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diff --git a/18013.txt b/18013.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0427cdf --- /dev/null +++ b/18013.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1983 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Representation of Deities of the Maya +Manuscripts, by Paul Schellhas, Translated by Selma Wesselhoeft and A. M. +Parker + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts + Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Vol. 4, No. 1 + + +Author: Paul Schellhas + + + +Release Date: March 18, 2006 [eBook #18013] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REPRESENTATION OF DEITIES OF THE +MAYA MANUSCRIPTS*** + + +E-text prepared by Julia Miller and the Project Gutenberg Online +Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net/) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 18013-h.htm or 18013-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/0/1/18013/18013-h/18013-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/0/1/18013/18013-h.zip) + + +Transcriber's Note: + + A number of typographical errors have been maintained in + this version of this book. A complete list is found at + the end of the text. + + + + + +Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, +Harvard University +Vol. IV.--No. 1 + +REPRESENTATION OF DEITIES OF THE MAYA MANUSCRIPTS + +by + +DR. PAUL SCHELLHAS + +Second Edition, Revised +With 1 Plate of Figures and 65 Text Illustrations + +Translated by Miss Selma Wesselhoeft and Miss A. M. Parker + +Translation revised by the Author + + + + + + + +Cambridge, Mass. +Published by the Museum +December, 1904. + + + + +NOTE. + + +In order to make more widely known and more easily accessible to American +students the results of important researches on the Maya hieroglyphs, +printed in the German language, the Peabody Museum Committee on Central +American Research proposes to publish translations of certain papers +which are not too lengthy or too extensively illustrated. The present +paper by one of the most distinguished scholars in this field is the +first of the series. + + F. W. PUTNAM. +Harvard University + September, 1904. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +Since the first edition of this pamphlet appeared in the year 1897, +investigation in this department of science has made such marked +progress, notwithstanding the slight amount of material, that a revision +has now become desirable. It can be readily understood, that a new +science, an investigation on virgin soil, such as the Maya study is, +makes more rapid progress and develops more quickly than one pertaining +to some old, much explored territory. + +In addition to numerous separate treatises, special mention should be +made of Ernst Foerstemann's commentaries on the three Maya manuscripts +(Kommentar zur Mayahandschrift der Koeniglichen oeffentlichen Bibliothek zu +Dresden, Dresden 1901, Kommentar zur Madrider Mayahandschrift, Danzig +1902, and Kommentar zur Pariser Mayahandschrift, Danzig 1903) which +constitute a summary of the entire results of investigation in this field +up to the present time. + +The proposal made in the first edition of this pamphlet, that the Maya +deities be designated by letters of the alphabet, has been very generally +adopted by Americanists, especially by those in the United States of +America. This circumstance, in particular, has seemed to make it +desirable to prepare for publication a new edition, improved to accord +with the present state of the science. + +Warmest thanks are above all due to Mr. Bowditch, of Boston, who in the +most disinterested manner, for the good of science, has made possible the +publication of this new edition. + +January, 1904. P. SCHELLHAS. + + + + + +THE MATERIAL OF THE MANUSCRIPTS. + + +The three manuscripts which we possess of the ancient Maya peoples of +Central America, the Dresden (Dr.), the Madrid (Tro.-Cort.) and the Paris +(Per.) manuscripts, all contain a series of pictorial representations of +human figures, which, beyond question, should be regarded as figures of +gods. Together with these are a number of animal figures, some with human +bodies, dress and armor, which likewise have a mythologic significance. + +The contents of the three manuscripts, which undoubtedly pertain to the +calendar system and to the computation of time in their relation to the +Maya pantheon and to certain religious and domestic functions, admit of +the conclusion, that these figures of gods embody the essential part of +the religious conceptions of the Maya peoples in a tolerably complete +form. For here we have the entire ritual year, the whole chronology with +its mythological relations and all accessories. In addition to this, +essentially the same figures recur in all three manuscripts. Their number +is not especially large. There are about fifteen figures of gods in human +form and about half as many in animal form. At first we were inclined to +believe that further researches would considerably increase the number of +deities, but this assumption was incorrect. After years of study of the +subject and repeated examination of the results of research, it may be +regarded as positively proved, that the number of deities represented in +the Maya manuscripts does not exceed substantially the limits mentioned +above. The principal deities are determined beyond question. + +The way in which this was accomplished is strikingly simple. It amounts +essentially to that which in ordinary life we call "memory of persons" and +follows almost naturally from a careful study of the manuscripts. For, by +frequently looking attentively at the representations, one learns by +degrees to recognize promptly similar and familiar figures of gods, by +the characteristic impression they make as a whole, or by certain details, +even when the pictures are partly obliterated or exhibit variations, and +the same is true of the accompanying hieroglyphs. A purely inductive, +natural science-method has thus been followed, and hence this pamphlet is +devoted simply to descriptions and to the amassing of material. These +figures have been taken separately out of the manuscripts alone, +identified and described with the studious avoidance of all unreliable, +misleading accounts and of all presumptive analogies with supposedly +allied mythologies. + +Whatever cannot be derived from the manuscripts themselves has been wholly +ignored. Hypotheses and deductions have been avoided as far as possible. +Only where the interpretation, or the resemblance and the relations to +kindred mythologic domains were obvious, and where the accounts agreed +beyond question, has notice been taken of the fact so that the imposed +limitations of this work should not result in one-sidedness. + +Since, for the most part, the accounts of Spanish authors regarding the +mythology of the Mayas correspond only slightly or not at all with these +figures of gods, and all other conjectures respecting their significance +are very dubious, the alphabetic designation of the deities, which was +tentatively introduced in the first edition of this work, has been +preserved. This designation has proved to be practical. For the plate at +the end of this pamphlet, examples as characteristic as possible of the +individual figures of gods have been selected from the manuscripts. + +It is a well known fact that we possess no definite knowledge either of +the time of the composition or of the local origin of the Maya +manuscripts. The objection might, therefore, be raised that it is a +hazardous proceeding to treat the material derived from these three +manuscripts in common, as if it were homogeneous. But these researches +themselves have proved beyond a doubt, that the mythologic import of the +manuscripts belongs to one and the same sphere of thought. Essentially +the same deities and the same mythologic ideas are, without question, to +be found in all the manuscripts. + +The material of the inscriptions has been set entirely at one side, +because the style of representation contained in them, both of the +mythologic forms and of the hieroglyphs, renders comparison exceedingly +difficult. In this field especial credit is due to Foerstemann and Seler, +for the work they have done in furtherance of interpretation, and mention +should not be omitted of the generosity with which the well known +promoter of Americanist investigations, the Duke of Loubat, has presented +to the Berlin Museum of Ethnology costly originals of reliefs and +inscriptions for direct study. The representations on the reliefs from +the Maya region, it is true, give evidence of dealing with kindred +mythologic conceptions. Figures and hieroglyphs of gods, made familiar by +the manuscripts, can also be found here and there. But on the whole so +little appears in support of instituting a comparison with the +manuscripts, that it seems expedient to leave the inscriptions for +independent and special study. + + + + +I. REPRESENTATIONS OF GODS. + + +A. The Death-God. + +[Illustration: Figs. 1-6] + +God A is represented as a figure with an exposed, bony spine, truncated +nose and grinning teeth.[10-1] It is plainly to be seen that the head of +this god represents a skull and that the spine is that of a skeleton. The +pictures of the death-god are so characteristic in the Maya manuscripts +that the deity is always easily recognized. He is almost always +distinguished by the skeleton face and the bony spine. Several times in +the Dresden manuscript the death-god is pictured with large black spots +on his body and in Dr. 19b a woman with closed eyes, whose body also +displays the black spots, is sitting opposite the god. While the Aztecs +had a male and a female death-deity, in the Maya manuscripts we find the +death-deity only once represented as feminine, namely on p. 9c of the +Dresden manuscript. Moreover the Dresden manuscript contains several +different types of the death-god, having invariably the fleshless skull +and (with the exception of Dr. 9c) the visible vertebrae of the spine. +Several times (Dr. 12b and 13b) he is represented apparently with +distended abdomen. A distinguishing article of his costume is the stiff +feather collar, which is worn only by this god, his companion, the +war-god F, and by his animal symbol, the owl, which will both be +discussed farther on. His head ornament varies in the Dresden Codex; in +the first portion of the manuscript, relating in part to pregnancy and +child-birth (see the pictures of women on p. 16, et seq.), he wears on +his head several times a figure occurring very frequently just in this +part of the Dresden Codex and apparently representing a snail (compare +Dr. 12b and 13b), which among the Aztecs is likewise a symbol of +parturition. In view of these variations in the pictures of the Dresden +Codex, it is very striking that in the Codex Tro.-Cortesianus, there is +only one invariable type of the death-god. + + [10-1] See Plate for representations of the gods, A-P + +A distinguishing ornament of the death-god consists of globular bells or +rattles, which he wears on his hands and feet, on his collar and as a +head ornament. As can be distinctly seen in Dr. 11a, they are fastened +with bands wound around the forearm and around the leg; in Dr. 15c these +bells are black. + +Among the symbols of the death-god a cross of two bones should be +mentioned, which is also found in the Mexican manuscripts. This cross of +bones seems to occur once among the written characters as a hieroglyph +and then in combination with a number: Tro. 10.* The figure [Death-god +symbol] is also a frequent symbol of the death-god. Its significance is +still uncertain, but it also occurs among the hieroglyphs as a death-sign +and as a sign for the day Cimi (death). + +The hieroglyphs of the death-god have been positively determined (see +Figs. 1 to 4). Figs. 1 and 2 are the forms of the Dresden manuscript and +Figs. 3 and 4 are those of the Madrid manuscript. God A is almost always +distinguished by two hieroglyphs, namely Figs. 1 and 2 or 3 and 4. +Moreover the hieroglyphs are always the same, have scarcely any variants. +Even in Dr. 9c, where the deity is represented as feminine, there are no +variations which might denote the change of sex. The hieroglyphs consist +chiefly of the head of a corpse with closed eyes, and of a skull. The +design in front of the skull in Figs. 2 and 4 and under it in Fig. 3 is a +sacrificial knife of flint, which was used in slaying the sacrifices, and +is also frequently pictured in the Aztec manuscripts. The dots under Fig. +1 are probably intended to represent blood. + +The death-god is represented with extraordinary frequency in all the Maya +manuscripts. Not only does the figure of the god itself occur, but his +attributes are found in many places where his picture is missing. Death +evidently had an important significance in the mythologic conceptions of +the Mayas. It is connected with sacrifice, especially with human +sacrifices performed in connection with the captive enemy. Just as we find +a personification of death in the manuscripts of the Mayas, we also find +it in the picture-writings of the ancient Mexicans, often surprisingly +like the pictures of the Maya codices. The Aztec death-god and his myth +are known through the accounts of Spanish writers; regarding the death-god +of the Mayas we have less accurate information. Some mention occurs in +Landa's Relacion de las cosas de Yucatan, Sec. XXIII, but unfortunately +nothing is said of the manner of representing the death-god. He seems to +be related to the Aztec Mictlantecutli, of whom Sahagun, Appendix to Book +III, "De los que iban al infierno y de sus obsequias," treats as the god +of the dead and of the underworld, Mictlan. When the representations of +the latter, for example in the Codex Borgia, and in the Codex Vaticanus +No. 3773, are compared with those of the Maya manuscripts, there can be +hardly a doubt of the correspondence of the two god figures. In the Codex +Borgia, p. 37, he is represented once with the same characteristic head +ornament, which the death-god usually wears in the Maya manuscripts, and +in the Codex Fejervary, p. 8, the death-god wears a kind of breeches on +which cross-bones are depicted, exactly as in Dr. 9 (bottom). + +Bishop Landa informs us that the Mayas "had great and immoderate dread of +death." This explains the frequency of the representations of the +death-god, from whom, as Landa states, "all evil and especially death" +emanated. Among the Aztecs we find a male and a female death-deity, +Mictlantecutli and Mictlancihuatl. They were the rulers of the realm of +the dead, Mictlan, which, according to the Aztec conception, lay in the +north; hence the death-god was at the same time the god of the north. + +It agrees with the calendric and astronomic character of the Maya deities +in the manuscripts, that a number of the figures of the gods are used in +connection with specified cardinal points. Since, according to the Aztec +conception, the death-god was the god of the north, we might expect that +in the Maya manuscripts also, the death-god would be always considered +as the deity of the north. Nevertheless this happens only _once_, namely +in the picture at the end of Codex Cort., pp. 41 and 42. Elsewhere, on +the other hand, this god is connected with other cardinal points, thus +Dr. 14a with the west or east (the hieroglyph is illegible, but it can +be only west or east), and in Dr. 27c with the west. It is interesting +to note that once, however, in a series of cardinal points, the +hieroglyph of the death-god connected with the numeral 10 stands just in +the place of the sign of the north; this is on Tro. 24* (bottom). + +In regard to the name of the death-god in the Maya language, Landa tells +us that the wicked after death were banished to an underworld, the name +of which was "Mitnal", a word which is defined as "Hell" in the Maya +lexicon of Pio Perez and which has a striking resemblance to Mictlan, the +Aztec name for the lower regions. The death-god Hunhau reigned in this +underworld. According to other accounts (Hernandez), however, the +death-god is called Ahpuch. These names can in no wise serve as aids to +the explanation of the hieroglyphs of the death-god, since they have no +etymologic connection with death or the heads of corpses and skulls, +which form the main parts of the hieroglyph. Furthermore, the hieroglyphs +of the gods certainly have a purely ideographic significance as already +mentioned above, so that any relation between the names of the deities +and their hieroglyphs cannot exist from the very nature of the case. + +The day of the death-god is the day Cimi, death. The day-sign Cimi +corresponds almost perfectly with the heads of corpses contained in the +hieroglyphs of the death-god. + +A hieroglyphic sign, which relates to death and the death-deity and +occurs very frequently, is the sign Fig. 5, which is probably to be +regarded as the ideogram of the owl. It represents the head of an owl, +while the figure in front of it signifies the owl's ear and the one +below, its teeth, as distinguishing marks of a bird of prey furnished +with ears and a powerful beak. The head of the owl appears on a human +body several times in the Dresden manuscript as a substitute for the +death-deity, thus Dr. 18c, 19c, 20a and 20c and in other places, and +the hieroglyphic group (Fig. 5) is almost a regular attendant hieroglyph +of the death-god. + +A series of other figures of the Maya mythology is connected with the +death-god. This is evident from the fact that his hieroglyphs or his +symbols occur with certain other figures, which are thus brought into +connection with death and the death-deity. + +These figures are as follows: + +1. His companion, god F, the god of war, of human sacrifice and of +violent death in battle, apparently a counterpart of the Aztec Xipe, who +will be discussed farther on. + +2. The moan bird. See beyond under Mythological Animals, No. 1. + +3. The dog. See the same, No. 3. + +4. A human figure, possibly representing the priest of the death-god (see +Dr. 28, centre, Dr. 5b and 9a). The last figure is a little doubtful. +It is blindfolded and thus recalls the Aztec deity of frost and sin, +Itztlacoliuhqui. A similar form with eyes bound occurs only once again in +the Maya manuscripts, namely Dr. 50 (centre). That this figure is related +to the death-god is proved by the fact that on Dr. 9a it wears the +Cimi-sign on the middle piece of the chain around its neck. Furthermore +it should be emphasized that the Aztec sin-god, Itztlacoliuhqui, likewise +appears with symbols of death. + +5. An isolated figure, Dr. 50a (the sitting figure at the right). This +wears the skull as head ornament, which is represented in exactly the +same way as in the Aztec manuscripts (see Fig. 6). + +6. Another isolated figure is twice represented combined with the +death-god in Dr. 22c. This picture is so effaced that it is impossible +to tell what it means. The hieroglyph represents a variant of the +death's-head, Cimi. It seems to signify an ape, which also in the +pictures of the Mexican codices was sometimes used in relation to the +death-god. + +The symbols of the death-god are also found with the figure without a +head on Dr. 2 (45)a, clearly the picture of a beheaded prisoner. Death +symbols occur, too, with the curious picture of a hanged woman on Dr. +53b, a picture which is interesting from the fact that it recalls +vividly a communication of Bishop Landa. Landa tells us, the Mayas +believed that whoever hanged himself did not go to the underworld, but to +"paradise," and as a result of this belief, suicide by hanging was very +common and was chosen on the slightest pretext. Such suicides were +received in paradise by the goddess of the hanged, Ixtab. Ix is the +feminine prefix; tab, taab, tabil mean, according to Perez' Lexicon of +the Maya Language, "cuerda destinada para algun uso exclusivo". The name +of this strange goddess is, therefore, the "Goddess of the Halter" or, as +Landa says, "The Goddess of the Gallows". Now compare Dr. 53. On the +upper half of the page is the death-god represented with hand raised +threateningly, on the lower half is seen the form of a woman suspended by +a rope placed around her neck. The closed eye, the open mouth and the +convulsively outspread fingers, show that she is dead, in fact, +strangled. It is, in all probability, the goddess of the gallows and +halter, Ixtab, the patroness of the hanged, who is pictured here in +company with the death-god; or else it is a victim of this goddess, and +page 53 of the manuscript very probably refers, therefore (even though +the two halves do not belong directly together), to the mythologic +conceptions of death and the lower regions to which Landa alludes. + +7. Lastly the owl is to be mentioned as belonging to the death-god, +which, strange to say, is represented nowhere in the pictures +realistically and so that it can be recognized, although other mythologic +animals, as the dog or the moan bird, occur plainly as animals in the +pictures. On the other hand, the owl's head appears on a human body in +the Dresden manuscript as a substitute for the death-deity itself, for +example on Dr. 18c, 19c, 20a and 20c and elsewhere, and forms a +regular attendant hieroglyph of the death-god in the group of three signs +already mentioned (Fig. 5). + +Among the antiquities from the Maya region of Central America, there are +many objects and representations, which have reference to the cultus of +the death-god, and show resemblances to the pictures of the manuscripts. +The death-god also plays a role, even today, in the popular superstitions +of the natives of Yucatan, as a kind of spectre that prowls around the +houses of the sick. His name is Yum Cimil, the lord of death. + + +B. The God With the Large Nose and Lolling Tongue. + +[Illustration: Figs. 7-10] + +The deity, represented most frequently in all the manuscripts, is a +figure with a long, proboscis-like, pendent nose and a tongue (or teeth, +fangs) hanging out in front and at the sides of the mouth, also with a +characteristic head ornament resembling a knotted bow and with a peculiar +rim to the eye. Fig. 7 is the hieroglyph of this deity. In Codex +Tro.-Cortesianus it usually has the form of Fig. 8. + +God B is evidently one of the most important of the Maya pantheon. He +must be a universal deity, to whom the most varied elements, natural +phenomena and activities are subject. He is represented with different +attributes and symbols of power, with torches in his hands as symbols of +fire, sitting in the water and on the water, standing in the rain, riding +in a canoe, enthroned on the clouds of heaven and on the cross-shaped +tree of the four points of the compass, which, on account of its likeness +to the Christian emblem, has many times been the subject of fantastic +hypotheses. We see the god again on the Cab-sign, the symbol of the +earth, with weapons, axe and spears, in his hands, planting kernels of +maize, on a journey (Dr. 65b) staff in hand and a bundle on his back, +and fettered (Dr. 37a) with arms bound behind his back. His entire myth +seems to be recorded in the manuscripts. The great abundance of symbolism +renders difficult the characterization of the deity, and it is well-nigh +impossible to discover that a single mythologic idea underlies the whole. +God B is quite often connected with the serpent, without exhibiting +affinity with the Chicchan-god H (see p. 28). In Dr. 33b, 34b and 35b, +the serpent is in the act of devouring him, or he is rising up out of the +serpent's jaws, as is plainly indicated also by the hieroglyphs, for they +contain the group given in Fig. 10, which is composed of the rattle of +the rattlesnake and the opened hand as a symbol of seizing and +absorption. God B himself is pictured with the body of a serpent in Dr. +35b and 36a (compare No. 2 of the Mythological Animals). He likewise +occurs sitting on the serpent and in Dr. 66a he is twice (1st and 3d +figures) pictured with a snake in his hand. + +God B sits on the moan head in Dr. 38c, on a head with the Cauac-sign in +Dr. 39c, 66c, and on the dog in Dr. 29a. All these pictures are meant +to typify his abode in the air, above rain, storm and death-bringing +clouds, from which the lightning falls. The object with the cross-bones +of the death-god, on which he sits in Dr. 66c, can perhaps be explained +in the same manner. As the fish belongs to god B in a symbolic sense, so +the god is represented fishing in Dr. 44 (1). His face with the large +nose and the tongue (or fangs) hanging out on the side in Dr. 44 (1)a +(1st figure) is supposed to be a mask which the priest, representing the +god, assumes during the religious ceremony. + +Furthermore the following four well-known symbols of sacrificial gifts +appear in connection with god B in the Dresden manuscript; a sprouting +kernel of maize (or, according to Foerstemann, parts of a mammal, game), a +fish, a lizard and a vulture's head, as symbols of the four elements. +They seem to occur, however, in relation also to other deities and +evidently are general symbols of sacrificial gifts. Thus they occur on +the two companion initial pages of the Codex Tro.-Cortesianus, on which +the hieroglyphs of gods C and K are repeated in rows (Tro. 36-Cort. 22. +Compare Foerstemann, Kommentar zur Madrider Handschrift, pp. 102, 103). +God B is also connected with the four colors--yellow, red, white and +black--which, according to the conception of the Mayas, correspond to the +cardinal points (yellow, air; red, fire; white, water; black, earth) and +the god himself is occasionally represented with a black body, for +example on Dr. 29c, 31c and 69. This is expressed in the hieroglyphs by +the sign, Fig. 9, which signifies black and is one of the four signs of +the symbolic colors for the cardinal points. + +God B is represented with all the _four cardinal points_, a +characteristic, which he shares only with god C, god K, and, in one +instance, with god F (see Tro. 29*c); he appears as ruler of all the +points of the compass; north, south, east and west as well as air, fire, +water and earth are subject to him. + +Opinions concerning the significance of this deity are much divided. It +is most probable that he is Kukulcan, a figure occurring repeatedly in +the mythology of the Central American peoples and whose name, like that +of the kindred deity Quetzalcoatl among the Aztecs and Gucumatz among the +Quiches, means the "feathered serpent", "the bird serpent". Kukulcan and +Gucumatz are those figures of Central American mythology, to which belong +the legends of the creation of the world and of mankind. Furthermore +Kukulcan is considered as the founder of civilization, as the builder of +cities, as hero-god, and appears in another conception as the rain-deity, +and--since the serpent has a mythologic relation to water--as serpent +deity. J. Walter Fewkes, who has made this god-figure of the Maya +manuscripts the subject of a monograph (A Study of Certain Figures in a +Maya Codex, in American Anthropologist, Vol. VII, No. 3, Washington, +1894), also inclines to the belief that B is the god Kukulcan, whom he +conceives of as a serpent-and rain-deity. This view has been accepted by +Foerstemann (Die Tagegoetter der Mayas, Globus, Vol. 73, No. 10) and also +by Cyrus Thomas (Aids to the Study of the Maya Codices, Washington, +1888). The same opinion is held also by E. P. Dieseldorff, who, a +resident of Guatemala, the region of the ancient Maya civilization, has +instituted excavations which have been successful in furnishing most +satisfactory material for these researches (see Dieseldorff: Kukulcan, +Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie, 1895, p. 780). Others have considered god B +as the first parent and lord of the heavens, Itzamna who has a mythologic +importance analogous to that of Kukulcan. Itzamna is also held to be the +god of creation and founder of civilization and accordingly seems to be +not very remotely allied to the god Kukulcan. Others again, for example +Brasseur de Bourbourg and Seler, have interpreted the figure of god B to +represent the fourfold god of the cardinal points and rain-god Chac, a +counterpart of the Aztec rain-god Tlaloc. The fact that this god-figure +is so frequently connected with the serpent and the bird is strongly in +favor of the correctness of the supposition, that we should see in god B +a figure corresponding to the Kukulcan of tradition. Thus we see the god +represented once with the body of a serpent and with a bird near by +(Cort. 10b), while B's hieroglyph appears both times in the text. God B +is also pictured elsewhere repeatedly with a serpent body, thus for +example on Dr. 35b, 36a. On pages 4-6 of the Codex Cortesianus he is +pictured six times and each time in connection with a serpent. + +The accounts we have received concerning the mythology of the Maya +peoples are very meagre and owing to the uncertainty respecting the +origin of the Maya manuscripts, it cannot even be determined which of +these accounts are applicable to the Maya manuscripts, or, indeed, +whether they are applicable at all. For it is by no means positively +proved that these manuscripts did not originate in regions of Maya +culture, regarding which we have received no accounts at all. As our +present purpose is purely that of description and determination, it +remains quite unimportant which of these recorded figures of gods shall +be regarded as god B. + +God B is nearly allied to, but in no wise identical with, the deity with +the large ornamented nose, designated by K, who will be discussed farther +on. God K is an independent deity designated by a special hieroglyph, but +like C he stands in an unknown relation to God B (for details see K). + +Finally it should be mentioned, that god B never appears with death +symbols. He is clearly a deity of life and creation, in contrast to the +powers of death and destruction. + +His day seems to be Ik (aspiration, breath, life). (Compare Foerstemann, +Die Tagegoetter der Mayas, Globus, Vol. 73, No. 10). + + +C. The God with the Ornamented Face. + +[Illustration: Figs. 11-16] + +This is one of the most remarkable and most difficult figures of the Maya +manuscripts, and shows, at the same time, how imperfect must be the +information we have received in regard to the Maya mythology, since from +the frequency of his representations he is obviously one of the most +important deities and yet can be identified with none of the +representations of gods handed down to us. His hieroglyph is definitely +determined (Figs. 11, 12). The circular design in front of the forehead +of the hieroglyph head seems, as a variant from the Codex Tro. (Fig. 12) +leads us to suppose, to denote the ideographic representation of pouring +out or emptying a vessel, the contents of which flow into the mouth of +the god. Another variant of this prefix occurs in Tro. 13*b; Fig. 15, +the symbol of the sacrificial knife, and instead of the prefix the +numeral 13 occurs in one instance! (Tro. 12*c). The head alone, without +any accessory symbol whatever, is also found a few times, not in the +text, however, but only in the pictures, for example Cort. 10 (bottom) +and Tro. 13* (bottom). This deity does not occur very often in the +Dresden manuscript, the places where it is depicted are: Dr. 5a, 6c, +13b, 35a, 68a, and as a subordinate figure on 8c, 42a. His +hieroglyph occurs alone a few times, as in Dr. 4; it is more frequent in +the Madrid manuscript. It appears on pp. 15 to 18 of the Paris +manuscript. + +In regard to the significance of this deity, he doubtless represents the +personification of a heavenly body of astronomic importance, probably the +polar star. In Codex Cort. 10 (bottom), his head is represented +surrounded by a nimbus of rays, which can only mean a star (see Fig. 13). +On the lower part of the same page, the third picture from the left, we +again see the deity hanging from the sky in a kind of rope. Furthermore +it appears in Codex Tro. 20, 22 and 23 (centre) Fig. 14, in the familiar +rectangular planet signs. Tro. 17* (at the top) the head surmounts the +cross-shaped tree of god B, which denotes the lofty, celestial abode. +Indeed, these passages prove positively that a heavenly body underlies +the idea of this deity. + +Furthermore, the head of this god recurs in entire rows in the calendric +group of tabular form on the so-called initial page of the Codex Tro. 36, +with its continuation in the Cort. p. 22, and in exactly the same manner +in the allied passage of Tro. 14 (middle and bottom). In addition, his +head is contained in the symbol for the north (Fig. 16); the head +contained in this sign is in fact nothing else than the head of god C. + +Brinton also accepts this interpretation of god C. According to +Foerstemann (Die Mayahieroglyphen, Globus, Vol. 71, No. 5), the fact that +the figure of god C in the Tonalamatl in Dr. 4a-10a occurs on the day +Chuen of the Maya calendar, which corresponds to the day Ozomatli, the +ape, in the Aztec calendar, seems to indicate that the singular head of C +is that of an _ape_, whose lateral nasal cavity (peculiar to the American +ape or monkey) is occasionally represented plainly in the hieroglyph +picture. Hence it might further be assumed that god C symbolizes not the +polar star alone, but rather the entire _constellation of the Little +Bear_. And, in fact, the figure of a long-tailed ape is quite appropriate +to the constellation, at any rate decidedly more so than the Bear; +indeed, it suggests the prehensile tail by means of which the ape could +attach himself to the pole and in the form of the constellation swing +around the pole as around a fixed point. + +These astronomical surmises seem to be contradicted by the fact that god +C, as already stated, is represented with all the four cardinal points +(compare for example Cort. 10 and 11, bottom), which would certainly seem +to harmonize ill with his personification of the north star, unless we +assume, that in a different conception of the polar star he is ruler of +the cardinal points, which are determined from him as a centre. + +It has already been remarked of B, that the deity C appears to stand in +some sort of relation to him. In fact, we find on those pages of the +Dresden manuscript, where B is represented with the four cardinal points, +that the hieroglyph of C almost always occurs in the text also (for +example Dr. 29, et seq., especially Dr. 32c). Indeed, C's hieroglyph is +connected even with the signs of the symbolic colors of the cardinal +points, already mentioned in connection with B. + +Finally, it should be borne in mind, that god C also seems to be +connected in some way with the serpent (compare Dr. 36b, 1st and 3d +pictures). + +According to Foerstemann, the day ruled by C seems to be Chuen. + + +D. The Moon- and Night-God. + +[Illustration: Figs. 17-20] + +This is a deity who is pictured in the form of an old man with an aged +face and sunken, toothless mouth. He is frequently characterized by a +long, pendent head ornament, in which is the sign Akbal, darkness, night, +which also appears in his hieroglyph before the forehead of the deity, +surrounded by dots as an indication of the starry sky. His name-hieroglyph +is Fig. 17, and a second sign almost always follows (Fig. 18) which +evidently serves likewise as a designation of the god, just as god A also +is always designated by _two_ hieroglyphs. The second sign consists of +two sacrificial knives and the sign of the day Ahau, which is equivalent +to "king". + +The head of this deity appears in reduced, cursive form as the sign of +the moon (Fig. 20). This character also has the significance of 20 as a +number sign in the calendar. The association of these ideas probably +rests upon the ancient conceptions, according to which the moon +appearing, waxing, waning and again disappearing, was compared to man, +and man in primeval ages was the most primitive calculating machine, +being equivalent, from the sum of his fingers and toes, to the number 20. +Twenty days is also the duration of that period during which the moon +(aside from the new moon) is really _alive_. Moreover the sign (Fig. 20) +appears in many places as a counterpart of the sign for the sun. + +God D occurs once as feminine in the same passage mentioned above, in +which the death-deity is also pictured as feminine (Dr. 9c). In a few +other places the god is, curiously enough, depicted with a short beard, +as Dr. 4c, 7a, 27b. He seems to stand in an unknown relation to the +water-goddess I (see this deity) with the serpent as a head ornament, +compare Dr. 9c, where apparently this goddess is represented, though the +text has D's sign; still it is possible that god D is pictured here with +the attributes of goddess I. + +God D is not connected with the grim powers of destruction; he never +appears with death symbols. In Dr. 5c and 9a he wears the snail on his +head. He seems, therefore, like god A to be connected with birth. In Dr. +8c he is connected with god C, and this is quite appropriate, if we look +upon these gods as heavenly bodies. The aged face, the sunken, toothless +mouth are his distinguishing marks. In the Madrid manuscript, where god D +occurs with special frequency, his chief characteristic, by which he is +always easily recognized, is the single tooth in his under-jaw (see Fig. +19), compare too Dr. 8c, where the solitary tooth is also to be seen. In +Dr. 9a (1st figure) the god holds in his hand a kind of sprinkler with +the rattles of the rattlesnake, as Landa (Cap. 26) describes the god in +connection with the rite of infant baptism (see also Cort. 26, Tro. 7*a +and 13*c) + +A very remarkable passage is Tro. 15*; there a figure is pictured carving +with a hatchet a head, which it holds in its hand. Above it are four +hieroglyphs. The first shows a hatchet and the moon; the second probably +represents simply a head, while the third and fourth are those of god D, +the moon-god. This passage, the meaning of which is unfortunately still +obscure seems to contain a definite explanation of god D. + +J. Walter Fewkes has made god D the subject of a special, very detailed +monograph (The God "D" in the Codex Cortesianus, Washington, 1895) in +which he has treated also of gods B and G, whom he considers allied to D. +He believes D to be the god Itzamna, as do also Foerstemann, Cyrus Thomas +and Seler, and sees sun-gods in all three of these deities. Whether god D +is to be separated from G and B as an independent deity, Fewkes thinks is +doubtful. Brinton again holds that god D is Kukulcan. These different +opinions show, at all events, on what uncertain grounds such attempts at +interpretation stand, and that it is best to be satisfied with +designating the deities by letters and collecting material for their +purely descriptive designation. + +According to Foerstemann the calendar day devoted to D is Ahau. + + +E. The Maize-God. + +[Illustration: Figs. 21-27] + +This god bears on his head the Kan-sign and above it the ear of maize +with leaves (Fig. 23); compare Dr. 9b (left figure), 11b, 12a, etc. +The hieroglyph is definitely determined (Fig. 21). The god is identical +with the figures recurring with especial frequency in the Madrid +manuscript, the heads of which are prolonged upward and curved backward +in a peculiar manner; compare Cort. 15a, 20c, 40 (bottom), Tro. 32*b +(Figs. 25-27) and especially the representation in Dr. 50a (Fig. 24), +which is very distinct. This head was evolved out of the conventional +drawing of the ear of maize; compare the pictures of the maize plant in +the Codex Tro., p. 29b (Fig. 22) with the head ornament of the god in +Dr. 9b (Fig. 23), 9a, 12a; what was originally a head ornament finally +passed into the form of the head itself, so that the latter appears now +as an ear of maize surrounded by leaves. Compare the pictures, Figs. +25-27. That these gods with elongated heads are, in point of fact, +identical with E is plainly seen from the passage in Dr. 2 (45)c (first +figure). There the figure represented, which is exactly like the pictures +in the Madrid manuscript, is designated explicitly as god E by the third +hieroglyph in the accompanying writing. + +The hieroglyph of this deity is thus explained; it is the head of the god +merged into the conventionalized form of the ear of maize surrounded by +leaves. When we remember that the Maya nations practised the custom of +artificially deforming the skull, as is seen in particular on the reliefs +at Palenque, we may also regard the heads of these deities as +representations of such artificially flattened skulls. + +God E occurs frequently as the god of husbandry, especially in the Madrid +manuscript, which devotes much attention to agriculture. He seems to be a +counterpart of the Mexican maize-god Centeotl. The passages in the Madrid +manuscript (Tro. 29a and Cort. 39a, 40a) are very remarkable, where +the deity E is represented in the position of a woman in labor with +numerals on the abdomen; perhaps the underlying idea is that of +fruitfulness. + +In the Codex Cort., p. 40, this grain-deity is pictured with a tall and +slender vessel before him, which he holds in his hands. It is possible +that this is meant to suggest a grain receptacle; to be sure, in the same +place, other figures of gods likewise have such vessels in their hands. +At any rate, it is interesting to note that in the passage already +mentioned (Dr. 50a) god E also holds a similar tall and slender vessel +in his hands. + +According to all appearances the scene pictured in Dr. 50a has reference +to the conflict of the grain-god with a death-deity. The latter, the +figure sitting on the right, is characterized by a skull as a head +ornament (see Fig. 6) and seems to address threats or commands to god E, +who stands before him in the attitude of a terrified and cowed +individual. + +Furthermore god E has nothing to do with the powers of the underworld; he +is a god of life, of prosperity and fruitfulness; symbols of death are +never found in connection with him. Brinton calls this god Ghanan, +equivalent to Kan; it is possible, too, that he is identical with a deity +Yum Kaax who has been handed down to us and whose name means "Lord of the +harvest fields". + +According to Foerstemann the day dedicated to this god is Kan. + + +F. The God of War and of Human Sacrifices. + +[Illustration: Figs. 28-34] + +This is a deity closely related to the death-god A, resembling the Aztec +Xipe, and may, I think, without hesitation be regarded simply as the god +of human sacrifice, perhaps, even more generally, as the god of death by +violence. His hieroglyph is Figs. 28-30; it contains the number 11. A +variant of this occurs on Dr. 7b, where instead of the 11 there is the +following sign: [Hieroglyph] + +The characteristic mark of god F is a single black line usually running +perpendicularly down the face in the vicinity of the eye. This line +should be distinguished from the parallel lines of C's face and from the +line, which, as a continuation of god E's head resembling an ear of +maize, frequently appears on his face, especially as in the variants of +the Madrid manuscript (compare Figs. 25-27). These pictures of E can +always be unfailingly recognized by the peculiar shape of the head and +should be distinguished from those representing F. The black face-line is +the distinguishing mark of god F, just as it is of the Aztec Xipe. It +sometimes runs in a curve over the cheek as a thick, black stripe, as +Cort. 42. Sometimes it encircles the eye only (Dr. 6a) and again it is a +dotted double line (Dr. 6b). The hieroglyph of god F likewise exhibits +this line and with the very same variants as the god himself. See the +hieroglyphs of the god belonging to the pictures in Dr. 6a, 1st and 3d +figures, in which the line likewise differs from the other forms (Figs. +30-34). + +In a few places god F is pictured with the same black lines _on his +entire body_, which elsewhere he has only on his face, the lines being +like those in Fig. 31, namely Tro. 27*c. Indeed, in Tro. 28*c, the +death-god A likewise has these black lines on his body and also F's line +on his face; a clear proof of the close relationship of the two deities. +These lines probably signify gaping death-wounds and the accompanying +rows of dots are intended to represent the blood. + +Since god F is a death-deity the familiar sign (Fig. 5), which occurs so +frequently with the hieroglyphs of A, also belongs to his symbols. F is +pictured in company with the death-god in connection with human sacrifice +(Cort. 42); an exactly similar picture of the two gods of human sacrifice +is given in Codex Tro. 30d; here, too, they sit opposite one another. +The identity of this attendant of death with the deity, designated by the +hieroglyph with the numeral 11, is proved by the following passages: +Tro. 19, bottom (on the extreme right hand without picture, only +hieroglyph, see Fig. 29), Dr. 5b, 6a, b, and c and many others. In +some of the passages cited (Dr. 5a and b) he is distinguished by an +unusually large ear-peg. His hieroglyph occurs with the hieroglyph of the +death-god in Dr. 6c, where he is himself not pictured. + +As war-god, god F occurs combined with the death-god in the passages +mentioned above (Tro. 27*-29*c), where he sets the houses on fire with +his torch and demolishes them with his spear. + +God F occurs quite frequently in the manuscripts and must therefore be +considered as one of the more important deities. + +According to Foerstemann his day is Manik, the seizing, grasping hand, +symbolizing the capturing of an enemy in war for sacrificial purposes. + +F's sign occurs once, as mentioned above, in fourfold repetition with all +the four cardinal points, namely in Tro. 29*c. In ancient Central +America the captured enemy was sacrificed and thus the conceptions of the +war-god and of the god of death by violence and by human sacrifice are +united in the figure of god F. In this character god F occurs several +times in the Madrid manuscript in combat with M, the god of travelling +merchants (see page 35). Spanish writers do not mention a deity of the +kind described here as belonging to the Maya pantheon. + + +G. The Sun-God. + +[Illustration: Figs. 35-36] + +God G's hieroglyph (Fig. 35) contains as its chief factor the sun-sign +Kin. It is one of the signs (of which there are about 12 in the +manuscripts), which has the Ben-ik prefix and doubtless denotes a month +dedicated to the sun. There is, I think, no difference of opinion +regarding the significance of this deity, although Fewkes, as already +stated, is inclined to identify G with B, whom, it is true, the former +resembles. It is surprising that a deity who from his nature must be +considered as very important, is represented with such comparative +infrequency. He occurs only a few times in the Dresden manuscript, for +example 22b, 11c, and in the Codex Tro.-Cortesianus none can be found +among the figures which could be safely regarded as the sun-god; in no +manuscript except the Dresden does a deity occur wearing the sun-sign Kin +on his body. But once in the Codex Cort. the figure of D appears with the +sun-sign on his head, as pointed out by Fewkes in his article entitled +"The God 'D' in the Codex Cortesianus". G's hieroglyph, to be sure, is +found repeatedly in the Madrid manuscript, for example Codex Tro. 31c. + +God G seems to be not wholly without relation to the powers of death; the +owl-sign (Fig. 5) occurs once in connection with him (Dr. 11c). Besides +the sun-sign Kin, which the god bears on his body, his representations +are distinguished by a peculiar nose ornament (Fig. 36) which, as may be +seen by comparison with other similar pictures in the Dresden manuscript, +is nothing but a large and especially elaborate nose-peg. Similar +ornaments are rather common just here in the carefully drawn first part +of the Dresden manuscript. Compare Dr. 22b (middle figure), 21 (centre), +17b, 14a, b; occasionally they also have the shape of a flower, for +example 12b (centre), 11c (left), 19a. Lastly it is worthy of note, +that god G is sometimes represented with a snake-like tongue protruding +from his mouth, as in Dr. 11b and c. + + +H. The Chicchan-God. + +[Illustration: Figs. 37-40] + +The figure of a deity of frequent occurrence in the Dresden manuscript is +a god, who is characterized by a skin-spot or a scale of a serpent on his +temple of the same shape as the hieroglyph of the day Chicchan (serpent). +Moreover the representations of the god himself differ very much, so that +there are almost no other positive, unvarying characteristic marks to be +specified. His picture is plainly recognizable and has the Chicchan-mark +on the temple in Dr. 11a, 12b and 20b. + +The hieroglyph belonging to this deity likewise displays the +Chicchan-sign as its distinguishing mark. Furthermore several variants +occur. The Chicchan-sign has sometimes the form of Fig. 37 and again that +of Fig. 38. The prefix likewise differs very much, having sometimes the +form of Fig. 37, and again that of Fig. 38 or of Figs. 39 and 40. Thus +there are, in all, four different forms of the prefix. It is to be +assumed that all these hieroglyphs have the same meaning, notwithstanding +their variations. Taking into consideration the frequency of the +variations of other hieroglyphs of gods and of the hieroglyphs in the +Maya manuscripts in general, it is quite improbable from the nature of +the case, that a hieroglyph, which displays so great an agreement in its +essential and characteristic elements, should denote several different +gods. The dissimilarity which Seler thinks he finds between the forms of +the Chicchan-sign in Figs. 37 and 38 and which leads him to assume that +Fig. 37 is not a Chicchan-sign at all, but that it denotes another face +ornament, cannot be satisfactorily proved, and must be regarded as an +arbitrary assumption. The Chicchan-mark in the sign of the day Chicchan +also differs very much from that on the bodies of the serpents pictured +in the manuuscripts, so that variations of this kind by no means make it +necessary to assume that the hieroglyphs actually denote different +things. Observe, for example, the different Chicchan-spots on the +serpent's body in Tro. 27a. The crenelated, black border of the +Chicchan-spot in Fig. 38 passes in rapid cursive drawing almost of itself +into the scallops of Fig. 37, a transition to which there are distinct +tendencies on the serpent's body in Tro. 27a. Nor does the fact, that +under H's hieroglyph different personages are very often pictured, whom +we cannot positively identify, compel the assumption that we have here +not _one_, but two or more mythical figures, for the same is true of +other hieroglyphs of gods. There are many places in the manuscripts where +the text contains a definite well-known hieroglyph of a god, while the +accompanying picture represents some other deity or some other figure not +definitely characterized, perhaps merely a human form (priest, warrior, +woman and the like). Thus in Dr. 4a we see H's hieroglyph in the text, +but the picture is the figure of god P while in other places we miss the +characteristic Chicchan-spot on the figure represented, for example Dr. +4c, 6a, 7b, 7c, 14a, 21c. In the Madrid manuscript, it is true, H's +hieroglyph also occurs often enough, but _not in a single instance_ is a +deity represented displaying the Chicchan-spot. This fact is, I think, to +be explained by the coarser style of the drawing, which does not admit of +representing such fine details as in the Dresden manuscript. In the Paris +manuscript H's hieroglyph occurs but once (p. 8, bottom). + +Seler thinks he recognizes in some of the figures represented under H's +hieroglyph in the manuscripts, a so-called "young god". Such a deity is +unknown and the assumption is entirely arbitrary. Apparently this "young +god" is an invention of Brinton. The purely inductive and descriptive +study of the manuscripts does not prove the existence of such a +personage, and we must decline to admit him as the result of deductive +reasoning. In this so-called "young god", we miss, first of all, a +characteristic mark, a distinct peculiarity such as belongs to all the +figures of gods in the manuscripts without exception and by which he +could be recognized. Except his so-called youthfulness, however, no such +definite marks are to be found. Furthermore there is no figure of a god +in the manuscripts which would not be designated by a definite +characteristic hieroglyph. No such hieroglyph can be proved as belonging +to the "young god". The figures, which are supposed to have a "youthful +appearance" in the Madrid manuscript, often convey this impression merely +in consequence of their smallness and of the pitiful, squatting attitude +in which they are represented. Furthermore real _children_ do occur here +and there, thus, for example, in the Dresden manuscript in connection +with the pictures of women in the first part and in Tro. 20*c in the +representation of the so-called "infant baptism." + +That god H has some relation to the serpent must be conjectured from what +has been said. Thus, for example, on Dr. 15b, we see his hieroglyph +belonging to the figure of a woman with the knotted serpent on her head, +in Dr. 4a to the god P, who there bears a serpent in his hand, and in +Dr. 35b in connection with a serpent with B's head. What this relation +is, cannot now be stated. + +The day dedicated to god H is Chicchan, and the sign for this day is his +distinguishing hieroglyph. + + +I. The Water-Goddess. + +[Illustration: Fig. 41] + +In the Dresden manuscript the figure of an old woman, with the body +stained brown and claws in place of feet, occurs repeatedly. She wears on +her head a knotted serpent and with her hands pours water from a vessel. +Evidently we have here a personification of water in its quality of +destroyer, a goddess of floods and cloud-bursts, which, as we know, play +an important part in Central America. Page 27, of the Codex Troano +contains a picture, in which this character of goddess I may be +distinctly recognized. In accordance with this character, also on Dr. 74, +where something resembling a flood is represented, she wears the +cross-bones of the death-god. + +The goddess is pictured in the manner described in the following places: +Dr. 39b, 43b, 67a and 74. The figure corresponding to her in the +Madrid manuscript, in Tro. 27 and 34*c, displays some variations, in +particular the tiger claws on the feet and the red-brown color of the +body are lacking. But the agreement cannot be questioned, I think, when +we recall that the Maya manuscripts doubtless originated in different +ages and different areas of civilization, circumstances which readily +explain such variations. The goddess distinguished in the Madrid +manuscript by symbols of flood and water is doubtless the same as goddess +I of the Dresden manuscript described above; her unmistakable character +of water-goddess in both manuscripts is in favor of this. In both +manuscripts she is invariably distinguished by the serpent on her head, +which, as we know, is a symbol of the water flowing along and forming +waves. + +Strange to say, a fixed hieroglyph of this goddess cannot be proved with +certainty. There is some probability in favor of the sign given in Fig. +41. The well-known oblong signs, which Foerstemann (Drei Mayahieroglyphen, +published in the Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie, 1901, pp. 215-221) interprets +as the sign for evil days, frequently occur with her. This would be +appropriate for the goddess of floods. + +In the Dresden manuscript a few similar figures of women are found, who, +like goddess I, wear a knotted serpent on the head. Representations of +this kind occur in Dr. 9c, 15b, 18a, 20a, 22b and 23b. Whether they +are identical with goddess I is doubtful, since there is no symbolic +reference to water in these passages. Besides, the hieroglyphs of other +known deities occur each time in the above-mentioned places, so that +definite mythologic relations must be assumed to exist here between the +women repsented and the deities in question. Thus in Dr. 9c we find D's +sign, in 15b that of H; on 18a, 22b and 23b we see only the general +sign for a woman. In Dr. 20a the signs are effaced. + +In the Codex Troano goddess I occurs on pp. 25b and 27; there is also a +woman with the knotted serpent on her head in Tro. 34*c. In the Codex +Cortesianus and in the Paris manuscript these forms are wholly lacking. + + +K. The God with the Ornamented Nose. + +[Illustration: Figs. 42-43] + +This god, as already mentioned in connection with B, is not identical +with the latter, but is probably closely related to him. His hieroglyph +is Fig. 42; Fig. 43 is the form in the Madrid manuscript. He is closely +related to god B. He is represented in Dr. 25 (centre) where he is +perhaps conceived of as a priest wearing a mask with the face of the god, +also in Dr. 7a, 12a (with his own hieroglyph and that of E!), 26 +(bottom) with a variant of the sign. His figure without the hieroglyph +occurs in Dr. 3. Very frequently the well-known group, 3 Oc, is given +with him and in connection with his hieroglyph (in Dr. 3, 7a, 10b +(right); without picture, 12a). Foerstemann (Drei Mayahieroglyphen, +Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie, 1901. pp 215-221) sees in this the sign for +good days, a proof that we have to do here with a benevolent deity well +disposed to mankind, his kinship with B being also in favor of this +interpretation. His hieroglyph alone without his picture occurs in Dr. +10b, 49 (middle and bottom), 58 (bottom, left), and Tro. 8*b; with a +variant of the attribute in Dr. 24 (third vertical row). A slight +variation appears also in Dr. 69 (top, right). + +In Dr. 65a (middle) B is pictured. But in the text we see K's hieroglyph +presented by a hand. The next figure on the same page at the right +represents god B with the head of K on his own and the same head once +more in his hand. Agreeing with this, we find in the accompanying text +the signs of B and K, the latter in a hand. K seems to be pictured again +in Dr. 46 (bottom); the passage, however, is somewhat obliterated. The +hieroglyph is lacking in this place; it is found, however, on the +preceding page 45 (middle). + +In addition to the passage already mentioned, which represents god K +together with B, such double deities again occur in the Paris manuscript, +p. 13, where B holds K's head in his hand; in Dr. 34b, where he carries +this head on his own and in Dr. 67a where he appears to carry it in a +rope. Once, how ever, a variation of these plainly synonymous +representations occurs, namely in Dr. 49 (at the top), where we see a +_feminine_ form above whose head rises the head of god K. In the Paris +manuscript, so far as its defaced condition permits us to recognize the +representation, K occurs very frequently, as for example, in Per. 3, 4, 5, +6, 7 and 9 (in part only his head is given, presented by god B, as in the +Dresden manuscript). + +Brinton considers this figure simply as a special manifestation of B and +identical with that god. Foerstemann thinks that god K is a storm-deity, +whose ornamental nose, according to the conventional mode of drawing of +the Central American peoples, is intended to represent the blast of the +storm. + +Apparently, however, the deity has an _astronomic significance_ and seems +to symbolize a _star_. In favor of this is the fact, that on the +so-called initial pages of the Madrid manuscript (Cort. 22-Tro. 36) a +row, composed of repetitions of his sign, occurs below the signs of the +cardinal points and parallel to a row composed of signs of god C, the +god of the polar star and the north. The hieroglyphs of C and K are the +only hieroglyphs of gods, which are repeated 13 times on these pages with +the 13 days enumerated there. The two gods must, therefore, have either a +parallel or an opposite astronomic and calendric meaning. The fact that +in Dr. 25 and 26 K appears as regent of the year, is an argument in favor +of his astronomic significance. + +According to Foerstemann, Muluc is the day dedicated to god K. + +In the head of god K we recognize the ornament so common in the temple +ruins of Central America--the so-called "elephant's trunk." The peculiar, +conventionalized face, with the projecting proboscis-shaped nose, which is +applied chiefly to the corners of temple walls, displays unquestionably +the features of god K. The significance of god K in this architectural +relation is unknown. Some connection with his character as the deity of a +star and with his astronomic qualities may, however, be assumed, since, as +we know, the temple structures of Central America are always placed with +reference _to the cardinal points_. + + +L. The Old, Black God. + +[Illustration: Fig. 44] + +God L's features are those of an old man with sunken, toothless mouth. +His hieroglyph is Fig. 44, which is characterized by the black face. + +God L, who is also black, must not be confounded with M whose description +follows. L is represented and designated by his hieroglyph in the +accompanying text, in Dr. 14b and 14c and Dr. 46b; the figure has the +characteristic black face. He appears entirely black in Dr. 7a. The +hieroglyph alone occurs in Dr. 21b and 24 (third vertical line in the +first passage) with a variation, namely without the Ymix-sign before the +head. This deity does not occur in the Madrid and Paris manuscripts. + +The significance of god L does not appear from the few pictures, which +are given of him. In Dr. 46b the god is pictured armed and in warlike +attitude. Both in Dr. 14b and 14c he wears a bird on his head and has a +Kan in his hand. + +According to Foerstemann, his day is Akbal, darkness, night. + +Cyrus Thomas (Aids to the Study of the Maya Codices, in the 6th Annual +Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1888, p. 358) thinks he is +the god Ekchuah, who has come down to us as a black deity. God M seems, +however, to correspond to Ekchuah (see the description of M). + + +M. The Black God with the Red Lips. + +[Illustration: Figs. 45-48] + +God M's hieroglyph is Figs. 45, 46; it seems to represent an eye rimmed +with black, though the figure of the god himself displays an entirely +different drawing of the eye (see Fig. 47). + +The god is found in the Dresden manuscript only three times, namely in +Dr. 16b (with a bone in his hand) in picture and sign, in Dr. 13c +grouped with an animal, without the hieroglyph, and in Dr. 43a (with his +sign) while finally his hieroglyph alone appears in Dr. 56 (top, left) in +a group and of a somewhat different form. + +On the other hand, god M appears with special frequency in the Madrid +manuscript, which treats of this deity with great fullness of detail. +While he is represented in the Dresden manuscript (16b) with his body +striped black and white, and on p. 43a entirely white, he is always +entirely black in the Codex Troano. His other distinguishing marks are +the following: + +1. The mouth encircled by a red-brown border. + +2. The large, drooping under lip. By this he can be recognized with +certainty also in Dr. 43a. + +3. The two curved lines at the right of the eye. + +His significance can be conjectured. He seems to be of a warlike nature, +for he is almost always represented armed with the lance and also as +engaged in combat and, in some instances, pierced by the lance of his +opponent, god F, for example in Tro. 3c, 7a, 29*a. The peculiar object +with parallel stripes, which he wears on his head is a rope from which a +package frequently hangs. By means of a rope placed around his head the +god frequently carries a bale of merchandise, as is the custom today +among the aborigines in different parts of America. On 4b and 5a in the +Cod. Tro. this can plainly be seen. All these pictures lead us to +conclude, that we have here to do with a god of _travelling merchants_. A +deity of this character called Ekchuah has been handed down to us, who is +designated explicitly as a _black_ god. In favor of this is also the +fact, that he is represented fighting with F and pierced by the latter. +For the travelling merchant must, of course, be armed to ward off hostile +attacks and these are admirably symbolized by god F, for he is the god of +death in war and of the killing of the captured enemy. The god is found +in the Codex Troano in the following places and on many pages two or +three times: pp. 2, 3, 4, 5, always with the hieroglyph, then without it +on pp. 6, 7, 19, 4*c, 14*b, 17*a, 18*b and again with the hieroglyph +on pp. 22*a, 23*a, 25*a; finally it is found again without the +hieroglyph on pp. 29*a, 30*a, 31*, 32*, 33*, 34*. In the Codex +Cortesianus god M occurs in the following places: p. 15, where he strikes +the sky with the axe and thus causes rain, p. 19 (bottom), 28 (bottom, +second figure), 34 (bottom) and 36 (top). M is always to be recognized by +the encircled mouth and the drooping under-lip; figures without these +marks are not identical with M, thus for example in Tro. 23, 24, 25, 21*. +Tro. 34*a shows what is apparently a variant of M with the face of an +old man, the scorpion's tail and the vertebrae of the death-god, a figure +which in its turn bears on its breast the plainly recognizable head of M. +God M is also represented elsewhere many times with the scorpion's +tail, thus for example on Tro. 30*a, 31*a. + +Besides his hieroglyph mentioned above, Figs. 45 and 46, another sign +seems to refer to god M, namely Fig. 48 (compare for example Tro. 5a and +Cort. 28, bottom). The head in this sign has the same curved lines at the +corner of the eye as appear on the deity himself. Foerstemann mentions +this sign in his Commentary on the Paris Manuscript, p. 15, and in his +Commentary on the Dresden Manuscript, p. 56. He thinks the hieroglyph has +relation to the revolution of Venus, which is performed in 584 days. A +relation of this kind is, I think, very possible, if we bear in mind that +all the god-figures of the manuscripts have more or less of a calendric +and chronologic significance in their chief or in their secondary +function. + +It should be mentioned that God M is represented as a rule as an old man +with toothless jaw or the characteristic solitary tooth. That he is also +related to bee-culture is shown by his presence on p. 4*c of the Codex +Troano, in the section on bees. + +Besides gods L and M, a few quite isolated black figures occur in the +Codex Troano, who, apparently, are identical with neither of these two +deities, but are evidently of slight importance and perhaps are only +variants of other deities. Similar figures of black deities are found in +the Codex Tro. 23, 24 and 25 (perhaps this is a black variant of B as god +of the storm?) and on 21*c we twice see a black form with the aged face +and the solitary tooth in the under jaw (perhaps only a variant of M). In +the Codex Cortesianus and in the Dresden manuscript no other black +deities occur, but in the Paris manuscript a black deity seems to be +pictured once (p. 21, bottom). + +According to Brinton (Nagualism, Philadelphia 1894, pp. 21, 39), there is +among the Tzendals in addition to Ekchuah, a second black deity called +Xicalahua, "black lord". + + +N. The God of the End of the Year. + +[Illustration: Figs. 49-51] + +We have here a deity with the features of an old man and wearing a +peculiar head ornament reproduced in Fig. 50, which contains the sign for +the year of 360 days. The god's hieroglyph is Fig. 49, which consists of +the numeral 5 with the sign of the month Zac. Foerstemann has recognized +in god N the god of the five Uayeyab days, which were added as +intercalary days at the end of the original year of 360 days, and were +considered unlucky days. N is, therefore, the god of the end of the year. +Foerstemann has discussed him in detail under this title in a monograph +published in Globus, Vol. 80, No. 12. It is still open to question +whether god N actually occurs in all the places of the Dresden +manuscript, which are mentioned by Foerstemann. He can be recognized +positively on Dr. 17a, 21c (grouped with a woman) and 37a; also on +12c, but in this latter place with pronounced deviations from the usual +representations. The figures in Dr. 23c (first group) and 43a (third +picture) are doubtful, especially since the hieroglyph of the god is +lacking in both instances. The third group in Dr. 21c is equally +dubious. Here a woman is pictured sitting opposite a god. The latter +seems to be god N, yet in the text we find instead of his sign the +hieroglyph given in Fig. 51. It is not impossible that this sign likewise +denotes god N. + +God N is found a few times in the Paris manuscript, for example on p. 4, +where he holds K's head in his hands, and on p. 22. + + +O. A Goddess with the Features of an Old Woman. + +[Illustration: Fig. 52] + +This goddess occurs only in the Madrid manuscript and is distinguished by +the solitary tooth in the under jaw, as a sign of age, the invariable +characteristic of aged persons in the manuscripts. She is pictured in the +following places: Tro. 5*c, 6*b, and 11*b, c and d, Cort. 10b, +11a, 38a. In Tro. 11* she is represented working at a loom. She does +not appear at all in the Dresden and Paris manuscripts. The figures of +women mentioned under I with the serpent on their heads, are especially +not to be regarded as identical with goddess O, for she never wears the +serpent, but a tuft of hair bound high up on her head and running out in +two locks. + +Her hieroglyph is Fig. 52; it is distinguished by the wrinkles of age +about the eye. Owing to the limited number of her pictures, there is +little to be said concerning the significance of this goddess. + + +P. The Frog-God. + +[Illustration: Fig. 53] + +We call him the frog-god because in the Codex Tro. 31, he is pictured in +the first and second lines with the club-shaped fingers of a frog, which +occur only on this figure. The blue background, which is his attribute +twice in the same passage, likewise points to a connection with water, +and that the god also has something to do with agriculture may be deduced +from the fact that he is pictured sowing seed and making furrows with the +planting-stick. The two black parallel stripes at the corner of the eye +seem to be folds of skin or marks on the skin, which may represent a +peculiarity of this particular species of frog. His head ornament is very +characteristic and contains the sign for the year of 360 days. He +therefore bears some unknown relation also to the computation of time. It +should be recalled in this connection that one of the Maya months is +called Uo, frog. The god is pictured again in Tro. 30a and b, Tro. 22 +(top, scattering seed) and Cort. 5 (at the very bottom, the figure lying +down). Finally his neck ornament must be mentioned, which, as a rule, +consists of a neck-chain with pointed, oblong or pronged objects, +probably shells. + +In the Dresden manuscript he occurs but once, Dr. 4a (first figure), +with some variations it is true. The text at this place contains H's +hieroglyph. God P does not occur in the Peresianus. + +His hieroglyph is Fig. 53. It occurs in Tro. 31 (top) and can be +unerringly recognized by the two black parallel stripes at the corner of +the eye; which correspond exactly to the same marks on the face of the +picture of the god himself. + +This is all that can be said respecting this deity from the pictures in +the manuscripts. Its meaning is obscure. Seler's assumption that god P is +Kukulcan (Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie, 1898, p. 403) has certainly very +slight foundation, and in view of the material from the manuscripts +described in the preceding pages, it is in the highest degree improbable. + + * * * * * + +The foregoing is an almost complete enumeration of the god-figures proper +in the Maya manuscripts. Whatever other figures of gods occur in the +manuscripts are details of slight importance. This is especially true of +the Dresden manuscript, which is well nigh exhausted by the types +enumerated here; there may be, I think, a few figures still undescribed +in the Madrid manuscript, the careless drawing of which renders the +identification very difficult. An isolated figure of the Dresden +manuscript still remains to be mentioned, concerning which it is doubtful +whether it is intended to represent a deity or only a human personage. + +This is the figure characterized by a peculiar head ornament in Dr. 20b. +It is designated in the text by two hieroglyphs, which belong together, +Figs. 54 and 55, the latter occurring once with K (Dr. 7a). It seems to +represent blowing from the mouth, screaming or speaking. + +[Illustration: Figs. 54-55] + + + + +II. MYTHOLOGICAL ANIMALS. + + +1. THE MOAN BIRD. + +[Illustration: Figs. 56-59] + +This bird[41-1] belongs to the death-god as his symbol and attendant. Its +hieroglyph (Fig. 56) contains the numeral 13; other forms are Figs. 57-59. +It is pictured in Dr. 7c, 10a, 11a, 16c, 18b, and its hieroglyph +without the picture is seen in Dr. 8b. A realistic representation of the +whole figure of the moan as a bird, occurs on the head of the woman in +16c (1st figure) and 18b. God B sits on the head of the moan in Dr. +38c; the third hieroglyph of the accompanying text refers to this +representation. Just as in Dr. 16 and 18, the moan bird appears in Tro. +18*c on the head of a woman. Its character as an attribute of the +death-god is expressed by the Cimi-sign, which it wears upon its head +(_e. g._, Dr. 10a), and also by the regular occurrence of symbols of the +death-god in the written characters, which refer to the moan bird. In the +same manner the sign of the owl, Fig. 5, also occurs frequently with it. + + [41-1] See plate for representations of the Mythological Animals, + 1-6. + +The moan confers name and symbol alike on one of the eighteen months of +the Maya year, and thus, as Foerstemann conjectures (Die Plejaden bei den +Mayas, in Globus, 1894), has an astronomic bearing on the constellation +of the Pleiades. + +According to Brinton the moan is a member of the falcon family and its +zoological name is _Spizaetus tyrannus_. + + +2. THE SERPENT. + +This is one of the most common and most important mythological animals, +and is closely related to different deities, as has already been more +fully discussed in connection with the individual cases. Apparently it +has no _independent_ significance as a deity. Its most important +personification is that in god B, Kukulcan, the feathered serpent. Hence +a fixed hieroglyph designating the serpent as a deity, as a mythologic +form, does not occur, though there are numerous hieroglyphs which refer +to serpents or represent individual parts of the serpent, as its coils, +its jaws, the rattles of the rattlesnake, etc. The serpent appears in the +mythologic conceptions of the Mayas chiefly as the symbol of water and of +time. In the great series of numbers of the Dresden manuscript, certain +numbers occur which are introduced in the coils of a large serpent +(compare in regard to this, Foerstemann, Zur Entzifferung der +Mayahandschriften, II, Dresden, 1891). The serpent is very frequently +represented in all the manuscripts, sometimes realistically and sometimes +with the head of a god, etc. In the Dresden manuscript it occurs in the +following places: 1a, 26, 27, 28c, 35b, 36a, 36b, 37b 40, 42a, 61, +62, 65c 66a and 69. It is prominent also in the Madrid manuscript, +occurring for example in Cort. 4-6, 12-18, Tro. 25, 26, 27 and elsewhere. + + +3. THE DOG. + +[Illustration: Fig. 60] + +Fig. 60 is its hieroglyph. It is the symbol of the death-god and the +bearer of the lightning. The latter follows quite clearly from the +picture in Dr. 40b where the god is distinguished by its hieroglyph. +This animal is again represented in Dr. 7a, 13c on the right, 21b with +its hieroglyph, 29a, 30a (forming a part of 31a, where god B holds the +bound dog by the tail), and 39a without the hieroglyph, 47 (bottom) with +a variant of the hieroglyph. + +In Dr. 36a the dog bears the Akbal-sign on its forehead. The writing +above it contains a variant of the hieroglyph for the dog; this is the +third of the rubric. It shows (somewhat difficult of recognition) the +Akbal-sign on the forehead of the dog's head occurring in it, and on the +back of the head the Kin-sign, as symbols of the alternation of day and +night. The same sign occurs again with adjuncts in Dr. 74 (last line, 2nd +sign) and once with the _death-god_ in Dr. 8a. The dog as +lightning-beast occurs with the Akbal-sign in the eye instead of on the +forehead in Codex Tro. 23*a; here again its hieroglyph is an entirely +different one (the third of the rubric). + +That the dog belongs to the death-god is proved beyond a doubt by the +regular recurrence in the writing belonging to the dog, of the +hieroglyphs, which relate to this deity, especially of Fig. 5. According +to Foerstemann his day is Oc. + + +4. THE VULTURE. + +[Illustration: Fig. 61] + +This bird is distinctly pictured as a mythological figure in Dr. 8a. It +appears again, in feminine form, together with the dog, in Dr. 13c and +also in 19a. In the first passage, its hieroglyph is almost effaced; the +hieroglyph is very striking and occurs nowhere else in the whole +collection of manuscripts. The body of this animal-deity is striped black +and white; in Dr. 38b it is almost entirely black. The same passage +displays a second hieroglyph for this figure (Fig. 61); this hieroglyph +also occurs with the numeral 4 in Dr. 56b. In Dr. 36b this bird of prey +is pictured fighting with the serpent; its hieroglyph occurs in the +second form; the serpent is designated by the Chuen, the gaping jaws of +the serpent (first character of the rubric). + +Finally it should be mentioned that the head of this bird occurs +frequently as a head ornament, thus in Dr. 11a, 11b, 12b and 14b. +Mention should also be made of the realistic representations of the +vulture, eating the eye of a human sacrifice (Dr. 3, Tro. 26*a and +27*a). + +According to Foerstemann his day is Cib. + + +5. The Jaguar. + +[Illustration: Fig. 62] + +The jaguar is likewise an animal with mythological significance. It is +represented in Dr. 8a, where its hieroglyph is the third sign in the +writing; it also occurs in Dr. 26 (at the top). It occurs in Tro. 17 (at +the end) with a hieroglyph which represents the jaguar's head and +contains the numeral 4 (Fig. 62); again it appears without a hieroglyph +on p. 20 (bottom) and on 21 and 22 (bottom). + +Its day is Ix, and hence it also relates occasionally as year regent to +the Ix years, for example in Dr. 26a. + + +6. The Tortoise. + +[Illustration: Figs. 63-65] + +This animal, like the dog, appears as a lightning-beast (see Dr. 40b, +middle). Its hieroglyph is Figs. 63, 64. This sign also is connected with +the numeral 4, which occurs so often with animals (but not alone with +quadrupeds) as to be worthy of attention. The sign of the tortoise +without the numeral is seen in Cort. 17a, where the tortoise itself is +also represented. It must have reference to the 17th month of the Maya +year, for the month Kayab (and apparently also Pop) contains the head of +the tortoise (compare Fig. 65). It occurs several times in the +Cortesianus, thus on pp. 13, 19, 37, 38; on p. 19 with the hieroglyph (on +the top of the lower half of the page, 1st line and at the right of the +margin). In Dr. 69 (at the top) we see the sign of the tortoise with the +Kin-sign as its eye and the numeral 12; under this group B, with a black +body, is seated on the serpent; on the same page the sign occurs again; +each time, moreover, apparently as a month-hieroglyph. + +According to Foerstemann the tortoise is the symbol of the summer +solstice, as the _snail_, which occurs only as a head ornament in the +manuscripts and not independently, is the symbol of the winter solstice; +both, as the animals of slowest motion, represent the apparent standstill +of the sun at the periods specified. This explains why the month Kayab, +in which the summer solstice falls, should be represented by the head of +a tortoise, which has for its eye the sun-sign Kin (Foerstemann, Zur +Entzifferung der Mayahandschriften III, Schildkroete und Schnecke in der +Mayaliteratur, Dresden 1892). + +According to Foerstemann its day is Cauac. + + * * * * * + +Finally the _owl_ and the _ape_ (or monkey) must be mentioned as animals +of mythologic significance, of which we have already spoken in connection +with gods A and C. The _scorpion_ also seems to have an important +mythologic significance, and appears in the manuscripts in connection +with figures of gods, as, for example, in Cort. 7a and Tro. 31*a, +33*a, 34*a (god M with a scorpion's tail). In addition to those +discussed in this paper, there are a few animals in the manuscripts, +which probably also have a partial mythologic significance, but which +have been omitted because they are represented in a naturalistic manner, +thus, for example, the deer on Tro. 8, et seq., while idealization (with +human bodies, with torches, hieroglyphic character on the head, etc.) +should be considered as an unmistakable sign of mythologic meaning. + +A mythologic significance also seems to belong to the _bee_ which plays so +prominent a part of the Codex Troano. Probably the section in question of +the Madrid manuscript (1* et seq.) treats of bee-keeping, but incidentally +it certainly has to do also with the mythologic conceptions connected with +the culture of bees. + +The _bat_ which is found as a mythological figure on pottery vessels and +inscriptions from the Maya region (compare Seler, Zeitschrift fuer +Ethnologie, 1894, p. 577) does not occur in the manuscripts. It is true, +however, that hieroglyphic signs, which seem to relate to the head of the +bat, occur in isolated cases in the manuscripts. + + + + +SUMMARY. + + +An enumeration of the most important deities in the manuscripts gives the +following results, in connection with which it is to be noted that, of +course, the numbers cannot be absolutely correct, because one or another +of the pictures occasionally remains doubtful. As far as possible, +however, only the _positively_ determined representations have been +considered. + +The deity occurring most frequently in the DRESDEN MANUSCRIPT is god B, +who is pictured there 141 times. Following him in point of number in the +same manuscript are the death-god A pictured 33 times, god D 19 times, +and gods C and E 17 and 14 times respectively. + +In the MADRID MANUSCRIPT, god D, with 84 pictures, is of most frequent +occurrence. He is followed by the maize-god E with 76 pictures, god B +with 71, god A with 53, C with 38 and M with 37 pictures. + +In the PARIS MANUSCRIPT, god E's picture can be verified 8 times, those +of C and B 6 times each and that of god A twice; N and K are also +frequently represented. + +An enumeration of all the pictures in all the manuscripts shows that the +following deities occur most frequently and are therefore to be +considered the most important: + + 1. God B: pictured 218 times. + 2. " D: " 103 " + 3. " E: " 98 " + 4. " A: " 88 " + 5. " C: " 61 " + 6. " M: " 40 " + 7. " F: " 33 " + +Furthermore, interesting conclusions can be arrived at, by means of a +list of those deities, who occur in the representations of the +manuscripts, so _united_ or _grouped together_ as to make it evident that +they must stand in some relation to one another. _Mythologic +combinations_ of this kind occur among the following deities and +mythological animals: + +1. In the DRESDEN MANUSCRIPT: D and C, B and C, dog and vulture, bird and +serpent, B and K. + +2. In the MADRID MANUSCRIPT: F and M, B and M, C and M, E and M, A and E, +A and D, A and F, B and C, D and C, D and E. + +3. In the PARIS MANUSCRIPT: N and K, B and K. + +The most common of these combinations are those of the deities A and F, M +and F, A and E, D and C. These groups are entirely intelligible, +consisting of death-god and war-god, god of the travelling merchants and +war-god, death-god and maize-god (as adversaries: meaning famine), +night-god and deity of the polar star. + + +[Illustration: I. Gods. + +A B C D E + +F G H I K + +L M N O P + +II. Mythological Animals. + +1 2 3 4 5 6] + + + + * * * * * * + + + +Transcriber's Note: + +Typographical errors: + + Page + 10 Footnote 1 missing final period + 17 serpent-and rain-deity should read serpent-and-rain-deity + 23 Sentence ending with "and 13*c)" does not have a period + 29 manuuscripts should read manuscripts + 32 repsented should read represented + 33 pp 215-221 should read pp. 215-221 + 42 comma missing following 37b + comma missing following 65c + +Inconsistencies: + +The placement of punctuation at the end of a word or phrase surrounded +by quotation marks is inconsistent, usually it is placed outside the +final close quotation mark but occasionally is found inside the mark. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REPRESENTATION OF DEITIES OF THE +MAYA MANUSCRIPTS*** + + +******* This file should be named 18013.txt or 18013.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/0/1/18013 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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