sign, in 15b that of H; on 18a, 22b and 23b we see only the general
+sign for a woman. In Dr. 20a the signs are effaced.
+
+In the Codex Troano goddess I occurs on pp. 25b and 27; there is also a
+woman with the knotted serpent on her head in Tro. 34*c. In the Codex
+Cortesianus and in the Paris manuscript these forms are wholly lacking.
+
+
+K. The God with the Ornamented Nose.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 42-43]
+
+This god, as already mentioned in connection with B, is not identical
+with the latter, but is probably closely related to him. His hieroglyph
+is Fig. 42; Fig. 43 is the form in the Madrid manuscript. He is closely
+related to god B. He is represented in Dr. 25 (centre) where he is
+perhaps conceived of as a priest wearing a mask with the face of the god,
+also in Dr. 7a, 12a (with his own hieroglyph and that of E!), 26
+(bottom) with a variant of the sign. His figure without the hieroglyph
+occurs in Dr. 3. Very frequently the well-known group, 3 Oc, is given
+with him and in connection with his hieroglyph (in Dr. 3, 7a, 10b
+(right); without picture, 12a). Förstemann (Drei Mayahieroglyphen,
+Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1901. pp 215-221) sees in this the sign for
+good days, a proof that we have to do here with a benevolent deity well
+disposed to mankind, his kinship with B being also in favor of this
+interpretation. His hieroglyph alone without his picture occurs in Dr.
+10b, 49 (middle and bottom), 58 (bottom, left), and Tro. 8*b; with a
+variant of the attribute in Dr. 24 (third vertical row). A slight
+variation appears also in Dr. 69 (top, right).
+
+In Dr. 65a (middle) B is pictured. But in the text we see K's hieroglyph
+presented by a hand. The next figure on the same page at the right
+represents god B with the head of K on his own and the same head once
+more in his hand. Agreeing with this, we find in the accompanying text
+the signs of B and K, the latter in a hand. K seems to be pictured again
+in Dr. 46 (bottom); the passage, however, is somewhat obliterated. The
+hieroglyph is lacking in this place; it is found, however, on the
+preceding page 45 (middle).
+
+In addition to the passage already mentioned, which represents god K
+together with B, such double deities again occur in the Paris manuscript,
+p. 13, where B holds K's head in his hand; in Dr. 34b, where he carries
+this head on his own and in Dr. 67a where he appears to carry it in a
+rope. Once, how ever, a variation of these plainly synonymous
+representations occurs, namely in Dr. 49 (at the top), where we see a
+_feminine_ form above whose head rises the head of god K. In the Paris
+manuscript, so far as its defaced condition permits us to recognize the
+representation, K occurs very frequently, as for example, in Per. 3, 4, 5,
+6, 7 and 9 (in part only his head is given, presented by god B, as in the
+Dresden manuscript).
+
+Brinton considers this figure simply as a special manifestation of B and
+identical with that god. Förstemann thinks that god K is a storm-deity,
+whose ornamental nose, according to the conventional mode of drawing of
+the Central American peoples, is intended to represent the blast of the
+storm.
+
+Apparently, however, the deity has an _astronomic significance_ and seems
+to symbolize a _star_. In favor of this is the fact, that on the
+so-called initial pages of the Madrid manuscript (Cort. 22-Tro. 36) a
+row, composed of repetitions of his sign, occurs below the signs of the
+cardinal points and parallel to a row composed of signs of god C, the
+god of the polar star and the north. The hieroglyphs of C and K are the
+only hieroglyphs of gods, which are repeated 13 times on these pages with
+the 13 days enumerated there. The two gods must, therefore, have either a
+parallel or an opposite astronomic and calendric meaning. The fact that
+in Dr. 25 and 26 K appears as regent of the year, is an argument in favor
+of his astronomic significance.
+
+According to Förstemann, Muluc is the day dedicated to god K.
+
+In the head of god K we recognize the ornament so common in the temple
+ruins of Central America--the so-called "elephant's trunk." The peculiar,
+conventionalized face, with the projecting proboscis-shaped nose, which is
+applied chiefly to the corners of temple walls, displays unquestionably
+the features of god K. The significance of god K in this architectural
+relation is unknown. Some connection with his character as the deity of a
+star and with his astronomic qualities may, however, be assumed, since, as
+we know, the temple structures of Central America are always placed with
+reference _to the cardinal points_.
+
+
+L. The Old, Black God.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44]
+
+God L's features are those of an old man with sunken, toothless mouth.
+His hieroglyph is Fig. 44, which is characterized by the black face.
+
+God L, who is also black, must not be confounded with M whose description
+follows. L is represented and designated by his hieroglyph in the
+accompanying text, in Dr. 14b and 14c and Dr. 46b; the figure has the
+characteristic black face. He appears entirely black in Dr. 7a. The
+hieroglyph alone occurs in Dr. 21b and 24 (third vertical line in the
+first passage) with a variation, namely without the Ymix-sign before the
+head. This deity does not occur in the Madrid and Paris manuscripts.
+
+The significance of god L does not appear from the few pictures, which
+are given of him. In Dr. 46b the god is pictured armed and in warlike
+attitude. Both in Dr. 14b and 14c he wears a bird on his head and has a
+Kan in his hand.
+
+According to Förstemann, his day is Akbal, darkness, night.
+
+Cyrus Thomas (Aids to the Study of the Maya Codices, in the 6th Annual
+Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1888, p. 358) thinks he is
+the god Ekchuah, who has come down to us as a black deity. God M seems,
+however, to correspond to Ekchuah (see the description of M).
+
+
+M. The Black God with the Red Lips.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 45-48]
+
+God M's hieroglyph is Figs. 45, 46; it seems to represent an eye rimmed
+with black, though the figure of the god himself displays an entirely
+different drawing of the eye (see Fig. 47).
+
+The god is found in the Dresden manuscript only three times, namely in
+Dr. 16b (with a bone in his hand) in picture and sign, in Dr. 13c
+grouped with an animal, without the hieroglyph, and in Dr. 43a (with his
+sign) while finally his hieroglyph alone appears in Dr. 56 (top, left) in
+a group and of a somewhat different form.
+
+On the other hand, god M appears with special frequency in the Madrid
+manuscript, which treats of this deity with great fullness of detail.
+While he is represented in the Dresden manuscript (16b) with his body
+striped black and white, and on p. 43a entirely white, he is always
+entirely black in the Codex Troano. His other distinguishing marks are
+the following:
+
+1. The mouth encircled by a red-brown border.
+
+2. The large, drooping under lip. By this he can be recognized with
+certainty also in Dr. 43a.
+
+3. The two curved lines at the right of the eye.
+
+His significance can be conjectured. He seems to be of a warlike nature,
+for he is almost always represented armed with the lance and also as
+engaged in combat and, in some instances, pierced by the lance of his
+opponent, god F, for example in Tro. 3c, 7a, 29*a. The peculiar object
+with parallel stripes, which he wears on his head is a rope from which a
+package frequently hangs. By means of a rope placed around his head the
+god frequently carries a bale of merchandise, as is the custom today
+among the aborigines in different parts of America. On 4b and 5a in the
+Cod. Tro. this can plainly be seen. All these pictures lead us to
+conclude, that we have here to do with a god of _travelling merchants_. A
+deity of this character called Ekchuah has been handed down to us, who is
+designated explicitly as a _black_ god. In favor of this is also the
+fact, that he is represented fighting with F and pierced by the latter.
+For the travelling merchant must, of course, be armed to ward off hostile
+attacks and these are admirably symbolized by god F, for he is the god of
+death in war and of the killing of the captured enemy. The god is found
+in the Codex Troano in the following places and on many pages two or
+three times: pp. 2, 3, 4, 5, always with the hieroglyph, then without it
+on pp. 6, 7, 19, 4*c, 14*b, 17*a, 18*b and again with the hieroglyph
+on pp. 22*a, 23*a, 25*a; finally it is found again without the
+hieroglyph on pp. 29*a, 30*a, 31*, 32*, 33*, 34*. In the Codex
+Cortesianus god M occurs in the following places: p. 15, where he strikes
+the sky with the axe and thus causes rain, p. 19 (bottom), 28 (bottom,
+second figure), 34 (bottom) and 36 (top). M is always to be recognized by
+the encircled mouth and the drooping under-lip; figures without these
+marks are not identical with M, thus for example in Tro. 23, 24, 25, 21*.
+Tro. 34*a shows what is apparently a variant of M with the face of an
+old man, the scorpion's tail and the vertebrae of the death-god, a figure
+which in its turn bears on its breast the plainly recognizable head of M.
+God M is also represented elsewhere many times with the scorpion's
+tail, thus for example on Tro. 30*a, 31*a.
+
+Besides his hieroglyph mentioned above, Figs. 45 and 46, another sign
+seems to refer to god M, namely Fig. 48 (compare for example Tro. 5a and
+Cort. 28, bottom). The head in this sign has the same curved lines at the
+corner of the eye as appear on the deity himself. Förstemann mentions
+this sign in his Commentary on the Paris Manuscript, p. 15, and in his
+Commentary on the Dresden Manuscript, p. 56. He thinks the hieroglyph has
+relation to the revolution of Venus, which is performed in 584 days. A
+relation of this kind is, I think, very possible, if we bear in mind that
+all the god-figures of the manuscripts have more or less of a calendric
+and chronologic significance in their chief or in their secondary
+function.
+
+It should be mentioned that God M is represented as a rule as an old man
+with toothless jaw or the characteristic solitary tooth. That he is also
+related to bee-culture is shown by his presence on p. 4*c of the Codex
+Troano, in the section on bees.
+
+Besides gods L and M, a few quite isolated black figures occur in the
+Codex Troano, who, apparently, are identical with neither of these two
+deities, but are evidently of slight importance and perhaps are only
+variants of other deities. Similar figures of black deities are found in
+the Codex Tro. 23, 24 and 25 (perhaps this is a black variant of B as god
+of the storm?) and on 21*c we twice see a black form with the aged face
+and the solitary tooth in the under jaw (perhaps only a variant of M). In
+the Codex Cortesianus and in the Dresden manuscript no other black
+deities occur, but in the Paris manuscript a black deity seems to be
+pictured once (p. 21, bottom).
+
+According to Brinton (Nagualism, Philadelphia 1894, pp. 21, 39), there is
+among the Tzendals in addition to Ekchuah, a second black deity called
+Xicalahua, "black lord".
+
+
+N. The God of the End of the Year.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 49-51]
+
+We have here a deity with the features of an old man and wearing a
+peculiar head ornament reproduced in Fig. 50, which contains the sign for
+the year of 360 days. The god's hieroglyph is Fig. 49, which consists of
+the numeral 5 with the sign of the month Zac. Förstemann has recognized
+in god N the god of the five Uayeyab days, which were added as
+intercalary days at the end of the original year of 360 days, and were
+considered unlucky days. N is, therefore, the god of the end of the year.
+Förstemann has discussed him in detail under this title in a monograph
+published in Globus, Vol. 80, No. 12. It is still open to question
+whether god N actually occurs in all the places of the Dresden
+manuscript, which are mentioned by Förstemann. He can be recognized
+positively on Dr. 17a, 21c (grouped with a woman) and 37a; also on
+12c, but in this latter place with pronounced deviations from the usual
+representations. The figures in Dr. 23c (first group) and 43a (third
+picture) are doubtful, especially since the hieroglyph of the god is
+lacking in both instances. The third group in Dr. 21c is equally
+dubious. Here a woman is pictured sitting opposite a god. The latter
+seems to be god N, yet in the text we find instead of his sign the
+hieroglyph given in Fig. 51. It is not impossible that this sign likewise
+denotes god N.
+
+God N is found a few times in the Paris manuscript, for example on p. 4,
+where he holds K's head in his hands, and on p. 22.
+
+
+O. A Goddess with the Features of an Old Woman.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52]
+
+This goddess occurs only in the Madrid manuscript and is distinguished by
+the solitary tooth in the under jaw, as a sign of age, the invariable
+characteristic of aged persons in the manuscripts. She is pictured in the
+following places: Tro. 5*c, 6*b, and 11*b, c and d, Cort. 10b,
+11a, 38a. In Tro. 11* she is represented working at a loom. She does
+not appear at all in the Dresden and Paris manuscripts. The figures of
+women mentioned under I with the serpent on their heads, are especially
+not to be regarded as identical with goddess O, for she never wears the
+serpent, but a tuft of hair bound high up on her head and running out in
+two locks.
+
+Her hieroglyph is Fig. 52; it is distinguished by the wrinkles of age
+about the eye. Owing to the limited number of her pictures, there is
+little to be said concerning the significance of this goddess.
+
+
+P. The Frog-God.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53]
+
+We call him the frog-god because in the Codex Tro. 31, he is pictured in
+the first and second lines with the club-shaped fingers of a frog, which
+occur only on this figure. The blue background, which is his attribute
+twice in the same passage, likewise points to a connection with water,
+and that the god also has something to do with agriculture may be deduced
+from the fact that he is pictured sowing seed and making furrows with the
+planting-stick. The two black parallel stripes at the corner of the eye
+seem to be folds of skin or marks on the skin, which may represent a
+peculiarity of this particular species of frog. His head ornament is very
+characteristic and contains the sign for the year of 360 days. He
+therefore bears some unknown relation also to the computation of time. It
+should be recalled in this connection that one of the Maya months is
+called Uo, frog. The god is pictured again in Tro. 30a and b, Tro. 22
+(top, scattering seed) and Cort. 5 (at the very bottom, the figure lying
+down). Finally his neck ornament must be mentioned, which, as a rule,
+consists of a neck-chain with pointed, oblong or pronged objects,
+probably shells.
+
+In the Dresden manuscript he occurs but once, Dr. 4a (first figure),
+with some variations it is true. The text at this place contains H's
+hieroglyph. God P does not occur in the Peresianus.
+
+His hieroglyph is Fig. 53. It occurs in Tro. 31 (top) and can be
+unerringly recognized by the two black parallel stripes at the corner of
+the eye; which correspond exactly to the same marks on the face of the
+picture of the god himself.
+
+This is all that can be said respecting this deity from the pictures in
+the manuscripts. Its meaning is obscure. Seler's assumption that god P is
+Kukulcan (Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 1898, p. 403) has certainly very
+slight foundation, and in view of the material from the manuscripts
+described in the preceding pages, it is in the highest degree improbable.
+
+           *       *       *       *       *
+
+The foregoing is an almost complete enumeration of the god-figures proper
+in the Maya manuscripts. Whatever other figures of gods occur in the
+manuscripts are details of slight importance. This is especially true of
+the Dresden manuscript, which is well nigh exhausted by the types
+enumerated here; there may be, I think, a few figures still undescribed
+in the Madrid manuscript, the careless drawing of which renders the
+identification very difficult. An isolated figure of the Dresden
+manuscript still remains to be mentioned, concerning which it is doubtful
+whether it is intended to represent a deity or only a human personage.
+
+This is the figure characterized by a peculiar head ornament in Dr. 20b.
+It is designated in the text by two hieroglyphs, which belong together,
+Figs. 54 and 55, the latter occurring once with K (Dr. 7a). It seems to
+represent blowing from the mouth, screaming or speaking.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 54-55]
+
+
+
+
+II. MYTHOLOGICAL ANIMALS.
+
+
+1. THE MOAN BIRD.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 56-59]
+
+This bird[41-1] belongs to the death-god as his symbol and attendant. Its
+hieroglyph (Fig. 56) contains the numeral 13; other forms are Figs. 57-59.
+It is pictured in Dr. 7c, 10a, 11a, 16c, 18b, and its hieroglyph
+without the picture is seen in Dr. 8b. A realistic representation of the
+whole figure of the moan as a bird, occurs on the head of the woman in
+16c (1st figure) and 18b. God B sits on the head of the moan in Dr.
+38c; the third hieroglyph of the accompanying text refers to this
+representation. Just as in Dr. 16 and 18, the moan bird appears in Tro.
+18*c on the head of a woman. Its character as an attribute of the
+death-god is expressed by the Cimi-sign, which it wears upon its head
+(_e. g._, Dr. 10a), and also by the regular occurrence of symbols of the
+death-god in the written characters, which refer to the moan bird. In the
+same manner the sign of the owl, Fig. 5, also occurs frequently with it.
+
+    [41-1] See plate for representations of the Mythological Animals,
+    1-6.
+
+The moan confers name and symbol alike on one of the eighteen months of
+the Maya year, and thus, as Förstemann conjectures (Die Plejaden bei den
+Mayas, in Globus, 1894), has an astronomic bearing on the constellation
+of the Pleiades.
+
+According to Brinton the moan is a member of the falcon family and its
+zoological name is _Spizaetus tyrannus_.
+
+
+2. THE SERPENT.
+
+This is one of the most common and most important mythological animals,
+and is closely related to different deities, as has already been more
+fully discussed in connection with the individual cases. Apparently it
+has no _independent_ significance as a deity. Its most important
+personification is that in god B, Kukulcan, the feathered serpent. Hence
+a fixed hieroglyph designating the serpent as a deity, as a mythologic
+form, does not occur, though there are numerous hieroglyphs which refer
+to serpents or represent individual parts of the serpent, as its coils,
+its jaws, the rattles of the rattlesnake, etc. The serpent appears in the
+mythologic conceptions of the Mayas chiefly as the symbol of water and of
+time. In the great series of numbers of the Dresden manuscript, certain
+numbers occur which are introduced in the coils of a large serpent
+(compare in regard to this, Förstemann, Zur Entzifferung der
+Mayahandschriften, II, Dresden, 1891). The serpent is very frequently
+represented in all the manuscripts, sometimes realistically and sometimes
+with the head of a god, etc. In the Dresden manuscript it occurs in the
+following places: 1a, 26, 27, 28c, 35b, 36a, 36b, 37b 40, 42a, 61,
+62, 65c 66a and 69. It is prominent also in the Madrid manuscript,
+occurring for example in Cort. 4-6, 12-18, Tro. 25, 26, 27 and elsewhere.
+
+
+3. THE DOG.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60]
+
+Fig. 60 is its hieroglyph. It is the symbol of the death-god and the
+bearer of the lightning. The latter follows quite clearly from the
+picture in Dr. 40b where the god is distinguished by its hieroglyph.
+This animal is again represented in Dr. 7a, 13c on the right, 21b with
+its hieroglyph, 29a, 30a (forming a part of 31a, where god B holds the
+bound dog by the tail), and 39a without the hieroglyph, 47 (bottom) with
+a variant of the hieroglyph.
+
+In Dr. 36a the dog bears the Akbal-sign on its forehead. The writing
+above it contains a variant of the hieroglyph for the dog; this is the
+third of the rubric. It shows (somewhat difficult of recognition) the
+Akbal-sign on the forehead of the dog's head occurring in it, and on the
+back of the head the Kin-sign, as symbols of the alternation of day and
+night. The same sign occurs again with adjuncts in Dr. 74 (last line, 2nd
+sign) and once with the _death-god_ in Dr. 8a. The dog as
+lightning-beast occurs with the Akbal-sign in the eye instead of on the
+forehead in Codex Tro. 23*a; here again its hieroglyph is an entirely
+different one (the third of the rubric).
+
+That the dog belongs to the death-god is proved beyond a doubt by the
+regular recurrence in the writing belonging to the dog, of the
+hieroglyphs, which relate to this deity, especially of Fig. 5. According
+to Förstemann his day is Oc.
+
+
+4. THE VULTURE.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61]
+
+This bird is distinctly pictured as a mythological figure in Dr. 8a. It
+appears again, in feminine form, together with the dog, in Dr. 13c and
+also in 19a. In the first passage, its hieroglyph is almost effaced; the
+hieroglyph is very striking and occurs nowhere else in the whole
+collection of manuscripts. The body of this animal-deity is striped black
+and white; in Dr. 38b it is almost entirely black. The same passage
+displays a second hieroglyph for this figure (Fig. 61); this hieroglyph
+also occurs with the numeral 4 in Dr. 56b. In Dr. 36b this bird of prey
+is pictured fighting with the serpent; its hieroglyph occurs in the
+second form; the serpent is designated by the Chuen, the gaping jaws of
+the serpent (first character of the rubric).
+
+Finally it should be mentioned that the head of this bird occurs
+frequently as a head ornament, thus in Dr. 11a, 11b, 12b and 14b.
+Mention should also be made of the realistic representations of the
+vulture, eating the eye of a human sacrifice (Dr. 3, Tro. 26*a and
+27*a).
+
+According to Förstemann his day is Cib.
+
+
+5. The Jaguar.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62]
+
+The jaguar is likewise an animal with mythological significance. It is
+represented in Dr. 8a, where its hieroglyph is the third sign in the
+writing; it also occurs in Dr. 26 (at the top). It occurs in Tro. 17 (at
+the end) with a hieroglyph which represents the jaguar's head and
+contains the numeral 4 (Fig. 62); again it appears without a hieroglyph
+on p. 20 (bottom) and on 21 and 22 (bottom).
+
+Its day is Ix, and hence it also relates occasionally as year regent to
+the Ix years, for example in Dr. 26a.
+
+
+6. The Tortoise.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 63-65]
+
+This animal, like the dog, appears as a lightning-beast (see Dr. 40b,
+middle). Its hieroglyph is Figs. 63, 64. This sign also is connected with
+the numeral 4, which occurs so often with animals (but not alone with
+quadrupeds) as to be worthy of attention. The sign of the tortoise
+without the numeral is seen in Cort. 17a, where the tortoise itself is
+also represented. It must have reference to the 17th month of the Maya
+year, for the month Kayab (and apparently also Pop) contains the head of
+the tortoise (compare Fig. 65). It occurs several times in the
+Cortesianus, thus on pp. 13, 19, 37, 38; on p. 19 with the hieroglyph (on
+the top of the lower half of the page, 1st line and at the right of the
+margin). In Dr. 69 (at the top) we see the sign of the tortoise with the
+Kin-sign as its eye and the numeral 12; under this group B, with a black
+body, is seated on the serpent; on the same page the sign occurs again;
+each time, moreover, apparently as a month-hieroglyph.
+
+According to Förstemann the tortoise is the symbol of the summer
+solstice, as the _snail_, which occurs only as a head ornament in the
+manuscripts and not independently, is the symbol of the winter solstice;
+both, as the animals of slowest motion, represent the apparent standstill
+of the sun at the periods specified. This explains why the month Kayab,
+in which the summer solstice falls, should be represented by the head of
+a tortoise, which has for its eye the sun-sign Kin (Förstemann, Zur
+Entzifferung der Mayahandschriften III, Schildkröte und Schnecke in der
+Mayaliteratur, Dresden 1892).
+
+According to Förstemann its day is Cauac.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Finally the _owl_ and the _ape_ (or monkey) must be mentioned as animals
+of mythologic significance, of which we have already spoken in connection
+with gods A and C. The _scorpion_ also seems to have an important
+mythologic significance, and appears in the manuscripts in connection
+with figures of gods, as, for example, in Cort. 7a and Tro. 31*a,
+33*a, 34*a (god M with a scorpion's tail). In addition to those
+discussed in this paper, there are a few animals in the manuscripts,
+which probably also have a partial mythologic significance, but which
+have been omitted because they are represented in a naturalistic manner,
+thus, for example, the deer on Tro. 8, et seq., while idealization (with
+human bodies, with torches, hieroglyphic character on the head, etc.)
+should be considered as an unmistakable sign of mythologic meaning.
+
+A mythologic significance also seems to belong to the _bee_ which plays so
+prominent a part of the Codex Troano. Probably the section in question of
+the Madrid manuscript (1* et seq.) treats of bee-keeping, but incidentally
+it certainly has to do also with the mythologic conceptions connected with
+the culture of bees.
+
+The _bat_ which is found as a mythological figure on pottery vessels and
+inscriptions from the Maya region (compare Seler, Zeitschrift für
+Ethnologie, 1894, p. 577) does not occur in the manuscripts. It is true,
+however, that hieroglyphic signs, which seem to relate to the head of the
+bat, occur in isolated cases in the manuscripts.
+
+
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+
+An enumeration of the most important deities in the manuscripts gives the
+following results, in connection with which it is to be noted that, of
+course, the numbers cannot be absolutely correct, because one or another
+of the pictures occasionally remains doubtful. As far as possible,
+however, only the _positively_ determined representations have been
+considered.
+
+The deity occurring most frequently in the DRESDEN MANUSCRIPT is god B,
+who is pictured there 141 times. Following him in point of number in the
+same manuscript are the death-god A pictured 33 times, god D 19 times,
+and gods C and E 17 and 14 times respectively.
+
+In the MADRID MANUSCRIPT, god D, with 84 pictures, is of most frequent
+occurrence. He is followed by the maize-god E with 76 pictures, god B
+with 71, god A with 53, C with 38 and M with 37 pictures.
+
+In the PARIS MANUSCRIPT, god E's picture can be verified 8 times, those
+of C and B 6 times each and that of god A twice; N and K are also
+frequently represented.
+
+An enumeration of all the pictures in all the manuscripts shows that the
+following deities occur most frequently and are therefore to be
+considered the most important:
+
+  1.  God B: pictured 218 times.
+  2.   "  D:  "       103  "
+  3.   "  E:  "        98  "
+  4.   "  A:  "        88  "
+  5.   "  C:  "        61  "
+  6.   "  M:  "        40  "
+  7.   "  F:  "        33  "
+
+Furthermore, interesting conclusions can be arrived at, by means of a
+list of those deities, who occur in the representations of the
+manuscripts, so _united_ or _grouped together_ as to make it evident that
+they must stand in some relation to one another. _Mythologic
+combinations_ of this kind occur among the following deities and
+mythological animals:
+
+1. In the DRESDEN MANUSCRIPT: D and C, B and C, dog and vulture, bird and
+serpent, B and K.
+
+2. In the MADRID MANUSCRIPT: F and M, B and M, C and M, E and M, A and E,
+A and D, A and F, B and C, D and C, D and E.
+
+3. In the PARIS MANUSCRIPT: N and K, B and K.
+
+The most common of these combinations are those of the deities A and F, M
+and F, A and E, D and C. These groups are entirely intelligible,
+consisting of death-god and war-god, god of the travelling merchants and
+war-god, death-god and maize-god (as adversaries: meaning famine),
+night-god and deity of the polar star.
+
+
+[Illustration: I. Gods.
+
+A B C D E
+
+F G H I K
+
+L M N O P
+
+II. Mythological Animals.
+
+1 2 3 4 5 6]
+
+
+
+     *     *     *     *     *     *
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+Typographical errors:
+
+  Page
+  10   Footnote 1 missing final period
+  17   serpent-and rain-deity should read serpent-and-rain-deity
+  23   Sentence ending with "and 13*c)" does not have a period
+  29   manuuscripts should read manuscripts
+  32   repsented should read represented
+  33   pp 215-221 should read pp. 215-221
+  42   comma missing following 37b
+       comma missing following 65c
+
+Inconsistencies:
+
+The placement of punctuation at the end of a word or phrase surrounded
+by quotation marks is inconsistent, usually it is placed outside the
+final close quotation mark but occasionally is found inside the mark.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REPRESENTATION OF DEITIES OF THE
+MAYA MANUSCRIPTS***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 18013-8.txt or 18013-8.zip *******
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+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts, by Paul Schellhas</title>
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Representation of Deities of the Maya
+Manuscripts, by Paul Schellhas, Translated by Selma Wesselhoeft and A. M.
+Parker</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts</p>
+<p>       Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Vol. 4, No. 1</p>
+<p>Author: Paul Schellhas</p>
+<p>Release Date: March 18, 2006  [eBook #18013]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REPRESENTATION OF DEITIES OF THE MAYA MANUSCRIPTS***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by Julia Miller<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net/)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div style="background-color: #EEE; padding: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 1em;">
+<p class="center"><b>Transcriber&rsquo;s&nbsp;Note</b></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The original publication did not include a table of contents. The
+table of contents found in this HTML version of the book was generated from
+the contents of the book.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">A number of typographical errors have been maintained
+in the current version of this book. They are <ins class="correction" title="correction">marked</ins>
+and the corrected text is shown in the popup. A <a href="#note">list</a> of these
+errors is found at the end of this book.</p>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="tpbig"><b>PAPERS</b></p>
+
+<p class="tpsm">OF THE</p>
+
+<p class="tpmed">PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY<br />
+AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY</p>
+
+<p class="tpmed"><span class="smcap">Vol. IV.&mdash;No. 1</span></p>
+
+<hr style="border: solid black 1px; width: 9em;" />
+
+<p class="tpbig"><b>REPRESENTATION OF DEITIES</b></p>
+
+<p class="tpmed">OF THE</p>
+
+<p class="tpbig"><b>MAYA MANUSCRIPTS</b></p>
+
+<p class="tpsm" style="margin-top: 2em;">BY</p>
+
+<p class="tpmed" style="margin-top: 2em;">DR. PAUL SCHELLHAS</p>
+
+<p class="tpsm" style="margin-top: 2em;">SECOND EDITION, REVISED</p>
+
+<p class="tptiny">WITH 1 PLATE OF FIGURES AND 65 TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS</p>
+
+<hr style="border: solid black 1px; width: 9em;" />
+
+<p class="tpsm">TRANSLATED BY</p>
+
+<p class="tpsm">
+<span class="smcap">Miss Selma Wesselhoeft</span> and<br />
+<span class="smcap">Miss A.&nbsp;M. Parker</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="tptiny">Translation revised by the Author</p>
+
+<hr style="border: solid black 1px; width: 9em;" />
+
+<p class="tpsm">
+<span class="smcap">Cambridge, Mass.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Published by the Museum</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">December, 1904.</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead">TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2>
+<table width="60%" summary="table of contents">
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#PREFACE">Preface</a></td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#PREFACE">5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#THE_MATERIAL_OF_THE_MANUSCRIPTS">The Material of the Manuscripts.</a></td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#THE_MATERIAL_OF_THE_MANUSCRIPTS">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#I_REPRESENTATIONS_OF_GODS">I. Representations of Gods.</a></td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#I_REPRESENTATIONS_OF_GODS">10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#II_MYTHOLOGICAL_ANIMALS">II. Mythological Animals.</a></td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#II_MYTHOLOGICAL_ANIMALS">41</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#SUMMARY">Summary.</a></td>
+  <td class="right"><a href="#SUMMARY">46</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead">NOTE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In order to make more widely known and more easily accessible to American
+students the results of important researches on the Maya hieroglyphs,
+printed in the German language, the Peabody Museum Committee on Central
+American Research proposes to publish translations of certain papers
+which are not too lengthy or too extensively illustrated. The present
+paper by one of the most distinguished scholars in this field is the
+first of the series.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">F.&nbsp;W. Putnam.</span></p>
+<p class="noindent">Harvard University<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5.5em;">September, 1904.</span></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p>
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Since the first edition of this pamphlet appeared in the year 1897,
+investigation in this department of science has made such marked
+progress, notwithstanding the slight amount of material, that a revision
+has now become desirable. It can be readily understood, that a new
+science, an investigation on virgin soil, such as the Maya study is,
+makes more rapid progress and develops more quickly than one pertaining
+to some old, much explored territory.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to numerous separate treatises, special mention should be
+made of Ernst F&ouml;rstemann&#8217;s commentaries on the three Maya manuscripts
+(Kommentar zur Mayahandschrift der K&ouml;niglichen &ouml;ffentlichen Bibliothek zu
+Dresden, Dresden 1901, Kommentar zur Madrider Mayahandschrift, Danzig
+1902, and Kommentar zur Pariser Mayahandschrift, Danzig 1903) which
+constitute a summary of the entire results of investigation in this field
+up to the present time.</p>
+
+<p>The proposal made in the first edition of this pamphlet, that the Maya
+deities be designated by letters of the alphabet, has been very generally
+adopted by Americanists, especially by those in the United States of
+America. This circumstance, in particular, has seemed to make it
+desirable to prepare for publication a new edition, improved to accord
+with the present state of the science.</p>
+
+<p>Warmest thanks are above all due to Mr. Bowditch, of Boston, who in the
+most disinterested manner, for the good of science, has made possible the
+publication of this new edition.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">P. Schellhas.</span></p>
+<p class="noindent">January, 1904.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="THE_MATERIAL_OF_THE_MANUSCRIPTS" id="THE_MATERIAL_OF_THE_MANUSCRIPTS"></a>THE MATERIAL OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The three manuscripts which we possess of the ancient Maya peoples of
+Central America, the Dresden (Dr.), the Madrid (Tro.-Cort.) and the Paris
+(Per.) manuscripts, all contain a series of pictorial representations of
+human figures, which, beyond question, should be regarded as figures of
+gods. Together with these are a number of animal figures, some with human
+bodies, dress and armor, which likewise have a mythologic significance.</p>
+
+<p>The contents of the three manuscripts, which undoubtedly pertain to the
+calendar system and to the computation of time in their relation to the
+Maya pantheon and to certain religious and domestic functions, admit of
+the conclusion, that these figures of gods embody the essential part of
+the religious conceptions of the Maya peoples in a tolerably complete
+form. For here we have the entire ritual year, the whole chronology with
+its mythological relations and all accessories. In addition to this,
+essentially the same figures recur in all three manuscripts. Their number
+is not especially large. There are about fifteen figures of gods in human
+form and about half as many in animal form. At first we were inclined to
+believe that further researches would considerably increase the number of
+deities, but this assumption was incorrect. After years of study of the
+subject and repeated examination of the results of research, it may be
+regarded as positively proved, that the number of deities represented in
+the Maya manuscripts does not exceed substantially the limits mentioned
+above. The principal deities are determined beyond question.</p>
+
+<p>The way in which this was accomplished is strikingly simple. It amounts
+essentially to that which in ordinary life we call &#8220;memory of persons&#8221;
+and follows almost naturally from a careful study of the manuscripts.
+For, by frequently looking attentively at the representations, one learns
+by degrees to recog<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>nize promptly similar and familiar figures of gods,
+by the characteristic impression they make as a whole, or by certain
+details, even when the pictures are partly obliterated or exhibit
+variations, and the same is true of the accompanying hieroglyphs. A
+purely inductive, natural science-method has thus been followed, and
+hence this pamphlet is devoted simply to descriptions and to the amassing
+of material. These figures have been taken separately out of the
+manuscripts alone, identified and described with the studious avoidance
+of all unreliable, misleading accounts and of all presumptive analogies
+with supposedly allied mythologies.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever cannot be derived from the manuscripts themselves has been
+wholly ignored. Hypotheses and deductions have been avoided as far as
+possible. Only where the interpretation, or the resemblance and the
+relations to kindred mythologic domains were obvious, and where the
+accounts agreed beyond question, has notice been taken of the fact so
+that the imposed limitations of this work should not result in
+one-sidedness.</p>
+
+<p>Since, for the most part, the accounts of Spanish authors regarding the
+mythology of the Mayas correspond only slightly or not at all with these
+figures of gods, and all other conjectures respecting their significance
+are very dubious, the alphabetic designation of the deities, which was
+tentatively introduced in the first edition of this work, has been
+preserved. This designation has proved to be practical. For the plate at
+the end of this pamphlet, examples as characteristic as possible of the
+individual figures of gods have been selected from the manuscripts.</p>
+
+<p>It is a well known fact that we possess no definite knowledge either of
+the time of the composition or of the local origin of the Maya
+manuscripts. The objection might, therefore, be raised that it is a
+hazardous proceeding to treat the material derived from these three
+manuscripts in common, as if it were homogeneous. But these researches
+themselves have proved beyond a doubt, that the mythologic import of the
+manuscripts belongs to one and the same sphere of thought. Essentially
+the same deities and the same mythologic ideas are, without question, to
+be found in all the manuscripts.</p>
+
+<p>The material of the inscriptions has been set entirely at one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> side,
+because the style of representation contained in them, both of the
+mythologic forms and of the hieroglyphs, renders comparison exceedingly
+difficult. In this field especial credit is due to F&ouml;rstemann and Seler,
+for the work they have done in furtherance of interpretation, and mention
+should not be omitted of the generosity with which the well known
+promoter of Americanist investigations, the Duke of Loubat, has presented
+to the Berlin Museum of Ethnology costly originals of reliefs and
+inscriptions for direct study. The representations on the reliefs from
+the Maya region, it is true, give evidence of dealing with kindred
+mythologic conceptions. Figures and hieroglyphs of gods, made familiar by
+the manuscripts, can also be found here and there. But on the whole so
+little appears in support of instituting a comparison with the
+manuscripts, that it seems expedient to leave the inscriptions for
+independent and special study.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="I_REPRESENTATIONS_OF_GODS" id="I_REPRESENTATIONS_OF_GODS"></a>I. REPRESENTATIONS OF GODS.</h2>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">A. The Death-God.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="Figs1" id="Figs1"></a><img src="images/img01.jpg" width="400" height="117" alt="Figures 1 to 6" title="Figures 1 to 6" />
+</div>
+
+<p>God A is represented as a figure with an exposed, bony spine, truncated
+nose and grinning teeth.<a name="FNanchor_10-1_1" id="FNanchor_10-1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_10-1_1" class="fnanchor">10-1</a> It is plainly to be seen that the head of
+this god represents a skull and that the spine is that of a skeleton. The
+pictures of the death-god are so characteristic in the Maya manuscripts
+that the deity is always easily recognized. He is almost always
+distinguished by the skeleton face and the bony spine. Several times in
+the Dresden manuscript the death-god is pictured with large black spots
+on his body and in Dr. 19<sup class="b">b</sup> a woman with closed eyes, whose body also
+displays the black spots, is sitting opposite the god. While the Aztecs
+had a male and a female death-deity, in the Maya manuscripts we find the
+death-deity only once represented as feminine, namely on p. 9<sup class="a">c</sup> of the
+Dresden manuscript. Moreover the Dresden manuscript contains several
+different types of the death-god, having invariably the fleshless skull
+and (with the exception of Dr. 9<sup class="a">c</sup>) the visible vertebrae of the spine.
+Several times (Dr. 12<sup class="b">b</sup> and 13<sup class="b">b</sup>) he is represented apparently with
+distended abdomen. A distinguishing article of his costume is the stiff
+feather collar, which is worn only by this god, his companion, the
+war-god F, and by his animal symbol, the owl, which will both be
+discussed farther on. His head ornament varies in the Dresden Codex; in
+the first portion of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> manuscript, relating in part to pregnancy and
+child-birth (see the pictures of women on p. 16, et seq.), he wears on
+his head several times a figure occurring very frequently just in this
+part of the Dresden Codex and apparently representing a snail (compare
+Dr. 12<sup class="b">b</sup> and 13<sup class="b">b</sup>), which among the Aztecs is likewise a symbol of
+parturition. In view of these variations in the pictures of the Dresden
+Codex, it is very striking that in the Codex Tro.-Cortesianus, there is
+only one invariable type of the death-god.</p>
+
+<p>A distinguishing ornament of the death-god consists of globular bells or
+rattles, which he wears on his hands and feet, on his collar and as a
+head ornament. As can be distinctly seen in Dr. 11<sup class="a">a</sup>, they are fastened
+with bands wound around the forearm and around the leg; in Dr. 15<sup class="a">c</sup> these
+bells are black.</p>
+
+<p>Among the symbols of the death-god a cross of two bones should be
+mentioned, which is also found in the Mexican manuscripts. This cross of
+bones seems to occur once among the written characters as a hieroglyph
+and then in combination with a number: Tro. 10.* The figure <img src="images/img02.jpg" width="33" height="23" style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;" alt="Death-god symbol" title="Death-god symbol" /> is also a frequent symbol of the
+death-god. Its significance is still uncertain, but it also occurs among
+the hieroglyphs as a death-sign and as a sign for the day Cimi (death).</p>
+
+<p>The hieroglyphs of the death-god have been positively determined (see
+<a href="#Figs1">Figs. 1 to 4</a>). <a href="#Figs1">Figs. 1 and 2</a> are the forms of the Dresden manuscript and
+<a href="#Figs1">Figs. 3 and 4</a> are those of the Madrid manuscript. God A is almost always
+distinguished by two hieroglyphs, namely <a href="#Figs1">Figs. 1 and 2</a> or <a href="#Figs1">3 and 4</a>.
+Moreover the hieroglyphs are always the same, have scarcely any variants.
+Even in Dr. 9<sup class="a">c</sup>, where the deity is represented as feminine, there are no
+variations which might denote the change of sex. The hieroglyphs consist
+chiefly of the head of a corpse with closed eyes, and of a skull. The
+design in front of the skull in <a href="#Figs1">Figs. 2 and 4</a> and under it in <a href="#Figs1">Fig. 3</a> is a
+sacrificial knife of flint, which was used in slaying the sacrifices, and
+is also frequently pictured in the Aztec manuscripts. The dots under <a href="#Figs1">Fig.
+1</a> are probably intended to represent blood.</p>
+
+<p>The death-god is represented with extraordinary frequency in all the Maya
+manuscripts. Not only does the figure of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> god itself occur, but his
+attributes are found in many places where his picture is missing. Death
+evidently had an important significance in the mythologic conceptions of
+the Mayas. It is connected with sacrifice, especially with human
+sacrifices performed in connection with the captive enemy. Just as we
+find a personification of death in the manuscripts of the Mayas, we also
+find it in the picture-writings of the ancient Mexicans, often
+surprisingly like the pictures of the Maya codices. The Aztec death-god
+and his myth are known through the accounts of Spanish writers; regarding
+the death-god of the Mayas we have less accurate information. Some
+mention occurs in Landa&#8217;s Relacion de las cosas de Yucatan,
+&sect;<span class="smcap">XXIII</span>, but unfortunately nothing is said of the manner of
+representing the death-god. He seems to be related to the Aztec
+Mictlantecutli, of whom Sahagun, Appendix to Book III, &#8220;De los que iban
+al infierno y de sus obsequias,&#8221; treats as the god of the dead and of the
+underworld, Mictlan. When the representations of the latter, for example
+in the Codex Borgia, and in the Codex Vaticanus No. 3773, are compared
+with those of the Maya manuscripts, there can be hardly a doubt of the
+correspondence of the two god figures. In the Codex Borgia, p. 37, he is
+represented once with the same characteristic head ornament, which the
+death-god usually wears in the Maya manuscripts, and in the Codex
+Fejervary, p. 8, the death-god wears a kind of breeches on which
+cross-bones are depicted, exactly as in Dr. 9 (bottom).</p>
+
+<p>Bishop Landa informs us that the Mayas &#8220;had great and immoderate dread of
+death.&#8221; This explains the frequency of the representations of the
+death-god, from whom, as Landa states, &#8220;all evil and especially death&#8221;
+emanated. Among the Aztecs we find a male and a female death-deity,
+Mictlantecutli and Mictlancihuatl. They were the rulers of the realm of
+the dead, Mictlan, which, according to the Aztec conception, lay in the
+north; hence the death-god was at the same time the god of the north.</p>
+
+<p>It agrees with the calendric and astronomic character of the Maya deities
+in the manuscripts, that a number of the figures of the gods are used in
+connection with specified cardinal points. Since, according to the Aztec
+conception, the death-god was the god of the north, we might expect that
+in the Maya manu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>scripts also, the death-god would be always considered
+as the deity of the north. Nevertheless this happens only <i>once</i>, namely
+in the picture at the end of Codex Cort., pp. 41 and 42. Elsewhere, on
+the other hand, this god is connected with other cardinal points, thus
+Dr. 14<sup class="a">a</sup> with the west or east (the hieroglyph is illegible, but it can
+be only west or east), and in Dr. 27<sup class="a">c</sup> with the west. It is interesting
+to note that once, however, in a series of cardinal points, the
+hieroglyph of the death-god connected with the numeral 10 stands just in
+the place of the sign of the north; this is on Tro. 24* (bottom).</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the name of the death-god in the Maya language, Landa tells
+us that the wicked after death were banished to an underworld, the name
+of which was &#8220;Mitnal&#8221;, a word which is defined as &#8220;Hell&#8221; in the Maya
+lexicon of Pio Perez and which has a striking resemblance to Mictlan, the
+Aztec name for the lower regions. The death-god Hunhau reigned in this
+underworld. According to other accounts (Hernandez), however, the
+death-god is called Ahpuch. These names can in no wise serve as aids to
+the explanation of the hieroglyphs of the death-god, since they have no
+etymologic connection with death or the heads of corpses and skulls,
+which form the main parts of the hieroglyph. Furthermore, the hieroglyphs
+of the gods certainly have a purely ideographic significance as already
+mentioned above, so that any relation between the names of the deities
+and their hieroglyphs cannot exist from the very nature of the case.</p>
+
+<p>The day of the death-god is the day Cimi, death. The day-sign Cimi
+corresponds almost perfectly with the heads of corpses contained in the
+hieroglyphs of the death-god.</p>
+
+<p>A hieroglyphic sign, which relates to death and the death-deity and
+occurs very frequently, is the sign <a href="#Figs1">Fig. 5</a>, which is probably to be
+regarded as the ideogram of the owl. It represents the head of an owl,
+while the figure in front of it signifies the owl&#8217;s ear and the one
+below, its teeth, as distinguishing marks of a bird of prey furnished
+with ears and a powerful beak. The head of the owl appears on a human
+body several times in the Dresden manuscript as a substitute for the
+death-deity, thus Dr. 18<sup class="a">c</sup>, 19<sup class="a">c</sup>, 20<sup class="a">a</sup> and 20<sup class="a">c</sup> and in other places, and
+the hiero<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>glyphic group (<a href="#Figs1">Fig. 5</a>) is almost a regular attendant hieroglyph
+of the death-god.</p>
+
+<p>A series of other figures of the Maya mythology is connected with the
+death-god. This is evident from the fact that his hieroglyphs or his
+symbols occur with certain other figures, which are thus brought into
+connection with death and the death-deity.</p>
+
+<p>These figures are as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. His companion, god F, the god of war, of human sacrifice and of
+violent death in battle, apparently a counterpart of the Aztec Xipe, who
+will be discussed farther on.</p>
+
+<p>2. The moan bird. See beyond under Mythological Animals, <a href="#animals1">No. 1</a>.</p>
+
+<p>3. The dog. See the same, <a href="#animals3">No. 3</a>.</p>
+
+<p>4. A human figure, possibly representing the priest of the death-god (see
+Dr. 28, centre, Dr. 5<sup class="b">b</sup> and 9<sup class="a">a</sup>). The last figure is a little doubtful.
+It is blindfolded and thus recalls the Aztec deity of frost and sin,
+Itztlacoliuhqui. A similar form with eyes bound occurs only once again in
+the Maya manuscripts, namely Dr. 50 (centre). That this figure is related
+to the death-god is proved by the fact that on Dr. 9<sup class="a">a</sup> it wears the
+Cimi-sign on the middle piece of the chain around its neck. Furthermore
+it should be emphasized that the Aztec sin-god, Itztlacoliuhqui, likewise
+appears with symbols of death.</p>
+
+<p>5. An isolated figure, Dr. 50<sup class="a">a</sup> (the sitting figure at the right). This
+wears the skull as head ornament, which is represented in exactly the
+same way as in the Aztec manuscripts (see <a href="#Figs1">Fig. 6</a>).</p>
+
+<p>6. Another isolated figure is twice represented combined with the
+death-god in Dr. 22<sup class="a">c</sup>. This picture is so effaced that it is impossible
+to tell what it means. The hieroglyph represents a variant of the
+death&#8217;s-head, Cimi. It seems to signify an ape, which also in the
+pictures of the Mexican codices was sometimes used in relation to the
+death-god.</p>
+
+<p>The symbols of the death-god are also found with the figure without a
+head on Dr. 2 (45)<sup class="a">a</sup>, clearly the picture of a beheaded prisoner. Death
+symbols occur, too, with the curious picture of a hanged woman on Dr.
+53<sup class="b">b</sup>, a picture which is interesting from the fact that it recalls
+vividly a communication of Bishop<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> Landa. Landa tells us, the Mayas
+believed that whoever hanged himself did not go to the underworld, but to
+&#8220;paradise,&#8221; and as a result of this belief, suicide by hanging was very
+common and was chosen on the slightest pretext. Such suicides were
+received in paradise by the goddess of the hanged, Ixtab. Ix is the
+feminine prefix; tab, taab, tabil mean, according to Perez&#8217; Lexicon of
+the Maya Language, &#8220;cuerda destinada para algun uso exclusivo&#8221;. The name
+of this strange goddess is, therefore, the &#8220;Goddess of the Halter&#8221; or, as
+Landa says, &#8220;The Goddess of the Gallows&#8221;. Now compare Dr. 53. On the
+upper half of the page is the death-god represented with hand raised
+threateningly, on the lower half is seen the form of a woman suspended by
+a rope placed around her neck. The closed eye, the open mouth and the
+convulsively outspread fingers, show that she is dead, in fact,
+strangled. It is, in all probability, the goddess of the gallows and
+halter, Ixtab, the patroness of the hanged, who is pictured here in
+company with the death-god; or else it is a victim of this goddess, and
+page 53 of the manuscript very probably refers, therefore (even though
+the two halves do not belong directly together), to the mythologic
+conceptions of death and the lower regions to which Landa alludes.</p>
+
+<p>7. Lastly the owl is to be mentioned as belonging to the death-god,
+which, strange to say, is represented nowhere in the pictures
+realistically and so that it can be recognized, although other mythologic
+animals, as the dog or the moan bird, occur plainly as animals in the
+pictures. On the other hand, the owl&#8217;s head appears on a human body in
+the Dresden manuscript as a substitute for the death-deity itself, for
+example on Dr. 18<sup class="a">c</sup>, 19<sup class="a">c</sup>, 20<sup class="a">a</sup> and 20<sup class="a">c</sup> and elsewhere, and forms a
+regular attendant hieroglyph of the death-god in the group of three signs
+already mentioned (<a href="#Figs1">Fig. 5</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Among the antiquities from the Maya region of Central America, there are
+many objects and representations, which have reference to the cultus of
+the death-god, and show resemblances to the pictures of the manuscripts.
+The death-god also plays a role, even today, in the popular superstitions
+of the natives of Yucatan, as a kind of spectre that prowls around the
+houses of the sick. His name is Yum Cimil, the lord of death.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">B. The God With the Large Nose and Lolling Tongue.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 197px;">
+<a name="Figs7-10" id="Figs7-10"></a><img src="images/img03.jpg" width="197" height="59" alt="Figures 7 to 10" title="Figures 7 to 10" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The deity, represented most frequently in all the manuscripts, is a
+figure with a long, proboscis-like, pendent nose and a tongue (or teeth,
+fangs) hanging out in front and at the sides of the mouth, also with a
+characteristic head ornament resembling a knotted bow and with a peculiar
+rim to the eye. <a href="#Figs7-10">Fig. 7</a> is the hieroglyph of this deity. In Codex
+Tro.-Cortesianus it usually has the form of <a href="#Figs7-10">Fig. 8</a>.</p>
+
+<p>God B is evidently one of the most important of the Maya pantheon. He
+must be a universal deity, to whom the most varied elements, natural
+phenomena and activities are subject. He is represented with different
+attributes and symbols of power, with torches in his hands as symbols of
+fire, sitting in the water and on the water, standing in the rain, riding
+in a canoe, enthroned on the clouds of heaven and on the cross-shaped
+tree of the four points of the compass, which, on account of its likeness
+to the Christian emblem, has many times been the subject of fantastic
+hypotheses. We see the god again on the Cab-sign, the symbol of the
+earth, with weapons, axe and spears, in his hands, planting kernels of
+maize, on a journey (Dr. 65<sup class="b">b</sup>) staff in hand and a bundle on his back,
+and fettered (Dr. 37<sup class="a">a</sup>) with arms bound behind his back. His entire myth
+seems to be recorded in the manuscripts. The great abundance of symbolism
+renders difficult the characterization of the deity, and it is well-nigh
+impossible to discover that a single mythologic idea underlies the whole.
+God B is quite often connected with the serpent, without exhibiting
+affinity with the Chicchan-god H (see <a href="#Page_28">p. 28</a>). In Dr. 33<sup class="b">b</sup>, 34<sup class="b">b</sup> and 35<sup class="b">b</sup>,
+the serpent is in the act of devouring him, or he is rising up out of the
+serpent&#8217;s jaws, as is plainly indicated also by the hieroglyphs, for they
+contain the group given in <a href="#Figs7-10">Fig. 10</a>, which is composed of the rattle of
+the rattlesnake and the opened hand as a symbol of seizing and
+absorption. God B himself is pictured with the body of a serpent in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> Dr.
+35<sup class="b">b</sup> and 36<sup class="a">a</sup> (compare <a href="#animals2">No. 2</a> of the Mythological Animals). He likewise
+occurs sitting on the serpent and in Dr. 66<sup class="a">a</sup> he is twice (1st and 3d
+figures) pictured with a snake in his hand.</p>
+
+<p>God B sits on the moan head in Dr. 38<sup class="a">c</sup>, on a head with the Cauac-sign in
+Dr. 39<sup class="a">c</sup>, 66<sup class="a">c</sup>, and on the dog in Dr. 29<sup class="a">a</sup>. All these pictures are meant
+to typify his abode in the air, above rain, storm and death-bringing
+clouds, from which the lightning falls. The object with the cross-bones
+of the death-god, on which he sits in Dr. 66<sup class="a">c</sup>, can perhaps be explained
+in the same manner. As the fish belongs to god B in a symbolic sense, so
+the god is represented fishing in Dr. 44 (1). His face with the large
+nose and the tongue (or fangs) hanging out on the side in Dr. 44 (1)<sup class="a">a</sup>
+(1st figure) is supposed to be a mask which the priest, representing the
+god, assumes during the religious ceremony.</p>
+
+<p>Furthermore the following four well-known symbols of sacrificial gifts
+appear in connection with god B in the Dresden manuscript; a sprouting
+kernel of maize (or, according to F&ouml;rstemann, parts of a mammal, game), a
+fish, a lizard and a vulture&#8217;s head, as symbols of the four elements.
+They seem to occur, however, in relation also to other deities and
+evidently are general symbols of sacrificial gifts. Thus they occur on
+the two companion initial pages of the Codex Tro.-Cortesianus, on which
+the hieroglyphs of gods C and K are repeated in rows (Tro. 36-Cort. 22.
+Compare F&ouml;rstemann, Kommentar zur Madrider Handschrift, pp. 102, 103).
+God B is also connected with the four colors&mdash;yellow, red, white and
+black&mdash;which, according to the conception of the Mayas, correspond to the
+cardinal points (yellow, air; red, fire; white, water; black, earth) and
+the god himself is occasionally represented with a black body, for
+example on Dr. 29<sup class="a">c</sup>, 31<sup class="a">c</sup> and 69. This is expressed in the hieroglyphs by
+the sign, <a href="#Figs7-10">Fig. 9</a>, which signifies black and is one of the four signs of
+the symbolic colors for the cardinal points.</p>
+
+<p>God B is represented with all the <i>four cardinal points</i>, a
+characteristic, which he shares only with god C, god K, and, in one
+instance, with god F (see Tro. 29*<sup class="a">c</sup>); he appears as ruler of all the
+points of the compass; north, south, east and west as well as air, fire,
+water and earth are subject to him.</p>
+
+<p>Opinions concerning the significance of this deity are much divided. It
+is most probable that he is Kukulcan, a figure oc<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>curring repeatedly in
+the mythology of the Central American peoples and whose name, like that
+of the kindred deity Quetzalcoatl among the Aztecs and Gucumatz among the
+Quiches, means the &#8220;feathered serpent&#8221;, &#8220;the bird serpent&#8221;. Kukulcan and
+Gucumatz are those figures of Central American mythology, to which belong
+the legends of the creation of the world and of mankind. Furthermore
+Kukulcan is considered as the founder of civilization, as the builder of
+cities, as hero-god, and appears in another conception as the rain-deity,
+and&mdash;since the serpent has a mythologic relation to water&mdash;as serpent
+deity. J. Walter Fewkes, who has made this god-figure of the Maya
+manuscripts the subject of a monograph (A Study of Certain Figures in a
+Maya Codex, in American Anthropologist, Vol. VII, No. 3, Washington,
+1894), also inclines to the belief that B is the god Kukulcan, whom he
+conceives of as a <a name="corr2" id="corr2"></a><ins class="correction" title="serpent-and-rain-deity">serpent-and rain-deity</ins>. This view has been accepted by
+F&ouml;rstemann (Die Tageg&ouml;tter der Mayas, Globus, Vol. 73, No. 10) and also
+by Cyrus Thomas (Aids to the Study of the Maya Codices, Washington,
+1888). The same opinion is held also by E.&nbsp;P. Dieseldorff, who, a
+resident of Guatemala, the region of the ancient Maya civilization, has
+instituted excavations which have been successful in furnishing most
+satisfactory material for these researches (see Dieseldorff: Kukulcan,
+Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie, 1895, p. 780). Others have considered god B
+as the first parent and lord of the heavens, Itzamn&aacute; who has a mythologic
+importance analogous to that of Kukulcan. Itzamn&aacute; is also held to be the
+god of creation and founder of civilization and accordingly seems to be
+not very remotely allied to the god Kukulcan. Others again, for example
+Brasseur de Bourbourg and Seler, have interpreted the figure of god B to
+represent the fourfold god of the cardinal points and rain-god Chac, a
+counterpart of the Aztec rain-god Tlaloc. The fact that this god-figure
+is so frequently connected with the serpent and the bird is strongly in
+favor of the correctness of the supposition, that we should see in god B
+a figure corresponding to the Kukulcan of tradition. Thus we see the god
+represented once with the body of a serpent and with a bird near by
+(Cort. 10<sup class="b">b</sup>), while B&#8217;s hieroglyph appears both times in the text. God B
+is also pictured elsewhere repeatedly with a serpent body, thus for
+example on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> Dr. 35<sup class="b">b</sup>, 36<sup class="a">a</sup>. On pages 4-6 of the Codex Cortesianus he is
+pictured six times and each time in connection with a serpent.</p>
+
+<p>The accounts we have received concerning the mythology of the Maya
+peoples are very meagre and owing to the uncertainty respecting the
+origin of the Maya manuscripts, it cannot even be determined which of
+these accounts are applicable to the Maya manuscripts, or, indeed,
+whether they are applicable at all. For it is by no means positively
+proved that these manuscripts did not originate in regions of Maya
+culture, regarding which we have received no accounts at all. As our
+present purpose is purely that of description and determination, it
+remains quite unimportant which of these recorded figures of gods shall
+be regarded as god B.</p>
+
+<p>God B is nearly allied to, but in no wise identical with, the deity with
+the large ornamented nose, designated by K, who will be discussed farther
+on. God K is an independent deity designated by a special hieroglyph, but
+like C he stands in an unknown relation to God B (for details see K).</p>
+
+<p>Finally it should be mentioned, that god B never appears with death
+symbols. He is clearly a deity of life and creation, in contrast to the
+powers of death and destruction.</p>
+
+<p>His day seems to be Ik (aspiration, breath, life). (Compare F&ouml;rstemann,
+Die Tageg&ouml;tter der Mayas, Globus, Vol. 73, No. 10).</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">C. The God with the Ornamented Face.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;">
+<a name="Figs11-16" id="Figs11-16"></a><img src="images/img04.jpg" width="323" height="70" alt="Figures 11 to 16" title="Figures 11 to 16" />
+</div>
+
+<p>This is one of the most remarkable and most difficult figures of the Maya
+manuscripts, and shows, at the same time, how imperfect must be the
+information we have received in regard to the Maya mythology, since from
+the frequency of his representations he is obviously one of the most
+important deities and yet can be identified with none of the
+representations of gods handed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> down to us. His hieroglyph is definitely
+determined (<a href="#Figs11-16">Figs. 11, 12</a>). The circular design in front of the forehead
+of the hieroglyph head seems, as a variant from the Codex Tro. (<a href="#Figs11-16">Fig. 12</a>)
+leads us to suppose, to denote the ideographic representation of pouring
+out or emptying a vessel, the contents of which flow into the mouth of
+the god. Another variant of this prefix occurs in Tro. 13*<sup class="b">b</sup>; <a href="#Figs11-16">Fig. 15</a>,
+the symbol of the sacrificial knife, and instead of the prefix the
+numeral 13 occurs in one instance! (Tro. 12*<sup class="a">c</sup>). The head alone, without
+any accessory symbol whatever, is also found a few times, not in the
+text, however, but only in the pictures, for example Cort. 10 (bottom)
+and Tro. 13* (bottom). This deity does not occur very often in the
+Dresden manuscript, the places where it is depicted are: Dr. 5<sup class="a">a</sup>, 6<sup class="a">c</sup>,
+13<sup class="b">b</sup>, 35<sup class="a">a</sup>, 68<sup class="a">a</sup>, and as a subordinate figure on 8<sup class="a">c</sup>, 42<sup class="a">a</sup>. His
+hieroglyph occurs alone a few times, as in Dr. 4; it is more frequent in
+the Madrid manuscript. It appears on pp. 15 to 18 of the Paris
+manuscript.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the significance of this deity, he doubtless represents the
+personification of a heavenly body of astronomic importance, probably the
+polar star. In Codex Cort. 10 (bottom), his head is represented
+surrounded by a nimbus of rays, which can only mean a star (see <a href="#Figs11-16">Fig. 13</a>).
+On the lower part of the same page, the third picture from the left, we
+again see the deity hanging from the sky in a kind of rope. Furthermore
+it appears in Codex Tro. 20, 22 and 23 (centre) <a href="#Figs11-16">Fig. 14</a>, in the familiar
+rectangular planet signs. Tro. 17* (at the top) the head surmounts the
+cross-shaped tree of god B, which denotes the lofty, celestial abode.
+Indeed, these passages prove positively that a heavenly body underlies
+the idea of this deity.</p>
+
+<p>Furthermore, the head of this god recurs in entire rows in the calendric
+group of tabular form on the so-called initial page of the Codex Tro. 36,
+with its continuation in the Cort. p. 22, and in exactly the same manner
+in the allied passage of Tro. 14 (middle and bottom). In addition, his
+head is contained in the symbol for the north (<a href="#Figs11-16">Fig. 16</a>); the head
+contained in this sign is in fact nothing else than the head of god C.</p>
+
+<p>Brinton also accepts this interpretation of god C. According to
+F&ouml;rstemann (Die Mayahieroglyphen, Globus, Vol. 71, No. 5),<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> the fact that
+the figure of god C in the Tonalamatl in Dr. 4<sup class="a">a</sup>-10<sup class="a">a</sup> occurs on the day
+Chuen of the Maya calendar, which corresponds to the day Ozomatli, the
+ape, in the Aztec calendar, seems to indicate that the singular head of C
+is that of an <i>ape</i>, whose lateral nasal cavity (peculiar to the American
+ape or monkey) is occasionally represented plainly in the hieroglyph
+picture. Hence it might further be assumed that god C symbolizes not the
+polar star alone, but rather the entire <i>constellation of the Little
+Bear</i>. And, in fact, the figure of a long-tailed ape is quite appropriate
+to the constellation, at any rate decidedly more so than the Bear;
+indeed, it suggests the prehensile tail by means of which the ape could
+attach himself to the pole and in the form of the constellation swing
+around the pole as around a fixed point.</p>
+
+<p>These astronomical surmises seem to be contradicted by the fact that god
+C, as already stated, is represented with all the four cardinal points
+(compare for example Cort. 10 and 11, bottom), which would certainly seem
+to harmonize ill with his personification of the north star, unless we
+assume, that in a different conception of the polar star he is ruler of
+the cardinal points, which are determined from him as a centre.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been remarked of B, that the deity C appears to stand in
+some sort of relation to him. In fact, we find on those pages of the
+Dresden manuscript, where B is represented with the four cardinal points,
+that the hieroglyph of C almost always occurs in the text also (for
+example Dr. 29, et seq., especially Dr. 32<sup class="a">c</sup>). Indeed, C&#8217;s hieroglyph is
+connected even with the signs of the symbolic colors of the cardinal
+points, already mentioned in connection with B.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, it should be borne in mind, that god C also seems to be
+connected in some way with the serpent (compare Dr. 36<sup class="b">b</sup>, 1st and 3d
+pictures).</p>
+
+<p>According to F&ouml;rstemann, the day ruled by C seems to be Chuen.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">D. The Moon- and Night-God.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 289px;">
+<a name="Figs17-20" id="Figs17-20"></a><img src="images/img05.jpg" width="289" height="90" alt="Figures 17 to 20" title="Figures 17 to 20" />
+</div>
+
+<p>This is a deity who is pictured in the form of an old man with an aged
+face and sunken, toothless mouth. He is frequently characterized by a
+long, pendent head ornament, in which is the sign Akbal, darkness, night,
+which also appears in his hieroglyph before the forehead of the deity,
+surrounded by dots as an indication of the starry sky. His
+name-hieroglyph is <a href="#Figs17-20">Fig. 17</a>, and a second sign almost always follows (<a href="#Figs17-20">Fig.
+18</a>) which evidently serves likewise as a designation of the god, just as
+god A also is always designated by <i>two</i> hieroglyphs. The second sign
+consists of two sacrificial knives and the sign of the day Ahau, which is
+equivalent to &#8220;king&#8221;.</p>
+
+<p>The head of this deity appears in reduced, cursive form as the sign of
+the moon (<a href="#Figs17-20">Fig. 20</a>). This character also has the significance of 20 as a
+number sign in the calendar. The association of these ideas probably
+rests upon the ancient conceptions, according to which the moon
+appearing, waxing, waning and again disappearing, was compared to man,
+and man in primeval ages was the most primitive calculating machine,
+being equivalent, from the sum of his fingers and toes, to the number 20.
+Twenty days is also the duration of that period during which the moon
+(aside from the new moon) is really <i>alive</i>. Moreover the sign (<a href="#Figs17-20">Fig. 20</a>)
+appears in many places as a counterpart of the sign for the sun.</p>
+
+<p>God D occurs once as feminine in the same passage mentioned above, in
+which the death-deity is also pictured as feminine (Dr. 9<sup class="a">c</sup>). In a few
+other places the god is, curiously enough, depicted with a short beard,
+as Dr. 4<sup class="a">c</sup>, 7<sup class="a">a</sup>, 27<sup class="b">b</sup>. He seems to stand in an unknown relation to the
+water-goddess I (see this deity) with the serpent as a head ornament,
+compare Dr. 9<sup class="a">c</sup>, where apparently this goddess is represented, though the
+text has D&#8217;s sign; still it is possible that god D is pictured here with
+the attributes of goddess I.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>God D is not connected with the grim powers of destruction; he never
+appears with death symbols. In Dr. 5<sup class="a">c</sup> and 9<sup class="a">a</sup> he wears the snail on his
+head. He seems, therefore, like god A to be connected with birth. In Dr.
+8<sup class="a">c</sup> he is connected with god C, and this is quite appropriate, if we look
+upon these gods as heavenly bodies. The aged face, the sunken, toothless
+mouth are his distinguishing marks. In the Madrid manuscript, where god D
+occurs with special frequency, his chief characteristic, by which he is
+always easily recognized, is the single tooth in his under-jaw (see <a href="#Figs17-20">Fig.
+19</a>), compare too Dr. 8<sup class="a">c</sup>, where the solitary tooth is also to be seen. In
+Dr. 9<sup class="a">a</sup> (1st figure) the god holds in his hand a kind of sprinkler with
+the rattles of the rattlesnake, as Landa (Cap. 26) describes the god in
+connection with the rite of infant baptism (see also Cort. 26, Tro. 7*<sup class="a">a</sup>
+and 13*<sup class="a">c</sup><a name="corr3" id="corr3"></a><ins class="correction" title=").">)</ins></p>
+
+<p>A very remarkable passage is Tro. 15*; there a figure is pictured carving
+with a hatchet a head, which it holds in its hand. Above it are four
+hieroglyphs. The first shows a hatchet and the moon; the second probably
+represents simply a head, while the third and fourth are those of god D,
+the moon-god. This passage, the meaning of which is unfortunately still
+obscure seems to contain a definite explanation of god D.</p>
+
+<p>J. Walter Fewkes has made god D the subject of a special, very detailed
+monograph (The God &#8220;D&#8221; in the Codex Cortesianus, Washington, 1895) in
+which he has treated also of gods B and G, whom he considers allied to D.
+He believes D to be the god Itzamn&aacute;, as do also F&ouml;rstemann, Cyrus Thomas
+and Seler, and sees sun-gods in all three of these deities. Whether god D
+is to be separated from G and B as an independent deity, Fewkes thinks is
+doubtful. Brinton again holds that god D is Kukulcan. These different
+opinions show, at all events, on what uncertain grounds such attempts at
+interpretation stand, and that it is best to be satisfied with
+designating the deities by letters and collecting material for their
+purely descriptive designation.</p>
+
+<p>According to F&ouml;rstemann the calendar day devoted to D is Ahau.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">E. The Maize-God.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 449px;">
+<a name="Figs21-27" id="Figs21-27"></a><img src="images/img06.jpg" width="449" height="96" alt="Figures 21 to 27" title="Figures 21 to 27" />
+</div>
+
+<p>This god bears on his head the Kan-sign and above it the ear of maize
+with leaves (<a href="#Figs21-27">Fig. 23</a>); compare Dr. 9<sup class="b">b</sup> (left figure), 11<sup class="b">b</sup>, 12<sup class="a">a</sup>, etc.
+The hieroglyph is definitely determined (<a href="#Figs21-27">Fig. 21</a>). The god is identical
+with the figures recurring with especial frequency in the Madrid
+manuscript, the heads of which are prolonged upward and curved backward
+in a peculiar manner; compare Cort. 15<sup class="a">a</sup>, 20<sup class="a">c</sup>, 40 (bottom), Tro. 32*<sup class="b">b</sup>
+(<a href="#Figs21-27">Figs. 25-27</a>) and especially the representation in Dr. 50<sup class="a">a</sup> (<a href="#Figs21-27">Fig. 24</a>),
+which is very distinct. This head was evolved out of the conventional
+drawing of the ear of maize; compare the pictures of the maize plant in
+the Codex Tro., p. 29<sup class="b">b</sup> (<a href="#Figs21-27">Fig. 22</a>) with the head ornament of the god in
+Dr. 9<sup class="b">b</sup> (<a href="#Figs21-27">Fig. 23</a>), 9<sup class="a">a</sup>, 12<sup class="a">a</sup>; what was originally a head ornament finally
+passed into the form of the head itself, so that the latter appears now
+as an ear of maize surrounded by leaves. Compare the pictures, <a href="#Figs21-27">Figs.
+25-27</a>. That these gods with elongated heads are, in point of fact,
+identical with E is plainly seen from the passage in Dr. 2 (45)<sup class="a">c</sup> (first
+figure). There the figure represented, which is exactly like the pictures
+in the Madrid manuscript, is designated explicitly as god E by the third
+hieroglyph in the accompanying writing.</p>
+
+<p>The hieroglyph of this deity is thus explained; it is the head of the god
+merged into the conventionalized form of the ear of maize surrounded by
+leaves. When we remember that the Maya nations practised the custom of
+artificially deforming the skull, as is seen in particular on the reliefs
+at Palenque, we may also regard the heads of these deities as
+representations of such artificially flattened skulls.</p>
+
+<p>God E occurs frequently as the god of husbandry, especially in the Madrid
+manuscript, which devotes much attention to agriculture. He seems to be a
+counterpart of the Mexican maize-god Centeotl. The passages in the Madrid
+manuscript<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> (Tro. 29<sup class="a">a</sup> and Cort. 39<sup class="a">a</sup>, 40<sup class="a">a</sup>) are very remarkable, where
+the deity E is represented in the position of a woman in labor with
+numerals on the abdomen; perhaps the underlying idea is that of
+fruitfulness.</p>
+
+<p>In the Codex Cort., p. 40, this grain-deity is pictured with a tall and
+slender vessel before him, which he holds in his hands. It is possible
+that this is meant to suggest a grain receptacle; to be sure, in the same
+place, other figures of gods likewise have such vessels in their hands.
+At any rate, it is interesting to note that in the passage already
+mentioned (Dr. 50<sup class="a">a</sup>) god E also holds a similar tall and slender vessel
+in his hands.</p>
+
+<p>According to all appearances the scene pictured in Dr. 50<sup class="a">a</sup> has reference
+to the conflict of the grain-god with a death-deity. The latter, the
+figure sitting on the right, is characterized by a skull as a head
+ornament (see <a href="#Figs1">Fig. 6</a>) and seems to address threats or commands to god E,
+who stands before him in the attitude of a terrified and cowed
+individual.</p>
+
+<p>Furthermore god E has nothing to do with the powers of the underworld; he
+is a god of life, of prosperity and fruitfulness; symbols of death are
+never found in connection with him. Brinton calls this god Ghanan,
+equivalent to Kan; it is possible, too, that he is identical with a deity
+Yum Kaax who has been handed down to us and whose name means &#8220;Lord of the
+harvest fields&#8221;.</p>
+
+<p>According to F&ouml;rstemann the day dedicated to this god is Kan.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">F. The God of War and of Human Sacrifices.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 473px;">
+<a name="Figs28-34" id="Figs28-34"></a><img src="images/img07.jpg" width="473" height="117" alt="Figures 28 to 34" title="Figures 28 to 34" />
+</div>
+
+<p>This is a deity closely related to the death-god A, resembling the Aztec
+Xipe, and may, I think, without hesitation be regarded simply as the god
+of human sacrifice, perhaps, even more generally, as the god of death by
+violence. His hieroglyph<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> is <a href="#Figs28-34">Figs. 28-30</a>; it contains the number 11. A
+variant of this occurs on Dr. 7<sup class="b">b</sup>, where instead of the 11 there is the
+following sign: <img src="images/img08.jpg" width="31" height="38" alt="Glyph" title="Glyph" /></p>
+
+<p>The characteristic mark of god F is a single black line usually running
+perpendicularly down the face in the vicinity of the eye. This line
+should be distinguished from the parallel lines of C&#8217;s face and from the
+line, which, as a continuation of god E&#8217;s head resembling an ear of
+maize, frequently appears on his face, especially as in the variants of
+the Madrid manuscript (compare <a href="#Figs28-34">Figs. 25-27</a>). These pictures of E can
+always be unfailingly recognized by the peculiar shape of the head and
+should be distinguished from those representing F. The black face-line is
+the distinguishing mark of god F, just as it is of the Aztec Xipe. It
+sometimes runs in a curve over the cheek as a thick, black stripe, as
+Cort. 42. Sometimes it encircles the eye only (Dr. 6<sup class="a">a</sup>) and again it is a
+dotted double line (Dr. 6<sup class="b">b</sup>). The hieroglyph of god F likewise exhibits
+this line and with the very same variants as the god himself. See the
+hieroglyphs of the god belonging to the pictures in Dr. 6<sup class="a">a</sup>, 1st and 3d
+figures, in which the line likewise differs from the other forms (<a href="#Figs28-34">Figs.
+30-34</a>).</p>
+
+<p>In a few places god F is pictured with the same black lines <i>on his
+entire body</i>, which elsewhere he has only on his face, the lines being
+like those in <a href="#Figs28-34">Fig. 31</a>, namely Tro. 27*<sup class="a">c</sup>. Indeed, in Tro. 28*<sup class="a">c</sup>, the
+death-god A likewise has these black lines on his body and also F&#8217;s line
+on his face; a clear proof of the close relationship of the two deities.
+These lines probably signify gaping death-wounds and the accompanying
+rows of dots are intended to represent the blood.</p>
+
+<p>Since god F is a death-deity the familiar sign (<a href="#Figs1">Fig. 5</a>), which occurs so
+frequently with the hieroglyphs of A, also belongs to his symbols. F is
+pictured in company with the death-god in connection with human sacrifice
+(Cort. 42); an exactly similar picture of the two gods of human sacrifice
+is given in Codex Tro. 30<sup class="b">d</sup>; here, too, they sit opposite one another.
+The identity of this attendant of death with the deity, designated by the
+hieroglyph with the numeral 11, is proved by the following pas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>sages:
+Tro. 19, bottom (on the extreme right hand without picture, only
+hieroglyph, see <a href="#Figs28-34">Fig. 29</a>), Dr. 5<sup class="b">b</sup>, 6<sup class="a">a</sup>, <sup class="b">b</sup>, and <sup class="a">c</sup> and many others. In
+some of the passages cited (Dr. 5<sup class="a">a</sup> and <sup class="b">b</sup>) he is distinguished by an
+unusually large ear-peg. His hieroglyph occurs with the hieroglyph of the
+death-god in Dr. 6<sup class="a">c</sup>, where he is himself not pictured.</p>
+
+<p>As war-god, god F occurs combined with the death-god in the passages
+mentioned above (Tro. 27*-29*<sup class="a">c</sup>), where he sets the houses on fire with
+his torch and demolishes them with his spear.</p>
+
+<p>God F occurs quite frequently in the manuscripts and must therefore be
+considered as one of the more important deities.</p>
+
+<p>According to F&ouml;rstemann his day is Manik, the seizing, grasping hand,
+symbolizing the capturing of an enemy in war for sacrificial purposes.</p>
+
+<p>F&#8217;s sign occurs once, as mentioned above, in fourfold repetition with all
+the four cardinal points, namely in Tro. 29*<sup class="a">c</sup>. In ancient Central
+America the captured enemy was sacrificed and thus the conceptions of the
+war-god and of the god of death by violence and by human sacrifice are
+united in the figure of god F. In this character god F occurs several
+times in the Madrid manuscript in combat with M, the god of travelling
+merchants (see <a href="#Page_35">page 35</a>). Spanish writers do not mention a deity of the
+kind described here as belonging to the Maya pantheon.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">G. The Sun-God.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 125px;">
+<a name="Figs35-36" id="Figs35-36"></a><img src="images/img09.jpg" width="125" height="89" alt="Figures 35 to 36" title="Figures 35 to 36" />
+</div>
+
+<p>God G&#8217;s hieroglyph (<a href="#Figs35-36">Fig. 35</a>) contains as its chief factor the sun-sign
+Kin. It is one of the signs (of which there are about 12 in the
+manuscripts), which has the Ben-ik prefix and doubtless denotes a month
+dedicated to the sun. There is, I think, no difference of opinion
+regarding the significance of this deity, although Fewkes, as already
+stated, is inclined to identify G with B, whom, it is true, the former
+resembles. It is surprising<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> that a deity who from his nature must be
+considered as very important, is represented with such comparative
+infrequency. He occurs only a few times in the Dresden manuscript, for
+example 22<sup class="b">b</sup>, 11<sup class="a">c</sup>, and in the Codex Tro.-Cortesianus none can be found
+among the figures which could be safely regarded as the sun-god; in no
+manuscript except the Dresden does a deity occur wearing the sun-sign Kin
+on his body. But once in the Codex Cort. the figure of D appears with the
+sun-sign on his head, as pointed out by Fewkes in his article entitled
+&#8220;The God &#8216;D&#8217; in the Codex Cortesianus&#8221;. G&#8217;s hieroglyph, to be sure, is
+found repeatedly in the Madrid manuscript, for example Codex Tro. 31<sup class="a">c</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>God G seems to be not wholly without relation to the powers of death; the
+owl-sign (<a href="#Figs1">Fig. 5</a>) occurs once in connection with him (Dr. 11<sup class="a">c</sup>). Besides
+the sun-sign Kin, which the god bears on his body, his representations
+are distinguished by a peculiar nose ornament (<a href="#Figs35-36">Fig. 36</a>) which, as may be
+seen by comparison with other similar pictures in the Dresden manuscript,
+is nothing but a large and especially elaborate nose-peg. Similar
+ornaments are rather common just here in the carefully drawn first part
+of the Dresden manuscript. Compare Dr. 22<sup class="b">b</sup> (middle figure), 21 (centre),
+17<sup class="b">b</sup>, 14<sup class="a">a</sup>, <sup class="b">b</sup>; occasionally they also have the shape of a flower, for
+example 12<sup class="b">b</sup> (centre), 11<sup class="a">c</sup> (left), 19<sup class="a">a</sup>. Lastly it is worthy of note,
+that god G is sometimes represented with a snake-like tongue protruding
+from his mouth, as in Dr. 11<sup class="b">b</sup> and <sup class="a">c</sup>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">H. The Chicchan-God.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 283px;">
+<a name="Figs37-40" id="Figs37-40"></a><img src="images/img10.jpg" width="283" height="86" alt="Figures 37 to 40" title="Figures 37 to 40" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The figure of a deity of frequent occurrence in the Dresden manuscript is
+a god, who is characterized by a skin-spot or a scale of a serpent on his
+temple of the same shape as the hieroglyph of the day Chicchan (serpent).
+Moreover the representations of the god himself differ very much, so that
+there are almost<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> no other positive, unvarying characteristic marks to be
+specified. His picture is plainly recognizable and has the Chicchan-mark
+on the temple in Dr. 11<sup class="a">a</sup>, 12<sup class="b">b</sup> and 20<sup class="b">b</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>The hieroglyph belonging to this deity likewise displays the
+Chicchan-sign as its distinguishing mark. Furthermore several variants
+occur. The Chicchan-sign has sometimes the form of <a href="#Figs37-40">Fig. 37</a> and again that
+of <a href="#Figs37-40">Fig. 38</a>. The prefix likewise differs very much, having sometimes the
+form of <a href="#Figs37-40">Fig. 37</a>, and again that of <a href="#Figs37-40">Fig. 38</a> or of <a href="#Figs37-40">Figs. 39 and 40</a>. Thus
+there are, in all, four different forms of the prefix. It is to be
+assumed that all these hieroglyphs have the same meaning, notwithstanding
+their variations. Taking into consideration the frequency of the
+variations of other hieroglyphs of gods and of the hieroglyphs in the
+Maya manuscripts in general, it is quite improbable from the nature of
+the case, that a hieroglyph, which displays so great an agreement in its
+essential and characteristic elements, should denote several different
+gods. The dissimilarity which Seler thinks he finds between the forms of
+the Chicchan-sign in <a href="#Figs37-40">Figs. 37 and 38</a> and which leads him to assume that
+<a href="#Figs37-40">Fig. 37</a> is not a Chicchan-sign at all, but that it denotes another face
+ornament, cannot be satisfactorily proved, and must be regarded as an
+arbitrary assumption. The Chicchan-mark in the sign of the day Chicchan
+also differs very much from that on the bodies of the serpents pictured
+in the <a name="corr4" id="corr4"></a><ins class="correction" title="manuscripts">manuuscripts</ins>, so that variations of this kind by no means make it
+necessary to assume that the hieroglyphs actually denote different
+things. Observe, for example, the different Chicchan-spots on the
+serpent&#8217;s body in Tro. 27<sup class="a">a</sup>. The crenelated, black border of the
+Chicchan-spot in <a href="#Figs37-40">Fig. 38</a> passes in rapid cursive drawing almost of itself
+into the scallops of <a href="#Figs37-40">Fig. 37</a>, a transition to which there are distinct
+tendencies on the serpent&#8217;s body in Tro. 27<sup class="a">a</sup>. Nor does the fact, that
+under H&#8217;s hieroglyph different personages are very often pictured, whom
+we cannot positively identify, compel the assumption that we have here
+not <i>one</i>, but two or more mythical figures, for the same is true of
+other hieroglyphs of gods. There are many places in the manuscripts where
+the text contains a definite well-known hieroglyph of a god, while the
+accompanying picture represents some other deity or some other figure not
+definitely characterized, perhaps merely a human form (priest, warrior,
+woman and the like).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> Thus in Dr. 4<sup class="a">a</sup> we see H&#8217;s hieroglyph in the text,
+but the picture is the figure of god P while in other places we miss the
+characteristic Chicchan-spot on the figure represented, for example Dr.
+4<sup class="a">c</sup>, 6<sup class="a">a</sup>, 7<sup class="b">b</sup>, 7<sup class="a">c</sup>, 14<sup class="a">a</sup>, 21<sup class="a">c</sup>. In the Madrid manuscript, it is true, H&#8217;s
+hieroglyph also occurs often enough, but <i>not in a single instance</i> is a
+deity represented displaying the Chicchan-spot. This fact is, I think, to
+be explained by the coarser style of the drawing, which does not admit of
+representing such fine details as in the Dresden manuscript. In the Paris
+manuscript H&#8217;s hieroglyph occurs but once (p. 8, bottom).</p>
+
+<p>Seler thinks he recognizes in some of the figures represented under H&#8217;s
+hieroglyph in the manuscripts, a so-called &#8220;young god&#8221;. Such a deity is
+unknown and the assumption is entirely arbitrary. Apparently this &#8220;young
+god&#8221; is an invention of Brinton. The purely inductive and descriptive
+study of the manuscripts does not prove the existence of such a
+personage, and we must decline to admit him as the result of deductive
+reasoning. In this so-called &#8220;young god&#8221;, we miss, first of all, a
+characteristic mark, a distinct peculiarity such as belongs to all the
+figures of gods in the manuscripts without exception and by which he
+could be recognized. Except his so-called youthfulness, however, no such
+definite marks are to be found. Furthermore there is no figure of a god
+in the manuscripts which would not be designated by a definite
+characteristic hieroglyph. No such hieroglyph can be proved as belonging
+to the &#8220;young god&#8221;. The figures, which are supposed to have a &#8220;youthful
+appearance&#8221; in the Madrid manuscript, often convey this impression merely
+in consequence of their smallness and of the pitiful, squatting attitude
+in which they are represented. Furthermore real <i>children</i> do occur here
+and there, thus, for example, in the Dresden manuscript in connection
+with the pictures of women in the first part and in Tro. 20*<sup class="a">c</sup> in the
+representation of the so-called &#8220;infant baptism.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>That god H has some relation to the serpent must be conjectured from what
+has been said. Thus, for example, on Dr. 15<sup class="b">b</sup>, we see his hieroglyph
+belonging to the figure of a woman with the knotted serpent on her head,
+in Dr. 4<sup class="a">a</sup> to the god P, who there bears a serpent in his hand, and in
+Dr. 35<sup class="b">b</sup> in connection with a serpent with B&#8217;s head. What this relation
+is, cannot now be stated.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The day dedicated to god H is Chicchan, and the sign for this day is his
+distinguishing hieroglyph.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">I. The Water-Goddess.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 62px;">
+<a name="Fig41" id="Fig41"></a><img src="images/img11.jpg" width="62" height="65" alt="Figure 41" title="Figure 41" />
+</div>
+
+<p>In the Dresden manuscript the figure of an old woman, with the body
+stained brown and claws in place of feet, occurs repeatedly. She wears on
+her head a knotted serpent and with her hands pours water from a vessel.
+Evidently we have here a personification of water in its quality of
+destroyer, a goddess of floods and cloud-bursts, which, as we know, play
+an important part in Central America. Page 27, of the Codex Troano
+contains a picture, in which this character of goddess I may be
+distinctly recognized. In accordance with this character, also on Dr. 74,
+where something resembling a flood is represented, she wears the
+cross-bones of the death-god.</p>
+
+<p>The goddess is pictured in the manner described in the following places:
+Dr. 39<sup class="b">b</sup>, 43<sup class="b">b</sup>, 67<sup class="a">a</sup> and 74. The figure corresponding to her in the
+Madrid manuscript, in Tro. 27 and 34*<sup class="a">c</sup>, displays some variations, in
+particular the tiger claws on the feet and the red-brown color of the
+body are lacking. But the agreement cannot be questioned, I think, when
+we recall that the Maya manuscripts doubtless originated in different
+ages and different areas of civilization, circumstances which readily
+explain such variations. The goddess distinguished in the Madrid
+manuscript by symbols of flood and water is doubtless the same as goddess
+I of the Dresden manuscript described above; her unmistakable character
+of water-goddess in both manuscripts is in favor of this. In both
+manuscripts she is invariably distinguished by the serpent on her head,
+which, as we know, is a symbol of the water flowing along and forming
+waves.</p>
+
+<p>Strange to say, a fixed hieroglyph of this goddess cannot be proved with
+certainty. There is some probability in favor of the sign given in <a href="#Fig41">Fig.
+41</a>. The well-known oblong signs, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> F&ouml;rstemann (Drei
+Mayahieroglyphen, published in the Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie, 1901, pp.
+215-221) interprets as the sign for evil days, frequently occur with her.
+This would be appropriate for the goddess of floods.</p>
+
+<p>In the Dresden manuscript a few similar figures of women are found, who,
+like goddess I, wear a knotted serpent on the head. Representations of
+this kind occur in Dr. 9<sup class="a">c</sup>, 15<sup class="b">b</sup>, 18<sup class="a">a</sup>, 20<sup class="a">a</sup>, 22<sup class="b">b</sup> and 23<sup class="b">b</sup>. Whether they
+are identical with goddess I is doubtful, since there is no symbolic
+reference to water in these passages. Besides, the hieroglyphs of other
+known deities occur each time in the above-mentioned places, so that
+definite mythologic relations must be assumed to exist here between the
+women <a name="corr5" id="corr5"></a><ins class="correction" title="represented">repsented</ins> and the deities in question. Thus in Dr. 9<sup class="a">c</sup> we find D&#8217;s
+sign, in 15<sup class="b">b</sup> that of H; on 18<sup class="a">a</sup>, 22<sup class="b">b</sup> and 23<sup class="b">b</sup> we see only the general
+sign for a woman. In Dr. 20<sup class="a">a</sup> the signs are effaced.</p>
+
+<p>In the Codex Troano goddess I occurs on pp. 25<sup class="b">b</sup> and 27; there is also a
+woman with the knotted serpent on her head in Tro. 34*<sup class="a">c</sup>. In the Codex
+Cortesianus and in the Paris manuscript these forms are wholly lacking.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">K. The God with the Ornamented Nose.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 228px;">
+<a name="Figs42-43" id="Figs42-43"></a><img src="images/img12.jpg" width="228" height="92" alt="Figures 42 to 43" title="Figures 42 to 43" />
+</div>
+
+<p>This god, as already mentioned in connection with B, is not identical
+with the latter, but is probably closely related to him. His hieroglyph
+is <a href="#Figs42-43">Fig. 42</a>; <a href="#Figs42-43">Fig. 43</a> is the form in the Madrid manuscript. He is closely
+related to god B. He is represented in Dr. 25 (centre) where he is
+perhaps conceived of as a priest wearing a mask with the face of the god,
+also in Dr. 7<sup class="a">a</sup>, 12<sup class="a">a</sup> (with his own hieroglyph and that of E!), 26
+(bottom) with a variant of the sign. His figure without the hieroglyph
+occurs in Dr. 3. Very frequently the well-known group, 3 Oc, is given
+with him and in connection with his hieroglyph (in Dr. 3, 7<sup class="a">a</sup>, 10<sup class="b">b</sup>
+(right); without picture, 12<sup class="a">a</sup>). F&ouml;rstemann (Drei Maya<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>hieroglyphen,
+Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie, 1901. <a name="corr6" id="corr6"></a><ins class="correction" title="pp.">pp</ins> 215-221) sees in this the sign for
+good days, a proof that we have to do here with a benevolent deity well
+disposed to mankind, his kinship with B being also in favor of this
+interpretation. His hieroglyph alone without his picture occurs in Dr.
+10<sup class="b">b</sup>, 49 (middle and bottom), 58 (bottom, left), and Tro. 8*<sup class="b">b</sup>; with a
+variant of the attribute in Dr. 24 (third vertical row). A slight
+variation appears also in Dr. 69 (top, right).</p>
+
+<p>In Dr. 65<sup class="a">a</sup> (middle) B is pictured. But in the text we see K&#8217;s hieroglyph
+presented by a hand. The next figure on the same page at the right
+represents god B with the head of K on his own and the same head once
+more in his hand. Agreeing with this, we find in the accompanying text
+the signs of B and K, the latter in a hand. K seems to be pictured again
+in Dr. 46 (bottom); the passage, however, is somewhat obliterated. The
+hieroglyph is lacking in this place; it is found, however, on the
+preceding page 45 (middle).</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the passage already mentioned, which represents god K
+together with B, such double deities again occur in the Paris manuscript,
+p. 13, where B holds K&#8217;s head in his hand; in Dr. 34<sup class="b">b</sup>, where he carries
+this head on his own and in Dr. 67<sup class="a">a</sup> where he appears to carry it in a
+rope. Once, how ever, a variation of these plainly synonymous
+representations occurs, namely in Dr. 49 (at the top), where we see a
+<i>feminine</i> form above whose head rises the head of god K. In the Paris
+manuscript, so far as its defaced condition permits us to recognize the
+representation, K occurs very frequently, as for example, in Per. 3, 4,
+5, 6, 7 and 9 (in part only his head is given, presented by god B, as in
+the Dresden manuscript).</p>
+
+<p>Brinton considers this figure simply as a special manifestation of B and
+identical with that god. F&ouml;rstemann thinks that god K is a storm-deity,
+whose ornamental nose, according to the conventional mode of drawing of
+the Central American peoples, is intended to represent the blast of the
+storm.</p>
+
+<p>Apparently, however, the deity has an <i>astronomic significance</i> and seems
+to symbolize a <i>star</i>. In favor of this is the fact, that on the
+so-called initial pages of the Madrid manuscript (Cort. 22-Tro. 36) a
+row, composed of repetitions of his sign, occurs below the signs of the
+cardinal points and parallel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> to a row composed of signs of god C, the
+god of the polar star and the north. The hieroglyphs of C and K are the
+only hieroglyphs of gods, which are repeated 13 times on these pages with
+the 13 days enumerated there. The two gods must, therefore, have either a
+parallel or an opposite astronomic and calendric meaning. The fact that
+in Dr. 25 and 26 K appears as regent of the year, is an argument in favor
+of his astronomic significance.</p>
+
+<p>According to F&ouml;rstemann, Muluc is the day dedicated to god K.</p>
+
+<p>In the head of god K we recognize the ornament so common in the temple
+ruins of Central America&mdash;the so-called &#8220;elephant&#8217;s trunk.&#8221; The peculiar,
+conventionalized face, with the projecting proboscis-shaped nose, which
+is applied chiefly to the corners of temple walls, displays
+unquestionably the features of god K. The significance of god K in this
+architectural relation is unknown. Some connection with his character as
+the deity of a star and with his astronomic qualities may, however, be
+assumed, since, as we know, the temple structures of Central America are
+always placed with reference <i>to the cardinal points</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">L. The Old, Black God.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 73px;">
+<a name="Figs44" id="Figs44"></a><img src="images/img13.jpg" width="73" height="80" alt="Figure 44" title="Figure 44" />
+</div>
+
+<p>God L&#8217;s features are those of an old man with sunken, toothless mouth.
+His hieroglyph is <a href="#Figs44">Fig. 44</a>, which is characterized by the black face.</p>
+
+<p>God L, who is also black, must not be confounded with M whose description
+follows. L is represented and designated by his hieroglyph in the
+accompanying text, in Dr. 14<sup class="b">b</sup> and 14<sup class="a">c</sup> and Dr. 46<sup class="b">b</sup>; the figure has the
+characteristic black face. He appears entirely black in Dr. 7<sup class="a">a</sup>. The
+hieroglyph alone occurs in Dr. 21<sup class="b">b</sup> and 24 (third vertical line in the
+first passage) with a variation, namely without the Ymix-sign before the
+head. This deity does not occur in the Madrid and Paris manuscripts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The significance of god L does not appear from the few pictures, which
+are given of him. In Dr. 46<sup class="b">b</sup> the god is pictured armed and in warlike
+attitude. Both in Dr. 14<sup class="b">b</sup> and 14<sup class="a">c</sup> he wears a bird on his head and has a
+Kan in his hand.</p>
+
+<p>According to F&ouml;rstemann, his day is Akbal, darkness, night.</p>
+
+<p>Cyrus Thomas (Aids to the Study of the Maya Codices, in the 6th Annual
+Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1888, p. 358) thinks he is
+the god Ekchuah, who has come down to us as a black deity. God M seems,
+however, to correspond to Ekchuah (see the description of M).</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">M. The Black God with the Red Lips.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 287px;">
+<a name="Figs45-48" id="Figs45-48"></a><img src="images/img14.jpg" width="287" height="125" alt="Figures 45 to 48" title="Figures 45 to 48" />
+</div>
+
+<p>God M&#8217;s hieroglyph is <a href="#Figs45-48">Figs. 45, 46</a>; it seems to represent an eye rimmed
+with black, though the figure of the god himself displays an entirely
+different drawing of the eye (see <a href="#Figs45-48">Fig. 47</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The god is found in the Dresden manuscript only three times, namely in
+Dr. 16<sup class="b">b</sup> (with a bone in his hand) in picture and sign, in Dr. 13<sup class="a">c</sup>
+grouped with an animal, without the hieroglyph, and in Dr. 43<sup class="a">a</sup> (with his
+sign) while finally his hieroglyph alone appears in Dr. 56 (top, left) in
+a group and of a somewhat different form.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, god M appears with special frequency in the Madrid
+manuscript, which treats of this deity with great fullness of detail.
+While he is represented in the Dresden manuscript (16<sup class="b">b</sup>) with his body
+striped black and white, and on p. 43<sup class="a">a</sup> entirely white, he is always
+entirely black in the Codex Troano. His other distinguishing marks are
+the following:</p>
+
+<p>1. The mouth encircled by a red-brown border.</p>
+
+<p>2. The large, drooping under lip. By this he can be recognized with
+certainty also in Dr. 43<sup class="a">a</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>3. The two curved lines at the right of the eye.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>His significance can be conjectured. He seems to be of a warlike nature,
+for he is almost always represented armed with the lance and also as
+engaged in combat and, in some instances, pierced by the lance of his
+opponent, god F, for example in Tro. 3<sup class="a">c</sup>, 7<sup class="a">a</sup>, 29*<sup class="a">a</sup>. The peculiar object
+with parallel stripes, which he wears on his head is a rope from which a
+package frequently hangs. By means of a rope placed around his head the
+god frequently carries a bale of merchandise, as is the custom today
+among the aborigines in different parts of America. On 4<sup class="b">b</sup> and 5<sup class="a">a</sup> in the
+Cod. Tro. this can plainly be seen. All these pictures lead us to
+conclude, that we have here to do with a god of <i>travelling merchants</i>. A
+deity of this character called Ekchuah has been handed down to us, who is
+designated explicitly as a <i>black</i> god. In favor of this is also the
+fact, that he is represented fighting with F and pierced by the latter.
+For the travelling merchant must, of course, be armed to ward off hostile
+attacks and these are admirably symbolized by god F, for he is the god of
+death in war and of the killing of the captured enemy. The god is found
+in the Codex Troano in the following places and on many pages two or
+three times: pp. 2, 3, 4, 5, always with the hieroglyph, then without it
+on pp. 6, 7, 19, 4*<sup class="a">c</sup>, 14*<sup class="b">b</sup>, 17*<sup class="a">a</sup>, 18*<sup class="b">b</sup> and again with the hieroglyph
+on pp. 22*<sup class="a">a</sup>, 23*<sup class="a">a</sup>, 25*<sup class="a">a</sup>; finally it is found again without the
+hieroglyph on pp. 29*<sup class="a">a</sup>, 30*<sup class="a">a</sup>, 31*, 32*, 33*, 34*. In the Codex
+Cortesianus god M occurs in the following places: p. 15, where he strikes
+the sky with the axe and thus causes rain, p. 19 (bottom), 28 (bottom,
+second figure), 34 (bottom) and 36 (top). M is always to be recognized by
+the encircled mouth and the drooping under-lip; figures without these
+marks are not identical with M, thus for example in Tro. 23, 24, 25, 21*.
+Tro. 34*<sup class="a">a</sup> shows what is apparently a variant of M with the face of an
+old man, the scorpion&#8217;s tail and the vertebrae of the death-god, a figure
+which in its turn bears on its breast the plainly recognizable head of M.
+God M is also represented elsewhere many times with the scorpion&#8217;s
+tail, thus for example on Tro. 30*<sup class="a">a</sup>, 31*<sup class="a">a</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>Besides his hieroglyph mentioned above, <a href="#Figs45-48">Figs. 45 and 46</a>, another sign
+seems to refer to god M, namely <a href="#Figs45-48">Fig. 48</a> (compare for example Tro. 5<sup class="a">a</sup> and
+Cort. 28, bottom). The head in this sign has the same curved lines at the
+corner of the eye as appear<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> on the deity himself. F&ouml;rstemann mentions
+this sign in his Commentary on the Paris Manuscript, p. 15, and in his
+Commentary on the Dresden Manuscript, p. 56. He thinks the hieroglyph has
+relation to the revolution of Venus, which is performed in 584 days. A
+relation of this kind is, I think, very possible, if we bear in mind that
+all the god-figures of the manuscripts have more or less of a calendric
+and chronologic significance in their chief or in their secondary
+function.</p>
+
+<p>It should be mentioned that God M is represented as a rule as an old man
+with toothless jaw or the characteristic solitary tooth. That he is also
+related to bee-culture is shown by his presence on p. 4*<sup class="a">c</sup> of the Codex
+Troano, in the section on bees.</p>
+
+<p>Besides gods L and M, a few quite isolated black figures occur in the
+Codex Troano, who, apparently, are identical with neither of these two
+deities, but are evidently of slight importance and perhaps are only
+variants of other deities. Similar figures of black deities are found in
+the Codex Tro. 23, 24 and 25 (perhaps this is a black variant of B as god
+of the storm?) and on 21*<sup class="a">c</sup> we twice see a black form with the aged face
+and the solitary tooth in the under jaw (perhaps only a variant of M). In
+the Codex Cortesianus and in the Dresden manuscript no other black
+deities occur, but in the Paris manuscript a black deity seems to be
+pictured once (p. 21, bottom).</p>
+
+<p>According to Brinton (Nagualism, Philadelphia 1894, pp. 21, 39), there is
+among the Tzendals in addition to Ekchuah, a second black deity called
+Xicalahua, &#8220;black lord&#8221;.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">N. The God of the End of the Year.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 183px;">
+<a name="Figs49-51" id="Figs49-51"></a><img src="images/img15.jpg" width="183" height="93" alt="Figures 49 to 51" title="Figures 49 to 51" />
+</div>
+
+<p>We have here a deity with the features of an old man and wearing a
+peculiar head ornament reproduced in <a href="#Figs49-51">Fig. 50</a>, which contains the sign for
+the year of 360 days. The god&#8217;s hieroglyph is <a href="#Figs49-51">Fig. 49</a>, which consists of
+the numeral 5 with the sign of the month Zac. F&ouml;rstemann has recognized
+in god N the god of the five Uayeyab days, which were added as
+intercalary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> days at the end of the original year of 360 days, and were
+considered unlucky days. N is, therefore, the god of the end of the year.
+F&ouml;rstemann has discussed him in detail under this title in a monograph
+published in Globus, Vol. 80, No. 12. It is still open to question
+whether god N actually occurs in all the places of the Dresden
+manuscript, which are mentioned by F&ouml;rstemann. He can be recognized
+positively on Dr. 17<sup class="a">a</sup>, 21<sup class="a">c</sup> (grouped with a woman) and 37<sup class="a">a</sup>; also on
+12<sup class="a">c</sup>, but in this latter place with pronounced deviations from the usual
+representations. The figures in Dr. 23<sup class="a">c</sup> (first group) and 43<sup class="a">a</sup> (third
+picture) are doubtful, especially since the hieroglyph of the god is
+lacking in both instances. The third group in Dr. 21<sup class="a">c</sup> is equally
+dubious. Here a woman is pictured sitting opposite a god. The latter
+seems to be god N, yet in the text we find instead of his sign the
+hieroglyph given in <a href="#Figs49-51">Fig. 51</a>. It is not impossible that this sign likewise
+denotes god N.</p>
+
+<p>God N is found a few times in the Paris manuscript, for example on p. 4,
+where he holds K&#8217;s head in his hands, and on p. 22.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">O. A Goddess with the Features of an Old Woman.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 68px;">
+<a name="Figs52" id="Figs52"></a><img src="images/img16.jpg" width="68" height="66" alt="Figure 52" title="Figure 52" />
+</div>
+
+<p>This goddess occurs only in the Madrid manuscript and is distinguished by
+the solitary tooth in the under jaw, as a sign of age, the invariable
+characteristic of aged persons in the manuscripts. She is pictured in the
+following places: Tro. 5*<sup class="a">c</sup>, 6*<sup class="b">b</sup>, and 11*<sup class="b">b</sup>, <sup class="a">c</sup> and <sup class="b">d</sup>, Cort. 10<sup class="b">b</sup>,
+11<sup class="a">a</sup>, 38<sup class="a">a</sup>. In Tro. 11* she is represented working at a loom. She does
+not appear at all in the Dresden and Paris manuscripts. The figures of
+women mentioned under I with the serpent on their heads, are especially
+not to be regarded as identical with goddess O, for she never wears the
+serpent, but a tuft of hair bound high up on her head and running out in
+two locks.</p>
+
+<p>Her hieroglyph is <a href="#Figs52">Fig. 52</a>; it is distinguished by the wrinkles of age
+about the eye. Owing to the limited number of her pictures, there is
+little to be said concerning the significance of this goddess.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">P. The Frog-God.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 95px;">
+<a name="Figs53" id="Figs53"></a><img src="images/img17.jpg" width="95" height="88" alt="Figure 53" title="Figure 53" />
+</div>
+
+<p>We call him the frog-god because in the Codex Tro. 31, he is pictured in
+the first and second lines with the club-shaped fingers of a frog, which
+occur only on this figure. The blue background, which is his attribute
+twice in the same passage, likewise points to a connection with water,
+and that the god also has something to do with agriculture may be deduced
+from the fact that he is pictured sowing seed and making furrows with the
+planting-stick. The two black parallel stripes at the corner of the eye
+seem to be folds of skin or marks on the skin, which may represent a
+peculiarity of this particular species of frog. His head ornament is very
+characteristic and contains the sign for the year of 360 days. He
+therefore bears some unknown relation also to the computation of time. It
+should be recalled in this connection that one of the Maya months is
+called Uo, frog. The god is pictured again in Tro. 30<sup class="a">a</sup> and <sup class="b">b</sup>, Tro. 22
+(top, scattering seed) and Cort. 5 (at the very bottom, the figure lying
+down). Finally his neck ornament must be mentioned, which, as a rule,
+consists of a neck-chain with pointed, oblong or pronged objects,
+probably shells.</p>
+
+<p>In the Dresden manuscript he occurs but once, Dr. 4<sup class="a">a</sup> (first figure),
+with some variations it is true. The text at this place contains H&#8217;s
+hieroglyph. God P does not occur in the Peresianus.</p>
+
+<p>His hieroglyph is <a href="#Figs53">Fig. 53</a>. It occurs in Tro. 31 (top) and can be
+unerringly recognized by the two black parallel stripes at the corner of
+the eye; which correspond exactly to the same marks on the face of the
+picture of the god himself.</p>
+
+<p>This is all that can be said respecting this deity from the pictures in
+the manuscripts. Its meaning is obscure. Seler&#8217;s assumption that god P is
+Kukulcan (Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie, 1898, p. 403) has certainly very
+slight foundation, and in view<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> of the material from the manuscripts
+described in the preceding pages, it is in the highest degree improbable.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60px;">
+<img src="images/img18.jpg" width="60" height="37" alt="Three asterisks" title="Three asterisks" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The foregoing is an almost complete enumeration of the god-figures proper
+in the Maya manuscripts. Whatever other figures of gods occur in the
+manuscripts are details of slight importance. This is especially true of
+the Dresden manuscript, which is well nigh exhausted by the types
+enumerated here; there may be, I think, a few figures still undescribed
+in the Madrid manuscript, the careless drawing of which renders the
+identification very difficult. An isolated figure of the Dresden
+manuscript still remains to be mentioned, concerning which it is doubtful
+whether it is intended to represent a deity or only a human personage.</p>
+
+<p>This is the figure characterized by a peculiar head ornament in Dr. 20<sup class="b">b</sup>.
+It is designated in the text by two hieroglyphs, which belong together,
+<a href="#Figs54-55">Figs. 54 and 55</a>, the latter occurring once with K (Dr. 7<sup class="a">a</sup>). It seems to
+represent blowing from the mouth, screaming or speaking.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 97px; padding-bottom: 2em;">
+<a name="Figs54-55" id="Figs54-55"></a><img src="images/img19.jpg" width="97" height="85" alt="Figures 54 to 55" title="Figures 54 to 55" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_10-1_1" id="Footnote_10-1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10-1_1"><span class="label">10-1</span></a> See <a href="#Plate1">Plate</a> for representations of the gods, <a name="corr1" id="corr1"></a><ins class="correction" title="A-P.">A-P</ins></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="II_MYTHOLOGICAL_ANIMALS" id="II_MYTHOLOGICAL_ANIMALS"></a>II. MYTHOLOGICAL ANIMALS.</h2>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="animals1" id="animals1"></a>1. THE MOAN BIRD.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 269px;">
+<a name="Figs56-59" id="Figs56-59"></a><img src="images/img20.jpg" width="269" height="79" alt="Figures 56 to 59" title="Figures 56 to 59" />
+</div>
+
+<p>This bird<a name="FNanchor_41-1_2" id="FNanchor_41-1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_41-1_2" class="fnanchor">41-1</a> belongs to the death-god as his symbol and attendant. Its
+hieroglyph (<a href="#Figs56-59">Fig. 56</a>) contains the numeral 13; other forms are <a href="#Figs56-59">Figs.
+57-59</a>. It is pictured in Dr. 7<sup class="a">c</sup>, 10<sup class="a">a</sup>, 11<sup class="a">a</sup>, 16<sup class="a">c</sup>, 18<sup class="b">b</sup>, and its
+hieroglyph without the picture is seen in Dr. 8<sup class="b">b</sup>. A realistic
+representation of the whole figure of the moan as a bird, occurs on the
+head of the woman in 16<sup class="a">c</sup> (1st figure) and 18<sup class="b">b</sup>. God B sits on the head
+of the moan in Dr. 38<sup class="a">c</sup>; the third hieroglyph of the accompanying text
+refers to this representation. Just as in Dr. 16 and 18, the moan bird
+appears in Tro. 18*<sup class="a">c</sup> on the head of a woman. Its character as an
+attribute of the death-god is expressed by the Cimi-sign, which it wears
+upon its head (<i>e.&nbsp;g.</i>, Dr. 10<sup class="a">a</sup>), and also by the regular occurrence of
+symbols of the death-god in the written characters, which refer to the
+moan bird. In the same manner the sign of the owl, <a href="#Figs1">Fig. 5</a>, also occurs
+frequently with it.</p>
+
+<p>The moan confers name and symbol alike on one of the eighteen months of
+the Maya year, and thus, as F&ouml;rstemann conjectures (Die Plejaden bei den
+Mayas, in Globus, 1894), has an astronomic bearing on the constellation
+of the Pleiades.</p>
+
+<p>According to Brinton the moan is a member of the falcon family and its
+zoological name is <i>Spizaetus tyrannus</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="animals2" id="animals2"></a>2. THE SERPENT.</p>
+
+<p>This is one of the most common and most important mythological animals,
+and is closely related to different deities, as has already been more
+fully discussed in connection with the individual cases. Apparently it
+has no <i>independent</i> significance as a deity. Its most important
+personification is that in god B, Kukulcan, the feathered serpent. Hence
+a fixed hieroglyph designating the serpent as a deity, as a mythologic
+form, does not occur, though there are numerous hieroglyphs which refer
+to serpents or represent individual parts of the serpent, as its coils,
+its jaws, the rattles of the rattlesnake, etc. The serpent appears in the
+mythologic conceptions of the Mayas chiefly as the symbol of water and of
+time. In the great series of numbers of the Dresden manuscript, certain
+numbers occur which are introduced in the coils of a large serpent
+(compare in regard to this, F&ouml;rstemann, Zur Entzifferung der
+Mayahandschriften, II, Dresden, 1891). The serpent is very frequently
+represented in all the manuscripts, sometimes realistically and sometimes
+with the head of a god, etc. In the Dresden manuscript it occurs in the
+following places: 1<sup class="a">a</sup>, 26, 27, 28<sup class="a">c</sup>, 35<sup class="b">b</sup>, 36<sup class="a">a</sup>, 36<sup class="b">b</sup>, 37<sup class="b">b</sup><a name="corr7" id="corr7"></a><ins class="correction" title=", 40"> 40</ins>, 42<sup class="a">a</sup>, 61,
+62, 65<sup class="a">c</sup><a name="corr8" id="corr8"></a><ins class="correction" title=", 66"> 66</ins><sup class="a">a</sup> and 69. It is prominent also in the Madrid manuscript,
+occurring for example in Cort. 4-6, 12-18, Tro. 25, 26, 27 and elsewhere.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="animals3" id="animals3"></a>3. THE DOG.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 75px;">
+<a name="Figs60" id="Figs60"></a><img src="images/img21.jpg" width="75" height="66" alt="Figure 60" title="Figure 60" />
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Figs60">Fig. 60</a> is its hieroglyph. It is the symbol of the death-god and the
+bearer of the lightning. The latter follows quite clearly from the
+picture in Dr. 40<sup class="b">b</sup> where the god is distinguished by its hieroglyph.
+This animal is again represented in Dr. 7<sup class="a">a</sup>, 13<sup class="a">c</sup> on the right, 21<sup class="b">b</sup> with
+its hieroglyph, 29<sup class="a">a</sup>, 30<sup class="a">a</sup> (forming a part of 31<sup class="a">a</sup>, where god B holds the
+bound dog by the tail), and 39<sup class="a">a</sup> without the hieroglyph, 47 (bottom) with
+a variant of the hieroglyph.</p>
+
+<p>In Dr. 36<sup class="a">a</sup> the dog bears the Akbal-sign on its forehead. The writing
+above it contains a variant of the hieroglyph for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> dog; this is the
+third of the rubric. It shows (somewhat difficult of recognition) the
+Akbal-sign on the forehead of the dog&#8217;s head occurring in it, and on the
+back of the head the Kin-sign, as symbols of the alternation of day and
+night. The same sign occurs again with adjuncts in Dr. 74 (last line, 2nd
+sign) and once with the <i>death-god</i> in Dr. 8<sup class="a">a</sup>. The dog as
+lightning-beast occurs with the Akbal-sign in the eye instead of on the
+forehead in Codex Tro. 23*<sup class="a">a</sup>; here again its hieroglyph is an entirely
+different one (the third of the rubric).</p>
+
+<p>That the dog belongs to the death-god is proved beyond a doubt by the
+regular recurrence in the writing belonging to the dog, of the
+hieroglyphs, which relate to this deity, especially of <a href="#Figs1">Fig. 5</a>. According
+to F&ouml;rstemann his day is Oc.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">4. THE VULTURE.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 67px;">
+<a name="Figs61" id="Figs61"></a><img src="images/img22.jpg" width="67" height="67" alt="Figure 61" title="Figure 61" />
+</div>
+
+<p>This bird is distinctly pictured as a mythological figure in Dr. 8<sup class="a">a</sup>. It
+appears again, in feminine form, together with the dog, in Dr. 13<sup class="a">c</sup> and
+also in 19<sup class="a">a</sup>. In the first passage, its hieroglyph is almost effaced; the
+hieroglyph is very striking and occurs nowhere else in the whole
+collection of manuscripts. The body of this animal-deity is striped black
+and white; in Dr. 38<sup class="b">b</sup> it is almost entirely black. The same passage
+displays a second hieroglyph for this figure (<a href="#Figs61">Fig. 61</a>); this hieroglyph
+also occurs with the numeral 4 in Dr. 56<sup class="b">b</sup>. In Dr. 36<sup class="b">b</sup> this bird of prey
+is pictured fighting with the serpent; its hieroglyph occurs in the
+second form; the serpent is designated by the Chuen, the gaping jaws of
+the serpent (first character of the rubric).</p>
+
+<p>Finally it should be mentioned that the head of this bird occurs
+frequently as a head ornament, thus in Dr. 11<sup class="a">a</sup>, 11<sup class="b">b</sup>, 12<sup class="b">b</sup> and 14<sup class="b">b</sup>.
+Mention should also be made of the realistic representations of the
+vulture, eating the eye of a human sacrifice (Dr. 3, Tro. 26*<sup class="a">a</sup> and
+27*<sup class="a">a</sup>).</p>
+
+<p>According to F&ouml;rstemann his day is Cib.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">5. The Jaguar.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 68px;">
+<a name="Figs62" id="Figs62"></a><img src="images/img23.jpg" width="68" height="67" alt="Figure 62" title="Figure 62" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The jaguar is likewise an animal with mythological significance. It is
+represented in Dr. 8<sup class="a">a</sup>, where its hieroglyph is the third sign in the
+writing; it also occurs in Dr. 26 (at the top). It occurs in Tro. 17 (at
+the end) with a hieroglyph which represents the jaguar&#8217;s head and
+contains the numeral 4 (<a href="#Figs62">Fig. 62</a>); again it appears without a hieroglyph
+on p. 20 (bottom) and on 21 and 22 (bottom).</p>
+
+<p>Its day is Ix, and hence it also relates occasionally as year regent to
+the Ix years, for example in Dr. 26<sup class="a">a</sup>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead">6. The Tortoise.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 276px;">
+<a name="Figs63-65" id="Figs63-65"></a><img src="images/img24.jpg" width="276" height="93" alt="Figures 63 to 65" title="Figures 63 to 65" />
+</div>
+
+<p>This animal, like the dog, appears as a lightning-beast (see Dr. 40<sup class="b">b</sup>,
+middle). Its hieroglyph is <a href="#Figs63-65">Figs. 63, 64</a>. This sign also is connected with
+the numeral 4, which occurs so often with animals (but not alone with
+quadrupeds) as to be worthy of attention. The sign of the tortoise
+without the numeral is seen in Cort. 17<sup class="a">a</sup>, where the tortoise itself is
+also represented. It must have reference to the 17th month of the Maya
+year, for the month Kayab (and apparently also Pop) contains the head of
+the tortoise (compare <a href="#Figs63-65">Fig. 65</a>). It occurs several times in the
+Cortesianus, thus on pp. 13, 19, 37, 38; on p. 19 with the hieroglyph (on
+the top of the lower half of the page, 1st line and at the right of the
+margin). In Dr. 69 (at the top) we see the sign of the tortoise with the
+Kin-sign as its eye and the numeral 12; under this group B, with a black
+body, is seated on the serpent; on the same page the sign occurs again;
+each time, moreover, apparently as a month-hieroglyph.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>According to F&ouml;rstemann the tortoise is the symbol of the summer
+solstice, as the <i>snail</i>, which occurs only as a head ornament in the
+manuscripts and not independently, is the symbol of the winter solstice;
+both, as the animals of slowest motion, represent the apparent standstill
+of the sun at the periods specified. This explains why the month Kayab,
+in which the summer solstice falls, should be represented by the head of
+a tortoise, which has for its eye the sun-sign Kin (F&ouml;rstemann, Zur
+Entzifferung der Mayahandschriften III, Schildkr&ouml;te und Schnecke in der
+Mayaliteratur, Dresden 1892).</p>
+
+<p>According to F&ouml;rstemann its day is Cauac.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<br />
+&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Finally the <i>owl</i> and the <i>ape</i> (or monkey) must be mentioned as animals
+of mythologic significance, of which we have already spoken in connection
+with gods A and C. The <i>scorpion</i> also seems to have an important
+mythologic significance, and appears in the manuscripts in connection
+with figures of gods, as, for example, in Cort. 7<sup class="a">a</sup> and Tro. 31*<sup class="a">a</sup>,
+33*<sup class="a">a</sup>, 34*<sup class="a">a</sup> (god M with a scorpion&#8217;s tail). In addition to those
+discussed in this paper, there are a few animals in the manuscripts,
+which probably also have a partial mythologic significance, but which
+have been omitted because they are represented in a naturalistic manner,
+thus, for example, the deer on Tro. 8, et seq., while idealization (with
+human bodies, with torches, hieroglyphic character on the head, etc.)
+should be considered as an unmistakable sign of mythologic meaning.</p>
+
+<p>A mythologic significance also seems to belong to the <i>bee</i> which plays
+so prominent a part of the Codex Troano. Probably the section in question
+of the Madrid manuscript (1* et seq.) treats of bee-keeping, but
+incidentally it certainly has to do also with the mythologic conceptions
+connected with the culture of bees.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>bat</i> which is found as a mythological figure on pottery vessels and
+inscriptions from the Maya region (compare Seler, Zeitschrift f&uuml;r
+Ethnologie, 1894, p. 577) does not occur in the manuscripts. It is true,
+however, that hieroglyphic signs, which seem to relate to the head of the
+bat, occur in isolated cases in the manuscripts.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_41-1_2" id="Footnote_41-1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41-1_2"><span class="label">41-1</span></a> See <a href="#Plate1">plate</a> for representations of the Mythological
+Animals, 1-6.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="SUMMARY" id="SUMMARY"></a>SUMMARY.</h2>
+
+
+<p>An enumeration of the most important deities in the manuscripts gives the
+following results, in connection with which it is to be noted that, of
+course, the numbers cannot be absolutely correct, because one or another
+of the pictures occasionally remains doubtful. As far as possible,
+however, only the <i>positively</i> determined representations have been
+considered.</p>
+
+<p>The deity occurring most frequently in the <span class="smcap">Dresden manuscript</span> is
+god B, who is pictured there 141 times. Following him in point of number
+in the same manuscript are the death-god A pictured 33 times, god D 19
+times, and gods C and E 17 and 14 times respectively.</p>
+
+<p>In the <span class="smcap">Madrid manuscript</span>, god D, with 84 pictures, is of most
+frequent occurrence. He is followed by the maize-god E with 76 pictures,
+god B with 71, god A with 53, C with 38 and M with 37 pictures.</p>
+
+<p>In the <span class="smcap">Paris manuscript</span>, god E&#8217;s picture can be verified 8
+times, those of C and B 6 times each and that of god A twice; N and K are
+also frequently represented.</p>
+
+<p>An enumeration of all the pictures in all the manuscripts shows that the
+following deities occur most frequently and are therefore to be
+considered the most important:</p>
+
+<table summary="Gods pictured summary">
+<tr>
+  <td class="padded">1.</td>
+  <td class="center padded">God</td>
+  <td class="padded">B:</td>
+  <td class="center padded">pictured</td>
+  <td class="right padded">218</td>
+  <td class="center padded">times.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="padded">2.</td>
+  <td class="center padded">&#8221;</td>
+  <td class="padded">D:</td>
+  <td class="center padded">&#8221;</td>
+  <td class="right padded">103</td>
+  <td class="center padded">&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="padded">3.</td>
+  <td class="center padded">&#8221;</td>
+  <td class="padded">E:</td>
+  <td class="center padded">&#8221;</td>
+  <td class="right padded">98</td>
+  <td class="center padded">&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="padded">4.</td>
+  <td class="center padded">&#8221;</td>
+  <td class="padded">A:</td>
+  <td class="center padded">&#8221;</td>
+  <td class="right padded">88  </td>
+  <td class="center padded">&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="padded">5.</td>
+  <td class="center padded">&#8221;</td>
+  <td class="padded">C:</td>
+  <td class="center padded">&#8221;</td>
+  <td class="right padded">61</td>
+  <td class="center padded">&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="padded">6.</td>
+  <td class="center padded">&#8221;</td>
+  <td class="padded">M:</td>
+  <td class="center padded">&#8221;</td>
+  <td class="right padded">40</td>
+  <td class="center padded">&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="padded">7.</td>
+  <td class="center padded">&#8221;</td>
+  <td class="padded">F:</td>
+  <td class="center padded">&#8221;</td>
+  <td class="right padded">33</td>
+  <td class="center padded">&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Furthermore, interesting conclusions can be arrived at, by means of a
+list of those deities, who occur in the representations of the
+manuscripts, so <i>united</i> or <i>grouped together</i> as to make it evident that
+they must stand in some relation to one another. <i>Mythologic
+combinations</i> of this kind occur among the following deities and
+mythological animals:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1. In the <span class="smcap">Dresden manuscript</span>: D and C, B and C, dog and vulture,
+bird and serpent, B and K.</p>
+
+<p>2. In the <span class="smcap">Madrid manuscript</span>: F and M, B and M, C and M, E and M,
+A and E, A and D, A and F, B and C, D and C, D and E.</p>
+
+<p>3. In the <span class="smcap">Paris manuscript</span>: N and K, B and K.</p>
+
+<p>The most common of these combinations are those of the deities A and F, M
+and F, A and E, D and C. These groups are entirely intelligible,
+consisting of death-god and war-god, god of the travelling merchants and
+war-god, death-god and maize-god (as adversaries: meaning famine),
+night-god and deity of the polar star.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span><br />
+&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 259px;">
+<a name="Plate1" id="Plate1"></a><a href="images/img25-full.jpg"><img src="images/img25.jpg" width="259" height="400" alt="I. Gods and II. Mythological Animals" title="I. Gods and II. Mythological Animals" />
+</a><br />
+Plate 1</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div style="background-color: #EEE; padding: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 1em;">
+<p class="center noindent"><a name="note" id="note"></a><b>Transcriber&rsquo;s&nbsp;Note</b></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following errors and inconsistencies have been maintained.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Misspelled words and typographical errors:</p>
+
+<table style="margin-left: 0%;" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="typos">
+<tr>
+  <td align="right">Page</td>
+  <td>Error</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#corr1">10(40)</a></td>
+  <td>Footnote 1 missing final period (the footnote has been moved to page 40 in this
+      version of the text)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#corr2">17</a></td>
+  <td>serpent-and rain-deity should read serpent-and-rain-deity</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#corr3">23</a></td>
+  <td>Sentence ending with &#8220;and 13*<sup class="a">c</sup>)&#8221; does not have a period</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#corr4">29</a></td>
+  <td>manuuscripts should read manuscripts</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#corr5">32</a></td>
+  <td>repsented should read represented</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#corr6">33</a></td>
+  <td>pp 215-221 should read pp. 215-221</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#corr7">42</a></td>
+  <td>comma missing following 37<sup class="b">b</sup></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#corr8">42</a></td>
+  <td>comma missing following 65<sup class="a">c</sup></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noindent">Inconsistencies:</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The placement of punctuation at the end of a word or phrase surrounded
+by quotation marks is inconsistent, usually it is placed outside the
+final close quotation mark but occasionally is found inside the mark.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REPRESENTATION OF DEITIES OF THE MAYA MANUSCRIPTS***</p>
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@@ -0,0 +1,1983 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Representation of Deities of the Maya
+Manuscripts, by Paul Schellhas, Translated by Selma Wesselhoeft and A. M.
+Parker
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts
+       Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Vol. 4, No. 1
+
+
+Author: Paul Schellhas
+
+
+
+Release Date: March 18, 2006  [eBook #18013]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REPRESENTATION OF DEITIES OF THE
+MAYA MANUSCRIPTS***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Julia Miller and the Project Gutenberg Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net/)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 18013-h.htm or 18013-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/0/1/18013/18013-h/18013-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/0/1/18013/18013-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+      A number of typographical errors have been maintained in
+      this version of this book. A complete list is found at
+      the end of the text.
+
+
+
+
+
+Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology,
+Harvard University
+Vol. IV.--No. 1
+
+REPRESENTATION OF DEITIES OF THE MAYA MANUSCRIPTS
+
+by
+
+DR. PAUL SCHELLHAS
+
+Second Edition, Revised
+With 1 Plate of Figures and 65 Text Illustrations
+
+Translated by Miss Selma Wesselhoeft and Miss A. M. Parker
+
+Translation revised by the Author
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Cambridge, Mass.
+Published by the Museum
+December, 1904.
+
+
+
+
+NOTE.
+
+
+In order to make more widely known and more easily accessible to American
+students the results of important researches on the Maya hieroglyphs,
+printed in the German language, the Peabody Museum Committee on Central
+American Research proposes to publish translations of certain papers
+which are not too lengthy or too extensively illustrated. The present
+paper by one of the most distinguished scholars in this field is the
+first of the series.
+
+                                         F. W. PUTNAM.
+Harvard University
+           September, 1904.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Since the first edition of this pamphlet appeared in the year 1897,
+investigation in this department of science has made such marked
+progress, notwithstanding the slight amount of material, that a revision
+has now become desirable. It can be readily understood, that a new
+science, an investigation on virgin soil, such as the Maya study is,
+makes more rapid progress and develops more quickly than one pertaining
+to some old, much explored territory.
+
+In addition to numerous separate treatises, special mention should be
+made of Ernst Foerstemann's commentaries on the three Maya manuscripts
+(Kommentar zur Mayahandschrift der Koeniglichen oeffentlichen Bibliothek zu
+Dresden, Dresden 1901, Kommentar zur Madrider Mayahandschrift, Danzig
+1902, and Kommentar zur Pariser Mayahandschrift, Danzig 1903) which
+constitute a summary of the entire results of investigation in this field
+up to the present time.
+
+The proposal made in the first edition of this pamphlet, that the Maya
+deities be designated by letters of the alphabet, has been very generally
+adopted by Americanists, especially by those in the United States of
+America. This circumstance, in particular, has seemed to make it
+desirable to prepare for publication a new edition, improved to accord
+with the present state of the science.
+
+Warmest thanks are above all due to Mr. Bowditch, of Boston, who in the
+most disinterested manner, for the good of science, has made possible the
+publication of this new edition.
+
+January, 1904.                             P. SCHELLHAS.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE MATERIAL OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
+
+
+The three manuscripts which we possess of the ancient Maya peoples of
+Central America, the Dresden (Dr.), the Madrid (Tro.-Cort.) and the Paris
+(Per.) manuscripts, all contain a series of pictorial representations of
+human figures, which, beyond question, should be regarded as figures of
+gods. Together with these are a number of animal figures, some with human
+bodies, dress and armor, which likewise have a mythologic significance.
+
+The contents of the three manuscripts, which undoubtedly pertain to the
+calendar system and to the computation of time in their relation to the
+Maya pantheon and to certain religious and domestic functions, admit of
+the conclusion, that these figures of gods embody the essential part of
+the religious conceptions of the Maya peoples in a tolerably complete
+form. For here we have the entire ritual year, the whole chronology with
+its mythological relations and all accessories. In addition to this,
+essentially the same figures recur in all three manuscripts. Their number
+is not especially large. There are about fifteen figures of gods in human
+form and about half as many in animal form. At first we were inclined to
+believe that further researches would considerably increase the number of
+deities, but this assumption was incorrect. After years of study of the
+subject and repeated examination of the results of research, it may be
+regarded as positively proved, that the number of deities represented in
+the Maya manuscripts does not exceed substantially the limits mentioned
+above. The principal deities are determined beyond question.
+
+The way in which this was accomplished is strikingly simple. It amounts
+essentially to that which in ordinary life we call "memory of persons" and
+follows almost naturally from a careful study of the manuscripts. For, by
+frequently looking attentively at the representations, one learns by
+degrees to recognize promptly similar and familiar figures of gods, by
+the characteristic impression they make as a whole, or by certain details,
+even when the pictures are partly obliterated or exhibit variations, and
+the same is true of the accompanying hieroglyphs. A purely inductive,
+natural science-method has thus been followed, and hence this pamphlet is
+devoted simply to descriptions and to the amassing of material. These
+figures have been taken separately out of the manuscripts alone,
+identified and described with the studious avoidance of all unreliable,
+misleading accounts and of all presumptive analogies with supposedly
+allied mythologies.
+
+Whatever cannot be derived from the manuscripts themselves has been wholly
+ignored. Hypotheses and deductions have been avoided as far as possible.
+Only where the interpretation, or the resemblance and the relations to
+kindred mythologic domains were obvious, and where the accounts agreed
+beyond question, has notice been taken of the fact so that the imposed
+limitations of this work should not result in one-sidedness.
+
+Since, for the most part, the accounts of Spanish authors regarding the
+mythology of the Mayas correspond only slightly or not at all with these
+figures of gods, and all other conjectures respecting their significance
+are very dubious, the alphabetic designation of the deities, which was
+tentatively introduced in the first edition of this work, has been
+preserved. This designation has proved to be practical. For the plate at
+the end of this pamphlet, examples as characteristic as possible of the
+individual figures of gods have been selected from the manuscripts.
+
+It is a well known fact that we possess no definite knowledge either of
+the time of the composition or of the local origin of the Maya
+manuscripts. The objection might, therefore, be raised that it is a
+hazardous proceeding to treat the material derived from these three
+manuscripts in common, as if it were homogeneous. But these researches
+themselves have proved beyond a doubt, that the mythologic import of the
+manuscripts belongs to one and the same sphere of thought. Essentially
+the same deities and the same mythologic ideas are, without question, to
+be found in all the manuscripts.
+
+The material of the inscriptions has been set entirely at one side,
+because the style of representation contained in them, both of the
+mythologic forms and of the hieroglyphs, renders comparison exceedingly
+difficult. In this field especial credit is due to Foerstemann and Seler,
+for the work they have done in furtherance of interpretation, and mention
+should not be omitted of the generosity with which the well known
+promoter of Americanist investigations, the Duke of Loubat, has presented
+to the Berlin Museum of Ethnology costly originals of reliefs and
+inscriptions for direct study. The representations on the reliefs from
+the Maya region, it is true, give evidence of dealing with kindred
+mythologic conceptions. Figures and hieroglyphs of gods, made familiar by
+the manuscripts, can also be found here and there. But on the whole so
+little appears in support of instituting a comparison with the
+manuscripts, that it seems expedient to leave the inscriptions for
+independent and special study.
+
+
+
+
+I. REPRESENTATIONS OF GODS.
+
+
+A. The Death-God.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 1-6]
+
+God A is represented as a figure with an exposed, bony spine, truncated
+nose and grinning teeth.[10-1] It is plainly to be seen that the head of
+this god represents a skull and that the spine is that of a skeleton. The
+pictures of the death-god are so characteristic in the Maya manuscripts
+that the deity is always easily recognized. He is almost always
+distinguished by the skeleton face and the bony spine. Several times in
+the Dresden manuscript the death-god is pictured with large black spots
+on his body and in Dr. 19b a woman with closed eyes, whose body also
+displays the black spots, is sitting opposite the god. While the Aztecs
+had a male and a female death-deity, in the Maya manuscripts we find the
+death-deity only once represented as feminine, namely on p. 9c of the
+Dresden manuscript. Moreover the Dresden manuscript contains several
+different types of the death-god, having invariably the fleshless skull
+and (with the exception of Dr. 9c) the visible vertebrae of the spine.
+Several times (Dr. 12b and 13b) he is represented apparently with
+distended abdomen. A distinguishing article of his costume is the stiff
+feather collar, which is worn only by this god, his companion, the
+war-god F, and by his animal symbol, the owl, which will both be
+discussed farther on. His head ornament varies in the Dresden Codex; in
+the first portion of the manuscript, relating in part to pregnancy and
+child-birth (see the pictures of women on p. 16, et seq.), he wears on
+his head several times a figure occurring very frequently just in this
+part of the Dresden Codex and apparently representing a snail (compare
+Dr. 12b and 13b), which among the Aztecs is likewise a symbol of
+parturition. In view of these variations in the pictures of the Dresden
+Codex, it is very striking that in the Codex Tro.-Cortesianus, there is
+only one invariable type of the death-god.
+
+    [10-1] See Plate for representations of the gods, A-P
+
+A distinguishing ornament of the death-god consists of globular bells or
+rattles, which he wears on his hands and feet, on his collar and as a
+head ornament. As can be distinctly seen in Dr. 11a, they are fastened
+with bands wound around the forearm and around the leg; in Dr. 15c these
+bells are black.
+
+Among the symbols of the death-god a cross of two bones should be
+mentioned, which is also found in the Mexican manuscripts. This cross of
+bones seems to occur once among the written characters as a hieroglyph
+and then in combination with a number: Tro. 10.* The figure [Death-god
+symbol] is also a frequent symbol of the death-god. Its significance is
+still uncertain, but it also occurs among the hieroglyphs as a death-sign
+and as a sign for the day Cimi (death).
+
+The hieroglyphs of the death-god have been positively determined (see
+Figs. 1 to 4). Figs. 1 and 2 are the forms of the Dresden manuscript and
+Figs. 3 and 4 are those of the Madrid manuscript. God A is almost always
+distinguished by two hieroglyphs, namely Figs. 1 and 2 or 3 and 4.
+Moreover the hieroglyphs are always the same, have scarcely any variants.
+Even in Dr. 9c, where the deity is represented as feminine, there are no
+variations which might denote the change of sex. The hieroglyphs consist
+chiefly of the head of a corpse with closed eyes, and of a skull. The
+design in front of the skull in Figs. 2 and 4 and under it in Fig. 3 is a
+sacrificial knife of flint, which was used in slaying the sacrifices, and
+is also frequently pictured in the Aztec manuscripts. The dots under Fig.
+1 are probably intended to represent blood.
+
+The death-god is represented with extraordinary frequency in all the Maya
+manuscripts. Not only does the figure of the god itself occur, but his
+attributes are found in many places where his picture is missing. Death
+evidently had an important significance in the mythologic conceptions of
+the Mayas. It is connected with sacrifice, especially with human
+sacrifices performed in connection with the captive enemy. Just as we find
+a personification of death in the manuscripts of the Mayas, we also find
+it in the picture-writings of the ancient Mexicans, often surprisingly
+like the pictures of the Maya codices. The Aztec death-god and his myth
+are known through the accounts of Spanish writers; regarding the death-god
+of the Mayas we have less accurate information. Some mention occurs in
+Landa's Relacion de las cosas de Yucatan, Sec. XXIII, but unfortunately
+nothing is said of the manner of representing the death-god. He seems to
+be related to the Aztec Mictlantecutli, of whom Sahagun, Appendix to Book
+III, "De los que iban al infierno y de sus obsequias," treats as the god
+of the dead and of the underworld, Mictlan. When the representations of
+the latter, for example in the Codex Borgia, and in the Codex Vaticanus
+No. 3773, are compared with those of the Maya manuscripts, there can be
+hardly a doubt of the correspondence of the two god figures. In the Codex
+Borgia, p. 37, he is represented once with the same characteristic head
+ornament, which the death-god usually wears in the Maya manuscripts, and
+in the Codex Fejervary, p. 8, the death-god wears a kind of breeches on
+which cross-bones are depicted, exactly as in Dr. 9 (bottom).
+
+Bishop Landa informs us that the Mayas "had great and immoderate dread of
+death." This explains the frequency of the representations of the
+death-god, from whom, as Landa states, "all evil and especially death"
+emanated. Among the Aztecs we find a male and a female death-deity,
+Mictlantecutli and Mictlancihuatl. They were the rulers of the realm of
+the dead, Mictlan, which, according to the Aztec conception, lay in the
+north; hence the death-god was at the same time the god of the north.
+
+It agrees with the calendric and astronomic character of the Maya deities
+in the manuscripts, that a number of the figures of the gods are used in
+connection with specified cardinal points. Since, according to the Aztec
+conception, the death-god was the god of the north, we might expect that
+in the Maya manuscripts also, the death-god would be always considered
+as the deity of the north. Nevertheless this happens only _once_, namely
+in the picture at the end of Codex Cort., pp. 41 and 42. Elsewhere, on
+the other hand, this god is connected with other cardinal points, thus
+Dr. 14a with the west or east (the hieroglyph is illegible, but it can
+be only west or east), and in Dr. 27c with the west. It is interesting
+to note that once, however, in a series of cardinal points, the
+hieroglyph of the death-god connected with the numeral 10 stands just in
+the place of the sign of the north; this is on Tro. 24* (bottom).
+
+In regard to the name of the death-god in the Maya language, Landa tells
+us that the wicked after death were banished to an underworld, the name
+of which was "Mitnal", a word which is defined as "Hell" in the Maya
+lexicon of Pio Perez and which has a striking resemblance to Mictlan, the
+Aztec name for the lower regions. The death-god Hunhau reigned in this
+underworld. According to other accounts (Hernandez), however, the
+death-god is called Ahpuch. These names can in no wise serve as aids to
+the explanation of the hieroglyphs of the death-god, since they have no
+etymologic connection with death or the heads of corpses and skulls,
+which form the main parts of the hieroglyph. Furthermore, the hieroglyphs
+of the gods certainly have a purely ideographic significance as already
+mentioned above, so that any relation between the names of the deities
+and their hieroglyphs cannot exist from the very nature of the case.
+
+The day of the death-god is the day Cimi, death. The day-sign Cimi
+corresponds almost perfectly with the heads of corpses contained in the
+hieroglyphs of the death-god.
+
+A hieroglyphic sign, which relates to death and the death-deity and
+occurs very frequently, is the sign Fig. 5, which is probably to be
+regarded as the ideogram of the owl. It represents the head of an owl,
+while the figure in front of it signifies the owl's ear and the one
+below, its teeth, as distinguishing marks of a bird of prey furnished
+with ears and a powerful beak. The head of the owl appears on a human
+body several times in the Dresden manuscript as a substitute for the
+death-deity, thus Dr. 18c, 19c, 20a and 20c and in other places, and
+the hieroglyphic group (Fig. 5) is almost a regular attendant hieroglyph
+of the death-god.
+
+A series of other figures of the Maya mythology is connected with the
+death-god. This is evident from the fact that his hieroglyphs or his
+symbols occur with certain other figures, which are thus brought into
+connection with death and the death-deity.
+
+These figures are as follows:
+
+1. His companion, god F, the god of war, of human sacrifice and of
+violent death in battle, apparently a counterpart of the Aztec Xipe, who
+will be discussed farther on.
+
+2. The moan bird. See beyond under Mythological Animals, No. 1.
+
+3. The dog. See the same, No. 3.
+
+4. A human figure, possibly representing the priest of the death-god (see
+Dr. 28, centre, Dr. 5b and 9a). The last figure is a little doubtful.
+It is blindfolded and thus recalls the Aztec deity of frost and sin,
+Itztlacoliuhqui. A similar form with eyes bound occurs only once again in
+the Maya manuscripts, namely Dr. 50 (centre). That this figure is related
+to the death-god is proved by the fact that on Dr. 9a it wears the
+Cimi-sign on the middle piece of the chain around its neck. Furthermore
+it should be emphasized that the Aztec sin-god, Itztlacoliuhqui, likewise
+appears with symbols of death.
+
+5. An isolated figure, Dr. 50a (the sitting figure at the right). This
+wears the skull as head ornament, which is represented in exactly the
+same way as in the Aztec manuscripts (see Fig. 6).
+
+6. Another isolated figure is twice represented combined with the
+death-god in Dr. 22c. This picture is so effaced that it is impossible
+to tell what it means. The hieroglyph represents a variant of the
+death's-head, Cimi. It seems to signify an ape, which also in the
+pictures of the Mexican codices was sometimes used in relation to the
+death-god.
+
+The symbols of the death-god are also found with the figure without a
+head on Dr. 2 (45)a, clearly the picture of a beheaded prisoner. Death
+symbols occur, too, with the curious picture of a hanged woman on Dr.
+53b, a picture which is interesting from the fact that it recalls
+vividly a communication of Bishop Landa. Landa tells us, the Mayas
+believed that whoever hanged himself did not go to the underworld, but to
+"paradise," and as a result of this belief, suicide by hanging was very
+common and was chosen on the slightest pretext. Such suicides were
+received in paradise by the goddess of the hanged, Ixtab. Ix is the
+feminine prefix; tab, taab, tabil mean, according to Perez' Lexicon of
+the Maya Language, "cuerda destinada para algun uso exclusivo". The name
+of this strange goddess is, therefore, the "Goddess of the Halter" or, as
+Landa says, "The Goddess of the Gallows". Now compare Dr. 53. On the
+upper half of the page is the death-god represented with hand raised
+threateningly, on the lower half is seen the form of a woman suspended by
+a rope placed around her neck. The closed eye, the open mouth and the
+convulsively outspread fingers, show that she is dead, in fact,
+strangled. It is, in all probability, the goddess of the gallows and
+halter, Ixtab, the patroness of the hanged, who is pictured here in
+company with the death-god; or else it is a victim of this goddess, and
+page 53 of the manuscript very probably refers, therefore (even though
+the two halves do not belong directly together), to the mythologic
+conceptions of death and the lower regions to which Landa alludes.
+
+7. Lastly the owl is to be mentioned as belonging to the death-god,
+which, strange to say, is represented nowhere in the pictures
+realistically and so that it can be recognized, although other mythologic
+animals, as the dog or the moan bird, occur plainly as animals in the
+pictures. On the other hand, the owl's head appears on a human body in
+the Dresden manuscript as a substitute for the death-deity itself, for
+example on Dr. 18c, 19c, 20a and 20c and elsewhere, and forms a
+regular attendant hieroglyph of the death-god in the group of three signs
+already mentioned (Fig. 5).
+
+Among the antiquities from the Maya region of Central America, there are
+many objects and representations, which have reference to the cultus of
+the death-god, and show resemblances to the pictures of the manuscripts.
+The death-god also plays a role, even today, in the popular superstitions
+of the natives of Yucatan, as a kind of spectre that prowls around the
+houses of the sick. His name is Yum Cimil, the lord of death.
+
+
+B. The God With the Large Nose and Lolling Tongue.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 7-10]
+
+The deity, represented most frequently in all the manuscripts, is a
+figure with a long, proboscis-like, pendent nose and a tongue (or teeth,
+fangs) hanging out in front and at the sides of the mouth, also with a
+characteristic head ornament resembling a knotted bow and with a peculiar
+rim to the eye. Fig. 7 is the hieroglyph of this deity. In Codex
+Tro.-Cortesianus it usually has the form of Fig. 8.
+
+God B is evidently one of the most important of the Maya pantheon. He
+must be a universal deity, to whom the most varied elements, natural
+phenomena and activities are subject. He is represented with different
+attributes and symbols of power, with torches in his hands as symbols of
+fire, sitting in the water and on the water, standing in the rain, riding
+in a canoe, enthroned on the clouds of heaven and on the cross-shaped
+tree of the four points of the compass, which, on account of its likeness
+to the Christian emblem, has many times been the subject of fantastic
+hypotheses. We see the god again on the Cab-sign, the symbol of the
+earth, with weapons, axe and spears, in his hands, planting kernels of
+maize, on a journey (Dr. 65b) staff in hand and a bundle on his back,
+and fettered (Dr. 37a) with arms bound behind his back. His entire myth
+seems to be recorded in the manuscripts. The great abundance of symbolism
+renders difficult the characterization of the deity, and it is well-nigh
+impossible to discover that a single mythologic idea underlies the whole.
+God B is quite often connected with the serpent, without exhibiting
+affinity with the Chicchan-god H (see p. 28). In Dr. 33b, 34b and 35b,
+the serpent is in the act of devouring him, or he is rising up out of the
+serpent's jaws, as is plainly indicated also by the hieroglyphs, for they
+contain the group given in Fig. 10, which is composed of the rattle of
+the rattlesnake and the opened hand as a symbol of seizing and
+absorption. God B himself is pictured with the body of a serpent in Dr.
+35b and 36a (compare No. 2 of the Mythological Animals). He likewise
+occurs sitting on the serpent and in Dr. 66a he is twice (1st and 3d
+figures) pictured with a snake in his hand.
+
+God B sits on the moan head in Dr. 38c, on a head with the Cauac-sign in
+Dr. 39c, 66c, and on the dog in Dr. 29a. All these pictures are meant
+to typify his abode in the air, above rain, storm and death-bringing
+clouds, from which the lightning falls. The object with the cross-bones
+of the death-god, on which he sits in Dr. 66c, can perhaps be explained
+in the same manner. As the fish belongs to god B in a symbolic sense, so
+the god is represented fishing in Dr. 44 (1). His face with the large
+nose and the tongue (or fangs) hanging out on the side in Dr. 44 (1)a
+(1st figure) is supposed to be a mask which the priest, representing the
+god, assumes during the religious ceremony.
+
+Furthermore the following four well-known symbols of sacrificial gifts
+appear in connection with god B in the Dresden manuscript; a sprouting
+kernel of maize (or, according to Foerstemann, parts of a mammal, game), a
+fish, a lizard and a vulture's head, as symbols of the four elements.
+They seem to occur, however, in relation also to other deities and
+evidently are general symbols of sacrificial gifts. Thus they occur on
+the two companion initial pages of the Codex Tro.-Cortesianus, on which
+the hieroglyphs of gods C and K are repeated in rows (Tro. 36-Cort. 22.
+Compare Foerstemann, Kommentar zur Madrider Handschrift, pp. 102, 103).
+God B is also connected with the four colors--yellow, red, white and
+black--which, according to the conception of the Mayas, correspond to the
+cardinal points (yellow, air; red, fire; white, water; black, earth) and
+the god himself is occasionally represented with a black body, for
+example on Dr. 29c, 31c and 69. This is expressed in the hieroglyphs by
+the sign, Fig. 9, which signifies black and is one of the four signs of
+the symbolic colors for the cardinal points.
+
+God B is represented with all the _four cardinal points_, a
+characteristic, which he shares only with god C, god K, and, in one
+instance, with god F (see Tro. 29*c); he appears as ruler of all the
+points of the compass; north, south, east and west as well as air, fire,
+water and earth are subject to him.
+
+Opinions concerning the significance of this deity are much divided. It
+is most probable that he is Kukulcan, a figure occurring repeatedly in
+the mythology of the Central American peoples and whose name, like that
+of the kindred deity Quetzalcoatl among the Aztecs and Gucumatz among the
+Quiches, means the "feathered serpent", "the bird serpent". Kukulcan and
+Gucumatz are those figures of Central American mythology, to which belong
+the legends of the creation of the world and of mankind. Furthermore
+Kukulcan is considered as the founder of civilization, as the builder of
+cities, as hero-god, and appears in another conception as the rain-deity,
+and--since the serpent has a mythologic relation to water--as serpent
+deity. J. Walter Fewkes, who has made this god-figure of the Maya
+manuscripts the subject of a monograph (A Study of Certain Figures in a
+Maya Codex, in American Anthropologist, Vol. VII, No. 3, Washington,
+1894), also inclines to the belief that B is the god Kukulcan, whom he
+conceives of as a serpent-and rain-deity. This view has been accepted by
+Foerstemann (Die Tagegoetter der Mayas, Globus, Vol. 73, No. 10) and also
+by Cyrus Thomas (Aids to the Study of the Maya Codices, Washington,
+1888). The same opinion is held also by E. P. Dieseldorff, who, a
+resident of Guatemala, the region of the ancient Maya civilization, has
+instituted excavations which have been successful in furnishing most
+satisfactory material for these researches (see Dieseldorff: Kukulcan,
+Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie, 1895, p. 780). Others have considered god B
+as the first parent and lord of the heavens, Itzamna who has a mythologic
+importance analogous to that of Kukulcan. Itzamna is also held to be the
+god of creation and founder of civilization and accordingly seems to be
+not very remotely allied to the god Kukulcan. Others again, for example
+Brasseur de Bourbourg and Seler, have interpreted the figure of god B to
+represent the fourfold god of the cardinal points and rain-god Chac, a
+counterpart of the Aztec rain-god Tlaloc. The fact that this god-figure
+is so frequently connected with the serpent and the bird is strongly in
+favor of the correctness of the supposition, that we should see in god B
+a figure corresponding to the Kukulcan of tradition. Thus we see the god
+represented once with the body of a serpent and with a bird near by
+(Cort. 10b), while B's hieroglyph appears both times in the text. God B
+is also pictured elsewhere repeatedly with a serpent body, thus for
+example on Dr. 35b, 36a. On pages 4-6 of the Codex Cortesianus he is
+pictured six times and each time in connection with a serpent.
+
+The accounts we have received concerning the mythology of the Maya
+peoples are very meagre and owing to the uncertainty respecting the
+origin of the Maya manuscripts, it cannot even be determined which of
+these accounts are applicable to the Maya manuscripts, or, indeed,
+whether they are applicable at all. For it is by no means positively
+proved that these manuscripts did not originate in regions of Maya
+culture, regarding which we have received no accounts at all. As our
+present purpose is purely that of description and determination, it
+remains quite unimportant which of these recorded figures of gods shall
+be regarded as god B.
+
+God B is nearly allied to, but in no wise identical with, the deity with
+the large ornamented nose, designated by K, who will be discussed farther
+on. God K is an independent deity designated by a special hieroglyph, but
+like C he stands in an unknown relation to God B (for details see K).
+
+Finally it should be mentioned, that god B never appears with death
+symbols. He is clearly a deity of life and creation, in contrast to the
+powers of death and destruction.
+
+His day seems to be Ik (aspiration, breath, life). (Compare Foerstemann,
+Die Tagegoetter der Mayas, Globus, Vol. 73, No. 10).
+
+
+C. The God with the Ornamented Face.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 11-16]
+
+This is one of the most remarkable and most difficult figures of the Maya
+manuscripts, and shows, at the same time, how imperfect must be the
+information we have received in regard to the Maya mythology, since from
+the frequency of his representations he is obviously one of the most
+important deities and yet can be identified with none of the
+representations of gods handed down to us. His hieroglyph is definitely
+determined (Figs. 11, 12). The circular design in front of the forehead
+of the hieroglyph head seems, as a variant from the Codex Tro. (Fig. 12)
+leads us to suppose, to denote the ideographic representation of pouring
+out or emptying a vessel, the contents of which flow into the mouth of
+the god. Another variant of this prefix occurs in Tro. 13*b; Fig. 15,
+the symbol of the sacrificial knife, and instead of the prefix the
+numeral 13 occurs in one instance! (Tro. 12*c). The head alone, without
+any accessory symbol whatever, is also found a few times, not in the
+text, however, but only in the pictures, for example Cort. 10 (bottom)
+and Tro. 13* (bottom). This deity does not occur very often in the
+Dresden manuscript, the places where it is depicted are: Dr. 5a, 6c,
+13b, 35a, 68a, and as a subordinate figure on 8c, 42a. His
+hieroglyph occurs alone a few times, as in Dr. 4; it is more frequent in
+the Madrid manuscript. It appears on pp. 15 to 18 of the Paris
+manuscript.
+
+In regard to the significance of this deity, he doubtless represents the
+personification of a heavenly body of astronomic importance, probably the
+polar star. In Codex Cort. 10 (bottom), his head is represented
+surrounded by a nimbus of rays, which can only mean a star (see Fig. 13).
+On the lower part of the same page, the third picture from the left, we
+again see the deity hanging from the sky in a kind of rope. Furthermore
+it appears in Codex Tro. 20, 22 and 23 (centre) Fig. 14, in the familiar
+rectangular planet signs. Tro. 17* (at the top) the head surmounts the
+cross-shaped tree of god B, which denotes the lofty, celestial abode.
+Indeed, these passages prove positively that a heavenly body underlies
+the idea of this deity.
+
+Furthermore, the head of this god recurs in entire rows in the calendric
+group of tabular form on the so-called initial page of the Codex Tro. 36,
+with its continuation in the Cort. p. 22, and in exactly the same manner
+in the allied passage of Tro. 14 (middle and bottom). In addition, his
+head is contained in the symbol for the north (Fig. 16); the head
+contained in this sign is in fact nothing else than the head of god C.
+
+Brinton also accepts this interpretation of god C. According to
+Foerstemann (Die Mayahieroglyphen, Globus, Vol. 71, No. 5), the fact that
+the figure of god C in the Tonalamatl in Dr. 4a-10a occurs on the day
+Chuen of the Maya calendar, which corresponds to the day Ozomatli, the
+ape, in the Aztec calendar, seems to indicate that the singular head of C
+is that of an _ape_, whose lateral nasal cavity (peculiar to the American
+ape or monkey) is occasionally represented plainly in the hieroglyph
+picture. Hence it might further be assumed that god C symbolizes not the
+polar star alone, but rather the entire _constellation of the Little
+Bear_. And, in fact, the figure of a long-tailed ape is quite appropriate
+to the constellation, at any rate decidedly more so than the Bear;
+indeed, it suggests the prehensile tail by means of which the ape could
+attach himself to the pole and in the form of the constellation swing
+around the pole as around a fixed point.
+
+These astronomical surmises seem to be contradicted by the fact that god
+C, as already stated, is represented with all the four cardinal points
+(compare for example Cort. 10 and 11, bottom), which would certainly seem
+to harmonize ill with his personification of the north star, unless we
+assume, that in a different conception of the polar star he is ruler of
+the cardinal points, which are determined from him as a centre.
+
+It has already been remarked of B, that the deity C appears to stand in
+some sort of relation to him. In fact, we find on those pages of the
+Dresden manuscript, where B is represented with the four cardinal points,
+that the hieroglyph of C almost always occurs in the text also (for
+example Dr. 29, et seq., especially Dr. 32c). Indeed, C's hieroglyph is
+connected even with the signs of the symbolic colors of the cardinal
+points, already mentioned in connection with B.
+
+Finally, it should be borne in mind, that god C also seems to be
+connected in some way with the serpent (compare Dr. 36b, 1st and 3d
+pictures).
+
+According to Foerstemann, the day ruled by C seems to be Chuen.
+
+
+D. The Moon- and Night-God.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 17-20]
+
+This is a deity who is pictured in the form of an old man with an aged
+face and sunken, toothless mouth. He is frequently characterized by a
+long, pendent head ornament, in which is the sign Akbal, darkness, night,
+which also appears in his hieroglyph before the forehead of the deity,
+surrounded by dots as an indication of the starry sky. His name-hieroglyph
+is Fig. 17, and a second sign almost always follows (Fig. 18) which
+evidently serves likewise as a designation of the god, just as god A also
+is always designated by _two_ hieroglyphs. The second sign consists of
+two sacrificial knives and the sign of the day Ahau, which is equivalent
+to "king".
+
+The head of this deity appears in reduced, cursive form as the sign of
+the moon (Fig. 20). This character also has the significance of 20 as a
+number sign in the calendar. The association of these ideas probably
+rests upon the ancient conceptions, according to which the moon
+appearing, waxing, waning and again disappearing, was compared to man,
+and man in primeval ages was the most primitive calculating machine,
+being equivalent, from the sum of his fingers and toes, to the number 20.
+Twenty days is also the duration of that period during which the moon
+(aside from the new moon) is really _alive_. Moreover the sign (Fig. 20)
+appears in many places as a counterpart of the sign for the sun.
+
+God D occurs once as feminine in the same passage mentioned above, in
+which the death-deity is also pictured as feminine (Dr. 9c). In a few
+other places the god is, curiously enough, depicted with a short beard,
+as Dr. 4c, 7a, 27b. He seems to stand in an unknown relation to the
+water-goddess I (see this deity) with the serpent as a head ornament,
+compare Dr. 9c, where apparently this goddess is represented, though the
+text has D's sign; still it is possible that god D is pictured here with
+the attributes of goddess I.
+
+God D is not connected with the grim powers of destruction; he never
+appears with death symbols. In Dr. 5c and 9a he wears the snail on his
+head. He seems, therefore, like god A to be connected with birth. In Dr.
+8c he is connected with god C, and this is quite appropriate, if we look
+upon these gods as heavenly bodies. The aged face, the sunken, toothless
+mouth are his distinguishing marks. In the Madrid manuscript, where god D
+occurs with special frequency, his chief characteristic, by which he is
+always easily recognized, is the single tooth in his under-jaw (see Fig.
+19), compare too Dr. 8c, where the solitary tooth is also to be seen. In
+Dr. 9a (1st figure) the god holds in his hand a kind of sprinkler with
+the rattles of the rattlesnake, as Landa (Cap. 26) describes the god in
+connection with the rite of infant baptism (see also Cort. 26, Tro. 7*a
+and 13*c)
+
+A very remarkable passage is Tro. 15*; there a figure is pictured carving
+with a hatchet a head, which it holds in its hand. Above it are four
+hieroglyphs. The first shows a hatchet and the moon; the second probably
+represents simply a head, while the third and fourth are those of god D,
+the moon-god. This passage, the meaning of which is unfortunately still
+obscure seems to contain a definite explanation of god D.
+
+J. Walter Fewkes has made god D the subject of a special, very detailed
+monograph (The God "D" in the Codex Cortesianus, Washington, 1895) in
+which he has treated also of gods B and G, whom he considers allied to D.
+He believes D to be the god Itzamna, as do also Foerstemann, Cyrus Thomas
+and Seler, and sees sun-gods in all three of these deities. Whether god D
+is to be separated from G and B as an independent deity, Fewkes thinks is
+doubtful. Brinton again holds that god D is Kukulcan. These different
+opinions show, at all events, on what uncertain grounds such attempts at
+interpretation stand, and that it is best to be satisfied with
+designating the deities by letters and collecting material for their
+purely descriptive designation.
+
+According to Foerstemann the calendar day devoted to D is Ahau.
+
+
+E. The Maize-God.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 21-27]
+
+This god bears on his head the Kan-sign and above it the ear of maize
+with leaves (Fig. 23); compare Dr. 9b (left figure), 11b, 12a, etc.
+The hieroglyph is definitely determined (Fig. 21). The god is identical
+with the figures recurring with especial frequency in the Madrid
+manuscript, the heads of which are prolonged upward and curved backward
+in a peculiar manner; compare Cort. 15a, 20c, 40 (bottom), Tro. 32*b
+(Figs. 25-27) and especially the representation in Dr. 50a (Fig. 24),
+which is very distinct. This head was evolved out of the conventional
+drawing of the ear of maize; compare the pictures of the maize plant in
+the Codex Tro., p. 29b (Fig. 22) with the head ornament of the god in
+Dr. 9b (Fig. 23), 9a, 12a; what was originally a head ornament finally
+passed into the form of the head itself, so that the latter appears now
+as an ear of maize surrounded by leaves. Compare the pictures, Figs.
+25-27. That these gods with elongated heads are, in point of fact,
+identical with E is plainly seen from the passage in Dr. 2 (45)c (first
+figure). There the figure represented, which is exactly like the pictures
+in the Madrid manuscript, is designated explicitly as god E by the third
+hieroglyph in the accompanying writing.
+
+The hieroglyph of this deity is thus explained; it is the head of the god
+merged into the conventionalized form of the ear of maize surrounded by
+leaves. When we remember that the Maya nations practised the custom of
+artificially deforming the skull, as is seen in particular on the reliefs
+at Palenque, we may also regard the heads of these deities as
+representations of such artificially flattened skulls.
+
+God E occurs frequently as the god of husbandry, especially in the Madrid
+manuscript, which devotes much attention to agriculture. He seems to be a
+counterpart of the Mexican maize-god Centeotl. The passages in the Madrid
+manuscript (Tro. 29a and Cort. 39a, 40a) are very remarkable, where
+the deity E is represented in the position of a woman in labor with
+numerals on the abdomen; perhaps the underlying idea is that of
+fruitfulness.
+
+In the Codex Cort., p. 40, this grain-deity is pictured with a tall and
+slender vessel before him, which he holds in his hands. It is possible
+that this is meant to suggest a grain receptacle; to be sure, in the same
+place, other figures of gods likewise have such vessels in their hands.
+At any rate, it is interesting to note that in the passage already
+mentioned (Dr. 50a) god E also holds a similar tall and slender vessel
+in his hands.
+
+According to all appearances the scene pictured in Dr. 50a has reference
+to the conflict of the grain-god with a death-deity. The latter, the
+figure sitting on the right, is characterized by a skull as a head
+ornament (see Fig. 6) and seems to address threats or commands to god E,
+who stands before him in the attitude of a terrified and cowed
+individual.
+
+Furthermore god E has nothing to do with the powers of the underworld; he
+is a god of life, of prosperity and fruitfulness; symbols of death are
+never found in connection with him. Brinton calls this god Ghanan,
+equivalent to Kan; it is possible, too, that he is identical with a deity
+Yum Kaax who has been handed down to us and whose name means "Lord of the
+harvest fields".
+
+According to Foerstemann the day dedicated to this god is Kan.
+
+
+F. The God of War and of Human Sacrifices.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 28-34]
+
+This is a deity closely related to the death-god A, resembling the Aztec
+Xipe, and may, I think, without hesitation be regarded simply as the god
+of human sacrifice, perhaps, even more generally, as the god of death by
+violence. His hieroglyph is Figs. 28-30; it contains the number 11. A
+variant of this occurs on Dr. 7b, where instead of the 11 there is the
+following sign: [Hieroglyph]
+
+The characteristic mark of god F is a single black line usually running
+perpendicularly down the face in the vicinity of the eye. This line
+should be distinguished from the parallel lines of C's face and from the
+line, which, as a continuation of god E's head resembling an ear of
+maize, frequently appears on his face, especially as in the variants of
+the Madrid manuscript (compare Figs. 25-27). These pictures of E can
+always be unfailingly recognized by the peculiar shape of the head and
+should be distinguished from those representing F. The black face-line is
+the distinguishing mark of god F, just as it is of the Aztec Xipe. It
+sometimes runs in a curve over the cheek as a thick, black stripe, as
+Cort. 42. Sometimes it encircles the eye only (Dr. 6a) and again it is a
+dotted double line (Dr. 6b). The hieroglyph of god F likewise exhibits
+this line and with the very same variants as the god himself. See the
+hieroglyphs of the god belonging to the pictures in Dr. 6a, 1st and 3d
+figures, in which the line likewise differs from the other forms (Figs.
+30-34).
+
+In a few places god F is pictured with the same black lines _on his
+entire body_, which elsewhere he has only on his face, the lines being
+like those in Fig. 31, namely Tro. 27*c. Indeed, in Tro. 28*c, the
+death-god A likewise has these black lines on his body and also F's line
+on his face; a clear proof of the close relationship of the two deities.
+These lines probably signify gaping death-wounds and the accompanying
+rows of dots are intended to represent the blood.
+
+Since god F is a death-deity the familiar sign (Fig. 5), which occurs so
+frequently with the hieroglyphs of A, also belongs to his symbols. F is
+pictured in company with the death-god in connection with human sacrifice
+(Cort. 42); an exactly similar picture of the two gods of human sacrifice
+is given in Codex Tro. 30d; here, too, they sit opposite one another.
+The identity of this attendant of death with the deity, designated by the
+hieroglyph with the numeral 11, is proved by the following passages:
+Tro. 19, bottom (on the extreme right hand without picture, only
+hieroglyph, see Fig. 29), Dr. 5b, 6a, b, and c and many others. In
+some of the passages cited (Dr. 5a and b) he is distinguished by an
+unusually large ear-peg. His hieroglyph occurs with the hieroglyph of the
+death-god in Dr. 6c, where he is himself not pictured.
+
+As war-god, god F occurs combined with the death-god in the passages
+mentioned above (Tro. 27*-29*c), where he sets the houses on fire with
+his torch and demolishes them with his spear.
+
+God F occurs quite frequently in the manuscripts and must therefore be
+considered as one of the more important deities.
+
+According to Foerstemann his day is Manik, the seizing, grasping hand,
+symbolizing the capturing of an enemy in war for sacrificial purposes.
+
+F's sign occurs once, as mentioned above, in fourfold repetition with all
+the four cardinal points, namely in Tro. 29*c. In ancient Central
+America the captured enemy was sacrificed and thus the conceptions of the
+war-god and of the god of death by violence and by human sacrifice are
+united in the figure of god F. In this character god F occurs several
+times in the Madrid manuscript in combat with M, the god of travelling
+merchants (see page 35). Spanish writers do not mention a deity of the
+kind described here as belonging to the Maya pantheon.
+
+
+G. The Sun-God.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 35-36]
+
+God G's hieroglyph (Fig. 35) contains as its chief factor the sun-sign
+Kin. It is one of the signs (of which there are about 12 in the
+manuscripts), which has the Ben-ik prefix and doubtless denotes a month
+dedicated to the sun. There is, I think, no difference of opinion
+regarding the significance of this deity, although Fewkes, as already
+stated, is inclined to identify G with B, whom, it is true, the former
+resembles. It is surprising that a deity who from his nature must be
+considered as very important, is represented with such comparative
+infrequency. He occurs only a few times in the Dresden manuscript, for
+example 22b, 11c, and in the Codex Tro.-Cortesianus none can be found
+among the figures which could be safely regarded as the sun-god; in no
+manuscript except the Dresden does a deity occur wearing the sun-sign Kin
+on his body. But once in the Codex Cort. the figure of D appears with the
+sun-sign on his head, as pointed out by Fewkes in his article entitled
+"The God 'D' in the Codex Cortesianus". G's hieroglyph, to be sure, is
+found repeatedly in the Madrid manuscript, for example Codex Tro. 31c.
+
+God G seems to be not wholly without relation to the powers of death; the
+owl-sign (Fig. 5) occurs once in connection with him (Dr. 11c). Besides
+the sun-sign Kin, which the god bears on his body, his representations
+are distinguished by a peculiar nose ornament (Fig. 36) which, as may be
+seen by comparison with other similar pictures in the Dresden manuscript,
+is nothing but a large and especially elaborate nose-peg. Similar
+ornaments are rather common just here in the carefully drawn first part
+of the Dresden manuscript. Compare Dr. 22b (middle figure), 21 (centre),
+17b, 14a, b; occasionally they also have the shape of a flower, for
+example 12b (centre), 11c (left), 19a. Lastly it is worthy of note,
+that god G is sometimes represented with a snake-like tongue protruding
+from his mouth, as in Dr. 11b and c.
+
+
+H. The Chicchan-God.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 37-40]
+
+The figure of a deity of frequent occurrence in the Dresden manuscript is
+a god, who is characterized by a skin-spot or a scale of a serpent on his
+temple of the same shape as the hieroglyph of the day Chicchan (serpent).
+Moreover the representations of the god himself differ very much, so that
+there are almost no other positive, unvarying characteristic marks to be
+specified. His picture is plainly recognizable and has the Chicchan-mark
+on the temple in Dr. 11a, 12b and 20b.
+
+The hieroglyph belonging to this deity likewise displays the
+Chicchan-sign as its distinguishing mark. Furthermore several variants
+occur. The Chicchan-sign has sometimes the form of Fig. 37 and again that
+of Fig. 38. The prefix likewise differs very much, having sometimes the
+form of Fig. 37, and again that of Fig. 38 or of Figs. 39 and 40. Thus
+there are, in all, four different forms of the prefix. It is to be
+assumed that all these hieroglyphs have the same meaning, notwithstanding
+their variations. Taking into consideration the frequency of the
+variations of other hieroglyphs of gods and of the hieroglyphs in the
+Maya manuscripts in general, it is quite improbable from the nature of
+the case, that a hieroglyph, which displays so great an agreement in its
+essential and characteristic elements, should denote several different
+gods. The dissimilarity which Seler thinks he finds between the forms of
+the Chicchan-sign in Figs. 37 and 38 and which leads him to assume that
+Fig. 37 is not a Chicchan-sign at all, but that it denotes another face
+ornament, cannot be satisfactorily proved, and must be regarded as an
+arbitrary assumption. The Chicchan-mark in the sign of the day Chicchan
+also differs very much from that on the bodies of the serpents pictured
+in the manuuscripts, so that variations of this kind by no means make it
+necessary to assume that the hieroglyphs actually denote different
+things. Observe, for example, the different Chicchan-spots on the
+serpent's body in Tro. 27a. The crenelated, black border of the
+Chicchan-spot in Fig. 38 passes in rapid cursive drawing almost of itself
+into the scallops of Fig. 37, a transition to which there are distinct
+tendencies on the serpent's body in Tro. 27a. Nor does the fact, that
+under H's hieroglyph different personages are very often pictured, whom
+we cannot positively identify, compel the assumption that we have here
+not _one_, but two or more mythical figures, for the same is true of
+other hieroglyphs of gods. There are many places in the manuscripts where
+the text contains a definite well-known hieroglyph of a god, while the
+accompanying picture represents some other deity or some other figure not
+definitely characterized, perhaps merely a human form (priest, warrior,
+woman and the like). Thus in Dr. 4a we see H's hieroglyph in the text,
+but the picture is the figure of god P while in other places we miss the
+characteristic Chicchan-spot on the figure represented, for example Dr.
+4c, 6a, 7b, 7c, 14a, 21c. In the Madrid manuscript, it is true, H's
+hieroglyph also occurs often enough, but _not in a single instance_ is a
+deity represented displaying the Chicchan-spot. This fact is, I think, to
+be explained by the coarser style of the drawing, which does not admit of
+representing such fine details as in the Dresden manuscript. In the Paris
+manuscript H's hieroglyph occurs but once (p. 8, bottom).
+
+Seler thinks he recognizes in some of the figures represented under H's
+hieroglyph in the manuscripts, a so-called "young god". Such a deity is
+unknown and the assumption is entirely arbitrary. Apparently this "young
+god" is an invention of Brinton. The purely inductive and descriptive
+study of the manuscripts does not prove the existence of such a
+personage, and we must decline to admit him as the result of deductive
+reasoning. In this so-called "young god", we miss, first of all, a
+characteristic mark, a distinct peculiarity such as belongs to all the
+figures of gods in the manuscripts without exception and by which he
+could be recognized. Except his so-called youthfulness, however, no such
+definite marks are to be found. Furthermore there is no figure of a god
+in the manuscripts which would not be designated by a definite
+characteristic hieroglyph. No such hieroglyph can be proved as belonging
+to the "young god". The figures, which are supposed to have a "youthful
+appearance" in the Madrid manuscript, often convey this impression merely
+in consequence of their smallness and of the pitiful, squatting attitude
+in which they are represented. Furthermore real _children_ do occur here
+and there, thus, for example, in the Dresden manuscript in connection
+with the pictures of women in the first part and in Tro. 20*c in the
+representation of the so-called "infant baptism."
+
+That god H has some relation to the serpent must be conjectured from what
+has been said. Thus, for example, on Dr. 15b, we see his hieroglyph
+belonging to the figure of a woman with the knotted serpent on her head,
+in Dr. 4a to the god P, who there bears a serpent in his hand, and in
+Dr. 35b in connection with a serpent with B's head. What this relation
+is, cannot now be stated.
+
+The day dedicated to god H is Chicchan, and the sign for this day is his
+distinguishing hieroglyph.
+
+
+I. The Water-Goddess.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41]
+
+In the Dresden manuscript the figure of an old woman, with the body
+stained brown and claws in place of feet, occurs repeatedly. She wears on
+her head a knotted serpent and with her hands pours water from a vessel.
+Evidently we have here a personification of water in its quality of
+destroyer, a goddess of floods and cloud-bursts, which, as we know, play
+an important part in Central America. Page 27, of the Codex Troano
+contains a picture, in which this character of goddess I may be
+distinctly recognized. In accordance with this character, also on Dr. 74,
+where something resembling a flood is represented, she wears the
+cross-bones of the death-god.
+
+The goddess is pictured in the manner described in the following places:
+Dr. 39b, 43b, 67a and 74. The figure corresponding to her in the
+Madrid manuscript, in Tro. 27 and 34*c, displays some variations, in
+particular the tiger claws on the feet and the red-brown color of the
+body are lacking. But the agreement cannot be questioned, I think, when
+we recall that the Maya manuscripts doubtless originated in different
+ages and different areas of civilization, circumstances which readily
+explain such variations. The goddess distinguished in the Madrid
+manuscript by symbols of flood and water is doubtless the same as goddess
+I of the Dresden manuscript described above; her unmistakable character
+of water-goddess in both manuscripts is in favor of this. In both
+manuscripts she is invariably distinguished by the serpent on her head,
+which, as we know, is a symbol of the water flowing along and forming
+waves.
+
+Strange to say, a fixed hieroglyph of this goddess cannot be proved with
+certainty. There is some probability in favor of the sign given in Fig.
+41. The well-known oblong signs, which Foerstemann (Drei Mayahieroglyphen,
+published in the Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie, 1901, pp. 215-221) interprets
+as the sign for evil days, frequently occur with her. This would be
+appropriate for the goddess of floods.
+
+In the Dresden manuscript a few similar figures of women are found, who,
+like goddess I, wear a knotted serpent on the head. Representations of
+this kind occur in Dr. 9c, 15b, 18a, 20a, 22b and 23b. Whether they
+are identical with goddess I is doubtful, since there is no symbolic
+reference to water in these passages. Besides, the hieroglyphs of other
+known deities occur each time in the above-mentioned places, so that
+definite mythologic relations must be assumed to exist here between the
+women repsented and the deities in question. Thus in Dr. 9c we find D's
+sign, in 15b that of H; on 18a, 22b and 23b we see only the general
+sign for a woman. In Dr. 20a the signs are effaced.
+
+In the Codex Troano goddess I occurs on pp. 25b and 27; there is also a
+woman with the knotted serpent on her head in Tro. 34*c. In the Codex
+Cortesianus and in the Paris manuscript these forms are wholly lacking.
+
+
+K. The God with the Ornamented Nose.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 42-43]
+
+This god, as already mentioned in connection with B, is not identical
+with the latter, but is probably closely related to him. His hieroglyph
+is Fig. 42; Fig. 43 is the form in the Madrid manuscript. He is closely
+related to god B. He is represented in Dr. 25 (centre) where he is
+perhaps conceived of as a priest wearing a mask with the face of the god,
+also in Dr. 7a, 12a (with his own hieroglyph and that of E!), 26
+(bottom) with a variant of the sign. His figure without the hieroglyph
+occurs in Dr. 3. Very frequently the well-known group, 3 Oc, is given
+with him and in connection with his hieroglyph (in Dr. 3, 7a, 10b
+(right); without picture, 12a). Foerstemann (Drei Mayahieroglyphen,
+Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie, 1901. pp 215-221) sees in this the sign for
+good days, a proof that we have to do here with a benevolent deity well
+disposed to mankind, his kinship with B being also in favor of this
+interpretation. His hieroglyph alone without his picture occurs in Dr.
+10b, 49 (middle and bottom), 58 (bottom, left), and Tro. 8*b; with a
+variant of the attribute in Dr. 24 (third vertical row). A slight
+variation appears also in Dr. 69 (top, right).
+
+In Dr. 65a (middle) B is pictured. But in the text we see K's hieroglyph
+presented by a hand. The next figure on the same page at the right
+represents god B with the head of K on his own and the same head once
+more in his hand. Agreeing with this, we find in the accompanying text
+the signs of B and K, the latter in a hand. K seems to be pictured again
+in Dr. 46 (bottom); the passage, however, is somewhat obliterated. The
+hieroglyph is lacking in this place; it is found, however, on the
+preceding page 45 (middle).
+
+In addition to the passage already mentioned, which represents god K
+together with B, such double deities again occur in the Paris manuscript,
+p. 13, where B holds K's head in his hand; in Dr. 34b, where he carries
+this head on his own and in Dr. 67a where he appears to carry it in a
+rope. Once, how ever, a variation of these plainly synonymous
+representations occurs, namely in Dr. 49 (at the top), where we see a
+_feminine_ form above whose head rises the head of god K. In the Paris
+manuscript, so far as its defaced condition permits us to recognize the
+representation, K occurs very frequently, as for example, in Per. 3, 4, 5,
+6, 7 and 9 (in part only his head is given, presented by god B, as in the
+Dresden manuscript).
+
+Brinton considers this figure simply as a special manifestation of B and
+identical with that god. Foerstemann thinks that god K is a storm-deity,
+whose ornamental nose, according to the conventional mode of drawing of
+the Central American peoples, is intended to represent the blast of the
+storm.
+
+Apparently, however, the deity has an _astronomic significance_ and seems
+to symbolize a _star_. In favor of this is the fact, that on the
+so-called initial pages of the Madrid manuscript (Cort. 22-Tro. 36) a
+row, composed of repetitions of his sign, occurs below the signs of the
+cardinal points and parallel to a row composed of signs of god C, the
+god of the polar star and the north. The hieroglyphs of C and K are the
+only hieroglyphs of gods, which are repeated 13 times on these pages with
+the 13 days enumerated there. The two gods must, therefore, have either a
+parallel or an opposite astronomic and calendric meaning. The fact that
+in Dr. 25 and 26 K appears as regent of the year, is an argument in favor
+of his astronomic significance.
+
+According to Foerstemann, Muluc is the day dedicated to god K.
+
+In the head of god K we recognize the ornament so common in the temple
+ruins of Central America--the so-called "elephant's trunk." The peculiar,
+conventionalized face, with the projecting proboscis-shaped nose, which is
+applied chiefly to the corners of temple walls, displays unquestionably
+the features of god K. The significance of god K in this architectural
+relation is unknown. Some connection with his character as the deity of a
+star and with his astronomic qualities may, however, be assumed, since, as
+we know, the temple structures of Central America are always placed with
+reference _to the cardinal points_.
+
+
+L. The Old, Black God.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44]
+
+God L's features are those of an old man with sunken, toothless mouth.
+His hieroglyph is Fig. 44, which is characterized by the black face.
+
+God L, who is also black, must not be confounded with M whose description
+follows. L is represented and designated by his hieroglyph in the
+accompanying text, in Dr. 14b and 14c and Dr. 46b; the figure has the
+characteristic black face. He appears entirely black in Dr. 7a. The
+hieroglyph alone occurs in Dr. 21b and 24 (third vertical line in the
+first passage) with a variation, namely without the Ymix-sign before the
+head. This deity does not occur in the Madrid and Paris manuscripts.
+
+The significance of god L does not appear from the few pictures, which
+are given of him. In Dr. 46b the god is pictured armed and in warlike
+attitude. Both in Dr. 14b and 14c he wears a bird on his head and has a
+Kan in his hand.
+
+According to Foerstemann, his day is Akbal, darkness, night.
+
+Cyrus Thomas (Aids to the Study of the Maya Codices, in the 6th Annual
+Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1888, p. 358) thinks he is
+the god Ekchuah, who has come down to us as a black deity. God M seems,
+however, to correspond to Ekchuah (see the description of M).
+
+
+M. The Black God with the Red Lips.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 45-48]
+
+God M's hieroglyph is Figs. 45, 46; it seems to represent an eye rimmed
+with black, though the figure of the god himself displays an entirely
+different drawing of the eye (see Fig. 47).
+
+The god is found in the Dresden manuscript only three times, namely in
+Dr. 16b (with a bone in his hand) in picture and sign, in Dr. 13c
+grouped with an animal, without the hieroglyph, and in Dr. 43a (with his
+sign) while finally his hieroglyph alone appears in Dr. 56 (top, left) in
+a group and of a somewhat different form.
+
+On the other hand, god M appears with special frequency in the Madrid
+manuscript, which treats of this deity with great fullness of detail.
+While he is represented in the Dresden manuscript (16b) with his body
+striped black and white, and on p. 43a entirely white, he is always
+entirely black in the Codex Troano. His other distinguishing marks are
+the following:
+
+1. The mouth encircled by a red-brown border.
+
+2. The large, drooping under lip. By this he can be recognized with
+certainty also in Dr. 43a.
+
+3. The two curved lines at the right of the eye.
+
+His significance can be conjectured. He seems to be of a warlike nature,
+for he is almost always represented armed with the lance and also as
+engaged in combat and, in some instances, pierced by the lance of his
+opponent, god F, for example in Tro. 3c, 7a, 29*a. The peculiar object
+with parallel stripes, which he wears on his head is a rope from which a
+package frequently hangs. By means of a rope placed around his head the
+god frequently carries a bale of merchandise, as is the custom today
+among the aborigines in different parts of America. On 4b and 5a in the
+Cod. Tro. this can plainly be seen. All these pictures lead us to
+conclude, that we have here to do with a god of _travelling merchants_. A
+deity of this character called Ekchuah has been handed down to us, who is
+designated explicitly as a _black_ god. In favor of this is also the
+fact, that he is represented fighting with F and pierced by the latter.
+For the travelling merchant must, of course, be armed to ward off hostile
+attacks and these are admirably symbolized by god F, for he is the god of
+death in war and of the killing of the captured enemy. The god is found
+in the Codex Troano in the following places and on many pages two or
+three times: pp. 2, 3, 4, 5, always with the hieroglyph, then without it
+on pp. 6, 7, 19, 4*c, 14*b, 17*a, 18*b and again with the hieroglyph
+on pp. 22*a, 23*a, 25*a; finally it is found again without the
+hieroglyph on pp. 29*a, 30*a, 31*, 32*, 33*, 34*. In the Codex
+Cortesianus god M occurs in the following places: p. 15, where he strikes
+the sky with the axe and thus causes rain, p. 19 (bottom), 28 (bottom,
+second figure), 34 (bottom) and 36 (top). M is always to be recognized by
+the encircled mouth and the drooping under-lip; figures without these
+marks are not identical with M, thus for example in Tro. 23, 24, 25, 21*.
+Tro. 34*a shows what is apparently a variant of M with the face of an
+old man, the scorpion's tail and the vertebrae of the death-god, a figure
+which in its turn bears on its breast the plainly recognizable head of M.
+God M is also represented elsewhere many times with the scorpion's
+tail, thus for example on Tro. 30*a, 31*a.
+
+Besides his hieroglyph mentioned above, Figs. 45 and 46, another sign
+seems to refer to god M, namely Fig. 48 (compare for example Tro. 5a and
+Cort. 28, bottom). The head in this sign has the same curved lines at the
+corner of the eye as appear on the deity himself. Foerstemann mentions
+this sign in his Commentary on the Paris Manuscript, p. 15, and in his
+Commentary on the Dresden Manuscript, p. 56. He thinks the hieroglyph has
+relation to the revolution of Venus, which is performed in 584 days. A
+relation of this kind is, I think, very possible, if we bear in mind that
+all the god-figures of the manuscripts have more or less of a calendric
+and chronologic significance in their chief or in their secondary
+function.
+
+It should be mentioned that God M is represented as a rule as an old man
+with toothless jaw or the characteristic solitary tooth. That he is also
+related to bee-culture is shown by his presence on p. 4*c of the Codex
+Troano, in the section on bees.
+
+Besides gods L and M, a few quite isolated black figures occur in the
+Codex Troano, who, apparently, are identical with neither of these two
+deities, but are evidently of slight importance and perhaps are only
+variants of other deities. Similar figures of black deities are found in
+the Codex Tro. 23, 24 and 25 (perhaps this is a black variant of B as god
+of the storm?) and on 21*c we twice see a black form with the aged face
+and the solitary tooth in the under jaw (perhaps only a variant of M). In
+the Codex Cortesianus and in the Dresden manuscript no other black
+deities occur, but in the Paris manuscript a black deity seems to be
+pictured once (p. 21, bottom).
+
+According to Brinton (Nagualism, Philadelphia 1894, pp. 21, 39), there is
+among the Tzendals in addition to Ekchuah, a second black deity called
+Xicalahua, "black lord".
+
+
+N. The God of the End of the Year.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 49-51]
+
+We have here a deity with the features of an old man and wearing a
+peculiar head ornament reproduced in Fig. 50, which contains the sign for
+the year of 360 days. The god's hieroglyph is Fig. 49, which consists of
+the numeral 5 with the sign of the month Zac. Foerstemann has recognized
+in god N the god of the five Uayeyab days, which were added as
+intercalary days at the end of the original year of 360 days, and were
+considered unlucky days. N is, therefore, the god of the end of the year.
+Foerstemann has discussed him in detail under this title in a monograph
+published in Globus, Vol. 80, No. 12. It is still open to question
+whether god N actually occurs in all the places of the Dresden
+manuscript, which are mentioned by Foerstemann. He can be recognized
+positively on Dr. 17a, 21c (grouped with a woman) and 37a; also on
+12c, but in this latter place with pronounced deviations from the usual
+representations. The figures in Dr. 23c (first group) and 43a (third
+picture) are doubtful, especially since the hieroglyph of the god is
+lacking in both instances. The third group in Dr. 21c is equally
+dubious. Here a woman is pictured sitting opposite a god. The latter
+seems to be god N, yet in the text we find instead of his sign the
+hieroglyph given in Fig. 51. It is not impossible that this sign likewise
+denotes god N.
+
+God N is found a few times in the Paris manuscript, for example on p. 4,
+where he holds K's head in his hands, and on p. 22.
+
+
+O. A Goddess with the Features of an Old Woman.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52]
+
+This goddess occurs only in the Madrid manuscript and is distinguished by
+the solitary tooth in the under jaw, as a sign of age, the invariable
+characteristic of aged persons in the manuscripts. She is pictured in the
+following places: Tro. 5*c, 6*b, and 11*b, c and d, Cort. 10b,
+11a, 38a. In Tro. 11* she is represented working at a loom. She does
+not appear at all in the Dresden and Paris manuscripts. The figures of
+women mentioned under I with the serpent on their heads, are especially
+not to be regarded as identical with goddess O, for she never wears the
+serpent, but a tuft of hair bound high up on her head and running out in
+two locks.
+
+Her hieroglyph is Fig. 52; it is distinguished by the wrinkles of age
+about the eye. Owing to the limited number of her pictures, there is
+little to be said concerning the significance of this goddess.
+
+
+P. The Frog-God.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53]
+
+We call him the frog-god because in the Codex Tro. 31, he is pictured in
+the first and second lines with the club-shaped fingers of a frog, which
+occur only on this figure. The blue background, which is his attribute
+twice in the same passage, likewise points to a connection with water,
+and that the god also has something to do with agriculture may be deduced
+from the fact that he is pictured sowing seed and making furrows with the
+planting-stick. The two black parallel stripes at the corner of the eye
+seem to be folds of skin or marks on the skin, which may represent a
+peculiarity of this particular species of frog. His head ornament is very
+characteristic and contains the sign for the year of 360 days. He
+therefore bears some unknown relation also to the computation of time. It
+should be recalled in this connection that one of the Maya months is
+called Uo, frog. The god is pictured again in Tro. 30a and b, Tro. 22
+(top, scattering seed) and Cort. 5 (at the very bottom, the figure lying
+down). Finally his neck ornament must be mentioned, which, as a rule,
+consists of a neck-chain with pointed, oblong or pronged objects,
+probably shells.
+
+In the Dresden manuscript he occurs but once, Dr. 4a (first figure),
+with some variations it is true. The text at this place contains H's
+hieroglyph. God P does not occur in the Peresianus.
+
+His hieroglyph is Fig. 53. It occurs in Tro. 31 (top) and can be
+unerringly recognized by the two black parallel stripes at the corner of
+the eye; which correspond exactly to the same marks on the face of the
+picture of the god himself.
+
+This is all that can be said respecting this deity from the pictures in
+the manuscripts. Its meaning is obscure. Seler's assumption that god P is
+Kukulcan (Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie, 1898, p. 403) has certainly very
+slight foundation, and in view of the material from the manuscripts
+described in the preceding pages, it is in the highest degree improbable.
+
+           *       *       *       *       *
+
+The foregoing is an almost complete enumeration of the god-figures proper
+in the Maya manuscripts. Whatever other figures of gods occur in the
+manuscripts are details of slight importance. This is especially true of
+the Dresden manuscript, which is well nigh exhausted by the types
+enumerated here; there may be, I think, a few figures still undescribed
+in the Madrid manuscript, the careless drawing of which renders the
+identification very difficult. An isolated figure of the Dresden
+manuscript still remains to be mentioned, concerning which it is doubtful
+whether it is intended to represent a deity or only a human personage.
+
+This is the figure characterized by a peculiar head ornament in Dr. 20b.
+It is designated in the text by two hieroglyphs, which belong together,
+Figs. 54 and 55, the latter occurring once with K (Dr. 7a). It seems to
+represent blowing from the mouth, screaming or speaking.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 54-55]
+
+
+
+
+II. MYTHOLOGICAL ANIMALS.
+
+
+1. THE MOAN BIRD.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 56-59]
+
+This bird[41-1] belongs to the death-god as his symbol and attendant. Its
+hieroglyph (Fig. 56) contains the numeral 13; other forms are Figs. 57-59.
+It is pictured in Dr. 7c, 10a, 11a, 16c, 18b, and its hieroglyph
+without the picture is seen in Dr. 8b. A realistic representation of the
+whole figure of the moan as a bird, occurs on the head of the woman in
+16c (1st figure) and 18b. God B sits on the head of the moan in Dr.
+38c; the third hieroglyph of the accompanying text refers to this
+representation. Just as in Dr. 16 and 18, the moan bird appears in Tro.
+18*c on the head of a woman. Its character as an attribute of the
+death-god is expressed by the Cimi-sign, which it wears upon its head
+(_e. g._, Dr. 10a), and also by the regular occurrence of symbols of the
+death-god in the written characters, which refer to the moan bird. In the
+same manner the sign of the owl, Fig. 5, also occurs frequently with it.
+
+    [41-1] See plate for representations of the Mythological Animals,
+    1-6.
+
+The moan confers name and symbol alike on one of the eighteen months of
+the Maya year, and thus, as Foerstemann conjectures (Die Plejaden bei den
+Mayas, in Globus, 1894), has an astronomic bearing on the constellation
+of the Pleiades.
+
+According to Brinton the moan is a member of the falcon family and its
+zoological name is _Spizaetus tyrannus_.
+
+
+2. THE SERPENT.
+
+This is one of the most common and most important mythological animals,
+and is closely related to different deities, as has already been more
+fully discussed in connection with the individual cases. Apparently it
+has no _independent_ significance as a deity. Its most important
+personification is that in god B, Kukulcan, the feathered serpent. Hence
+a fixed hieroglyph designating the serpent as a deity, as a mythologic
+form, does not occur, though there are numerous hieroglyphs which refer
+to serpents or represent individual parts of the serpent, as its coils,
+its jaws, the rattles of the rattlesnake, etc. The serpent appears in the
+mythologic conceptions of the Mayas chiefly as the symbol of water and of
+time. In the great series of numbers of the Dresden manuscript, certain
+numbers occur which are introduced in the coils of a large serpent
+(compare in regard to this, Foerstemann, Zur Entzifferung der
+Mayahandschriften, II, Dresden, 1891). The serpent is very frequently
+represented in all the manuscripts, sometimes realistically and sometimes
+with the head of a god, etc. In the Dresden manuscript it occurs in the
+following places: 1a, 26, 27, 28c, 35b, 36a, 36b, 37b 40, 42a, 61,
+62, 65c 66a and 69. It is prominent also in the Madrid manuscript,
+occurring for example in Cort. 4-6, 12-18, Tro. 25, 26, 27 and elsewhere.
+
+
+3. THE DOG.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60]
+
+Fig. 60 is its hieroglyph. It is the symbol of the death-god and the
+bearer of the lightning. The latter follows quite clearly from the
+picture in Dr. 40b where the god is distinguished by its hieroglyph.
+This animal is again represented in Dr. 7a, 13c on the right, 21b with
+its hieroglyph, 29a, 30a (forming a part of 31a, where god B holds the
+bound dog by the tail), and 39a without the hieroglyph, 47 (bottom) with
+a variant of the hieroglyph.
+
+In Dr. 36a the dog bears the Akbal-sign on its forehead. The writing
+above it contains a variant of the hieroglyph for the dog; this is the
+third of the rubric. It shows (somewhat difficult of recognition) the
+Akbal-sign on the forehead of the dog's head occurring in it, and on the
+back of the head the Kin-sign, as symbols of the alternation of day and
+night. The same sign occurs again with adjuncts in Dr. 74 (last line, 2nd
+sign) and once with the _death-god_ in Dr. 8a. The dog as
+lightning-beast occurs with the Akbal-sign in the eye instead of on the
+forehead in Codex Tro. 23*a; here again its hieroglyph is an entirely
+different one (the third of the rubric).
+
+That the dog belongs to the death-god is proved beyond a doubt by the
+regular recurrence in the writing belonging to the dog, of the
+hieroglyphs, which relate to this deity, especially of Fig. 5. According
+to Foerstemann his day is Oc.
+
+
+4. THE VULTURE.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61]
+
+This bird is distinctly pictured as a mythological figure in Dr. 8a. It
+appears again, in feminine form, together with the dog, in Dr. 13c and
+also in 19a. In the first passage, its hieroglyph is almost effaced; the
+hieroglyph is very striking and occurs nowhere else in the whole
+collection of manuscripts. The body of this animal-deity is striped black
+and white; in Dr. 38b it is almost entirely black. The same passage
+displays a second hieroglyph for this figure (Fig. 61); this hieroglyph
+also occurs with the numeral 4 in Dr. 56b. In Dr. 36b this bird of prey
+is pictured fighting with the serpent; its hieroglyph occurs in the
+second form; the serpent is designated by the Chuen, the gaping jaws of
+the serpent (first character of the rubric).
+
+Finally it should be mentioned that the head of this bird occurs
+frequently as a head ornament, thus in Dr. 11a, 11b, 12b and 14b.
+Mention should also be made of the realistic representations of the
+vulture, eating the eye of a human sacrifice (Dr. 3, Tro. 26*a and
+27*a).
+
+According to Foerstemann his day is Cib.
+
+
+5. The Jaguar.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62]
+
+The jaguar is likewise an animal with mythological significance. It is
+represented in Dr. 8a, where its hieroglyph is the third sign in the
+writing; it also occurs in Dr. 26 (at the top). It occurs in Tro. 17 (at
+the end) with a hieroglyph which represents the jaguar's head and
+contains the numeral 4 (Fig. 62); again it appears without a hieroglyph
+on p. 20 (bottom) and on 21 and 22 (bottom).
+
+Its day is Ix, and hence it also relates occasionally as year regent to
+the Ix years, for example in Dr. 26a.
+
+
+6. The Tortoise.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 63-65]
+
+This animal, like the dog, appears as a lightning-beast (see Dr. 40b,
+middle). Its hieroglyph is Figs. 63, 64. This sign also is connected with
+the numeral 4, which occurs so often with animals (but not alone with
+quadrupeds) as to be worthy of attention. The sign of the tortoise
+without the numeral is seen in Cort. 17a, where the tortoise itself is
+also represented. It must have reference to the 17th month of the Maya
+year, for the month Kayab (and apparently also Pop) contains the head of
+the tortoise (compare Fig. 65). It occurs several times in the
+Cortesianus, thus on pp. 13, 19, 37, 38; on p. 19 with the hieroglyph (on
+the top of the lower half of the page, 1st line and at the right of the
+margin). In Dr. 69 (at the top) we see the sign of the tortoise with the
+Kin-sign as its eye and the numeral 12; under this group B, with a black
+body, is seated on the serpent; on the same page the sign occurs again;
+each time, moreover, apparently as a month-hieroglyph.
+
+According to Foerstemann the tortoise is the symbol of the summer
+solstice, as the _snail_, which occurs only as a head ornament in the
+manuscripts and not independently, is the symbol of the winter solstice;
+both, as the animals of slowest motion, represent the apparent standstill
+of the sun at the periods specified. This explains why the month Kayab,
+in which the summer solstice falls, should be represented by the head of
+a tortoise, which has for its eye the sun-sign Kin (Foerstemann, Zur
+Entzifferung der Mayahandschriften III, Schildkroete und Schnecke in der
+Mayaliteratur, Dresden 1892).
+
+According to Foerstemann its day is Cauac.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Finally the _owl_ and the _ape_ (or monkey) must be mentioned as animals
+of mythologic significance, of which we have already spoken in connection
+with gods A and C. The _scorpion_ also seems to have an important
+mythologic significance, and appears in the manuscripts in connection
+with figures of gods, as, for example, in Cort. 7a and Tro. 31*a,
+33*a, 34*a (god M with a scorpion's tail). In addition to those
+discussed in this paper, there are a few animals in the manuscripts,
+which probably also have a partial mythologic significance, but which
+have been omitted because they are represented in a naturalistic manner,
+thus, for example, the deer on Tro. 8, et seq., while idealization (with
+human bodies, with torches, hieroglyphic character on the head, etc.)
+should be considered as an unmistakable sign of mythologic meaning.
+
+A mythologic significance also seems to belong to the _bee_ which plays so
+prominent a part of the Codex Troano. Probably the section in question of
+the Madrid manuscript (1* et seq.) treats of bee-keeping, but incidentally
+it certainly has to do also with the mythologic conceptions connected with
+the culture of bees.
+
+The _bat_ which is found as a mythological figure on pottery vessels and
+inscriptions from the Maya region (compare Seler, Zeitschrift fuer
+Ethnologie, 1894, p. 577) does not occur in the manuscripts. It is true,
+however, that hieroglyphic signs, which seem to relate to the head of the
+bat, occur in isolated cases in the manuscripts.
+
+
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+
+An enumeration of the most important deities in the manuscripts gives the
+following results, in connection with which it is to be noted that, of
+course, the numbers cannot be absolutely correct, because one or another
+of the pictures occasionally remains doubtful. As far as possible,
+however, only the _positively_ determined representations have been
+considered.
+
+The deity occurring most frequently in the DRESDEN MANUSCRIPT is god B,
+who is pictured there 141 times. Following him in point of number in the
+same manuscript are the death-god A pictured 33 times, god D 19 times,
+and gods C and E 17 and 14 times respectively.
+
+In the MADRID MANUSCRIPT, god D, with 84 pictures, is of most frequent
+occurrence. He is followed by the maize-god E with 76 pictures, god B
+with 71, god A with 53, C with 38 and M with 37 pictures.
+
+In the PARIS MANUSCRIPT, god E's picture can be verified 8 times, those
+of C and B 6 times each and that of god A twice; N and K are also
+frequently represented.
+
+An enumeration of all the pictures in all the manuscripts shows that the
+following deities occur most frequently and are therefore to be
+considered the most important:
+
+  1.  God B: pictured 218 times.
+  2.   "  D:  "       103  "
+  3.   "  E:  "        98  "
+  4.   "  A:  "        88  "
+  5.   "  C:  "        61  "
+  6.   "  M:  "        40  "
+  7.   "  F:  "        33  "
+
+Furthermore, interesting conclusions can be arrived at, by means of a
+list of those deities, who occur in the representations of the
+manuscripts, so _united_ or _grouped together_ as to make it evident that
+they must stand in some relation to one another. _Mythologic
+combinations_ of this kind occur among the following deities and
+mythological animals:
+
+1. In the DRESDEN MANUSCRIPT: D and C, B and C, dog and vulture, bird and
+serpent, B and K.
+
+2. In the MADRID MANUSCRIPT: F and M, B and M, C and M, E and M, A and E,
+A and D, A and F, B and C, D and C, D and E.
+
+3. In the PARIS MANUSCRIPT: N and K, B and K.
+
+The most common of these combinations are those of the deities A and F, M
+and F, A and E, D and C. These groups are entirely intelligible,
+consisting of death-god and war-god, god of the travelling merchants and
+war-god, death-god and maize-god (as adversaries: meaning famine),
+night-god and deity of the polar star.
+
+
+[Illustration: I. Gods.
+
+A B C D E
+
+F G H I K
+
+L M N O P
+
+II. Mythological Animals.
+
+1 2 3 4 5 6]
+
+
+
+     *     *     *     *     *     *
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+Typographical errors:
+
+  Page
+  10   Footnote 1 missing final period
+  17   serpent-and rain-deity should read serpent-and-rain-deity
+  23   Sentence ending with "and 13*c)" does not have a period
+  29   manuuscripts should read manuscripts
+  32   repsented should read represented
+  33   pp 215-221 should read pp. 215-221
+  42   comma missing following 37b
+       comma missing following 65c
+
+Inconsistencies:
+
+The placement of punctuation at the end of a word or phrase surrounded
+by quotation marks is inconsistent, usually it is placed outside the
+final close quotation mark but occasionally is found inside the mark.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REPRESENTATION OF DEITIES OF THE
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